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crev00	Why don’t fermented foods (kimchi, sauerkraut, etc.) not have lots of alcohol?	[ { "answer": "There are different kinds of fermentation, and not all produce alcohol. For kimchi and sauerkraut, lactic acid is the main product.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3587235", "title": "Jain vegetarianism", "section": "Section::::Practice.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 212, "text": "BULLET::::- Jains do not consume fermented foods (beer, wine and other alcohols) to avoid killing of a large number of microorganisms associated with the fermenting process. According to \"Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya\":\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6023861", "title": "Comparison of Islamic and Jewish dietary laws", "section": "Section::::Substance classification.:Differences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 501, "text": "BULLET::::- For a substance to be halal, it must not contain alcohol of any kind. However, there is a difference drawn between the addition of alcohol to foods, which is absolutely forbidden, and the small quantities that naturally become present – such as orange juice. Except for grape wine and grape juice (which must be manufactured under Jewish supervision), kashrut allows the consumption of any sort of alcohol, as long as it has kosher ingredients (excluding any unsupervised grape extracts).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31686412", "title": "Legal drinking age controversy in the United States", "section": "Section::::History behind alcohol consumption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1641, "text": "Fermented beverages contain ethanol (CHOH), a consumable member of the alcohol class often simply called \"alcohol.\" They are legal in most countries. Currently, alcohol such as red wine is used to reduce risk of coronary artery disease, as an analgesic for pain, relief from exhaustion in hard labor, and a \"greeter\" at social gatherings and gaming entertainment. In Egypt, alcohol is made in the home on an everyday basis and used as a thirst quencher and to provide the majority of nutrients and calories. In China, alcohol was used as a \"spiritual food\" and for ceremonial use. Europe enforces strict alcohol and liquor tax laws that are aimed at targeting young people. They also limit the hours that stores selling alcohol are open. They feel that this contributes to their lower numbers of alcohol-related problems. The US, along with only a handful of other countries, maintains the highest drinking age worldwide at 21. In 1985, South Dakota challenged the Drinking Age Act. In 1987, the Supreme Court ruled the Act was constitutional and the States still had the right to set their own drinking ages. However, the Federal Government can give the state a 10% penalty on highway funds if the state chooses to have their drinking age lower than 21. Not even a year later, all 50 states of the United States officially made 21 the minimum legal drinking age. MLDA-21 is not the only variable; the shift in demographics, increased enforcement, increased seat belt use, safer cars, increased parental monitoring and \"designated driver\" emphasis could also be a reason why after the age was raised, motor vehicle incidents have decreased.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "890810", "title": "Food Additives Amendment of 1958", "section": "Section::::Delaney Clause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 265, "text": "Many foods contain natural substances which are carcinogenic, for example safrole, which occurs in sassafras and sweet basil. Even these substances are covered by the Delaney clause, so that, for example, safrole may not be added to root beer in the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14160085", "title": "Rượu thuốc", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 354, "text": "Raw herbs like ginseng, jujube, or raw animals like seahorses, snakes, or termites are placed into a large earthenware jar of alcohol and kept for days to let the expected medical substances in these herbs or animals to dissolve in liquor before the mixture is served. Distilled liquor must be strong enough, with alcoholic concentration of 45% or more.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2052205", "title": "Job's tears", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 305, "text": "In both Korea and China, distilled liquors are also made from the grain. One such example is the Korean liquor called \"okroju\" (옥로주; hanja: 玉露酒), which is made from rice and Job's tears. An ancient Chinese beer recipe included the grain as an ingredient. In Japan, an aged vinegar is made from the grain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "293037", "title": "Tempeh", "section": "Section::::Preservation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 276, "text": "Freshly made, raw tempeh remains edible for a few days at room temperature. It is neither acidic nor does it contain significant amounts of alcohol. It, however, does possess stronger resistance to lipid peroxidation than unfermented soybeans due to its antioxidant contents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
mhrv9	why do we measure the energy in food in calories?	[ { "answer": "We measure energy in calories because both our cells and a fire are doing the same thing - releasing energy by breaking apart molecules. The basic principle in a fire is that the bonds holding the atoms together are rapidly broken, releasing a certain amount of energy. We can harness the energy in heat to do work (basic thermodynamics, if you're interested), but it usually comes minus a small penalty - entropy and all that.\n\nHowever, The simple answer is that our bodies are roughly doing the same thing: converting the chemicals in our food into energy by breaking the same bonds and harnessing the energy. Of course, this is where you start to get into the wonderful biochemistry of it all in which you can look at exactly how energy from bonds is used to power the body. \n\nTo make a long story short, cells generally use a single molecule called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to store this energy, so each time a bond in your food is broken, you produce some amount of ATP. (If you really want to know, you're using a high-energy phosphorus-phosphorus bond, converting ADP (a molecule containing 2 phosphates) to ATP (a molecule containing three phosphates).\n\nLater on, the body can break off that extra phosphate and use that energy for whatever purpose it needs - muscle contractions, making proteins, etc etc etc. \n\nThe only real difference between the fire and your cells processing food is the rate at which the bonds are broken. In the food in a fire, it happens REALLY quickly, and the energy is released as light and heat. In the body, the energy is harnessed and stored for later use.\n\nThus, using calorie, a measure of energy, for both is pretty much the only way to do it. (Of course, most of the world uses metric and the unit for that is Joules.) And that does mean that yes, we are little fires - but VASTLY more controlled than the flame you're referring to. (We even ex-hale CO2 like a fire... we essentially burn carbohydrates, but that's another post for another day.)\n\nFor the last parts: no, there's not much more to calories than the number - however, there's much more to nutrition than the calories would tell you. Not everything we eat is broken down to basic components. And some foods aren't even broken down completely to ATP... some get stored as fats, some get used \"as is\" (vitamins) and others don't even get into our body, as they're eaten by our gut flora. (Isn't biology interesting?)\n\nDon't confuse calories with nutrition - calories are just a measure of how much energy is available in a certain item, not an indication of how your body uses it.\n\nSo, yes, our bodies are pretty highly evolved to make use of some foods and not others. Olestra is a great example of that. It's a manmade fat substitute, and our bodies have absolutely no way of breaking it down - consequently, it just passes right through and you get zero calories out of it. \n\nHowever, most actual \"food\" is pretty well used by the human body. There's some interesting information on how different sugars are used differently by the body - and one of my favorite lectures is this one : _URL_0_. It's pretty accessible to everyone. tl;dr: Fructose turns into fat, glucose is used as energy. Don't eat too much fructose.\n\nHonestly, despite being a long rant, this is a fascinating subject and I've only scratched the surface of it. Biochemistry is an incredible and rich field and it's hard to not follow up on the millions of tangents that I could have above.\n\nCheers.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The amount of energy in a sample of food is measured by combusting it in a bomb calorimeter. The process is simple: a small amount of the food to be tested in dehydrated and placed in a vessel that is surrounded by water, the food is combusted, and we measure the energy based on how much the temperature of the water changed. One calorie is enough energy to raise one cubic centimeter of water one degree celsius. \n\nAlso, something to note, a food Calorie (with an uppercase C) is actually 1000 scientific calories (with a lowercase c), so when a wrapper says something has 200 Calories, it's actually 200 kilocalories, or 200,000 calories.\n\nHumans don't combust food, we perform respiration, which has the same net formula as combustion (C6H12O6 + O2 - > H2O + CO2), it has more steps, which means it produces slightly less energy than put combustion, but has the upshot that we don't burst into flames when we eat.\n\nWhile digestion and respiration is very similar to combustion, the human body (like any animal body) digests different sugars in different ways. The true calorie input from food can be adjusted by analyzing the feces of someone who just ate a sample of food and seeing what parts of the food did or did not get digested.\n\nTl;dr Bomb calorimeters measure the raw energy, looking at the poop of someone who just ate allow us to adjust for true calories. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We measure energy in calories because both our cells and a fire are doing the same thing - releasing energy by breaking apart molecules. The basic principle in a fire is that the bonds holding the atoms together are rapidly broken, releasing a certain amount of energy. We can harness the energy in heat to do work (basic thermodynamics, if you're interested), but it usually comes minus a small penalty - entropy and all that.\n\nHowever, The simple answer is that our bodies are roughly doing the same thing: converting the chemicals in our food into energy by breaking the same bonds and harnessing the energy. Of course, this is where you start to get into the wonderful biochemistry of it all in which you can look at exactly how energy from bonds is used to power the body. \n\nTo make a long story short, cells generally use a single molecule called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to store this energy, so each time a bond in your food is broken, you produce some amount of ATP. (If you really want to know, you're using a high-energy phosphorus-phosphorus bond, converting ADP (a molecule containing 2 phosphates) to ATP (a molecule containing three phosphates).\n\nLater on, the body can break off that extra phosphate and use that energy for whatever purpose it needs - muscle contractions, making proteins, etc etc etc. \n\nThe only real difference between the fire and your cells processing food is the rate at which the bonds are broken. In the food in a fire, it happens REALLY quickly, and the energy is released as light and heat. In the body, the energy is harnessed and stored for later use.\n\nThus, using calorie, a measure of energy, for both is pretty much the only way to do it. (Of course, most of the world uses metric and the unit for that is Joules.) And that does mean that yes, we are little fires - but VASTLY more controlled than the flame you're referring to. (We even ex-hale CO2 like a fire... we essentially burn carbohydrates, but that's another post for another day.)\n\nFor the last parts: no, there's not much more to calories than the number - however, there's much more to nutrition than the calories would tell you. Not everything we eat is broken down to basic components. And some foods aren't even broken down completely to ATP... some get stored as fats, some get used \"as is\" (vitamins) and others don't even get into our body, as they're eaten by our gut flora. (Isn't biology interesting?)\n\nDon't confuse calories with nutrition - calories are just a measure of how much energy is available in a certain item, not an indication of how your body uses it.\n\nSo, yes, our bodies are pretty highly evolved to make use of some foods and not others. Olestra is a great example of that. It's a manmade fat substitute, and our bodies have absolutely no way of breaking it down - consequently, it just passes right through and you get zero calories out of it. \n\nHowever, most actual \"food\" is pretty well used by the human body. There's some interesting information on how different sugars are used differently by the body - and one of my favorite lectures is this one : _URL_0_. It's pretty accessible to everyone. tl;dr: Fructose turns into fat, glucose is used as energy. Don't eat too much fructose.\n\nHonestly, despite being a long rant, this is a fascinating subject and I've only scratched the surface of it. Biochemistry is an incredible and rich field and it's hard to not follow up on the millions of tangents that I could have above.\n\nCheers.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The amount of energy in a sample of food is measured by combusting it in a bomb calorimeter. The process is simple: a small amount of the food to be tested in dehydrated and placed in a vessel that is surrounded by water, the food is combusted, and we measure the energy based on how much the temperature of the water changed. One calorie is enough energy to raise one cubic centimeter of water one degree celsius. \n\nAlso, something to note, a food Calorie (with an uppercase C) is actually 1000 scientific calories (with a lowercase c), so when a wrapper says something has 200 Calories, it's actually 200 kilocalories, or 200,000 calories.\n\nHumans don't combust food, we perform respiration, which has the same net formula as combustion (C6H12O6 + O2 - > H2O + CO2), it has more steps, which means it produces slightly less energy than put combustion, but has the upshot that we don't burst into flames when we eat.\n\nWhile digestion and respiration is very similar to combustion, the human body (like any animal body) digests different sugars in different ways. The true calorie input from food can be adjusted by analyzing the feces of someone who just ate a sample of food and seeing what parts of the food did or did not get digested.\n\nTl;dr Bomb calorimeters measure the raw energy, looking at the poop of someone who just ate allow us to adjust for true calories. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16270616", "title": "Glossary of environmental science", "section": "Section::::C.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 326, "text": "BULLET::::- calorie – a basic measure of energy that has been replaced by the SI unit the joule; in physics it approximates the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 °C which is about 4.184 joules. The Calories in food ratings (spelled with a capital C) and nutrition are ‘big C’ Calories or kcal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4782123", "title": "Units of energy", "section": "Section::::Food industry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 468, "text": "The calorie equals the amount of thermal energy necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 Celsius degree, from a temperature of 14.5 degrees Celsius, at a pressure of 1 atm. For thermochemistry a calorie of 4.184 J is used, but other calories have also been defined, such as the International Steam Table calorie of 4.1868 J. Food energy is measured in large calories or kilocalories, often simply written capitalized as \"Calories\" (= 10 calories).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "182303", "title": "Food energy", "section": "Section::::Measure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 998, "text": "Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using (say) the Gibbs free energy of combustion, or the amount of ATP generated by metabolizing the food. However, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction producing liquid water. Conventional food energy is based on heats of combustion in a bomb calorimeter and corrections that take into consideration the efficiency of digestion and absorption and the production of urea and other substances in the urine. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century (see Atwater system for more detail). Based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system was later improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the United States Department of Agriculture, who derived a system whereby specific calorie conversion factors for different foods were proposed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6423", "title": "Calorie", "section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 410, "text": "To facilitate comparison, specific energy or energy density figures are often quoted as \"calories per serving\" or \"kilocalories per 100 g\". A nutritional requirement or consumption is often expressed in calories per day. One gram of fat in food contains nine calories, while a gram of either a carbohydrate or a protein contains approximately four calories. Alcohol in a food contains seven calories per gram.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39219551", "title": "A calorie is a calorie", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 338, "text": "The tautological phrase means that regardless of the form of food calorie a person consumes (whether a carbohydrate, protein or fat calorie) the energetic value of such a calorie, is identical to any other. One dietary calorie contains 4,184 joules of energy. With this knowledge, it is easy to assume that all calories have equal value.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23613099", "title": "Energy homeostasis", "section": "Section::::Energy.:Intake.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 551, "text": "Energy intake is measured by the amount of calories consumed from food and fluids. Energy intake is modulated by hunger, which is primarily regulated by the hypothalamus, and choice, which is determined by the sets of brain structures that are responsible for stimulus control (i.e., operant conditioning and classical conditioning) and cognitive control of eating behavior. Hunger is regulated in part by the action of certain peptide hormones and neuropeptides (e.g., insulin, leptin, ghrelin, and neuropeptide Y, among others) in the hypothalamus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58645929", "title": "Human reproductive ecology", "section": "Section::::Theoretical foundations.:Energetics.:Essential nutrient cost variability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 2293, "text": "The assumption that energy measured in calories can be used as an universal measure of nutritional cost is criticized by a number of scientists on the basis of essential nutrients, nutrients that the body cannot produce regardless of calory availability and the specific nutrients must be present in the diet. It is argued that since there are different dietary conditions in which different essential nutrients are the most scarce in different regions and the few foods that contain the scarcest nutrients that are needed to avoid deficit diseases are therefore the most expensive (the cost may be paid in the form of other goods and services in societies without money), and different functions in the body primarily consume different essential nutrients, no universal ranking of the costs of different aspects of reproduction can be made. For example, it is possible for the few micronutrients that men consume more of the more sperm they produce but the consumtion of which does not increase in women during pregnancy or lactation to be the scarcest nutrients contained in the most expensive food in some societies, making sperm production effectively more expensive than pregnacy and lactation under local food prices in such societies. It is also argued that the variability of what food is the most valuable due to containing the rarest essnetial nutrients extend their effects to the economical significance ratio between hunting and gathering in the case of hunter-gatherer societies, and therefore that any attempt to circumvent the evolutionary psychology paradox of men not being able to be in two places at the same time to hunt and protect his family by reference to hiring guards by bartering meat would fail to make sex roles universal due to the difference between regions where the rarest essential nutrients were contained in one or more types of meat and regions where the rarest such nutrients were contained in some types of plants. It is cited in this context that humans evolved over relatively large parts of Africa with different food ecologies, making it impossible for humans to have specialized evolutionarily for one specific food cost ratio. This variability of food value ratios within Africa may have prepared humans evolutionarily to be able to leave Africa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
efp1sq	Legality of political paramilitary organizations in the Weimar Republic	[ { "answer": "Hey there, I wrote an answer which goes into more detail about the paramilitary organisations which you can find [here](_URL_0_).\n\nIn terms of legality, the organisations were broadly tolerated until they stepped over the line. Smaller groups such as Organisation Consul or the killers of Rosa Luxemburg who carried out political assassinations were pursued by the police, although the right wing bias of the judiciary meant that the trials themselves were often not conducted to the highest standard. Similarly, the SA were banned in Bavaria after the Beer Hall Putsch.\n\nThe prevalence of the paramilitary groups would have made it difficult to fully outlaw them. Anywhere up to six million Germans were members by 1933 so the scale of outlawing and enforcing the ban would have been huge. Since these paramilitary groups were linked to political parties (the SPD, KPD and NSDAP had the largest) there was no political appetite to ban them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "845661", "title": "Weimar paramilitary groups", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 562, "text": "Paramilitary groups were formed throughout the Weimar Republic in the wake of Germany's defeat in World War I and the ensuing German Revolution. Some were created by political parties to help in recruiting, discipline and in preparation for seizing power. Some were created before World War I. Others were formed by individuals after the war and were called \"Freikorps\" (Free corps). The party affiliated groups and others were all outside government control, but the Freikorps units were under government control, supply and pay (usually through army sources).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1574969", "title": "Nazi Germany paramilitary ranks", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 519, "text": "National Socialist paramilitary ranks were pseudo-military titles which were used by the Nazis, represented by the Nazi Party, the National Socialist German Workers' Party (\"Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei\"; NSDAP), between the years of 1920 and 1945. Since the Nazi Party was by its very nature a paramilitary organization, by the time of the Second World War, several systems of paramilitary ranks had come into existence for both the Nazi Party itself and the various Nazi paramilitary organizations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1571138", "title": "Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 325, "text": "Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party were paramilitary titles used by the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) between approximately 1928 and the fall of Nazi Germany in 1945. Such ranks were held within the political leadership corps of the Nazi Party, charged with the overseeing the regular Nazi Party members.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "440006", "title": "Führerprinzip", "section": "Section::::Ideology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 839, "text": "The \"Führerprinzip\" paralleled the functionality of military organizations, which continue to use a similar authority structure today, although in democratic countries members are supposed to be restrained by codes of conduct. The \"Freikorps\" – German paramilitary organizations made up of men who had fought in World War I and been mustered out after Germany's defeat, but who found it impossible to return to civilian life – were run on the \"Führer\" principle. Many of the same men had, earlier in life, been part of various German youth groups in the period from 1904-1913. These groups had also accepted the idea of blind obedience to a leader. The justification for the civil use of the \"Führerprinzip\" was that unquestioning obedience to superiors supposedly produced order and prosperity in which those deemed 'worthy' would share.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39477", "title": "History of Austria", "section": "Section::::German Austria and the First Republic (1918–1933).:Politics and government.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 428, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 428, "end_character": 955, "text": "Both right-wing and left-wing paramilitary forces were created during the 20s. The \"Heimwehr\" (Home Resistance) first appeared on 12 May 1920 and became progressively organised over the next three years and the \"Republikanischer Schutzbund\" was formed in response to this on 19 February 1923. From 2 April 1923 to 30 September there were violent clashes between Socialists and Nazis in Vienna. That on 2 April, referred to as \"Schlacht auf dem Exelberg\" (Battle of Exelberg), involved 300 Nazis against 90 Socialists (Steininger 2008). Further episodes occurred on 4 May and 30 September 1923. A clash between those groups in Schattendorf, Burgenland, on 30 January 1927 led to the death of a man and a child. Right-wing veterans were indicted at a court in Vienna, but acquitted in a jury trial. This led to massive protests and a fire at the \"Justizpalast\" in Vienna. In the July Revolt of 1927, 89 protesters were killed by the Austrian police forces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49739434", "title": "Bund Bayern und Reich", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 256, "text": "The Bund Bayern und Reich (\"League for Bavaria and Empire\", or \"Bavara and Empire League\") was a right-wing paramilitary organization based in Bavaria during the Weimar Republic. It became the largest of such organizations in Bavaria throughout the 1920s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21736", "title": "Nazi Party", "section": "Section::::Party composition.:Paramilitary groups.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 312, "text": "A vast system of Nazi Party paramilitary ranks developed for each of the various paramilitary groups. This was part of the process of \"Gleichschaltung\" with the paramilitary and auxiliary groups swallowing existing associations and federations after the Party was flooded by millions of membership applications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
5jk16p	Why couldn't Austria-Hungary take Russia during the WWI?	[ { "answer": "Your chronology and facts are off here. Although it is difficult to pin down an exact start date for the Russian Civil War, it roughly started in November/December 1917 and only really began in earnest the following year. The Russian Army had begun a process of desertion and demobilization (sanctioned and unsanctioned) in the aftermath of the earlier February Revolution in 1917. But for all of the problems of tsarist Russia in the war, the army really was the last Romanov institution to break in the tumultuous revolutionary year of 1917. The Duma, the peasantry, the urban workers, and a myriad other social groups and institutions turned against tsardom before the military began its protracted disintegration.\n\nIn the meantime, the political health of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was not that much better than that of tsarist Russia. The Dual Monarchy's military suffered a series of reverses, such as the Siege of Przemyśl in which the failure of the relief effort and the surrender of the garrison severely damaged the Empire's morale. The Austro-Hungarian war economy was sputtering as well, especially as fighting on the frontiers of the Empire created an internal refugee crisis. Food became quite scarce in the Empire's cities, and when the Austrian Minister-President Karl von Stürgkh was assassinated while at lunch in 1916 there was very little public sympathy for a man that many blamed for the Empire's food crisis. Ethnic relations within the Empire, never the most stable to begin with, began to fall apart with the spectre of national separatism emerging. \n\nGermany did not nearly have so many problems as its Habsburg ally, and many on the German military and government saw the Russian Revolution and the makings of the Civil War as a godsend. In negotiations with the Bolsheviks, a faction willing to negotiate the end of the war, the Germans dictated the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk which would have reduced much of the western Russian Empire into independent vassal states dependent upon Germany. Although the negotiations for Brest-Litovsk were complex, Lenin agreed to them in the gamble that Germany lacked the manpower and resources to enforce this Carthaginian peace and would likely lose the war in the Western Front. Lenin's calculated risk proved correct. Although the Germans and their Central Power allies did try to carve out their own fiefdoms out of the corpse of the Russian Empire, they really could not keep this territory. The relative freedom of movement of the wartime German Ober Ost troops and the postwar Freikorps does testify to the overall collapse of Russian authority during the Civil War. Many of the German paramilitary formations used wartime stocks of materials and offered themselves up as freebooter companies to the Whites while their leadership toyed with carving out a neo-Germanic state on the Baltics. Such dreams were unrealistic and these German military units could not form a lasting political order or government over this largely non-German population. Many of the Freikorps ended up ejected from their would-be conquests. If it was impractical to occupy the Baltics, then Moscow, where the Bolsheviks had relocated the capital to in 1918 because of Petrograd's proximity to the fighting, was simply out of reach. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "275092", "title": "Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)", "section": "Section::::Balkan crisis of 1875–1876.:Serbo-Turkish War and diplomatic manoeuvering.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 660, "text": "On January 15, 1877, Russia and Austria-Hungary signed a written agreement confirming the results of an earlier Reichstadt Agreement in July 1876. This assured Russia of the benevolent neutrality of Austria-Hungary in the impending war. These terms meant that in case of war Russia would do the fighting and Austria would derive most of the advantage. Russia therefore made a final effort for a peaceful settlement. After reaching an agreement with its main Balkan rival and with anti-Ottoman sympathies running high throughout Europe due to the Bulgarian atrocities and the rejection of the Constantinople agreements, Russia finally felt free to declare war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "438617", "title": "Congress of Berlin", "section": "Section::::Great powers in the Balkans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 203, "text": "Eventually, Russia sought and obtained Austria-Hungary's pledge of benevolent neutrality in the coming war, in return for ceding Bosnia Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary in the Budapest Convention of 1877.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "994312", "title": "History of the Balkans", "section": "Section::::20th century.:World War I.:Fighting in 1914.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 460, "text": "In the autumn, with many Austro-Hungarians tied up in heavy fighting with Serbia, Russia was able to make huge inroads into Austria-Hungary capturing Galicia and destroying much of the Empire's fighting ability. It wasn't until October 1915 with a lot of German, Bulgarian, and Turkish assistance that Serbia was finally occupied, although the weakened Serbian army retreated to Corfu with Italian assistance and continued to fight against the central powers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6673", "title": "Central Powers", "section": "Section::::Combatants.:Austria-Hungary.:War justifications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 316, "text": "Austria-Hungary had been warned by Russia that the Russian government would not tolerate Austria-Hungary crushing Serbia. However, with Germany supporting Austria-Hungary's actions, the Austro-Hungarian government hoped that Russia would not intervene and that the conflict with Serbia would be a regional conflict.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46763", "title": "Crimean War", "section": "Section::::Long-term effects of the Treaty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 140, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 140, "end_character": 1317, "text": "Although the Paris Treaty punished the defeated Russia, in the long run Austria lost the most from the Crimean War—despite having barely taken part in it. Having abandoned its alliance with Russia, Austria remained diplomatically isolated following the war, which contributed to its disastrous defeats in the 1859 Franco-Austrian War that resulted in the cession of Lombardy to the Kingdom of Sardinia, and later in the loss of the Habsburg rule of Tuscany and Modena, which meant the end of Austrian influence in peninsular Italy. Furthermore, Russia did not do anything to assist its former ally, Austria, in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, when Austria lost Venetia and—more importantly—its influence in most German-speaking lands. The status of Austria as a great power, with the unifications of Germany and Italy, now became very precarious. It had to compromise with Hungary; the two countries shared the Danubian Empire and Austria slowly became little more than a German satellite. With France now hostile to Germany and gravitating towards Russia, and with Russia competing with the newly renamed Austro-Hungarian Empire for an increased role in the Balkans at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, the foundations were in place for building the diplomatic alliances that would shape the First World War of 1914.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25391", "title": "Russia", "section": "Section::::History.:February Revolution and Russian Republic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 558, "text": "In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia, and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies. In 1916, the Brusilov Offensive of the Russian Army almost completely destroyed the military of Austria-Hungary. However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32699087", "title": "Battle of Łowczówek", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 403, "text": "In the first phase of the war, Russian Empire wanted to knock Austria-Hungary out of the conflict. To achieve this, the Russians invaded Galicia. By November 1914, they had captured Tarnów and Tuchów, and moved westwards, to Kraków. In December 1914, the Russians, who were divided into two armies (those of Generals Aleksei Brusilov and Radko Dimitriev), were stalled in the bloody Battle of Limanowa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
rmvh1	Is it possible to control a nuclear explosion?	[ { "answer": " > I don't mean in terms of a bomb, but could you create some sort of chamber to control a nuclear explosion and focus all the energy in one direction creating a thrust ...\n\nYes, this is possible, in fact there was a program to develop this kind of thruster ([Project Orion](_URL_0_)). The only reason it's not being done is public concern over safety. And, since Fukushima and Chernobyl, that concern seems justified.\n\nNevertheless, in the future, I think this idea will be reconsidered. And I think it ought to be.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "174069", "title": "Asteroid impact avoidance", "section": "Section::::Collision avoidance strategies.:Nuclear explosive device.:Law.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 684, "text": "The use of nuclear explosive devices is an international issue and will need to be addressed by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. The 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty technically bans nuclear weapons in space. However, it is unlikely that a nuclear explosive device, fuzed to be detonated only upon interception with a threatening celestial object, with the sole intent of preventing that celestial body from impacting Earth would be regarded as an un-peaceful use of space, or that the explosive device sent to mitigate an Earth impact, explicitly designed to prevent harm to come to life, would fall under the classification of a \"weapon\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49636659", "title": "Hypervelocity Asteroid Intercept Vehicle", "section": "Section::::Obstacles.:Law.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 684, "text": "The use of nuclear explosive devices is an international issue and will need to be addressed by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. The 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty technically bans nuclear \"weapons\" in space. However it is unlikely that a nuclear explosive device, fuzed to be detonated only upon interception with a threatening celestial object, with the sole intent of preventing that celestial body from impacting Earth would be regarded as an un-peaceful use of space, or that the explosive device sent to mitigate an Earth impact, explicitly designed to prevent harm to come to life would fall under the classification of a \"weapon\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2824536", "title": "Peaceful nuclear explosion", "section": "Section::::Asteroid impact avoidance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 368, "text": "Nuclear stand-off explosions are assessed to be 10–100 times more effective than the non-nuclear alternatives analyzed in this study. Other techniques involving the surface or subsurface use of nuclear explosives may be more efficient, but they run an increased risk of fracturing the target near-Earth object. They also carry higher development and operations risks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52833393", "title": "Prompt launch", "section": "Section::::Prompt-launch vs delayed launch.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 617, "text": "In nuclear warfighting strategy, weapons kept at delayed launch status are at risk of being destroyed in their silos in the event of a nuclear first strike by an adversary. Even if weapons survive a first strike, a nation's command and control system may collapse by the time they are readied for firing. A 1993 analysis of future improvements in U.S. command and control predicted the United States government might only be able to continue operating for a few hours after an initial attack and would be unable to manage a \"protracted\" nuclear war, rendering surviving weapons kept in delayed launch status useless.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49671900", "title": "Green Light Teams", "section": "Section::::Green Light Troops.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 553, "text": "If the two man teams reached the desired target, it would deploy the nuclear code and arm the device. After arming the device a swift retreat would ensue. The tactical nuclear devices were detonated by either mechanical or radio detonators. Since a nuclear exchange across the globe could involve Electromagnetic (EMP) bursts, the devices had backups to the electrical systems. Early models contained a mechanical detonation line merely 100 meters long from nuclear device to detonation team. This further added to the suicidal quality of the missions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29952420", "title": "Chemistry: A Volatile History", "section": "Section::::Episode 3: The Power of the Elements.:The Manhattan Project.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 185, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 185, "end_character": 251, "text": "For an explosion to occur, there must be a rapid release of energy – a slow release of energy from uranium nuclei would give a uranium fire, but no explosion. Both sides poured their effort into creating the necessary conditions for a chain reaction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14843", "title": "Interstellar travel", "section": "Section::::Propulsion.:Rocket concepts.:Nuclear fission powered.:Nuclear pulse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 493, "text": "A current impediment to the development of \"any\" nuclear-explosion-powered spacecraft is the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, which includes a prohibition on the detonation of any nuclear devices (even non-weapon based) in outer space. This treaty would, therefore, need to be renegotiated, although a project on the scale of an interstellar mission using currently foreseeable technology would probably require international cooperation on at least the scale of the International Space Station.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1szbb2	the egg grading system, ie are there grade b eggs?	[ { "answer": "\"A very fresh egg has a small air cell and receives a grade of AA. As the size of the air cell increases, and the quality of the egg decreases, the grade moves from AA to A to B. This provides a way of testing the age of an egg: as the air cell increases in size, the egg becomes less dense and the larger end of the egg will rise to increasingly shallower depths when the egg is placed in a bowl of water. A very old egg will actually float in the water and should not be eaten.\"\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides a voluntary grading service for eggs. See [Haugh Units](_URL_0_). They established certain formal egg grade standards and weight classes. Other countries have other standards. That said, there are no government standards yet for some terms, like \"free range\" or \"organic\".\n\nGrade AA\n\n* whites are firm, yolks are round, shells are pristine.\n* are beautiful, and best for frying, where appearance is important.\n\nGrade A\n\n* everyday grocery eggs.\n\nGrade B eggs\n\n* are used for commercial baking and restaurants, rarely sold in retail.\n* white is thinner, yolk is flatter. shells are rough, dirty or both.\n\nGrade C eggs (lowest)\n\n* are used in manufacturing, never sold in retail\n* white is thinnest, yolk is flattest. shell is cracked.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As a kid, my dad joked that he wanted grade B eggs when he sent me to the grocery store on my bike. About fell out of his recliner when I came home with them. Literally have never seen them again since that day.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41286907", "title": "Food grading", "section": "Section::::By food type.:Eggs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 361, "text": "In the United States, egg grading is performed by the USDA, and is based upon the interior quality of the egg (see Haugh unit) and the appearance and condition of the egg shell. Eggs of any quality grade may differ in weight (size). Egg grading is performed by candling, which involves observing the interior of eggs by placing them in front of a bright light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19196010", "title": "Egg as food", "section": "Section::::Farming issues.:Grading by quality and size.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 89, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 89, "end_character": 205, "text": "The U.S. Department of Agriculture grades eggs by the interior quality of the egg (see Haugh unit) and the appearance and condition of the egg shell. Eggs of any quality grade may differ in weight (size).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1285781", "title": "Haugh unit", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 571, "text": "An egg is weighed, then broken onto a flat surface (breakout method), and a micrometer used to determine the height of the thick albumen (egg white) that immediately surrounds the yolk. The height, correlated with the weight, determines the Haugh unit, or HU, rating. The higher the number, the better the quality of the egg (fresher, higher quality eggs have thicker whites). Although the measurement determines the protein content and freshness of the egg, it does not measure other important nutrient contents such as the micronutrient or vitamins present in the egg.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1066030", "title": "Eleventh grade", "section": "Section::::Lebanon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 499, "text": "Eleventh grade is also known as grade 11 or premiere. Students are divided into either scientific which then proceeds to become life science(LS or SV) or general science (GS or SG) in grade 12 and economics(ES or SE) which proceeds to become Economics(ES or SE) or Humanities (H) in grade 12. The choice of division is done according to grades and sometimes according to what the student wants to do in college. A student can go from scientific to economics later in grade 12, but not the opposite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "547821", "title": "Kellogg School of Management", "section": "Section::::Campus life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 216, "text": "Unlike many peer schools, Kellogg does disclose grades to recruiters. The issue of grade disclosure was last voted on by students in 2005, and a process exists whereby Kellogg students can vote to change the policy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42873203", "title": "Grading systems by country", "section": "Section::::North America.:United States.:Standards-based grading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 446, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 446, "end_character": 381, "text": "Standards-based grading is a well-known practice of assessment. It provides students with learning expectations and an in depth way of evaluation students. It is not the most common assessment method but it provides students with developmental feedback. Researchers have determined that students who were previously exposed to standards-based grading reflected higher performance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2800856", "title": "Evolutionary grade", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 212, "text": "In alpha taxonomy, a grade is a taxon united by a level of morphological or physiological complexity. The term was coined by British biologist Julian Huxley, to contrast with clade, a strictly phylogenetic unit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
z0gu5	How did people live in a barter system?	[ { "answer": "Yes, debt was the main method of paying for services, just like it is today. In barter economies, debts are integral to the fabric of the society; less so today because we tend to pay our debts shortly after incurring them with money, so the social component is mostly lost.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's an interesting new book out, \"Debt - the first 5000 years\" or so, haven't got around to reading it yet but it promises to answer exactly what you have asked. Anyone read it yet and got an opinion on what it's worth (i.e. I'm short on money atm and not sure if it's worth buying...)?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8983183", "title": "Money", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 359, "text": "The use of barter-like methods may date back to at least 100,000 years ago, though there is no evidence of a society or economy that relied primarily on barter. Instead, non-monetary societies operated largely along the principles of gift economy and debt. When barter did in fact occur, it was usually between either complete strangers or potential enemies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1778978", "title": "History of New York City (1855–1897)", "section": "Section::::Skyscrapers and apartment buildings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 670, "text": "Tenements were cheap and easy to build, and filled up almost the entire lot. There were typically five story walk-ups, with four separate apartments on each floor. There was minimal air circulation and sunlight. Until the reforms of 1879, newly built tenements lacked running water or indoor toilets. A law in 1901 required indoor plumbing be retrofitted to older tenements. Garbage pickup was erratic until late in the 19th century. Rent was cheap for those who could endure the dust, clutter, smells and noises; the only cheaper alternatives were squalid basement rooms in older buildings. Most of the tenements survived until the urban renewal movement of the 1950s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4232", "title": "Barter", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 831, "text": "In trade, barter (derived from \"baretor\") is a system of exchange where participants in a transaction directly exchange goods or services for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. Economists distinguish barter from gift economies in many ways; barter, for example, features immediate reciprocal exchange, not delayed in time. Barter usually takes place on a bilateral basis, but may be multilateral (i.e., mediated through a trade exchange). In most developed countries, barter usually only exists parallel to monetary systems to a very limited extent. Market actors use barter as a replacement for money as the method of exchange in times of monetary crisis, such as when currency becomes unstable (e.g., hyperinflation or a deflationary spiral) or simply unavailable for conducting commerce.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17192075", "title": "International Reciprocal Trade Association", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 792, "text": "A barter exchange acts as a third party record keeper for its participating business clients. These member businesses buy and sell products and services on a barter basis using trade credits to account for each transaction. Barter exchanges practice third party bartering, meaning the seller does not have to buy from whom he or she sold to, rather, the seller's account is credited the market value of the sale in trade dollars. This modern trade and barter method is different than the ancient “direct trade” when people swapped one thing for another. Modern trade and barter has evolved into a sophisticated alternative way for business owners to increase sales and revenue, conserving cash, move inventory, maximize their excess or unused capacity to improve their financial bottom line.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4232", "title": "Barter", "section": "Section::::History.:Exchanges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 358, "text": "Economic historian Karl Polanyi has argued that where barter is widespread, and cash supplies limited, barter is aided by the use of credit, brokerage, and money as a unit of account (i.e. used to price items). All of these strategies are found in ancient economies including Ptolemaic Egypt. They are also the basis for more recent barter exchange systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "527254", "title": "Costermonger", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 524, "text": "Costermongers met a need for rapid food distribution from the wholesale markets (e.g., in London; Smithfield for meat, Spitalfields for fruit and vegetables or Billingsgate for fish) by providing retail sales at locations that were convenient for the labouring classes. Costermongers used a variety of devices to transport and display produce: a cart might be stationary at a market stall, a mobile (horse-drawn or wheelbarrow) apparatus or a hand-held basket might be used for light-weight goods such as herbs and flowers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21881882", "title": "Fare", "section": "Section::::Farebox.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 675, "text": "A farebox is a device used to collect fares and tickets on streetcars, trains and buses upon entry, replacing the need for a separate conductor. Nearly all major metropolitan transit agencies in the United States and Canada use a farebox to collect or validate fare payment. The first farebox was invented by Tom Loftin Johnson in 1880 and was used on streetcars built by the St. Louis Car Company. Early models would catch coins and then sort them once the fare was accepted or \"rung up\". Later models after World War II had a counting function that would allow the fares to be added together so that a total per shift could be maintained by the transit revenue department.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1h1jrc	how were measuring systems created? why are less convenient methods still being used?	[ { "answer": "A lot of the imperial meausres are derived from what was practical..\n\nFor example in the middle ages, an Acre was the area that could be plowed in a day with a single yoke of an oxen...\n\nCheck out [this article](_URL_0_) on the history of measurement. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A lot of them make sense in the context they were created. The best example is temperatures.\n\nCelsius and Fahrenheit are both based on water. Celsius uses 0 and 100 at the freezing and boiling points of pure water. Fahrenheit uses salt-water, or basically the ocean. Kelvin is basically using the Celsius scale (to make things easier to convert), but shifted so 0 degrees equaled absolute 0.\n\nConvenience depends on who you are. I'll admit the metric system is far more logical. However, try telling a person who spent their life, decades, to switch over to this new fangled system. Fine, the average fifty-year-old is a lost cause. Let's go for the kids!\n\n\nWell, ignoring parents who would feel the use of a \"foreign\" system forced on this kids is an indoctrination and attack on their way of life, these kids will go home to those who use the old system. Their older siblings use the old system. Their teachers largely use the old system outside of science classes. While not as bad, it is like trying to teach a kid to speak a foreign language and to use that as their main language. Let's say Japanese. However, said kid lives in Atlanta, Georgia. (Place your bets! Watch me get egg on my face when it turns out there is a large Japanese community in said city.)\n\n\nAnother way to do it is to phase it in. Speed limit signs? Start with MPH in big letters, but below it in KM/H. Then after so many years switch that. Then finally only KM/H. However... well... who has the money to waste on new speed limit signs? Multiply that by everything.\n\n\nAdd to it that there are people making the jump... oddly. I've seen people who decided they like metric's use of decimals over the screwy fraction system. Only they don't want to use metric. I've seen things measured like 4.63 feet. I've seen people going from using ounces (16 ounces per pound) to a decimal system there too.\n\n\nConcluding, basically there just isn't a pressing need to force everyone to change, the cost would be high, and in the U.S. people are beginning to convert to the love child of metric and imperial that combines some of the benefits (death to fractional units!) with the laziness of not having to learn a new system.\n\nTL;DR:\n\nThere was logical reasons behind each system when they were created. For most people it is more convenient personally to keep the old system than to learn the more logically convenient system.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21347678", "title": "Unit of measurement", "section": "Section::::Systems of units.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 340, "text": "The use of a single unit of measurement for some quantity has obvious drawbacks. For example, it is impractical to use the same unit for the distance between two cities and the length of a needle. Thus, historically they would develop independently. One way to make large numbers or small fractions easier to read, is to use unit prefixes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21347678", "title": "Unit of measurement", "section": "Section::::Systems of units.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 425, "text": "As science progressed, a need arose to relate the measurement systems of different quantities, like length and weight and volume. The effort of attempting to relate different traditional systems between each other exposed many inconsistencies, and brought about the development of new units and systems. Systems of measurement in modern use include the metric system, the imperial system, and United States customary units. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2752651", "title": "History of measurement", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1162, "text": "The earliest recorded systems of weights and measures originate in the 3rd or 4th millennium BC. Even the very earliest civilizations needed measurement for purposes of agriculture, construction, and trade. Early standard units might only have applied to a single community or small region, with every area developing its own standards for lengths, areas, volumes and masses. Often such systems were closely tied to one field of use, so that volume measures used, for example, for dry grains were unrelated to those for liquids, with neither bearing any particular relationship to units of length used for measuring cloth or land. With development of manufacturing technologies, and the growing importance of trade between communities and ultimately across the Earth, standardized weights and measures became critical. Starting in the 18th century, modernized, simplified and uniform systems of weights and measures were developed, with the fundamental units defined by ever more precise methods in the science of metrology. The discovery and application of electricity was one factor motivating the development of standardized internationally applicable units.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38889765", "title": "Coherence (units of measurement)", "section": "Section::::Before the metric system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 594, "text": "The earliest units of measure devised by humanity bore no relationship to each other. As both humanity's understanding of philosophical concepts and the organisation of society developed, so units of measurement were standardised – first particular units of measure had the same value across a community then different units of the same quantity (for example feet and inches) were given a fixed relationship. Apart from Ancient China where the units of capacity and of mass are linked to red millet seed, there is little evidence of the linking of different quantities until the Age of Reason.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19022", "title": "Measurement", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 645, "text": "Measurement is a cornerstone of trade, science, technology, and quantitative research in many disciplines. Historically, many measurement systems existed for the varied fields of human existence to facilitate comparisons in these fields. Often these were achieved by local agreements between trading partners or collaborators. Since the 18th century, developments progressed towards unifying, widely accepted standards that resulted in the modern International System of Units (SI). This system reduces all physical measurements to a mathematical combination of seven base units. The science of measurement is pursued in the field of metrology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21347678", "title": "Unit of measurement", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 252, "text": "Science, medicine, and engineering often use larger and smaller units of measurement than those used in everyday life. The judicious selection of the units of measurement can aid researchers in problem solving (see, for example, dimensional analysis).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33366803", "title": "Introduction to the metric system", "section": "Section::::Units.:Science and technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 379, "text": "During the 19th century, the British Association for the Advancement of Science took the lead in standardising units of measurement used in science and technology across the globe. Under the leadership of men like James Clerk Maxwell and Lord Kelvin, the metric system was the system of choice. Some units that they developed are still in use today; others have been superseded.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
3nc09u	If a history textbook does not include sources/citations for it's claims, how much credit and reliability can it be given?	[ { "answer": "Most textbooks don't give footnotes, actually. There's a widespread belief among publishers that footnotes make a book look difficult to read, and scare away students. As a result, many popular press books - and almost every textbook - don't provide notes for its arguments. (Though there's often a For Further Reading... section at the end.) This lack of citations is further justified by the perception (whether accurate or not) that overview textbooks are giving you the story upon which everyone agrees; hence their contents are essentially 'common knowledge'.\n\nThis isn't an approach you want to follow in your own writing, and I'm personally not entirely comfortable with it in textbooks myself. But, for better or worse, it's how publishers encourage textbook writers to write.\n\nSo you're correct to question to this, but ultimately it's not a direct reflection of the author's credibility. It's, instead, a statement about how textbook publishers underestimated your intelligence by assuming that you wouldn't want to see sources cited.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34600268", "title": "The Carnivorous Plants (1989 book)", "section": "Section::::Reviews.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 303, "text": "Schnell noted that in some cases the book misquotes authors regarding their conclusions and that one should therefore \"not use [it] as a secondary citation source\". Schnell also commented on the book's original price of US$150, which he considered high given its print quality. He concluded by writing:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14926958", "title": "Nothing Like It in the World", "section": "Section::::Editing and fact-checking issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 796, "text": "On January 11, 2001, \"Washington Post\" columnist Lloyd Grove reported in his column, \"The Reliable Source\", that a co-worker had found a \"serious historical error\" in the same book that \"a chastened Ambrose\" promised to correct in future editions. Some journal reviews also sharply criticized the research and fact-checking in the book. Among academic reviewers, Notre Dame University history professor Walter Nugent observed that it contained \"annoying slips\" such as mislabeled maps, inaccurate dates, geographical errors, and misidentified word origins, while Don L. Hofsommer of St. Cloud University, the author of eleven books on the history of railroads in the American West, agreed that the book \"confuses facts\" and that \"The research might best be characterized as 'once over lightly'.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7430463", "title": "Lake Worth Community High School", "section": "Section::::Curriculum.:Social Studies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 290, "text": "One credit of World History, one credit of American History, 0.5 credit of Economics, and 0.5 credit of Government are required to graduate. World history is usually taken during sophomore year, American history during junior year, and economics and government is taken during senior year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1576578", "title": "Debt collection", "section": "Section::::Collection practices.:Credit record.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 388, "text": "A credit record is a record of the credit history of a person or business entity, potentially including payment history, default and bankruptcy. Information about debts, late payments and default may be placed by an borrower's credit record, and usually remain for several years. Reports to credit reporting agencies may not necessarily be properly authenticated or checked for accuracy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2112032", "title": "Who's Who Among American High School Students", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 499, "text": "There was much debate over the value of the book. Although it does not cost any money to be listed, it is often categorized as a scam since it is an attempt by a private company to make money through proud parents and students who purchase the book and various memorabilia (such as a \"commemorative keychain\") associated with the publication in attempt at recognition. There have been concerns about how students are nominated as well as whether the listing's entries are fact-checked and accurate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41435283", "title": "Who's Bigger?", "section": "Section::::Methodology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 272, "text": "The authors used the English Wikipedia as their primary data source, and ran the data through algorithms written into computer programs to arrive at a ranking of all historical figures. According to the authors, a higher ranking indicates greater historical significance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2049351", "title": "Booknotes", "section": "Section::::Guests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 239, "text": "While the majority of \"Booknotes\" subjects have been authors of books on history, politics or public policy, exceptions included the violinist Isaac Stern, who discussed his memoir, \"My First 79 Years\", on the program on January 23, 2000.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
agwlx6	How do quantum computers perform calculations without disturbing the superposition of the qubit?	[ { "answer": "The quantum computer will at least once, at the end of the computation, collapse the superposition. Some algorithms may also collapse parts of the computation as an intermediate step. The end state of the collapsed qbits depends on all possible computation paths from start to end, so that the outcome can be non-classical, similar to the case where a photon in the double slit experiment produces an interference pattern, because it went through both slits at once.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It seems to me you are asking two distinct questions\n\n > How do quantum computers perform calculations?\n\nCalculations are achieved by the application of [operators](_URL_0_) on quantum states. These can be applied to the entire superposition at once without breaking it.\n\n > How can you retrieve information without collapsing the superposition?\n\nAs has been correctly answered by /u/Gigazwiebel below, you cannot retrieve information without collapsing the superposition. This is why quantum algorithms are so clever and so hard to design, by the time of measurement your superposition should be in a state so that it gives the correct answer some high probability of the time when measured.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEven if somehow you managed to measure the whole superposition without breaking it (which of course is against the laws of quantum mechanics), you would be restricted by [Holevo's bound](_URL_1_), which says you can only retrieve n classical bits of information from n qubits.\n\n & #x200B;", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This video on Deutsch's Algorithm might be of use to you [_URL_1_](_URL_1_) . It will hopefully allow you to see the role of superposition in one of the first algorithms formulated that demonstrates the edge quantum scaling can have over classical computation. Superposition allows all possible states to be calculated on at once, but as others have said performing measurements will collapse the superposition. If you're really interested in quantum computation, head to IBM's quantum experience [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) . Not only does it give you a good overview of quantum computing, you can have a go at building your own circuits and running them on one of IBM quantum computers.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you want to retrieve information from you quantum computer then you do want to make a measurement and turn your quantum state into a classical description of that state that has the answer you're interested in in it. \n\nGenerally, you start with a classical thing (the problem you want to solve), you encode your input in some way onto your quantum system, and then do some quantum operations on the system (entangling operations, some rotations, etc.), and then at the end measure a classical outcome. Depending on the algorithm in question the measurement at the end might give a (up to errors) deterministic answer, or it might give one of several answers with some probability. \n\nThe measurement in general will screw up the quantum system and it will need to be reinitialised. In my own field, for instance, the measurement is to literally detect the photons, which then stop existing. We then make another quantum state to do the next calculation....\n\nIs that clear?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36378090", "title": "Algorithmic cooling", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 776, "text": "Quantum computers need qubits (quantum bits) on which they operate. Generally, in order to make the computation more reliable, the qubits must be as pure as possible, minimizing possible fluctuations. Since the purity of a qubit is related to von Neumann entropy and to temperature, making the qubits as pure as possible is equivalent to making them as cold as possible (or having as little entropy as possible). One method of cooling qubits is extracting entropy from them, thus purifying them. This can be done in two general ways: reversibly (namely, using unitary operations) or irreversibly (for example, using a heat bath). Algorithmic cooling is the name of a family of algorithms that are given a set of qubits and purify (cool) a subset of them to a desirable level.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25220", "title": "Quantum computing", "section": "Section::::Basics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 759, "text": "A quantum computer operates on its qubits using quantum gates and measurement (which also alters the observed state). An algorithm is composed of a fixed sequence of quantum logic gates and a problem is encoded by setting the initial values of the qubits, similar to how a classical computer works. The calculation usually ends with a measurement, collapsing the system of qubits into one of the formula_2 eigenstates, where each qubit is zero or one, decomposing into a classical state. The outcome can, therefore, be at most formula_1 classical bits of information. If the algorithm did not end with a measurement, the result is an unobserved quantum state. (Such unobserved states may be sent to other computers as part of distributed quantum algorithms.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25220", "title": "Quantum computing", "section": "Section::::Developments.:Timeline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 136, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 136, "end_character": 471, "text": "In late 2017 and early 2018, IBM, Intel, and Google each reported testing quantum processors containing 50, 49, and 72 qubits, respectively, all realized using superconducting circuits. By number of qubits, these circuits are approaching the range in which simulating their quantum dynamics is expected to become prohibitive on classical computers, although it has been argued that further improvements in error rates are needed to put classical simulation out of reach.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2095183", "title": "Trapped ion quantum computer", "section": "Section::::Requirements for quantum computation.:Scalable trap designs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1063, "text": "Quantum computers must be capable of initializing, storing, and manipulating many qubits at once in order to solve difficult computational problems. However, as previously discussed, a finite number of qubits can be stored in each trap while still maintaining their computational abilities. It is therefore necessary to design interconnected ion traps that are capable of transferring information from one trap to another. Ions can be separated from the same interaction region to individual storage regions and brought back together without losing the quantum information stored in their internal states. Ions can also be made to turn corners at a \"T\" junction, allowing a two dimensional trap array design. Semiconductor fabrication techniques have also been employed to manufacture the new generation of traps, making the 'ion trap on a chip' a reality. Such as trap, the quantum charge-coupled device (QCCD), has been designed by Kielpinski, Monroe, and Wineland. QCCD's resemble mazes of electrodes with designated areas for storing and manipulating qubits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25284", "title": "Qubit", "section": "Section::::Bit versus qubit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 624, "text": "There are two possible outcomes for the measurement of a qubit—usually taken to have the value \"0\" and \"1\", like a bit or binary digit. However, whereas the state of a bit can only be either 0 or 1, the general state of a qubit according to quantum mechanics can be a coherent superposition of both. Moreover, whereas a measurement of a classical bit would not disturb its state, a measurement of a qubit would destroy its coherence and irrevocably disturb the superposition state. It is possible to fully encode one bit in one qubit. However, a qubit can hold more information, e.g. up to two bits using superdense coding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50111809", "title": "DiVincenzo's criteria", "section": "Section::::Why the DiVincenzo criteria?:Scalability with well-characterised qubits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 769, "text": "Most models of quantum computation require the use of qubits. Quantum mechanically, a qubit is defined as a 2-level system with some energy gap. This can sometimes be difficult to implement physically, and so we focus on a particular transition of atomic levels. Whatever the system we choose, we require that the system remain almost always in the subspace of these two levels, and in doing so we can say it is a well-characterised qubit. An example of a system that is not well characterised would be 2 one-electron quantum dots, with potential wells each occupied by a single electron in one well or the other, which is properly characterised as a single qubit. However, in considering a state such as formula_1, such a system would correspond to a two-qubit state.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25220", "title": "Quantum computing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 363, "text": "Qubits are fundamental to quantum computing and are somewhat analogous to bits in a classical computer. Qubits can be in a 1 or 0 quantum state. But they can also be in a superposition of the 1 and 0 states. However, when qubits are measured the result is always either a 0 or a 1; the probabilities of the two outcomes depends on the quantum state they were in.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1fl9uw	Monday Mysteries \| Local History Mysteries	[ { "answer": "As a metal detectorist who hasn't been active for a few years I tend to delight in the little things people find and try to work out the story. Last year, I was working as a vendor at the Grays Harbor County Fair in Washington State, and spent most of my breaks drooling over old steam engines and an exhibit of local artifacts hosted by the local historical society. One such relic was a badly rusted and worn trapdoor Springfield carbine that had been found a couple years ago by a fisherman who was fishing far up a local river. The museum had it mislabled as a civil war muzzle loader (which I corrected for them ) but the main conversation always was how the rifle wound up in the river. \n\nWe'll never know of course, but the tiny mystery of someone loosing or even deliberately throwing away a rifle lead to some entertaining conversation on local history of the era and the people who lived and hunted the area. Unsolved murders and lost graves are delightful, but sometimes I like to turn an out of place artifact over in my hands and try to figure out how it wound up where it did. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I dunno if this is really what you're looking for, but [The Villisca Axe Murders](_URL_0_) have always been an intriguing story to me growing up in Iowa. The reports of the house being haunted really give an eerie feeling to the whole thing, too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There has a been talk / rumors going round for years that a few decades ago the original great doors to [this church](_URL_0_) where there has been a religious site of one sort or another for nearly 1000 years (met with a local historian a few years back) were lined or contained in their make up in someway with human skin dating back to the vikings! Can't find any media on this but my Dad mentioned it all took place in the 70's or 80's. \n\nInterestingly the place is the sight of a former prime ministers family tomb (amongst other arguably famous English Graves) as well as 'the bloody acre', site of a English civil war battle. \n\nforgot to mention that I live around a 2 minute walk away.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "During the 1930s, the city began to build the airport to the northeast of where I live. As they were clearing space for the runway, they found quite a few peculiar items. The first was a large bone that was believed to be from a dinosaur, but later confirmed to be a mammoth bone. The strangest thing they found was 35 skeletons. Along with the skeletons, WPA workmen found breech-loading rifle cartridges. No one is quite sure what happened or why there were 35 graves there. The best answer that we have for it is that it was Inka Pa Duta's band of Sioux, and he attacked the local settlement in the 1860s. The U.S. Military organized a group of soldiers and American Indians to track Inka Pa Duta's band. After finding them, a fight broke out between the U.S. Military and Inka Pa Duta's band. Inka Pa Duta's band was nearly wiped out, but Inka Pa Duta likely escaped.\n\nUpon finding the remains, the city took ownership of them and displayed them at the museum that I now work at. Because of the Native American Graves Protection and \nRepatriation Act, the museum no longer has them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My favorite local mystery is that of Sieur de La Salle's Le Griffon, one of the first full-sized sailing vessels on the Great Lakes. She was lost somewhere (most likely Lake Michigan or Huron) after leaving the Green Bay area of Lake Michigan. Wiki write-up [here.](_URL_0_) \n\nSo many interesting theories of how she was lost and seemingly one possible find of her final resting place every decade. So far, none have proven to be her, but a recent discovery is currently pending a legal battle between the French government, state governments and more before it can be confirmed as Le Griffon.\n\nThe lakes also hold the secrets of what finished the Edmund Fitzgerald,* the lost French minesweepers Inkerman and Cerisoles, and countless other mysteries. Just endless interest in this area ripe for research. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My father's cousin in eastern North Carolina owns land that includes an overgrown gated Civil War cemetery on its edge. My dad wrote down the names on the tombstones back in his youth, and there are indents outside the gated part to indicate the graves of slaves. It's quite sad really. However, we're still unsure as to what the former landowners did exactly. Concurrently in the same area, I've found arrowheads and a fossil deposit filled with old shark teeth, so it's all quite valuable but more so confusing to me.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Perhaps this isn't as histori-sexy as a spooky cemetary, but there's a neighborhood in Atlanta that bears the less than prestigious name of [Cabbagetown](_URL_0_). It was a White working-class neighborhood centered around a [cotton mill](_URL_1_), but has since heavily gentrified and the old mill has long since been converted to lofts. That's just local color though, not the mystery.\n\nThe mystery is that no one knows for sure why the area is called Cabbagetown, and there are two primary competing myths as to it's origins. The first is that the blue-collar mill workers subsisted on so much cabbage, and left pots of it boiling so often, that the entire neighborhood constantly reeked of the smell. The alternative story also involves the heady odor of boiling cabbage, but this time not as a staple food, but from an opportunistic looting of an overturned truck carrying a load of the greenery.\n\nOf course, neither of these stories could be true, or both could be partly true. A [local reporter](_URL_2_) recently tried tracking down the origin of the name and, despite coming up with a book quoting old time residents of the neighborhood, came up with no conclusive proof; even people born in the area near the turn of the century disagreed on why (or even if) the neighboorhood was called that.\n\nCoincidentally, Cabbagetown is separated from the neighborhood to the south, Grant Park, by Memorial Drive, a major thoroughfare. A small northern chunk of Grant Park is similarly separated from the rest of the neighborhood by I-20. This isolate section has since become known as Taco Town because (and these all reasons I've heard): there were a lot of Latino immigrants to that area, it's \"Taco'd\" between Memorial and I-20, and (my favorite) the family who currently owns a nearby Mexican restaurant used to sell tacos out of their house in the area. Again, these explanations could all be equally false, true, or somewhere in-between. Or it could just be that this is a creeping trend of renaming neighborhoods after foods. Either way, it's a mystery.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I live in Tampa and one that I can think of is the whole controversy surrounding the Dozier School for Boys. It was a boarding school where families would send their unruly, troublesome, and delinquent boys. Its history is FILLED with tales of abuse, sexual abuse, murder, fishy deaths etc., it basically functioned like a prison and had its own cemetery. Recently the archeology department at the University of South Florida wanted to exhume bodies at the graveyard for analysis and the like. The current owners of the property are trying to prohibit them for various reasons that sound awful suspicious \"let sleeping dogs lie\" or \"boys will be boys\" and \"nothing good can come from digging up the past\". The thing is, it's extremely likely that a significant number of bodies are there because of foul play and the school has only been closed for a relatively short amount of time meaning any evidence of nefarious wrongdoings could still have consequences for those involved. I believe it's in the court system right now whether Usf will be allowed to examine the site or not.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I live near-ish to where the Robison family murders took place in Good Hart, Michigan. They (the mom, dad, and four kids) were murdered in their cabin in Good Hart in 1968 and while the police had pretty good evidence for one suspect (who committed suicide once he learned charges would be brought against him), they never charged anyone with the murder and the case is still open. [Wiki Article](_URL_0_)\n\nAlso, I have been going through oral history tapes at work and apparently a Detroit gang called the [Purple Gang](_URL_1_) had a presence in my town during the 20s. The tape that I was listening to mentioned a local casino burning down and he seemed convinced that the Purple Gang blew the building up since some of the remains of the building were further away than they would have been had it just been a fire. I believe the casino was run by a rival of the gang so that's why they wanted to blow it up. This is all his speculation though. I had no idea there were gang ties to this town before that tape though. I have found other sources for local gang ties so that much is true but as for blowing up the building...that is pretty much speculation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The only fatal nuclear accident in the United States happened in Arco, Idaho, not too far from where I live. The [SL-1](_URL_0_) was a nuclear reactor that malfunctioned January 3, 1961 and killed three people (John A. Byrnes, Richard Leroy McKinley, and Richard C. Legg)\n\nThe radiation released was so intense that all three of the men were \"buried in lead-lined caskets sealed with concrete and placed in metal vaults with a concrete cover.\" In addition some of the more radioactive body parts were buried in the desert as nuclear waste. \n\nThere isn't any mystery as to why the reactor failed--one of the control rods was withdrawn too far, leading to a series of catastrophic failures. The investigators discovered that the rod had been withdrawn to almost 26 inches when it should have only been withdrawn about 4 inches. They also determined that the men who handled the reactor knew exactly how far it was supposed to be withdrawn, and that drawing it further was a bad thing, though maybe they didn't know how bad. \n\nWhat's a mystery is why it was withdrawn so far. Suicide is one theory. Deliberate sabotage is another. Another is suicide-murder from one of the men. There seems to be pretty strong circumstantial evidence that Byrne and Legg did not get along. Rumor was that Byrne was either having an affair with Legg's wife, or had sex with her before Legg got married. \n\nNothing official was ever released as to why someone would withdraw the rod so far and all the gossipy bits aren't mentioned. \n\nFun fact: The Arco nuclear plant was the first one to create electricity from nuclear power. Additionally the town of Atomic City was the first town in the world to get its electricity from nuclear power. \n\nFun fact 2: The site at Arco was used to train Navy personnel on how to deal with nuclear submarines. They also tried to develop nuclear powered air planes there. I always found it somewhat ironic that there used to be thousands of Navy personnel stationed there and the place is in the middle of the desert. \n\nFun fact 3: The Idaho National Laboratory (as it's now known) has built more nuclear reactors than any other site. \n\n\n\n ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can't give a citation for this one, and I don't know if it was ever published. A father of a friend is a well-known amateur archaeologist, recognised for his work on Neolithic remains in Upper Teesdale. He's said to be pretty good and has several published papers. However as his day job he is a surveyor. Apparently he discovered some linear constructions (probably old walls) on the hills about 20 miles south of his normal area. They are over a mile long, separated by about half a mile, and run parallel to each other. They are overlaid by 18C features, but he believes them to be quite ancient. It's not clear what they are, what purpose they had, or how they were laid out.\n\nAnother oddity is not really a mystery. Near where I live now there is a pub called the [Bladebone Inn](_URL_0_) which claims to have a mammoth shoulder blade hanging in a case outside the front. You can see the golden object on the right hand side of the pub in this photo. Inside the pub is a scrap from a 19C newspaper explaining the story. According to legend, a mammoth was causing problems in the area until the stout men of Thatcham slew it. Later the skeleton of the mammoth was recovered, and the shoulder bone was encased in wood and hung outside the pub. The article relates that a few years previous to its writing, the case had been opened, and the bone was found to be in good repair.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23596585", "title": "Lake District Mysteries", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 303, "text": "The Lake District Mysteries are a series of detective novels by British crime writer Martin Edwards. The books feature Hannah Scarlett and the historian Daniel Kind, and are the first series of crime novels by a British detective novelist to be set in the Lake District, a region in North-West England.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19046545", "title": "Northern Mysteries", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 433, "text": "Northern Mysteries is a docudrama-style television program that retells some of the stranger events in Canadian history, dealing with ghosts, paranormal events, lost treasures and bizarre murders. Hosted by Kenneth Welsh each episode usually tackles two events or subjects, by discussing with journalists, the police and eyewitnesses a complete account of what happened, as well as re-enacting the events for entertainment purposes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2012260", "title": "Chester Mystery Plays", "section": "Section::::Adaptations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 280, "text": "\"The Mysteries\" is an adaption by the poet Tony Harrison, principally based upon the Wakefield Cycle, but incorporating scenes from the York, Chester and N-Town canons, first performed in 1977 at the National Theatre, and again revived in 2000 as a celebration of the millennium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5247535", "title": "Mysteries of the Unknown", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 613, "text": "Mysteries of the Unknown is a series of books about the paranormal, published by Time-Life Books from 1987 through 1991. Each book focused on a different topic, such as ghosts, UFOs, psychic powers and dreams. The series was very successful for Time-Life Books, and the idea was conceived following the popularity of the publisher's previous \"Enchanted World\" series of books. However, unlike the definite supernatural orientation of \"The Enchanted World\" series, the \"Mysteries Of The Unknown\" series did all it could to keep its subject matter as grounded in scientific aspects as was possible for the subject.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2616025", "title": "The Holly and the Ivy", "section": "Section::::External links.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 411, "text": "BULLET::::- Ancient Mysteries Described Especially the English Miracle Plays, Founded on Apocryphal New Testament Story, Extant Among the Unpublished Manuscripts in the British Museum, Including Notices of Ecclesiastical Shows, the Festivals of Fools and Asses, the English Boy-bishop, the Descent Into Hell, the Lord Mayor's Show, the Guildhall Giants, Christmas Carols, Etc By William Hone, George Cruikshank\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33348255", "title": "City mysteries", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 373, "text": "City mysteries are a 19th-century genre of popular novel, in which characters explore the secret underworlds of cities and reveal corruption and exploitation, depicting violence and deviant sexuality. They were popular in both Europe and the United States. All were inspired by the very successful serial novel \"The Mysteries of Paris\" (1842) by Eugène Sue, such as these:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1065486", "title": "The Roman Mysteries", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 309, "text": "The Roman Mysteries is a series of historical novels for children by Caroline Lawrence. The first book, \"The Thieves of Ostia\", was published in 2001, finishing with \"The Man from Pomegranate Street\", published in 2009, and 17 more novels were planned, plus a number of \"mini-mysteries\" and companion titles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
124ra7	What kinds of evidence have to be, or should be, present if we are to determine the existence of a certain disease in the past?	[ { "answer": "If you're going to be strict about this, you require molecular genetic evidence. Diseases rarely have a set of symptoms that are unique and therefore unmistakable, and due to evolution it's hard to be certain that a given condition isn't due to microbes that have either mutated or otherwise since gone into hiding. \n\nWithout the molecular evidence, the best that can be said is that symptoms are consistent with the historical sources.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'd like to add that, while molecular evidence would be the best/ideal evidence of a disease, skeletal signs/symptoms are the most frequently occurring biological evidence. This is due to the fact that skeletons are much more likely to be preserved than soft tissue in a majority of the world's environments. Because of this, there is a bias in the bioarchaeological record towards diseases that affect bones and teeth. There's also been a long history in the discipline of Paleopathology about using subjective criteria to identify diseases in a skeleton, which is only more recently starting to be resolved (I'd recommend Waldron's Paleopathology textbook if you want to learn about specific diseases).\n\nOutside of biological evidence, historical documents would be the best way to go. A phenomenal example of this is Pax Americana, which details a smallpox epidemic that spread through Colonial America, New Spain, and the Plains and Northwest Indians.\n\nIf you are interested in the history of disease specifically, I'd suggest looking into the disciplines of epidemiology and evolutionary/Darwinian medicine.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2212957", "title": "Paleopathology", "section": "Section::::Human paleopathology.:Infectious diseases in the archaeological record.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 715, "text": "Several diseases are present in the archaeological record. Through archaeological evaluation these diseases can be identified and sometimes can explain the cause of death for certain individuals. Aside from looking at sex, age, etc. of a skeleton, a paleopathologist may analyze the condition of the bones to determine what sort of diseases the individual may have. The goal of a forensic anthropologist looking at the Paleopathology of certain diseases is to determine if the disease they are researching are still present over time, with the occurrence of certain events, or if this disease still exists today and why this disease may not exist today. Some disease that are found based on changes in bone include\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "481925", "title": "Anecdotal evidence", "section": "Section::::Scientific context.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 506, "text": "Anecdotal evidence can have varying degrees of formality. For instance, in medicine, published anecdotal evidence by a trained observer (a doctor) is called a case report, and is subjected to formal peer review. Although such evidence is not seen as conclusive, researchers may sometimes regard it as an invitation to more rigorous scientific study of the phenomenon in question. For instance, one study found that 35 of 47 anecdotal reports of drug side-effects were later sustained as \"clearly correct.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25813627", "title": "Signature in the Cell", "section": "Section::::Summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1067, "text": "According to Meyer, historical sciences seek to establish past causes of events using three criteria: (1) that a proposed cause was present, (2) that independent evidence establishes that the proposed cause can indeed produce that event, and (3) that there is an absence of evidence of other possible causes. In his view, the first form of life would have been a functioning, self-replicating, and protein-synthesizing system of DNA and proteins, and as such an information-rich system. Meyer believes that chemical evolution, chance, and chemical necessity have not been proven capable of producing information-rich systems, and that intelligent design is therefore the best explanation for the emergence of life on this planet. He argues that definitions of science that would preclude intelligent design from being a science also preclude many other fields, already established as science, from being science. Meyer believes the designing mind is the God described by the Christian religion. He acknowledges that this may affect the motivations behind his theory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11761108", "title": "Natural history of disease", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 570, "text": "The natural history of disease is the course a disease takes in individual people from its pathological onset (\"inception\") until its eventual resolution through complete recovery or death. The inception of a disease is not a firmly defined concept. The natural history of a disease is sometimes said to start at the moment of exposure to causal agents. Knowledge of the natural history of disease ranks alongside causal understanding in importance for disease prevention and control. Natural history of disease is one of the major elements of descriptive epidemiology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "481925", "title": "Anecdotal evidence", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1252, "text": "When compared to other types of evidence, anecdotal evidence is generally regarded as limited in value due to a number of potential weaknesses, but may be considered within the scope of scientific method as some anecdotal evidence can be both empirical and verifiable, e.g. in the use of case studies in medicine. Other anecdotal evidence, however, does not qualify as scientific evidence, because its nature prevents it from being investigated by the scientific method. Where only one or a few anecdotes are presented, there is a larger chance that they may be unreliable due to cherry-picked or otherwise non-representative samples of typical cases. Similarly, psychologists have found that due to cognitive bias people are more likely to remember notable or unusual examples rather than typical examples. Thus, even when accurate, anecdotal evidence is not necessarily representative of a typical experience. Accurate determination of whether an anecdote is typical requires statistical evidence. Misuse of anecdotal evidence is an informal fallacy and is sometimes referred to as the \"person who\" fallacy (\"I know a person who...\"; \"I know of a case where...\" etc.) which places undue weight on experiences of close peers which may not be typical.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2212957", "title": "Paleopathology", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 208, "text": "New techniques in molecular biology also began to add new information to what was already known about ancient disease, as it became possible to retrieve DNA from samples that were centuries or millennia old.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1678145", "title": "Underdetermination", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 599, "text": "Underdetermination exists when available evidence is insufficient to identify which belief one should hold about that evidence. For example, if all that was known was that exactly $10 was spent on apples and oranges, and that apples cost $1 and oranges $2, then one would know enough to eliminate some possibilities (e.g., 6 oranges could not have been purchased), but one would not have enough evidence to know which specific combination of apples and oranges was purchased. In this example, one would say that belief in what combination was purchased is underdetermined by the available evidence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
18vtrl	why do i look skinnier/more attractive when i wake up in the morning?	[ { "answer": "You're on avarage taller in the morning and you often have an empty stomach. It should be that simple.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "354224", "title": "Discrimination based on skin color", "section": "Section::::United States.:Beauty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 109, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 109, "end_character": 408, "text": "Studies have shown that due to societal influences, people associate beauty with lighter skin. This is especially evident in children. This belief has led dark-skinned children to feel inadequate in who they are and inferior when compared to people with lighter skin. African American women believe they would have better luck dating if they were of lighter skin especially when dating African American men.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25547777", "title": "Amber shift", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Social and dining.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 288, "text": "Often restaurants, bars and other social gathering places will dim lighting to maximise amber shift. The reason for this is that the warmer (amber shifted) light shows skin tones in a more attractive manner. Some interior designers also feel that warmed light gives a more intimate feel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1111249", "title": "Hyperpigmentation", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 231, "text": "Hyperpigmentation can be caused by sun damage, inflammation, or other skin injuries, including those related to acne vulgaris. People with darker skin tones are more prone to hyperpigmentation, especially with excess sun exposure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "487090", "title": "Scientific racism", "section": "Section::::Antecedents.:Later thinkers.:Thomas Jefferson.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 1454, "text": "They seem to require less sleep. A black, after hard labor through the day, will be induced by the slightest amusements to sit up till midnight, or later, though knowing he must be out with the first dawn of the morning. They are at least as brave, and more adventuresome. But this may perhaps proceed from a want of forethought, which prevents their seeing a danger till it be present. When present, they do not go through it with more coolness or steadiness than the whites. They are more ardent after their female: but love seems with them to be more an eager desire, than a tender delicate mixture of sentiment and sensation. Their griefs are transient. Those numberless afflictions, which render it doubtful whether heaven has given life to us in mercy or in wrath, are less felt, and sooner forgotten with them. In general, their existence appears to participate more of sensation than reflection... Comparing them by their faculties of memory, reason, and imagination, it appears to me, that in memory they are equal to the whites; in reason much inferior, as I think one [black] could scarcely be found capable of tracing and comprehending the investigations of Euclid; and that in imagination they are dull, tasteless, and anomalous... I advance it therefore as a suspicion only, that the blacks, whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time and circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowments both of body and mind.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2584413", "title": "Ochronosis", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 213, "text": "Skin-lightening products are still prevalent in many parts of the world. This may be due to aesthetic or social-standing reasons, in areas where a lighter skin tone is considered to be a sign of wealth or beauty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3315213", "title": "Sex differences in human physiology", "section": "Section::::Skin and hair.:Skin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 207, "text": "Males generally have darker skin than females. The lighter skin in females helps their bodies synthesize more Vitamin D from sunlight and absorb more calcium, which is needed during pregnancy and lactation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38041", "title": "Human skin color", "section": "Section::::Evolution of skin color.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 227, "text": "BULLET::::3. At some point, some northern populations experienced positive selection for lighter skin due to the increased production of vitamin D from sunlight and the genes for darker skin disappeared from these populations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
ba3wo7	How does a nerve gas mask differ from other gas mask?	[ { "answer": "Well nerve gases are not actually gases, they are liquids with boiling point over 150°C so they hardly become gas. The point of gasmask isthat it covers your face so you dont come into contact with the compound. \nIt CAN be dissolved in suitable solvent but even then its delivered as an aerosol not gas. \n\nIirc from class, gas mask mostly have common activated charcoal or zeolite type filters with high surface area that traps the gas. There CAN be some additives to improve selectivity towards some specific gases but they are likely quite specific. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So i actually do this for a living, and the other comments have partially correct info but not the whole story. Firstly, nerve agents are not the only threat, they do however have alot of notoriety. There are other things to also consider such as blister, blood, and choking agents and biological agents (like anthrax) to consider as well.\n\n A gask mask is meant to stop these from entering your body via inhalation, however there are many different agents that can seep through your skin or light clothing, and thats where other methods of protection come in such as JSLIST suits or level A/B suits that you often see in movies but since your question was about the masks, we will start with those. \n\nWhat they do in most cases is filter your air through filters (sometimes only one) while providing an air tight seal around your face to prevent chem/bio agents from being inhaled. They cannot however filter our Volitile Organic Compounds (VOCs) such as carbon monoxide as these particles are often similar in size to oxygen and are therefore still deadly. In such conpromised environments, what is usually then used is a level A/B suit with an oxygen supply to prevent you from being exposed to the hazardous agents/VOCs.\n\nAs to your question about modifications, gas mask technology evolves to meet new threats, and usually the only \"improvements\" revolve around filter technology, materials used in the mask itself, or the shape/usage of the mask as it affects combat readiness.\n\nEdit: also, nerve agents hadnt been invented yet so naturally they would not have been used in testing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "CBRN trained. There is no difference between any gas mask used by armed forces. There are filters that differ in effectiveness, but The Armed Forces use only a filter that will filter all known agents. There would not be a situation where a lesser filter would be used as it would not be mission effective. Gas masks do not supply oxygen, so if an agent is used that is heavier than air, to say it pushes the air, oxygen, out of the area, the troops would have to evacuate or die...No oxygen to breathe. As stated previously, nerve gas is not a gas. It is droplets/mist and would either be inhaled through mouth or nose or absorbed through an individual's eyes, skin or mucus membranes. \n The CBRN mask and suit work together to protect an individual as a system, along with Decon agents and anti agents. \n These systems and procedures are always evolving. The best scenario is where you do not have to use the mask or suit, or at the very least have it on before contamination occurs.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As it turned out, both the Germans and (after the war) the Allies found that the standard gas masks that were designed to protect against WWI gases also worked against the nerve gases, so no modifications to the masks were necessary. If Germany had used nerve gas during the war, the big problem would have been that the existing Allied gas detection tests would not find it and it does not have a strong smell, so it could surprise soldiers before they could put on masks.\n\n > On May 15, 194, to chemists at the CWS Development Laboratory, Captain Robert D. Coombs III and First Lieutenant Charles W. Sauer, began a study of Tabun, which was completed three and a half month later. The two men puridied and analyzed the German nerve agent and found that standard Allied respirators provided complete protection against it. They also assessed the ability of existing U.S., British, and German indicator papers and detector tubes to recognize the new agent. Although mustard gas detectors worked for liquid Tabun, they could not reliable detect the cloud of fine droplets and vapor released by the explosion of a chemical shell. Thus, until an automatic vapor detector could be developed, U.S. troops would have to don gas masks at the beginning of a heavy artillery bombardment and wear them for long periods, impairing their fighting ability.\n\nFrom Jonathan B. Tucker, _War of Nerves_, 2007, which cites: Captain Robert D. Coombs and First Lieutentant Charls W. Sauer, \"Investigations on MCS and MFI\" (Secret), SPCWM 471 ASF, May 29, 1945 [FOIA].", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24559450", "title": "Usage of personal protective equipment", "section": "Section::::PPE by usage.:Combat.:Respirator.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 468, "text": "A gas mask is worn over the face to protect the wearer from inhaling \"airborne pollutants\" and toxic gases. The mask forms a sealed cover over the nose and mouth, but may also cover the eyes and other vulnerable soft tissues of the face. Airborne toxic materials may be gaseous or particulate. Many gas masks include protection from both types. During riots where tear gas or CS-gas is employed by riot police, gas masks are commonly used by police and rioters alike.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27944981", "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)", "section": "Section::::Independence and the Federalist Era (1776–1801).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 129, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 129, "end_character": 802, "text": "BULLET::::- A gas mask is a mask worn over the face to protect the wearer from inhaling \"airborne pollutants\" and toxic gasses. The mask forms a sealed cover over the nose and mouth, but may also cover the eyes and other vulnerable soft tissues of the face. The gas mask was invented in 1847 by Lewis Haslett, a device that contained elements that allowed breathing through a nose and mouthpiece, inhalation of air through a bulb-shaped filter, and a vent to exhale air back into the atmosphere. According to \"First Facts,\" it states that the \"gas mask resembling the modern type was patented by Lewis Phectic Haslett of Louisville, Kentucky who received a patent on June 12, 1849\". U.S. patent #6,529 issued to Haslett, described the first \"Inhaler or Lung Protector\" that filtered dust from the air.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12772", "title": "Gas mask", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 545, "text": "The gas mask is a mask used to protect the wearer from inhaling airborne pollutants and toxic gases. The mask forms a sealed cover over the nose and mouth, but may also cover the eyes and other vulnerable soft tissues of the face. Most gas masks are also respirators, though the word \"gas mask\" is often used to refer to military equipment (e.g. field protective mask). The user of the gas mask is not protected from gas that the skin can absorb. Most gas mask filters will last around 24 hours in a nuclear biological chemical (NBC) situation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "494877", "title": "Full face diving mask", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 477, "text": "The full-face mask provides breathing gas to the diver, and an air space to facilitate underwater vision. There is usually one air space for both breathing and vision, and this is automatically equalised by the breathing gas during descent. However, some models have a mouthpiece isolating the breathing gas supply from the rest of the interior of the mask, or have a divided interior, and the main air space must then be equalised during descent by exhaling through the nose.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49300652", "title": "GP-4u", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 581, "text": "The face-piece of the mask consists of rubber that comes in three colors: Black, White and green, the green being the most common color found on GP-4u gas masks, as well as two round glass lenses attached to the face-piece via metal. On the bottom side of the gas mask is the inhale-valve (on the front) which is where the hose starts, and an exhale valve behind it. The face-piece serves for filtered air to get through into the wearer's lungs without interfering with outside chemicals, microorganisms and toxins, as well as protection of the eyes and face-organs of the wearer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1297796", "title": "Oxygen mask", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 252, "text": "An oxygen mask provides a method to transfer breathing oxygen gas from a storage tank to the lungs. Oxygen masks may cover only the nose and mouth (oral nasal mask) or the entire face (full-face mask). They may be made of plastic, silicone, or rubber.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23617397", "title": "Diving equipment", "section": "Section::::Personal diving equipment.:Vision and communication.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 235, "text": "BULLET::::- Full face masks protect the face from dirty or cold water and increases safety by securing the gas supply to the diver's face. If it contains no mouthpiece, the diver can talk, allowing the use of communications equipment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
lc2eo	why bus fare (for example) keeps going up	[ { "answer": "One word: Inflation", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Simple answer is inflation. The price of petrol is always going up, leading to everything that relies on it having to spend more. Buses are directly affected by this as they use petrol obviously. Other energy sources like gas are always increasing in price too, costing companies even more money. This leads them to increase prices to cover the higher costs. I believe the rate of these rises is the rate of inflation? To combat this workers are usually given a pay rise above the rate of inflation, but this also leads to the company having higher costs!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The reasons for inflation (which are hotly debated) can be, in my opinion, broken down into two main reasons. The first is that resources are more expensive. An example of this would be the dramatic increase in the price of oil. This cost is passed onto the consumer.\n\nThe second reason is the increase in money supply. The amount of money in circulation in a given economy increases year on year ([US Money Supply](_URL_0_)). If you consider an economy with only 100 dollars and in which you were getting paid 10 dollars. If the amount of dollars in this economy then rose to 110 dollars yet you were still getting paid 10 dollars, you are in effect getting paid relatively less.\n\n/drunk explanation", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The price of the bus fare isn't going up. The price of the chocolate bar isn't going up. The price of the newspaper isn't going up.\n\nThe value of your dollar is going down.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is simply inflation, or the devaluation of currency.\n\nThink of it this way: you are stuck on a remote island with 5 people. You form a small society and determine some form of currency (lets just say some rare sort of shell). You find 100 of these shells and distribute them evenly amongst the islanders (20 each). You use these shells to exchange goods, services etc. So, while some may be richer/poorer than others, the average shells per person is around 20. \n\nSo now lets say 5 more people are born on the island, doubling the population. Now the average amount of shells is only 10 per person. This is actually called deflation. Assuming that the islanders are getting the same goods and services, these exchanges will actually decrease in price while having the same value. So while a coconut on this island may have cost 2 shells when there was a population of 5, the price will likely decrease to 1 shell with a higher population and less money to go around.\n\n\nNow, you are probably wondering how this all relates to inflation. Well the thing is our government can print money as the population and economy grows. As they inject more money into the system (through government bonds) the prices for things will go up, as there is more currency to pass around. Most world governments want a little bit of inflation in order to promote trade. Think of it like this. If there was deflation then the value of your money would go up by simply holding onto it and not spending. The economy needs a bit of inflation so that people feel the need to spend. The problem arises when governments print money like crazy and completely devaluate thier own currency. (Look into Zimbabwe and post WWI germany)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One word: Inflation", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Simple answer is inflation. The price of petrol is always going up, leading to everything that relies on it having to spend more. Buses are directly affected by this as they use petrol obviously. Other energy sources like gas are always increasing in price too, costing companies even more money. This leads them to increase prices to cover the higher costs. I believe the rate of these rises is the rate of inflation? To combat this workers are usually given a pay rise above the rate of inflation, but this also leads to the company having higher costs!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The reasons for inflation (which are hotly debated) can be, in my opinion, broken down into two main reasons. The first is that resources are more expensive. An example of this would be the dramatic increase in the price of oil. This cost is passed onto the consumer.\n\nThe second reason is the increase in money supply. The amount of money in circulation in a given economy increases year on year ([US Money Supply](_URL_0_)). If you consider an economy with only 100 dollars and in which you were getting paid 10 dollars. If the amount of dollars in this economy then rose to 110 dollars yet you were still getting paid 10 dollars, you are in effect getting paid relatively less.\n\n/drunk explanation", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The price of the bus fare isn't going up. The price of the chocolate bar isn't going up. The price of the newspaper isn't going up.\n\nThe value of your dollar is going down.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is simply inflation, or the devaluation of currency.\n\nThink of it this way: you are stuck on a remote island with 5 people. You form a small society and determine some form of currency (lets just say some rare sort of shell). You find 100 of these shells and distribute them evenly amongst the islanders (20 each). You use these shells to exchange goods, services etc. So, while some may be richer/poorer than others, the average shells per person is around 20. \n\nSo now lets say 5 more people are born on the island, doubling the population. Now the average amount of shells is only 10 per person. This is actually called deflation. Assuming that the islanders are getting the same goods and services, these exchanges will actually decrease in price while having the same value. So while a coconut on this island may have cost 2 shells when there was a population of 5, the price will likely decrease to 1 shell with a higher population and less money to go around.\n\n\nNow, you are probably wondering how this all relates to inflation. Well the thing is our government can print money as the population and economy grows. As they inject more money into the system (through government bonds) the prices for things will go up, as there is more currency to pass around. Most world governments want a little bit of inflation in order to promote trade. Think of it like this. If there was deflation then the value of your money would go up by simply holding onto it and not spending. The economy needs a bit of inflation so that people feel the need to spend. The problem arises when governments print money like crazy and completely devaluate thier own currency. (Look into Zimbabwe and post WWI germany)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32782559", "title": "SUBE card", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 610, "text": "One of the benefits of this change is that it has helped speed passengers on to the bus. People no longer had to wait to be issued a printed receipt as they each enter the bus. Environmentally this should help reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and nitrogen because buses don't have to idle as long while passengers load, helping improve air quality in the city. The electronic ticket is eliminating the printed receipts thus lowering the amount of littering in the city. The city, in turn, no longer have to process, collect, count, and transport coinage received in payment of some 11 million trips per day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5580", "title": "Transport in Croatia", "section": "Section::::Road transport.:Bus traffic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 101, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 101, "end_character": 220, "text": "In practice, bus fares are collected on the bus while traveling, which is sometimes even cheaper than when paying at the ticket office (there is an additional fee for stored luggage) and sometimes a \"ticket office fee\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "449743", "title": "Rush hour", "section": "Section::::Definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 452, "text": "Transport demand management, such as road pricing or a congestion charge, is designed to induce people to alter their travel timing to minimize congestion. Similarly, public transport fares may be higher during peak periods; this is often presented as an off peak discount for single fares. Season tickets or multi-ride tickets, sold at a discount, are commonly used in rush hours by commuters, and may or may not reflect rush hour fare differentials.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2140441", "title": "Port Authority of Allegheny County", "section": "Section::::Fare structure.:Previous fare system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 956, "text": "The system \"usually\" uses an \"outbound\" pay system for daytime transit to and from downtown. Fare is paid when boarding on the \"outbound\" part of the route. For example, if the bus or light rail vehicle is headed towards downtown, the rider pays when boarding; if the bus or light rail vehicle is headed out of downtown, the rider pays upon exiting. This applies only on buses that serve downtown; on most that do not serve downtown, the rider pays upon entry. During the evening, on buses serving downtown, the method changes on many routes to \"pay when boarding\" (also known as \"pay enter\"), due to the possibility of riders trying to avoid paying the fare. In combination with the downtown \"Free Fare Zone\", this fare collection system permits boarding to take place via all doors in downtown (except evenings), greatly reducing loading delays in the part of the system with the heaviest concentration of transit routes and passenger boarding per stop.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10729823", "title": "Fare evasion", "section": "Section::::Methods of fare evasion.:On vehicles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 545, "text": "Another issue occurs on the bus or tram; passengers could either bypass the bus driver or simply enter through the rear door of the vehicle. This is commonly found under the New York City Bus system which causes its operators to lose millions of dollars a year. If a bus or tram has a turnstile installed in it, fare-dodgers can jump over or crawl under the turnstile. In most countries passengers board a bus from any door, validate their tickets at machines and have no contact with the driver, thus increasing the potential for fare evasion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18950756", "title": "Abu Dhabi", "section": "Section::::Transportation.:Public transport.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 132, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 132, "end_character": 442, "text": "Within the first week of service the bus network had seen high usage. Some of the buses, which have a maximum capacity of 45 passengers, only had room for standing left. Some bus drivers reported as many as 100 passengers on a bus at one time. Due to the new, zero-fare bus service success, many taxi drivers were losing business. Taxi drivers have seen a considerable decrease in the demand for taxis while lines were forming for the buses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19612238", "title": "Public transport bus service", "section": "Section::::Operation.:Scheduling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 673, "text": "There is a common cliché that people “wait all day, and then three come along at once”, in relation to a phenomenon where evenly timetabled bus services can develop a gap in service followed by buses turning up almost simultaneously. This occurs when the rush hour begins and numbers of passengers at a stop increases, increasing the loading time, and thus delay scheduled service. The following bus then catches up because it begins to be delayed less at stops due to fewer passengers waiting. This is called bus bunching. This is prevented in some cities such as Berlin by assigning every stop arrival times where scheduled buses should arrive no earlier than specified.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
35acww	is our perception of time relative to our mass? eg: an ants lifetime seems to them, the same amount of time as what our lifetime seems to us?	[ { "answer": "There's no particular evidence to support this idea, although since it regards perception, I don't know that you could absolutely rule it out. I'd just say 'Probably not.' There are, after all, humans more than twice the mass of other humans, and we don't see much reporting of this discrepancy. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I see two ways of looking at this, I will explain both.\n\nFirst perception- If I lock someone in a room for there entire life and give them fish to eat only and don't tell them there is other food they will like fish. If I give them fish and have pictures of other food then they will desire that food and not like fish so much.\n\nSame thing with the ants. If the ants know that we live longer than them then their lives will seem shorter, but if they don't know then their life would seem normal.\n\nThis is similar to the question if we were all the size of spiders would we know it.\n\nSecond- The other side I see involves the theme of the movie Interstellar in which they age different on planets with different gravity. The ants however have the same force of gravity exerted on them as humans do so the comparative force would be the same, however, this theory suggests that, again, they know it or not.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27646607", "title": "Oddball paradigm", "section": "Section::::Other uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 553, "text": "The perception of time seems to be modulated by our recent experiences. Humans typically overestimate the perceived duration of the initial event in a stream of identical events. Initial studies suggested that this oddball-induced “subjective time dilation” expanded the perceived duration of oddball stimuli by 30–50% but subsequent research has reported more modest expansion of around 10% or less, and the direction of the effect, whether the viewer perceives an increase or a decrease in duration, also seems to be dependent upon the stimulus used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "187779", "title": "Human scale", "section": "Section::::Science vs. human scale.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 214, "text": "Similarly, many time periods studied in science involve time scales much greater than human timescales (geological and cosmological time scales) or much shorter than human timescales (atomic and subatomic events).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19770252", "title": "Time constant", "section": "Section::::Examples of time constants.:Time constants in neuroscience.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 283, "text": "The larger a time constant is, the slower the rise or fall of the potential of a neuron. A long time constant can result in temporal summation, or the algebraic summation of repeated potentials. A short time constant rather produces a coincidence detector through spatial summation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12035702", "title": "Supersense", "section": "Section::::Episodes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 357, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Sense of Timing\": Courting, egg-laying, hibernation—the cycles of the earth, moon, and sun are the rhythms which govern all life. Every animal’s perception of time varies, according to its heart rate. A shrew lives 30 times faster than an elephant, so time appears to pass more slowly. Also shown is the rare 17-year eruption of the US cicada.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6069126", "title": "Time perception", "section": "Section::::Types of temporal illusions.:Changes with age.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 858, "text": "Psychologists have found that the subjective perception of the passing of time tends to speed up with increasing age in humans. This often causes people to increasingly underestimate a given interval of time as they age. This fact can likely be attributed to a variety of age-related changes in the aging brain, such as the lowering in dopaminergic levels with older age; however, the details are still being debated. In an experimental study involving a group of subjects aged between 19 and 24 and a group between 60 and 80, the participants' abilities to estimate 3 minutes of time were compared. The study found that an average of 3 minutes and 3 seconds passed when participants in the younger group estimated that 3 minutes had passed, whereas the older group's estimate for when 3 minutes had passed came after an average of 3 minutes and 40 seconds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6444774", "title": "Temporality", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 246, "text": "In social sciences, temporality is also studied with respect to human's perception of time and the social organization of time. The perception of time undergoes significant change in the three hundred years between the Middle Ages and Modernity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "174386", "title": "Planck time", "section": "Section::::Physical significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 351, "text": "All scientific experiments and human experiences occur over time scales that are many orders of magnitude longer than the Planck time, making any events happening at the Planck scale undetectable with current scientific knowledge. , the smallest time interval uncertainty in direct measurements is on the order of 850 zeptoseconds (8.50 × 10 seconds)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
5g72jc	what is the difference between daydreaming and psychosis?	[ { "answer": "Daydreaming is mostly controlled, Psychosis is mostly uncontrolled. \n\nDaydreaming you still understand what is reality and what is not. Psychosis and other mental disturbances can make those distinctions much more difficult. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12277461", "title": "Onirism", "section": "Section::::In medicine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 250, "text": "In psychiatry, onirism refers to a mental state in which visual hallucinations occur while fully awake. It is a symptom of some parasomnias (such as REM sleep behavior disorder and breakdown syndromes), but is more often associated with drug abuse. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "568631", "title": "Daydream", "section": "Section::::Recent research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 340, "text": "Other recent research has also shown that daydreaming, much like nighttime dreaming, is a time when the brain consolidates learning. Daydreaming may also help people to sort through problems and achieve success. Research with fMRI shows that brain areas associated with complex problem-solving become activated during daydreaming episodes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "568631", "title": "Daydream", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 768, "text": "Daydreaming is the stream of consciousness that detaches from current external tasks when attention drifts to a more personal and internal direction. This phenomenon is common in people's daily life shown by a large-scale study in which participants spend 47% of their waking time on average on daydreaming. There are various names of this phenomenon including mind wandering, fantasy, spontaneous thoughts, etc. Daydreaming is the term used by Jerome L. Singer whose research programs laid the foundation for nearly all the subsequent research in this area today. The list of terminologies assigned by researchers today puts challenges on identifying the common features of the phenomenon, in this case daydreaming, and on building collective work among researchers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "568631", "title": "Daydream", "section": "Section::::Psychological studies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 894, "text": "Freudian psychology interpreted daydreaming as expression of the repressed instincts similarly to those revealing themselves in nighttime dreams. Like nighttime dreams, daydreams, also, are an example of wish-fulfilment (based on infantile experiences), and are allowed to surface because of relaxed censorship. He pointed out that, in contrast to nighttime dreams, which are often confusing and incoherent, there seems to be a process of \"secondary revision\" in fantasies that makes them more lucid, like daydreaming. The state of daydreaming is a kind of liminal state between waking (with the ability to think rationally and logically) and sleeping. They stand in much the same relation to the childhood memories from which they are derived as do some of the Baroque palaces of Rome to the ancient ruins whose pavements and columns have provided the material for the more recent structures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24931", "title": "Psychotherapy", "section": "Section::::Types.:Cognitive-behavioral.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 325, "text": "The concept of \"third wave\" psychotherapies reflects an influence of Eastern philosophy in clinical psychology, incorporating principles such as meditation into interventions such as mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, and dialectical behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44785", "title": "Dream", "section": "Section::::Other associated phenomena.:Daydreaming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 154, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 154, "end_character": 681, "text": "A daydream is a visionary fantasy, especially one of happy, pleasant thoughts, hopes or ambitions, imagined as coming to pass, and experienced while awake. There are many different types of daydreams, and there is no consistent definition amongst psychologists. The general public also uses the term for a broad variety of experiences. Research by Harvard psychologist Deirdre Barrett has found that people who experience vivid dream-like mental images reserve the word for these, whereas many other people refer to milder imagery, realistic future planning, review of past memories or just \"spacing out\"—i.e. one's mind going relatively blank—when they talk about \"daydreaming.\"'\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22509657", "title": "Fantasy prone personality", "section": "Section::::Health and theoretical implications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 560, "text": "Maladaptive daydreaming is a proposed psychological disorder, a fantasy activity that replaces human interaction and interferes with work, relationships and general activities. Who suffers from this pathology, daydreams or fantasizes excessively, assuming roles and characters in scenarios created to his/her liking. People who suffer from excessive daydreaming are aware that the scenarios and characters of their fantasies are not real and have the ability to determine what is real, elements that differentiate them from those suffering from schizophrenia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1p7lep	How exactly does a short-circuit damage a device?	[ { "answer": "First it is important to understand how electricity works. The rate at which electricity flows through a circuit is determined by its resistance. In fact, resistors are extremely important in circuits for this very reason, because they place limits on how much electricity can travel through a given part of the circuit.\n\nFor instance, if a given circuit, at 18v, has a resistance of 180 ohms, then it doesn't matter of the power source can supply 100mA (all that is required for the circuit) or 20A (which is a lot of power).\n\nHowever, at 18v, a .9ohm circuit can handle 20A. This means that it depends on the power source whether it can provide that full 20A or not. 20A is enough to melt metal very quickly, so if the circuit wasn't made to handle 20A (really thick metal plates, etc), and the power source can supply it, then 20A will simply melt it.\n\nSo if that all makes sense, then you see that if the battery in the iphone can provide much more power than the circuits can handle (and it can), when you give an ultra-low resistance path like water directly connecting components that were never meant to handle that much juice, that it can quickly blow those components or even melt the plastic / metal used.\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It is not necessarily the case that a short circuit is what killed your phone. There are numerous metal contacts and connections in the device which are simple 'contact' points which would be disrupted by even a small amount of corrosion. Similarly, many ICs are inside protective packages, but those packages are not waterproof so even exposure to water would result in internal corrosion of those devices.\n\nRegardless, dead is dead.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1138512", "title": "Prospective short-circuit current", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 445, "text": "Protective devices such as circuit breakers and fuses must be selected with an interrupting rating that exceeds the prospective short-circuit current, if they are to safely protect the circuit from a fault. When a large electric current is interrupted an arc forms, and if the breaking capacity of a fuse or circuit breaker is exceeded, it will not extinguish the arc. Current will continue, resulting in damage to equipment, fire or explosion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "235898", "title": "Short circuit", "section": "Section::::Damage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 770, "text": "A short circuit fault current can, within milliseconds, be thousands of times larger than the normal operating current of the system. Damage from short circuits can be reduced or prevented by employing fuses, circuit breakers, or other overload protection, which disconnect the power in reaction to excessive current. Overload protection must be chosen according to the current rating of the circuit. Circuits for large home appliances require protective devices set or rated for higher currents than lighting circuits. Wire gauges specified in building and electrical codes are chosen to ensure safe operation in conjunction with the overload protection. An overcurrent protection device must be rated to safely interrupt the maximum prospective short-circuit current.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41136", "title": "Fail-safe", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Electrical or electronic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 254, "text": "BULLET::::- Many devices are protected from short circuit by fuses, circuit breakers, or current limiting circuits. The electrical interruption under overload conditions will prevent damage or destruction of wiring or circuit devices due to overheating.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "235898", "title": "Short circuit", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 229, "text": "In electrical devices unintentional short circuits are usually caused when a wire's insulation breaks down, or when another conducting material is introduced, allowing charge to flow along a different path than the one intended.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "75049", "title": "Electrostatic discharge", "section": "Section::::Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 541, "text": "However, many ESD events occur without a visible or audible spark. A person carrying a relatively small electric charge may not feel a discharge that is sufficient to damage sensitive electronic components. Some devices may be damaged by discharges as small as 30 V. These invisible forms of ESD can cause outright device failures, or less obvious forms of degradation that may affect the long term reliability and performance of electronic devices. The degradation in some devices may not become evident until well into their service life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6349042", "title": "Inductive charging", "section": "Section::::Advantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 269, "text": "BULLET::::- Protected connections – No corrosion when the electronics are enclosed, away from water or oxygen in the atmosphere. Less risk of electrical faults such as short circuit due to insulation failure, especially where connections are made or broken frequently.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6499752", "title": "Electrical fault", "section": "Section::::Analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 477, "text": "Analysis of the prospective short-circuit current is required for selection of protective devices such as fuses and circuit breakers. If a circuit is to be properly protected, the fault current must be high enough to operate the protective device within as short a time as possible; also the protective device must be able to withstand the fault current and extinguish any resulting arcs without itself being destroyed or sustaining the arc for any significant length of time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
fmvf1a	how does a company know how many shares to make public?	[ { "answer": "How many shares to make.public is based on what a company wants their stock price to be. \n\nSo the two biggest reasons that different companies have different numbers of shares when going public is that 1) not all companies have the same valuation and 2) some companies want different levels of liquidity than others. \n\nSome companies don't want it to be easy to buy or sell their stock. They want the stock price to remain stable, they don't want people trading it very often, and sometimes they really don't want individual investors to have any, as opposed to institutional investors. Also, remember that the corporation is accountable to shareholders, and shareholders get to vote on things, and the company may not want to have to answer to random jackasses who bought stock. So, they make it too expensive for regular trading. BRK.A, Warren Buffett's firm, costs something like $300,000 per share.\n\nSo let's say you think your company is worth $5 billion and you want your stock price to be about $100 per share. You'd issue 50 million shares of stock at $100 a piece. But what if you want your stock to be $500 per share to cut down the trading volatility? Then you'd only issue 10 million shares. \n\nAs far as how many to keep, generally the founder is going to keep at least 51% so they can still be in control of the company. Some founders are playing for the long term and are only going public to raise funds for their company. They'll only release as many shares as it takes to raise the amount of money they think their company needs. Some founders just want to cash in so they'll release as much as they think the market will buy and take the payout.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "28222741", "title": "Regulation S-K", "section": "Section::::Regulation S-K: Highlights by item.:Securities of the registrant.:Item 201: Market Price of and Dividends on the Registrant's Common Equity and Related Stockholder Matters.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 409, "text": "While this information is usually available through Internet search engines, it must still be disclosed in detail. This disclosure is especially important for smaller companies whose stocks trade infrequently and for companies trading on multiple markets (including more than one market per type of common stock). The number of shareholders and all holders of five percent or more of shares must be revealed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6985012", "title": "Follow-on offering", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 239, "text": "BULLET::::- First issue of shares by the company is made through IPO when company first becoming a publicly traded company on a national exchange while Follow on Public Offering is the public issue of shares for an already listed company.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63879", "title": "Initial public offering", "section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.:Advantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1283, "text": "When a company lists its securities on a public exchange, the money paid by the investing public for the newly-issued shares goes directly to the company (primary offering) as well as to any early private investors who opt to sell all or a portion of their holdings (secondary offerings) as part of the larger IPO. An IPO, therefore, allows a company to tap into a wide pool of potential investors to provide itself with capital for future growth, repayment of debt, or working capital. A company selling common shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors. Those investors must endure the unpredictable nature of the open market to price and trade their shares. After the IPO, when shares are traded freely in the open market, money passes between public investors. For early private investors who choose to sell shares as part of the IPO process, the IPO represents an opportunity to monetize their investment. After the IPO, once shares are traded in the open market, investors holding large blocks of shares can either sell those shares piecemeal in the open market or sell a large block of shares directly to the public, at a fixed price, through a secondary market offering. This type of offering is not dilutive since no new shares are being created.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25109", "title": "Public limited company", "section": "Section::::Share capital.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 322, "text": "There is a minimum share capital for public limited companies: Before it can start business, it must have allotted shares to the value of at least £50,000. A quarter of them, £12,500, must be paid up. Each allotted share must be paid up to at least one quarter of its nominal value together with the whole of any premium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "414411", "title": "Incorporation (business)", "section": "Section::::Incorporation in the United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 833, "text": "Share per value refers to the stated minimum value and generally doesn't correspond to the actual share value. Some of the common par values are $0.01, $1.00. In reality, the value of a share is based on its fair market value or the amount a buyer is willing to pay. An Inc. stipulates the exact number of shares the corporation is willing to authorize. It is mandatory for every corporation to have stock. If the corporation is willing to permit both preferred as well as common shares of stock, then this should have a mention in the articles of incorporation, along with the voting rights information. Generally, preferred shares provide its shareholders preferential payments of distribution of assets or dividends, in case the company shuts down its operations. A lot of small business owners only allow shares of common stock.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38770166", "title": "List of largest private companies in the United Kingdom", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 488, "text": "This is a list of largest private companies in the United Kingdom according to sales. Under UK company law, a private company (with the suffix \"Ltd\" usually) may not offer its shares for sale to the public (as can a \"plc\"). While lists of public companies usually rank businesses according to their market capitalisation (the traded share price multiplied by the number of shares), lists of private companies must use another measure, such as the value and volume of sales during a year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13240432", "title": "Private equity firm", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 250, "text": "BULLET::::- an \"initial public offering\" (IPO) — shares of the company are offered to the public, typically providing a partial immediate realization to the financial sponsor as well as a public market into which it can later sell additional shares;\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
816icz	with bee populations being decimated why haven't we seen major shortages of any produce?	[ { "answer": "Simply put, it takes a while for that to have a noticeable effect. Consider the episode of The Simpsons with the Ribwich. In the context of the episode, eventually Krusty Burger has to stop selling it because the critter they were processing to make it went extinct. There are a lot of plants that are pollinated by bees, and many are found in multiple locations.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because they're not collapsing.\n\nThe amount of bee commercial honey bee colonies in the US has increased from 2.3 million in 2008 to 2.8 million in 2016. So, pollination is fine.\n\nThat's not to say there aren't issues. Even with CCD receding, losses remain high. But because we're dealing with bees, and new colony can be created in less than a year, the number remains stable. This however results in greater costs for bee keepers. The cause of the losses is varied, ranging from parasites to pesticides to loss of good flowers.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One thing people never speak of is the fact that bees are actually invasive species to America and there are other insects that pollinate plants as well. In fact one could argue that bees are bad due to the fact that they compete with and often crowd out native pollinaters due the fact that they are raised and protected on farms in mass numbers compared to other local pollinators.\n\nAdditional note: my use of \"bees\" is obviously horriffically simplified. I am aware of this but I feel that the specifics of it were not important to my overall point that the imported bees have upset the natural balance of pollinators. Yes there are native bees to America but the most common bee used for honey is now bees that were not native to America and this has changed the landscape of pollinating insects in many areas of America.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the bees that are suffering are the wild honey bees, like bumblebees. NOT the commercial European honey bees that we use to pollinate plants on big grow fields.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's not the general bee population that's collapsing, it was the wild bee population that collapsed. Commercial beekeeping is what keeps them alive at this point. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A lot of farmers rent bees so they know their crops will get pollinated. My neighbor runs a bee business. Transports them south to work in the winter, brings them back north in the summer. \nMy friend owns an orchard and they rent bees during flowering season. It is a business and they make sure they have enough bees to do the job. \nIn China there was a bee shortage and they pollinated by hand which resulted in a much higher yield (because bees are inefficient) but also a higher cost.\nThis article is from several years ago. My understanding is that return of the bees and higher wages mean that they have gone back to natural pollination. _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Bees are not the only pollinators. Mosquitoes, butterflies, moths and even flies among other insects also pollinate. It's also not all bees. Certain bee species are declining, but not all are affected.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Becsuse the CCD apocalypse was a fad. Really the European Honeybee we use had a brief decline and then rebounded. Also many native bee species were just fine.\n\nIt's a sign of the dangerous of removing genetic diversity, but it wasn't the end of days like many people thought it would be.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because 9/10 are still alive?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ironically I watched the film theory for bee movie that was made recently and learned something about bees.\n\nWe often think honeybees are the sole pollinators but there are many other species of bees, as well as beetles, moths, and butterflies can all act as pollinators.\n\nIn the video it's mentioned there are some studies talking about how the environment would be better without honeybees.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My father since I was a child till my early 20's owned bees. I often helped him out with them. There are a few deases that kill them and will kill your whole colony. My father got out of bee keeping because his colonies kept dieing on him and it was a hobby for him. The money back then wasn't the best but it supported the hobby at least. Now there is a documentary on Netflix called rotten that will get you up to speed on what's the true issue of the industry. With the organic craze honey consumption had increased because people see sweetened products with honey is healthier than cane or vorn sugar but really sugar is sugar. The demand has increased larger than supply so people started cutting honey with maple syrup. I remember when the story of a major company got caught cutting honey with chineese honey from my father's beekeeping magazines. Check out rotten on Netflix I beleive it's episode 1 as it does a good job explaining it. When a country starts producing more honey than their bee population can sustain more than likely they are cutting it with sugar. \n\nJust a side thought incase people wonder you don't water down honey. You add some water for fluidity but there is a art/science for it. This was a major juding point when you send your honey to the county fair for judging.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The 1st episode of Rotten in Netflix goes into detail about answering this question. A quick and short answer is because the Chinese are adulterating honey with rice syrup. Unlike sugar and corn syrup scientist can’t detect it in honey. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It depends on what you mean by decimated. While there are certainly declines of natives (which btw some are much better pollinators than honies, it’s not like the populations are on the brink. There is one bumble bee( for America) on the IUCN red list of endangered species.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a documentary on Netflix called Rotten. One episode talks about honey and how a lot of it is imported from China and cut with rice syrups or similar. \n\nThis may also explain why there is no shortage of “honey”. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is an episode of Rotten on Netflix that describes exactly this :\n\nRotten episode 5. Milk Money\n_URL_0_ \n\nHoney production is nearly flat, but consumption is way up. Studies account for the disparity with counterfeit honey from Asia. Asian producers mix a small amount of honey with lesser sugars, derived from rice or sugar cane and sell it as 100% honey.\n\nIt is a big enough problem that there is an arms race between the counterfeiters to produce undetectable fake honey and trade regulators to devise a test to identify fake honey.\n\nThis and the rest of the series are really high quality. I recommend it to anyone with any interest. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because its more fear mongering and a push by \"organic\" fans and farmers. Our food supply has been under attack for thousands of years by insects and ever year a new insect will emerge as the top threat to wipe out a large chunk of production. Every year farmers have to worry about the new insect or in this case the damage done to bee populations. Evolution happens whether you use modern chemicals or 1000 year old practices. The difference is modern chemicals allows far more ways to combat it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the honey you eat isn’t really honey. It’s mostly synthetic honey from China mixed with real honey from around the rest of the world.\nEdit: Buy Local Honey\n\nThere’s also a tv show on Netflix called “Rotten” \nand the first episode explains a lot about this", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So this is a case of an environmental issue being simplified for the general public to understand. \n\nSo first of all, what we have to know is that produce is almost always pollinated by the domesticated honey bee, which came from the European honey bee- Apis mellifera. Now these bees are one of 20,000 or so bee species, keep this in mind for a bit later.\n\nAt one point back around 2006, domesticated honey bee farmers were seeing something odd. They were seeing massive die offs in their hives, and hives collapsing. They called it Colony Collapse Disorder, or CCD.\n\nNow we do have to keep in mind that some collapse is normal. Winter loss is especially large, due to the stress that winter causes. New colonies can be made by making/buying new queens and splitting colonies- I'm not a bee keeper, so I don't know the details here. \n\nSo the statistics out there are a little confusing, because there is annual loss rate and winter loss rate. Winter loss is when the most happens, as mentioned. It gets even more confusing, because I can't find data for annual loss percentages before 2010. I can only find winter loss rate. Oh, I'm taking about the US only.\n\nSo, winter loss rate in 2006-2007 was about 32%. An acceptable rate would be around 15%. This got higher in 2007-2008 at around 36%. This has gone down since then, but some years have been better than others. Winter loss in 2014-2015 was about 22% or so, but in 2015-2016 it was about 28%. Annual loss peaked 2012-2013 at around 45%. Last I heard, in 2016-2017 it was 33%.\n\nKeep in mind not all of that is from Colony Collapse Disorder. Some are due to other things, like a queen dying, or other things. One of the key symptoms of CCD is that there is a live queen left. The other two are a capped brood and a food storage of honey and bee pollen. A capped brood just means that their are larvae and pupae in capped honeycomb cells. Usually the hive takes care of these, and won't leave until they have metamorphosised into adult bees. \n\nOkay so now that all the stats are out of the way, why did this happen? That's a tough question. Environment issues are almost NEVER one thing, keep that in mind when you read stuff about the environment. So some people might have heard about parasites, pesticides, and diseases. Which one is right? Probably all of them. \n\nVarroa mites not only weaken bees by sucking their hemolymph- basically invertebrate blood- but they also carry diseases, like deformed wing virus. That name means exactly what it says too- the bees come out of their pupae with tiny, malformed wings and can't fly. They also don't really eat if they are sick too, which leads to their death. There's also other parasites, like trachea mites, that might cause issues.\n\nSo where do pesticides come in? Well neonicotinoids were shown to stress bees in a lab setting. Stressed bees, and really animals including humans, are more susceptible to diseases and parasites. This is... Kinda controversial though, because some argue the lab concentrations were too high and bees in the field would never see those concentrations unless they were directly sprayed... \n\nAnother factor that may play a role is travel. So beekeepers travel with their bees to reach all sorts of crops. They move from almonds in California, to blueberries in Maine and everything in between. When the bees are in transit, they eat sugar syrup. It's thought that this syrup doesn't have the right nutrient balance for them, and may stress them too. \n\nIt's interesting to note that Australia did not see massive bee colony decline. They don't have Varroa mites, but they do have neonicotinoids. Just an interesting bit, I don't know enough about the relationship to say much more.\n\nAnywho, varroa mites don't like high temperatures, and can be killed by raising the hive temperature to over 100 F, but the bees just continue to work. So, we're figuring out ways to solve this issue. Some researchers and organizations say bee populations are growing, though some others question that... The decline numbers are going down though!\n\nBUT. What about those other bees? The 19,999 or so other species? Well, some of them are doing alright, others, not so much. I know the rusty spotted bumblebee, which exists near me, is Critically Endangered. \n\nThe main issue I've heard they face is habitat loss. Corn and wheat are wind pollinated, and soybeans are self pollinated, so bees don't really visit those flowers. Unfortunately, that means the fields we have of them take up area that could be food for bees, like wild flowers and trees. Neonicotinoids may also play a role in this. Varroa mites have also spread from honey bees to bumblebees, so... That might be an issue too.\n\nSo some species in Hawaii are also endangered, though island species have their own set of problems, like being susceptible to diseases, having a smaller, more sensitive habitat, and invasive species. I haven't followed their issues as much.\n\nFun facts, some flies and beetles look like bees! Woo Batesian mimicry!\n\nTl;Dr The domesticated honey bee is showing signs of recovering from Colony Collapse Disorder, but some wild bee species are seeing declines.\n\nOh if you want sources, just ask! I'm on mobile so it gets messy with links everywhere. I do think the stats source is important though, so here's that one!\n_URL_0_\n\nEdit: I removed an extra \"are\" in the part about the Hawaiian bees. Sorry!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Bees aren't the only pollinators there are plenty of species that pollinate other than bees ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because bees are an invasive species in America and our ecosystem is not reliant on them to pollinate. [This Film Theory episode](_URL_0_) does a pretty good job at explaining it in a way anyone can understand with some added humor for good measure.\n\nThe short of it is bees are not native species to the Americas and are not the only bugs that pollinate plants here. For millions of years plants did just fine without them. \n\nIts basically a lie that bees are needed for plants (atleast in north and south america, they are native to europe so im sure they are more important there), hundreds of other insect species can do and have pollinated plants long before bees came around. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Wild honey bees are declining in numbers. In recent years , here in Ohio, the bumblebee, wasp, and yellow jacket population has risen. Plants are getting pollinated , just commercial handlers are making the honey. I don't really think any honey we would eat is natural anyways, it's all farmed.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Butterflies and flies and other bugs also help our bee friends out in the huge job of pollinating too. So the little guys arent alone ^_^", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I didn't see it posted yet but I may not have scrolled far enough. A little nit-picking, but decimate means to reduce by 1/10th specifically.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "While the wild bee population has been hit worse than commercial bees, beekeepers have seen a dramatic decrease in their bee numbers. For several of them, they can no longer stay in the black, so they use their colonies pollinate orchards for extra cash. \n\nAs far as honey goes, imported honey as well as artificial honey make up a huge part of the market. In fact, theres a pretty good chance that the \"pure honey\" that you've bought in store wasn't made by bees, but in a lab. On top of this, pressure from China, who illegally imports honey and undercuts American honey farmers, has also led to a significant decrease in real honey. \n\nHere's a couple of sources about the illegal imports:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_2_\n\nIn addition, I would recommend that you watch the episode about honey on the documentary \"Rotten\" which is on Netflix.\n\nEdit: I just realized OP was talking about vegetables. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because honey bees aren't the only [polinators](_URL_0_) out there! I wonder how well posting a Film Theory video will go...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "33275929", "title": "Bombus impatiens", "section": "Section::::Importance to humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 734, "text": "Bees play in a significant role in pollinating crops. A decline in bee population leads to a decline in crop yield, which will then result in a reduction in the food supply and cause economic hardships for farmers. Commercially produced \"B. impatiens\" is one of the most important species of pollinator bees that are used by greenhouse industry in North America, including Canada and Mexico. They are efficient pollinators and natives to East North America. The interest in \"B. impatiens\" has been increased even more due to the decline of pollinator bee population like \"A. mellifera\" and the ban on importing \"B. terrestris\" into North America. They are used as pollinator bees for tomatoes, blueberries, raspberries, and pumpkins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20610449", "title": "Colony collapse disorder", "section": "Section::::Economic and ecological impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 142, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 142, "end_character": 793, "text": "With that said, honeybees perform some level of pollination of nearly 75% of all plant species directly used for human food worldwide. Catastrophic loss of honeybees could have significant impact, therefore; it is estimated that seven out of the 60 major agricultural crops in North American economy would be lost, and this is only for one region of the world. Farms that have intensive systems (high density of crops) will be impacted the most compared to non-intensive systems (small local gardens that depend on wild bees) because of dependence on honeybees. These types of farms have a high demand for honeybee pollination services, which in the U.S. alone costs $1.25 billion annually. This cost is offset, however, as honeybees as pollinators generate 22.8 to 57 billion Euros globally.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10075963", "title": "Insect biodiversity", "section": "Section::::Agriculture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 601, "text": "In the United States alone, pollination by bees accounts for over US$9 billion of economic revenue. According to some estimates, over ⅓ of the human diet can be traced directly or indirectly to bee pollination. Losses of key pollinators have been reported in at least one region or country on every continent except Antarctica, which has no pollinators. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment concluded that with the global decline in the amount of pollinators, there is not a complete loss of fruit or seeds, but a significant decrease in quantity and viability in fruits, and a lower number of seeds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8425111", "title": "Fear of bees", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 262, "text": "The renting of bee colonies for pollination of crops is the primary source of income for beekeepers in the United States, but as the fears of bees spread, it becomes hard to find a location for the colonies because of the growing objections of local population.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "343614", "title": "Pollinator decline", "section": "Section::::Possible explanations.:Loss of habitat and forage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 1091, "text": "Bees and other pollinators face a higher risk of extinction due to loss of habitat and access to natural food sources. The global dependency on livestock and agriculture has rendered no less than 50% of the earth's landmass uninhabitable for bees. The agricultural practice of planting one crop (monoculture) in a given area year after year leads to extreme malnourishment. Regardless if the planted crop does flower and provide food for the bee, the bee will still be malnourished because a single plant cannot meet its nutrient requirements. Furthermore, the crops needed to support livestock (primarily cattle) tend to be grains, which do not provide nectar. Artificial water bodies, open urban areas, large industrial facilities including heavy industry, railways and associated installations, buildings and installations with a sociocultural purpose, camping, sports, playgrounds, golf courts, oilseed crops other than oilseed rape such as sunflower or linseed, some spring cereals and former forest clearcuts or windthrows were frequently associated with high honey bee colony losses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47646363", "title": "Lasioglossum vierecki", "section": "Section::::Human importance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 362, "text": "Since \"L. vierecki\" and other native bees have become more important for agriculture due to the decline in population of honey bees, there are new efforts to sustain and promote these species. Some farmers are now raising native plants that these bees feed from in order to ensure that their farming practices do not negatively affect the native bee population.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52785853", "title": "Honeybee starvation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 711, "text": "Honey bee starvation is a problem for bees and beekeepers. Starvation may be caused by unfavorable weather, disease, long distance transportation or depleting food reserve. Over-harvesting of honey (and the lack of supplemental feeding) is the foremost cause for scarcity as bees are not left with enough of a honey store, though weather, disease, and disturbance can also cause problems. Backyard beekeepers face more colony losses in the winter than in the summer, but for commercial beekeepers there is not much variation in loss by season. Starvation may be avoided by effective monitoring of hives and disease prevention measures. Starvation can amplify the toxic effect of pesticides bees are exposed to.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
41148d	Was the cursive script a product of the quill and inkwell system of writing?	[ { "answer": "Someone who knows how to use a quill can use it pretty skillfully, and if it's kept in good condition and properly blotted, it won't drip. A manuscript written by a skilled scribe usually looks pretty clean. Of course, we might expect to see different things depending on the type of manuscript. Something like the Ostromir Gospels, a luxury item created for a mayor of Novgorod, is going to look much cleaner than a book of homilies for personal use in a monastery or home. We have a ton of clean-looking manuscripts written in uncial or semi-uncial.\n\nThat said, I think there's to the idea that cursive script required something like a quill to happen, but the reverse (a quill requires cursive) is definitely not true. Cursive, at least in the (East) Slavic regions, seems to have grown as a time/space-saving device. Skoropis' 'quick-writing' developed over the course of the 15th-19th centuries, and you need a bit of specialist training to actually read it. You can see a table of [letter-forms from the 18th century here](_URL_1_). The left-most forms are (usually) the most uncial or semi-uncial ones, and then they sort of go from there to become progressively less-recognizable. Special letter forms developed for certain positions in a word or on the line. [Here's an image](_URL_0_) of 17th century skoropis' in use. The script was mostly about saving time and space. In certain contexts, things get even more difficult to read, especially when the people writing the records are the only ones who expect to be reading them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2045310", "title": "Cursive script (East Asia)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 959, "text": "Cursive script originated in China during the Han dynasty through the Jin period, in two phases. First, an early form of cursive developed as a cursory way to write the popular and not-yet-mature clerical script. Faster ways to write characters developed through four mechanisms: omitting part of a graph, merging strokes together, replacing portions with abbreviated forms (such as one stroke to replace four dots), or modifying stroke styles. This evolution can best be seen on extant bamboo and wooden slats from the period, on which the use of early cursive and immature clerical forms is intermingled. This early form of cursive script, based on clerical script, is now called (), and variously also termed ancient cursive, draft cursive or clerical cursive in English, to differentiate it from modern cursive ( ). Modern cursive evolved from this older cursive in the Wei Kingdom to Jin dynasty with influence from the semi-cursive and standard styles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "527604", "title": "Blackletter", "section": "Section::::Forms.:Cursiva.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 446, "text": "\"Cursiva\" refers to a very large variety of forms of blackletter; as with modern cursive writing, there is no real standard form. It developed in the 14th century as a simplified form of \"textualis\", with influence from the form of \"textualis\" as used for writing charters. \"Cursiva\" developed partly because of the introduction of paper, which was smoother than parchment. It was therefore, easier to write quickly on paper in a cursive script.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "514932", "title": "Cursive", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 422, "text": "Cursive (also known as script or longhand, among other names) is any style of penmanship in which some characters are written joined together in a flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster, in opposition to block letters. Formal cursive is generally joined, but casual cursive is a combination of joins and pen lifts. The writing style can be further divided as \"looped\", \"italic\" or \"connected\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "91231", "title": "Chinese characters", "section": "Section::::History.:Wei to Jin period.:Modern cursive.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 330, "text": "Meanwhile, modern cursive script slowly emerged from the clerical cursive (\"zhāngcǎo\") script during the Cao Wei to Jin period, under the influence of both semi-cursive and the newly emerged regular script. Cursive was formalized in the hands of a few master calligraphers, the most famous and influential of whom was Wang Xizhi.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7286347", "title": "History of the Latin script", "section": "Section::::Classical Latin period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 505, "text": "Roman cursive script, also called majuscule cursive and capitalis cursive, was the everyday form of handwriting used for writing letters, by merchants writing business accounts, by schoolchildren learning the Latin alphabet, and even by emperors issuing commands. A more formal style of writing was based on Roman square capitals, but cursive was used for quicker, informal writing. It was most commonly used from about the 1st century BC to the 3rd century AD, but it probably existed earlier than that.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7286347", "title": "History of the Latin script", "section": "Section::::Handwriting.:Copperplate and cursive.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 658, "text": "From the italic scripts after the 16th century, more cursive forms evolved and were known as Copperplate script due to way the calligraphy books were printed and reached their height in the 18–19th century. The main examples were the Italian hand and the English round-hand, which in Britain were taught to men and women respectively, these scripts feature flowing letters which could be written with a single pen lift (with the exception of x and the marks added after writing the word which were dots on i and j and the bar of the ascender of t) with straight or looped ascenders and descenders. In Italy Italian hand is instead known as \"posata\" (posed).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1703597", "title": "Paleo-Hebrew alphabet", "section": "Section::::History.:Further development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 1319, "text": "The independent Hebrew script evolved by developing numerous cursive features, the lapidary features of the Phoenician alphabet being ever less pronounced with the passage of time. The aversion of the lapidary script may indicate that the custom of erecting stelae by the kings and offering votive inscriptions to the deity was not widespread in Israel. Even the engraved inscriptions from the 8th century exhibit elements of the cursive style, such as the shading, which is a natural feature of pen-and-ink writing. Examples of such inscriptions include the Siloam inscription, numerous tomb inscriptions from Jerusalem, the Ketef Hinnom amulets, a fragmentary Hebrew inscription on an ivory which was taken as war spoils (probably from Samaria) to Nimrud, and the hundreds of 8th to 6th-century Hebrew seals from various sites. The most developed cursive script is found on the 18 Lachish ostraca, letters sent by an officer to the governor of Lachish just before the destruction of the First Temple in 586 BCE. A slightly earlier (\"circa\" 620 BCE) but similar script is found on an ostracon excavated at Mesad Hashavyahu, containing a petition for redress of grievances (an appeal by a field worker to the fortress's governor regarding the confiscation of his cloak, which the writer considers to have been unjust).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
4lphf1	if a baby is born on the iis, and the mother and father are astronauts/cosmonauts from different countries (usa+russia), what is the citizenship of the baby?	[ { "answer": "Citizenship is determined by the citizenship of the parents rather than the location. A person born in Germany to two English parents would get English citizenship by birth. So in your example the baby would have duel US + Russian Citizenship.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "343764", "title": "List of cosmonauts", "section": "Section::::Soviet and Russian cosmonauts born outside Russia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 252, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 252, "end_character": 398, "text": "All Soviet and RKA cosmonauts have been born within the borders of the U.S.S.R.; no cosmonaut who was born in independent Russia has yet flown. Many cosmonauts, however, were born in Soviet territories outside the boundaries of Russia, and may be claimed by various Soviet successor states as nationals of those states. All claimed Soviet or Russian citizenship at the time of their space flights.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25151566", "title": "Citizenship of the United States", "section": "Section::::Birthright citizenship.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 222, "text": "Regardless of where they are born, children of U.S. citizens are U.S. citizens in most cases. Children born outside the United States with at least one U.S. citizen parent usually have birthright citizenship by parentage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2265454", "title": "South African nationality law", "section": "Section::::Citizenship by birth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 276, "text": "There is an exception to the birthright citizenship provision: those born to visiting foreign diplomats or their employees, or nonresident aliens are not considered to be \"citizens by birth\" (unless their other parent is a citizen, in which case they are a citizen by birth).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1627451", "title": "Starhawk (comics)", "section": "Section::::Fictional character biography.:Origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 776, "text": "A male child was born to the superheroes Quasar and Kismet in about the year 2002 of the Earth-691 timeline. As such, he was half human and half-artificially created being. Just as soon as he was born on the planet Vesper, he was kidnapped and deposited on the planet Arcturus IV. The baby was discovered by an Arcturian couple who were among the last of their planet's mutants; for much of his life, Stakar would believe that these mutants were his birth parents. The mutants were found and slain by the Reavers of Arcturus, Arcturian military cadres dedicated to eradicating the mutants of their race. The Reaver Ogord discovered the infant and, assuming him to be a normal Arcturian, adopted the child and raised him as his own with his wife Salaan, naming the boy Stakar.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3104779", "title": "United States passport", "section": "Section::::Passport layout.:Data page and signature page.:Place of birth.:Born in the air or at sea.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 145, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 145, "end_character": 229, "text": "For an American born aboard an aircraft or ship, if the birth occurs in an area where no country has sovereignty (i.e. in or over international waters), the place of birth is listed as \"in the air\" or \"at sea\" where appropriate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25151566", "title": "Citizenship of the United States", "section": "Section::::Birthright citizenship.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 304, "text": "By acts of Congress, every person born in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands is a United States citizen by birth. Also, every person born in the former Panama Canal Zone whose father or mother (or both) are or were a citizen is a United States citizen by birth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7545952", "title": "Birthright citizenship in the United States", "section": "Section::::Legal history.:1873 opinion of the Attorney General.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 901, "text": "The child born of alien parents in the United States is held to be a citizen thereof, and to be subject to duties with regard to this country which do not attach to the father. The same principle on which such children are held by us to be citizens of the United States, and to be subject to duties to this country, applies to the children of American fathers born without the jurisdiction of the United States, and entitles the country within whose jurisdiction they are born to claim them as citizen and to subject them to duties to it. Such children are born to a double character: the citizenship of the father is that of the child so far as the laws of the country of which the father is a citizen are concerned, and within the jurisdiction of that country; but the child, from the circumstances of his birth, may acquire rights and owes another fealty besides that which attaches to the father.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
76skd7	what causes chromosome abnormalities?	[ { "answer": "There are lots, but one major issue that contributes to many cancers is recombination. \n\nNormally recombination isn't really a bad thing, and gives us genetic diversity. When your cells are dividing to make sperm or eggs, the chromosome you have from both mom and dad line up. Because they are structurally similar, it is possible for them to \"swap\" segments, [like this](_URL_0_). This means you could pass on one of your dad's chromosomes, but with your mom's \"blue eyes\" gene inside of it. \n\nThe problem comes in when the swap doesn't work very neatly. Instead of having Chromosome 9 swap with another Chromosome 9, it might swap with Chromosome 22. Sometimes this is fine because the DNA is still there, but in different places. However, it often turns out that DNA is lost, or gets coupled to another segment of DNA that makes it inappropriately active.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13137524", "title": "B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Cytogenetics.:Chromosomal Mutations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 393, "text": "The most commonly reported abnormalities have occurred at chromosome 14, specifically in a region of the chromosome called band q23 (14q23). Translocations to this location lead to overexpression of the cyclin D1 gene which has been linked to both the development and progression of a number of cancers. Other chromosomal abnormalities have been reported on 6q21, 11q23, 12p12, 13q14 and 17p.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6415314", "title": "Chromosome abnormality", "section": "Section::::Acquired chromosome abnormalities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 499, "text": "Most cancers, if not all, could cause chromosome abnormalities, with either the formation of hybrid genes and fusion proteins, deregulation of genes and overexpression of proteins, or loss of tumor suppressor genes (see the \"Mitelman Database\" and the Atlas of Genetics and Cytogenetics in Oncology and Haematology,). Furthermore, certain consistent chromosomal abnormalities can turn normal cells into a leukemic cell such as the translocation of a gene, resulting in its inappropriate expression.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "152038", "title": "Karyotype", "section": "Section::::Chromosome abnormalities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 790, "text": "Chromosome abnormalities can be numerical, as in the presence of extra or missing chromosomes, or structural, as in derivative chromosome, translocations, inversions, large-scale deletions or duplications. Numerical abnormalities, also known as aneuploidy, often occur as a result of nondisjunction during meiosis in the formation of a gamete; trisomies, in which three copies of a chromosome are present instead of the usual two, are common numerical abnormalities. Structural abnormalities often arise from errors in homologous recombination. Both types of abnormalities can occur in gametes and therefore will be present in all cells of an affected person's body, or they can occur during mitosis and give rise to a genetic mosaic individual who has some normal and some abnormal cells.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6415314", "title": "Chromosome abnormality", "section": "Section::::Inheritance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 579, "text": "Most chromosome abnormalities occur as an accident in the egg cell or sperm, and therefore the anomaly is present in every cell of the body. Some anomalies, however, can happen after conception, resulting in Mosaicism (where some cells have the anomaly and some do not). Chromosome anomalies can be inherited from a parent or be \"de novo\". This is why chromosome studies are often performed on parents when a child is found to have an anomaly. If the parents do not possess the abnormality it was not initially inherited; however it may be transmitted to subsequent generations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11245347", "title": "Tetrasomy 18p", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 320, "text": "Suspicion of a chromosome abnormality is typically raised due to the presence of developmental delays or congenital malformations. Diagnosis of tetrasomy 18p is typically made via a routine chromosome analysis from a blood sample. The diagnosis can also be made prenatally by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4021188", "title": "Chromosome microdissection", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 968, "text": "Scientists who study chromosomes are known as cytogeneticists. They are able to identify each chromosome based on its unique pattern of dark and light bands. Certain abnormalities, however, cause chromosomes to have unusual banding patterns. For example, one chromosome may have a piece of another chromosome inserted within it, creating extra bands. Or, a portion of a chromosome may be repeated over and over again, resulting in an unusually wide, dark band (known as a homogeneously staining region). Some chromosomal aberrations have been linked to cancer and inherited genetic disorders, and the chromosomes of many tumor cells exhibit irregular bands. To understand more about what causes these conditions, scientists hope to determine which genes and DNA sequences are located near these unusual bands. Chromosome microdissection is a specialized way of isolating these regions by removing the DNA from the band and making that DNA available for further study.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18832531", "title": "18p-", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 475, "text": "Suspicion of a chromosome abnormality is typically raised due to the presence of developmental delays or birth defects. Diagnosis of 18p- is usually made via a blood sample. A routine chromosome analysis, or karyotype, is usually used to make the initial diagnosis, although it may also be made by microarray analysis. Increasingly, microarray analysis is also being used to clarify breakpoints. Prenatal diagnosis is possible via amniocentesis of chorionic villus sampling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1e6n75	everyone in the world raises their arms/fists to represent success and victory. why is that?	[ { "answer": "It is just a human reaction. Recently, saw a video on TEd talks about body language. It said there was a study done and when someone who was blind and has always been blind won a challenge they raised thier hands up in the air, in victory. Even people who have never seen that done, react that way.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm just assuming, in the same way a hug is used because it shows vulnerability so therefor trust, that raising fists makes the person appear more vulnerable, as their chest is an easier target. \nAlso it makes them look bigger. \nTherefor it is kinda intimidating/ look at me I'm so powerful I can stand in a vulnerable pose like this and still not be killed?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Like you're five: This is a human universal emotional expression for pride. \n\nTo go a bit beyond the 5-year-old level: There are many universal human expressions of facial features (see work by [Paul Ekman](_URL_2_)), and it has recently been established by Jessica Tracy and colleagues that shame and pride have similarly universal innate expressions. [Here's an awesome article about blind athletes in the paralympics making the same expressions as sighted people make](_URL_0_). Jessica Tracy is the leading authority in this area, and you can find her lab page [here](_URL_1_). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's an important part of our evolutionary communication systems. However, culturally it isn't always accepted. For example, in Japan performing this motion in a show of victory is considered unsportsmanlike. However, being a fan it is okay to do so. So there certainly can be a cultural override.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a really awesome TED talk that is all about body language and how our own body language affects ourselves. In the beginning she talks about how across all cultures throw their hands in the air to signify victory because making our body language bigger releases endorphins etc. Totally worth the watch. \n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's not just humans. Our closest biological relatives seem to do it as well. I would venture a guess that it is an instinctual reaction of appearing larger than your opponent, as seen in the animal kingdom where the alpha stands tall and the beta cowers. I'm not a behavior scientist nor biologist but it seems to make sense. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When you raise your arms, it makes you \"taller\" than others and the center of attraction. Another thing I noticed is that it it makes you feel more opened up and relaxed than with your arms down. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You just did something great and want to draw attention to it. When you're ashamed of something or trying to hide, you slouch and draw less attention to yourself. \n\nHiding one's face while laughing at the misfortune of others is another global expression. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53588735", "title": "I believe that we will win!", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 413, "text": "\"I believe that we will win!\" is a chant commonly performed at sporting events. Originating in the Naval Academy Preparatory School, it became a tradition among fans and students of the United States Naval Academy. In 2014, the chant gained national recognition as a rallying call among United States men's national soccer team (USMNT) fans for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, becoming an unofficial motto of the group.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5472811", "title": "Silvio Gazzaniga", "section": "Section::::FIFA World Cup Trophy.:Gazzaniga on his realized design for the FIFA World Cup.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 467, "text": "\"With two players raising their arms, I wanted to celebrate the moment of joy and the excitement of victory. The sphere at the top is shaped with a relief reflecting the images of continents. This also symbolises football and the world and the lines showing between the two mirrored players expresses the energy of sport. The coarse surface between the two facing figures on the trophy expresses the intensity, vigour, energy and the competitive spirit of football\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41326092", "title": "2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil (video game)", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 458, "text": "For the first time in the \"FIFA\" series, coaches as well as spectators, either in the stadium or through FIFA Fan Fest and generic viewing events worldwide, are included to improve the immersive feeling. Coaches and spectators will react to happenings on the pitch, from scoring a goal to getting a card and winning the World Cup. Then-FIFA president Sepp Blatter even appears to present the World Cup trophy to the captain of the winning team at the final.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2491371", "title": "List of sports clichés", "section": "Section::::Clichés.:Sports film clichés.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 333, "text": "BULLET::::- After a supreme achievement on the sports field/court/diamond, the achiever will, for no apparent reason, extend his arm and use his forefinger to point, for an extended period of time, to a team-mate, coach or even someone in the crowd. In many cases, the person being pointed to will, inexplicably, return the gesture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2514298", "title": "Three-finger salute (Serbian)", "section": "Section::::Usage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 423, "text": "The salute is often used by sport fans and players when celebrating victories. After winning the 1995 European basketball championship, the entire then-Yugoslav team displayed the three fingers. Sasha Djordjevic says he flashed the three fingers \"not to be provocative. Just: that's Serbia, that's us, that's me – nothing else. It's my pride.\" Serbian tennis player Novak Djokovic raises three fingers after his victories.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "437454", "title": "Applause", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 614, "text": "Applause (Latin \"applaudere,\" to strike upon, clap) is primarily a form of ovation by the act of clapping, or striking the palms of the hands together, in order to create noise. Audiences usually applaud after a performance, such as a musical concert, speech, or play, as a sign of enjoyment and approval. Clapping nowadays is very popular and in most countries audience members clap their hands at random to produce a constant noise. It tends to synchronize naturally to a weak degree; in Russia, Norway and many northern and eastern European countries synchronized clapping is more popular than random clapping.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36473008", "title": "World in Our Hands", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 395, "text": "\"World in Our Hands\" is a song by English singer-songwriter Taio Cruz from his third studio album, \"TY.O\". The track was released as the album's fourth single in Germany on 27 July 2012 and served as the official anthem for the ZDF coverage of the 2012 Summer Olympics. The track was written by Cruz, Michael Zitron, Rami Yacoub, Carl Falk and Iain James, and produced by Falk, Yacoub and Cruz.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
47w4or	slow charge vs fast charge overnight	[ { "answer": "It doesn't matter. It automatically regulates power supply to prevent anything from damaging the battery; for instance, when the phone reaches 100% it stops charging, and only starts charging when it falls below like 98%-95%.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2885000", "title": "Battery charger", "section": "Section::::Type.:Intelligent charger.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 221, "text": "A typical intelligent charger fast-charges a battery up to about 85% of its maximum capacity in less than an hour, then switches to trickle charging, which takes several hours to top off the battery to its full capacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10592503", "title": "Charging station", "section": "Section::::Infrastructure.:Charging time.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 741, "text": "The charging time depends on the battery capacity and the charging power. In simple terms, the time rate of charge depends on the charging level used, and the charging level depends on the voltage handling of the batteries and charger electronics in the car. The US based SAE International defines Level 1 (household 120V AC) as the slowest, Level 2 (upgraded household 240 VAC) in the middle and Level 3 (super charging, 480V DC or higher) as the fastest. Level 3 charge time can be as fast as 30 minutes for an 80% charge, although there has been serious industry competition about whose standard should be widely adopted. Charge time can be calculated using the formula: \"Charging Time [h] = Battery Capacity [kWh] / Charging Power [kW]\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60531396", "title": "Refine S4", "section": "Section::::JAC iEVS4.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 454, "text": "Charging time on fast chargers are 0.75 hours for the 355km version, 0.5 hours for the 402km version, and 0.67 hours for the 470km version to reach up to 80 percent of the battery charged. Charging time on standard chargers are 9.5 hours for the 355km version, 10.5 hours for the 402km version, and 11 hours for the 470km version. All versions are equipped with front positioned 110 kW electric motors with a torque of 330 N-m powering the front wheels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52471935", "title": "Quick Charge", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 402, "text": "Quick Charge is a technology found in Qualcomm SoCs, used in devices such as mobile phones, for managing power delivered over USB. It offers more power and thus charges batteries in devices faster than standard USB rates allow. Quick Charge 2 onwards technology is primarily used for wall adaptors, but it is also implemented in car chargers and powerbanks (For both input and output power delivery). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42601555", "title": "Research in lithium-ion batteries", "section": "Section::::Design and management.:Charging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 89, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 89, "end_character": 761, "text": "In 2014, researchers at MIT, Sandia National Laboratories, Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology America and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory discovered that uniform charging could be used with increased charge speed to speed up battery charging. This discovery could also increase cycle durability to ten years. Traditionally slower charging prevented overheating, which shortens cycle durability. The researchers used a particle accelerator to learn that in conventional devices each increment of charge is absorbed by a single or a small number of particles until they are charged, then moves on. By distributing charge/discharge circuitry throughout the electrode, heating and degradation could be reduced while allowing much greater power density.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "201487", "title": "Rechargeable battery", "section": "Section::::Charging and discharging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 841, "text": "Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow \"dumb\" chargers without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating. Battery packs intended for rapid charging may include a temperature sensor that the charger uses to protect the pack; the sensor will have one or more additional electrical contacts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41834", "title": "Uninterruptible power supply", "section": "Section::::Batteries.:Common battery characteristics and load testing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 527, "text": "If a battery has been completely discharged (e.g. the car lights were left on overnight) and next is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, then during the short charging time it develops only a charge near the interface. The battery voltage may rise to be close to the charger voltage so that the charging current decreases significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte, leading to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start a car.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
4l24o1	what is the significance of splitting an atom, and how does it make nuclear weapons so much more devastating than conventional ones?	[ { "answer": "When you \"split\" an atom, what you're doing is making the big, heavy atom into two lighter ones. \nThe curious thing is that the two lighter ones combined weigh less than the original. \nWhere did the mass go? \nIt went into E=mc^2 \n\nNow, keep in mind that c is a huge number. It's the speed of light. Which is really fast. \n\nEven a little tiny mass converted directly into energy yields a tremendous amount of energy. \n\nIn \"conventional\" explosives, you put some energy into making the molecules that decompose when they explode, and you're not getting anywhere near the speed of light in those equations. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A nuclear reaction converts some amount of matter into energy. And it turns out that it takes an immense amount of energy to make even a little bit of matter. \n\nThe amount of energy \"bound up\" in a gram of matter is basically equivalent to the amount of energy released in an explosion of 21,000 tons of TNT.\n\nConventional explosions (like TNT) rely on energy stored in chemical bonds between atoms. These bonds can only hold relatively tiny amounts of energy. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just want to point out that you're asking a question that has a flip side to it. Splitting an atom is called nuclear fission. Combining atoms is called nuclear fusion.\n\nFusion bombs are much more powerful than fission bombs, and indeed require a fission reaction to achieve the temperatures required to set off the fusion reaction (which is, by the way, the reason we don't have fusion power plants, and also the reason \"cold fusion\" is a sort of holy grail of physics).\n\nThe simplest type of fusion reaction combines two hydrogen atoms into one helium atom.\n\nI'm not a physicist, so I can't explain why that's so much more powerful than fusion, but I thought it was worth mentioning.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "209584", "title": "Atomic Age", "section": "Section::::1950s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 280, "text": "The very idea of splitting the atom had an almost magical grip on the imaginations of inventors and policymakers. As soon as someone said – in an even mildly credible way – that these things \"could\" be done, then people quickly convinced themselves ... that they \"would\" be done.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "701333", "title": "Nuclear fission product", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 401, "text": "Nuclear fission products are the atomic fragments left after a large atomic nucleus undergoes nuclear fission. Typically, a large nucleus like that of uranium fissions by splitting into two smaller nuclei, along with a few neutrons, the release of heat energy (kinetic energy of the nuclei), and gamma rays. The two smaller nuclei are the \"fission products\". (See also Fission products (by element)).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "172911", "title": "Nuclear weapon design", "section": "Section::::Nuclear reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 357, "text": "Nuclear fission separates or splits heavier atoms to form lighter atoms. Nuclear fusion combines together lighter atoms to form heavier atoms. Both reactions generate roughly a million times more energy than comparable chemical reactions, making nuclear bombs a million times more powerful than non-nuclear bombs, which a French patent claimed in May 1939.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22054", "title": "Nuclear fission", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 585, "text": "Fission is a form of nuclear transmutation because the resulting fragments are not the same element as the original atom. The two nuclei produced are most often of comparable but slightly different sizes, typically with a mass ratio of products of about 3 to 2, for common fissile isotopes. Most fissions are binary fissions (producing two charged fragments), but occasionally (2 to 4 times per 1000 events), \"three\" positively charged fragments are produced, in a ternary fission. The smallest of these fragments in ternary processes ranges in size from a proton to an argon nucleus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "701333", "title": "Nuclear fission product", "section": "Section::::Production.:Nuclear weapons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 324, "text": "The immediate fission products from nuclear weapon fission are essentially the same as those from any other fission source, depending slightly on the particular nuclide that is fissioning. However, the very short time scale for the reaction makes a difference in the particular mix of isotopes produced from an atomic bomb.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47628", "title": "Bomb", "section": "Section::::Types.:Nuclear fission.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 679, "text": "Nuclear fission type atomic bombs utilize the energy present in very heavy atomic nuclei, such as U-235 or Pu-239. In order to release this energy rapidly, a certain amount of the fissile material must be very rapidly consolidated while being exposed to a neutron source. If consolidation occurs slowly, repulsive forces drive the material apart before a significant explosion can occur. Under the right circumstances, rapid consolidation can provoke a chain reaction that can proliferate and intensify by many orders of magnitude within microseconds. The energy released by a nuclear fission bomb may be tens of thousands of times greater than a chemical bomb of the same mass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41600720", "title": "Diffuse series", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 394, "text": "This splitting is called fine structure. The splitting is larger for atoms with higher atomic number. The splitting decreases towards the series limit. Another splitting occurs on the redder line of the doublet. This is because of splitting in the D level formula_4 and formula_5. Splitting in the D level has a lesser amount than the P level, and it reduces as the series limit is approached.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
978pu2	Did slave traders struggle with morality? Did they ever question themselves, their practice and the people they were killing and enslaving?	[ { "answer": "I hope somebody can come along and give you specific accounts but you might find this existing thread interesting about how the bible was used to justify slavery\n\n\n > _URL_0_\n\nBy /u/dubstripsquads", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You may be familiar with the famous Christian hymn Amazing Grace. This hymn was written in 1779 by the poet, Anglican priest, and slave ship captain John Newton. \n\nNewton was a seaman who prayed for deliverance from a storm in 1748, and found his prayer answered. This marked the beginning of a long and gradual conversion to evangelical Christianity, but was immediately followed by his entry into the slave trade. He continued in the trade until 1754, and continued investing in slaving trips after. He began serving as an Anglican priest in 1764, and became a close friend and confidant of William Wilberforce and Hannah Moore, major abolitionist figures. \n\nIn 1788, Newton wrote a pamphlet called [\"Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade.\"](_URL_0_) This quote perhaps best speaks to your question:\n\n > Thus I was unexpectedly freed from this disagreeable service. Disagreeable I had long found it; but I think I should have quitted it sooner, had I considered it as I now do, to be unlawful and wrong. But I never had a scruple upon this head at the time ; nor was such a thought once suggested to me by any friend. What I did I did ignorantly • considering it as the line of life which Divine Providence had allotted me, and having no concern, in point of conscience, but to treat the slaves, while under my care, with as much humanity as a regard to my own safety would admit. \n\nIt seems he had some misgivings, but they were largely blunted by his desperation for work, and the general acceptance of the practice around him. The whole piece is worth reading, and does an excellent job of viscerely portraying the horrors of the slave trade. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13405162", "title": "Arsénio Pompílio Pompeu de Carpo", "section": "Section::::Slave trading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 298, "text": "This was a risky activity: the ephemeral character of such profession was explained by the fact that officially outlawed slave traders were often no longer able to secure their business by simply bribing the authorities or buying the silence of associates who proved to be too greedy or ambitious.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33551286", "title": "Sena people", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 835, "text": "The violence and capture of human beings to be sold as slaves grew in late 18th century, and both Islamic and Portuguese official documents of that era refer to slaves as Kafirs. Alternatively, the slaves for export were called \"Caporros\" by the Portuguese landowners inside Mozambique. Over 50,000 slaves were exported from Mozambique to Brazil, the Spanish America and the French colonies before 1800. This volume of slave capture and trading increased to a point where it caused major social disorder, when the governor of Mozambique issued an order to stop this abuse, curtail the movement of captured human beings, and end the slave trading that was supplying people across the Atlantic Ocean. In August 1792, states Capela, the Mozambique governor issued an order that, \"no more Kafirs will be exported from the Rivers of Sena\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32379192", "title": "Jordens herrar", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 362, "text": "For a long time human beings considered the enslavement of other as something obvious. Thinkers, scientists and politicians argued that slavery was necessary, morally right and God created. The slave trade was creating jobs and lead to the slaves to have a better life. The few who initially protested were dismissed as ignorant, fanatical, emotional, and more.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8812818", "title": "Tomás de Mercado", "section": "Section::::Mercado's \"Summa\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 405, "text": "Mercado devoted a chapter to the African slave trade, of which he was highly critical, seeing clearly that the concept of \"just enslavement\" did not reflect the practice of the actual trade. However he regarded it as acceptable for Europeans to buy slaves enslaved by Africans, and accepted the enslavement of captives in war, those sentenced for crimes, or children sold by their parents from necessity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16272642", "title": "Slavery in Romania", "section": "Section::::Condition of the slaves.:Status and obligations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 1140, "text": "The slaves were considered personal property of the master, who was allowed to put them to work, selling them or exchanging them for other goods and the possessions of the slaves (usually cattle) were also at the discretion of the master. The master was allowed to punish his slaves physically, through beatings or imprisonment, but he or she did not have power of life and death over them, the only obligation of the master being to clothe and feed the slaves who worked at his manor. The usual treatment of slaves, Djuvara notes, was demeaning, and it was common for locals to believe that \"one could not get anything [out of the Gypsies] without using a whip.\" In 1821, at a time when boyars in Moldavia fled their country to escape the Eterist expedition, Austrian authorities in Bukovina were alarmed to note that the newly settled refugees made a habit of beating their slaves in public, on the streets of Czernowitz, and consequently issued an order specifically banning such practices. A dispute followed, after which the boyars received permission to carry on with the beatings, as long as they exercised them on private property.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2532528", "title": "Curse of Ham", "section": "Section::::Misconception, racism, and slavery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 2149, "text": "For Southern slave owners who were faced with the abolitionist movement to end slavery, the curse of Ham was one of the only grounds upon which Christian slave owners could formulate an ideological defense of slavery. Even before slavery, in order to promote economic motivations within Europe associated with colonialism, the curse of Ham was used to shift the common Aristotelian belief that phenotypic differentiation among humans was a result of climatic difference, to a racialist perspective that phenotypic differentiation among the species was due to there being different racial types. This latter effort started in England. Englishmen were widely afraid to further the colonial efforts of The Crown and begin a new life in lower latitude colonies for fear of becoming black. In 1578, George Best, a sea captain who was a member of the Elizabethan court, first popularized the myth of racial differences within what would be a widely read book on the search for a Northwest passage to Asia. Best uses careful ethnographic descriptions to portray the indigenous peoples of the North West as being sophisticated hunters and gatherers, not different in spirit than the white Englishmen, at the same time he presents a scathing account of Africans, saying of them that they are a \"black and loathsome\" people on account of being descendants of the “cursed chus\". Interestingly, Best doesn’t mention the curse as lying upon Ham, but rather Chus. The fact is there is no indication in Genesis proper that can be used to justify racism and slavery, but the vagueness of Genesis 9-11 coupled with a damning curse from an important biblical patriarch was used as propaganda to influence popular belief by racist Christians who were trying to further particular agendas. The historian David Whiteford writes of a “curse matrix” which was derived from the vagueness of genesis 9 and interpreted to mean that it didn’t matter who was cursed or what group of people the curse originated with, all that mattered was that there was a vague reference to a generational curse that could be exploited any which way by agenda-driven racists like George Best.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "654525", "title": "Ahmad Baba al Massufi", "section": "Section::::Stance on slavery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 486, "text": "In regards to the enslavement of Africans in 1615, Ahmad Bābā discussed the legitimate reasons of how and why one could become a slave. The driving force, mainly being religious and ethnic, were that if one came from a country with a Muslim government, or identified with specific Muslim ethnic groups, then they could not be slaves. He claimed that if a person was an unbeliever or a kafara, then that is the sole factor for their enslavement, along with that being “the will of God.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1slbze	how do solid state devices store information	[ { "answer": "[This](_URL_0_) pretty much explains it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41886492", "title": "Solid-state storage", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 389, "text": "Solid-state storage (sometimes abbreviated as SSS) is a type of non-volatile computer storage that stores and retrieves digital information using only electronic circuits, without any involvement of moving mechanical parts. This differs fundamentally from the traditional electromechanical storage, which records data using rotating or linearly moving media coated with magnetic material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41886492", "title": "Solid-state storage", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 420, "text": "Solid-state storage devices typically store data using electrically-programmable non-volatile flash memory, although some devices use battery-backed volatile random-access memory (RAM). Having no moving mechanical parts, solid-state storage is much faster than traditional electromechanical storage; as a downside, solid-state storage is significantly more expensive and suffers from the write amplification phenomenon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41886492", "title": "Solid-state storage", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 211, "text": "To satisfy the requirements of applications in various types of computer systems and appliances, solid-state storage devices come in various types, form factors, sizes of storage space, and interfacing options.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41886492", "title": "Solid-state storage", "section": "Section::::Device types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 710, "text": "Solid-state storage devices serve as secondary storage components for more complex systems, which may range from embedded and portable devices to large servers and dedicated network-attached storage (NAS) systems. As a result, solid-state storage devices exist in different capacities, physical layouts and dimensions, using various interfaces and providing different feature sets. Less complex solid-state storage devices such as memory cards use simpler, slower interfaces such as the one-bit SD interface or SPI, while more sophisticated high-performance devices use faster interfaces such as Serial ATA (SATA) or PCI Express (PCIe) paired with logical device interfaces such as AHCI or NVM Express (NVMe).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41886492", "title": "Solid-state storage", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1145, "text": "As a result of having no moving mechanical parts, solid-state storage virtually eliminates the data access latencies present in electromechanical storage devices, and allows significantly higher rates of I/O operations per second (IOPS). Additionally, solid-state storage allows much faster sequential access to stored data, consumes less power, has better physical shock resistance, and produces less heat and no vibrations during operation. As a downside, solid-state storage devices have much higher per-megabyte prices than electromechanical storage devices, and generally come in significantly smaller per-device capacities. Moreover, flash-based devices experience the memory wear that reduces their service life by imposing a limited amount of data that may be written to them, resulting from the limitations of flash memory that impose a finite number of program–erase cycles used to write data. As a result, solid-state storage is frequently used for the creation of hybrid drives, in which solid-state storage serves as a cache for frequently accessed data instead of being a complete substitute for the traditional secondary storage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3656002", "title": "Solid-state electronics", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 424, "text": "Today, almost all electronics are solid-state, except in some applications such as radio transmitters, in which vacuum tubes are still used, and some power industrial control circuits which use electromechanical devices such as relays. Additional examples of solid state electronic devices are the microprocessor chip, LED lamp, solar cell, charge coupled device (CCD) image sensor used in cameras, and semiconductor laser.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3656002", "title": "Solid-state electronics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 575, "text": "Solid-state electronics means semiconductor electronics; electronic equipment using semiconductor devices such as semiconductor diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits (ICs). The term is also used for devices in which semiconductor electronics which have no moving parts replace devices with moving parts, such as the solid-state relay in which transistor switches are used in place of a moving-arm electromechanical relay, or the solid-state drive (SSD) a type of semiconductor memory used in computers to replace hard disk drives, which store data on a rotating disk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1pjcwb	if george washington warned us about the power of parties, how was he imagining the government to work?	[ { "answer": "A multiple party system is fine. The more groups there are, the more they have to work together as a team to meet the majority set in the rules and pass a law. Thus, the things that get passed are generally what the majority approves of.\n\nA two party system leads to black-or-white, zero sum thinking. If my team didn't win, then we lost. All ideas are boiled down to three options: agree with group A, with group B, or just don't participate because you don't agree with either. That leads to us vs. them mentalities, or voter apathy.\n\nWashington's famous quote about this starts: \"The alternate domination of one faction over another\". He's really saying when two parties trade off, alternating running a country, this is a Bad Thing. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "He was imagining that the opposing parties would end up becoming close-minded, ignorant and constantly at each other's throats. He imagined it would lead to children being indoctrinated by their parents into political views tied with race and religion, e.g.\n\n > \"if you're a good Christian surely you will vote Republican! Those other guys are baby killers!\"\n\nor\n\n > \"Vote for Democrats, they're the side that supports minorities! You're not a racist/homophobe are you?\"\n\nIn other words, George Washington was psychic and saw the bullshit start right before his eyes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Let's not pretend that any founding father alive in the 1700s could have any possible idea what politics are like today with professional corporate lobbyists, mass media campaigns for elections, etc. They didn't have some magic 8 ball, they didn't somehow incredibly predict every possible future event the country's government could possibly face. They did a pretty good job throwing together a form of government with some checks and balances that was pretty robust under very difficult circumstances (pending war with Britain). Let's not pretend like it was fucking magical, and worship it like a deity. It was created by men, it's not infallible and although it's pretty darn good, if we need to tweak it to adapt to the challenges and political gridlock this country is now facing, then by all means let's do so.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A lot of the posts in this thread make good points, but they don't really address what George Washington thought, which was your question.\n\nIf you want more historically accurate responses, I'd recommend posting this question in /r/AskHistorians.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Washington was a very great man but not infallible.\n\nIf he and the other Founding Fathers hated political parties as much as a modern fashionably cynical people really believe they did they would have written that hate into the constitution.\n\nIt's difficult to run something so large and with so many responsibilities as a government without people starting and joining formal organizations related to the process. Washington didn't understand that, and back then many people didn't because American democracy was so new and different, and now it's popular for people to say they don't like political parties despite voting for one of the parties about 90% of the time.\n\nSource: polisci/history major and political activist.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Probably unpopular to say, but... Considering that George Washington ran unopposed for both of his elections, maybe he's not the best guy to ask how to run a Democracy? It's easy to say \"no parties\" when there's nobody running against you. North Korea has closer-fought elections than George Washington did, for crying out loud.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "He imagined intellectual people to be elected to office", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "He believed each candidate would self-finance, they would run on their personal record, and they'd vote their conscious on every issue. Coalitions were likely to form over topics (trade, slavery, banking, etc) but they wouldn't require the trade protectionists people to also be pro-slavery. \n\nIt was naive, though. This was shown almost immediately following his address. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Honest answer - Ignorantly. These guys weren't fortune tellers that could predict the future. They did the best that they could for their time. They often got as much right as they got wrong. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Unless he imagined a democracy in which we governed by rotating committees and/or townhall votes, with a very decentralized government, he was just wrong about this. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's worth remembering that at that time communication across long distances was much more difficult, and the population was far smaller. This meant that you were likely to know much more about the local candidates than about a national party. In that environment, it's feasible to say voters should be making their choice based on sending a reasonable man who can represent his community, rather than basing the choice on affiliation with a distant party. \n\nThese days, with national media being the typical source of political information, party identification is often the most salient piece of information a voter has about their local candidates. Most voters will have heard much more from people like Obama, Boehner, Romney, etc. than from the local representatives they're choosing between. In that environment parties are a good way of informing the voters which set of beliefs a candidate identifies with. Of course, this would be more effective in a multiparty system with a parliament, but it's still better than picking with no idea who your candidates are.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well, that's the thing: they imagined the government to work EXACTLY how it is now--Shutdown included!\n\nGoing back to Madison's \"Federalist 10,\" you can do one of two things with political parties (aka Factions): remove their causes or control their effects. American Democracy, by way of the Constitution, chose to control the effects.\n\nHow? Through checks and balances and the separation of powers.\n\nThe idea was all these political parties or interest groups (factions) would all fight. More conflict, less compromise. Intuitively, you might think that, \"well, this is a democracy, the majority has to win.\" This is not what the Framers had in mind. In fact, the idea was to slow down the process and force discussion to prevent a tyranny of the majority. And if you think your party or faction is going to win that fight, you're gonna need to make it through these different branches of government.\n\nIf the U.S. was designed to have a single representative, lawmaking body (a unicameral legislature), then one can assume that a 50%+1 majority could dominate policymaking. And assume the Framers did:\n\nThe created a bicameral, two-level legislative branch--the House of Representatives and the Senate. \n\nI'll save the talk about checks and balances for later and focus on the Framers' intentions, since Washington was ostensibly part of this club...\n\nWhen the Constitution was drafted, Senators were not directly elected. The states decided who would occupy that chamber. Oh, and let's not forget that today, even the President isn't truly directly elected...states make their own rules regarding their allotment of electoral votes, but that's another story. And finally, a reminder that the Supreme Court is staffed by, that's right, unelected Judges. \n\nWhat does this mean? It means that on paper, in 1787, only ONE of the Four branches of Government (House/Senate/President/Supreme Court) was elected DIRECTLY by the people. \n\nSo its 1788, and you want to pass a law that reflects your Faction's interests. Good luck. It needs to make it through not only the House of Reps, where you would start this process, but then through the Senate. Have fun with that. Those guys are the the elder statesmen, and they care about their own states. And the President? \n\nTL;DR The U.S. government is purposefully slow and inefficient because the Framers did not trust the average person to make laws.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How he imagined government to work is irrelevant, because the government he helped to found was not designed to scale up to what we have today. \n\nIn his time it took days or weeks for messages, goods or people to get from one town to another. Messages now are instantaneous, goods can get anywhere in the continental U.S. within a day or two. In his time, and for decades after, it took months to travel cross-country, and the people you started the journey with may not the same ones you ended with (due to deaths and births along the way). Today one can travel 3000 miles in a single day. \n\nThe system of government he envisioned and helped create, was designed around participation by white male landowning slave-owning citizens, for whom politics was not their fulltime profession, who did not have the support of a staff of fulltime career political advisors, all to represent and govern tens of thousands of people.\n\nRegardless of any theoretical flexibility to modify and update the system of government, that system, created in that time, does not scale to a nation of 400 million+ people spread across what we now have as the United States. \n\nAsking about George Washington's intent around political parties is possibly an interesting bit of historical background, better answered by an historian (as noted [here](_URL_0_)). If that's the purpose of your question, sorry for my tangent here. But if the purpose of your question is \"how can we get our current political party system back to how The Founders intended it to be\", the answer is \"that's likely not a relevant question to ask in the first place, as it's apples and oranges, on a par with asking a person from the 18th century how they washed their clothes and then using that information to design a better laundromat for downtown Chicago\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basically, as others have stated, Washington and the other Founders initially saw America as being a republic ran by unaffiliated individuals who would run and campaign using their own wealth. It is important to note that for Federal positions at this time, only members of the House of Representatives were directly elected by voters of their state, Senators were selected by state officials and the president was selected purely by the electors of the electoral college. \n\nFor a deeper explanation on the Founder's views of factions, one should look at Madison's Federalist No. 10 (_URL_0_). In short, they viewed factions as being potentially destabilizing and destructive to America, due in part to the structure of how America was being established (it should be noted that the Federalist papers were written when we were still debating having The Constitution). Madison argued that in a republic, majority factions could cause problems, hence why the Federalists wanted a larger government with more members, they saw it as a way for keeping checks on the larger power or faction. \n\nThe most important thing to take away is though that the Founders saw factions not in the way we see political parties today, but more in terms of regional and state blocs. Around this time, we were still using the Articles of Confederation, which had a very weak central government. At the same times the states were quite strong and basically ran as their own independent nations. The main concern was that one region or state would gain so much power and influence as to utterly dominate the others. Their main belief in the check on factions was that as America grew larger, more states would balance each other out (again because only the HOR was directly elected).\n\nPolitical parties as we know them are the result of the vote being expanded to more and more people, and is reflective of the organization needed to create a broader organization to elect people of a similar view.\n\nOne final note to think about is that Madison, Washington and the others argued against factions, yet saw the rise of what could be considered the first two political parties in America, the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans. These groups were arguing over weather the constitution should be ratified or not. \n\nTL;DR: Washington and others saw the expansion of more states in America as the way to check factions since \"parties\" at this time more were focused on regional or state blocs. They didn't see parties as we see them since America at the time was run entirely by a wealthy elite and the only voters were a wealthy elite. Parties as we see them now a-days are modern constructs that emerged as a result of the expansion of the vote. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The problem wasn't necessarily parties, but factionalism. Read Federalist 10.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Maybe he saw this happening:\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just read the Constitution, that's it. People vote for an individual who represents the voter's interest in the government. What part of that requires parties? \n\nSee the difference? Presently we have parties telling the \"representatives\" how to \"represent\" the voters, the voters are almost always voting for a party, not a person. \n\nWashington, et al, believed that the representatives would actually give two fucks about their constituents; with parties, the representatives just obey the parties irrespective of what voters say. Presently we see single digit approval ratings of Congress but they stay in power, I bet, because people will continue to vote for parties instead of people. \n\nThe system is completely broken and the Constitution is in abeyance. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What if we voted for a person not because of any affiliation they have to any organization but because of the things that they have done for their community and the ideas they have about how to further help the community. Parties are supposed to be an easy way to tell, but will always degenerate into what we see today. \n\nCampaigns are rarely about ideas and what will happen if they win but rather attacks about what the other person might intend to do. \n\nIf people voted for people based on their ideas then we might ahve a better country. Hold people accountable to the ideas they express after they are elected. Or else you are useless as a citizen . ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Politics was never meant to me a full-time career. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That we'd vote for people on the issues and their policies and not blindly on parties like herded sheep?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The top comment is false. Washington (though Hamilton wrote the speech) was interested in something closer to the system he started his term with, no openly declared parties. Grouping together for issues is a part of the political process, Washington wasn't naive, he just didn't want standing party mechanisms which he saw as malicious. \n\nHe hoped that a system of notables (local elites) from around the country would be elected and speak for the local interest. Even though proto-parties where being formed then, they were not very powerful or pervasive. Most issues still came down to the conscience of the elected official. Plus, compared to now, the money and pervasive power in being a Congressman really wasn't there back then, so they had much less reason to not vote their conscience.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Damn, /r/theoryofreddit would have a field day with this one. Top voted comment doesn't answer anything.\n\nThe real answer about how political parties were imagined to work, starts in Federalist #51:\n\n > Ambition must be made to counteract ambition. The interest of the man must be connected with the constitutional rights of the place. It may be a reflection on human nature, that such devices should be necessary to control the abuses of government. But what is government itself, but the greatest of all reflections on human nature? \n\nHere Madison explains that factions and political parties are so powerful, that the only thing that way to stop them is to fight fire with fire (ambition vs ambition). While many founders were very aware of all the issues with special interest groups and political parties, ultimately they decided that the most effective way to deal with this inevitable encroachment was not to write down a bunch of rules on a piece of paper, but to design a system where factions, political parties, and other concentrations of ambition can only be limited by an opposing party/faction/ambition.\n\nWashington acknowledges this and even tacitly agrees! (From his [Farewell Address](_URL_0_))\n\n > There is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful checks upon the administration of the government and serve to keep alive the spirit of liberty. This within certain limits is probably true; and in governments of a monarchical cast, patriotism may look with indulgence, if not with favor, upon the spirit of party.\n\nBut his point is that we don't need to worry too much about this though, because this tribalistic team mentality thing is really in our human nature.\n\n > From their natural tendency, it is certain there will always be enough of that spirit for every salutary purpose.\n\nTL:DR Basically, he is saying \"Guys, we all agree we need political parties, but political parties can get out of control and get super petty. So in order to prevent that, we all just need to watch ourselves\n\nOr, a more poetic form:\n\n > And there being constant danger of excess, the effort ought to be by force of public opinion, to mitigate and assuage it. A fire not to be quenched, it demands a uniform vigilance to prevent its bursting into a flame, lest, instead of warming, it should consume.\n\nBasically what he is imagining is a pre Gingrich era, where political parties aren't the uber-tribalistic, hyper-partisan \"my team vs your team\" things that they are now.\n\nIf you don't know how Speaker Gingrich changed Washington ([Starter Here](_URL_1_)), the gist is that he centralized power in the Speaker's office, forced Members to spend less time getting to know each other in Washington, and revved up the idea that the sole purpose of the political party is to defeat the other guy (rather than, you know, serve the country).\n\nUltimately this leads to an environment where political leaders are saying their biggest single agenda item isn't any particular policy that helps people, but \"defeating President Obama.\"\n\nSo Washington accepts tribalism and he accepts partisanship, he just warns us not to take the path of \"uber\" and \"hyper\" that we're on right now.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Several people replied to my comment on how to maybe fix our system. Ill do some explaining.\n\nSo there are a couple of cool options that we have but Ill highlight, what I think, in my opinion are the strongest 2. \n\n1. One of the biggest problems that our fucking campaigns have is the amount of money that goes into them. And more importantly the money that goes into the Big 2 (Dem and Reps). There's no goddamn way Ralph Nader will ever be president but because there is just not enough money in the Green Party to campaign against the Big 2, regardless of how smart the guy is. Now people are probably going to comment on this about super-pacs and shit and how they are ruining our system. Thats just categorically false. The root of the monetary issue, is that it facilitates a political environment where 2 parties dominate. Why specifically 2? Because most issues in politics are binary. SO HOW DO WE SPREAD THE MONEY AROUND. A great idea is to just inflate the fuck out of the system with political credits. These would be credits that have a dollar value, but can only be spent on political campaigns. These would be the only funding campaigns had. Each person regardless of social, political, economic etc. standing would have X amount of dollars to spend on Y amount of candidates. So if Nader is running now and people actually like him, they can donate all of their political credit to him so hell have enough money to run a successful campaign. There are kinks? How the fuck would we fund this? How much credit do we give everyone? Is it ethical to have like some sort of bastardized democracy that is EXPLICITLY based off of money? Meh you can think about it. \n\n2. We already talked about how the root issue is a bi-partisan system. One thing that contributes to this are the primaries. Many of which you can only vote either democrat or republican, and you can only vote for one person. AND its a FIRST PAST THE POST SYSTEM, meaning the person with the most votes wins outright...so if 49 people vote one way and 51 the other, 49% of the constituency is left out to dry. What the fuck. Representative democracy my ass. So how do you fix this. One way is to have your votes elastically attached to your favorite candidates by rank. So you could vote for candidates A,B,C all the way to Z, in that order. This would mean if A loses then B gets your vote, is B loses then C gets your vote. So you have a system with far greater representation of the reality, where in the current system its more like: You vote for A, A loses, So Z wins...and now youre fucked. \n\nFeel free to comment/question/correct. \nEDITS: My grammar sucks. \nSource: National Constitution Team Champion", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "He believed in a system where the representative served the will of the people that elected him instead of doing what the \"party\" wanted. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The fact that he was wary of the power of parties doesn't mean that he felt they had to be completely excluded, only that they shouldn't grow too large, powerful, or exclusive. There needs to be room for more parties, and \"what party are you with\" should matter less.\n\nIt's worth noting that, in Washington's day, politics was an as-needed thing; it was carried out largely by individuals who had other responsibilities, and who didn't make their living at it. Career politicians started happening at a point that is, roughly speaking, midway between Washington's time and ours (closer to his, but not by more than a decade or two) (Edit: I was grossly off, there; it's more like two thirds of the way back from our time to Washington's, but still well outside of his lifetime).\n\n\"Boss\" Tweed was an early career politician. He's the one you see represented in Gangs of New York, the bearded head of Tammany Hall.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Along with James Madison and the rest of the framers, they designed the government to be run by Congress and their representative lawmaking powers. Madison planned on the representatives of both houses actually representing their constituents ideas and voices rather than the current \"me me me\" model of congress.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I reckon he though men with common sense and a common goal could work together without bickering like children.\n\nBoy was he wrong.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I doubt any of you will see this because I am so late to the game but James Madison wrote about this in the Federalist Papers. Even though he and Washington thought political parties were bad they knew it was unstoppable. However they also said that there would be enough views to balance things out. This idea is called pluralism. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's the thing... HE DID NOT HAVE AN ANSWER.\n\nThe founding fathers are great men. We should respect and revere them, but never think they were anything more than humans with flaws like all of us. \n\nThat's the reason it's make a \"more perfect union.\" \n\nIf they had all the answers, it would have said make a \"perfect union.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I find this entire thread to be absolutely amazing. However I may have missed this somewhere in my reading and it is a bit off topic. No one has really addressed the fact that the government was not actually meant to be what it is. Each State is an independent Country within the Union. To be governed by it's own laws and not by the Federal Government. The Federal Government was supposed to organize the nation so we would have a unified front to present to the rest of the world. Standardizing trade, currency, military, etc. Not to dictate unfair laws and withhold funding. The beauty of the system was that each State was a representation of the people in it. Two parties for the entire Union falsely assumes that the majority and minorities have the same goals in each state. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't think he imagined 350 million people - getting rid of the idea of town square and everyone actually coming together. Just I guess, prolly wrong :)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This guy has a ton of political videos.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nWith our political structure, we're always going to have a two party system. It's statistics.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Washington wasn't exactly a skilled politician or a key designer of the constitution. He was a reluctant political leader who was a shoe-in after his success as a general. \n\nLook to Adams, Hamilton, Jefferson, Franklin, etc. and also French revolutionary minds of the time for the actual political theory behind our government's initial founding.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "he only warned us about one or two parties having too much power - that is all", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13097343", "title": "Military career of George Washington", "section": "Section::::American Revolutionary War service.:Resignation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 1125, "text": "One of Washington's most important contributions as commander-in-chief was to establish the precedent that civilian-elected officials, rather than military officers, possessed ultimate authority over the military. This was a key principle of Republicanism, but could easily have been violated by Washington. Throughout the war, he deferred to the authority of Congress and state officials, and he relinquished his considerable military power once the fighting was over. In March 1783, Washington used his influence to disperse a group of Army officers who had threatened to confront Congress regarding their back pay. Washington disbanded his army and announced his intent to resign from public life in his \"Farewell Orders to the Armies of the United States.\" A few days later, on November 25, 1783, the British evacuated New York City, and Washington and the governor took possession of the city; at Fraunces Tavern in the city on December 4, he formally bade his officers farewell. On December 23, 1783, Washington resigned his commission as commander-in-chief to the Congress of the Confederation at Annapolis, Maryland.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6076974", "title": "U.S. Army Birthdays", "section": "Section::::Selection of Commanders.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1004, "text": "Congress clearly respected Washington, for it granted him extensive powers which combined functions of a regular British commander with the military responsibilities of a colonial governor. His instructions on 20 June told him to proceed to Massachusetts, \"take charge of the army of the United Colonies,\" and capture or destroy all armed enemies. His was also to prepare and to send to Congress an accurate strength return of that army. On the other hand, instructions to keep the army obedient, diligent, and disciplined were rather vague. The Commander in Chief's right to make strategic and tactical decisions on purely military grounds was limited only by a requirement to listen to the advice of a council of war. Within a set troop maximum, including volunteers, Washington had the right to determine how many men to retain, and he had the power to fill temporarily any vacancies below the rank of colonel. Permanent promotions and appointments were reserved for the colonial governments to make.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8716691", "title": "George Washington in the American Revolution", "section": "Section::::Resignation and post-war career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 997, "text": "One of Washington's important contributions as commander-in-chief was to establish the precedent that elected civilian officials, rather than military officers, possessed ultimate authority over the military. Throughout the war, he deferred to the authority of Congress and state officials, and he relinquished his considerable military power once the fighting was over. This principle was especially visible in his handling of the Newburgh conspiracy, and in his \"Farewell Orders\". The latter document was written at his final wartime headquarters, a house on the outskirts of Princeton owned by the widow Berrien (later to be called Rockingham), but was sent to be read to the assembled troops at West Point on November 2. At Fraunces Tavern in New York City on December 4, he formally bade his officers farewell. On December 23, 1783, Washington resigned his commission as commander-in-chief to the Congress of the Confederation at Annapolis, Maryland, and retired to his home at Mount Vernon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "170653", "title": "Authority", "section": "Section::::The United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 994, "text": "The understanding of political authority and the exercise of political powers in the American context traces back to the writings of the Founding Fathers, including the arguments put forward in \"The Federalist Papers\" by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and the First Chief Justice of the United States John Jay, and later speeches by the 16th President of the United States Abraham Lincoln. \"Our government rests in public opinion,\" President Abraham Lincoln said in 1856. In his 1854 Speech at Peoria, Illinois, Lincoln espoused \"the proposition that each man should do precisely as he pleases with all which is exclusively his own,\" a principle existing \"at the foundation of the sense of justice.\" This sense of personal ownership and stewardship was integral to the practice of self-government as Abraham Lincoln saw it by a Republican nation and its people. This was because, as Abraham Lincoln also declared, \"No man is good enough to govern another man, without that other's consent.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38322", "title": "Continental Congress", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 533, "text": "There is a long running debate on how effective the Congress was as an organization. The first critic may have been General George Washington. In an address to his officers, at Newburgh, New York, on March 15, 1783, responding to complaints that Congress had not funded their pay and pensions, he stated that he believed that Congress would do the army \"complete justice\" and eventually pay the soldiers. \"But, like all other large Bodies, where there is a variety of different Interests to reconcile, their deliberations are slow.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59953681", "title": "George Washington's political evolution", "section": "Section::::General Washington.:Federalist.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 786, "text": "The inability of Congress to compel the states to raise troops or provide for them convinced Washington of the need for a strong federal government. In 1777 Washington began sending circulars to the states to request the resources he needed to fight the war, but the Continental Army came close to dissolution and starvation several times because they failed to adequately support the war effort. By 1780, Washington believed the war would be lost unless the states ceded to Congress greater power to prosecute it. Following the Newburgh Conspiracy in 1783, he weighed in on the debate to amend the Articles of Confederation to give Congress the power to raise taxes to pay the army, and spoke for the first time to a national audience in support of a more powerful central government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1251231", "title": "War Powers Clause", "section": "Section::::History and usage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 593, "text": "\"The provision of the Constitution giving the war-making power to Congress, was dictated, as I understand it, by the following reasons. Kings had always been involving and impoverishing their people in wars, pretending generally, if not always, that the good of the people was the object. This our Convention understood to be the most oppressive of all Kingly oppressions; and they resolved to so frame the Constitution that no one man should hold the power of bringing this oppression upon us. But your view destroys the whole matter, and places our President where kings have always stood.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
emaso4	how do products like static guard work to reduce static cling?	[ { "answer": "When two objects bump against each other, there is a chance that electrons will jump from one object to the other. If the two objects are made from a different material, it is possible that one holds on to its electrons more tightly, so it is more likely to receive electrons in such an event. When your clothes are in a dryer, they are rubbing against each other a lot, making this transfer happen a lot.\n\nStatic guard works by coating all of your clothes in a thin layer of the same stuff. Now that everything has the same stuff on its surface, the electrons are as likely to stick to one as to the other, so nothing generally accumulates a significant enough charge to be noticeable.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "200136", "title": "Static electricity", "section": "Section::::Removal and prevention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 367, "text": "Items that are particularly sensitive to static discharge may be treated with the application of an antistatic agent, which adds a conducting surface layer that ensures any excess charge is evenly distributed. Fabric softeners and dryer sheets used in washing machines and clothes dryers are an example of an antistatic agent used to prevent and remove static cling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39322872", "title": "Superhydrophobic coating", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 285, "text": "BULLET::::- Instead of using fluorine atoms for repellence like many successful hydrophobic penetrating sealers (not \"super\" hydrophobic), superhydrophobic products are a coating—they work by creating a micro- or nano-sized structure on a surface which has super-repellent properties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "768839", "title": "Copolymer", "section": "Section::::Microphase separation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 260, "text": "In thin films, block (co)polymers are of great interest as masks in the lithographic patterning of semiconductor materials for applications in high density data storage. A key challenge is to minimise the feature size and much research is in progress on this \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "971654", "title": "Foam weapon", "section": "Section::::Boffer weapon construction.:Coating or shell.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 258, "text": "When solid coatings are applied over thrusting tips, many holes must be poked through them to allow the foam to deflate and re-inflate upon impact. This is generally not needed when coatings such as cloth are used, as air can pass freely through such media.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3616613", "title": "Work (thermodynamics)", "section": "Section::::Other mechanical types of work.:Work associated with the stretching of liquid film.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 550, "text": "Consider a liquid film such as a soap film suspended on a wire frame. Some force is required to stretch this film by the movable portion of the wire frame. This force is used to overcome the microscopic forces between molecules at the liquid-air interface. These microscopic forces are perpendicular to any line in the surface and the force generated by these forces per unit length is called the surface tension σ whose unit is N/m. Therefore, the work associated with the stretching of a film is called surface tension work, and is determined from\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7067473", "title": "Industrial applications of nanotechnology", "section": "Section::::Military.:Uniform material.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 633, "text": "Nanoparticles can be injected into the material on soldiers’ uniforms to not only make the material more durable, but also to protect soldiers from many different dangers such as high temperatures, impacts and chemicals. The nanoparticles in the material protect soldiers from these dangers by grouping together when something strikes the armor and stiffening the area of impact. This stiffness helps lessen the impact of whatever hit the armor, whether it was extreme heat or a blunt force. By reducing the force of the impact, the nanoparticles protect the soldier wearing the uniform from any injury the impact could have caused.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5769860", "title": "MIL-DTL-5541", "section": "Section::::Scope of the Standard.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 303, "text": "BULLET::::- Class 3: Provides protection against corrosion where low electrical resistance is required. This is a thin coating providing low contact resistance, and the coating weight is lower as is the corrosion resistance. There may be some advantages using this thinner film in bonding applications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
20g7aq	Is it possible for an object to have zero kinetic energy?	[ { "answer": " > Is it possible for an object to have zero kinetic energy?\n\nYes. The kinetic energy of an object is relative to the reference frame in which it is measured. This is because motion is relative to the reference frame, and [kinetic energy is the energy an object possesses due to motion](_URL_0_).\n\nIf you measure the energy in an object's center-of-momentum frame (where its momentum is zero), it will have zero kinetic energy. This is actually how we define the rest mass of systems -- the rest mass of a system is the sum of its energies in its center-of-momentum frame.\n\n > Is there a way to determine simply how fast a galaxy is traveling?\n\nThe speed of a galaxy will be dependent on the reference frame you are measuring from, but in reference frames where a galaxy is moving, we can determine how fast it is travelling by measuring the redshift of photons that are emitted by well-known electronic transitions of common molecules, such as hydrogen. When the electron in a hydrogen atom is excited, it emits electromagnetic radiation of specific frequencies, and by measuring the redshift of those frequencies, we can determine the speed.\n\n > Can we approximate the location of the big bang and use this as an origin?\n\nNo, we cannot. This is because the big bang did not have an origin; the universe's expansion occured (and is still occurring) at all points simultaneously. This is actually a common misconception about the big bang; you may want to search through the FAQ for more information.\n\nHope that helps!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "17327", "title": "Kinetic energy", "section": "Section::::Newtonian kinetic energy.:Frame of reference.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 860, "text": "The speed, and thus the kinetic energy of a single object is frame-dependent (relative): it can take any non-negative value, by choosing a suitable inertial frame of reference. For example, a bullet passing an observer has kinetic energy in the reference frame of this observer. The same bullet is stationary to an observer moving with the same velocity as the bullet, and so has zero kinetic energy. By contrast, the total kinetic energy of a system of objects cannot be reduced to zero by a suitable choice of the inertial reference frame, unless all the objects have the same velocity. In any other case, the total kinetic energy has a non-zero minimum, as no inertial reference frame can be chosen in which all the objects are stationary. This minimum kinetic energy contributes to the system's invariant mass, which is independent of the reference frame.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17327", "title": "Kinetic energy", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 535, "text": "Several mathematical descriptions of kinetic energy exist that describe it in the appropriate physical situation. For objects and processes in common human experience, the formula ½mv² given by Newtonian (classical) mechanics is suitable. However, if the speed of the object is comparable to the speed of light, relativistic effects become significant and the relativistic formula is used. If the object is on the atomic or sub-atomic scale, quantum mechanical effects are significant, and a quantum mechanical model must be employed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "859234", "title": "Mechanical energy", "section": "Section::::General.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 356, "text": "The kinetic energy, \"K\", depends on the speed of an object and is the ability of a moving object to do work on other objects when it collides with them. It is defined as one half the product of the object's mass with the square of its speed, and the total kinetic energy of a system of objects is the sum of the kinetic energies of the respective objects:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17327", "title": "Kinetic energy", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 233, "text": "Like any physical quantity that is a function of velocity, the kinetic energy of an object depends on the relationship between the object and the observer's frame of reference. Thus, the kinetic energy of an object is not invariant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17327", "title": "Kinetic energy", "section": "Section::::Newtonian kinetic energy.:Kinetic energy of rigid bodies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 324, "text": "In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a \"point object\" (an object so small that its mass can be assumed to exist at one point), or a non-rotating rigid body depends on the mass of the body as well as its speed. The kinetic energy is equal to 1/2 the product of the mass and the square of the speed. In formula form:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40898", "title": "Collision", "section": "Section::::Examples of collisions that can be solved analytically.:Perfectly inelastic collision.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 559, "text": "The reduction of total kinetic energy is equal to the total kinetic energy before the collision in a center of momentum frame with respect to the system of two particles, because in such a frame the kinetic energy after the collision is zero. In this frame most of the kinetic energy before the collision is that of the particle with the smaller mass. In another frame, in addition to the reduction of kinetic energy there may be a transfer of kinetic energy from one particle to the other; the fact that this depends on the frame shows how relative this is.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "65908", "title": "Inelastic collision", "section": "Section::::Perfectly inelastic collision.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 559, "text": "The reduction of total kinetic energy is equal to the total kinetic energy before the collision in a center of momentum frame with respect to the system of two particles, because in such a frame the kinetic energy after the collision is zero. In this frame most of the kinetic energy before the collision is that of the particle with the smaller mass. In another frame, in addition to the reduction of kinetic energy there may be a transfer of kinetic energy from one particle to the other; the fact that this depends on the frame shows how relative this is.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1jiqfs	Why do we need large rockets like the Saturn V and Falcon Heavy to travel to the moon?	[ { "answer": "I don't know what you mean by a S-IVB as that's a stage of the Saturn IV. \n\nWe could use existing rockets like a Atlas V or Delta IV Heavy (both can be man rated btw). You'd probably need a handful of launches to get everything up there. After assembling in LEO you'd go to the moon.\n\n > Would this be more costly then having to redesign a new type of heavy rocket?\n\nFirst, rebuilding the Saturn V would be much more expensive then using current EELV rockets. Why do that?\n\nWith respect to the Falcon Heavy, look at the projected cost per launch. It's [80-125 million](_URL_0_) vs [250 million](_URL_2_) for the Delta IV Heavy. On top of that, a single Falcon Heavy launch can lift twice the payload to LEO as a Delta IV Heavy launch. So, per kg, the Falcon 9 Heavy is about 4x cheaper. Furthermore your point about redesign costs is irrelevant here: SpaceX is a private company. The government isn't paying for the development like they did for the shuttle. In response to your question: No, the Falcon Heavy is cheaper.\n\n > I'm surprised that even when missions to Mars are discussed the mission profiles all seem to stem from one launch vehicle on Earth.\n\nI have no idea what you are talking about. All mission profiles involve assembling a vehicle in LEO. \n\nHere a study done at MIT when Constellation was being discussed. I'm sure there are other studies but I am personally familiar with this one: _URL_1_\n_URL_3_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "177595", "title": "Glenn L. Martin Company", "section": "Section::::History.:Postwar.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 674, "text": "Finally the US Air Force required a booster rocket that could launch heavier satellites than either the Titan IIIE or the Space Shuttle. The Martin Company responded with its extremely large Titan IV series of rockets. When the Titan IV came into service, it could carry a heavier payload to orbit than any other rocket in production. Besides its use by the Air Force to launch its sequence of very heavy reconnaissance satellites, one Titan IV, with a powerful Centaur rocket upper stage, was used to launch the heavy Cassini space probe to the planet Saturn in 1997. The Cassini probe orbited Saturn from 2004 to 2017, successfully returning mountains of scientific data.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20584918", "title": "Saturn V", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 483, "text": "The Saturn V was launched 13 times from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida with no loss of crew or payload. the Saturn V remains the tallest, heaviest, and most powerful (highest total impulse) rocket ever brought to operational status, and holds records for the heaviest payload launched and largest payload capacity to low Earth orbit (LEO) of , which included the third stage and unburned propellant needed to send the Apollo Command/Service Module and Lunar Module to the Moon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20584918", "title": "Saturn V", "section": "Section::::Technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 383, "text": "The Saturn V's size and payload capacity dwarfed all other previous rockets successfully flown at that time. With the Apollo spacecraft on top, it stood tall, and, without fins, it was in diameter. Fully fueled, the Saturn V weighed 6.5 million pounds (2,950,000 kg) and had a low Earth orbit payload capacity originally estimated at , but was designed to send at least to the Moon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "718111", "title": "Apollo command and service module", "section": "Section::::Modifications for Saturn IB missions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 139, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 139, "end_character": 604, "text": "The payload capability of the Saturn IB launch vehicle used to launch the Low Earth Orbit missions (Apollo 1 (planned), Apollo 7, Skylab 2, Skylab 3, Skylab 4, and Apollo-Soyuz) could not handle the mass of the fully fueled CSM. This was not a problem, because the spacecraft delta-v requirement of these missions was much smaller than that of the lunar mission; therefore they could be launched with less than half of the full SPS propellant load, by filling only the SPS sump tanks and leaving the storage tanks empty. The CSMs launched in orbit on Saturn IB ranged from (Apollo-Soyuz), to (Skylab 4).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32230724", "title": "6555th Aerospace Test Group", "section": "Section::::History.:Space launch operations.:Titan IIIA/C (1961–1982).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 409, "text": "NASA's plans for the Saturn heavy-lift rocket program were already underway in 1961, and the agency saw no need for a military heavyweight space booster for low earth orbit, geosynchronous orbit or deep space missions. Consequently, NASA resisted the Air Force's first attempts to secure funding for the Titan III initiative, and the Air Force had to work long and hard to prepare its case for the Titan III.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1770", "title": "Apollo 13", "section": "Section::::Hardware and mission parameters.:Launch vehicle and spacecraft.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 599, "text": "The Saturn V used on Apollo 13 to carry the spacecraft to orbit was numbered SA-508, and was almost identical to those used on Apollo 8 through 12. Including the spacecraft, it was heavier than Apollo 12's. The S1-C engines were rated at less total thrust than Apollo 12's, though they remained within specifications. Extra fuel was carried; the reason for this was in part as a preliminary to the future J missions to the Moon that would carry heavier payloads. This made the vehicle the heaviest yet flown by NASA and made Apollo 13 visibly slower to clear the launch tower than earlier missions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6287701", "title": "Hercules Inc.", "section": "Section::::Product lines.:Solid-fuel rocket motor production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 565, "text": "Saturn V rockets, the Titan IV was the largest and heaviest unmanned rocket available anywhere in the world, and especially in the Titan IV-Centaur version. The Titan IV-Centaur was used for special launches of heavy space probes into the Solar System, such as the Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn which was launched in 1997. The Titan IV is no longer manufactured, and the last one of these was fired during a launch in October 2005. In 1995 the aerospace division of Hercules, including its solid motor line, was acquired by the American defense contractor ATK.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
7g4xb3	Why does vacuum-energy exist? How can nothing have some energy?	[ { "answer": "Well any theory that predicts a non-zero vacuum energy also predicts that the vacuum itself has a complex non-trivial structure. Like the vacuum of quantum electrodynamics for example. It can fluctuate, it can interact, it can become polarized.\n\nIt is also worth pointing out that from this perspective the vacuum isn't \"nothing\" but rather the situation where all quantum fields are in their lowest energy state. These vacuum states of fields have both energy and fluctuations.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Science never really answers why questions. It just answers how questions. The short answer is there's no such thing as nothing and we can't create it either or at least we've never observed anything like that.\n\nIt's not entirely obvious that vacuum fluctuations or space itself are a thing independent of matter. Empty space might not make sense without matter configurations from which to emerge and vacuum fluctuations might not occur without matter. Sean Carroll had a nice paper about quiet vacuum.\n\nIt's also not clear if we're talking about the cosmological constant or quantum vacuum here. Ofc they might or might not turn out to be the same thing. I'm sure someone will eventually collect their Nobel for coming up with an interesting explanation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7555", "title": "Casimir effect", "section": "Section::::Possible causes.:Vacuum energy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 474, "text": "The vacuum has, implicitly, all of the properties that a particle may have: spin, or polarization in the case of light, energy, and so on. On average, most of these properties cancel out: the vacuum is, after all, \"empty\" in this sense. One important exception is the vacuum energy or the vacuum expectation value of the energy. The quantization of a simple harmonic oscillator states that the lowest possible energy or zero-point energy that such an oscillator may have is\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "308158", "title": "Vacuum energy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 354, "text": "Vacuum energy is an underlying background energy that exists in space throughout the entire Universe. This behavior is codified in Heisenberg's energy–time uncertainty principle. Still, the exact effect of such fleeting bits of energy is difficult to quantify. The vacuum energy is a special case of zero-point energy that relates to the quantum vacuum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "308158", "title": "Vacuum energy", "section": "Section::::Implications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1249, "text": "The existence of vacuum energy is also sometimes used as theoretical justification for the possibility of free-energy machines. It has been argued that due to the broken symmetry (in QED), free energy does not violate conservation of energy, since the laws of thermodynamics only apply to equilibrium systems. However, consensus amongst physicists is that this is unknown as the nature of vacuum energy remains an unsolved problem. In particular, the second law of thermodynamics is unaffected by the existence of vacuum energy. However, in Stochastic Electrodynamics, the energy density is taken to be a classical random noise wave field which consists of real electromagnetic noise waves propagating isotropically in all directions. The energy in such a wave field would seem to be accessible, e.g., with nothing more complicated than a directional coupler. The most obvious difficulty appears to be the spectral distribution of the energy, which compatibility with Lorentz invariance requires to take the form \"Kf\", where \"K\" is a constant and \"f\" denotes frequency. It follows that the energy and momentum flux in this wave field only becomes significant at extremely short wavelengths where directional coupler technology is currently lacking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "84400", "title": "Zero-point energy", "section": "Section::::Quantum field theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 668, "text": "Scientists are not in agreement about how much energy is contained in the vacuum. Quantum mechanics requires the energy to be large as Paul Dirac claimed it is, like a sea of energy. Other scientists specializing in General Relativity require the energy to be small enough for curvature of space to agree with observed astronomy. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle allows the energy to be as large as needed to promote quantum actions for a brief moment of time, even if the average energy is small enough to satisfy relativity and flat space. To cope with disagreements, the vacuum energy is described as a virtual energy potential of positive and negative energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "84400", "title": "Zero-point energy", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1679, "text": "The idea that \"empty\" space can have an intrinsic energy associated to it, and that there is no such thing as a \"true vacuum\" is seemingly unintuitive. It is often argued that the entire universe is completely bathed in the zero-point radiation, and as such it can add only some constant amount to calculations. Physical measurements will therefore reveal only deviations from this value. For many practical calculations zero-point energy is dismissed by fiat in the mathematical model as a term that has no physical effect. Such treatment causes problems however, as in Einstein's theory of general relativity the absolute energy value of space is not an arbitrary constant and gives rise to the cosmological constant. For decades most physicists assumed that there was some undiscovered fundamental principle that will remove the infinite zero-point energy and make it completely vanish. If the vacuum has no intrinsic, absolute value of energy it will not gravitate. It was believed that as the universe expands from the aftermath of the Big Bang, the energy contained in any unit of empty space will decrease as the total energy spreads out to fill the volume of the universe; galaxies and all matter in the universe should begin to decelerate. This possibility was ruled out in 1998 by the discovery that the expansion of the universe is not slowing down but is in fact accelerating, meaning empty space does indeed have some intrinsic energy. The discovery of dark energy is best explained by zero-point energy, though it still remains a mystery as to why the value appears to be so small compared to huge value obtained through theory - the cosmological constant problem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "308158", "title": "Vacuum energy", "section": "Section::::Implications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 1158, "text": "The vacuum energy also has important consequences for physical cosmology. General relativity predicts that energy is equivalent to mass, and therefore, if the vacuum energy is \"really there\", it should exert a gravitational force. Essentially, a non-zero vacuum energy is expected to contribute to the cosmological constant, which affects the expansion of the universe. In the special case of vacuum energy, general relativity stipulates that the gravitational field is proportional to (where \"ρ\" is the mass–energy density, and \"p\" is the pressure). Quantum theory of the vacuum further stipulates that the pressure of the zero-state vacuum energy is always negative and equal in magnitude to \"ρ\". Thus, the total is , a negative value. If indeed the vacuum ground state has non-zero energy, the calculation implies a repulsive gravitational field, giving rise to acceleration of the expansion of the universe. However, the vacuum energy is mathematically infinite without renormalization, which is based on the assumption that we can only measure energy in a relative sense, which is not true if we can observe it indirectly via the cosmological constant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "691838", "title": "Unruh effect", "section": "Section::::Explanation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 213, "text": "In modern terms, the concept of \"vacuum\" is not the same as \"empty space\": Space is filled with the quantized fields that make up the universe. Vacuum is simply the lowest \"possible\" energy state of these fields.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
7n2kxs	how come you can have a good or bad sleep?	[ { "answer": "Simplest answer: variance.\n\nBetter answer: there are multiple factors involved. Light sources in the room or before you go to bed mess with melatonin production, which signals your body to sleep. If you wake up in certain parts of your REM cycle, you'll feel groggy instead of rested. Nightmares can make you tense during sleep, which makes some people less rested. Alcohol interferes with sleep quality. And I've heard that sleep you get before midnight is twice as restful as sleep you get after midnight. The effects of stimulants shouldn't be underestimated. The half-life of caffeine is about 6 hours. This means that if you have a cup of coffee at 2 or 3 in the afternoon and go to bed at 8 or 9, half the caffeine from your afternoon coffee is still in your system, interfering with your sleep.\n\nAnd the list goes on...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Imagine you are a phone with a rechargeable battery. \nYou use energy throughout the day and every night you need to recharge your battery or else it will be dangerously low the next day or even dead. \n\nFor some people, they have batteries that need only 5-6 hour charge but for the average adult an 8 hour charge will get you through the day.\n\nThe tricky thing with charging your battery though is that the battery doesn’t charge right way when you plug it in. The charging cable has to be inserted for around an hour and a half and stay connected for a full charge. \n\nSometimes you forget to put the charging cable in all the way. It starts to charge but then disconnects itself and you don’t get a full charge.\n\nMost nights the charging cable goes in all the way and the battery is able to reach a full capacity. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "50798", "title": "Insomnia", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Poor sleep quality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 224, "text": "Poor sleep quality can occur as a result of, for example, restless legs, sleep apnea or major depression. Poor sleep quality is defined as the individual not reaching stage 3 or delta sleep which has restorative properties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4761393", "title": "Treatment of bipolar disorder", "section": "Section::::Lifestyle changes.:Sufficient sleep.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 416, "text": "If sleeping is disturbed, the symptoms can occur. Sleep disruption may actually exacerbate the mental illness state. Those who do not get enough sleep at night, sleep late and wake up late, or go to sleep with some disturbance (e.g. music or charging devices) have a greater chance of having the symptoms and, in addition, depression. It is highly advised to not sleep too late and to get enough high quality sleep.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27834", "title": "Sleep", "section": "Section::::Timing.:Quality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 616, "text": "The quality of sleep may be evaluated from an objective and a subjective point of view. Objective sleep quality refers to how difficult it is for a person to fall asleep and remain in a sleeping state, and how many times they wake up during a single night. Poor sleep quality disrupts the cycle of transition between the different stages of sleep. Subjective sleep quality in turn refers to a sense of being rested and regenerated after awaking from sleep. A study by A. Harvey et al. (2002) found that insomniacs were more demanding in their evaluations of sleep quality than individuals who had no sleep problems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29088737", "title": "Cancer-related fatigue", "section": "Section::::Management.:Addressing specific causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 421, "text": "BULLET::::- Sleep disturbances: Patients who do not sleep well are more tired than others. Cancer patients commonly experience insomnia or hypersomnia. Sleep disturbances may be caused by sleeping too much during the day, by restless leg syndrome, by pain, by anxiety, or by other medical conditions, like obstructive sleep apnea or menopause. Practicing good sleep hygiene may reduce fatigue by improving sleep quality.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1268981", "title": "Sleep hygiene", "section": "Section::::Recommendations.:Activities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 240, "text": "Generally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10568255", "title": "Understanding (TV series)", "section": "Section::::Episodes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 274, "text": "BULLET::::30. \"Sleep\": Most people think they can sleep enough to get by, but few realize it is regulated and required by the brain at any cost. Sleep patterns and habits can be modified and manipulated to better fit our needs, but sleep and wake are in a delicate balance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1051985", "title": "Shift work", "section": "Section::::Management.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 444, "text": "Good sleep hygiene is recommended. This includes blocking out noise and light during sleep, maintaining a regular, predictable sleep routine, avoiding heavy foods and alcohol before sleep, and sleeping in a comfortable, cool environment. Alcohol consumption, caffeine consumption and heavy meals in the few hours before sleep can worsen shift work sleep disorders. Exercise in the three hours before sleep can make it difficult to fall asleep.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
ty708	why google+ has so much fewer users than facebook.	[ { "answer": "There's a concept called the \"network effect\". Basically, the more people you have using something, the more useful it becomes. To be dead simple, people use Facebook because their friends are on Facebook. Google+ didn't offer enough of a benefit to get people to move over en masse and without enough people moved over, you won't get people following their friends.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The answer to this can be very subjective.\n\nMy personal feeling is that they lost the momentum by keeping it invite-only for so long.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32242976", "title": "Google+", "section": "Section::::History.:Growth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 667, "text": "Google+'s user engagement was lower than that of its competitors; ComScore estimated that users averaged 3.3 minutes on the site in January 2012, and 7.5 hours on Facebook. In March 2013, average time spent on the site remained low: about 7 minutes, according to Nielsen, not including traffic from apps. In February 2014, \"The New York Times\" likened Google+ to a ghost town, citing Google's stated 540 million \"monthly active users\" and noting that almost half did not visit the site. The company replied that the significance of Google+ was less as a Facebook competitor than as a means of gathering and connecting user information from Google's various services.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9651444", "title": "G Suite", "section": "Section::::Reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 115, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 115, "end_character": 588, "text": "However, writing for \"The New York Times\", Quentin Hardy said that \"the sour grapes version is that Google Plus isn’t getting anything like the buzz or traffic of Facebook, so Google is figuring out other ways to make the service relevant\". However, Hardy did note that the integration between Google+ and other, more popular Google services, including Hangouts, meant \"it’s still early on, but it’s easy to see how this could be an efficient way to bring workers to a virtual meeting, collaborate during it and embed in a calendar the future work commitments and follow-up that result\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32242976", "title": "Google+", "section": "Section::::History.:Growth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 549, "text": "Assessments of Google+ growth have varied widely because Google first defined the service as a social network, then later as \"a social layer across all of Google's services\", allowing them to share a user's identity and interests. According to Ars Technica, Google+ signups were \"often just an incidental byproduct of signing up for other Google services.\" Consequently, the reported number of active users on Google+ grew significantly, but the average time users spent on the site was a small fraction of that on comparable social media services.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39452399", "title": "Investment in social media", "section": "Section::::Facebook's Acquisition of WhatsApp.:Rewards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 313, "text": "BULLET::::- Increased users - Facebook enjoys 1.23 billion monthly active users, of which 945 million of them regularly access Facebook from mobile devices. This, coupled with the fact that WhatsApp has over 450 million monthly users, certainly allows Facebook to grow its user base and in turn increase revenue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35930482", "title": "Initial public offering of Facebook", "section": "Section::::Preparation.:Valuation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 291, "text": "The Facebook IPO brought inevitable comparisons with other technology company offerings. Some investors expressed keen interest in Facebook because they felt they had missed out on the massive gains Google saw in the wake of its IPO. LinkedIn stock, meanwhile, had doubled on its first day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "610532", "title": "Peter Thiel", "section": "Section::::Career.:Facebook.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 269, "text": "In September 2010, Thiel, while expressing skepticism about the potential for growth in the consumer Internet sector, argued that relative to other Internet companies, Facebook (which then had a secondary market valuation of $30 billion) was comparatively undervalued.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7529378", "title": "Facebook", "section": "Section::::Reception.:User growth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 127, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 127, "end_character": 281, "text": "Facebook passed 100 million registered users in 2008, and 500 million in July 2010. According to the company's data at the July 2010 announcement, half of the site's membership used Facebook daily, for an average of 34 minutes, while 150 million users accessed the site by mobile.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
2v9kqr	Would a lower class soldier in a medieval army be rewarded or punished for killing a noble or royal?	[ { "answer": "There is no hard and fast answer to this question. Medieval warfare is difficult to define and as chaotic as warfare in any other era. Individual commanders had their own ideas about how to treat enemy combatants, or made decisions based on the circumstances.\n\nBefore he died Richard I pardoned Pierre Basile and according to some accounts even paid the boy a stipend. Basile was reportedly executed after Richard’s death by a mercenary.\n\nSticking with the English army the longbow was a weapon which would allow a peasant to kill a nobleman and this has been credited with producing an egalitarian spirit amongst the English ranks. Geoffrey the Baker reported Edward of Woodstock, the Prince of Wales, referring to his archers as “descended from the blood of… Kings of England…” ahead of the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 which is very high praise indeed. For fighting in close quarters, longbowmen might use a small sword or a hammer to enable them to pick out week spots in an enemy’s armour and reportedly after a battle they would be allowed to patrol the battlefield putting enemy soldiers out of their misery. In this sense there were no issues on the English side with a peasant killing noblemen and although there are reports of longbowmen being held in contempt by the French, this is probably more to do with their general effectiveness rather than their ability to stick it to the aristocracy.\n\nAs for taking prisoners there can be no doubt that an imprisoned nobleman is a valuable asset as long as the cost of housing and feeding them is not greater than the potential ransom. I have found no evidence that anyone in fear of their life would be expected to try and capture an enemy nobleman rather than kill them. At Agincourt in 1415, Henry V took the unusual step of having a large number of prisoners executed (possibly over a thousand), probably because he was concerned that they might be able to overwhelm his small army. It is reported that English knights refused the order and so a company of longbowman carried out the King’s wishes.\n\nAs /u/CopperRoyce has alluded to, a soldier’s fate is most likely to depend on whether he wins or loses the battle. I’m not aware of any soldier on the winning side being punished for killing an enemy nobleman and retributions against the losing side were always likely regardless of individual soldier’s actions.\n\nApologies for not being able to give a definitive answer, but hopefully this gives you an idea of the complexity of the subject, the wide variety in medieval warfare and the role that circumstance has in influencing commanders’ decisions. Hopefully there will be plenty of other answers from users familiar with other areas of medieval warfare.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In Japan, a commoner killing a high ranking enemy combatant was the number one most reliable way to rise up the ranks for hundreds of years and actually represented the main form of social mobility in Japanese society. \n\nThe tradition of cutting off the heads of a high ranking enemy that they had slain and subsequently bringing it back to show their own lord was fairly standard. They would then have been slowly elevated, with many peasants becoming part of the privileged samurai class. \n\nBeing elevated to a higher social position would also entail their associates, rising, with families becoming clans/houses and elevated far enough, they would have become lords in their own rights, with even extended family being elevated and forming subsidiary branch houses with their own vassals and holdings. \n\nThe entire system of rewards, identifying the kills, division of spoils, competition on the battlefield for heads and corpses, etc. is very extensive and grew organically to its peak during the Sengoku Period, where most soldiers in Japanese armies were semi professional commoners, all competing and constantly looking for high ranking samurai to behead and take home for a big payout. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30275656", "title": "Wars of the Roses", "section": "Section::::Armies and warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 185, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 185, "end_character": 598, "text": "It was often claimed that the nobles faced greater risks than the ordinary soldiers as there was little incentive for anyone to take prisoner any high-ranking noble during or immediately after a battle. During the Hundred Years' War against France, a captured noble would be able to ransom himself for a large sum but in the Wars of the Roses, a captured noble who belonged to a defeated faction had a high chance of being executed as a traitor. Forty-two captured knights were executed after the Battle of Towton. The Burgundian observer Philippe de Commines, who met Edward IV in 1470, reported,\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2048381", "title": "Golden Bull of 1222", "section": "Section::::Background.:Hungarian society.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 663, "text": "Initially, each freeman was required to serve in the royal army. Those who were unable to perform this duty were obliged to pay taxes in the 12th century. The majority of the castle warriors were unfree, but freemen could also choose to serve the \"ispáns\" (or heads) of the royal castles. They were to defend the royal castles and accompany the monarchs to their military campaigns in exchange for the parcels they held in royal lands around the castles. Free castle warriors could also retain their own estates. The highest ranking castle warriors started to refer to themselves as \"freemen\" or \"warriors of the holy kings\" to emphasize their privileged status.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "313007", "title": "Condottieri", "section": "Section::::Mercenary captains.:Decline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 553, "text": "The soldiers of the condottieri were almost entirely heavy armoured cavalry (men-at-arms). Before 1400, they had little or nothing in common with the people among whom they fought, and their disorderly conduct and rapacity seem often to have exceeded that of medieval armies. They were always ready to change sides at the prospect of higher pay – the enemy of today might be the comrade-in-arms of tomorrow. Further, a prisoner was always more valuable than a dead enemy. As a consequence, their battles were often as bloodless as they were theatrical.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35976135", "title": "Government of the Inca Empire", "section": "Section::::Laws.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 916, "text": "Individuals could only be judged by those of higher rank. Moreover, ones as one's rank increased, the latitude of behavior granted to them rose as well; punishments for acts by commoners against nobles were far more severe than for those by nobles against commoners. And yet there were also legal protections for commoners, despite their unequal legal standing. Soldiers who stole food could face capital punishment, as could their captains. Abusive or negligent officials likewise faced punishment. The sentencing of an individual to death rested only among the highest authorities: provincial governors, the \"apu\" of the four \"suyu\", and the Sapa Inca himself. The Incas did not have prisons. Instead capital punishment was used for offenses including murder, blasphemy, adultery, theft, laziness, second offenses in drunkenness and rebellion. Punishment for lesser crimes included blinding and cutting off limbs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5233799", "title": "Finnish nobility", "section": "Section::::Swedish nobility in Finland (between 1561 and 1809).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 496, "text": "However, the situation of the 16th century favored soldiers, because the kingdom was in almost constant external warfare and kings trusted their military officers much more than other nobles, also when building administrative machineries. Soldier nobility gained even some improvements to their position and wealth, whereas in general the noble class and its privileges were decreasing in importance during the harsh early Vasa kings. Soldier nobles from Finland benefited from this development.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20503", "title": "Medieval warfare", "section": "Section::::Organization.:Recruiting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 389, "text": "In the earliest Middle Ages it was the obligation of every noble to respond to the call to battle with his own equipment, archers, and infantry. This decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time, but could lead to motley forces with variable training, equipment and abilities. The more resources the noble had access to, the better his troops would typically be.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2949045", "title": "History of criminal justice", "section": "Section::::Pre-modern Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 904, "text": "During the Middle Ages, crime and punishment were dealt with through blood feuds (or trial by ordeal) between the parties. Payment to the victim (or their family), known as wergild, was another common punishment, including for violent crimes. For those who could not afford to buy their way out of punishment, harsh penalties included various forms of corporal punishment. These included mutilation, whipping, branding, and flogging, as well as execution. Västgötalagen specifies exactly how much to pay, if anything, depending on who was slain. The primary form of state-administered punishment during ancient times and the Middle Ages was banishment or exile. Though a prison, Le Stinche, existed as early as the 14th century in Florence, incarceration was not widely used until the 19th century. Rather, it was used to detain prisoners before trial or for imprisoning people without judicial process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
6qgxo8	why does dirt on my glasses always show as a perfect circle when my eyes don't focus on them?	[ { "answer": "That's an effect you get from point light sources (or shadows) being out of focus, and the shape is down to the shape of your own [pupil](_URL_0_). \n\nPhotographers use that same phenomenon in cameras, to artistic effect, and they call it \"Bokeh\". [As you can see](_URL_1_) in this picture, the camera this was taken on had a non-circular artificial 'pupil', or aperture, as it's called in photography-speak.\n\nThe aperture in the camera would've looked something like [this](_URL_2_) and if your eye's iris was that shape, you'd perceive that shape in out of focus dirt on your glasses. As it is, your pupil is circular, so you see circles. \n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "29767475", "title": "Flat lens", "section": "Section::::Traditional lenses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 457, "text": "Traditional curved glass lenses can bend light coming from many angles to end up at the same focal point on a piece of photographic film or an electronic sensor. Light captured at the very edges of a curved glass lens does not line up correctly with the rest of the light, creating a fuzzy image at the edge of the frame. (Petzval field curvature and other aberrations.) To correct this, lenses use extra pieces of glass, adding bulk, complexity, and mass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3876069", "title": "Fresnel lantern", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 887, "text": "The distinctive lens has a 'stepped' appearance instead of the 'full' or 'smooth' appearance of other lenses. This allows the lens to have a much greater curvature than would otherwise be practical. The lens focuses the light by tilting each ring of glass slightly more towards the center as the distance is increased from the center of the lens. If the glass were completely flat, this would cause a corresponding pattern of circles of light, so Fresnel lenses are usually stippled on the flat side. This pattern of small bumps helps to break up the light passing through the lens and gives Fresnels their characteristic soft beam. This means that the intensity of the light is consistent across the spread of the beam of light, as opposed to being less intense around the edges as in an ERS. The stepped lens design causes less heat buildup than a plano-convex lens of the same angle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6142588", "title": "Glass disease", "section": "Section::::Stages of deterioration.:Stage One.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 208, "text": "The initial stage of glass disease occurs when moisture causes alkali to be leached out of the glass. This becomes apparent when hygroscopic alkali deposits on the glass give it a cloudy or hazy appearance. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58036017", "title": "Veiling glare", "section": "Section::::Factors and design techniques.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 287, "text": "Light strays or scatters in lenses due to many potential factors in design and operation. These factors include dirt, film, or scratches on lens surfaces; reflections from lens surfaces or their mounts; and the slightly imperfect transparency (or reflection) of real glass (or mirrors).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "168430", "title": "Circle of confusion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 246, "text": "In optics, a circle of confusion is an optical spot caused by a cone of light rays from a lens not coming to a perfect focus when imaging a point source. It is also known as disk of confusion, circle of indistinctness, blur circle, or blur spot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2942638", "title": "Gloss (optics)", "section": "Section::::Theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 521, "text": "Variations in surface texture directly influence the level of specular reflection. Objects with a smooth surface, i.e. highly polished or containing coatings with finely dispersed pigments, appear shiny to the eye due to a large amount of light being reflected in a specular direction whilst rough surfaces reflect no specular light as the light is scattered in other directions and therefore appears dull. The image forming qualities of these surfaces are much lower making any reflections appear blurred and distorted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18320", "title": "Lens (optics)", "section": "Section::::Aberrations.:Spherical aberration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 922, "text": "\"Spherical aberration\" occurs because spherical surfaces are not the ideal shape for a lens, but are by far the simplest shape to which glass can be ground and polished, and so are often used. Spherical aberration causes beams parallel to, but distant from, the lens axis to be focused in a slightly different place than beams close to the axis. This manifests itself as a blurring of the image. Lenses in which closer-to-ideal, non-spherical surfaces are used are called \"aspheric\" lenses. These were formerly complex to make and often extremely expensive, but advances in technology have greatly reduced the manufacturing cost for such lenses. Spherical aberration can be minimised by carefully choosing the surface curvatures for a particular application. For instance, a plano-convex lens, which is used to focus a collimated beam, produces a sharper focal spot when used with the convex side towards the beam source.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
dyuk4h	What happened to people whose homes were bombed in WWII?	[ { "answer": "A couple of years ago I recorded some oral interviews with people who'd survived the Hull Blitz as children. I can give you an answer from their perspective although it has to be remembered that Hull was a densely populated city full of terraces (houses built in rows) filled with workers from the fish, chemical and lumber trades that characterised that port city in the 1930s. 95% of Hull's 195,000 houses were damaged or destroyed during the war, it was the worst-hit city outside London, largely due to the importance of the immense docklands along the south of the city and the large-scale chemical works up the central River Hull.\n\nEach of the interviewees who talked about their house being destroyed or heavily damaged explained that they simply moved to another or that they moved in with relatives. This was before the age when home ownership was common so they would be in rented houses. Their landlord would move them to another house. Sometimes that meant moving in with another family although houses were becoming empty through both 'normal' causes and wartime events.\n\nFor families like the ones in Hull there was little recognisable wealth in their houses. There was likely no family silver to be lost and no expensive artwork. There may have been valuable candelabras in some houses (Hull still had a thriving Jewish population at that time) but I didn't speak to any such families - I'd presume that such items would be hidden, buried, or stored elsewhere for safekeeping.\n\nIn general the greatest loss would be items of a sentimental value and, of course, the things required for day-to-day life like clothing, bedding, crockery and utensils and (most importantly for winning a war) a kettle and teapot. Families might return to their bombed house to try to recover items or they could purchase/borrow/receive items from stores of items retrieved from other bomb-sites. Compensation for damages was available although this scheme didn't take hold until later in the war, was difficult to access for \"normal\" families and principally benefited bricks-and-mortar owners rather than tenants.\n\nOne thing that struck me was how families simply got on with their lives, work and school. Living in an age of personal ownership and high material consumption the idea that people could so easily get up and move on to \"new\" belongings and lodgings felt alien to me. Some described that in different ways: \"I knew me father had it worse than me, he was on the ships looking for the Germans\", \"I had me mam and that was all I needed. I'd only ever worn me brother's trousers anyway\", \"You just get on don't you?\".\n\n & #x200B;\n\nReferences:\n\nThere are still many resources from the UntoldHull project available online at [_URL_2_](_URL_0_), they may help you find further answers to your questions.\n\n[Documents from the War Damages commission](_URL_1_) are available at the National Archives.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In Britain insurance did not cover bomb damage. Though Lloyd's had insured against Zeppelin (and other aircraft) attack during the First World War the increase in destructive potential of bombers between the wars led to fears of a \"knock-out blow\", a massive, devastating bombing attack using explosive, incendiary and poison gas bombs to cause such catastrophic damage as to render a country unable to fight. Such fears led to insurance companies excluding war damage from 1937; the government announced, prior to the declaration of hostilities, that it would pay compensation for buildings, furniture and clothing, but due to the pre-war estimates of catastrophic levels of damage and the more pressing requirement to prosecute the war the precise terms of compensation were left for post-war settlement.\n\nThe Blitz, though awful, proved to be less destructive than feared. With no obvious end to the war in sight and people in desperate need for assistance the chancellor first agreed to make advanced payments of compensation to families with an income of less than £400 per year then introduced a War Damages Bill in 1940, a collective scheme of insurance in which all property owners paid a premium to cover compensation. \n\nAround two thirds of people did not own their own homes, so property insurance was not an immediate concern for many rendered homeless, and outright destruction of houses was comparatively rare; in the first six weeks of attacks around 16,000 houses were destroyed, 60,000 seriously damaged but repairable, and 130,000 slightly damaged. Unexploded bombs also forced many houses to be evacuated, with over 3,000 UXBs by the end of November 1940 awaiting disposal. Repair of damaged houses was therefore a priority, with empty houses requisitioned for those who required rehoming. \n\nThere was compensation for possessions, but only \"essentials\" - furniture, clothing, tools that were vital for employment. Luxuries were not covered, though what constituted a luxury for one may have been essential to another - a music teacher's piano, for example - so judgements were made by the Assistance Board who administered compensation schemes. This could be an area of friction as the Board was established in 1934 as the Unemployment Assistance Board and its officers \"had not been trained to develop skill in the treatment of applicants\" with the shift to dealing with bombed-out civilians and \"When they erred in the interpretation of instructions, they usually erred on the side of parsimony.\" (Problems of Social Policy, Richard M. Titmuss)\n\nInevitably not all claims were genuine; Joshua Levine's Secret History of the Blitz notes the case of Wallace Handy who, in 1940/41, made no less than 19 applications for the £500 lump sum awarded to those who had lost their homes. He was sentenced to three years imprisonment with hard labour, but many smaller scale claims doubtless were made - Levine also quotes Mary Brown who staffed an emergency assistance centre, where they had details of the exact location of bomb damage:\n\"Somebody would say 'I was bombed out last night.' \nI'd say, 'Where did you live, dear?' \nShe'd say wherever it was. \nI'd say, 'Well, that was at least five streets away from where it happened, wasn't it?' \n'Oh, well, I got me windows blown in!' \n'That's not quite the same...'\"\n\nThe [War Damages Bill](_URL_0_) was passed in 1941 and ultimately some 4 million claims were made under the resulting Act, payments totalling more than £1,300 million and continuing [into the 1960s](_URL_1_).\n\n\nFurther reading: \nBritain's War: Into Battle, 1937-1941, Daniel Todman \nThe People's War: Britain, 1939-1945, Angus Calder \nThe Bombing War: Europe 1939-1945, Richard Overy", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1224312", "title": "Whitton, London", "section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 513, "text": "A number of houses were damaged by enemy bombing in the early years of the Second World War. Before 1944, 86 Hounslow Road received a direct hit from a German bomb and was badly damaged, though not destroyed. In June 1944, 81 High Street received a direct hit from a V1 flying bomb. Part of the parade of shops and the flats above were totally destroyed and several people were killed. Around the same time, a house on Lincoln Avenue was also destroyed by a V1 and several adjoining houses were severely damaged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2607823", "title": "Brilon", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 360, "text": "In World War II the town was initially spared from Allied air raids. But on 10 January 1944 there came an attack by American bombers which destroyed whole streets, particularly \"Hoppecker Strasse\" and \"Derkere Mauer\". A bomb broke through the roof of the Provost's Church but did not explode. In this bombing raid 37 people were killed, including 13 children.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34361", "title": "York", "section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 376, "text": "In 1942, the city was bombed during the Second World War (part of the Baedeker Blitz) by the German Luftwaffe and 92 people were killed and hundreds injured. Buildings damaged in the raid included the Railway Station, Rowntree's Factory, Poppleton Road Primary School, St Martin-le-Grand Church, the Bar Convent and the Guildhall which was left in total disrepair until 1960.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1200028", "title": "Bombsite", "section": "Section::::World War II bombsites.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 448, "text": "After World War II many European cities remained severely damaged from bombing. London and other British cities which had suffered the Blitz were pock-marked with bombsites, vacant lots covered in the rubble of destroyed buildings. Many postwar children in urban areas shared a common memory of playing their games and riding their bicycles across these desolate environments. There were often abandoned bombshelters of the 'Anderson' type nearby.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48274", "title": "Canterbury", "section": "Section::::History.:18th century–present.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 987, "text": "During the Second World War, 10,445 bombs dropped during 135 separate raids destroyed 731 homes and 296 other buildings in the city, including the missionary college and Simon Langton Girls' Grammar Schools. 119 civilian lives were lost through enemy action in the borough. The most devastating raid was on 1 June 1942 during the Baedeker Blitz. On that day alone, 43 people were killed and nearly 100 sustained wounds. Some 800 buildings were destroyed with 1,000 seriously damaged. Although its library was destroyed, the cathedral did not sustain extensive bomb damage and the local Fire Wardens doused any flames on the wooden roof. On 31 October 1942, the \"Luftwaffe\" made a further raid on Canterbury when thirty Focke-Wulf fighter-bombers, supported by sixty fighter escorts, launched a low-level raid on Canterbury. Civilians were strafed and bombed throughout the city resulting in twenty-eight bombs dropped and 30 people killed. Three German planes were shot down by the RAF.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7422273", "title": "Bombing of Nagoya in World War II", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 323, "text": "Also during the winter of 1944 and spring of 1945 there were random single-bomber attacks that were used as psychological warfare to disrupt the city and damage the morale of the citizens. It is estimated that 113,460 buildings were destroyed during the raids, with 3,866 people killed and 471,701 driven from their homes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "275239", "title": "Tipton", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 890, "text": "During the Second World War (1939–1945), there were a number of air raids on the town. On 19 November 1940, three people were killed by a Luftwaffe bomb which was dropped in Bloomfield Road and destroyed several buildings including the Star public house; it was rebuilt after the war but demolished in 1996. Just before Christmas in 1940, an anti-aircraft shell fired from the hills at Rowley Regis fell down the chimney of the Boat Inn, Dudley Road East, Tividale; fatally injuring 12 people at a wedding reception (including the bride, while the groom lost both legs) as well as the resident of an adjacent house. On 17 May 1941, six people died in an air raid in New Road, Great Bridge. Tipton Tavern and New Road Methodist Church were destroyed and a number of nearby houses were damaged. Tipton Tavern landlord Roger Preece was trapped in the rubble but survived with minor injuries. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1nxsca	eli 5: why does my iphone get slower each time a new iphone or software update comes out?	[ { "answer": "Because each new update uses more and more power that your phone does not have. They do this A: to advance technology and compete with other companies and B: to make you feel like your phone is slow so you go buy another", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8841749", "title": "IPhone", "section": "Section::::History and availability.:Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 286, "text": "In December 2017, there were reports that Apple has been using a policy of slowing down the speed of its older iPhones when issuing operating system upgrades. It has spurred allegations that the firm has been using this as a tactic to prompt users of older iPhones to buy newer models.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50696877", "title": "IOS 10", "section": "Section::::Problems.:Battery shutdowns.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 166, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 166, "end_character": 857, "text": "With iOS 10.2.1, Apple made improvements to reduce occurrences of unexpected shutdowns that a small number of users were experiencing with their iPhone. iOS 10.2.1 already has over 50% of active iOS devices upgraded and the diagnostic data we've received from upgraders shows that for this small percentage of users experiencing the issue, we're seeing a more than 80% reduction in iPhone 6s and over 70% reduction on iPhone 6 of devices unexpectedly shutting down. We also added the ability for the phone to restart without needing to connect to power, if a user still encounters an unexpected shutdown. It is important to note that these unexpected shutdowns are not a safety issue, but we understand it can be an inconvenience and wanted to fix the issue as quickly as possible. If a customer has any issues with their device they can contact AppleCare.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60729516", "title": "IOS 13", "section": "Section::::System features.:Performance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 301, "text": "Several improvements to performance in iOS13 were implemented. Face ID on the iPhone X, XS / XS Max, and iPhone XR now unlocks the devices up to 30percent faster than it does on iOS12. App downloads will be up to 50percent smaller due to a new format, and app updates will be up to 60percent smaller.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36109560", "title": "IOS 6", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 569, "text": "Reception of iOS 6 was positive. Critics noted that the operating system did not offer any significant speed improvements or major redesigned elements, but instead focused on refinements, with a general consensus that Apple \"isn't overhauling things for the sake of it\". iOS 6 didn't \"completely change the way you use your device\", but \"each of the tweaks [...] will make many daily smartphone actions easier across the board\", and critics noted that refinement of \"something that already works extremely well\" is \"something other companies would do well to emulate\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16280492", "title": "SpringBoard", "section": "Section::::Bugs.:12:15 AM bug.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 403, "text": "Since the release of iOS 11, some users were complaining about random reboots on their iPhone or iPod Touch caused by the clock reaching 12:15 AM each morning. This resulted in Apple trying to fix this update in the iOS 11.2 update, but instead made it worse by adding the 12:15 PM bug, which made the iOS device reboot at 12:15 PM and AM. This bug was fixed with the re-release of the iOS 11.2 update.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33184007", "title": "Cannibalization (marketing)", "section": "Section::::Risks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 849, "text": "Apple cannibalized their own sales of the iPad when the iPhone 6 was released in September 2014 (Apple Corporation, 2014). According to a Forbes article, shipment of iPads was down 23% since the announcement of the iPhone 6. This is due to the new product (the iPhone) being large enough to have a lot of the features of the iPad without being as large making the iPad outdated and irrelevant (Marko, 2015). While the iPhone shipped massive amounts of product, the iPad never recovered to its previous sales plateau. Overall, this is a positive effect as turnover of new products allows company to get old users to spend money and keeps their products current which is very important in technology related fields. This is still an example of Apple betting sales of the old product to get higher sales on a new product in this case it was a success.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12610483", "title": "Android (operating system)", "section": "Section::::Development.:Update schedule.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 919, "text": "Compared to its primary rival mobile operating system, Apple's iOS, Android updates typically reach various devices with significant delays. Except for devices within the Google Nexus and Pixel brands, updates often arrive months after the release of the new version, or not at all. This was partly due to the extensive variation in hardware in Android devices, to which each upgrade must be specifically tailored, a time- and resource-consuming process. Manufacturers often prioritize their newest devices and leave old ones behind. Additional delays can be introduced by wireless carriers that, after receiving updates from manufacturers, further customize and brand Android to their needs and conduct extensive testing on their networks before sending the upgrade out to users. There are also situations in which upgrades are not possible due to one manufacturing partner not providing necessary updates to drivers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
dk3pex	How Did the Myth Surrounding the Boston Tea Party Start?	[ { "answer": "This is a truly interesting question! \n\nBackground:\n\nFirst, to verify what you said, The Boston Tea Party was a response to a tax being lifted off of tea, not a new tax that was imposed on it. American Colonists had been paying taxes on tea for years before the Boston Tea Party happened. [When the Townsend Acts were put into effect in 1767, it taxed tea and many other imports](_URL_0_). Colonists revolted, and most of the taxes were lifted except for the tax on tea. However, this really didn't matter to most colonists. Why? Because many colonists couldn't afford tea nor did they want to drink it. So for years, tea remained a taxable item and Americans largely accepted it. It simply wasn't worth fighting over it when there were many more pressing issues. Plus, smugglers began working their way around the system by sneaking in tea from foreign ports (which was incredibly illegal), such as Holland (where much of the smuggled tea came from), enabling them to sell their tea without a tax on it. However, all of this would change in 1773.\n\nIn May of 1773, the British Parliament decided to help the British East India Company -- one of the two largest corporations of its day -- with a piece of legislation. It was [known as the Tea Act](_URL_3_) and it was designed to help boost the sales of the financially-struggling East India Company which had massive stores of tea. The Tea Act, as you might have guessed, eliminated tax on the EIC’s tea, and *only* the EIC’s tea, enabling them to sell their tea at a lower price than the other competition. It also gave them several other advantages that no other businesses were granted. This infuriated the colonists, to say the least. Robert J. Allison explains some of their fury much better than I can, so check out this excerpt from his book below:\n\n > [The \"Day is at length arrived,\" a committee of Philadelphia merchants declared when they learned of the Tea Act, \"in which we must determine to live as Freeman--or as Slaves to linger out a miserable existence.\" The Tea Act would make Americans subservient to the \"corrupt and designing Ministry\" and change their \"invaluable Title of American Freemen to that of Slaves.\" Americans must not give Parliament the power to control their lives. The Philadelphians insisted that no tea be landed.](_URL_4_)\n\nAt first, the rejection of the tax was simple. Ports across America, including those in Boston, Annapolis, Philadelphia and many more, simply refused to unload imported tea. But this created tension between merchants, customers, officials, representatives from the British East India Company, and, of course, the American population themselves. And when these officials started to really push for the unloading of their imported tea, well, the colonists in Boston took matters into their own hands. \n\nThe citizens of Boston had grown tired of the British being in their city and the local gentry were ready to start capitalizing on their frustrations. They organized and decided they would storm the British East India Company ship that was in their harbor and destroy the tea. On December 17th, 1773, they did just that. They dressed up like Native Americans (most likely intended to have a more comedic or satirical effect) and destroyed a massive amount of tea -worth over $3.5 million in today's currency. The effects were echoed throughout the colonies. Soon, cities everywhere would be following through with similar tea parties and infuriating British businessmen and politicians across the ocean. The losses of the tea in Boston also directly led to the British sending more military units to the city when the British government decided they wanted to tighten their grip around Boston.\n\nSome leaders, like John Adams (a Boston Native), immediately wrote in praise of the Tea Party the very next day:\n\n > [This is the most magnificent Movement of all. There is a Dignity, a Majesty, a Sublimity, in this last Effort of the Patriots, that I greatly admire. The People should never rise, without doing something to be remembered—something notable And striking. This Destruction of the Tea is so bold, so daring, so firm, intrepid and inflexible, and it must have so important Consequences, and so lasting, that I cant but consider it as an Epocha in History.](_URL_2_)\n\nThe consequences that he spoke of were farther reaching than he probably could have imagined. Newspapers, like the Boston Gazette, favorably reported on the Tea Party and soon, all across America, Tea Parties were repeated in Philadelphia, Charleston, and many other American cities.\n\nWhy it's remembered differently:\n\nThis is a question that historians have asked for quite some time. The problem, overwhelmingly has to do with the rise of public education in America, especially in the early 1900s. The issues seem to be linked to early school textbooks that were printed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Strangely, the story seems to have changed in popular memory from 1773 to 1900, where the outrage expressed from a tax being lifted off tea to empower a corporation, simply changed to outrage over taxes. I think there's several reasons this likely happened.\n\nFirst, the actual context of the issue itself is complicated. As you can see from the first part of my answer, the subject isn't easily explained. I also think that it was easier for early authors, who were more concerned over writing history to reflect the morals of the time instead of historical accuracy, found it much easier to describe the tea party as a revolt against taxes than explaining that it was about pushing back against governments favoring corporations. This similar type of misremembering history isn't new in America. [Parson/Mason Weem](_URL_1_)'s biography of George Washington, published just after Washington's death, is an early example of authors changing or simply inventing history to match up with their overall goals of their day.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14856988", "title": "History of public relations", "section": "Section::::Antecedents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 796, "text": "The Boston Tea Party has been called a \"public relations event\" or pseudo event in that it was a staged event intended to influence the public. Pamphlets such as \"Common Sense\" (1775–76) and \"The American Crisis\" (1776 to 1783) were used to spread anti-British propaganda in the United States, as well as the slogan \"taxation without representation is tyranny.\" After the revolution was won, disagreements broke out regarding the United States Constitution. Supporters of the constitution sent letters now called the Federalist Papers to major news outlets, which helped persuade the public to support the constitution. Exaggerated stories of Davy Crocket and the California Gold Rush were used to persuade the public to fight the war against Mexico and to migrate west in the U.S. respectively.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4608353", "title": "Boston Tea Party", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 385, "text": "They boarded the ships and threw the chests of tea into the Boston Harbor. The British government responded harshly and the episode escalated into the American Revolution. The Tea Party became an iconic event of American history, and since then other political protests such as the Tea Party movement have referred to themselves as historical successors to the Boston protest of 1773.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4608353", "title": "Boston Tea Party", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 593, "text": "According to historian Alfred Young, the term \"Boston Tea Party\" did not appear in print until 1834. Before that time, the event was usually referred to as the \"destruction of the tea\". According to Young, American writers were for many years apparently reluctant to celebrate the destruction of property, and so the event was usually ignored in histories of the American Revolution. This began to change in the 1830s, however, especially with the publication of biographies of George Robert Twelves Hewes, one of the few still-living participants of the \"tea party\", as it then became known.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4608353", "title": "Boston Tea Party", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 412, "text": "The Boston Tea Party arose from two issues confronting the British Empire in 1765: the financial problems of the British East India Company; and an ongoing dispute about the extent of Parliament's authority, if any, over the British American colonies without seating any elected representation. The North Ministry's attempt to resolve these issues produced a showdown that would eventually result in revolution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12255114", "title": "History of taxation in the United States", "section": "Section::::Stamp Act.:Boston Tea Party.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 361, "text": "The Boston Tea Party was an act of protest by the American colonists against Great Britain for the Tea Act in which they dumped many chests of tea into Boston Harbor. The cuts to taxation on tea undermined American smugglers, who destroyed the tea in retaliation for its exemption from taxes. Britain reacted harshly, and the conflict escalated to war in 1775.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22754875", "title": "Tea Party movement", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 396, "text": "The movement's name refers to the Boston Tea Party of December 16, 1773, a watershed event in the launch of the American Revolution. The 1773 event demonstrated against taxation by the British government without political representation for the American colonists, and references to the Boston Tea Party and even costumes from the 1770s era are commonly heard and seen in the Tea Party movement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22754875", "title": "Tea Party movement", "section": "Section::::History.:Background.:Commentaries on origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 1094, "text": "Fox News Channel commentator Juan Williams has said that the Tea Party movement emerged from the \"ashes\" of Ron Paul's 2008 presidential primary campaign. Indeed, Ron Paul has stated that its origin was on December 16, 2007, when supporters held a 24-hour record breaking, \"moneybomb\" fundraising event on the Boston Tea Party's 234th anniversary, but that others, including Republicans, took over and changed some of the movement's core beliefs. Writing for Slate.com, Dave Weigel has argued in concurrence that, in his view, the \"first modern Tea Party events occurred in December 2007, long before Barack Obama took office, and they were organized by supporters of Rep. Ron Paul,\" with the movement expanding and gaining prominence in 2009. Barack Obama, the first African American President of the United States, took office in January 2009. Journalist Joshua Green has stated in \"The Atlantic\" that while Ron Paul is not the Tea Party's founder, or its culturally resonant figure, he has become the \"intellectual godfather\" of the movement since many now agree with his long-held beliefs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
45yyap	standard shift... why does shifting into second gear before first make going into first gear easier?	[ { "answer": "It won't if the gearbox isn't worn. \n\nIn the gearbox is a mechanism called the [synchromesh](_URL_0_). This brings the gears you're going to engage together up to the same speed before allowing them to slide together. \n\nThe synchromesh has things called baulk rings which prevent the gears sliding into place if they're not up to speed. \n\nWhen the synchromesh is worn the gears can't readily get up to speed, and the baulk rings won't retract. You can help things along by shifting into another gear first which sets the whole pack of gear spinning, saving the worn synchromesh from having to work so hard.\n\nThe synchro is often the first part of a box to wear out because many drivers lack the mechanical sympathy to wait for the synchro to do its job and jamming the lever into place regardless. \"Beating the synchro\" knackers boxes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What car is this? It's possible 1st gear is unsynchronized as a cost cutting measure. It's pretty rare to shift into 1st while moving, so a cheap car could get away with it. Reverse is almost never synchronized, since you always change into reverse from a stop, and thus the output shaft of your transmission is not spinning.\n\nSynchronized transmissions, have an intermediary gear that makes up the synchromesh. It's purpose is to aid in accelerating the gear you are shifting into, up to the same shaft speed as the output shaft on your transmission. Since it's synchronized, you don't have to double clutch and perfectly rev-match the engine RPMs every time you shift.\n\nYour difficulty in getting reverse into gear, is that it does not have a synchromesh. You are literately sliding toothed gears into each other, and depending on the angular location of the transmission's output shaft gear, the open spots in the gears may not line up. Since 4th gear is synchronized, it can easily slide in, and set up the shaft to be lined up for reverse gear potentially.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31758972", "title": "Simpson planetary gearset", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Gear changing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 696, "text": "Another problem of changing from first to second gear is that two bands must actuate in synchronism: the planet support of the second gearset must release at the same time as the sun band is actuated. As a result, this is a gear change that tends to be rougher than the others, where just one band is released or actuated. This also means more wear in auto box parts. This is solved by the use of one-way overrun clutches which allow one or more components to \"free wheel\" when the transmission shifts into a higher gear. GM's Turbo Hydra-Matic 350 and 400 transmissions utilized overrun clutches in both the low and intermediate gears, allowing for fully progressive shifting with no \"overlap\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "622145", "title": "Manual transmission", "section": "Section::::Internals.:Reverse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 885, "text": "Attempting to select reverse while the vehicle is moving forward causes severe gear wear (except in transmissions with synchromesh on the reverse gear). However, most manual transmissions have a gate that locks out reverse directly from 5th gear to help prevent this. In order to engage reverse from 5th, the shift lever has to be moved to the center position between 3rd and 4th, then back over and into reverse. Another widespread solution places reverse to the left of 1st gear, instead of behind the 5th (where one might expect to find a 6th gear). Many newer six-speed manual transmissions have a collar under the shift knob which must be lifted to engage reverse. Other reverse lockout designs include having to push the shift lever inward, toward the floor, to allow engagement of reverse, or requiring the driver to exert additional force to move the shift lever into reverse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6168576", "title": "Shift time", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 672, "text": "Shift time refers to the time interval between gear changes in a transmission. This interval is the time in which power delivery is interrupted and engine speed is reduced or increased to synchronize speed for the next selected gear. Shift time is usually in reference to motor vehicles but can apply to any gearbox. Reducing shift time is important in performance vehicles or race cars because the shifting process generally interrupts power delivery to the wheels. Shift time in a manual gearbox is dependent on the driver, but in automatic or semi-automatic cars the electronic or hydraulic control mechanism must be calibrated and tuned to deliver a fast gear change.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5033135", "title": "Gear stick", "section": "Section::::Shift pattern.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 420, "text": "The shift pattern refers to the layout of the gears. In a typical manual transmission car, first gear is located to the left, and forwards. In many trucks and some sports cars it is instead in a \"dog leg\" position, to the left and rearwards. There is usually a spring-loading to return the stick to the central position. Reverse gear is commonly positioned in the best choice of location to avoid accidental engagement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "622145", "title": "Manual transmission", "section": "Section::::Gear shift types.:Short shifter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 110, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 110, "end_character": 624, "text": "The purpose of the modification is to mechanically reduce time between the changing of gears while accelerating or decelerating, thus improving the automobiles' performance. The modification of the existing stick shift, also known as a manual gear stick, can take two forms: either the physical shortening of the existing stick shift, known in the industry as 'chopping', or bending. By reducing the length of the stick shift, the distance it must travel to change gears is effectively reduced, thus reducing the time spent shifting. At the same time, the amount of force required to shift increases due to a shorter lever.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14983438", "title": "Short shifting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 428, "text": "In racing, short shifting is a technique intended to avoid losing valuable acceleration time changing gears later. Although this means not being able to accelerate using the engine's peak power at the moment of the gear change, total acceleration over time may be greater as no acceleration can happen during the gear change. This can aid overtaking by ensuring that the car is in the right gear in anticipation of a manoeuvre.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14983438", "title": "Short shifting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 345, "text": "Short shifting is a driving technique in which the gear is changed up before reaching maximum engine rpm or, more precisely, the acceleration optimized rpm shift-point. By short shifting, the engine does not reach its power band, and therefore maximum vehicle acceleration is not attained for the gear from which the short shift was performed. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
5wotm2	why can the potus be caught blatantly lying, red handed, time after time, without any consequences.	[ { "answer": "Rs have the executive, legislative and soon the supreme court. They can do nearly anything they want for at least 2 years", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because (last I checked) lying isn't a crime. Well.. lying under oath is, but President Trump is not under oath and the only people who could try him in any case is Congress.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When you hold the people that are covering for him responsible. \n\nThat would be your state's senators and representatives. If they don't hold the president accountable, vote them out of office and elect someone who will.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Lying isn't illegal. The only consequences are that people stop trusting him, and won't elect him. \n\nHowever, people who are accustomed to being lied to constantly and eat bullshit for breakfast like religious folks, Fox news viewers, etc. have a shaky view of trust and will apparently elect anyone they are told to.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1. There are consequences of his lying, some of them quite severe. However, they are just not criminal/legal.\n\n2. There is no \"moral judge\" that presides over the POTUS. Until he does something illegal such as lying under oath, the only consequence is for the public to reflect upon why they've elected such a person.\n\n3. I know this is cynical and I will get down-voted for this comment but here it goes. Everyone lies, leaders lie, presidents lie. There have been times when lying has had disastrous effects/consequences. WWII is rife with these examples. The current POTUS has greatly damaged relations with multiple groups of people. Whether or not you view this as a severe consequence depends on: A) Whether or not you support his views and B) How resolute are you about A).\n\nI did not vote for Trump and I am not defending him as a person. However, the POTUS is the leader of my country, so I try to challenge our opposing views not because the President deserves it, but our country deserves it even if the President is a dickbag.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Congress is about the only branch that can really punish the President in any meaningful way, by either passing legislation to limit his powers, or by impeachment. To pass legislation against him though is going to take 2/3 on Congress to agree because the President will just veto anything that limits his powers. \n\nSimilar for impeachment, it is going to take half of the house of Representatives to vote yes before the Senate will see it. Once the Senate takes it to a vote, it will require 2/3 of the Senators to agree.\n\nBut Congress is controlled by the Republicans, and they aren't going to put any real pressure on Trump until he either negatively effects their political/business/states/personal affairs, or until their constituents put enough pressure on them. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Supreme Court has ruled on this and basically said that due to the nature of what constitutes a fact and the burden of proof to prove intent, politicians cannot be held to a scientific standard of \"truth,\" or be punished for things like mistakenly misquoting numbers since studies could disagree or later be proven false \n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "647880", "title": "Ramzan Kadyrov", "section": "Section::::Social media.:WhatsApp lecture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 242, "text": "\"Lock them in, do not let them go out, and they will not post anything\", Mr. Kadyrov said in a video to a sheepish group of men and women who kept their arms folded across their chests and their eyes firmly on the ground during the harangue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2488543", "title": "Infamy", "section": "Section::::In canon law.:Infamy of fact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 431, "text": "\"Infamy of fact\" is the result of a widespread opinion, by which the community attributes some unusually serious delinquency, such as adultery or the like, to a person. This is more of an unfitness than an irregularity properly so called, unless sentence in court has been pronounced. It ceases therefore when one has shown by a change of life extending over a period of two or probably three years that his repentance is sincere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "331368", "title": "Johnnie Cochran", "section": "Section::::Clients.:O. J. Simpson.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 489, "text": "During closing arguments in the Simpson trial, Cochran uttered the now famous phrase, \"If it doesn't fit, you must acquit.\" He used the phrase, which had been devised by fellow defense team member Gerald Uelmen, as a way to try to persuade the jury that Simpson could not have murdered Nicole Brown Simpson nor Ron Goldman. In a dramatic scene, Simpson appeared to have difficulty getting the glove on; stained with blood of both victims and Simpson, it had been found at the crime scene.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30470133", "title": "Sweet v Parsley", "section": "Section::::Requirement of \"mens rea\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 545, "text": ". . . there has for centuries been a presumption that Parliament did not intend to make criminals of persons who were in no way blameworthy in what they did. That means that whenever a section is silent as to \"mens rea\" there is a presumption that, in order to give effect to the will of Parliament, we must read in words appropriate to require \"mens rea\". . . . it is firmly established by a host of authorities that \"mens rea\" is an essential ingredient of every offence unless some reason can be found for holding that that is not necessary.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21606500", "title": "Laburnum Grove", "section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 232, "text": "To rid himself of his sponging relatives a man tells them he is really a forger which causes them to leave. His wife believes he is joking, but he has in fact allowed the truth to slip out and now he is in danger of being arrested.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1705214", "title": "Tzaraath", "section": "Section::::Mishnah.:Patches of the skin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 369, "text": "If someone cuts off some skin or a part of his body to remove a \"negah\", he becomes impure, even if he had no confirming signs. He may become pure only after another \"negah\" forms. The exception is when a \"negah\" appears on the tip of the foreskin and is cut off during circumcision, which is permitted, because a positive commandment overrides a negative commandment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "92399", "title": "Impetigo", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Bullous impetigo.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 270, "text": "Bullous impetigo, mainly seen in children younger than 2 years, involves painless, fluid-filled blisters, mostly on the arms, legs, and trunk, surrounded by red and itchy (but not sore) skin. The blisters may be large or small. After they break, they form yellow scabs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
3nrkwc	Are there any materials that exist at a Plasma Phase at the same Temp/Pressure that any other material is a Solid?	[ { "answer": "There's a field of research called plasmonics. Sounds a little bit like plasma, but it's actually about metals. What do metals have in common with plasmas? A plasma is just a neutral gas of charged particles. A metal consists of some positive ions and of electrons free to move around. So it's quite like a plasma, and it is helpful to treat it as such when the goal is to study optical properties of metals.\n\nMetals are solids that are very plasma-like. I'm sure it's not the answer you're looking for, but maybe you'll find that interesting.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a technique called [plasma cleaning](_URL_1_) where a plasma and a solid are allowed to interact, and it is very useful for removing impurities from the solid. If you ionize a gas, it takes a bit of time for the ions to recombine. So continuous ionization of a gas can produce a steady state plasma at reasonable temperatures. This is happening inside a [fluorescent bulb or in a neon lamp](_URL_0_) as well, so you have a plasma and the glass wall existing side by side in that case.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18395236", "title": "Acoustic microscopy", "section": "Section::::Scanning process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 508, "text": "If both materials are typical solids, the degree of reflection will be moderate, and a significant portion of the pulse will travel deeper into the sample, where it may be in part reflected by deeper material interfaces. If one of the materials is a gas such as air – as in the case with delaminations, cracks and voids – the degree of reflection at the solid-to-gas interface is near 100%, the amplitude of the reflected pulse is very high, and practically none of the pulse travels deeper into the sample.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13268473", "title": "HAZMAT Class 5 Oxidizing agents and organic peroxides", "section": "Section::::Divisions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 309, "text": "BULLET::::2. A liquid material is classed as a Division 5.1 material if, when tested in accordance with the UN Manual of Tests and Criteria, it spontaneously ignites or its mean time for a pressure rise from 690 kPa to 2070 kPa gauge is less than the time of a 1:1 nitric acid (65 percent)/cellulose mixture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5298137", "title": "Non-metallic inclusions", "section": "Section::::Classification of non-metallic inclusions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 374, "text": "BULLET::::- silicates, which are present in steel like a glass formed with pure SiO or SiO with admixture of iron, manganese, chromium, aluminium and tungsten oxides and also crystalline silicates. Silicates are the biggest group among non-metallic inclusions. In liquid steel non-metallic inclusions are in solid or liquid condition. It depends on the melting temperature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50069638", "title": "Aerogel", "section": "Section::::Materials.:Silica.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 322, "text": "The silica solidifies into three-dimensional, intertwined clusters that make up only 3% of the volume. Conduction through the solid is therefore very low. The remaining 97% of the volume is composed of air in extremely small nanopores. The air has little room to move, inhibiting both convection and gas-phase conduction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56541610", "title": "Viscosity models for mixtures", "section": "Section::::Transition state analogy.:Significant structure theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 317, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 317, "end_character": 409, "text": "BULLET::::- A liquid behaves similar to a solid in many aspects, e.g. a sensitive relation between molar volume (or mass density) and pressure; position and distance between molecules is like a quasi-lattice with \"fluidized vacancies\" of molecular size distributed randomly throughout the quazi-lattice. The vacancies are assumed to have molecular size and move freely throughout the quasi-lattise structure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1739001", "title": "Wetting", "section": "Section::::High-energy vs. low-energy surfaces.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 454, "text": "The other type of solids is weak molecular crystals (e.g., fluorocarbons, hydrocarbons, etc.) where the molecules are held together essentially by physical forces (e.g., van der Waals and hydrogen bonds). Since these solids are held together by weak forces, a very low input of energy is required to break them, thus they are termed \"low energy\". Depending on the type of liquid chosen, low-energy surfaces can permit either complete or partial wetting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39337116", "title": "Biomaterial Surface Modifications", "section": "Section::::Plasma modification of biomaterials.:Surface Energy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 402, "text": "Where formula_2 is the surface tension at the interface of solid and vapor, formula_3 is the surface tension at the interface of solid and liquid, and formula_4 is the surface tension at the interface of liquid and vapor. Plasma modification techniques alter the surface of the material, and subsequently the surface energy. Changes in surface energy then alter the surface properties of the material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1umhvq	Who led the US mobilization of its economy for war during & before World War II?	[ { "answer": "The Roosevelt Administration and Congress created a plethora of bureaus and offices designed to coordinate and liaise with already existing departments and bureaus of the government. The important ones were the Office for Emergency Management, the Office of Economic Stabilization, the Office of Price Administration, and the War Labor Board. The War, Navy, and Treasury Departments also had their own procurement divisions, such as the Army Quartermaster and the Navy Bureau of Ships, which would have been responsible for awarding contracts and delivering the necessary specifications to the contractors. The private sector itself would have responded to the incentive of massive federal war contracts and retooled for war production, though there were grants and loans given out through government programs such as the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, which targeted specific fields in need of development (such as synthetic rubber). The most well known oversight body was the Truman Committee, otherwise known as the Senate Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program; it was run by Senator Harry S. Truman (yes, that Harry Truman) in order to prevent war profiteering. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "157649", "title": "Wall Street Crash of 1929", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 496, "text": "The American mobilization for World War II at the end of 1941 moved approximately ten million people out of the civilian labor force and into the war. World War II had a dramatic effect on many parts of the economy, and may have hastened the end of the Great Depression in the United States. Government-financed capital spending accounted for only 5 percent of the annual U.S. investment in industrial capital in 1940; by 1943, the government accounted for 67 percent of U.S. capital investment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63876", "title": "History of the United States", "section": "Section::::20th century.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 198, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 198, "end_character": 322, "text": "On the home front, mobilization of the U.S. economy was managed by Roosevelt's War Production Board. The wartime production boom led to full employment, wiping out this vestige of the Great Depression. Indeed, labor shortages encouraged industry to look for new sources of workers, finding new roles for women and blacks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5974424", "title": "Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 362, "text": "The United States suffered severe mobilization difficulties during World War I. To minimized a recurrence, the \"Army Industrial College\" was established in 1924 to focus on wartime procurement and mobilization procedures. Bernard M. Baruch, a prominent Wall Street speculator and Chairman of the War Industries Board, is regarded as one of the founding fathers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5129610", "title": "United States home front during World War II", "section": "Section::::Labor.:Labor unions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 239, "text": "The war mobilization changed the relationship of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) with both employers and the national government. Both the CIO and the larger American Federation of Labor (AFL) grew rapidly in the war years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "265082", "title": "History of the United States (1918–1945)", "section": "Section::::World War II.:Homefront.:Labor unions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 128, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 128, "end_character": 239, "text": "The war mobilization changed the relationship of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) with both employers and the national government. Both the CIO and the larger American Federation of Labor (AFL) grew rapidly in the war years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4610544", "title": "Economic planning", "section": "Section::::Around the world.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 656, "text": "The United States used economic planning during World War I. The federal government supplemented the price system with centralized resource allocation and created a number of new agencies to direct important economic sectors, notably the Food Administration, Fuel Administration, Railroad Administration and War Industries Board. During World War II, the economy experienced staggering growth under a similar system of planning. In the postwar period, United States governments utilized such measures as the Economic Stabilization Program to directly intervene in the economy to control prices and wages, among other things, in different economic sectors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "562666", "title": "War economy", "section": "Section::::United States.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 1242, "text": "In the case of the Second World War, the U.S. government took similar measures in increasing its control over the economy. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor provided the spark needed to begin conversion to a wartime economy. With this attack, Washington felt that a greater bureaucracy was needed to help with mobilization. The government raised taxes which paid for half of the war's costs and borrowed money in the form of war bonds to cover the rest of the bill. “Commercial institutions like banks also bought billions of dollars of bonds and other treasury paper, holding more than $24 billion at the war’s end.\" The creation of a handful of agencies helped funnel resources towards the war effort. One prominent agency was the War Production Board (WPB), which “awarded defense contracts, allocated scarce resources – such as rubber, copper, and oil – for military uses, and persuaded businesses to convert to military production.\" Two-thirds of the American economy had been integrated into the war effort by the end of 1943. Because of this massive cooperation between government and private entities, it could be argued that the economic measures enacted prior to and during the Second World War helped lead the Allies to victory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
rrp87	What did the Romans know about the Chinese?	[ { "answer": "And conversely, what did the Chinese know about the Romans?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "just to keep this alive: I would very much like to hear about it too. of course, roman can mean many things if you include the eastern empire.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is this [wikipedia](_URL_0_) article, for what it's worth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Quite a bit, actually. By 0 CE, trade along the Silk Road had blossomed to such an extent that silks were [the most popular luxury item in Rome](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ancient civilizations had more contact with one another than you'd think. the Romans certainly knew a good bit about the Chinese, and vice versa. While the Chinese knew of the existence of the Romans, they didn't particularly pay them or any other outside culture much attention. They did, however, trade fairly regularly with them, though it was indirectly through trade with the peoples who lived between the two flanking Eurasian powers, that in turn traded with the Romans (Arabs, Slavs, Indians). The Chinese would exchange lacquered goods, fine silks, china (pottery), etc. for Roman goods such as embroidered rugs, glassware, ore, etc. \n\nRomans and other ancient civilizations had some idea as to the size of their own and other continents, certainly not like we have today, but they had explorers, merchants, and traders that brought back hand drawn maps, journals, etc. that contained reports of what they had seen, the geography of the land, and descriptions of the peoples that lived there. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I remember hearing somewhere that they found little copper and gold Buddhas in Pompeii. There wasn't an epic meeting of Emperors, but they knew of the \"great lands\" one way and the other. Problem was this was like trying to trade with the moon, if space was full of dudes trying to make the most of cheese routes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is a bit off-topic, but you might want to read up on [Greco-Buddhism](_URL_0_), which led to a lot of interesting cultural stuff in both East and West, including quite possibly the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha (why do you think he's wearing a toga?)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Thread from /r/ancientrome: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's the show that the OP mentioned, currently downloading all the episodes!\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1618577", "title": "Sino-Roman relations", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 684, "text": "In classical sources, the problem of identifying references to ancient China is exacerbated by the interpretation of the Latin term \"Seres\", whose meaning fluctuated and could refer to several Asian peoples in a wide arc from India over Central Asia to China. In Chinese records, the Roman Empire came to be known as \"Daqin\" or Great Qin. Daqin was directly associated with the later \"Fulin\" () in Chinese sources, which has been identified by scholars such as Friedrich Hirth as the Byzantine Empire. Chinese sources describe several embassies of Fulin arriving in China during the Tang dynasty and also mention the siege of Constantinople by the forces of Muawiyah I in 674–678 AD.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "364407", "title": "Daqin", "section": "Section::::Currency and coinage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 1258, "text": "Although the ancient Romans imported Han Chinese silk while the Han-dynasty Chinese imported Roman glasswares as discovered in their tombs, Valerie Hansen (2012) claimed that no Roman coins from the Roman Republic (507–27 BC) or the Principate (27 BC–284 AD) era of the Roman Empire have been found in China. Yet this assumption has been overturned; Warwick Ball (2016) notes the discovery of sixteen Roman coins found at Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an) minted during the reign of various emperors from Tiberius (14–37 AD) to Aurelian (270–275 AD). The earliest gold \"solidus\" coins from the Eastern Roman Empire found in China date to the reign of Byzantine emperor Theodosius II (r. 408–450) and altogether only forty-eight of them have been found (compared to thirteen hundred silver coins) in Xinjiang and the rest of China. However, Roman golden medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius, and possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius, have been discovered at Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, which was then part of the Kingdom of Funan bordering the Chinese province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam. This was the same region where Chinese historical texts claim the Romans first landed before venturing further into China to conduct diplomacy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "93965", "title": "Sogdia", "section": "Section::::History.:Trade and diplomacy with the Byzantine Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1609, "text": "It appears, however, that direct trade with the Sogdians remained limited in light of the small amount of Roman and Byzantine coins found in Central Asian and Chinese archaeological sites belonging to this era. Although Roman embassies apparently reached Han China from 166 AD onwards, and the ancient Romans imported Han Chinese silk while the Han-dynasty Chinese imported Roman glasswares as discovered in their tombs, Valerie Hansen (2012) wrote that no Roman coins from the Roman Republic (507–27 BC) or the Principate (27 BC – 330 AD) era of the Roman Empire have been found in China. However, Warwick Ball (2016) upends this notion by pointing to a hoard of sixteen Roman coins found at Xi'an, China (formerly Chang'an), dated to the reigns of various emperors from Tiberius (14–37 AD) to Aurelian (270–275 AD). The earliest gold \"solidus\" coins from the Eastern Roman Empire found in China date to the reign of Byzantine emperor Theodosius II (r. 408–450) and altogether only forty-eight of them have been found (compared to thirteen-hundred silver coins) in Xinjiang and the rest of China. The use of silver coins in Turfan persisted long after the Tang campaign against Karakhoja and Chinese conquest of 640, with a gradual adoption of Chinese bronze coinage over the course of the 7th century. The fact that these Eastern Roman coins were almost always found with Sasanian Persian silver coins and Eastern Roman gold coins were used more as ceremonial objects like talismans confirms the pre-eminent importance of Greater Iran in Chinese Silk Road commerce of Central Asia compared to Eastern Rome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15597110", "title": "Europeans in Medieval China", "section": "Section::::Background.:Ancient Romans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 836, "text": "Beginning in the age of Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD), the Romans, including authors such as Pliny the Elder, mentioned contacts with the \"Seres\", whom they identified as the producers of silk from distant East Asia and could have been the Chinese or even any number of middlemen of various ethnic backgrounds along the Silk Road of Central Asia and Northwest China. The Eastern-Han era Chinese general Ban Chao, Protector General of the Western Regions, explored Central Asia and in 97 AD dispatched his envoys Gan Ying to Daqin (i.e. the Roman Empire). Gan was dissuaded by Parthian authorities from venturing further than the \"west coast\" (possibly the Eastern Mediterranean) although he wrote a detailed report about the Roman Empire, its cities, postal network and consular system of government, and presented this to the Han court.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1618577", "title": "Sino-Roman relations", "section": "Section::::Embassies and travel.:Embassy to Augustus.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 794, "text": "In the entire corpus of Roman literature and historiography, Yule was unable to uncover any other mention of such a direct diplomatic encounter between the Romans and the Seres. He speculated that these people were more likely to have been private merchants than diplomats, since Chinese records insist that Gan Ying was the first Chinese to reach as far west as Tiaozhi (; Mesopotamia) in 97 AD. Yule notes that the 1st-century AD \"Periplus\" mentioned that people of \"Thinae\" (Sinae) were rarely seen, because of the difficulties of reaching that country. It states that their country, located under Ursa Minor and on the farthest unknown reaches of the Caspian Sea, was the origin of raw silk and fine silk cloth that was traded overland from Bactria to Barygaza, as well as down the Ganges.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15597110", "title": "Europeans in Medieval China", "section": "Section::::Background.:Ancient Romans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 478, "text": "Subsequently, there was a series of Roman embassies in China lasting from the 2nd to 3rd centuries AD, as recorded in Chinese sources. In 166 AD the \"Book of Later Han\" records that Romans reached China from the maritime south and presented gifts to the court of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168 AD), claiming they represented Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (\"Andun\" 安敦, r. 161–180 AD). There is speculation that they were Roman merchants instead of official diplomats.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30871308", "title": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Geographic expansion.:Contacts with the Han Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 301, "text": "The presence of Chinese people in India from ancient times is also suggested by the accounts of the \"Ciñas\" in the \"Mahabharata\" and the \"Manu Smriti\". The Han dynasty explorer and ambassador Zhang Qian visited Bactria in 126 BC, and reported the presence of Chinese products in the Bactrian markets:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
2upzrq	what aol actually does, in 2015?	[ { "answer": "Well, according to [Cnet in 2013](_URL_0_), 3 percent of America (that's roughly 2 million people) still uses Dial-up modem... so I imagine, in 2015, that AOL still manages to be an ISP.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "And you wouldn't believe the amount of people who still use aol email addresses, so this will get aol some ad revenue ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I believe for quite some time they've mostly been investors in tech companies and web sites. They own dozens of companies, some of which may sound familiar..MapQuest, _URL_0_, Huffington Post", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In addition to the old, dwindling internet access business (which still makes them a bunch of money), AOL owns and runs many different brands: Engadget, Huffington Post, Moviefone, AIM, MapQuest, and TechCrunch to name a few. They also have their own ad network.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I heard on the joe rogan experience that AOL still have about 1,000,000 people who still pay for the service by the month", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They're a lot like Yahoo, they produce web content for people to enjoy. They don't really DO much of anything under their own name anymore (other than maintain a disappearing, antique dial-up system that I can't imagine is making them much money anymore) but they own a lot of websites you probably use. Engadget, TUAW (RIP dudes), etc... \n\nJust like Yahoo owns Flickr, for example. Or Google owns pretty much everything else. It's all the same basic business model, start with the search site, and purchase/design supporting products to go along with it. \n\nThe reason you didn't know that is because AOL continues to do everything both badly AND much later than everyone else. They were years late to the web content game because they...I really don't know what they thought was going to happen. I guess someone was banking that broadband internet would just be a fad. So they kept AOL the service provider going, like some kind of horribly slow, buggy ISP version of Weekend at Bernies. Finally, years later, they snapped out of it and went \"Wait, what? Where is everyone?\" and got with the program.\n\nThey only run 1.3% of all web searches, and they've tried to make inferior versions of pretty much every other web service out there. Well, I say they try to \"make\" crappier versions of things, whereas what they really did was WILDLY succeed at BUYING crappier versions of things everyone else had perfected years ago. \n\nRemember the smash-hit social media website Bebo? Of course you don't, no one outside of Ireland (where they briefly actually did pretty good) does. That didn't stop AOL from buying them for 850 million in 2008, only to sheepishly sell it to a hedge fund operator in 2010 for a whopping 10 million dollars. That doesn't include the cost of flying in the world's greatest sad-trombone-sound-making-guy to really call attention to how idiotic that move was. For those of you playing at home, that is a staggering ROI of -98.8%. It directly cost the CEO at the time his job, apparently.\n\nLest you think the hedge fund managers scored some kind of killer deal, Bebo then went bankrupt in 2013. I know, I know, how the heck could that have happened, right?! Nothing makes sense for me anymore either, after I learned that. Calculating the overall ROI various Bebo owners have combined for now breaks math as we know it, so later in 2013 someone picked up Bebo's former shell of itself for a song and dance. Who was this? THE FOUNDERS OF THE SITE WHO SOLD IT FOR 850 MILLION TO AOL FIVE YEARS PRIOR. They just restarted it in 2015 and with AOL's luck it will cure cancer.\n\nSo currently, in 2015, AOL spends its days handling a tiny percentage of the world's search traffic, paying some guy named Rusty 10 bucks an hour to watch over the cobweb infested shack that houses AOL's dial up network, and watching \"You've Got Mail\" while it cries cheap tears and drinks Popov, thinking of the good old days.\n\nedit: re-reading this just now, I feel like I may have momentarily veered off on a slight tangent. I'm not re-writing it because I used to work for AOL and OH MY GOD they are the just the worst, you have no idea. Hopefully it still answers your question. \n\nedit 2: Whoever gilded this post, seriously, that was really really nice of you and it's really appreciated. \n\nI also wanted to make this link a little more visible than it would be if I put it in the comments:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI see a LOT of people mentioning friends or relatives are keeping AOL service just for the e-mail address. AOL never did a good job at advertising it (go figure!) but there is definitely an easy, straightforward way to cancel the service and keep your @aol.com e-mail. You can even get the E-mail back if you cancelled the service previously but miss having the old address! (Click the section that says \"How do I reactivate a cancelled AOL Account? (web users)\"). Don't worry, you can reactivate it as a free account, you won't have to pay!\n\nDon't get me wrong, some people just want to stick with AOL, and more power to them. But if you know anyone stuck paying money just to keep an e-mail address they love, set them free!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They stay in business producing online content for a little add profit in order to still have the structure to collect auto fees. 80% AOL's funding comes from its dialup business. According to consumer reports 75% of that is due to people whom have forgotten they have AOL. They neglected to cancel so they are still automatically deducting from their bank account or credit cards each month. \n\nSo what does AOL do? exploit peoples sloth and forgetfulness in regards to their personal finances.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Surprisingly enough they still offer dial up service and have 2.3 million dial up customers. In some rural places your only internet options are dial up or satellite internet. Satellite internet can be expensive and there is also a big ping time involved so it doesn't work very well for things like gaming. And if you live in a mountainous area a mountain could block your signal to the satallite. _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They provide me easily accessible dirty chat rooms to talk about all kinds of disgusting fantasies. AOL4Lyfe. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "AOL also owns a number of patents still, not sure if Microsoft leased or purchased them. But there was a deal about two years ago where Microsoft bought a bunch of rights off of AOL.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They're still trying to get my dial-up connection from 2001 to work", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I worked for them up until earlier last year - I spent quite a bit of time watching the sad slow downward spiral of one of the first Internet Greats.\n\nThey still have a bunch of web properties and are desperately trying to leverage their sites and anyone else they can get to use their ad-delivery service. Other than that, as said elsewhere they still have a few million dial-up subscribers. 10 years ago it cost maybe 50 times as much to keep a single subscriber online, today; with all the gear completely owned and the bandwidth of a single dial-up subscriber being a negligible cost they can run dial up for pennies on the dollar of what it cost in 2005. For example in 2005 there were probably 75 people in operations running the AOL client, today there's literally one person.\n\nWhen I started there was around 28,000 employees - after all the layoffs and RIFs there were maybe 4k when I left (I'm frankly surprised I lasted as long as I did)\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My company provides modem services for them. They are still alive. It is funny to go to meetings and talk about Managed Modem service in 2015. Weird. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Mostly, in 2015, they fire talented writing staff. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My parents still use that. They think that's where the internet is. Ive... I've tried", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I have friend that still has a aol email she said that she never changed it because she doe not want to have to keep track of different emails ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Provide an email service to people like my Mom that just never moved on. Whenever I'm at my parents house I'll hear the \"You've got mail\" announcement. And like the top commenter said they've also made some shitty investments. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I started laughing my ass off the other day my mom came to me saying she needed to cut some costs. So she tells me she is switching to gmail because she is tired of paying for AOL, I was confused \"you pay for aol?\" I guess she has been paying 40 dollars a month for AOL's crappy browser and email service for 8 years.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I still use AOL email. They gave me a good username.. To far in to switch now. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "E-mail for old people.\n\nSource: Work a call center. Every time I see an AOL e-mail on somebody's account, I mentally go fuuuuuuuuuuu... because I know they are very, very, very non-tech savvy, can't see or hear for shit, and YET they refuse to use their glasses or a hearing aide.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I helped a coworker put together a custom PC. While I was installing windows, I was on my laptop downloading software to install later. I had my coworker make a list of all the software they needed. AOL was on that list. I asked him about it thinking maybe he just uses the AIM messenger. Nope. Wife will only use AOL. They have a broadband connection, but the only way she understands the internet is through AOL. I was amazed.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't know but judging from my parents pc it has something to do with managing multiple tool bars.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You'd be surprised at the number of people that just haven't canceled their accounts. One of the folks in my office has been paying 20 bucks a month since 1997. Just canceled in November.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I worked near their former HQ in Sterling Virginia. Place is absolutely dead. MAYBE 20% staffing anymore. \n\nLooks sad compared to the equally large Raytheon campus across the street.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They sell ads on their home page. My friend's work buys these ads sometimes and they're something like 70k for one slot in the carousel on their front page for a day.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "While they still do provide dialup and broadband internet services, Aol rebranded themselves many years ago as an online media company. They spent the last several years buying up various websites (like Huffington Post, Engadget, TechCrunch, Moviefone, MapQuest). Most of their revenue comes from advertising sold on those sites.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They've no longer produce free CDs, instead they make beer coasters.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's my two cents: Stop thinking web portal, start thinking (potential) programmatic player.\n\nAOL has been quietly selling off its non-profitable products for months, and their traditional ad sales team is the latest to go. By releasing its underperforming or obsolete assets (e.g. non-profitable websites), the company is ostensibly freeing up funds to focus on improving its ad tech platform. Users may flock to AOL's premium content sites such as Engadget and Huffington Post, but the company has struggled to monetize those platforms amidst the avalanche of online content from competitors. Developing an ad tech platform to leverage both its demand-side and supply-side platforms could carve out a much-needed competitive edge.\n\nThis view is shared by more than a few analysts, and is echoed by statements from such organizations as Starboard Value LLP, which penned a letter to Yahoo shareholders calling for a merger with AOL. More recent M & A rumors have also included Verizon, citing the fact that gaining access to AOL's ad platform and extensive library of online and video content could be Verizon's greatest opportunity to compete against AT & T, which acquired DirecTV for $48.5 billion in 2014.\n\nIf AOL can expand upon its ad tech offerings, it could be in a good place to capture a solid chunk of the predicted increase in programmatic ad spending. According to TechCrunch, one of AOL's most highly-trafficked sites, 73% of the company's Q3 revenues (about $454.5 million) came from advertising. In terms of pure profit, however, the primary driver remained subscriptions, not advertising. AOL is now making major moves to change this paradigm. To sum it up, take a look at a recent quote from AOL CEO Tim Armstrong: \n\n\"As we look out to 2015, our strategy and decisions will be driven by the following organizing principles...Number one, we’ll focus our capital allocation resource management and management time against scaled assets and platforms. Two, we will organize our asset portfolio around scaled value and scaled growth assets. Three, we’ll simplify everything that can be simplified.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1397", "title": "AOL", "section": "Section::::History.:2009–2015: As a digital media company.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 643, "text": "On March 12, 2009, Tim Armstrong, formerly with Google, was named Chairman and CEO of AOL. Shortly thereafter, on May 28, Time Warner announced it would spin off AOL as an independent company once Google's shares ceased at the end of the fiscal year. On November 23, AOL unveiled a sneak preview of a new brand identity which has the wordmark \"Aol.\" superimposed onto canvases created by commissioned artists. The new identity, designed by Wolff Olins, was enacted onto all of AOL's services on December 10, the date AOL traded independently for the first time since the Time Warner merger on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol AOL.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1397", "title": "AOL", "section": "Section::::History.:2006–2009: Rebranding and decline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 412, "text": "On March 13, 2008, AOL purchased the social networking site Bebo for $850m (£417m). On July 25, AOL announced it was shedding Xdrive, AOL Pictures, and BlueString to save on costs and focus on its core advertising business. AOL Pictures was terminated on December 31. On October 31, AOL Hometown (a web hosting service for the websites of AOL customers) and the AOL Journal blog hosting service were eliminated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2520523", "title": "Weblogs, Inc.", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 203, "text": "In 2015, AOL was acquired by Verizon. In 2017, AOL's content business, along with that of Yahoo Inc, which was also acquired by Verizon, were combined into a new online media subsidiary called Oath Inc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "908799", "title": "Terms of service", "section": "Section::::Criticism and lawsuits.:AOL.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 560, "text": "On July 1, 1997, AOL posted revised terms service to take effect July 31, 1997, without formally notifying its users of the changes made, most notably a new policy which would grant third-party business partners, including a marketing firm, access to its members' telephone numbers. Several days before the changes were to take effect, an AOL member informed the media of the changes and the following news coverage incited a large influx of internet traffic on the AOL page which enabled users to opt out of having their names and numbers on marketing lists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16983004", "title": "NaviSoft", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 408, "text": "AOL eventually stopped offering the WYSIWYG HTML authoring tool and web hosting services, but they continued to use AOLServer internally to run AOL's web services. In 1999, AOL released the source code to AOLServer as open-source under the GNU or AOLServer Public License. A friendly fork of version 4.10 of the AOLServer source code was released, and is still being developed and maintained, as NaviServer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2269618", "title": "Jim Kimsey", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 297, "text": "James Verlin Kimsey (September 15, 1939 – March 1, 2016) was the co-founder of AOL. He was the first chairman of the company and served as CEO until 1995. Although Kimsey is best known for having helped to create AOL, he also spearheaded many other business, military and philanthropic endeavors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4338696", "title": "History of Google", "section": "Section::::Partnerships.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 495, "text": "Time Warner's AOL unit and Google unveiled an expanded partnership on December 21, 2005, including an enhanced global advertising partnership and a US$1 billion investment by Google for a 5% stake in AOL. As part of the collaboration, Google plans to work with AOL on video search and offer AOL's premium-video service within Google Video. This did not allow users of Google Video to search for AOL's premium-video services. Display advertising throughout the Google network will also increase.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1ym71s	why are there security levels higher than the one the president of the usa has?	[ { "answer": "Well... Number one, don't believe everything you read or hear. Most likely, this is not entirely accurate information. 21 levels above the President? That seems highly unlikely. So many levels? What would you need that for? Think about it from a practical standpoint. And misinformation is a cornerstone of governmental secrecy.\n\nOn the other hand, it is very likely that many government officials know a lot of very high-security things that the President does not know. The President of the US is a high-profile target. You would not WANT him to know certain things. HE would not want to know certain things. They can't be extracted from him if he does not know them. And he only gets 4 or 8 years, and then he just goes home, and he knows all that stuff? Some things they can't just change when a new President is elected and sworn in.\n\nMost likely, there is quite a bit of Compartmentalized information in the US government. That is to say, there is a lot of seriously top-level information, and no one knows all of it, and they don't want to. Terrorist organization understands this concept, that's why they have \"cells\". How much more so the most powerful nations in the world would want their governments to be compartmented.\n\nAs far as who MIGHT know the most top-level information, probably somebody who nobody has ever heard of. Not some men-in-black guy living in a bunker somewhere, but some seemingly ordinary and mundane guy. Maybe a military officer? Maybe a CIA employee? Maybe a White House staffer? Somebody with years of experience and a mid to high level rank/authority?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44028", "title": "National Security Advisor (United States)", "section": "Section::::Role.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 454, "text": "The influence and role of the National Security Advisor varies from administration to administration and depends not only on the qualities of the person appointed to the position, but also on the style and management philosophy of the incumbent President. Ideally, the National Security Advisor serves as an honest broker of policy options for the President in the field of national security, rather than as an advocate for his or her own policy agenda.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44028", "title": "National Security Advisor (United States)", "section": "Section::::Role.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 558, "text": "However, the National Security Advisor is a staff position in the Executive Office of the President and does not have line or budget authority over either the Department of State or the Department of Defense, unlike the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defense, who are Senate-confirmed officials with statutory authority over their departments; but the National Security Advisor is able to offer daily advice (due to the proximity) to the President independently of the vested interests of the large bureaucracies and clientele of those departments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "79244", "title": "History of the United States National Security Council", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 355, "text": "For over 60 years, 12 Presidents have sought to use the National Security Council system to integrate foreign and defense policies in order to preserve the nation's security and advance its interests abroad. Recurrent structural modifications over the years have reflected Presidential management style, changing requirements, and personal relationships.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17140138", "title": "United States Intelligence Community Oversight", "section": "Section::::Executive and Legislative give-and-take.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 324, "text": "The White House sets the national security and foreign affairs agenda. Congress and the judicial branch have affirmed the executive branch's lead role for conducting national security affairs numerous times. Furthermore, the White House can limit congressional influence in the domain of national security and intelligence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44028", "title": "National Security Advisor (United States)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 608, "text": "The Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs (APNSA), commonly referred to as the National Security Advisor (NSA) or at times informally termed the NSC Advisor, is a senior aide in the Executive Office of the President, based at the West Wing of the White House, who serves as the chief in-house advisor to the President of the United States on national security issues. The National Security Advisor is appointed by the President and does not require confirmation by the Senate, but an appointment of a three or four-star general to the role requires Senate reconfirmation of military rank.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "79257", "title": "History of the United States National Security Council 1993–present", "section": "Section::::Obama administration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 372, "text": "On May 26, 2009, President Barack Obama merged the White House staff supporting the Homeland Security Council (HSC) and the National Security Council into one National Security Staff (NSS). The HSC and NSC each continue to exist by statute as bodies supporting the President. The name of the staff organization was changed back to National Security Council Staff in 2014.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44026", "title": "United States National Security Council", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 372, "text": "On May 26, 2009, President Barack Obama merged the White House staff supporting the Homeland Security Council (HSC) and the National Security Council into one National Security Staff (NSS). The HSC and NSC each continue to exist by statute as bodies supporting the President. The name of the staff organization was changed back to National Security Council Staff in 2014.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
nc8lm	When speaking why do we sometimes jumble the words of a sentence?	[ { "answer": "This is called metathesis if you want to just like google search and find shit.\n\nBut basically there are a lot of theories about how exactly sentences get made, but there's a general pattern of - > vague nebulous meaning area - > get words that have those meanings - > make those words into an english sentence - > send english sentence to articulators. So basically most speech errors actually occur on the level between word retrieval and grammaticalization (I just made that word up don't search for it). Your muscles are doing what they're supposed to be doing, it's just that their orders are shitty and dumb. So your brain has retrieved all the English words it needs to communicate this sentence, but when it goes to set it up grammatically it's statistically prone to making an error every now and then. One of these errors is just switching two words of similar nature, like notice that you almost never say \"That was the she pregnant got weekend.\"\n\nSo it's like after your brain retrieves all the words it doesn't have all the data attached to those words about what it retrieved those ones. So it's possible to switch up two nouns in this sentence, because your brain only has so much information really quite there and it just obeys this as it constructs the sentence. Usually this doesn't happen because your brain is pretty well made, but it's not impossible for the brain to lose all of the semantic value of a word for a second and only have some vague categorization, and which point it takes a stab at word order and goes for it. So your grammaticalization center fucked up something fierce and sent it to your poor motor cortex to tell the mouth to say it.\n\nI don't know how interested you are but there are a lot of interesting things about speech errors that show how our brains process languages. For instance, if I switch the words \"The dogs ate the shit\" to \"The shits ate the dog,\" I change the \"s\" sound from actually a z sound in dogs to the s sound in shit. This is because that's a rule in English and we construct plurality at a certain point blah blah blah. But you can read about this if you look up stuff like \"neurolinguistics sentence production\" or \"slip of the tongue\" or \"speech error\" and so on.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is called metathesis if you want to just like google search and find shit.\n\nBut basically there are a lot of theories about how exactly sentences get made, but there's a general pattern of - > vague nebulous meaning area - > get words that have those meanings - > make those words into an english sentence - > send english sentence to articulators. So basically most speech errors actually occur on the level between word retrieval and grammaticalization (I just made that word up don't search for it). Your muscles are doing what they're supposed to be doing, it's just that their orders are shitty and dumb. So your brain has retrieved all the English words it needs to communicate this sentence, but when it goes to set it up grammatically it's statistically prone to making an error every now and then. One of these errors is just switching two words of similar nature, like notice that you almost never say \"That was the she pregnant got weekend.\"\n\nSo it's like after your brain retrieves all the words it doesn't have all the data attached to those words about what it retrieved those ones. So it's possible to switch up two nouns in this sentence, because your brain only has so much information really quite there and it just obeys this as it constructs the sentence. Usually this doesn't happen because your brain is pretty well made, but it's not impossible for the brain to lose all of the semantic value of a word for a second and only have some vague categorization, and which point it takes a stab at word order and goes for it. So your grammaticalization center fucked up something fierce and sent it to your poor motor cortex to tell the mouth to say it.\n\nI don't know how interested you are but there are a lot of interesting things about speech errors that show how our brains process languages. For instance, if I switch the words \"The dogs ate the shit\" to \"The shits ate the dog,\" I change the \"s\" sound from actually a z sound in dogs to the s sound in shit. This is because that's a rule in English and we construct plurality at a certain point blah blah blah. But you can read about this if you look up stuff like \"neurolinguistics sentence production\" or \"slip of the tongue\" or \"speech error\" and so on.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21287329", "title": "Sister Bernadette's Barking Dog", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 380, "text": "When we unscrew a sentence, figure out what makes it tick and reassemble it, we interact with our old familiar language differently, more deeply, responding to the way its individual components fit together. Once we understand how sentences work (what’s going on? what action is taking place? who is doing it and to whom is it being done?), it’s harder to write an incorrect one.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42047430", "title": "LoCos (language)", "section": "Section::::Sentences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 308, "text": "Sentences are formed by a combination of certain words. There are three rows that you use when writing sentences. The middle row is used for the core words (nouns, verbs, and direct/indirect objects). The top row is used to modify verbs with adverbs. The bottom row is used to modify nouns using adjectives.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1160389", "title": "Frozen Peas", "section": "Section::::Summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 400, "text": "Why? That doesn't make any sense. Sorry. There's no known way of saying an English sentence in which you begin a sentence with 'in' and emphasize it. Get me a jury and show me how you can say \"\"in\" July\", and I'll go down on you. That's just idiotic, if you'll forgive me my saying so. That's just stupid, \"\"in\" July\"; I'd love to know how you emphasize 'in' in \"In July\"...impossible! Meaningless! \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "249001", "title": "Inverted question and exclamation marks", "section": "Section::::Mixtures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 398, "text": "It is acceptable in Spanish to begin a sentence with an opening inverted exclamation mark (\"¡\") and end it with a question mark (\"?\"), or vice versa, for statements that are questions but also have a clear sense of exclamation or surprise such as: (\"Who do you think you are?!\"). Normally, four signs are used, always with one type in the outer side and the other in the inner side (nested) (', ')\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "804210", "title": "Winnebago language", "section": "Section::::Phonology.:Metrical structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 427, "text": "Generally when words are spoken in sequence to form sentences, each retains its own stress domain. However, when two or more words are compounded, they are treated as a single word and form a new single stress domain in which the aforementioned patterns apply. Examples include \"hąąbókahi\" 'every day' (a compound consisting of \"hąąp\" 'day' and \"hokahí\" 'every') and \"wąągwácek\" 'young man' (\"wąąk\" 'man' and \"wacék\" 'young').\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "314675", "title": "List of English words with disputed usage", "section": "Section::::A.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1275, "text": "BULLET::::- and – Some argue that sentences should not begin with the word \"and\" on the argument that as a conjunction it should only join clauses within a sentence. AHD4 states that this stricture \"has been ridiculed by grammarians for decades, and ... ignored by writers from Shakespeare to Joyce Carol Oates.\" RH states \"Both \"and\" and \"but\", and to a lesser extent \"or\" and \"so\", are common as transitional words at the beginnings of sentences in all types of speech and writing\"; it goes on to suggest that opposition to this usage \"...probably stems from the overuse of such sentences by inexperienced writers.\" ENCARTA opines that said opposition comes from \"too literal an understanding of the 'joining' function of conjunctions\", and states that any overuse is a matter of poor style, not grammatical correctness. COED calls the usage \"quite acceptable\". Many verses of the King James Bible begin with \"and\" (though this could be regarded as a Hebraism), as does William Blake's poem \"And did those feet in ancient time\" (a.k.a. \"Jerusalem\"). Fowler's Modern English Usage defends this use of \"and\". Chambers states that \"Although it is sometimes regarded as poor style, it is not ungrammatical to begin a sentence with \"and\".\" See also also, above, and but, below.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "314675", "title": "List of English words with disputed usage", "section": "Section::::B.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 306, "text": "BULLET::::- but – Some argue that if \"and\" should not be used to begin sentences, then neither should \"but\". These words are both conjunctions; thus, they believe that they should be used only to link clauses within a sentence. AHD4 states that \"it may be used to begin a sentence at all levels of style.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
aan5dm	What about rabies makes it to where a blood test cannot determine if an animal or person is infected?	[ { "answer": "The rabies virus does not circulate in the blood. It takes hold in muscle tissue, and from there goes to the nerves, and starts working along the nerve tissues. No detectable amount breaks loose to float around in the bloodstream. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16946852", "title": "Rabies", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 450, "text": "The differential diagnosis in a case of suspected human rabies may initially include any cause of encephalitis, in particular infection with viruses such as herpesviruses, enteroviruses, and arboviruses such as West Nile virus. The most important viruses to rule out are herpes simplex virus type one, varicella zoster virus, and (less commonly) enteroviruses, including coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, polioviruses, and human enteroviruses 68 to 71.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15588705", "title": "Progressive inflammatory neuropathy", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 460, "text": "Over 40 laboratory tests were initially conducted to rule out various pathogens and environmental toxins. These tests were used to try to identify potential viruses carried by humans, pigs, or both, including rotoviruses, adenoviruses, hepatitis A, and hepatitis E. They also tried to identify bacteria such as salmonella and escherichia coli (e. coli), and parasites such as Giardia and cryptosporidium that could be causing the symptoms. All were ruled out.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54329819", "title": "Cat bite", "section": "Section::::Infections.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 288, "text": "BULLET::::- Rabies, a fatal neurologic disease in animals and people, is caused by a virus. Animals and people are most commonly infected through bites from rabid animals. Infected cats may have a variety of signs, but most often have sudden behavioral changes and progressive paralysis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "303889", "title": "Pfiesteria piscicida", "section": "Section::::Human illness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 234, "text": "With these criteria and environmental qualifiers (e.g., 22% of a 50-fish sample, all of the same species, have lesions caused by a toxin), it is likely that \"Pfiesteria\"-related surveillance data can better track potential illnesses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2244264", "title": "Rat-bite fever", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 519, "text": "Some cases are diagnosed after patients were exposed to the urine or bodily secretions of an infected animal. These secretions can come from the mouth, nose, or eyes of the rodent. The majority of cases are due to the animal's bite. It can also be transmitted through food or water contaminated with rat feces or urine. Other animals can be infected with this disease, including weasels, gerbils, and squirrels. Household pets such as dogs or cats exposed to these animals can also carry the disease and infect humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61593", "title": "Echinococcosis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 720, "text": "The disease is spread when food or water that contains the eggs of the parasite is eaten or by close contact with an infected animal. The eggs are released in the stool of meat-eating animals that are infected by the parasite. Commonly infected animals include dogs, foxes and wolves. For these animals to become infected they must eat the organs of an animal that contains the cysts such as sheep or rodents. The type of disease that occurs in people depends on the type of \"Echinococcus\" causing the infection. Diagnosis is usually by ultrasound though computer tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may also be used. Blood tests looking for antibodies against the parasite may be helpful as may biopsy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3304092", "title": "Dog bite", "section": "Section::::Treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 204, "text": "Local animal control agencies or police are sometimes able to capture the animal and determine whether or not it is infected with rabies. This is important if the dog appears sick or is acting strangely.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
6k90e2	Why does sand on a surface create patterns when subjected to sound waves?	[ { "answer": "1. For these patterns to emerge, the sound has to be confined. What you're seeing are standing waves. \n\nThe sound wave emerges from a speaker, travels through a material, encounters a boundary and is bounced back into the material (an echo). When it goes back, it encounters itself so to speak. Then an effect called interference happens. This gif explains it: _URL_0_\n\nRemember, waves are travelling displacements of the molecules in the material. The horizontal axis in that graph is the location in the material (in one dimension for clarity). The vertical axis is the displacement that the molecules undergo (usually up and down, but their location on the material doesn't change a lot) when the wave passes by.\n\nThe first wave is the original sound wave originating from the speakers. The second wave is the same wave after it bounced back on the edge of the material. Since the sound is continuous the first wave is still present when the second wave comes along. Molecules can't be in two locations at the same time, so instead the actual displacement is the sum of the two waves. This is visualised in the third wave. As you can see, this wave is not moving, it is standing still: a standing wave. It is going up and down (amplitude change) but not moving in space. Some points on this wave don't move at all (like the first bold dot). Others move a lot (the second bold dot), but they only move up and down. This is in only one dimension, but the principle is the same in two and three dimensions, only slightly more complicated patterns arise.\n\nSo when sand sits on that material, the grains that are on locations that move heavily will be pushed away to locations without any movement as they are \"left alone\". The results are interesting patterns.\n\n2\\. Yes, as long as the material it is bouncing on doesn't change. Or the frequency of the sound wave.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2038018", "title": "Badain Jaran Desert", "section": "Section::::Geography.:Singing Dunes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 291, "text": "Under the same circumstances, it is also possible to generate another acoustic phenomenon. By moving a hand gently through the dry sand of a \"booming sand dune\", this will shear the upper layer of sand off the slope and generate a burping sound emission (pulse-like, short bursts of sound).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "184101", "title": "Singing sand", "section": "Section::::On the beach.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 950, "text": "On some beaches around the world, dry sand will make a singing, squeaking, whistling, or screaming sound if a person scuffs or shuffles their feet with sufficient force. The phenomenon is not completely understood scientifically, but it has been found that quartz sand will do this if the grains are very well-rounded and highly spherical. It is believed by some that the sand grains must be of similar size, so the sand must be well sorted by the actions of wind and waves, and that the grains should be close to spherical and have dust-, pollution-, and organic-matter-free surfaces. The \"singing\" sound is then believed to be produced by shear, as each layer of sand grains slides over the layer beneath it. The similarity in size, the uniformity, and the cleanness means that grains move up and down in unison over the layer of grains below them. Even small amounts of pollution on the sand grains reduce the friction enough to silence the sand.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "521267", "title": "Reflection (physics)", "section": "Section::::Other types of reflection.:Sound reflection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 821, "text": "When a longitudinal sound wave strikes a flat surface, sound is reflected in a coherent manner provided that the dimension of the reflective surface is large compared to the wavelength of the sound. Note that audible sound has a very wide frequency range (from 20 to about 17000 Hz), and thus a very wide range of wavelengths (from about 20 mm to 17 m). As a result, the overall nature of the reflection varies according to the texture and structure of the surface. For example, porous materials will absorb some energy, and rough materials (where rough is relative to the wavelength) tend to reflect in many directions—to scatter the energy, rather than to reflect it coherently. This leads into the field of architectural acoustics, because the nature of these reflections is critical to the auditory feel of a space. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "411512", "title": "Cymatics", "section": "Section::::Work of Hans Jenny.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 728, "text": "From the physical-mathematical standpoint, the form of the nodal patterns is predetermined by the shape of the body set in vibration or, in the case of acoustic waves in a gas, the shape of the cavity in which the gas is contained. The sound wave, therefore, does not influence at all the shape of the vibrating body or the shape of the nodal patterns. The only thing that changes due to the vibration is the arrangement of the sand. The image formed by the sand, in turn, is influenced by the frequency spectrum of the vibration only because each vibration mode is characterized by a specific frequency. Therefore, the spectrum of the signal that excites the vibration determines which patterns are actually nodally displayed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35659147", "title": "Patterns in nature", "section": "Section::::Types of pattern.:Waves, dunes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 686, "text": "Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. Mechanical waves propagate through a medium – air or water, making it oscillate as they pass by. Wind waves are sea surface waves that create the characteristic chaotic pattern of any large body of water, though their statistical behaviour can be predicted with wind wave models. As waves in water or wind pass over sand, they create patterns of ripples. When winds blow over large bodies of sand, they create dunes, sometimes in extensive dune fields as in the Taklamakan desert. Dunes may form a range of patterns including crescents, very long straight lines, stars, domes, parabolas, and longitudinal or seif ('sword') shapes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "68351", "title": "Pattern", "section": "Section::::Nature.:Waves, dunes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 360, "text": "Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. Mechanical waves propagate through a medium – air or water, making it oscillate as they pass by. Wind waves are surface waves that create the chaotic patterns of the sea. As they pass over sand, such waves create patterns of ripples; similarly, as the wind passes over sand, it creates patterns of dunes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "184101", "title": "Singing sand", "section": "Section::::On the beach.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 414, "text": "Water also influences the effect. Wet sands are usually silent because the grains stick together instead of sliding past each other, but small amounts of water can actually raise the pitch of the sounds produced. The most common part of the beach on which to hear singing sand is the dry upper beach above the normal high tide line, but singing has been reported on the lower beach near the low tide line as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1o9z74	Were there successful labor strikes among miners?	[ { "answer": "The Comstock Mining District in Nevada had what appears to be the [first miners union](_URL_0_) west of the Mississippi (1863). The first attempt was broken by the territorial governor, but with statehood in 1864, the miners unionized again, and controlled the apparatus of state government. This ensured that miners only had to imply they might strike, and management had to accede to demands, which included a minimum of $4 per day for underground work, 8 hour shifts, and extensive concessions when it came to safety.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "33060", "title": "Warren G. Harding", "section": "Section::::President (1921–1923).:Domestic policy.:Business and labor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 105, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 105, "end_character": 490, "text": "Widespread strikes marked 1922, as labor sought redress for falling wages and increased unemployment. In April, 500,000 coal miners, led by John L. Lewis, struck over wage cuts. Mining executives argued that the industry was seeing hard times; Lewis accused them of trying to break the union. As the strike became protracted, Harding offered compromise to settle it. As Harding proposed, the miners agreed to return to work, and Congress created a commission to look into their grievances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7699963", "title": "West Virginia coal wars", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 420, "text": "The first workers strike, in West Virginia, was the Cabin Creek and Paint Creek strike of 1912-1913. With help from Mary \"Mother Jones\" Harris Jones, an important figure in unionizing the mine workers, the miners demanded better pay, better work conditions, the right to trade where they pleased (ending the practice of forcing miners to buy from company-owned stores), and recognition of the United Mine Workers (UMW).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1488448", "title": "Coal strike of 1902", "section": "Section::::The 1899 and 1900 strikes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 529, "text": "The United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) had won a sweeping victory in the 1897 strike by the soft-coal (bituminous coal) miners in the Midwest, winning significant wage increases. It grew from 10,000 to 115,000 members. A number of small strikes took place in the anthracite district from 1899 to 1901, by which the labor union gained experience and unionized more workers. The 1899 strike in Nanticoke, Pennsylvania, demonstrated that the unions could win a strike directed against a subsidiary of one of the large railroads.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10547569", "title": "Coal mining in Colorado", "section": "Section::::History.:Labor struggles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 430, "text": "The United Mine Workers were defeated during the 1913-14 strike in Colorado and focused their attention elsewhere. In 1927 Colorado coal miners again laid down their tools, this time under the banner of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). Colorado Fuel and Iron, a major conglomerate of steel mills in Pueblo and coal mines around the region, opposed the strike. The company once again hired spies to infiltrate the union.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "110773", "title": "Wardner, Idaho", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 430, "text": "Hard rock miners in Shoshone County protested wage cuts with a strike in 1892. After several lost their lives in a shooting war provoked by discovery of a company spy, the U.S. army forced an end to the strike. Hostilities erupted once again in 1899 when, in response to the company firing seventeen men for joining the union, the miners dynamited the Bunker Hill & Sullivan mill. Again, lives were lost, and the army intervened.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28008196", "title": "March 1927", "section": "Section::::March 31, 1927 (Thursday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 137, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 137, "end_character": 345, "text": "BULLET::::- At midnight, members of the United Mine Workers of America began a strike of American bituminous coal mines after the expiration of their 1924 contract with union mines, with 200,000 miners across the United States walking off of their jobs. Coal mining continued with strikebreakers, and the strike came to an end on July 18, 1928.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1200252", "title": "First Red Scare", "section": "Section::::Progression of events.:Strikes.:Coal strike of 1919.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 1230, "text": "The United Mine Workers under John L. Lewis announced a strike for November 1, 1919. They had agreed to a wage agreement to run until the end of World War I and now sought to capture some of their industry's wartime gains. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer invoked the Lever Act, a wartime measure that made it a crime to interfere with the production or transportation of necessities. The law, meant to punish hoarding and profiteering, had never been used against a union. Certain of united political backing and almost universal public support, Palmer obtained an injunction on October 31 and 400,000 coal workers struck the next day. He claimed the President authorized the action, following a meeting with the severely ill President in the presence of his doctor. Palmer also asserted that the entire Cabinet had backed his request for an injunction. That infuriated Secretary of Labor Wilson who had opposed Palmer's plan and supported Gompers' view of the President's promises when the Act was under consideration. The rift between the Attorney General and the Secretary of Labor was never healed, which had consequences the next year when Palmer's attempts to deport radicals were frustrated by the Department of Labor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
jiwfu	Since Alan Turing's time, how much closer are we to making machines "think"?	[ { "answer": "Not very, by that definition. We've made lots of progress in artificial intelligence, but to my knowledge no computer has ever successfully passed a Turing test.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What an excellent question! Scholars regularly like to check in and ask how things are going with the AI project, so it's always great to answer this question. The cynical answer is that AI is just thirty years away, and that this is the same answer that was given in Turing's time :) However, the real answer is much deeper and more interesting, so we'll go into it.\n\nLet's stick to Alan Turing's question's version of the question, first. \n\nThere's an annual competition to try and pass Turing's Test, known as the Loebner prize. There are winners every year, although to my knowledge none quite impressive enough to take home the gold medal. Some are quite convincing, including those based extensively on human input, such as Rollo Carpenter's [cleverbot](_URL_0_)\n\nProgress in this area is improving rapidly due to the wealth of massive data we have available on the web. You can compare recent contenders to early chat programs like Eliza -- the difference is staggering. At times it's easy to chat with an automated agent online and be fooled into believing that you're talking with a real human being, so in this sense, we've written programs that can imitate human nature quite well in certain scenarios.\n\nNow, these machines attempt to do well in the imitation game, but nobody argues that they are really consciously thinking in the same way people do. Truly conscious machines are a different beast: we know that humans brains think, but we don't know much about how to make artificial brains that think. Some philosophers of mind have argued that creating software programs that think (so-called Strong AI) is either a fundamentally contradictory notion (Searle) or extraordinarily unlikely (Dreyfus). However, software programs demonstrate considerably more intelligence today than they did in Turing's age. After all, we can take a look at systems like IBM's Watson for a good example of perceived excellence in intelligence, or in Thrun and Google's driverless cars. In certain constrained settings, these programs can be said to outperform humans, and thus in a very constrained sense are 'outthinking' humans -- though there's no reason at all to think this entails consciousness or can even lead to consciousness.\n\nThere are promising approaches to simulate whole brains or significant components of them, but to my knowledge these are all in their infancy; however, I have not followed the literature on brain simulation approaches to AI in a few years.\n\nOn the purely biological front, there have been interesting results with neurons in a dish controlling various software programs (see Steve Potter's work at GATech). In my opinion, these results are more likely to create entities that really think than software approaches; however, software approaches are going to win the imitation game much sooner than we'll see artificially-constructed biological thinking machines.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not very, by that definition. We've made lots of progress in artificial intelligence, but to my knowledge no computer has ever successfully passed a Turing test.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What an excellent question! Scholars regularly like to check in and ask how things are going with the AI project, so it's always great to answer this question. The cynical answer is that AI is just thirty years away, and that this is the same answer that was given in Turing's time :) However, the real answer is much deeper and more interesting, so we'll go into it.\n\nLet's stick to Alan Turing's question's version of the question, first. \n\nThere's an annual competition to try and pass Turing's Test, known as the Loebner prize. There are winners every year, although to my knowledge none quite impressive enough to take home the gold medal. Some are quite convincing, including those based extensively on human input, such as Rollo Carpenter's [cleverbot](_URL_0_)\n\nProgress in this area is improving rapidly due to the wealth of massive data we have available on the web. You can compare recent contenders to early chat programs like Eliza -- the difference is staggering. At times it's easy to chat with an automated agent online and be fooled into believing that you're talking with a real human being, so in this sense, we've written programs that can imitate human nature quite well in certain scenarios.\n\nNow, these machines attempt to do well in the imitation game, but nobody argues that they are really consciously thinking in the same way people do. Truly conscious machines are a different beast: we know that humans brains think, but we don't know much about how to make artificial brains that think. Some philosophers of mind have argued that creating software programs that think (so-called Strong AI) is either a fundamentally contradictory notion (Searle) or extraordinarily unlikely (Dreyfus). However, software programs demonstrate considerably more intelligence today than they did in Turing's age. After all, we can take a look at systems like IBM's Watson for a good example of perceived excellence in intelligence, or in Thrun and Google's driverless cars. In certain constrained settings, these programs can be said to outperform humans, and thus in a very constrained sense are 'outthinking' humans -- though there's no reason at all to think this entails consciousness or can even lead to consciousness.\n\nThere are promising approaches to simulate whole brains or significant components of them, but to my knowledge these are all in their infancy; however, I have not followed the literature on brain simulation approaches to AI in a few years.\n\nOn the purely biological front, there have been interesting results with neurons in a dish controlling various software programs (see Steve Potter's work at GATech). In my opinion, these results are more likely to create entities that really think than software approaches; however, software approaches are going to win the imitation game much sooner than we'll see artificially-constructed biological thinking machines.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2958015", "title": "Philosophy of artificial intelligence", "section": "Section::::Can a machine display general intelligence?:Intelligence.:Turing test.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 791, "text": "Alan Turing reduced the problem of defining intelligence to a simple question about conversation. He suggests that: if a machine can answer \"any\" question put to it, using the same words that an ordinary person would, then we may call that machine intelligent. A modern version of his experimental design would use an online chat room, where one of the participants is a real person and one of the participants is a computer program. The program passes the test if no one can tell which of the two participants is human. Turing notes that no one (except philosophers) ever asks the question \"can people think?\" He writes \"instead of arguing continually over this point, it is usual to have a polite convention that everyone thinks\". Turing's test extends this polite convention to machines:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33934108", "title": "Digital infinity", "section": "Section::::A digital apparatus.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 441, "text": "Turing did not claim that the human mind really is a digital computer. More modestly, he proposed that digital computers might one day qualify in human eyes as machines endowed with \"mind\". However, it was not long before philosophers (most notably Hilary Putnam) took what seemed to be the next logical step—arguing that the human mind \"itself\" is a digital computer, or at least that certain mental \"modules\" are best understood that way.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21391751", "title": "Turing test", "section": "Section::::Predictions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 128, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 128, "end_character": 676, "text": "Turing predicted that machines would eventually be able to pass the test; in fact, he estimated that by the year 2000, machines with around 100 MB of storage would be able to fool 30% of human judges in a five-minute test, and that people would no longer consider the phrase \"thinking machine\" contradictory. (In practice, from 2009–2012, the Loebner Prize chatterbot contestants only managed to fool a judge once, and that was only due to the human contestant pretending to be a chatbot.) He further predicted that machine learning would be an important part of building powerful machines, a claim considered plausible by contemporary researchers in artificial intelligence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5664", "title": "Consciousness", "section": "Section::::Philosophy of mind.:Artifact consciousness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 1665, "text": "One of the most influential contributions to this question was an essay written in 1950 by pioneering computer scientist Alan Turing, titled \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\". Turing disavowed any interest in terminology, saying that even \"Can machines think?\" is too loaded with spurious connotations to be meaningful; but he proposed to replace all such questions with a specific operational test, which has become known as the Turing test. To pass the test, a computer must be able to imitate a human well enough to fool interrogators. In his essay Turing discussed a variety of possible objections, and presented a counterargument to each of them. The Turing test is commonly cited in discussions of artificial intelligence as a proposed criterion for machine consciousness; it has provoked a great deal of philosophical debate. For example, Daniel Dennett and Douglas Hofstadter argue that anything capable of passing the Turing test is necessarily conscious, while David Chalmers argues that a philosophical zombie could pass the test, yet fail to be conscious. A third group of scholars have argued that with technological growth once machines begin to display any substantial signs of human-like behavior then the dichotomy (of human consciousness compared to human-like consciousness) becomes passé and issues of machine autonomy begin to prevail even as observed in its nascent form within contemporary industry and technology. Jürgen Schmidhuber argues that consciousness is simply the result of compression. As an agent sees representation of itself recurring in the environment, the compression of this representation can be called consciousness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "404048", "title": "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", "section": "Section::::Learning machines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 436, "text": "Turing concludes by speculating about a time when machines will compete with humans on numerous intellectual tasks and suggests tasks that could be used to make that start. Turing then suggests that abstract tasks such as playing chess could be a good place to start another method which he puts as \"..it is best to provide the machine with the best sense organs that money can buy, and then teach it to understand and speak English.\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "404048", "title": "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", "section": "Section::::Turing's test.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 256, "text": "Some have taken Turing's question to have been \"Can a computer, communicating over a teleprinter, fool a person into believing it is human?\" but it seems clear that Turing was not talking about fooling people but about generating human cognitive capacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2894560", "title": "History of artificial intelligence", "section": "Section::::The birth of artificial intelligence 1952–1956.:Turing's test.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 572, "text": "He noted that \"thinking\" is difficult to define and devised his famous Turing Test. If a machine could carry on a conversation (over a teleprinter) that was indistinguishable from a conversation with a human being, then it was reasonable to say that the machine was \"thinking\". This simplified version of the problem allowed Turing to argue convincingly that a \"thinking machine\" was at least \"plausible\" and the paper answered all the most common objections to the proposition. The Turing Test was the first serious proposal in the philosophy of artificial intelligence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
91x3ej	Why did so many people move to Rhodesia after UDI and during the war?	[ { "answer": "There are a number of assumptions to address in the question, so there are a variety of points to make in an answer.\n\nFriction with Britain and the breakup of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was in the early 1960s. The Unilateral Declaration of Independence was 1965, but the bush war didn't started to heat up until winter 1972, and military callups really got strong in 1976. I see them as different periods, and looking at the numbers, apparently so did the immigrants.\n\nI wouldn't say that it could be called \"so many people\" without qualification. In the late 1950s, the average migration was some 14K per year, but in the early 1960s, it averaged 8K per year. The largest number of immigrants after UDI in 1965 was a sharp spike to about 15K in 1971. True, all these numbers were large in proportion to the white population, which was in the 200K range (finding housing and services for immigrants was a government concern), but of course not that large in absolute numbers. In 1973-4, it was down to 9Kish; there was a spike in 1975 to 12K, due to the collapse of the Portuguese empire; it trailed off down from 8K in 1976 to 3K in 1979.\n\nAs for who was coming, it wasn't just England. Yes, post-World War 2, there was a boom in British immigration, but it was a small majority of immigrants, and after that, South Africa's share increased and the UK's share decreased. Rhodesia relaxed or abandoned restrictions on immigration from the 1960s. More southern Europeans came in, and some Portuguese entered in 1975-6 with the collapse of their colonial rule (the final spike). Immigration and emigration details were to some extent secret, and to some extent records weren't kept, so I don't have great data for details. As for their attitudes, later in the 1970s, there were more criminals (after UDI and sanctions, there weren't Rhodesian immigration offices abroad to vet immigrants) and white nationalists (local chapters of the John Birch Society and the American Nazi Party starting in 1977).\n\nWhy immigrate to Rhodesia? The economy was a big factor. This was an advertisement in a Dublin newspaper (later 1960s, I'm guessing from context):\n\n > the weather ... If you want a spacious home, good wages, reasonable taxation, first-class school, expert medical attention, help for the missus in the house [meaning cheap black domestic servants] and a bright sunny future for all. If you want assisted passages for yourself and your family if you qualify, and a two year special concession, where a family with two children can earn up to £1748 (£200 Sterling) tax-free, ...\n\nA Newsweek (U.S. magazine) ad in 1970 more focused on the economy. It wasn't a \"bit better\" living standard. In 1970, a sixth of all whites had a swimming pool. In 1952, Rhodesian whites had car ownership rates not seen in the U. S. until 1977.\n\nRhodesia was not the Hotel California -- you could get out without much trouble, even late when there could be issues with call-ups or financial penalties. Rhodesia had always had a significant percentage of immigration (I'm not sure non-whites were allowed in) and emigration, and people staying for only a few years -- from 1955 through 1979, immigration and emigration each averaged roughly 4% per year; over that period, there were more total immigrants and more total emigrants than the maximum population! Ian Smith was the only prime minister of Rhodesia (or Southern Rhodesia, as it was called before UDI) to be actually born in Rhodesia [1]. In 1971, about 1/4 of all whites in Rhodesia hadn't bothered to become citizens. Brownell writes, \n\n > The 1969 census revealed that three-quarters of Rhodesia’s white population over the age of 16 were born outside Rhodesia, of whom 59 per cent were born in either South Africa or Britain.... Of 1,460 people surveyed in the Rhodesian diaspora in the 1990s, only 36 per cent were born in Rhodesia, 39 per cent went to Rhodesia for jobs, and 22 per cent went as children.... In 1969, only 40 per cent of Rhodesians were born inside of Rhodesia. Among adults it was only 25.5 per cent.... In 1975, 45 per cent of the white population had been in Rhodesia for under ten years\n\nThe military callups: as I mentioned, the bush war was really starting in 1973, and ramped up in 1976. But in 1973 the callup was just 3,000, and half of them evaded it. In 1978, the Army said it needed at least 1K, but only 570 reported.\n\nAnd until 1976, immigrants were exempt from conscription for 5 years. In that year, it was reduced to 2 years.\n\nSummary: it was the economy, mostly. There was a long-standing culture of nipping in for a few years to make some money in a sunny land and then heading off somewhere else.\n\nMy major source is Josiah Brownell, The Collapse of Rhodesia: Population Demographics and the Politics of Race, I. B. Tauris, 2011. I've seen a review criticizing his conclusions, and his lack of opinions from Rhodesians and Zimbabweans, so I aimed to use mostly his primary quotations and figures. Barry M. Schutz, \"European Population Patterns, Cultural Persistence, and Political Change in Rhodesia\", Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol. 7, No. 1 (1973), _URL_0_, gave me some data for previous years.\n\n[1] Using modern country names for the 8 prime ministers in order: South Africa, Botswana, UK, UK, New Zealand, British Embassy in Berlin, UK, Zimbabwe (Ian Smith).\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "355033", "title": "Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 997, "text": "The Rhodesian government, which mostly comprised members of the country's white minority of about 5%, was indignant when, amid the UK colonial government's \"Wind of Change\" policies of decolonisation, less developed African colonies to the north without comparable experience of self-rule quickly advanced to independence during the early 1960s while Rhodesia was refused sovereignty under the newly ascendant principle of \"no independence before majority rule\" (\"NIBMAR\"). Most white Rhodesians felt that they were due independence following four decades of self-government, and that the British government was betraying them by withholding it. This combined with the colonial government's acute reluctance to hand over power to black Rhodesians—the manifestation of racial tensions, Cold War anti-communism and the fear that a dystopian Congo-style situation might result—to create the impression that if the UK did not grant independence, Rhodesia might be justified in taking it unilaterally.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22945455", "title": "History of the Jews in Zimbabwe", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 601, "text": "In 1965, the white minority government of Southern Rhodesia, under Prime Minister Ian Smith, unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia, in response to British demands that the colony be handed over to black majority rule. Rhodesia was then subject to international sanctions, and black nationalist organizations began an insurgency, known as the Rhodesian Bush War, which lasted until 1979, when the Rhodesian government agreed to settle with the black nationalists. By the time the Rhodesian Bush War ended in 1979, most of the country's Jewish population had emigrated, along with many whites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26500932", "title": "Ernest Lucas Guest", "section": "Section::::Politics.:Second World War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 690, "text": "At a special sitting of Parliament on 28 August 1939, Rhodesia determined to stand by Great Britain in the event that war should break out, as was expected. Of a white population of just 65,000, only 10,000 were fit and available for active service. It was decided not to create a full Rhodesian formation: if it were wiped out, the colony's future prosperity would be put at risk. Instead mostly small groups of Rhodesians were distributed throughout the British Army, Navy and Air Force. In the Defence Report of 1939, it was stated that forces would be trained and organised not only for internal security and defence but also to defend British interests in service outside its borders.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14114", "title": "History of Zimbabwe", "section": "Section::::Colonial era (1888–1980).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 281, "text": "Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing British colony in October 1923, subsequent to a referendum held the previous year. Many Rhodesians served on behalf of the United Kingdom during World War II, mainly in the East African Campaign against Axis forces in Italian East Africa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34399", "title": "Zimbabwe", "section": "Section::::History.:Colonial era and Rhodesia (1888–1964).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 394, "text": "Under the new constitution, Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing British colony, subsequent to a 1922 referendum. Rhodesians of all races served on behalf of the United Kingdom during the two World Wars. Proportional to the white population, Southern Rhodesia contributed more per capita to both the First and Second World Wars than any other part of the Empire, including Britain itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2027786", "title": "White people in Zimbabwe", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1154, "text": "More than 3,000 white soldiers who assisted in the BSAC takeover of the country were given land grants of or more, and black people living on the land became tenants. Later, Land Apportionment and Tenure Acts reserved extensive low-rainfall areas for black-only tribal-trust lands and high rainfall areas for white ownership, which gave rise to cases of black people being excluded from their own land. White settlers were attracted to Rhodesia by the availability of tracts of prime farmland that could be purchased from the state at low cost. This resulted in a major feature of the Rhodesian economy—the \"white farm\". The white farm was typically a large (100 km² (38.6 mi²)) mechanized estate, owned by a white family and employing hundreds of black people. Many white farms provided housing, schools and clinics for black employees and their families. At the time of independence in 1980, more than 40% of the country's farmed land comprised approximately 5,000 white farms. These farms were said to have provided 40% of the country's GDP and up to 60% of its foreign earnings. Major export products included tobacco, beef, sugar, cotton and maize.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40902864", "title": "Southern Rhodesia in World War II", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 945, "text": "Southern Rhodesia had no diplomatic powers, but largely oversaw its own contributions of manpower and materiel to the war effort, being responsible for its own defence. Rhodesian officers and soldiers were distributed in small groups throughout the British and South African forces in an attempt to prevent high losses. Most of the colony's men served in Britain, East Africa and the Mediterranean, particularly at first; a more broad dispersal occurred from late 1942. Rhodesian servicemen in operational areas were mostly from the country's white minority, with the Rhodesian African Rifles—made up of black troops and white officers—providing the main exception in Burma from late 1944. Other non-white soldiers and white servicewomen served in East Africa and on the home front within Southern Rhodesia. Tens of thousands of black men were conscripted from rural communities for work, first on the aerodromes and later on white-owned farms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1pudqa	how do celebrities manage social media accounts with millions of followers?	[ { "answer": "You can turn notifications off. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5796", "title": "Celebrity", "section": "Section::::Internet celebrities.:Social networking and video hosting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 586, "text": "Most high-profile celebrities participate in social networking and photo or video hosting platforms such as YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat. Social networking sites allow celebrities to communicate directly with their fans, removing the middle-man known as traditional media. Social media humanizes celebrities in a way that arouses public fascination as evident by the success of magazines such as \"Us Weekly\" and \"People Weekly\". Celebrity blogging have also spawned stars such as Perez Hilton who is well known for not only blogging, but also outing celebrities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5789090", "title": "Parasocial interaction", "section": "Section::::On the Internet.:In social media.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 1249, "text": "Most celebrities, aware of the rising importance of social media (for their audience), now themselves actively use these networks, by running their own profiles and making raw and real-time information and content available to the social media community and fans. It allows them to promote themselves and their “products” (i.e. music, albums, movies, shows) by directly communicating with their audience. Nowadays a fan can more easily to get “in touch” with celebrities (as fan mails don't need to be hand-written and sent though regular mail anymore) by way of comments on photos or videos posted by the celebrity themselves. Often, and dependent upon the celebrity and their personal management of their social profiles, the celebrity may respond to a comment of a random fan or follow. The development of parasocial relationships between the audience/fans and celebrities is facilitated. The process also calls into question the one-way nature of parasocial interaction because celebrities, on the outer surface seem to try to get more and more in contact with their audiences. Researchers now raise the question of how social media, i.e., social networks, have modified these parasocial interactions between the celebrities and their audience.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3740888", "title": "Celebrity branding", "section": "Section::::Usage.:Paid endorsement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 1088, "text": "Social media sites, including Twitter, Instagram and Facebook, are a popular non-traditional medium for celebrities endorsing products and brands (Jin & Phua, 2014). The advantages of using celebrity endorsements on social media is the large reach that celebrities have. This means that large audiences are exposed to the influence of the celebrity to encourage positive purchasing behaviours towards the brand (Jin & Phua, 2014). In 2013, the most followed accounts on Twitter with more than 30million followers each were Justin Bieber, Lady Gaga and Katy Perry (Jin & Phua, 2014). Jin and Phua, (2014) state that the more followers someone has the greater perceived social influence they hold. As well as having reach to their followers, any post may be shared by their followers to extend that reach to further audiences (Jin & Phua, 2014). Another benefit of using social media for celebrity endorsements is the interactive nature of this non-traditional media, (Cunningham & Bright, 2012), this helps to build the relationship between the celebrity endorser, consumer and the brand.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3740888", "title": "Celebrity branding", "section": "Section::::Celebrity reach.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1027, "text": "An example of the usefulness of a celebrity's reach can be shown in statistics taken from telegraph.co.uk regarding the world's most followed Instagram celebrities. The most followed Instagram celebrity is Selena Gomez, with each post that she makes being viewed by all or most of her 145 million followers. Cristiano Ronaldo is 2nd, with 144 million followers, and Ariana Grande is 3rd with 116 million followers. A direct brand endorsement from one of these celebrities would be significant were they to post a picture with the company's product encouraging their followers to go out and purchase it, and this is on Instagram alone. Imagine the effect of a celebrity posting an endorsement across all of their social media, (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, etc.). The reach that an A-list celebrity has possesses the ability to reach millions of potential consumers, and as a result can be an incredibly effective way to boost sales, or at the very least get a brand's name out there in a wider audience than before.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3963060", "title": "Personal branding", "section": "Section::::Goffman's Self-presentation theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1009, "text": "There are many examples of celebrities building a brand for themselves over some sort of social media platform. In fact, it is rare to see an athlete or celebrity without a social media page whether it is twitter or instagram. Celebrities use these outlets as ways of branding themselves, by showing people their lives and having fans feel close to them, almost like they are friends, and have a connection through social media outlets such as twitter and instagram. Also, to keep more of their fans interested, and to reach as many as possible many celebrities will update daily on Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and Snapchat so their message can be seen by a wider audience. They can keep fans informed on everything from what they want to wear, to their political views. Social Media has provided a simple way for celebrities to get their personal brand to reach a wider audience, and they utilize the 'front stage' to influence people in a particular way and to make themselves look good in the public eye.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19776474", "title": "Internet celebrity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 698, "text": "An Internet celebrity, blogebrity, cyberstar, online celebrity, micro-celebrity, Internet personality, or influencer is someone who has acquired or developed their fame and notability by means of the Internet. The rise of social media has helped people increase their outreach to a global audience. Internet celebrities may be targeted by companies who desire for said celebrities to advertise products to their fans and followers on their platforms. Internet celebrities often function as lifestyle gurus who promote a particular lifestyle or attitude. In this role they may be crucial influencers/multipliers for trends in fashion, technology, gaming, political, entertainment, and other genres.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3808391", "title": "Mixi", "section": "Section::::Celebrity accounts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 504, "text": "In 2008, Mixi began \"Celebrity Accounts\" in which celebrities who are on the social networking site are allowed to surpass the 1000-friend limit and potentially have an unlimited number of followers. Many popular figures have \"Celebrity Accounts\" such as actress, model, singer Anna Tsuchiya, producer and rapper Shing02, Akihabara idol Haruko Momoi and countless others including fictional character Arsène Lupin III from the series of the same name. Mixi maintained an official list of these accounts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
2h07at	why does mega download your file into your local cache and then save it, as opposed to downloading through your browser's download manager?	[ { "answer": "It is probably because the file stays encrypted on the server. Mega downloads the file onto your computer and at the same time it is decrypting the file so when it is done downloading/decrypting, You can tell the browser where you want it saved. Then the browser simply moves the file.\n\nIf you simply download the file from the server as is with your browser, you would probably have an encrypted file and would otherwise have to decrypt it with the key that goes along with the url of said file.\n\n\nEdit: The file on the server is always encrypted. It is always encrypted/decrypted on the client browser before it is uploaded/downloaded to and from the server. The server never has decrypted files.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5779296", "title": "Download Cache", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 215, "text": "The Download Cache, or downloaded files cache, is a component of Microsoft's .NET Framework that is similar to the Global Assembly Cache except that it caches assemblies that have been downloaded from the Internet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5068415", "title": "HTTP cookie", "section": "Section::::Alternatives to cookies.:Browser cache.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 199, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 199, "end_character": 343, "text": "The browser cache can also be used to store information that can be used to track individual users. This technique takes advantage of the fact that the web browser will use resources stored within the cache instead of downloading them from the website when it determines that the cache already has the most up-to-date version of the resource.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8674550", "title": "Temporary Internet Files", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 468, "text": "Each time a user visits a website using Microsoft Internet Explorer, files downloaded with each web page (including HTML and Javascript code) are saved to the Temporary Internet Files folder, creating a web cache of the web page on the local computer's hard disk drive, or other form of digital data storage. The next time the user visits the cached website, only changed content needs to be downloaded from the Internet; the unchanged data is available in the cache.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1718482", "title": "FlashGot", "section": "Section::::Software.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 723, "text": "A download manager is an app specialized in downloading files from the Internet faster and in a more organized manner. However, not all these apps integrate with Mozilla Firefox. The FlashGot add-in resolves this situation by integrating the download managers into Firefox allowing interoperability.. , FlashGot recognizes and supports 51 different external download managers. When a user chooses to download one or more files, FlashGot offers to send them to the detected download manager. Additionally, FlashGot can detect video embedded in web pages and send their download links to download managers. It supports downloading from the popular YouTube service. It also contain powerful extended media download functions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "602211", "title": "Bloom filter", "section": "Section::::Extensions and applications.:Cache filtering.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 1027, "text": "Content delivery networks deploy web caches around the world to cache and serve web content to users with greater performance and reliability. A key application of Bloom filters is their use in efficiently determining which web objects to store in these web caches. Nearly three-quarters of the URLs accessed from a typical web cache are \"one-hit-wonders\" that are accessed by users only once and never again. It is clearly wasteful of disk resources to store one-hit-wonders in a web cache, since they will never be accessed again. To prevent caching one-hit-wonders, a Bloom filter is used to keep track of all URLs that are accessed by users. A web object is cached only when it has been accessed at least once before, i.e., the object is cached on its second request. The use of a Bloom filter in this fashion significantly reduces the disk write workload, since one-hit-wonders are never written to the disk cache. Further, filtering out the one-hit-wonders also saves cache space on disk, increasing the cache hit rates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8674550", "title": "Temporary Internet Files", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Windows XP.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 581, "text": "On Windows XP, the cache is usually located at %USERPROFILE%\\Local Settings\\Temporary Internet Files (where %USERPROFILE% is an environment variable pointing to the root directory of the logged-in user's user profile). However, the cache may be moved by changing a value in the registry. Occasionally an additional (hidden) cache named \"Temporary Internet Files\" may appear in %USERPROFILE%\\Local Settings\\Temp\\Temporary Internet Files or in %USERPROFILE%\\Local Settings\\Temporary Internet Files. This location can only be deleted by manually accessing the folder and removing it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33139", "title": "World Wide Web", "section": "Section::::Function.:Web caching.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 1087, "text": "A web cache is a server computer located either on the public Internet, or within an enterprise that stores recently accessed web pages to improve response time for users when the same content is requested within a certain time after the original request. Most web browsers also implement a browser cache by writing recently obtained data to a local data storage device. HTTP requests by a browser may ask only for data that has changed since the last access. Web pages and resources may contain expiration information to control caching to secure sensitive data, such as in online banking, or to facilitate frequently updated sites, such as news media. Even sites with highly dynamic content may permit basic resources to be refreshed only occasionally. Web site designers find it worthwhile to collate resources such as CSS data and JavaScript into a few site-wide files so that they can be cached efficiently. Enterprise firewalls often cache Web resources requested by one user for the benefit of many users. Some search engines store cached content of frequently accessed websites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
d8kdr0	How absolute was the reign of kings during the Middle Ages?	[ { "answer": "Hello !\n\nI'll try to answer the question, even though it's a very broad one. As a French who studied medieval French politics and warfare, I'll be mainly focused on France.\n\nShort answer is : it depends. It depends on both time and place. The power of the French kings was not the same as the English king, nor of the Holy Roman Emperor. It evolved a lot through time, too. The period called Middle Ages covers more or less a thousand years, and things changed quite a bit.\n\nNevertheless, their power was, in general, far less absolute that it came to be in the XVII-XVIIIth centuries, with the rise of Absolute Monarchy. I'll give a few exemples.\n\nFirst one, and quite a significant one, is about taxes. In France, kings basically relied on two sources of taxes : ordinary and exceptional taxes. Ordinary taxes were \"all the time active\" taxes, enforced by customs, ancient laws, privileges or deals. They generally took the form of indirect taxes that could be compared to our modern VAT, for instance. \n\nExtraordinary taxes were special taxes which were to be collected by the king in times of need. Those needed consent from the local population. It was nearly impossible for the king to ask for such contribution against the will of the \"people\". Those taxes were generally adopted by representative of local elites and bourgeoisie, but seldom for free. The demanded local privileges or the re-validation of old rights. The most common demand was that the taxes were to be collected by the representatives in the name of the king, the representatives being responsible for division and effective collect, the money then being delivered to the king, sometimes months or even years later.\n\nThis shows that even for such important and central things as taxes, French kings did not wield absolute power.\n\nSecond thing is military service. Noblemen were, theoretically and practically bound to military service to their liege. The king, in particular, could summon is Ost, his feodal army of lords, to assist him in his wars. \n\nHowever, things were not that simple. First of all, nobles did not always heed the call and answered. If you take the exemple of the English campaign in France of 1415, which ended with the battle of Agincourt and the siege of Calais, the French king, Charles VI, summoned is nobles many times, which is a sign of inefficacy (if you need to call them twice, that's because they didn't show up the first time). It took months for them to gather and answer the call, some coming with only few knights, or very late. \n\nThey were to be paid, moreover, if the time of service exceeded 40 days a year (I'm talking about the period of 1350-1450, that I know best. Rules evolved and so did indemnification of knights summoned to the king's host). Past that time, they were paid for their service, according to their dignity (squire, knight, banner lord) and the amount of fighters they brought with them. \n\nThis shows too that the kings couldn't, in reality, muster their Ost for a large amount of time, nor quickly. Furthermore, the influence of great lords was important. If you look at the battle of Agincourt you will see that many Burgundian knights were missing (even though a great deal fought - and died -). The reason is linked to the great rivalry between the Duke of Burgundy and the king's most prominent ministers at the time (France was on the verge of open civil war). The Duke himself was asked not to come in person and therefore forbade his knights to answer the call to arms. Some still went to the ost, but many didn't and that leads to my third point.\n\nThird point, then : the influence of prominent lords. The biggest (most powerful, rich and influential) nobles had a great amout of political power in medieval France. Some of them were part of the king's Private Council. They also had their say in the collection of extraordinary taxes within their lands (which constituted the biggest part of the realm until late XVth century). At times, and especially in the earlier period, they could be a match, or even superior, to the might and power of the king.\n\nFor instance, Duke William of Normandy, remembered for his conquest of England (1066), first fought against his king and liege, king of France (1052 - 1054 primarily). The king Louis VI (the Fat) is mainly remembered for his numerous wars against his vassals to increase the royal autority.\n\nThe greatest nobles also had some extraordinary power, such as the right of justice on their lands, were they were the main source of justice and judgement, even though the kings tried to limit this with time.\n\nAll this taken into account, it is necessary to talk a bit about the evolution of the situation. It is generally considered that Medieval France experimented an ongoing centralization and increase of power of the kings. They strengthened the administration, increased its number. This was a very long and progressive process, that had to face the opposition of lords and population alike.\n\nThe great turning point, however, was the Hundred Years War. Before it started, Philipp VI (le Bel, the Fair), seriously reinforced the power of the royal administration (which is one of the elements that increased the tensions with the English, the king of England, duke of Normandy, was therefore a vassal to the king of France, a situation made difficult with the increase of royal power and control over his subjects).\n\nAfter him, the French kings, confronted with repeted wars, devastation and challenge of their authority, managed to increase their grip over the vassals. Things were allowed due to necessity of war : exceptional taxes were more easily conceded, the idea of a permanent, professional army was accepted, the local autonomy of great nobles was reduced (many of them being relatives, sons, brothers or uncles of the king himself). \n\nThe defeat of Burgundy, last great feodal challenge to the authority of the French king, was a signal for strengthened royal power and administration. Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, was unable to preserve the status of quasi-independence his father, Philipp the Good, was able to establish, leading to the reintegration of Burgundy into the king's privy domain. \n\nIt would be bold to assume that late medieval (Charles the Bold died in 1477) kings of France had absolute powers. Their power was certainly stronger and more easily enforced than their predecessors, yet they were very far from total control. Their incapacity to avoid or overcome swiftly the great religious turmoils of XVIth - XVIIth centuries shows that even despite their efforts, they could not enforce their religion and their will easily over the whole kingdom of France. You'll have to wait until Louis XIV, whose personal reign was 1661 - 1715, to see a real \"absolute monarch\".\n\nI hope this answer your question, feel free to ask for follow up question or details, I'll try to keep an eye on this subject.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7946821", "title": "Roi fainéant", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 327, "text": "During the century of the \"rois fainéants\", the Merovingian kings were increasingly dominated by their mayors of the palace, in the 6th century the office of the manager of the royal household, but in the 7th increasingly the real \"power behind the throne\" who limited the role of the king to an essentially ceremonial office.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27619138", "title": "Corporatism", "section": "Section::::Politics and political economy.:Absolutist corporatism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 237, "text": "Absolute monarchies during the late Middle Ages gradually subordinated corporatist systems and corporate groups to the authority of centralized and absolutist governments, resulting in corporatism being used to enforce social hierarchy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12621591", "title": "Government of the Han dynasty", "section": "Section::::Local government.:Kingdoms, marquisates, and fiefs of princesses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 99, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 99, "end_character": 994, "text": "The power of the kings declined after the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC; the number of kingdoms and their sizes were reduced. An imperial edict in 145 BC removed the kings' rights to appoint officials above the salary-rank of 400-\"dan\", and all officials ranked higher than this were appointed directly by the central government. Excluding the kingdom-level Minister Coachman, the kingdoms' Nine Ministers and Imperial Counselors were abolished. The Chancellor, now the equivalent of a commandery Administrator, was retained, although he was still appointed by the central government. After these reforms, the kings were no longer administrative heads and merely took a portion of the taxes collected by the government in their kingdoms as personal income. Charles Hucker notes that after this transformation of kingdoms and marquessates into virtual commanderies and counties, respectively, a \"... fully centralized government was achieved\" for the first time since the Qin dynasty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17157304", "title": "History of the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom", "section": "Section::::The late monarchy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 810, "text": "The second epoch saw the reigns of the last three legendary kings. The second epoch was more consequential than was the first, which was in part due to the significant degree of territorial expansion which occurred during this period. In addition, this period saw the development of the \"Plebeian\" (commoner) class, and their partial incorporation into the political structure of the city. Finally, this period saw the only foreign (specifically, Etruscan) kings, and the only period where kings ascended the throne due to heredity rather than election. Regardless of how true these legends were, it is likely that, as the legends suggest, a series of conquests did occur during the late monarchy. As a result of these conquests, it became necessary to determine what was to be done with the conquered people.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3624746", "title": "Pagaruyung Kingdom", "section": "Section::::History.:Beginnings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 347, "text": "By the 16th century, the time of the next report after the reign of Adityawarman, royal power had been split into three recognised reigning kings. They were the King of the World (\"Raja Alam\"), the King of Adat (\"Raja Adat\"), and the King of Religion (\"Raja Ibadat\"). Collectively they were called the Kings of the Three Seats (\"Rajo Tigo Selo\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "258983", "title": "Elective monarchy", "section": "Section::::Historical examples.:Europe.:Kingdom of Jerusalem.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 440, "text": "In the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, the kingship was partially elected and partially hereditary. During the height of the kingdom in the mid-12th century there was a royal family and a relatively clear line of succession. Nevertheless, the king was elected, or at least recognized, by the Haute Cour. Here the king was considered a \"primus inter pares\" (first among equals), and in his absence his duties were performed by his seneschal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37781958", "title": "Feudalism in the Holy Roman Empire", "section": "Section::::Roots of feudalism.:Germanic clan system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 202, "text": "Even kings (see Richard the Lionheart - compulsory allegiance) and at least in the early Middle Ages, the clergy (see Ottonian-Salian imperial church system) could be vassals of a king or another king.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
30swua	why is the uk parliament being dissolved ahead of the general election?	[ { "answer": "It's a formality that signifies that each seat is now vacant and every seat is up for election. The ministers still do their respective jobs until the election results come in, they just have to put themselves forward for re-election.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1854849", "title": "Dissolution of the Parliament of the United Kingdom", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 236, "text": "The last dissolution of Parliament was on 3 May 2017, to make way for the general election to be held on 8 June 2017. It dissolved after a two-thirds majority vote by the House of Commons, as required by the Fixed-term Parliaments Act.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46676222", "title": "Next United Kingdom general election", "section": "Section::::Date of the election.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 562, "text": "Removing the power of the monarch, on advice of the prime minister, to dissolve parliament before its five-year maximum length, the act permits early dissolution if the House of Commons votes by a two-thirds supermajority, as occurred in the 2017 general election. Parliament is also dissolved if a government loses a vote of no confidence by a simple majority and a new government is not formed within 14 days. The Conservative Party manifesto at the 2017 general election proposed repealing the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, although this has yet to occur.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13964", "title": "Parliament of the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Duration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 598, "text": "Each Parliament comes to an end, after a number of sessions, in anticipation of a general election. Parliament is dissolved by virtue of the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011. Prior to that, dissolution was effected by the Sovereign, always on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister could seek dissolution at a time politically advantageous to his or her party. If the Prime Minister loses the support of the House of Commons, Parliament will dissolve and a new election will be held. Parliaments can also be dissolved if two-thirds of the House of Commons votes for an early election.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "652293", "title": "Dissolution of parliament", "section": "Section::::United Kingdom.:Parliament of the United Kingdom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 383, "text": "Under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, as amended, Parliament is dissolved automatically 25 working days ahead of a general election. Elections ordinarily take place five years after the previous general election, but may be held sooner if the Prime Minister loses a vote of confidence, or if two-thirds of the members of the House of Commons vote in favor of an early election.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27320458", "title": "Cameron–Clegg coalition", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 285, "text": "The previous Parliament had been dissolved on 12 April 2010 in advance of the general election on 6 May. The election resulted in a hung parliament, no single party having an overall majority in the House of Commons, the Conservatives having the most seats but 20 short of a majority.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13828", "title": "House of Commons of the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Members and elections.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 601, "text": "General elections occur whenever Parliament is dissolved. The timing of the dissolution was normally chosen by the Prime Minister (see relationship with the Government above); however, as a result of the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, Parliamentary terms are now fixed at five years, except in the event of the House of Commons sustaining a vote of no confidence or passing an \"early election\" motion, the latter having to be passed by a two-thirds majority. The first use of this procedure was in April 2017, when MPs voted in favour of Theresa May's call for a snap election to be held that June.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59736371", "title": "Government shutdown", "section": "Section::::United Kingdom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 451, "text": "Until the passage of the Fixed-Term Parliaments Act in 2011, government shutdowns in the United Kingdom were impossible due to parliamentary convention. A government which could not command a majority in Parliament would be dismissed, either prior to the seating of Parliament when the Queen's Speech was voted down or later, when a vote of no confidence was tabled and passed, when a Finance Act was voted down, or when a major bill was voted down. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
amc2jf	what, why, and from whence are these super tiny flies that congregate in tiny swarms at face-level?	[ { "answer": "Would help to know which country you are in and even which region of the country as the little bugs will vary considerably from place to place including thrips.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I believe they're basically gnat orgies. They all come together in big swarms to fertilize each other. Not sure what they're doing for the rest of their time when they're not having a root. Not a gnat expert but last time I asked someone wtf was with all the bug clouds that's what I was told.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "63663", "title": "Fly", "section": "Section::::Ecology.:Swarming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 244, "text": "In many dipteran groups, swarming is a feature of adult life, with clouds of insects gathering in certain locations. These swarming insects are mostly males, and the swarm may serve the purpose of making their location more visible to females.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44131624", "title": "Synoeca surinama", "section": "Section::::Behavior.:Swarming behavior.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 349, "text": "\"S. surinama, \"like many other related wasp species, exhibit swarming behavior. Swarming behavior is a collective behavior in which certain events or stimuli cause many individuals of the same species (most commonly from the same colony) to fly in close aggregation with one another, often appearing to onlookers as a giant cloud of moving insects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57322195", "title": "Lasioglossum sordidum", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 612, "text": "These bees are very small being around 5 mm in size, however, when compared to their body size they have relatively large wings. They are moderately hairy with hair covering a majority of its body. Their appearance is described as fly-like., and small and agile . They have short tongues, but this has no restriction to gather pollen. Females have wider abdomens than the males. They appear very similar in colour and shape to a honey bee, however, the small native bee is not as stout. Because \"Lasioglossum sordidum\" are small and fly like looking they often get mistaken for flies or go completely unnoticed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "646568", "title": "Gasterophilus", "section": "Section::::Identification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 246, "text": "\"Gasterophilus\" are medium to large flies and are long. They look similar to drone bumble bees, with clear wings with brown patches, and produce creamy-white eggs, around in length. The adults have non-functional mouthparts, so they cannot feed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2600454", "title": "Swarm (comics)", "section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 845, "text": "Swarm is a composite being of hundreds of thousands of bees driven by a human intelligence. He is technically intangible, as his body is merely an aggregate of tiny forms. He can fly through the air and assume any shape and size he desires. He can mentally influence the actions of other bees, the full range of which may extend over hundreds of yards in radius. With the aid of a team of scientists, Swarm was briefly able to enhance his power to the point where he could have theoretically taken control of every bee on Earth, but this plan was averted by Spider-Man. At first, Swarm seemed capable of only controlling other bees, but he has exhibited the ability to communicate/control other insects as well. Fritz von Meyer's skeleton, the focal point of his consciousness, remained behind as his only remains until being devoured by Venom.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11105212", "title": "Nuptial flight", "section": "Section::::Flying ant day.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 439, "text": "In most species, the male ants fly alongside them, although they are smaller and less noticeable. The queens fly around – some covering very long distances, others only a few meters – then mate and drop to the ground, where they lose their wings and attempt to start a new ant colony. The mass of flying insects often attracts the attention of predators such as birds, and it is common to see flocks gorging on the readily available food.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2965651", "title": "Pengi", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 921, "text": "The maze is inhabited by \"snow bees\" that are deadly so must be avoided. They move around in a semi-random way: a bee may sometimes choose to get away from \"Pengi\" instead of chasing him (especially on early levels). The bees can be killed by crushing them with a moving ice block (bees do not stop the blocks so more than one bee can be killed with one kick) or by kicking the fence while they are touching it. This momentarily stuns them and they can be crushed by simply walking over them. Only a set number of bees are on the screen at once (e.g. 3 on level 1) but there are more (a total of 6 on level 1) which emerge from the diamond blocks as others are killed. A level is completed either by killing all of the bees or by lining up the special diamond blocks. This is the preferred way of completing the level because a huge points bonus is awarded (5,000 if they are touching the fence, 10,000 if they are not).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
uwdtm	if water makes up 70% of our earth and we have things such as water purifiers, why are we running out of drinking water on our planet?	[ { "answer": "Because large scale water purification and desalinization is expensive and inefficient. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We're not running out.\n\nThe problem isn't the amount of drinking water, it's the distribution of the water.\n\nMost developed countries could probably hydrate their population 50 times over, if they wanted (assuming there's no drought). Whereas, for example, in hot African countries where water is scarce, contains diseases and there is little technology available to purify the water, then you get dehydration problems..", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A slight caveat to the amount of water on earth, only 2.75% of water is fresh water.\n\n[Here's a nice visual representation of water on Earth](_URL_0_)\n\nEdit: and like harrisonbeaker said, water desalinization (making salt water into drinking water) takes a lot of energy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Water makes up 70% of the earth's surface, but almost all of it (97.5%) is salt water, which is basically useless. We can't drink it, we can't use it for agriculture, and we can't use it for industry. We can desalinate water, but that's very, very expensive.\n\nOut of the fresh water that's left (2.5%), most of it is frozen in glaciers and ice caps. Lakes, rivers, ground water, and rainfall make up all that we can practically use. Some places have a lot more of these than others. There are plenty of arid areas where people are using more water than the local environment can replenish (for example, the Colorado River, or the Ogallala Aquifer). \n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Water does NOT make up to 70% of our earth!](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You mean that 70% of earth's surface is water.\n\nMost of it is salt water and thus must be processed before it can be used, which takes a lot of resources.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21161137", "title": "Water security", "section": "Section::::Research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 955, "text": "Lawrence Smith, the president of the population institute, asserts that although an overwhelming majority of the planet's surface is composed of water, 97% of this water is constituted of saltwater; the fresh water used to sustain humans is only 3% of the total amount of water on Earth. Therefore, Smith believes that the competition for water in an overpopulated world would pose a major threat to human stability, even going so far as to postulate apocalyptic world wars being fought over the control of thinning ice sheets and nearly desiccated reservoirs. Nevertheless, 2 billion people have supposedly gained access to a safe water source since 1990 who may have earlier lacked it. The proportion of people in developing countries with access to safe water is calculated to have improved from 30 percent in 1970. to 71 percent in 1990, 79 percent in 2000 and 84 percent in 2004, parallel with rising population. This trend is projected to continue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32114812", "title": "Space Saves Society", "section": "Section::::Motivation and background.:The importance of water.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 448, "text": "Water covers the largest percentage of our planet’s surface and it is vital for our survival. However, many areas still suffer from absence of drinking water. The Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) refers that “Today 2.5 billion people, including almost one billion children, live without even basic sanitation. Every 20 seconds, a child dies as a result of poor sanitation. That's 1.5 million preventable deaths each year.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2497643", "title": "Water resource management", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 829, "text": "Water is an essential resource for all life on the planet. Of the water resources on Earth only three percent of it is fresh and two-thirds of the freshwater is locked up in ice caps and glaciers. Of the remaining one percent, a fifth is in remote, inaccessible areas and much seasonal rainfall in monsoonal deluges and floods cannot easily be used. As time advances, water is becoming scarcer and having access to clean, safe, drinking water is limited among countries. At present only about 0.08 percent of all the world's fresh water is exploited by mankind in ever increasing demand for sanitation, drinking, manufacturing, leisure and agriculture. Due to the small percentage of water remaining, optimizing the fresh water we have left from natural resources has been a continuous difficulty in several locations worldwide.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21161137", "title": "Water security", "section": "Section::::Fresh water.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1147, "text": "Water, in absolute terms, is not in short supply planet-wide. But, according to the United Nations water organization, UN-Water, the total usable freshwater supply for ecosystems and humans is only about 200,000 km of water – less than one percent (1%) of all freshwater resources. Usable fresh water includes water not contaminated or degraded by water-altering chemicals, such as sewage or any other harmful chemicals from continuous previous use. In the 20th century, water use has been growing at more than twice the rate of the population increase. Specifically, water withdrawals are predicted to increase by 50 percent by 2025 in developing countries, and 18 per cent in developed countries. One continent, for example, Africa, has been predicted to have 75 to 250 million inhabitants lacking access to fresh water. By 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under stress conditions. By 2050, more than half of the world's population will live in water-stressed areas, and another billion may lack sufficient water, MIT researchers find.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15909409", "title": "Peak water", "section": "Section::::Freshwater withdrawal by country.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 531, "text": "The United States has about 5% of the world's population, yet it uses almost as much water as India (~1/5 of world) or China (1/5 of world) because substantial amounts of water are used to grow food exported to the rest of the world. The United States agricultural sector consumes more water than the industrial sector, though substantial quantities of water are withdrawn (but not consumed) for power plant cooling systems. 40 out of 50 state water managers expect some degree of water stress in their state in the next 10 years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33936176", "title": "Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 652, "text": "The assessment confirmed that agriculture consumes more water resources than any other sector. A key finding was that a third of the world's population live in water-scarce areas. More than 1.2 billion live in areas of physical water scarcity, lacking water resources. Parts of Australia and the United States suffer in this way. A further 1.6 billion people live in areas of economic water scarcity, where there is insufficient human capacity or financial resources for people to effectively make use of water that is available. Here, sub-Saharan Africa is a good example; there is water in the rivers but no dams or pumps to enable people to use it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17087685", "title": "Slingshot (water vapor distillation system)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 505, "text": "Kamen came to develop the device on the basis of statistics that showed lack of access to clean water as a public health crisis. Statistics from the World Health Organization show that there are 900 million people worldwide without a readily available supply of drinking water and that some 3.5 million people die annually because of diseases resulting from the consumption of unsanitary water. Despite the fact that over two-thirds of the Earth's surface is covered with water, only 1% of it is potable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
y5cg8	What were NATO's defensive plans for a conventional invasion from the Soviet Union in the 80s?	[ { "answer": "Try looking at a few of the auto-biographies of generals from the period. I've not read them all, but Sir Richard Dannatt's book contained a large portion of truths about NATo preparation, including the belief that should the Red Army cross the Iron Curtain, it was quite probable the war would have gone thermo-nuclear almost immediately, followed by a war of attrition for what ever was left. Either way, I say that reading those books as opposed to some journalist or politician or somebody who generally just read the reports and had no clue as to what commanding a faction involved.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Some answers in brief. I'm sure there is someone here who can give you some better answers:\n\n1) Yes, absolutely. The conventional wisdom (especially that of the neo-conservatives in America) was that the Soviet Union had such a massive conventional advantage that a nuclear response would be the only option.\n\n2) Yes. Fortunately, how much of a hindrance the infighting would have been is just speculation.\n\n3) Not sure, possibly difficult to guess at. I don't think many would have guessed on Spain's semi-neutrality during the Second World War.\n\n4) On paper, the Soviet Union still had massive superiority in conventional and ICBM strength. In reality we now know that this wasn't true. An actual war could easily have been fought to a very bloody stalemate. It's amazing to read about how little both sides actually understood of each other and their capabilities. In actuality, the technological edge that NATO had in the 1980's (much of it to counter imaginary threats) would likely have been able to counter the imbalance in numbers.\n\n5) The option was always there to launch the first nuclear strikes, particularly if the conventional war was going badly. If there were any first offence plans in the 1980's then I haven't heard of them. It's possible that they might be classified.\n\n6) The Eisenbach gap was the most likely point for conflict. There was a US armoured cavalry regiment there to provide first response, to buy time for NATO forces to react and deploy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ok, so...\n\n1) NATO would probably not have considered the user of tactical nukes until it looked like it was completely over for them. There are only three nuclear states in NATO; the U.S., Britain, and France. France might have gone nuclear first at Germany's expense, but that's only if they actually fully participated in the war (France's membership is weird). Britain was the least likely to go nuke due to the fact that even if NATO lost, they could still hold out as a U.S. ally. The U.S. might have gone nuclear but it wouldn't have done so without probably the approval of NATO allies. The Germans, French, English, etc. wouldn't have been keen on getting irradiated.\n\n2) Only France would have been an obstacle in the war. [Like I said, their membership is weird](_URL_4_). It would have depended upon the internal political climate of France, and the cause of the war for them to participate fully. Without their assistance, the logistics of trying to land NATO reinforcements from the U.S., Brittan, and Canada would have had to be funneled through the Dutch Chanel ports. This is why the WARSAW Pact would have rushed through Northern Germany, cut off Denmark, and overrun Belgium and Holland to cut the ports. If France played along, they probably still would have rushed the Low Countries because of the logistical difficulties of shipping across France.\n\n3) Norway would have helped close the Baltic Straights and performed overwatch for the Arctic passes for the Soviet fleets out of Arkhangelsk. Iceland would have served as a big aircraft carrier in the North Atlantic which would have kept the Soviet sub fleets off guard and allowed refueling to fighters and cargo flights to Europe. If there was going to be a big WWIII style naval battle, it would have been near Iceland. Greece and Turkey would have closed the Black Sea at the Bosporus and, while Span shut down the Straights of Gibraltar. All of these countries would likely face minimal Warsaw Pact attacks as their main focus would have been to defeat NATO in Germany.\n\n4) It would vary. While the Soviet Army was massive, it's reliability in many divisions would be questionable. The Soviets used a grade scale for their units sort of like A through F. A was the top of the line units, while F would have been 55 year old reservists and 30 year old tanks. The Pact would have actually sent its C and B teams in first to wear out NATO forces and then hit them with the A's. The D's, C's, and F's, would have been the rear support and home security forces. F's would have been the ones loading ammo onto trains in Minsk. \n\nThe rest of Warsaw was a mixed bag. Probably only the East Germans would have been the most reliable, followed by probably the Czechs. Hungarians, and Poles. The Poles probably would have had Soviet units nearby to keep the in check in case they got uppity. Poland had always been unreliable in Soviet eyes. Only the East Germans would have been able to operate on their own. The Hungarians, Poles, and Czechs would have been used as either fodder or as diversionary forces in non-critical engagements. the Romanians, Bulgarians, and Albanians would have probably tried to tie down the Greeks, Turks, and Italians to keep them busy.\n\nAs for NATO forces, their equipment was pretty standardized. While each nation had its own gear, you pretty much could grab ammo from a German crate and load it into a British rifle. The American M1 Abrahms uses a German cannon, so the NATO equipment was pretty interchangeable. The difference would have been in training and discipline. All would have been pretty high, with the Greeks, Turks, Spanish, Italians, being on the low end. The top tier would have been the US, Britain, France, Germany. The mid players would have been the Dutch, Belgians, and Norwegians.\n\nAt almost all times Warsaw would have outnumbered NATO by the magnitude of 2 or 3 to 1. However, Soviet battle doctrine lacked a lot of finesse and relied on fighting like Mike Tyson....get in there and hit hard, fast, and often, we have plenty of troops and tanks. NATO would have been Muhammad Ali, duck and move and wear them out then beat the crap out of them.\n\n5) NATO in all likelihood would have never struck first. They lacked the manpower reserves and strength in Europe to launch a major offensive against Warsaw, and if they tried to build it up, the Soviets would have attacked first anyway to negate any attempts at a NATO build up and to keep the initiative. Additionally, with the political climate of Western Europe and the US (for all of its bluster) it would have run into a lot of political conflict on the domestic front in trying to instigate the war. There probably would have been riots in London, Paris, Bonn, San Francisco, L.A., and New York if NATO tried to instigate.\n\n6) For the U.S., who's area of operations in Germany was [the Fulda Gap](_URL_1_), they would have wanted to funnel the Soviet thrust into a pocket along the plain which they would have attempted to counter attack and cut off. They at most would have tried to make their stand at the Maine River. You had the [North German Plain](_URL_3_), where NATO would have tried to hold Bremmerhaven, but probably would have gotten pocketed, but would have tried to slow them down at the Elbe, then Wesser.\n\n\nUnfortunately all the really good theory books about WWIII in Europe have been culled from the shelves of libraries these days to make space for newer books. Classics like [\"The Third World War\"](_URL_0_), [Red Army](_URL_6_), [Team Yankee](_URL_2_), and [Red Storm Rising](_URL_5_), are actually hard to come by these days. These books are of course fictional adventure books but the homework involved by the authors is immaculate. You will probably only be able to find works about WWIII scenarios and military science in college libraries at this point.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you want a fictional read on what could have potentially happened I would read \"Red Storm Rising\" By Tom Clancy. I read that book in one day and did not put it down till i finished it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Red storm rising?\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Some points to consider about the Warsaw Pact/USSR\n\nA)They didn't study defensive tactics at anything above the tactical level. After WW2 they were set on the idea that the best form of defense was attack, which is probably why they seemed to threatening to the West.\n\nB)The USSR never planned a non-conventional attack. That is, if they went to war with the West it was going to be nuclear right from the start. They planned to lay down a nuclear carpet ahead of their ground forces and they were to sweep into Western Europe.\n\nSoviet thinking was that you should use your most powerful weapons first so that you weaken your enemy as much as possible and preserve your own strength as much as possible.\n\nAlso (and I'm not 100% about this part), the plan was not to start a nuclear exchange on a strategic level with other nuclear powers (ie, they weren't going to nuke the USA, France or the UK). They planned an intense nuclear bombardment on Germany and the low countries to prevent NATO resistance, but they weren't going to start trading their own cities and population with NATO powers.\n\nC) As others have pointed out, Warsaw Pact allies would have been of questionable loyalty, but there were measures to safeguard against this. Warsaw pact allies were never allowed to form organisational structures above the Divisional level (that is, Corps and Armies) - they were directly incorporated into Soviet ones commanded by Soviet Generals. The same goes for their navies and air forces.\n\nThe book Inside the Soviet Army gives a taste of these ideas and the thinking behind it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53341401", "title": "Project Vista", "section": "Section::::The Vista Report.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 444, "text": "The atomic blitz war, targeting high population Soviet Union cities was noted as the wrong approach to defend Europe in Project Vista, as it would most likely not stop an ongoing invasion but rather provoke retaliation against European and American cities. Project Vista instead, recommended that NATO should focus on new technology, tactical use of atomic weapons against Soviet troops, which would even the odds in a conventional ground war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6729973", "title": "Force concentration", "section": "Section::::History.:Cold War and beyond.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 512, "text": "For much of the Cold War, to combat the overwhelming Soviet supremacy in armour and men, NATO planned to use much of West German territory as a flood plain in a defence in depth to absorb and disperse the momentum of a massed Soviet attack. Mobile anti-tank teams and counterattacking NATO armies would seek to cut off the leading Soviet echelons from their supporting echelons and then reduce the isolated elements with superior air power and conventional munitions, and if this failed, with nuclear munitions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "65307", "title": "World War III", "section": "Section::::Military plans.:Exercise Reforger.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 397, "text": "The Warsaw Pact outnumbered NATO throughout the Cold War in conventional forces, especially armor. Therefore, in the event of a Soviet invasion, in order not to resort to tactical nuclear strikes, NATO forces holding the line against a Warsaw Pact armored spearhead would have to be quickly resupplied and replaced. Most of this support would have come across the Atlantic from the US and Canada.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5396321", "title": "Anti-surface warfare", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 609, "text": "Broadly speaking, military planners in the US after World War II envisioned that a Warsaw Pact invasion of Western Europe would require a massive convoy effort to Europe to supply Allied forces in theatre. Against this necessity of logistical and combat support, the Soviet Union expanded its submarine fleet, which in the event of hostilities may have been sufficient to deny the supply of material to the theatre. As military strategists often design counter-strategies to meet the capabilities of the rival force, the Western then responded with the construction of SOSUS lines to track Soviet submarines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "326307", "title": "Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe", "section": "Section::::History.:Plans and exercises.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 614, "text": "The initial plans saw the defence of Western Europe from a Soviet invasion resting heavily on nuclear weapons ('Massive retaliation'), with conventional forces merely acting as a 'tripwire.' The policy enunciated in Military Committee document MC14/1, issued in December 1952, saw the defence of Germany as principally a delaying action, to allow a line of resistance to be established along the lines of the IJssel and Rhine rivers. The conventional forces would attempt to hold this line while the allied strategic air forces defeated the Soviets and their allies by destroying their economy and infrastructure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18868361", "title": "Exercise Strikeback", "section": "Section::::Background.:Strategic overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 343, "text": "Faced with the overwhelming numerical superiority of Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact military forces, NATO embraced the concept of the nuclear umbrella to protect Western Europe from a Soviet ground invasion. This strategy was initially articulated in January 1954 by U.S. Army General and then-Supreme Allied Commander Europe Alfred Gruenther: \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36880", "title": "Nuclear warfare", "section": "Section::::History.:1950s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 349, "text": "In the summer of 1951 Project Vista started, in which project analysts such as Robert F. Christy looked at how to defend Western Europe from a Soviet invasion. The emerging development of tactical nuclear weapons were looked upon as a means to give Western forces a qualitative advantage over the Soviet numerical supremacy in conventional weapons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1wwo9u	What was the truth behind the Allies' accusations that the German Army committed horrific war crimes/atrocities in Belgium during World War One?	[ { "answer": "This is an important and complex question. The TL;DR on it is \"yes, more or less, but it gets complicated.\"\n\nTo begin with, [here is a proclamation](_URL_3_) by the German General Otto von Emmich, distributed widely in Belgium in the autumn of 1914 as the German army crossed the tiny nation’s borders and began its slow march south. The declaration it makes is rather incredible:\n\n > It is to my very great regret that the German troops find themselves compelled to cross the Belgian frontier. They are acting under the constraints of an unavoidable necessity, Belgium’s neutrality having been violated by French officers who, in disguise, crossed Belgian territory by motor-car in order to make their way into Germany.\n\nIt goes on to insist that the Belgian people should look upon the soldiers of the German army as “the best of friends,” that those soldiers would “pay in gold” for anything requisitioned by that army in the course of its uneventful passage through Belgium, and closes with von Emmich’s “formal pledges to the Belgian population that it will have nothing to suffer from the horrors of war.” The document carries an ominous tone throughout, however; the reader is coolly informed that von Emmich “hope[s] the German army of the Meuse will not be forced to fight you,” and that any Belgian destruction of their own bridges, tunnels and railways “will have to be looked upon as hostile acts.” The Belgian reader could be forgiven, perhaps, for looking upon the above assurances with a degree of skepticism.\n\nThis skepticism was more than borne out by the course of events.\n\nOn August 4th, 1914, the German army began crossing the border into Belgium. The Belgians, understandably unwilling to allow such a thing to occur without offering firm protest, chose to stand and fight. Bridges were indeed destroyed. Roads were blocked. Barricades were put up — and, while the nation’s small and ill-equipped army could not hope to defeat the German invaders, it did manage to slow them down to such an extent that the carefully drafted timetables of the planned invasion had to be rewritten from scratch, and the British Expeditionary Force was able to arrive in time to further delay the attempted conquest of Belgium and passage into France. In an abstract sense, the First Battle of the Marne was won in the fields outside of Liège.\n\nWhen the dust had settled, only a small sliver of Belgium south of the inundated Yser remained unoccupied — the rest of the kingdom, including the great cities of Namur, Liège, Antwerp, and the capital Brussels, had been taken. The popular Belgian King, Albert I, remained at liberty and in command of the ~150,000-strong army that held the ground from Nieuwpoort through to Ypres.\n\nAll of this is fairly straightforward, but a peculiar thing has happened when it comes to the popular Anglo-American memory of the events that transpired in Belgium during the autumn of 1914: once the narrative of the war reaches the establishment of the trench system and the commencement of the long-standing stalemate that is viewed as such an essential aspect of the war in the West, Belgium and its people seem to vanish from the story entirely. Why might this be?\n\nThe answer to this question is the one your post here suggests: the troubled history of “propaganda” and its complex role in the war. I've [written elsewhere](_URL_5_) about the roots of modern propaganda in the First World War, but in the meantime let it suffice to say that a great deal of propagandistic hay was made of the sufferings of Belgium in the war’s early stages — especially by British journalists, statesmen and public intellectuals. The most notorious example of this is likely the Bryce Report (or, more extensively, the [Report of the Committee on Alleged German Outrages](_URL_4_)), first released in 1915. The report has long been a bête noire for those cultural historians examining popular attitudes during the war, it having been concluded by some very emphatic commentators in the 1920s and 1930s (such as Arthur Ponsonby in Falsehood in War-Time and Irene Cooper Willis in England’s Holy War) that the Report was simply a tissue of lies. Modern research, as we shall see, has confirmed that the Report’s conclusions were substantially correct.\n\nAs a consequence of this and other dismissals, the quite real sufferings of this nation and her people have since (in my view) been unjustly swept away along with everything else that now smacks of the sensationalism, hate-mongering and outright invention that are believed to have been the propagandists’ stock in trade. This would be a too-simple evaluation of the situation in general terms, but, in the case of the plight of Belgium, it is a very serious error indeed.\n\nAs we approach the beginning of the war’s centenaries, it is only fitting that pieces of the puzzle that have hitherto been missing finally be put back into place. So:\n\nIt is true that many of the more sensational stories of German “outrages” perpetrated in Belgium during the course of the invasion and ensuing occupation are very hard to believe, much less corroborate. German soldiers eating Belgian babies; German soldiers hanging Belgian nuns between church bells and ringing them to death; German soldiers crucifying dozens of farmers by the roadside; and so on — these are stories that are familiar to us through the fact of them having now become standard examples of why “propaganda” is not to be trusted. Claims like these (it is said) poisoned the home front’s understanding of the war; works that made such claims disgusted the war poets and memoirists so much that they rose up in reaction against them; stories of this sort caused the English-speaking peoples to be so skeptical of atrocity reports that they were too late in reacting to the events of the years leading up to 1939. All of this is considerably more complicated than these summaries suggest, but that's more than I wish to get into just at the moment.\n\nThe point is that we need not dwell on such extreme suggestions to see much in the German occupation of Belgium worth acknowledging. Let us consider some numbers:\n\n- The total Belgian deaths during the war amount to some 100,000 — 40,000 military deaths and 60,000 civilian deaths.\n\n- Of those civilians who died as a direct result of the war, some 6,000 were deliberately and premeditatedly executed. More on this below.\n\n- Nearly 1.5 million Belgians were displaced by the German occupation of their land, with impoverished refugees fleeing in every direction. Some 200,000 ended up in Britain, and another 300,000 in France. The most, by far — nearly a million — fled to the Netherlands, but did not always have an easy time in doing so. The German army constructed a 200km-long [electrified fence](_URL_0_), called the Dodendraad by the Dutch, that claimed the lives of around 3,000 attempted escapees during the course of the war.\n\n- Some 120,000 Belgian civilians (of both sexes) were used as forced labour during the war, with roughly half being deported to Germany to toil in prison factories and camps, and half being sent to work just behind the front lines. Anguished Belgian letters and diaries from the period tell of being forced to work for the Zivilarbeiter-Bataillone, repairing damaged infrastructure, laying railway tracks, even manufacturing weapons and other war materiel for their enemies. Some were even forced to work in the support lines at the Front itself, digging secondary and tertiary trenches as Allied artillery fire exploded around them. I've gone into some more detail on this subject [here](_URL_2_), though some of what I've already provided above draws on that content already.\n\nIn all of this, then, it would seem that there is plenty that deserves the benefit of modern memory and which cannot easily be dismissed as mere invention for Allied propaganda.\n\nHow, then, might it be best to remember this suffering? What place might it play in the ongoing debate over just what tone and tenor the upcoming centenaries should take? The advent of the hundredth anniversaries of so many events provides an ideal moment for reflection and re-evaluation — particularly when it comes to things that “everyone knows.” It is now a commonplace that “everyone knows” the British state and news media lied about German atrocities in Belgium to maintain popular support for the British war effort, but it is well past time to re-examine what is commonly said about those lies and that support.\n\nAlan Kramer and John Horne, in their magisterial volume on this subject (German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial; 2001), have painstakingly reconstructed the reality behind the propaganda in a way that should leave no reader in doubt. Through years of careful archival research they have reached the conclusion that there was indeed a systematic program of civilian executions — sometimes en masse — conducted in Belgium, by the German army, with the purpose of breaking the spirit of resistance and striking terror into the heart of the population. The anniversaries of the worst of these catastrophes are upon us; on August 23rd, 1914, the German army took revenge upon the Belgian city of Dinant for what it falsely believed to be the actions of Belgian francs-tireurs (“free-shooters”, or non-military partisans). This revenge took the form of the burning of over a 1,000 buildings and the execution of some 674 civilians. The oldest among them was in his 90s; the youngest was barely a month old. These civilians were killed in a variety of ways. Some were bayoneted, others burned alive; most were bound, put up against walls, and then executed by a volley of rifle fire — all in reprisal for something that had not actually happened. Two days later (August 25th), the same spirit of reprisal played out again elsewhere — [in Leuven](_URL_6_).\n\nIt is important to note, in closing, that we need not examine events such as those described above and come away with nothing but a “[Blame Germany](_URL_1_)” perspective. Alan Kramer has convincingly shown in his 2007 follow-up volume, Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War, that the increasing radicalization of military occupation was a feature of the war to be found in numerous theatres, not solely in Belgium or solely at the end of a German gun. As ever, it is very hard for anyone involved in the war to come away with their hands clean.\n\nNevertheless, with the transnational turn that has been taken by much of First World War historiography in recent decades and the centenary-inspired willingness to re-evaluate long-held assumptions about the war’s meaning and conduct, it is perhaps well past time for the wartime sufferings of Belgium and her people to move out of the realm of convenient fiction and back into that of uncomfortable fact.\n\nAll of this is a very long-winded way of saying, to conclude, that -- yes -- the German army did indeed do some pretty nasty stuff in Belgium. It was not alone in doing so in occupied territory, and some stories about its activities are certainly inventions or exaggerations, but what it did do should probably be enough to give the reader pause. \n\nSuggested Readings\n\n- Kramer, Alan and John Horne. German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial (2001).\n- Kramer, Alan. Dynamics of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War (2007).\n- Stibbe, Matthew ed. Captivity, Forced Labour and Forced Migration in Europe During the First World War (2009).\n- Thiel, Jens. ‘Menschenbassin Belgien’: Anwerbung, Deportation und Zwangsarbeit in Ersten Weltkrieg (2007).\n- Hull, Isabel V. Absolute destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany (2005).\n- Becker, Annette. Oubliés de la Grande guerre (1998).\n- Jones, Heather. Violence Against Prisoners of War in the First World War: Britain, France, and Germany, 1914-1920 (2011).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19320362", "title": "Schrecklichkeit", "section": "Section::::Analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 725, "text": "The German argument for many years was that the actions in Belgium were the result of civilian resistance. The Belgian government was to blame for this \"illegal warfare\". Echoes of this can be found as late as the 1990s in such works as \"Deutsche Geschichte\" of Thomas Nipperdey and in the 1996 edition of the \"Brockhaus Enzyklopädie\". John Horne and Alan Kramer in \"German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial\" contest this. Based on several sources, they contend that the German Army faced no irregular forces in Belgium and France during the first two and a half months of World War I, but believed it did due to erroneous reports of civilian resistance and as a result responded inappropriately and with excessive force.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35001680", "title": "Home front during World War I", "section": "Section::::Belgium.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 1163, "text": "Nearly all of Belgium was occupied by the Germans, but the government and army escaped and fought the war on a narrow slice of the Western Front. The German invaders treated any resistance—such as sabotaging rail lines—as illegal and immoral, and shot the offenders and burned buildings in retaliation. The German army executed over 6,500 French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914, usually in near-random large-scale shootings of civilians ordered by junior German officers. The German Army destroyed 15,000-20,000 buildings—most famously the university library at Louvain—and generated a refugee wave of over a million people. Over half the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major incidents. Thousands of workers were shipped to Germany to work in factories. British propaganda dramatizing the Rape of Belgium attracted much attention in the US, while Berlin said it was legal and necessary because of the threat of \"franc-tireurs\" (guerrillas) like those in France in 1870. The British and French magnified the reports and disseminated them at home and in the US, where they played a major role in dissolving support for Germany.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7845619", "title": "Committee on Alleged German Outrages", "section": "Section::::Impact of Report.:Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 201, "text": "German authorities in response to allegations from multiple sources published the White Book in 1915. The book contained records where Belgians were guilty of atrocities committed on German soldiers. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37926986", "title": "Belgium in World War I", "section": "Section::::German occupation 1914–18.:The Rape of Belgium.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 462, "text": "The German position was that widespread sabotage and guerrilla activities by Belgian civilians were wholly illegal and deserved immediate harsh collective punishment. Recent research that systematically studied German Army sources has demonstrated that they in fact encountered no irregular forces in Belgium during the first two and a half months of the invasion. The Germans were responding instead to a phantom fear they had unconsciously created themselves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42713663", "title": "German occupation of Belgium during World War I", "section": "Section::::Background.:The Rape of Belgium.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 932, "text": "During the course of their advance through Belgium, the Germans committed a number of war crimes against the Belgian civilian population along their route of advance. These massacres were often responses to towns whose populations were accused of fighting as \"Francs-Tireurs\" or guerillas against the German army. Civilians were summarily executed and several towns deliberately destroyed in a series of punitive actions collectively known as The Rape of Belgium. As many as 6,500 people were killed by the German army between August and November 1914. In Leuven, the historic library of the town's university was deliberately burned. News of the atrocities, also widely exaggerated by the Allied press, raised considerable sympathy for the Belgian civilian population in occupied Belgium. The sympathy for the plight of Belgian civilians and Belgian refugees continued in Allied newspapers and propaganda until the end of the war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10685549", "title": "Free Belgian forces", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 813, "text": "Belgian involvement in World War II began when German forces invaded Belgium, which had been following a policy of neutrality, on 10 May 1940. After 18 days of fighting, Belgium surrendered on 28 May and was placed under German occupation. During the fighting, between 600,000 and 650,000 Belgian men (nearly 20% of the country's male population) had served in the military. Most were made prisoners of war and detained in Germany, though some were released before the end of the war. Leopold III, king and commander in chief of the army, also surrendered to the Germans on 28 May along with his army and remained a prisoner for the rest of the war. The Belgian government fled first to Bordeaux in France, and then to London in the United Kingdom where it formed an official government in exile in October 1940.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40573334", "title": "German occupation of Belgium during World War II", "section": "Section::::Resistance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 482, "text": "Resistance to the German occupiers began in Belgium in the winter of 1940, after the German defeat in the Battle of Britain made it clear that the war was not lost for the Allies. Involvement in illegal resistance activity was a decision made by a minority of Belgians (approximately five percent of the population) but many more were involved in passive resistance. If captured, resistance members risked torture and execution, and around 17,000 were killed during the occupation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
792n9k	why has hdr been so common in cameras for so long but is only now beginning to move into mainstream tvs, smartphones and games consoles?	[ { "answer": "HDR-photos are typically just composite images of several photos, taken with different exposures.\n\nWhat proper HDR is about, is being able display/capture truely dark and really bright parts of the image, both at the same time. This is what's new, and it's not easy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They're different technologies. The HDR in cameras involves taking two shots at high/low exposure, then merging them to a single photo. The HDR in video displays refers to the ability to show a wide range of brightness.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "464103", "title": "Professional video camera", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 828, "text": "In the late 1990s, as HDTV broadcasting commenced, HDTV cameras suitable for news and general purpose work were introduced. Though they delivered much better image quality, their overall operation was identical to their standard definition predecessors. New methods of recording for cameras were introduced to supplant video tape, tapeless cameras. Ikegami and Avid introduced EditCam in 1996, based on interchangeable hard drives. Panasonic introduced P2 cameras. These recorded a DVCPro signal on interchangeable flash memory media. Several other data storage device recording systems were introduced, notably XDCAM from Sony. Sony also introduced SxS (S-by-S), a flash memory standard compliant to the Sony and Sandisk-created ExpressCard standard. Eventually flash storage largely supplanted other forms of recording media.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "464103", "title": "Professional video camera", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 426, "text": "In 2000s, major manufacturers like Sony, Philips introduced the digital professional video cameras. These cameras used CCD sensors and recorded video digitally on flash storage. These were followed by digital HDTV cameras. As digital technology improved and also due to digital television transition, digital professional video cameras have become dominant in television studios, ENG, EFP and even in other areas since 2010s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1342176", "title": "Film-out", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 429, "text": "Digital video equipment has made this approach easier; theatrical-release documentaries and features originated on video are now being produced this way. High Definition video became popular in the early 2000s by pioneering filmmakers like George Lucas and Robert Rodriguez, who used HD video cameras (such as the Sony HDW-F900) to capture images for popular movies like \"\" and \"Spy Kids 2\", respectively, both released in 2002.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "173449", "title": "Trinitron", "section": "Section::::History.:Reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 266, "text": "These developments meant that Sony was well placed to introduce high-definition televisions (HDTV). In April 1981, they announced the High Definition Video System (HDVS), a suite of MUSE equipment including cameras, recorders, Trinitron monitors and projection TVs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33263", "title": "Widescreen", "section": "Section::::Television.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 301, "text": "HD DVD and Blu-ray disc players were introduced in 2006. Toshiba ceased production of HD DVD players in early 2008. Consumer camcorders are also available in the HD-video format at fairly low prices. These developments will result in more options for viewing widescreen images on television monitors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8136685", "title": "Home movies", "section": "Section::::History.:Home video-making.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 504, "text": "The introduction of the Beta VCR in 1975 and VHS in 1976 heralded a revolution in the making of home movies. Videocassettes were extremely inexpensive compared to film and they could even be erased. This had the effect of greatly increasing the hours of footage of most family video libraries. It took a few years before consumer video cameras and portable VCRs were introduced, and later combined to create camcorders, but by that time, many consumers already had the playback equipment in their homes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16315657", "title": "High-definition television", "section": "Section::::History.:Demise of analog HD systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 567, "text": "The limited standardization of analog HDTV in the 1990s did not lead to global HDTV adoption as technical and economic constraints at the time did not permit HDTV to use bandwidths greater than normal television. Early HDTV commercial experiments, such as NHK's MUSE, required over four times the bandwidth of a standard-definition broadcast. Despite efforts made to reduce analog HDTV to about twice the bandwidth of SDTV, these television formats were still distributable only by satellite. In Europe too, the HD-MAC standard was considered not technically viable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
57mukn	if a country has birthright citizenship i.e. all those born there are automatically citizens, couldn't a woman go there on vacation/business/illegally, give birth, then the child would be a citizen giving the parent rights to stay/move there too?	[ { "answer": "Contrary to popular belief, if an illegal immigrant has a kid in the US, they're still at risk for deportation if caught, in which case the child is sent back with them.\n\nAlso, pregnant women sometimes have difficulties getting Visas (particularly tourist Visas) in order to dissuade people from trying in the first place.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes, the child is a US citizen, but it doesn't nessicarly flow that the parents can stay and get citizenship. It certainly helps but really it just accelerates the paperwork.\n\nAlso, if you're pregnant you could get denied entry if you're entering on a travel visa with the intention of having the child in the US so you can stay forever.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They're called Anchor Babies [Wikipedia]( _URL_1_)\n\nThere's a whole industry called Birth Tourism [Wikipedia]( _URL_0_)\n\n[It's an issue in Canada too.]( _URL_2_)\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Wiki Anchor Babies](_URL_0_)\n\n\"There is a popular misconception.... Current federal law prevents anyone under the age of 21 from being able to petition for their non-citizen parent to be lawfully admitted to the United States .... ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30876330", "title": "Multiple citizenship", "section": "Section::::Citizenship of multiple countries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 793, "text": "BULLET::::- Citizenship by birth on the country's territory (\"jus soli\"). The United States, Canada, and many Latin American countries grant unconditional birthright citizenship. To stop birth tourism, most countries have abolished it; while Australia, France, Germany, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United Kingdom have a modified \"jus soli\", which requires at least one parent to be a citizen of the country (\"jus sanguinis\") or a legal permanent resident who has lived in the country for several years. In the majority of such countries—for example, in Canada—children born to diplomats and under people outside the jurisdiction of the soil are not granted citizenship at birth. It is usually conferred automatically on the children once one of the parents obtain citizenship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2265454", "title": "South African nationality law", "section": "Section::::Citizenship by birth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 276, "text": "There is an exception to the birthright citizenship provision: those born to visiting foreign diplomats or their employees, or nonresident aliens are not considered to be \"citizens by birth\" (unless their other parent is a citizen, in which case they are a citizen by birth).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "789786", "title": "Statelessness", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Conflict of law.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 597, "text": "A person who does not have either parent eligible to pass citizenship by \"jus sanguinis\" can be stateless at birth if born in a state which does not recognize \"jus soli\". For instance, a child born outside Canada to two Canadian parents, who were also born outside Canada to Canadian parents, would not be a Canadian citizen, since \"jus sanguinis\" is only recognized for the first generation in Canada. If the child were born in India and neither parent had Indian citizenship, then the child would be stateless since India only confers citizenship to children born to at least one Indian parent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6271835", "title": "Birth tourism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 340, "text": "No European country presently grants unconditional birthright citizenship; however, most countries in the Americas, e.g., the United States, Canada, Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil do so. In Africa, Lesotho and Tanzania grant unconditional birthright citizenship, as do some in the Asian-Pacific region including Fiji, Pakistan, and Tuvalu. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30876330", "title": "Multiple citizenship", "section": "Section::::Citizenship of multiple countries.:Multiple citizenship encouraged.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 830, "text": "In former times, some countries (Latin American countries and Canada) advertised their policy of unconditional birthright citizenship to become more attractive for immigrants. Despite wide acceptance of dual citizenship, industrialized countries now try to protect themselves from birth tourism and uncontrollable immigration waves, so only Canada and the United States still grant unconditional birthright citizenship (even for children of illegal immigrants). In both countries, there have been calls to change the laws, but, so far, they have not been successful. Brazil has similar policies; the only people born in Brazil who do not automatically acquire Brazilian citizenship are those whose parents are residing in Brazil while serving their own countries (as diplomats, military attachés, cultural attachés and the like).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30876330", "title": "Multiple citizenship", "section": "Section::::Citizenship of multiple countries.:Involuntary multiple citizenship.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 979, "text": "BULLET::::2. Some countries (e.g., Canada, the United States of America and many other countries in the Americas) regard all children born there automatically to be eligible to be citizens (\"jus soli\") even if the parents are not legally present. For example, a child born in the United States to Norwegian parents automatically has dual citizenship with the United States and Norway, even though Norway usually restricts or forbids dual citizenship. There are exceptions, such as the child of a foreign diplomat living in the United States. Such a child would be eligible to become a lawful permanent resident, but not a citizen based on the U.S. birth.This has led to birth tourism, so some countries have abolished \"jus soli\" or restricted it (i.e., at least one parent must be a citizen or a legal, permanent resident who has lived in the country for several years). Some countries forbid their citizens to renounce their citizenship or try to discourage them from doing so.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6271835", "title": "Birth tourism", "section": "Section::::Today.:North America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 353, "text": "The United States, Canada, and Mexico all grant unconditional birthright citizenship and allow dual citizenship. The United States taxes its citizens and green card holders worldwide, even if they have never lived in the country. In Mexico, only naturalized citizens can lose their Mexican citizenship again (e.g., by naturalizing in another country). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
32mrgs	how do professional sports teams turn a profit?	[ { "answer": "You forget money from licensing, clothes, hats, figurines, etc. Plus advertising at the stadium. Sales of the private booths, Revenue from renting out the stadium to other venues, like concerts. And of course revenue from showing the games on TV. Plus I'm sure I'm missing a few other revenue sources for them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Generically, you are only looking at half of the income they have coming into their coffers.\n\nYou are leaving out:\n\n* Onsite Vendors - People like McDonalds and Chick-fil-a pay the stadium to rent the space to sell their product as well as a percentage of everything that is sold from their stall during operation.\n\n* Off Site Vendors - People who sell merch to retailers across the country\n\n* On site Merch - Merchandise that is sold in the stadiums on gameday. Namely Jerseys, hats, foam fingers, and many other \"essential\" items during the visit to the stadium.\n\nAnd other forms of things that are brining in millions of additional dollars from other sources.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Advertising. Professional sports teams get a lot of money from people wanting to advertise around the stadium or on the jerseys of the players. Being a sponsor of a certain team can be a very prestigious thing for companies so they are very willing to pay the big bucks for that. Additionally, lots of sports teams get money out of the sale of memorabilia and the concession stands at the stadium. There is a reason why you pay for much for a stupid hot dog.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "they have advertisements all over, and merchandise that is basically guaranteed to be bought by literally everyone who supports that team. The demand is so high that they can charge huge amounts for it", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "TV deals and revenue sharing is where most teams get most of their money.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "ads, TV/radio contract, apparel, endorsements...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThere is also revenue sharing, where smaller market teams are basically getting a cut revenues from the big markets. It's a large reason bad small market teams are able to be profitable with low attendance.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "172069", "title": "Odds", "section": "Section::::Gambling odds versus probabilities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 234, "text": "Making a profit in gambling involves predicting the relationship of the true probabilities to the payout odds. Sports information services are often used by professional and semi-professional sports bettors to help achieve this goal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52613646", "title": "Globalization of sports", "section": "Section::::Contemporary world.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 236, "text": "BULLET::::- Involvement of those companies leads to the professionalization of sports that allows formerly amateur athletes to earn money. In the same time, at the highest level, we can observe enormous growth of income among athletes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10674799", "title": "Formula One: Built to Win", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Managing a racing career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 855, "text": "The player must earn money in order to keep racing; this is done by either winning races or finishing in podium position. After winning the race, the money must be invested in faster and/or more efficient parts to improve the performance of the vehicle. Having a more efficient racing vehicle will eventually result in winning more difficult races where the winner's prize is higher than in the easier races. Eventually, winning certain races will result in acquiring an international racing license. Parts in the game vary in cost and tires can only be used a limited number of times before they have to be purchased again. Tires that have the worst handling can be used an unlimited number of times. These tires are the only automobile parts that are free and the player automatically starts out with these at the beginning of the game's \"career mode.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16760410", "title": "Sport industry", "section": "Section::::Professional sports.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 430, "text": "The most major of industries related to sports are the professional leagues that most of the other industries in the sporting world revolve around. The major American sports leagues are the first 5 in the list following and include football, basketball, hockey, baseball and soccer. Most players in these leagues make money from the team they're on as well as sponsors but are among some of the top earners in the United States. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18101339", "title": "Dirt Track Racing: Sprint Cars", "section": "Section::::Game modes.:Single-player.:Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 587, "text": "In the Career Mode, players race through their careers, earning money to upgrade their cars. Success brings more money, and sponsors, which help pay the bills. Unlike in most other racing games a player can enter any division of racing he or she chooses. Obviously the higher the series the stronger the competition so a player in the first or second season won't usually advance beyond the B-Main in the top flight of Sprint Car Racing. the only restrictions being only one race can be entered per weekend and the track selected being within an unlocked distance from a racer's garage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42234108", "title": "Profit pools", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 468, "text": "The Profit pools is a strategy model that can be used to help managers or companies focus on profits, rather than on revenue growth. The method was conceived by Orit Gadiesh and James L. Gilbert, both consultants at Bain & Co. presented the following definitions: \"the total profits earned at all points along the value chain of an industry. Companies that see what others do not see, will be best prepared for capturing a larger share of the profits in an industry.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34253452", "title": "Elimination from possibility of reaching postseason", "section": "Section::::Effect on rest of the season.:Modern era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 844, "text": "Teams that operate as for-profit operations may still be compelled to put a competitive product on display, to ensure fans continue to attend the games and purchase tickets. This is less of an issue at the major professional levels, where a greater portion of revenue comes from television rights fees that are locked into contracts years in advance. In league systems that operate using promotion and relegation, even if a team may be eliminated from a postseason tournament, it may have to continue to play at a competitive level (for instance in the Premier League, one quarter is awarded on a merit basis based on final league position, the top club getting twenty times as much as the bottom club, and equal steps all the way down the table), and to avoid being relegated to a lower league (and thus lose a significant amount of revenue).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
3prj9j	Why have Jews been expelled in so many countries?	[ { "answer": "As a piggyback question can I ask if Jews have faced persecution in India? I visited an old synagogue in Cochin, India a couple of years back and they had a bunch of paintings illustrating how Jews have been visiting and settling in that part of India since around 200 BC. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Let's start at the beginning. In 722 BCE, the Northern Kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrians and the majority of its population was apparently expelled. These are the \"Ten Lost Tribes\". This sort of forced migration seems to be part of standard part of Assyrian management of newly conquered territories. In about 586 BCE, the Southern Kingdom of Judah (remember, that Israel had been divided into two distinct kingdoms) was conquered by Babylon, and only the notables led off (the \"Babylonian exile\"). In neither of these cases do the Hebrew/Jews seems to be particularly singled out.\n\nLets skip to the Roman Era. Here, the Jews are unique. Roman policy granted wide religious freedom--however, there were two exceptions. 1) secret \"mystery cults\" were widely suspected, 2) groups that refused to sacrifice to the emperor (first Jews, later also Christians) were treated as suspect. The Jews led a series of wars against the Empire called the \"[Jewish Wars](_URL_0_)\" that ended up with the destruction of the Temple after the First Jewish–Roman War (67-70 CE) and ultimately the majority of the Jewish population of Roman Province of Judea being killed, exiled, or sold into slavery in the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132 – 136 CE). These are exemplary of the unique relationship Jews have within the Roman Empire, but is likely not what you're asking about.\n\nMost of what people think of are the Medieval and Early Modern expulsions from states in Christian Europe. One thing to note is that Jews existed in these places at all. No other religion besides Christianity existed in these states at all. Judaism had a special status that, say, Roman Paganism did not, and therefore they (often) were the only religious minority allowed to exist. So, it's important to note, they were the only religious minority that could be expelled from Europe (besides various Christian \"heretics\"). It's worth noting that the vast majority of expulsions of Jews were done by Christians, with a few isolated (and generally late) cases of expulsion by Muslim rulers.\n\nKaren Barkey and Ira Katznelson have an interesting article, whose name I forgot, that argues that the expulsion of the Jews by England in 1290 and France around the same time were the result of \"state formation\"/\"state making\". Remember, for most of post-Roman history the centralized state as we imagine didn't exist. It was an overlapping series of domains where rulers claimed varying levels of sovereignty. Katznelson and Barkey argue that the Jews were expelled in England as a compromise between the royalty and the nobility in the process of state formation (primarily, the nobility owned Jewish bankers a tremendous amount of money, as Jews often formed the only source of credit). In France, they argue that they were expelled for a different reason (I believe because the King owed them money, but I can't be sure). But in both cases, though the exact reasons were different, the expulsion of the Jews was part of the same process of state formation, a result of negotiations around the clashing interests of royalty and nobility. This pattern, they argue, is repeated in other states (Western and Northern Europe is generally seen at the vanguard of modern state formation in Europe--see Charles Tilly's epic Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1992).\n\nIt's also worth mentioning that Jews were often the only available scapegoats. Many of the expulsions took place during plagues, especially in Germany, where Jews were often accused of poisoning wells. They were also often occurred after an accusation of [blood libel](_URL_1_). Historically, it's worth noting that blood libel accusation (which date back to at least the 12th century in Christian Europe) never occurred in the Islamic World until the 19th century, and even there, not coincidentally, the first several cases accusation were brought by Christians living under Ottoman Rule at the same there was expanding European influence in the Ottoman. But in general, the relationship with minority communities was different in the Ottoman World (much is made of \"dhimmi\" status, but there's a reason for that--especially in the Ottoman Empire, the \"millet system\" in both formal and informal forms was an important strategy for rule). In the Muslim World, Jews and Christians were often included alongside Muslims as (unequal) subjects in a way that they were not in Europe. Granted, even these limited rights were frequently violated, but this legal framework of (unequal) belonging provided the Jews (and minority Christians) with much more stability than they had in most of Europe of the same period. This situation remains essentially until nationalism arrives in the 19th century century.\n\nNationalism, the idea that the legitimacy of the state comes from its relationship with a titular \"nation\" (France is for the French, Germany for the Germans), generally dates only back to the French Revolution (this is the traditional starting date). There were of course other forms identity underlying the legitimacy of states before this--especially religion, as John Armstrong argues in Nations Before Nationalism, but this wasn't really nationalism in the sense that we see (a political demand for a Christian state for all the Christian, etc.). A few scholars--Philip Gorski, Liah Greenfeld, Anthony Marx--have argued, convincingly I think, that we should see nationalism as an Early Modern phenomenon, rather than entirely a Modern one (remembering that \"the Modern Era\" for political history is conventionally dated to around the French Revolution). Among these, Marx argues most convincingly that nationalism comes not just from union--gathering all the Rutherians into the Rutherian state--but from exclusion. He engages with three main examples (England, Spain, and France). In Spain, we see this process of expulsion--this Proto-Spanish nationalism--in the form of the expulsion of Muslims and Jews from Spain in 1492 (and from Portugal in 1496). This sets the ground for the later Spanish nation state. Similarly, in France we see expulsions, but not of Jews. Rather, we see France kill and expel Protestants to create a purely Catholic realm (cf. St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572). These sorts of expulsions were common during the European \"Wars of Religion\". So nationalism, and the drive to create in theory culturally homogenous states, wasn't merely a process that affected the Jews, though it was a process that often affected the Jews. It's also worth noting that \"Jewish emancipation\"--Jew being able function as equal citizens--doesn't emerge until the French Revolution, and the question of whether Jews can really be members of the nation-state isn't settled until the 19th and 20th centuries (cf. the Dreyfus Affair in France, or the Nazi stripping of the rights of German Jews). Many of the expulsions of Jews (and Catholics and Protestants, etc.) that occur during the early Modern Period, Anthony Marx argues, should be seen as examples of emerging nationalism where cultural identity becomes tied to the polity (compare this to earlier empires which were inherently diverse).\n\nSo, therefore, recent social science works argues that 1) since Jews were the most common religious minority in Christian Europe, they were the ones most commonly persecuted against, 2) that a lot of the Medieval struggles around nationalism have to do with negotiations of elites around the beginnings of modern state formation/centralization, 3) I forgot to mention also the traditional answer of the late Medieval religious revival, including the Crusades, that ultimately led to the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation, which mattered in some places (especially when tied to Blood Libel), just not the French and English cases I mentioned, 4) eventually the goal of religious homogeneity presaged the overall goal of cultural homogeneity of nationalism. Again, this is all primarily in Europe until the 19th century, though there were large populations of Jews in Anatolia, North Africa, Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Persia who were mostly unmolested. This, I think, is evidence that the repeated expulsion of the Jews is not necessarily something inherent in the Jews, but something (or several things) that characterized the relationship between Jewish minorities and Christian rulers during this period.\n\nEdit: One final note. In the video, they often repeat the names of territories in a relatively short period. The reason for this is Jews were expelled, here for either reasons related to Christian religious revival or debts due to state formation, and then were at times often quickly let back in for economic reasons (i.e. the state needed lines of credit that only the Jews could provide in this period), and then quickly expelled either for economic reasons again (rulers had quickly racked up debt) or because of a deal with religious revivalists. But the reasons they were let back in hints at one of the reasons they were expelled.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Can someone tell me more about the expulsion of Jews in the American South mentioned in the video? Did it happen? What was the aftermath?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Can someone please present this information in map format? I have a hard time visualising everything at once, and I love to think cartographically. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One component of \"Jewishness\" is that it isn't just a religion, or genetic heritage, it is both of those but there is also a an incredibly strong cultural and community aspect that also identifies heavily with keeping the community and culture together while in a foreign land, and this goes way back to the very foundations of Judiasm ~3,000 years ago. \n\nWhat we know as Judaism today developed over many centuries, beginning with a henotheistic tradition where people had a patron deity among a pantheon of deities and shrines and idols could be found in homes and hillsides around the countryside, and evolving to a strict monotheistic sect that insisted there was only a single god and he was to be worshiped in a single location (the Temple in Jerusalem). \n\nThen the land of Israel was overtaken by Assyrian and the Babylonians, and many Israelites were taken into captivity by the Babylonians. They took what holy writings they could with them as they went into enslavement. \n\nNow this is where things get interesting, and more relevant to your question. What we see historically in these kinds of situations is that the people who were overcome accept that their deity failed and so come to accept the victorious culture's deity as their new object of worship, and they begin to meld into the culture they are in. Not so with the enslaved Israelites. \n\nThe Israelites were able to adapt their beliefs so that instead of their god losing against a more powerful god, they took the perspective that their god was punishing them for disobedience, using other cultures to do so. Also, instead of requiring a single location for the worship of their god, they were able to change it to worshiping through personal and group observances. \n\nIt is during this Exhilic Period that the last changes were made to the Hebrew Bible (which up until that point had been a more fluid collection of documents over centuries). Eventually the Israelites were released from Babylonian captivity and returned to Judea. Judaism and the Old Testament as we know it today by and large cemented in place. Later conflicts dispersed the Jews out of Israel, and the major Jewish Dispora began and the Jewish people dispersed around Europe. \n\nGoing back to your question with that understanding, we see the Jewish people exiled that maintaining their cultural identity while in a foreign (and even hostile) culture is deeply ingrained in the very roots of the religion and cultural identity. \n\nSo if you put this group in another land, they aren't going to assimilate the new culture, but instead maintain their own community within the larger community. This sets them up to be an easy target as an \"other\" when tensions rise and the us-vs-them mentality starts to set in to the general population. \n\nYou also get the influence by the Catholic church, who for centuries blamed the Jewish people for the death of Christ, further tarnishing the Jews in the eyes of Europeans with their predominant Christian religion. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "307916", "title": "Expulsions and exoduses of Jews", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 223, "text": "In Jewish history, Jews have experienced numerous mass expulsions and they have also fled from areas after experiencing ostracism and threats of various kinds by various local authorities seeking refuge in other countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5585018", "title": "Second Aliyah", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 603, "text": "There are multiple reasons for this mass emigration from Eastern Europe and the most commonly talked about is the growing antisemitism in Russia and the Pale of Settlement. The manifestations of this antisemitism were various pogroms, notably the Kishinev Pogrom and the pogroms that attended the 1905 Russian Revolution. The other major factor for emigration was economic hardship. The majority of the Jewish population of Eastern Europe was poor and they left in search of a better life. Jews left Eastern Europe in search of a better economic situation which the majority found in the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "640841", "title": "Refusenik", "section": "Section::::History of the Jewish refuseniks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 688, "text": "Many Jews encountered systematic, institutional antisemitism which blocked their opportunities for advancement. Some government sectors were almost entirely off-limits to Jews. In addition, Soviet restrictions on religious education and expression prevented Jews from engaging in Jewish cultural and religious life. While these restrictions led many Jews to seek emigration, requesting an exit visa was itself seen as an act of betrayal by Soviet authorities. Thus, prospective emigrants requested permission to emigrate at great personal risk, knowing that an official refusal would often be accompanied by dismissal from work and other forms of social ostracism and economic pressure. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15624", "title": "Judaism", "section": "Section::::Judaism and other religions.:Islam and Judaism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 236, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 236, "end_character": 407, "text": "In the mid-20th century, Jews were expelled from nearly all of the Arab countries. Most have chosen to live in Israel. Today, antisemitic themes including Holocaust denial have become commonplace in the propaganda of Islamic movements such as Hizbullah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Refah Partisi.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "213517", "title": "Crypto-Judaism", "section": "Section::::Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 562, "text": "Crypto-Jews persisted in Russia and Eastern European countries influenced by the Soviet Union after the rise of Communism with the Russian Revolution of 1917. The government, which included secular Communist Jews, did not force Jews to convert to the Russian Orthodox Church, but regarded practice of any religion as undesirable. Some faiths were allowed to continue under strict supervision by the regime. Since the end of Communism, many people in former Soviet states, including descendants of Jews, have publicly taken up the faith of their ancestors again.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56624371", "title": "Polenaktion", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 613, "text": "From 1935-1938, Jews living within Germany had most of their rights stripped by the Nuremberg Laws, and faced intense persecution from the state. As a result, many Jewish refugees sought rapidly to emigrate out of the Reich. However, most countries, still feeling the effects of a global depression, enacted strict immigration laws and simply would not address the refugee problem. According to a census conducted in 1933, over 57 percent of the foreign Jews living in Germany were Polish. The Polish Government, fearing an influx of Jews from the Reich, took drastic steps to isolate its Jewish citizens abroad.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "83530", "title": "Kristallnacht", "section": "Section::::Background.:Early Nazi persecutions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1325, "text": "These laws resulted in the exclusion of Jews from German social and political life. Many sought asylum abroad; hundreds of thousands emigrated, but as Chaim Weizmann wrote in 1936, \"The world seemed to be divided into two parts—those places where the Jews could not live and those where they could not enter.\" The international Évian Conference on 6 July 1938 addressed the issue of Jewish and Gypsy immigration to other countries. By the time the conference took place, more than 250,000 Jews had fled Germany and Austria, which had been annexed by Germany in March 1938; more than 300,000 German and Austrian Jews continued to seek refuge and asylum from oppression. As the number of Jews and Gypsies wanting to leave increased, the restrictions against them grew, with many countries tightening their rules for admission. By 1938, Germany \"had entered a new radical phase in anti-Semitic activity\". Some historians believe that the Nazi government had been contemplating a planned outbreak of violence against the Jews and were waiting for an appropriate provocation; there is evidence of this planning dating to 1937. In a 1997 interview, the German historian Hans Mommsen claimed that a major motive for the pogrom was the desire of the \"Gauleiters\" of the NSDAP to seize Jewish property and businesses. Mommsen stated:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1jihja	why is it legal to drink 1 beer and then drive, but illegal to drink 1 beer while driving?	[ { "answer": "I always figured it was because it's not very practical to pull someone over and ask,\"Is that your first beer? Okay good, just checking. Have a nice day.\"\n\nEasiest way to enforce that law is to have a 0 tolerance policy on open containers/drinking & driving.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's actually not illegal in a lot of places. And it's not the same ticket for having an open container. It's a much much lower charge than drunk driving. We always make sure to have a cracked beer when we drive through pats of Mississippi.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a lot of misinformation in here, and a real answer will depend on what state you live in. Generally speaking it works like this:\n\nIt is not legal to operate a motor vehicle with a blood alcohol content of greater than 0.08 (in most states). If you consume a beverage and it raises your BAC to above 0.08 then it is illegal. The reasoning behind laws which ban consumption while behind the wheel are simply a way to eliminate drunk driving.\n\nAs for searching your car or your car being a public place... there are entire courses dedicated to this but basically it boils down to a few things. \n\n1. Searches with your consent - Consent can be tricky, a simple casual remark can be construed as consent. If I can make a judge believe that you gave consent then you gave consent.\n2. Searches made by \"plain view\" - You got an ounce on the dash? you are getting searched (and arrested).\n3. Searches made from an arrest - You throw your stub out the window? Bam, you're getting arrested for littering, and I'm searching your car.\n4. Searches made from probable cause - If I have probable cause to believe you have committed a crime I can search your car.\n5. Plus a bunch more local, state and edge case type laws depending on where you live.\n\nMoral of the story is, don't drink then drive and don't drink while driving.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As i did my driver license i drove behind a traktor (landmachine) and the farmer in front of us drank his beer and ate his Sandwich. No one mentioned it, we just giggled a bit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I was at a party the cops busted once and I had an interesting conversation with the officer. Since almost every one there was underage they pulled out the breathalyzers and started testing everyone. I wanted to lighten the mood so I asked the officer what the highest BAC level he has ever seen was. I can't remember the exact percentage but he told me he has tested people and they have shown results that mean they should be dead with that amount of alcohol in there system. BUT it was because they had JUST finished drinking. Allowing people to drink while driving would make breathalyzer tests less reliable in court because people could say they had just taken a sip right before they got pulled over so they could argue they weren't really drunk. By not allowing people to drink while driving this is a non issue. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2011", "title": "Comparison of American and British English", "section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Social and cultural differences.:Transport.:Road transport.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 375, "text": "In the UK \"drink driving\" is against the law, while in the US, where the action is also outlawed, the term is \"drunk driving\". The legal term in the US is \"driving while intoxicated\" (DWI) or \"driving under the influence (of alcohol)\" (DUI). The equivalent legal phrase in the UK is \"drunk in charge of a motor vehicle\" (DIC) or more commonly \"driving with excess alcohol\". \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "168915", "title": "Effects of cannabis", "section": "Section::::Short-term effects.:Effects on driving.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 222, "text": "The British Medical Journal indicated that \"drivers who consume cannabis within three hours of driving are nearly twice as likely to cause a vehicle collision as those who are not under the influence of drugs or alcohol\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "511428", "title": "Driving under the influence", "section": "Section::::Alcohol.:Blood alcohol content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 410, "text": "Driving while consuming alcohol may be illegal within a jurisdiction. In some it is illegal for an open container of an alcoholic beverage to be in the passenger compartment of a motor vehicle or in some specific area of that compartment. There have been cases of drivers being convicted of a DUI when they were not observed driving after being proven in court they had been driving while under the influence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8011", "title": "Alcohol intoxication", "section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Legal issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 410, "text": "Laws on drunkenness vary. In the United States, it is a criminal offense for a person to be drunk while driving a motorized vehicle, except in Wisconsin, where it is only a fine for the first offense. It is also a criminal offense to fly an aircraft or (in some American states) to assemble or operate an amusement park ride while drunk. Similar laws also exist in the United Kingdom and most other countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "133258", "title": "Drunk driving in the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 736, "text": "Drunk driving is the act of operating a motor vehicle with the operator's ability to do so impaired as a result of alcohol consumption, or with a blood alcohol level in excess of the legal limit. For drivers 21 years or older, driving with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.08% or higher is illegal. For drivers under 21 years old, the legal limit is lower, with state limits ranging from 0.00 to 0.02. Lower BAC limits apply when operating boats, airplanes, or commercial vehicles. Among other names, the criminal offense of drunk driving may be called driving under the influence (DUI), driving while intoxicated or impaired (DWI), operating [a] vehicle under the influence of alcohol (OVI), or operating while impaired (OWI).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6548700", "title": "Half-truth", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 320, "text": "BULLET::::- After being stopped for drunk driving, the inebriated driver proclaims \"I only had a couple of beers\" in slurred speech. \"The driver may have also consumed alcoholic drinks other than beer, and the \"beers\" may have been large bottles as opposed to the usual contents of a normal-sized can, bottle, or glass\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14741278", "title": "Driving in the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 626, "text": "Driving in the United States is a frequent occurrence, with the majority of Americans using private automobiles as their primary form of transportation to their workplace. Each state has the authority to set its own traffic laws and issue driving licenses, although these laws are largely the same and licenses from other states are respected throughout the country. Americans drive on the right side of the road. There are numerous regulations on driving behavior, including speed limits, passing regulations, and seat belt requirements. Driving while intoxicated with alcohol is illegal in all jurisdictions within the U.S.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
35aaqj	why do dogs (and foxes) like balls so much?	[ { "answer": "It's part of an old instinct to chase small quick animals. They are naturally attracted to things that are small and move quickly and their natural instinct is to chase them", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6683847", "title": "Tahltan Bear Dog", "section": "Section::::Appearance.:Coat and colour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 231, "text": "Like others of their group, they had a peculiar yodel. Foxy in appearance, their main distinction among dogs is their novel tail. Short, bushy and carried erect, it has been described variously as a shaving brush or a whisk broom.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "68502", "title": "Fox hunting", "section": "Section::::Controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 90, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 90, "end_character": 328, "text": "Fox hunting with hounds has been happening in Europe since at least the sixteenth century, and strong traditions have built up around the activity, as have related businesses, rural activities, and hierarchies. For this reason, there are large numbers of people who support fox hunting and this can be for a variety of reasons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11299", "title": "Fox", "section": "Section::::Relationships with humans.:In culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 520, "text": "The fox appears in many cultures, usually in folklore. However, there are slight variations in their depictions in folklore. In Western folklore and also in Persian folklore, foxes are depicted as a symbol of cunning and trickery – a reputation derived especially from their reputed ability to evade hunters. This is usually represented as a character possessing these traits. These traits are used on a wide variety of characters, either making them a nuisance to the story, a misunderstood hero, or a devious villain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "237685", "title": "Kitsune", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 468, "text": "Foxes and humans lived close together in ancient Japan; this companionship gave rise to legends about the creatures. have become closely associated with Inari, a Shinto or spirit, and serve as its messengers. This role has reinforced the fox's supernatural significance. The more tails a has – they may have as many as nine – the older, wiser, and more powerful it is. Because of their potential power and influence, some people make sacrifices to them as to a deity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8139837", "title": "Moon Boy (manhwa)", "section": "Section::::Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 241, "text": "BULLET::::3. Low Level Foxes: Are the Foxes who aren't capable of controlling themselves. They seem to act almost zombie/animalistic. They are always hungry for Rabbit blood and meat they have already attacked humans. Very dangerous people.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3824727", "title": "The Bluffers", "section": "Section::::Characters.:Heroes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 207, "text": "BULLET::::- Sharpy, a red, bipedal fox who likes to outwit others for his own gain. He feels that lying, cheating, and stealing are what \"real foxes\" do, although he tends not to do these very successfully.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11299", "title": "Fox", "section": "Section::::Relationships with humans.:In culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 572, "text": "In Asian folklore, foxes are depicted as a familiar spirit possessed of magic powers. Similar to Western folklore, foxes are depicted as mischievous, usually tricking other people, with the ability to disguise as an attractive female human. However, there are other depictions of foxes as a mystical, sacred creature, that can either bring wonder or ruin. Nine-tailed foxes appear in Chinese folklore, literature, and mythology, in which, depending on the tale can be a good or a bad omen. The motif was eventually introduced from Chinese to Japanese and Korean cultures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
65uvqm	please. how do you milk an almond to make almond milk?	[ { "answer": "With a screw press. Roughly chop, then sqeeze them like olives or peanuts to get the moister out. The remaining paste can be used as a thickening agent.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What Druid posted about the press is correct but typically they will also soak the almonds in a watery mixture that when pressed/processed creates a slurry of water and oil and solids. The solids are filtered out.\n\nThe protein content of the almonds remains in the physical paste leaving the liquid mixture as \"milk\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "692372", "title": "Almond milk", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 239, "text": "The basic method of modern domestic almond milk production is to grind almonds in a blender with water, then strain out the almond pulp (flesh) with a strainer or cheesecloth. Almond milk can also be made by adding water to almond butter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "692372", "title": "Almond milk", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 533, "text": "Almond milk is a plant milk manufactured from almonds with a creamy texture and nutty flavor, although some types or brands are flavored in imitation of dairy milk. It does not contain cholesterol, saturated fat or lactose, and is often consumed by those who are lactose-intolerant and others, such as vegans who avoid dairy products. Commercial almond milk comes in sweetened, unsweetened, vanilla and chocolate flavors, and is usually fortified with micronutrients. It can also be made at home using a blender, almonds and water. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "392267", "title": "Brindisi", "section": "Section::::Cuisine.:Beverages, spirits, liquors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 111, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 111, "end_character": 222, "text": "Almond milk: made by infusing water with the finely chopped almonds and then squeezing the same to expel the \"milk\". The region of Apulia has entered the milk of almonds in its list of traditional Italian food products . \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1064", "title": "Almond", "section": "Section::::Culinary uses.:Almond milk.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 451, "text": "Almonds can be processed into a milk substitute called almond milk; the nut's soft texture, mild flavor, and light coloring (when skinned) make for an efficient analog to dairy, and a soy-free choice for lactose intolerant people and vegans. Raw, blanched, and lightly toasted almonds work well for different production techniques, some of which are similar to that of soymilk and some of which use no heat, resulting in \"raw milk\" (see raw foodism).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4335184", "title": "San Vito dei Normanni", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Cuisine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 114, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 114, "end_character": 399, "text": "Almond milk is achieved by creating in an infusion of water with finely chopped almonds, and then squeezing them to bring out all the juice. Puglia Region has entered the almond milk in the list of traditional Italian food products. Limoncello is a liquor made from the peel of fresh lemon and enriched with water, sugar and alcohol to be enjoyed both as an apéritif and as a digestive after meals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "692372", "title": "Almond milk", "section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 363, "text": "If unfortified, almond milk has less vitamin D than fortified cows' milk; in North America cows' milk must be fortified with vitamin D, but vitamins are added to plant milks on a voluntary basis. Because of its low protein content, almond milk is not a suitable replacement for breast milk, cows' milk, or hydrolyzed formulas for children under two years of age.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1064", "title": "Almond", "section": "Section::::Culinary uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 439, "text": "While the almond is often eaten on its own, raw or toasted, it is also a component of various dishes. Almonds are available in many forms, such as whole, sliced (flaked, slivered), and as flour. Almond pieces around 2–3 mm in size, called \"nibs\", are used for special purposes such as decoration. Almonds yield almond oil and can also be made into almond butter or almond milk. These products can be used in both sweet and savoury dishes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
9x3btd	how does gps jamming work? like what the russians did during the recent nato exercise.	[ { "answer": "The same as normal jamming, they sent out a bunch of signals on the frequency that GPS satellites use to confuse the receivers- like trying to hear a code someone is telling you(The GPS signal) when someone is shouting in your ear(The Russian Jamming.) \n\n01001 01100 01001 01011 00101 10100 10010 00001 01001 01110 10011... \n\n#I LIKE TRAINS, VARIABLE-SPEED CORN MUFFINS, HI GUYS WHAT ARE YOU TALKING ABOUT, ARE YOU HAVING A CONVERSATION, AM I INTRUDING? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "GPS works on a series of satellites at predictable positions in orbit around the Earth. A GPS receiver basically \"sees\" these GPS satellites, the radio signals they put out, and can figure out its own location based on them.\n\nTo jam a radio signal, you just need to flood the area with other signals at the same frequency, preventing anyone from getting useful information from them.\n\nImagine turning a spotlight on and off to send a message in morse code. Jamming would be like having a hundred other spotlights also flashing randomly at the same time. The real signal is in the mix, but there's no way to tell what is signal and what is noise, so it is all effectively noise.\n\nAnyway, since GPS signals are just radio signals at a specific frequency, you can jam them just like any other radio signal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "First how GPS works: GPS satellites in orbit are like special radio stations that continuously send a very long pattern of numbers and their positions relative to the Earth. GPS receivers are radio receivers that know the same pattern. The receiver compares its pattern with the transmitted pattern to know how long ago the GPS satellite sent it. This time delay is converted to a distance and the distances from three or four GPS satellites are used to determine the location of the receiver through a calculation called triangulation.\n\nJamming: Unfortunately, civilian GPS is not securely verifiable so a receiver can't tell the difference between a real and fake transmission on the same frequency. Russia probably transmitted either noise or a shifted version of the pattern to confuse receivers , making the receiver believe satellites were closer or farther than they really are. If the Russian transmission was stronger, which is easy to do since the real transmitters are all the way in space, they could cause GPS receivers to report an incorrect location.\n\n\nEdit: Since you were asking about a military drill specifically, it's likely Russia was just transmitting noise to prevent the real signal from being received. Civilian GPS is even more vulnerable in that an attacker can create fake signals to cause a receiver to believe it's in the wrong place, though it would be hard to do for multiple spread out targets simultaneously.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Wait, did this happen? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11866", "title": "Global Positioning System", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Military.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 160, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 160, "end_character": 729, "text": "GPS's vulnerability to jamming is a threat that continues to grow as jamming equipment and experience grows. GPS signals have been reported to have been jammed many times over the years for military purposes. Russia seems to have several objectives for this behavior, such as intimidating neighbors while undermining confidence in their reliance on American systems, promoting their GLONASS alternative, disrupting Western military exercises, and protecting assets from drones. China uses jamming to discourage US surveillance aircraft near the contested Spratly Islands. North Korea has mounted several major jamming operations near its border with South Korea and offshore, disrupting flights, shipping and fishing operations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "201690", "title": "Joint Direct Attack Munition", "section": "Section::::History.:Operational use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 542, "text": "The introduction of GPS guidance to weapons brought several improvements to air-to-ground warfare. The first is a real all-weather capability since GPS is not affected by rain, clouds, fog, smoke, or man-made obscurants. Previous precision guided weapons relied on seekers using infrared, visual light, or a reflected laser spot to “see” the ground target. These seekers were not effective when the target was obscured by fog and low altitude clouds and rain (as encountered in Kosovo), or by dust and smoke (as encountered in Desert Storm).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24050869", "title": "Inertial navigation system", "section": "Section::::Error.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 853, "text": "In 2011, GPS jamming at the civilian level became a governmental concern. The relative ease in ability to jam these systems has motivated the military to reduce navigation dependence on GPS technology. Inertial navigation sensors cannot be jammed. In 2012, researchers at the U.S. Army Research Laboratory reported an inertial measurement unit consisting of micro-electromechanical system triaxial accelerometers and tri-axial gyroscopes with an array size of 10 that had a Kalman filter algorithm to estimate sensor nuisance parameters (errors) and munition position and velocity. Each array measures six data points and the system coordinates the data together to deliver a navigation solution. If one sensor consistently over or underestimates distance, the system can adjust, adjusting the corrupted sensor's contributions to the final calculation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13108226", "title": "Radio occultation", "section": "Section::::GNSS radio occultation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 717, "text": "GNSS or GPS radio occultation (GNSS-RO, GPS-RO, GPSRO) is a type of radio occultation that relies on radio transmissions from GPS (Global Positioning System), or more generally from GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System), satellites. This is a relatively new technique (first applied in 1995) for performing atmospheric measurements. It is used as a weather forecasting tool, and could also be harnessed in monitoring climate change. The technique involves a low-Earth orbit satellite receiving a signal from a GPS satellite. The signal has to pass through the atmosphere and gets refracted along the way. The magnitude of the refraction depends on the temperature and water vapor concentration in the atmosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1325302", "title": "Radar detector", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 782, "text": "In recent years, some radar detectors have added GPS technology. This allows users to manually store the locations where police frequently monitor traffic, with the detector sounding an alarm when approaching that location in the future (this is accomplished by pushing a button and doesn't require coordinates to be entered). These detectors also allow users to manually store the coordinates of sites of frequent false alarms, which the GPS enabled detector will then ignore. The detector can also be programmed to mute alerts when traveling below a preset speed, limiting unnecessary alerts. Some GPS enabled detectors can download the GPS coordinates of speed monitoring cameras and red-light cameras from the Internet, alerting the driver that they are approaching the camera.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56456840", "title": "James Spilker", "section": "Section::::Technical contributions.:Precision satellite test receiver for testing C/A and P code satellite transmissions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 572, "text": "Upon initial launch of the first GPS satellites, there was the need to assure that the precise signal modulation matched bit-by-bit and chip-by-chip with the desired signal. This measurement required a large tracking antenna and special receiver. Since the satellites are exposed to Van Allen belt radiation and vibration effects at launch, these were important tests. Spilker and his team at Stanford Telecommunications successfully designed, implemented, and carried our these GPS in-orbit tests to assure that the P-code chips and other signals were precisely correct.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "503209", "title": "Spoofing attack", "section": "Section::::GPS spoofing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1532, "text": "A GPS spoofing attack attempts to deceive a GPS receiver by broadcasting incorrect GPS signals, structured to resemble a set of normal GPS signals, or by rebroadcasting genuine signals captured elsewhere or at a different time. These spoofed signals may be modified in such a way as to cause the receiver to estimate its position to be somewhere other than where it actually is, or to be located where it is but at a different time, as determined by the attacker. One common form of a GPS spoofing attack, commonly termed a carry-off attack, begins by broadcasting signals synchronized with the genuine signals observed by the target receiver. The power of the counterfeit signals is then gradually increased and drawn away from the genuine signals. It has been suggested that the capture of a Lockheed RQ-170 drone aircraft in northeastern Iran in December, 2011 was the result of such an attack. GPS spoofing attacks had been predicted and discussed in the GPS community previously, but no known example of a malicious spoofing attack has yet been confirmed. A \"proof-of-concept\" attack was successfully performed in June, 2013, when the luxury yacht \"White Rose of Drachs\" was misdirected with spoofed GPS signals by a group of aerospace engineering students from the Cockrell School of Engineering at the University of Texas in Austin. The students were aboard the yacht, allowing their spoofing equipment to gradually overpower the signal strengths of the actual GPS constellation satellites, altering the course of the yacht.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
nj984	what is wireless spectrum scarcity and why is it a problem now?	[ { "answer": "[this](_URL_1_) gives you a great explanation, but i'll give you the TLDR\n\nSpectrum is allocated from 3 kHz to 300 GHz. Basically different devices require a certain amount of bandwidth to send signal. When you create 4G (or even faster forms) you need more assigned spectrum. \n\n > What puts strains on this spectrum and why is it so scarce right now? \n\nmore electronic devices that require a radio frequency, any technology really...\n\n > Is wireless spectrum the same thing as the frequency bands (like AT & T running on 850 MHz, 1900 MHz, etc.) \n\nsame thing, just at different ends of the range. Scroll down to the bottom of [this](_URL_0_) \n\n\n > Why doesn't the government just release more spectrum? \n\nits already clogged up, they need to sell/take over more spectrum, but that usually involves pissing somebody else off. \n\nELI5: Think of it like you're in a class, and the teacher asks you to paint a mural, gives you 30cm (1ft) each within the long sheet. Then another 30 kids walk into the classroom halfway through and want to paint too. So the teacher tells you to give them half. You've already started your 30cm masterpiece, why the fuck would you surrender it?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[this](_URL_1_) gives you a great explanation, but i'll give you the TLDR\n\nSpectrum is allocated from 3 kHz to 300 GHz. Basically different devices require a certain amount of bandwidth to send signal. When you create 4G (or even faster forms) you need more assigned spectrum. \n\n > What puts strains on this spectrum and why is it so scarce right now? \n\nmore electronic devices that require a radio frequency, any technology really...\n\n > Is wireless spectrum the same thing as the frequency bands (like AT & T running on 850 MHz, 1900 MHz, etc.) \n\nsame thing, just at different ends of the range. Scroll down to the bottom of [this](_URL_0_) \n\n\n > Why doesn't the government just release more spectrum? \n\nits already clogged up, they need to sell/take over more spectrum, but that usually involves pissing somebody else off. \n\nELI5: Think of it like you're in a class, and the teacher asks you to paint a mural, gives you 30cm (1ft) each within the long sheet. Then another 30 kids walk into the classroom halfway through and want to paint too. So the teacher tells you to give them half. You've already started your 30cm masterpiece, why the fuck would you surrender it?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4312667", "title": "Spectrum management", "section": "Section::::Alternative spectrum governance regimes and the spectrum debate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 305, "text": "Spectrum scarcity has emerged as a primary problem encountered when trying to launch new wireless services. The effects of this scarcity is most noticeable in the spectrum auctions where the operators often need to invest billions of dollars to secure access to specified bands in the available spectrum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34779099", "title": "User-in-the-loop", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1066, "text": "Wireless resources including the bandwidth (frequency) are an increasingly scarce resource and the while current demand on wireless network is below the supply in most of the times (potentials capacity of the wireless links based on technology limitations), the rapid and exponential increase in demand will render wireless access an increasingly expensive resource in a matter of few years. While usual technological responses to this perspective such as innovative new generations of cellular systems, more efficient resource allocations, cognitive radio and machine learning are certainly necessary, it seems that they ignore a major resource in the system, namely the users. Wireless users can be encouraged to change their \"wireless behavior\" by introducing incentives, e.g., differentiated pricing. In addition, the increasing concern for the environment and the considerable yet invisible environmental effects of wireless use can be tapped into in order to convince \"greener\" user to change their wireless behavior in order to reduce their carbon footprint.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31586643", "title": "Policies promoting wireless broadband in the United States", "section": "Section::::Network neutrality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 698, "text": "More users are obtaining access to the internet and have the wireless devices to access it. It is no surprise that wireless is the fastest growing broadband service. There is also an increase in the number of users that rely solely on wireless instead of wired connections. Wireless service providers are constantly competing to create the best network with the best service and quality. With more towers and increased advanced technologies, wireless has become a convenient and widely accessible mode of communication. The negative, however, is the technology which wireless Internet uses. As previously stated, the spectrum itself is limited and wireless data networks rely on the finite source.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50790788", "title": "Time Slotted Channel Hopping", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 293, "text": "Wireless communications are often referred as unreliable due to the unpredictability of the wireless medium. While wireless communications bring many advantages (e.g no wires maintenance, costs reduction ...), the lack of reliability slows down the adoption of wireless networks technologies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11715934", "title": "Opportunity Driven Multiple Access", "section": "Section::::ODMA Technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 620, "text": "With the explosion of cellular phone use and Internet multi-media services, wireless networks are becoming increasingly congested. The increased demand has raised our expectations, while creating capacity problems and a need for greater bandwidth. However, if the transmitted power of wireless units is significantly reduced, then there is a potential solution. This implies a signal-to-noise ratio improvement: the ratio is affected by numerous parameters, including radio frequency and path. Opportunity Driven Multiple Access (ODMA) continually determines optimal points along that path to support each transmission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33172", "title": "Wireless network", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Difficulties.:Shared resource problem.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 574, "text": "The wireless spectrum is a limited resource and shared by all nodes in the range of its transmitters. Bandwidth allocation becomes complex with multiple participating users. Often users are not aware that advertised numbers (e.g., for IEEE 802.11 equipment or LTE networks) are not their capacity, but shared with all other users and thus the individual user rate is far lower. With increasing demand, the capacity crunch is more and more likely to happen. User-in-the-loop (UIL) may be an alternative solution to ever upgrading to newer technologies for over-provisioning.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11034808", "title": "Arthur Firstenberg", "section": "Section::::Campaign against microwave technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 414, "text": "Since 1996, Firstenberg has argued in numerous publications that wireless technology is dangerous and that \"the telecommunications industry has suppressed damaging evidence about its technology since at least 1927.\" In May 2006, the World Health Organization stated that \"[there is] no convincing scientific evidence that the weak RF signals from base stations and wireless networks cause adverse health effects.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
2c4s5j	why does my back itch if i'm not wearing a shirt, but nothing else on my bare body does?	[ { "answer": " > Looked it up and didn't really find anything\n\n\nObviously you didn't try WebMD... it's cancer, definitely cancer.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not an expert at all, but I read that some evolutionary psychologists believe that the reason you get itchy for no reason is to encourage grooming (think back when we had fur that needed grooming). You can't reach your back yourself, so it doesn't get groomed. So, your back gets itchy to encourage you to find a way to scratch/groom it, usually by finding someone else to scratch it. Or at least rub against some tree bark.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2134539", "title": "Aquagenic pruritus", "section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 263, "text": "The exact mechanism of the condition is unknown. Some studies have suggested the itching occurs in response to increased fibrinolytic activity in the skin, inappropriate activation of the sympathetic nervous system, or increased activity of Acetylcholinesterase.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5053164", "title": "South Shore Regional School Board", "section": "Section::::Controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 781, "text": "The T-shirt was an expression of the scriptural passage from the St. Paul's Letter to the Philippians 3:8, which says, \"More than that, I even consider everything as a loss because of the supreme good of knowing Christ Jesus my Lord. For his sake I have accepted the loss of all things and I consider them so much rubbish, that I may gain Christ...\" In the scriptural passage, the original Greek word used is \"skybala,\" which means \"dung\" or \"crap.\" The passage is meant to illustrate how the apostle Paul regards his life prior to becoming converted to Christianity. In effect, the young boy who wore the T-shirt had on a very mild translation of the scriptural passage because the scripture, itself, is clear in saying that a secular life without Christ is as worthless as dung.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2054287", "title": "Dress shirt", "section": "Section::::Formal shirts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 397, "text": "The placket of the shirt is the part that holds the buttons and the button holes. This is highly regarded as the focal point of the dress shirt when worn casually. Unfortunately due to the lack of reinforcement, the weight of the collar will cripple the placket throughout the day. No amount of starch, ironing, pressing nor does the type of fabric matter when it comes to combating the collapse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11979074", "title": "Backless dress", "section": "Section::::Styles.:Choli.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 529, "text": "The back is either \"partially exposed\" with a low cut or \"fully exposed\" by use of strings. The backless styles were created mainly due to the influence of Western fashion. It takes a sophisticated woman to carry off this without feeling self-conscious. It was made popular by Madhuri Dixit when she wore it and appeared in the \"Dhak Dhak\" song. \"The drape and the blouse make the saree a sexy ensemble, and my blouses are always low back because I love the peep of the skin against so much fabric.\" — Indian actress Vidya Balan\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18424", "title": "Labia minora", "section": "Section::::Structure and functioning.:Medical conditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 341, "text": "In adult females, irritation of the area may be caused by wearing too-tight underwear (especially where wider inner labia protrude in the pudendal cleft); while G-strings, which rub against the labia during body movements, may cause irritation or lead to infection from bacteria transferred from either the external environment or the anus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9708165", "title": "Collar stay", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 414, "text": "Collar stays are removed from shirts before dry cleaning or pressing, as the cleaning process can damage both the shirt and the stays; they are replaced prior to wearing. Shirts that are press ironed with the collar stays are vulnerable to damage, as this results in a telltale impression of the collar stay in the fabric of the collar. Some shirts have stays which are sewn into the collar and are not removable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7168052", "title": "Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 390, "text": "Pruritus (itching) is a common symptom of pregnancy, affecting around 20% of women. The majority of times, itching is a minor annoyance caused by changes to the skin, especially that of the abdomen. However, there are instances when itching may be a symptom of ICP. Although typically noticed on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, the itching can occur anywhere on the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
gno54	Are Pharma companies evil like everyone says?	[ { "answer": "You are asking a loaded question. A company is a group of people, policies, etc. I'm curious as to what criteria you would weigh in making a determination if a company is 'evil'?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Pharma is just a company, like any other, and as such they are bound by the law just like any other. According to the law (the SEC we're talking here) the company MUST do what is in the best financial interests of the shareholders, or the corporate officers (CEO etc...) can actually be charged with a crime and go to prison. \n\nAs a result the pharmaceutical industry has almost no choice but to pursue products that they believe will generate the best return. They have to make products for people who can afford them, and products that people with money want to buy; sadly this means often developing erection pills over drugs for tropical diseases.\n\nThis being said, Pharma companies do indeed develop drugs for the developing world, and the people in the companies absolutely would like to work on these problems, but it's an expensive process.\n\nTD;DR Pharma companies are not good or evil, they are just following the laws of the land, morality isn't a factor in any large business.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36684546", "title": "Bad Pharma", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 438, "text": "Bad Pharma: How Drug Companies Mislead Doctors and Harm Patients is a book by the British physician and academic Ben Goldacre about the pharmaceutical industry, its relationship with the medical profession, and the extent to which it controls academic research into its own products. It was published in the UK in September 2012 by the Fourth Estate imprint of HarperCollins, and in the United States in February 2013 by Faber and Faber.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58738886", "title": "Cheplapharm Arzneimittel", "section": "Section::::Products.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 284, "text": "The company also markets over-the-counter drugs for common heath issues (e.g. antiemetics, antacids, antidiarrhoeals, cardiovascular remedies, pain killers, sedatives) and medical products, among them dietary supplements, hot-cold-packs, cold sprays and dermatological care products.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1442200", "title": "Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 291, "text": "MHRA (and US Food and Drug Administration) have been criticised in the book \"Bad Pharma\", and by David Healy in evidence to the House of Commons Health Committee, for having undergone regulatory capture; advancing the interests of the drug companies rather than the interests of the public.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36607031", "title": "Counterfeit medicines online", "section": "Section::::E-pharmacies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 800, "text": "Rogue e-pharmacies are those that not adhere to accepted standards of medicine and/or pharmacy practice, including standards of safety, thus violating regulations, and those that engage in fraudulent and deceptive business practices. They sell counterfeit pharmaceuticals through ad hoc designed websites which pretend authenticity and often contain features which aim to imitate legitimate ones. The impact of illicit e-pharmacies should not be underestimated: sewage epidemiology showed that 60% of the consumed sildenafil in the Netherlands was obtained from illegal sources. The consumers still seem unable to grasp the risks associated with this particular issue. This happens also because the issue of online sales of counterfeit medicines does not seem to receive due attention by the media. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46904191", "title": "Big Pharma (video game)", "section": "Section::::Game mechanics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1102, "text": "In \"Big Pharma\" the player takes the role as the manager of a pharmaceutical company, producing prescription drugs from raw materials. Raw materials have intrinsic positive (e.g., \"Reduces coughs\") and negative (e.g., \"Induces drowsiness\") effects that present themselves when the material is within a set concentration range, with possible concentrations ranging on a 0-to-20 scale. Most of the positive benefits can be enhanced to more desirable effects, or negative side effects can be outright removed, by bringing the material to a specific concentration range and applying an indicated process, some further requiring the addition of a catalyst material which itself carries positive and negative effects. Materials can also be mixed to combine positive and negative benefits to create more potent drugs. The goal in the mixing and preparation of materials is to achieve drugs that have their positive effects as close to their maximum potency concentration while either eliminating side effects or bringing the material's concentration as far away from the side effects' maximum potency levels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1761838", "title": "Ben Goldacre", "section": "Section::::Career and research.:\"Bad Pharma\" (2012).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 209, "text": "His second book, \"Bad Pharma: How Drug Companies Mislead Doctors and Harm Patients\", was published in the UK in September 2012 and in the United States and Canada in February 2013. In the book he argues that:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59332398", "title": "Deadly Medicines and Organised Crime", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 356, "text": "The book documents activities by major pharmaceutical companies that include corruption, fraud, bribery, and omission of data to market their products. While all drugs have side effects not all have benefits. The influx of money by pharma undercuts regulation, education, and scientific integrity. Gøtzsche makes proposals on how to improve the situation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
5xzxa7	why can we see faraway light source (e.g. cars, lamps, stars) clearly when it doesn't seem to illuminate my position?	[ { "answer": "The difference is this: For you to see light, the light has to be strong enough to reach your eye and produce a reaction there. For it to illuminate you, it would have to reach you, scatter off you, reach someone else's eye, and produce a reaction there. During the scattering, the light is spread out more, so it becomes fainter.\n\nLet's look at the case of a laser pointer. Point the laser at the wall, and the scattered light is comfortably visible. Point it at your eye, and you're looking at serious eye damage.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "698830", "title": "Street light", "section": "Section::::Purpose.:Beacon lights.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 887, "text": "A modest steady light at the intersection of two roads is an aid to navigation because it helps a driver see the location of a side road as they come closer to it and they can adjust their braking and know exactly where to turn if they intend to leave the main road or see vehicles or pedestrians. A beacon light's function is to say \"here I am\" and even a dim light provides enough contrast against the dark night to serve the purpose. To prevent the dangers caused by a car driving through a pool of light, a beacon light must never shine onto the main road, and not brightly onto the side road. In residential areas, this is usually the only appropriate lighting, and it has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any sidewalk there for the benefit of pedestrians. On Interstate highways this purpose is commonly served by placing reflectors at the sides of the road.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "997476", "title": "Night sky", "section": "Section::::Visual presentation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 430, "text": "Because stargazing is best done from a dark place away from city lights, dark adaptation is important to achieve and maintain. It takes several minutes for eyes to adjust to the darkness necessary for seeing the most stars, and surroundings on the ground are hard to discern. A red flashlight (torch) can be used to illuminate star charts, telescope parts, and the like without undoing the dark adaptation. (See Purkinje effect).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2073846", "title": "Malmquist bias", "section": "Section::::Understanding the bias.:Magnitudes and brightness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 333, "text": "In everyday life it is easy to see that light dims as it gets farther away. This can be seen with car headlights, candles, flashlights, and many other lit objects. This dimming follows the inverse square law, which states that the brightness of an object decreases as , where \"r\" is the distance between the observer and the object.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17944118", "title": "Physics in the medieval Islamic world", "section": "Section::::Optics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 442, "text": "Taqī al-Dīn tried to disprove the widely held belief that light is emitted by the eye and not the object that is being observed. He explained that, if light came from our eyes at a constant velocity it would take much too long to illuminate the stars for us to see them while we are still looking at them, because they are so far away. Therefore, the illumination must be coming from the stars so we can see them as soon as we open our eyes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3953330", "title": "Photoclinometry", "section": "Section::::Problems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 314, "text": "Light direction is very important to the quality of a photoclinometric image. Light that comes from directly over the surface (behind the camera) makes it hard to distinguish the shadows. Multiple light sources are also a problem, since they destroy important shadows required for the algorithms to work properly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2592962", "title": "Octant (instrument)", "section": "Section::::Advantages of the octant.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 215, "text": "Using shades over the light paths, one could observe the sun directly, while moving the shades out of the light path allowed the navigator to observe faint stars. This made the instrument usable both night and day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25330713", "title": "Belgian railway signalling", "section": "Section::::Light signals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 404, "text": "The lights are designed and arranged to be visible from a distance (up to two kilometers on a clear day). For this they are equipped with lenses to focus light rays emitted by the bulb, which can be selected and reasonable power. That is why the lights do not seem very intense when viewed from the side while they light up sharply in normal line of vision i.e. in the direction of arrival of the train.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
79z79x	Were the pyramids really gold capped?	[ { "answer": "When it first came out, someone asked if the pyramids would still have caps at that time. [So I hope this answer is at least partially useful, though no doubt we have other ancient accounts that are older.] (_URL_0_) I'm not sure what the last mention of the gold caps would be,\n though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3871415", "title": "Gympie Pyramid", "section": "Section::::Theories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 544, "text": "Wheeler argues that the claims of an extraordinary origin for the pyramid are unfounded, writing, \"The facts are (probably) that the Gympie \"Golden\" pyramid is actually an ordinary hill terraced by early Italian immigrants for viticulture that has been disfigured by erosion and the removal of stone from the retaining walls for use elsewhere ... As for all the supporting statements by the various authorities, all but a few unimportant ones fade away as one after another proves to be a misquote, a falsification or an outright fabrication.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28248328", "title": "Puñay", "section": "Section::::Possible structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 223, "text": "In an interview Christian said with regards to the many holes in the pyramid \"These holes were made about 50 to 70 years ago by gringos. Nobody knows what they took but many people here say there used to be a lot of gold\" \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "242606", "title": "Khufu", "section": "Section::::Monuments and statues.:Necropolis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 855, "text": "The Great Pyramid has a base measurement of ca. 750 x 750ft (≙ 230.4 x 230.4 m) and today a height of . Once it had been high, but the pyramidion and the limestone casing are completely lost due to stone robbery. The lack of the casing allows a full view of the inner core of the pyramid. It was erected in small steps by more or less roughly hewn blocks of dark limestone. The casing was made of nearly white limestone. The outer surface of the casing stones were finely polished so the pyramid shimmered in bright, natural lime-white when new. The pyramidion might have been covered in electrum, but there is no archaeological proof of that. The inner corridors and chambers have walls and ceilings made of polished granite, one of the hardest stones known in Khufu's time. The mortar used was a mixture of gypsum, sand, pulverized limestone and water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1586815", "title": "Huni", "section": "Section::::Monuments possibly connected to Huni.:Lepsius pyramid – I.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 824, "text": "Today, this theory is no longer accepted. In 1989, Egyptologist Nabil Swelim examined the pyramid more precisely and found that it was made of small mud bricks, with a quarter of its inner core hewn out of a natural bedrock. The rock core itself contained several rock-cut tombs dating back to the 5th and 6th dynasty. Swelim and others Egyptologists, such as Toby Wilkinson, point out that it would be surprising for a royal pyramid to have been completely destroyed less than 300 years after its construction, only to be re-used for simple rock-cut tombs. Additionally, he points to the unusual geographic position of the pyramid: Old Kingdom pyramids were commonly built on high grounds, while the pyramid Lepsius I lies on a flat plain. Thus, the dating of this monument to the late 3rd dynasty no longer seems tenable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36474009", "title": "Pyramid G1-d", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 527, "text": "All the stonework of the pyramid core had been removed in ancient times. What remains of the superstructure core is two courses of stone. There was also a substructure which was U-shaped but this was destroyed in antiquity. During the excavation the actual apex stone of the pyramid, a single piece of fine Tura-quality limestone, was found. It is the second oldest pyramidion ever found, the earliest belonging to the North Pyramid of Sneferu discovered by Rainer Stadelmann at Dahshur. This rare find has been left in place.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1709766", "title": "Art of ancient Egypt", "section": "Section::::Sculpture.:Pyramidions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 334, "text": "A pyramidion is a capstone at the top of a pyramid. Called benbenet in ancient Egyptian language, it associated the pyramid as a whole with the sacred benben stone. Pyramidions may have been covered in gold leaf to reflect the rays of the sun; in the Middle Kingdom, they were often inscribed with royal titles and religious symbols.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6762369", "title": "Pyramid of Amenemhat III (Dahshur)", "section": "Section::::Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 757, "text": "The pyramid was originally about 75 metres tall with a base 105 metres long and an incline of 57°. Typical for pyramids of the Middle Kingdom, the Black Pyramid, although encased in limestone, is made of mud brick and clay instead of stone. The ground-level structures consist of the entrance opening into the courtyard and mortuary temple, surrounded by walls. There are two sets of walls; between them, there are ten shaft tombs, which are a type of burial structure formed from graves built into natural rock. The pyramidion, which is the capstone of a pyramid, was covered with inscriptions and religious symbols. Some of these were scratched off, leading researchers to conclude the pyramidion was never used or it was defaced during Akhenaten's rule.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
2v15bd	do people who hear for the first time, after something like getting hearing implants, know what the other people are saying?	[ { "answer": "When the senses are developing there is a time called the [critical period](_URL_0_) in which sensory neurons physically become associated with certain parts of the brain, with the result being that different functions can be mapped to distinct regions of the brain. This is called topography. If there isn't any sensory input during this critical period, then the topography will not develop properly, and it may be impossible for it to develop once the critical period has ended. One example is babies born with cataracts. If they don't get them removed right away, then they won't be receiving any visual stimulus during the critical period, and even if they get the cataracts removed in the future, they will still be blind for live. A similar thing happens with people who are born deaf. Hearing implants in someone who has never heard before may give them some auditory function, like they may be able to detect that there is a noise and where it is coming from, but they won't be able understand speech or language, which is a very complex neurological process. Their ability might improve over time, but it will probably never get to the point of a non-hearing impaired person.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most types of deathness of the ear are caused by things like car crashes, or a natural cause which doesn't effect you right at birth.\nThus some people are known to still remember or still recognize words. Don't forget that people who can't hear can still read, thus most, even if you forget, people who can hear afterwards are usually very easy to be retaught. :)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1697459", "title": "The Message (The Outer Limits)", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 261, "text": "Jennifer Winter (Marlee Matlin), deaf since birth, has had a revolutionary implant placed in her ear, to help her hear for the first time. The device doesn't help her to hear normal conversation and sounds, but she does hear something, and no one believes her.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30872390", "title": "Prelingual deafness", "section": "Section::::Language acquisition.:Speech acquisition.:Cochlear implants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 554, "text": "Speech perception can be corrected prior to language acquisition with cochlear implants. After a year and a half experience, researchers found the deaf culture was able to identify words and comprehend movements of others' lips. There is a greater opportunity to hear a sound depending on the location of electrodes compared to the tissue and the number of remaining neurons located in the auditory system. In addition, individual capacities as well as the neural supply to the cochlea play a role in the process of learning with cochlear implantation. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "418355", "title": "Babbling", "section": "Section::::Abnormal development.:Vocal babbling in deaf infants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 457, "text": "A number of solutions have been used for hearing-impaired humans to gain auditory experience, one of which is hearing aids; they can be used to help infants reach babbling stages earlier. Cochlear implants have also been tested. Once the surgical implantation is complete, an infant has the opportunity to experience spoken language input. Once language has been heard, the infant begins to babble and speak in rhythmic patterns just as hearing infants do.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40621603", "title": "Linguistic intelligence", "section": "Section::::Physiologic and functional overview.:Comprehension.:Auditory feedback and feedforward.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 825, "text": "Hearing plays an important part in both speech generation and comprehension. When speaking, the person can hear their speech, and the brain uses what it hears as a feedback mechanism to fix speech errors. If a single feedback correction occurs multiple times, the brain will begin to incorporate the correction to all future speech, making it a feed forward mechanism. This is apparent in some deaf people. Deafness, as well as other, smaller deficiencies in hearing, can greatly affect one's ability to comprehend spoken language, as well as to speak it. However, if the person loses hearing ability later in life, most can still maintain a normal level of verbal intelligence. This is thought to be because of the brain's feed forward mechanism still helping to fix speech errors, even in the absence of auditory feedback.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "241649", "title": "Cochlear implant", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 862, "text": "From the early days of implants in the 1970s and the 1980s, speech perception via an implant has steadily increased. Many users of modern implants gain reasonable to good hearing and speech perception skills post-implantation, especially when combined with lipreading. However, for pre-lingually Deaf children the risk of not acquiring spoken language even with an implant may be as high as 30% . One of the challenges that remain with these implants is that hearing and speech understanding skills after implantation show a wide range of variation across individual implant users. Factors such as duration and cause of hearing loss, how the implant is situated in the cochlea, the overall health of the cochlear nerve, but also individual capabilities of re-learning are considered to contribute to this variation, yet no certain predictive factors are known. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1697459", "title": "The Message (The Outer Limits)", "section": "Section::::Introduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 213, "text": "A deaf woman is given a revolutionary implant to restore her hearing—but it does not help her hear normal sounds. Instead she suffers nightmares, head pain and begins scribbling page after page of ones and zeros.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18685", "title": "Lou Ferrigno", "section": "Section::::Personal life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 839, "text": "Due to ear infections suffered soon after birth, Ferrigno lost 75 to 80% of his hearing and has been using hearing aids since the age of five. Ferrigno says his hearing loss helped shape his sense of determination in his youth, saying, \"I think that if I wasn't hard of hearing I wouldn't be where I am now. Early on, as a youngster it was difficult, but I'm not ashamed to talk about it because many people have misconceptions about hearing loss; like who has hearing loss and what it's like not to hear, so I do talk about it. I think my hearing loss helped create a determination within me to be all that I can be, and gave me a certain strength of character too. Anytime I do a movie or a TV show, I make them aware of my hearing loss at the beginning, and that makes it much easier for all of us to communicate and get the job done.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
5ypew0	How successful were the programs of forced sterilization of Native American women?	[ { "answer": "So from the context of your post, I feel like you're asking this sincerely. I'd like to start out by saying \"successful\" isn't a good word to use. Perhaps it wasn't your intention, but using the word \"success\" carries with it a connotation of justification. These types of programs are never justified. A brief discussion about this was had just the other day about the Nazi eugenics programs.\n\nAight, let's break it down now...\n\n##U.S. Eugenics Programs\n\nThe term \"eugenics\" was coined in 1883 by Francis Galton. It is closely related to Darwinism and essentially advocates the framework of ideas that genes can be manipulated to produce a \"better\" population by controlled breeding. This notion became popular in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, lasting even up through the 1970s. People ranging from political figures and scientists to your average individual adopted this ideology,^[1] one that was grounded in the [perceived conceptions of race.](_URL_3_)\n\nAs noted in the first cited reference, this was the thought on eugenics by Henry F. Osborn, then president of the American Museum of Natural History in New York, in 1921:\n\n > In the US we are slowly waking to the consciousness that education and environment do not fundamentally alter racial values. We are engaged in a serious struggle to maintain our historic republican institutions through barring the entrance of those unfit to share in the duties and responsibilities of our well-founded government. … In the matter of racial virtues, my opinion is that from biological principles there is little promise in the melting-pot theory. Put three races together (Caucasian, Mongolian, and the Negroid) you are likely to unite the vices of all three as the virtues. … For the worlds work give me a pure-blooded … ascertain through observation and experiment what each race is best fitted to accomplish. … If the Negro fails in government, he may become a fine agriculturist or a fine mechanic. … The right of the state to safeguard the character and integrity of the race or races on which its future depends is, to my mind, as incontestable as the right of the state to safeguard the health and morals of its peoples.^[1]\n\nPrograms of eugenics in the United States became a big deal. Compulsory sterilization laws adopted by over 30 states and there is evidence of eugenics in all 50.^[2]\n\nThe renown of the U.S. eugenics program was widespread. It was even commented on by Hitler in his book Mein Kampf, where he notes in his chapter denoting the importance of race to citizenship (bold mine):\n\n > [At present there exists one State which manifests at least some modest attempts that show a better appreciation of how things ought to be done in this matter. It is not, however, in our model German Republic but in the U.S.A. that efforts are made to conform at least partly to the counsels of commonsense. By refusing immigrants to enter there if they are in a bad state of health, and by excluding certain races from the right to become naturalized as citizens, they have begun to introduce principles similar to those on which we wish to ground the People's State (p. 315).](_URL_2_)\n\nPaul Popenoe comments in volume 25 of the Journal of Heredity under \"The German Sterilization Law\" by saying:\n\n > [While the German law is well drawn and, in form, may be considered better than the sterilization laws of most American states, the success of any such measure naturally depends on conservative, sympathetic, and intelligent administration (p. 259).](_URL_5_)\n\n[The American College of Physicians denotes the similarities between the Nazi and American eugenic/sterilization programs.](_URL_6_)\n\n##Sterilization of American Indians\n\nThe programs run by the United States specifically targeted multiple groups of people, ranging from the mentally ill and disabled to those of disadvantaged and marginalized social groups.^[2] One of those groups included the one group of people the United States had, and still has, an obligation of the highest degree toward: the American Indians.\n\nThe Indian Health Service (IHS) is a federally run service for American Indians and Alaska Natives. It is, obviously, responsible for providing proper health care for native peoples as established via the treaties and trust relationship between tribes and the U.S. Government. However, on November 6, 1976, the Government Accounting Office (GAO) released the results of an investigation that concluded that [between 1973 and 1976, IHS performed 3,406 sterilizations on Native American women.](_URL_1_) Per capita, this figure would be equivalent to sterilizing 452,000 non-Native American women.\n\nAccording to the above article, many of these sterilizations were conducted without the consent of the women being sterilized or under coercion. [Table 1 on page 403 of this article from the American Indian Quarterly](_URL_0_) shows a steep decline in birthrates among several Native American tribes. This journal denotes many of the issues that arose in the IHS protocol for administering these sterilizations. It says:\n\n > The report stated that the violations occurred because \"(1) some Indian Health Service physicians did not completely understand the regulations and (2) contract physicians were not required to adhere to the regulations.\" The GAO discovered that the sterilization consent forms used did not comply with HEW regulations and that IHS medical providers used several different forms. The majority of the forms \"did not (I) indicate that the basic elements of in- formed consent had been presented orally to the patient, (2) contain written summaries of the oral presentation, and (3) contain a statement at the top of the form notifying the subjects of their right to withdraw consent\" (p. 407).\n\nAnd that's just the summation. The following pages detail how jacked up the IHS procedures were. While the journal notes that the GAO did not verify if the sterilizations were truly performed without consent, there were certainly many circumstances that would've let to that result. The sterilized women were not even interviewed (noted on page 407 as well).\n\nThe journal continues by examining the aftermath of these programs:\n\n > The IHS damaged tribal communities in several ways. Tribal communities lost much of their ability to reproduce, the respect of other tribal entities, and political power in the tribal councils. Tribal communities represent sections of the entire tribe, much as counties represent specific areas within a state. The population of a community reflects the number of representatives it can elect to the tribal council and to national pan-Indian organizations. Therefore, a community's level of power within the tribal government is affected by the number of people in the community. A lowered census number might also affect federal services a tribal community receives. Finally, a tribal community that suffers a great number of sterilizations can lose the respect of other tribal communities because of its inability to protect its women (p. 411).\n\nThe point being that these sterilizations had grave impacts on the tribal communities that suffered them. However, this might not be the answer to your main thought: where are all the Indians?\n\nDepending on where you live, your area could have also been hit by all the relocation programs. From the 1950s to the late 1960s, the federal government launched \"relocation programs\" in an attempt to move Indians off the reservations and into more urban centers in an attempt to solve the high poverty rates among the American Indian populations. These attempts often amounted little success for Indians who failed to receive further assistance after being forced from their homes with the goal of assimilating them. What it did do, however, is significantly disperse the Indian population around the country from their reservations.^[3] But the sterilization programs could easily have played a part.\n\n[Despite what might appear as an initial \"success,\" the American Indian population has actually been increasing since the beginning of the 20th Century.](_URL_8_) These numbers will fluctuate based on how \"American Indian\" is defined and counted, but in general, we can consider there to be an increase.\n\nAs for why you haven't really heard about it, the connection to Nazi Germany is something that could impact that. Obviously after World War 2, the United States wasn't too keen on many things related to Nazism, socialism, communism, fascism. Additionally, American Indians are still largely marginalized in today's world. The historical interactions between tribes and the U.S. isn't taught accurately in schools, if at all besides the stereotypical lessons in the curriculum. I am actually a bit surprised to see a question about these sterilizations, for it is one of the more obscure things that many Americans are unaware of, from my own experiences. Any other reasons really depend on your specific geographical location and its politics.\n___\nReferences\n\n[1] - [U.S. Scientists' Role in the Eugenics Movement (1907–1939): A Contemporary Biologist's Perspective by\nSteven A. Farber.](_URL_7_)\n\n[2] - [Eugenics: Compulsory Sterilization in 50 American States by Lutz Kaelber, Associate Professor of Sociology, University of Vermont.](_URL_4_)\n\n[3] - Rights of Indians and Tribes by Stephen L. Pevar (2012).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43711007", "title": "Sterilization of Native American women", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1031, "text": "Forced sterilization was a procedure done by the Indian Health Service [IHS] and corroborating physicians on Native Americans in the 1960s and 1970s. The IHS doctors sterilized Native American women through coercion or sterilized them without consent using a variety of tactics. The tactics included failure to provide women with necessary information regarding sterilization, use of coercion to get signatures on the consent forms, improper consent forms, and lack of an appropriate waiting period (at least seventy-two hours) between the signing of a consent form and the surgical procedure. In 1976 the U.S. General Accounting Office found that the IHS sterilized 3,406 Native American women during the fiscal years 1973 and 1976 including twenty-three women that were under the age of twenty-one; which was against the Department of Health and Welfare's regulations. The findings showed that 25-50% of Native American women were sterilized using various methods however, the main methods were tubal ligation or a hysterectomy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3634424", "title": "Violence against women", "section": "Section::::Forms of violence.:State violence.:Forced sterilization and forced abortion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 137, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 137, "end_character": 611, "text": "In the United States, much of the history of forced sterilization is connected to the legacy of eugenics and racism in the United States. Many doctors thought that they were doing the country a service by sterilizing poor, disabled, and/or minority women, whom they considered a drain on the system. Native American, Mexican American, African American and Puerto Rican-American women were coerced into sterilization programs, with Native Americans and African Americans especially being targeted. Records have shown that Native American girls as young as eleven years-old had hysterectomy operations performed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31895363", "title": "Women of All Red Nations", "section": "Section::::Sterilization of Native American women.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 337, "text": "Dr. Pinkerton-Uri stated that many of the doctors performing the sterilizations believed that if Native Americans couldn’t have children or had fewer children that they would become less financially impoverished. In her research Dr. Pinkerton-Uri found that twenty-five percent of full-blooded Native American women had been sterilized.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57381226", "title": "Violence against women in the United States", "section": "Section::::Types of violence.:State violence.:Forced pregnancy and sterilization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 479, "text": "Forced sterilization is recognized as a type of gender-based violence. In the United States, Native American, Mexican American, African American and Puerto Rican-American women were coerced into sterilization programs, with Native Americans and African Americans especially being targeted. Many of these projects were a result of racism and eugenics in the United States. In total, 31 of 50 states had official eugenics programs with tens of thousands of women being sterilized.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43711007", "title": "Sterilization of Native American women", "section": "Section::::Why were Native American women sterilized?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 806, "text": "Since there was no financial benefit for IHS doctors to sterilize Native American women, it suggests that there was a social/cultural factors that caused IHS doctors to sterilize. In the 1970s, negative stereotypes of Native American women contributed to the belief among white physicians that these women would not be able to limit the number of children or use birth control effectively. Thus with a white middle class view on families, sterilization was the most viable form of birth control. When doctors were asked if they would sterilize their private patients, only 6% found sterilization to be a viable option whereas 14% felt that it would be a viable option for individuals on welfare. The statistics show physicians' differing viewpoints in regard to different individuals' socioeconomic class.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43711007", "title": "Sterilization of Native American women", "section": "Section::::Why were Native American women sterilized?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 772, "text": "Native American women were not the only individuals to be subjected to forced sterilizations; black women, and poor women were also afflicted by these practices. In the 1970s, after being forced onto reservations by the United States government, or relocated into urban areas without adequate support, many Native Americans were struggling with poverty. However, Native American populations depended on government organizations like the IHS, Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) and the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). The Indian Health Service (IHS) was their main health provider. The Native American population being dependent on these government organizations for health services made them more susceptible to forced sterilization than other populations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27007275", "title": "Eugenics in the United States", "section": "Section::::History.:Compulsory sterilization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 865, "text": "Native American women were also victims of sterilization abuse up into the 1970s. The organization WARN (Women of All Red Nations) publicized that Native American women were threatened that, if they had more children, they would be denied welfare benefits. The Indian Health Service also repeatedly refused to deliver Native American babies until their mothers, in labor, consented to sterilization. Many Native American women unknowingly gave consent, since directions were not given in their native language. According to the General Accounting Office, an estimate of 3,406 Indian women were sterilized. The General Accounting Office stated that the Indian Health Service had not followed the necessary regulations, and that the \"informed consent forms did not adhere to the standards set by the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW).\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
7tlrg1	Why were guns created in Europe, instead of Asia?	[ { "answer": " > Why did these innovations not take place in Asia?\n\nThey did. It isn't that gunpowder made it to the West, and then cannons and handguns were invented in the West, but gunpowder made it to the West because it was already being used in guns.\n\nFor example, in the Mongol siege of Jin Kaifeng in 1232, guns were being used, and appear to already be a mature and effective technology.^1 The early development of gunpowder weapons is covered in vol 5 part 7 of Science and Civilisation in China.^2\n\n > In general it appears that most Asian cultures developed gunpowder weapons more slowly than their European counterparts, despite being closer to it's birthplace (China). Why?\n\nThe usual explanation is that Chinese development of firearms was slow due to China already being dominant in the region and not needing new and better weapons, and conservativeness of Chinese society, and Confucian disdain for practical and military matters on the one hand, and Europe being divided into small states constantly at war with each other and seeking any advantage they can get. There are some elements of the real story in this version, but this shouldn't be mistaken for the real story.\n\nFirst, it is important to know when European firearm technology was ahead of Asian firearm technology. Initially, China led firearms technology. By the late Ming, Western and Ottoman firearms technology was ahead, with the western technology pulling ahead in about 1450. After that, Western gun technology tended to stay ahead of East Asian gun technology, but the difference stayed relatively small (in part due to rapid adoption of Western improvements by China and other East Asian states) until the late 18th century, when developments driven by the scientific revolution such as the adoption of the carronade by the British Royal Navy in 1779 greatly improved the performance of Western artillery. The gap grew, and there was a decisive qualitative difference in the 19th century, which remained until the modernisation of Asian armies (beginning in the mid 19th century, and continuing into the 20th century). One should not be misled by this late gap in firearms technology into thinking that a large gap was the normal historical condition. The normal historical conditions were (a) Asia ahead, until about 1450, and (b) Asia behind, with a small gap, until the late 18th century.\n\nSecond, the rate of development of military technology does depend on the frequency of warfare, the military technology of the opponents, and the threat to the state posed by the warfare. The \"Europe at war\" part of the usual story does explain why there was rapid development of gun technology by European states and the Ottomans. It also explains why Chinese development slowed down about 1400. The gun was developed in China and continued to develop in a period of extensive warfare: war between the Song Chinese, Liao/Khitans, Jin/Jurchen, and Mongols for control of China, followed by fighting between various rebel groups for control of China as the Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty collapsed, which was won by the Ming, followed by expansionist wars during the early part of the Ming Dynasty. The story of the development of firearms over this time is told in many sources.^3,4,5\n\nThe mid-Ming period of relative peace resulted in slower development in China; this is when the West pulled ahead. Chinese development didn't halt, though a key part of Chinese development in this period was the adoption of Western improvements.^3,4 At the same time, other states like Japan also adopted European-style firearms (some of the adoption of \"European\" weapons was directly from Europeans, and some was from other Asian states).\n\nOne key element of early Western (and Ottoman) cannon technology that didn't occur in China was the development of wall-breaking cannon. In the West, this led to major changes in fortress construction to better resist artillery. There were many fortified cities, and other fortifications, in China, in a period when guns were available, and multiple states were fighting for control of China (and those fortified cities and other fortresses). Why weren't wall-breaking cannon developed for the purpose? Because Chinese fortifications were already cannon-proof. Western fortifications typically consisted of tall (to resist escalade) but fairly thin walls. The Theodosian walls at Constantinople were extremely thick by European standards - the inner walls were up to 6m thick. However, Chinese walls, typically stone or brick faced rammed earth, were often 10-20m thick. This is the style of wall that was adopted in Europe to resist cannons. Since existing walls were effectively already cannon-proof, there was little incentive to develop cannon to unsuccessfully try to breach such walls.\n\nKorea provides a compact example - early adoption of guns as the Joseon Dynasty rose from the wreckage of Mongol rule, followed by a long period of peace until the Japanese invasions of 1592-1598, followed by wars with the Manchus. The Koreans entered this period of warfare around 1600 with very few handguns, and 14th century cannon, and emerged with perhaps the best musket-armed forces in the world - the Korean force (mostly (80%) musketeers - about 10,000 musketeers) sent to aid the Ming against the Manchus performed very well in the Battle of Sarhū, 1619.\n\nReferences:\n\n1. G. Schlegel, On the invention and use of fire-arms and gunpowder in China, prior to the arrival of Europeans, T'oung Pao, vol. 3, pp. 1-11, 1902.\n\n2. Joseph Needham and Ho Ping-Yü, Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University Press, 1987.\n\n3. Peter A. Lorge, The Asian Military Revolution: From Gunpowder to the Bomb, Cambridge University Press, 2008.\n\n4. Tonio Andrade, The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History, Princeton University Press, 2016.\n\n5. James Waterson, Defending Heaven: China's Mongol Wars, 1209-1370, Frontline, 2013.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12063194", "title": "History of gunpowder", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 946, "text": "The evolution of guns led to the development of artillery during the 15th century, pioneered by states such as the Duchy of Burgundy. Firearms came to dominate early modern warfare in Europe by the 17th century. The gradual improvement of cannons firing heavier rounds for a greater impact against fortifications led to the invention of the star fort and the bastion in the Western world, where traditional city walls and castles were no longer suitable for defense. The use of gunpowder technology also spread throughout the Islamic world and to India, Korea, and Japan. The so-called Gunpowder Empires of the early modern period consisted of the Mughal Empire, Safavid Empire, and Ottoman Empire. The use of gunpowder in warfare during the course of the 19th century diminished due to the invention of smokeless powder. Gunpowder is often referred to today as \"black powder\" to distinguish it from the propellant used in contemporary firearms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12063194", "title": "History of gunpowder", "section": "Section::::Early modern warfare.:Big guns.:Chinese wall theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 756, "text": "Andrade goes on to question whether or not Europeans would have developed large artillery pieces in the first place had they faced the more formidable Chinese style walls, coming to the conclusion that such exorbitant investments in weapons unable to serve their primary purpose would not have been ideal. Yet Chinese walls do not fully explain the divergence in gun development as European guns grew not only bigger, but more effective as well. By 1490 the European gun had achieved the basic form it would take for the next three centuries, during which it would dominate the fields of warfare. The Classic Gun had arrived, and in the 1510s and 1520s when the Chinese encountered European firearms, they fully recognized they were superior to their own.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32831625", "title": "Royal Burmese armed forces", "section": "Section::::Military technology.:Widening technology gap with European powers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 519, "text": "The quality gap between locally manufactured guns and European arms continued to widen as new rapid advances in technology and mass production in Europe quickly outstripped the pace of developments in Asia. Important developments were the invention of the flintlock musket and mass production of cast-iron cannon in Europe. The flintlock was much faster, more reliable and more user-friendly than the unwieldy matchlock, which required one hand to hold the barrel, and another to adjust the match and pull the trigger.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30227775", "title": "Gunpowder Empires", "section": "Section::::Gunpowder in Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 773, "text": "Though Europe was not mentioned among the gunpowder empires, its contribution to the gunpowder technology advancement in the Eurasian region and the world is so significant that it cannot be ignored. Though gunpowder did not even originate from Europe, major advancement was made there. In fact, Europeans were still improving gunpowder a century after the first gun was invented in China and by Chinese. Improved gunpowder from Europe would later in 1520 AD reach China by a Portuguese ship. The Portuguese introduced the cannon, improved rifles and other European advancements to the Chinese. The Europeans had returned the gunpowder substance to its origin hundreds of years after the invention in China and this brought gunpowder's journey through Asia a full circle. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1012887", "title": "Early modern warfare", "section": "Section::::Use of gunpowder before the 16th century.:Spread of gunpowder weapons.:Gunpowder revolution or evolution?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 755, "text": "The advances in gunpowder technology experienced by Western Europe around the 1500s sparks scholarly debate on whether this was a major military revolution or just an element in wider military evolutions. The debates usually focus on Western Europe but scholars such as Tonio Andrade assert that this involves other civilizations as well, noting that along with European civilizations, the 14th century Ottoman civilization constructed different gunpowder weaponry from those initial produced by the Chinese. Scholars such Andrade explain that the knowledge of guns and gunpowder alone was not what gave Western Europe an advantage in warfare; it was due to many elements, involving warfare culture, difference in fortification, and frequency of warfare.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15316", "title": "Imperialism", "section": "Section::::Justification.:Age of Imperialism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 838, "text": "Along with advancements in communication, Europe also continued to advance in military technology. European chemists made new explosives that made artillery much more deadly. By the 1880s, the machine gun had become a reliable battlefield weapon. This technology gave European armies an advantage over their opponents, as armies in less-developed countries were still fighting with arrows, swords, and leather shields (e.g. the Zulus in Southern Africa during the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879).. Some exceptions of armies that managed to get nearly on par with the European expeditions and standards include the Ethiopian armies at the Battle of Adwa, the Chinese Ever Victorious Army and the Japanese Imperial Army of Japan, but these still relied heavily on weapon imports from Europe and often on European military advisors and adventurers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19100297", "title": "Military art (military science)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1056, "text": "Although European military art on land can be argued not to have reached its developed stage until the 19th century in the attempt to defeat linear tactics that led to the First World War, and ultimate sophistication during the Second World War and the Cold War, great increases in the firepower of the European firearms and artillery were usually able to negate greater number and mobility of the Asian field forces, no-where more illustrated than during the French Invasion of Egypt in 1798. The defining application of firepower and manoeuvre in military art became expressed during the conduct of strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II that sought to combine the shock of armoured warfare with mobility, and the traditional reliance on infantry in strengthened positions to first stop the German advances and during counter-attacks to achieve breakthrough of the enemy position, and in conducting deep operations to destroy the logistic support, literally starving German troops of supplies and ammunition, and forcing them to surrender.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
7e2gz2	Why are math and physics considered liberal arts subjects?	[ { "answer": "Liberal arts does not mean \"humanities\" as opposed to \"sciences.\" The term, for one thing, long predates the entry of \"science\" into the western vocabulary. The artes liberales, where ars means \"skill\" (as is usual; Hogwarts isn't teaching students Defense Against Dark Paintings and Statuary), were and are a series of seven disciplines subdivided into two groups, one of three (the trivium) and one of four (the quadrivium). They are called liberales because they are the skills required for a free person to be considered educated. The first reference to them is in Cicero, de oratore 1.16: [artes] quae libero dignae, \"the arts which befit a free person.\" The liberal arts were entirely intellectual, requiring no manual labor, unlike the artes serviles or vulgares, essentially trades and crafts. Originating in Greek thought and passed to medieval society by the Romans, the artes liberales consisted of rhetoric, grammar, arithmetic, logic, astronomy, music, and geometry. These were further subdivided into the trivium (grammar, logic, rhetoric) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, astronomy, music, geometry). The intellectual path from the quadrivium in particular to modern mathematics and physics is not a hard one to work out, but its historical development should be outlined. Already by the later Middle Ages Thomas Aquinas was noting that the trivium and quadrivium together were insufficient as a framework of education regarding certain philosophical studies. The artes liberales, always conceived of as a set unit that must be taught together, were by the late Middle Ages being broken up into independent disciplines. The trivium was more neatly organized--all three of its subjects dealt with language--and held out somewhat better, and instead of being preliminary to the quadrivium was transferred into the universities alongside it, especially by the humanists. The Renaissance saw changes to the framework even of the trivium, however: grammar became more generally philology, and added were poetry, moralizing philosophy, and history. The quadrivium had already been dying in the Renaissance, but to the trivium humanist scholars added physics and metaphysics. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39225718", "title": "Dharma Realm Buddhist University", "section": "Section::::Academics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 334, "text": "The BA in Liberal arts is a four-year program that combines classical texts from both Eastern and Western traditions, as well as courses in mathematics, natural science, and music. Students also study Classical Chinese and Sanskrit, thereby familiarizing themselves with the original languages of many of the texts they are studying.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18612", "title": "Liberal arts college", "section": "Section::::Liberal arts and liberal arts college.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 377, "text": "In academia, liberal arts generally refer to subjects or skills that aim to provide general knowledge and comprise the arts, humanities, natural sciences, and social sciences, as opposed to professional or technical subjects. Most liberal arts colleges nowadays, however, offer more than just liberal arts subjects, such as computer science from the formal science discipline.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31615850", "title": "Holy Cross Academy (Oneida, New York)", "section": "Section::::Academics.:Courses offered.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 322, "text": "Courses of study cover a range of liberal arts subjects. They include: English (literature and grammar); fine arts (music and art); early and advanced mathematics; physical education; theology; science; foreign language (Spanish and Latin); technology and computer graphics; government and economics; and some AP courses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14423", "title": "Higher education", "section": "Section::::Types.:General.:Liberal arts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 278, "text": "Academic areas that are included within the liberal arts include environmental science, great books, history, languages including English, linguistics, literature, mathematics, music, philosophy, political science, psychology, religious studies, science, sociology and theater.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23177146", "title": "Graham School of Continuing Liberal and Professional Studies", "section": "Section::::History.:Certificate Programs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 326, "text": "Humanities Arts and Sciences provides intensive study on a specific, grounded in the tenets of a liberal arts education. The Basic Program of Liberal Education for Adults, modeled after the University of Chicago Common Core, exposes students to the Great Books of antiquity and the Socratic method of teaching and discussion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19826854", "title": "College of Arts and Sciences", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1468, "text": "Typically, Colleges of (Liberal) Arts and Sciences at a non-specialized university include a rather large number of departments offering a significant number of majors/minors or courses of study. Such departments/majors commonly include mathematics and \"pure sciences\" such as biology, chemistry, and physics for which B.S. and maybe M.S. degrees are offered, as well as a significant selection of liberal arts. The \"liberal arts\" may include social sciences such as psychology, sociology, anthropology and other social studies such as history, geography, political science, etc. and language studies including English and other languages, linguistics, writing, literature, and communication arts and a variety of humanities and other fields of study. The sciences may offer B.S. and maybe M.S. degrees, and the other majors may offer B.A. and maybe M.A. degrees. Humanities may include such fields of study as philosophy, classical studies, theology or religious studies, and certain others. Other fields of study may be lumped into a College of (Liberal) Arts and Sciences; however, certain specialized and professional fields are taught in more specialized colleges or schools such as a College of Engineering, College of Business Administration, College of Education, or a College of Fine Arts and certain graduate level schools such as law schools, medical schools, dental schools, etc. The situation may also vary between continents and their various countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18674", "title": "Liberal arts education", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 357, "text": "\"Liberal arts\" today can refer to academic subjects such as literature, philosophy, mathematics, and social and physical sciences; and \"liberal arts education\" can refer to overall studies in a liberal arts degree program. For both interpretations, the term generally refers to matters not relating to the professional, vocational, or technical curriculum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
3yuxhw	How do we know how organic molecules look like, and how do we also know how reaction mechanisms proceed?	[ { "answer": "Mechanisms are indeed hypothetical in principle, but they get their scientific confirmation via kinetics. For example, if you suppose a reaction to proceed as an [SN1](_URL_0_) you will measure a first-order kinetic evolution experimentally (thus exponential decay), if instead you measure second-order it means it could be following an SN2 mechanism.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Okay, I'll try to explain it the best way I can without going through the meticulous details of how analytical instruments work. Basically, if you propose a structure for a molecule, you imply certain physical relationships. In an NMR, those relationships are proton couplings and with a COSY spectrum, you can tell which ones are coupled to which other ones. In a complex molecule, the NMR is characteristic of a particular structure and the chance of you finding another molecule that has the exact same NMR peaks with the same splitting pattern approaches zero. But NMR usually isn't the only thing reported in synthesis papers. People also report IR spectra and mass spec. IR spectra help to confirm structures the same way NMR does - via characteristic peaks that would be predicted from a given structure. Finally, our mass spec instruments have gotten to the point where we can actually get the mass of a sample with accuracy down to four+ decimal places. So if the mass of your sample doesn't match the predicted mass to four decimal places, it's not the molecule you predicted. So I like to think of this whole process as not completely eliminating the chance occurrence that two complex molecules with different molecular structures could generate the exact spectral pattern but rather reducing that chance to near zero. Kind of like how you can say with 99.999% certainty that somebody is somebody else's child using DNA analysis. \n\nSecond, mechanisms are another story. It is usually very difficult to prove a mechanism and in modern organic synthesis methodology papers, people generally don't go through a vigorous process of proving the mechanism. They usually report \"proposed\" mechanisms and show some rate data, etc. that give support to the mechanism. But in terms of the classical organic mechanisms, most have been studied enough that it is functionally certain that that is how they proceed. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "474009", "title": "Chemical structure", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1673, "text": "In determining structures of chemical compounds, one generally aims to obtain, minimally, the pattern and multiplicity of bonding between all atoms in the molecule; when possible, one seeks the three dimensional spatial coordinates of the atoms in the molecule (or other solid). The methods by which one can elucidate the structure of a molecule include spectroscopies such as nuclear magnetic resonance (proton and carbon-13 NMR), various methods of mass spectrometry (to give overall molecular mass, as well as fragment masses), and x-ray crystallography when applicable. The last technique can produce three-dimensional models at atomic-scale resolution, as long as crystals are available. When a molecule has an unpaired electron spin in a functional group of its structure, ENDOR and electron-spin resonance spectroscopes may also be performed. Techniques such as absorption spectroscopy and the vibrational spectroscopies, infrared and Raman, provide, respectively, important supporting information about the numbers and adjacencies of multiple bonds, and about the types of functional groups (whose internal bonding gives vibrational signatures); further inferential studies that give insight into the contributing electronic structure of molecules include cyclic voltammetry and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. These latter techniques become all the more important when the molecules contain metal atoms, and when the crystals required by crystallography or the specific atom types that are required by NMR are unavailable to exploit in the structure determination. Finally, more specialized methods such as electron microscopy are also applicable in some cases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22208", "title": "Organic chemistry", "section": "Section::::Organic reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 357, "text": "The number of possible organic reactions is basically infinite. However, certain general patterns are observed that can be used to describe many common or useful reactions. Each reaction has a stepwise reaction mechanism that explains how it happens in sequence—although the detailed description of steps is not always clear from a list of reactants alone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22208", "title": "Organic chemistry", "section": "Section::::Organic reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 441, "text": "Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. Many of these reactions are associated with functional groups. The general theory of these reactions involves careful analysis of such properties as the electron affinity of key atoms, bond strengths and steric hindrance. These factors can determine the relative stability of short-lived reactive intermediates, which usually directly determine the path of the reaction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10911", "title": "Functional group", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 645, "text": "In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific substituents or moieties within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction(s) regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of. This allows for systematic prediction of chemical reactions and behavior of chemical compounds and design of chemical syntheses. Furthermore, the reactivity of a functional group can be modified by other functional groups nearby. In organic synthesis, functional group interconversion is one of the basic types of transformations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5054730", "title": "Biomolecular structure", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 933, "text": "Biomolecular structure is the intricate folded, three-dimensional shape that is formed by a molecule of protein, DNA, or RNA, and that is important to its function. The structure of these molecules may be considered at any of several length scales ranging from the level of individual atoms to the relationships among entire protein subunits. This useful distinction among scales is often expressed as a decomposition of molecular structure into four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The scaffold for this multiscale organization of the molecule arises at the secondary level, where the fundamental structural elements are the molecule's various hydrogen bonds. This leads to several recognizable \"domains\" of protein structure and nucleic acid structure, including such secondary-structure features as alpha helixes and beta sheets for proteins, and hairpin loops, bulges, and internal loops for nucleic acids.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "172592", "title": "Organic reaction", "section": "Section::::By mechanism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 675, "text": "There is no limit to the number of possible organic reactions and mechanisms. However, certain general patterns are observed that can be used to describe many common or useful reactions. Each reaction has a stepwise reaction mechanism that explains how it happens, although this detailed description of steps is not always clear from a list of reactants alone. Organic reactions can be organized into several basic types. Some reactions fit into more than one category. For example, some substitution reactions follow an addition-elimination pathway. This overview isn't intended to include every single organic reaction. Rather, it is intended to cover the basic reactions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "474009", "title": "Chemical structure", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 682, "text": "A chemical structure determination includes a chemist's specifying the molecular geometry and, when feasible and necessary, the electronic structure of the target molecule or other solid. Molecular geometry refers to the spatial arrangement of atoms in a molecule and the chemical bonds that hold the atoms together, and can be represented using structural formulae and by molecular models; complete electronic structure descriptions include specifying the occupation of a molecule's molecular orbitals. Structure determination can be applied to a range of targets from very simple molecules (e.g., diatomic oxygen or nitrogen), to very complex ones (e.g., such as protein or DNA).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
xqgio	why do some men's button-up shirts have the last buttonhole horizontal while the rest are vertical?	[ { "answer": "Stress concentration. \n\nButtonholes are weakest along their long dimension. If you pull on that vertical buttonhole, it will want to rip in the corner of the buttonhole. The lowest button is usually the one under the most stress due to trousers, [shirt garters](_URL_0_), and beer bellies, and it doesn't have neighbor buttons on both sides to help share the load. Going horizontal with that button lets the fabric spread the load better.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I thought it was so that you could feel where the buttons ended and not fumble around for the next buttonhole that isn't there.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I saw butthole. Had to do a retake.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2054287", "title": "Dress shirt", "section": "Section::::Components.:Other features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 854, "text": "A high quality traditional shirt has long tails, extending almost to the knees at the back, and so has seven or eight buttons. The vertical strip of fabric running down the front opening is called the placket, and gives a more symmetrical appearance to the joint between the left side, on top, and the right. This left over right order is also seen in waistcoat and coat fastenings, though women's clothing buttons the other way (right over left). The buttonholes, aligned vertically, are placed on the placket, though the top button and buttons at the bottom of stiff fronts are aligned horizontally. The buttonholes are one of the few places where the difference between hand and machine stitching can be observed while the shirt is being worn, and fashion designers sometimes use contrasting thread here or on the buttons themselves for extra impact.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "582612", "title": "Blouse", "section": "Section::::Description and history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 880, "text": "Blouses (and many women's shirts with buttons) usually have buttons reversed from that of men's shirts (except in the case of male military fatigues). That is, the buttons are normally on the wearer's left-hand and the buttonholes are on the right. The reasons for this are unclear, and several theories exist without have conclusive evidence. Some suggest this custom was introduced by launderers so they could distinguish between women's and men's shirts. One theory purports that the tradition arose in the Middle Ages when one manner of manifesting wealth was by the number of buttons one wore. Another that the original design was based on armour which was designed so that a right-handed opponent would not catch their weapon in the seam and tear through, and that a person could draw a weapon with their right-hand without catching it in a loose seam of their own clothes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3259645", "title": "Buttonhole", "section": "Section::::Aspects of buttonholes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 694, "text": "Traditionally, men's clothing buttonholes are on the left side, and women's clothing buttonholes are on the right. The lore of this 'opposite' sides buttoning is that the practice came into being as 'women of means' had chamber maids who dressed them. So as not to confuse the poor chamber maids, the wealthy began having women's garments made with the buttons and holes 'switched'; the birth of the modern ladies' blouse. The chamber maids themselves, as did most all the common class, both male and female, actually wore 'shirts' with buttons and holes placed as on men's clothing. There appears to be no concrete reference to prove or disprove this story, but its plausibility bears noting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3834640", "title": "Placket", "section": "Section::::Variations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 487, "text": "A button-front shirt without a separate pieced placket is called a \"French placket.\" The fabric is simply folded over and the buttonhole stitching secures the two layers (or three layers if there is an interlining). This method affords a very clean finish, especially if heavily patterned fabrics are being used. This method is normally only used in stiff-fronted formal evening (\"white-tie\") shirts. However, the normal, separate placket on a shirt gives a more symmetrical appearance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2054287", "title": "Dress shirt", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 343, "text": "A dress shirt, button shirt, button-front, button-front shirt, or button-up shirt is a garment with a collar and a full-length opening at the front, which is fastened using buttons or shirt studs. A button-down or button-down shirt is a dress shirt which has a button-down collar – a collar having the ends fastened to the shirt with buttons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2054287", "title": "Dress shirt", "section": "Section::::Components.:Collars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 437, "text": "BULLET::::- Button-down collars, or \"sport collars\" have points fastened down by buttons on the front of the shirt. Introduced by Brooks Brothers in 1896, they were patterned after the shirts of polo players and were used exclusively on sports shirts until the 1950s in America. It is still considered a more sporting style, and, particularly outside America, traditionally dressed men still do not wear suits with this style of collar.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1771529", "title": "Breeches", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 682, "text": "Breeches ( ) are an article of clothing covering the body from the waist down, with separate coverings for each leg, usually stopping just below the knee, though in some cases reaching to the ankles. The breeches were normally closed and fastened about the leg, along its open seams at varied lengths, and to the knee, by either buttons or by a drawstring, or by one or more straps and buckle or brooches. Formerly a standard item of Western men's clothing, they had fallen out of use by the mid-19th century in favour of trousers. Modern athletic garments used for English riding and fencing, although called \"breeches\" or \"britches\", differ from breeches in ways discussed below.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
358hfe	How important were Special Forces in WW2?	[ { "answer": "Black and Green Ops are really hard to rate in such a manner. In WWII in specific, the line between Black/Green/Regular Operations became intensely blurred as well. Many formations that could conduct a stereotypical, independent raid or sortie were also used, by design or necessity, as larger combat formations in a traditional role. \n\nUnits that are now considered to be the forebearers of Special Forces operations in North America, such as the mixed Special Service unit, the Ranger Battalions, the Commandos and the \"Specials\", were large formations that often fought conventionally as often if not more so than conduct our stereotypical view of a \"Special Forces\" mission. The British Commandos and their nearest equivalents - in my mind - among their enemies; the Brandenburg regiment, are prime examples of this.\n\nBoth units were used in relatively small-unit actions of mixed success early war. The British commandos often conducting high-risk descents upon occupied Europe to actively sabotage or raid enemy facilities. The Brandenburgers were originally conceived as a sort of armed branch of the Abwehr, and their early missions are imaginative, to say the least. Often attempting to secure bridges along the route of advance through a mix of subterfuge (wearing enemy fatigues, for example) and active and traditional infantry combat. As the war progressed, both became increasingly more conventional, with the British Commandos committing combat units to the Normandy landings and the Brandenburgers acting as a Panzergrenadier division in name during the final fights on Germany's eastern frontier.\n\nThe positive experiences of having small, well trained, rapidly deployable forces of infantry meant that the concept of Special Forces expanded rapidly post-war.\n\nMore traditional intelligence agencies, like the O.S.S and SOE were paramount to Allied success. The British intelligence community in particular were quite systematic in the training of foreign resistance movements and most famously the turning of all German agents in the British home islands. The success of the O.S.S, SOE et al. truly shines in their counter-intelligence. I'll provide an example given by Bill Yenne in his exploration of early Japanese successes and failures. In his book he notes that the Japanese intelligence efforts in the USA and North America were as botched as their German counterparts; with OSS and FBI planted agents in the armed forces able to root out in particular one effort to turn a US Seaman into an informant for the Japanese government. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "On the Norsky Hydro raid (the heavy water facility) — I don't want to take away from the drama, because the raid was certainly dramatic. But its impact on the German ability to get an atomic bomb was negligible, because the Germans were not actually racing towards a nuclear weapon. It slowed down their reactor research program a little bit. But that program was never going to develop nuclear weapons during World War II — it was laboratory-scale, when what you need for an atomic bomb is industrial-scale. The Allies certainly _thought_ the Norsk Hydro raid was consequential at the time, but in retrospect we now know that it didn't do much with regards to the outcome of the war. \n\nTo put it into perspective, the US experimental heavy water reactor built during World War II (CP-3) required around 6,000 kg of pure heavy water. The total German stockpile of heavy water was around 330 kg of pure heavy water (and 1760 kg of diluted substance). Norsk Hydro had produced about 500 kg of impure heavy water that was destroyed in the raid. It could only produce about 10 kg of the stuff per month, anyway. Even if the Germans had gotten an experimental reactor running, it would not produce enough plutonium to be useful for bomb-making. (They would have needed multiple, industrial-sized reactors to do that in the amount of time required for the war. The US built three industrial-sized, carbon-moderator reactors in Washington state during the war, and used those to produce the plutonium for two atomic bombs.)\n\nThe Allied Manhattan Project, by contrast, built four heavy water plants during the war, produced 20,000 kg of the stuff, and didn't even really need it, in the end. \n\nAgain, the raid was dramatic, and dangerous. And the Allies certainly thought it was worth the drama and risk. But we know, with the benefit of hindsight and history, that it wasn't what kept Hitler from getting an atomic bomb. What kept the Nazis from developing atomic weapons is that they didn't give the program high priority, and even if they had, there were many technical reasons other than that which would have made it extremely unlikely. One of the biggest myths of World War II is that the Allies were _actually_ in a race for the atomic bomb against the Germans. They _thought_ they were until around mid-1944, when they found out that the Germans weren't actually racing. But thinking you are in a race does not mean you actually are in one.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you want to read a serious history of this, a great starting place is \"Spec Ops\" by William McRaven. It covers a series of case studies on the employment of special forces. Six of the studies are from WWII. I can't recommend it enough. \n\nIt covers the reason why a special operation was considered, why conventional forces were not used, how the operation went, and what lessons learned were. It is the best starting point for someone interested in learning the principles of special operation. \n\nAlso, the author is the former commander of US Special Forces so he knows what he's talking about. \n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23489383", "title": "Special forces", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 544, "text": "Special forces emerged in the early 20th century, with a significant growth in the field during the Second World War, when \"every major army involved in the fighting\" created formations devoted to special operations behind enemy lines. Depending on the country, special forces may perform functions including airborne operations, counter-insurgency, counter-terrorism, foreign internal defense, covert ops, direct action, hostage rescue, high-value targets/manhunting, intelligence operations, mobility operations, and unconventional warfare. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23489383", "title": "Special forces", "section": "Section::::History.:Early period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 398, "text": "Special forces have played an important role throughout the history of warfare, whenever the aim was to achieve disruption by \"hit and run\" and sabotage, rather than more traditional conventional combat. Other significant roles lay in reconnaissance, providing essential intelligence from near or among the enemy and increasingly in combating irregular forces, their infrastructure and activities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23489383", "title": "Special forces", "section": "Section::::History.:Post-World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 700, "text": "Special forces have been used in both wartime and peacetime military operations such as the Laotian Civil War, Bangladesh Liberation War-1971, Vietnam War, Portuguese Colonial War, South African Border War, Falklands War, The Troubles in Northern Ireland, the Jaffna University Helidrop, the first and second Gulf Wars, Afghanistan, Croatia, Kosovo, Bosnia, the first and second Chechen Wars, the Iranian Embassy siege (London), the Air France Flight 8969 (Marseille), Operation Defensive Shield, Operation Khukri, the Moscow theater hostage crisis, Operation Orchard, the Japanese Embassy hostage crisis (Lima), in Sri Lanka against the LTTE, and the raid on Osama Bin Laden's compound in Pakistan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "320247", "title": "United States Army Special Forces", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 455, "text": "Special Forces traces its roots as the Army’s premier proponent of unconventional warfare from purpose-formed special operations units like the Alamo Scouts, Philippine guerrillas, First Special Service Force, and the Operational Groups (OGs) of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). Although the OSS was not an Army organization, many Army personnel were assigned to the OSS and later used their experiences to influence the forming of Special Forces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14590408", "title": "Clandestine HUMINT and covert action", "section": "Section::::Separate functions during peacetime?:US postwar change.:PWD and the Creation of US Army Special Forces.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 85, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 85, "end_character": 843, "text": "US Army Special Forces (SF) are, along with psychological operations detachments and Rangers, the oldest of the post-World War II Army units in the current United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). Their original mission was to train and lead Unconventional Warfare (UW) forces, or a guerilla force in an occupied nation. 10th Special Forces Group was the first deployed unit, intended to operate UW forces behind enemy lines in the event of a Warsaw Pact invasion of Western Europe. As the US become involved in Southeast Asia, it was realized that specialists trained to lead guerillas also could help defend against hostile guerillas, so SF acquired the additional mission of Foreign Internal Defense (FID), working with Host Nation (HN) forces in a spectrum of counterguerilla activities from indirect support to combat command.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "320247", "title": "United States Army Special Forces", "section": "Section::::Mission.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 691, "text": "The primary mission of the Army Special Forces is to train and lead unconventional warfare (UW) forces, or a clandestine guerrilla force in an occupied nation. The 10th Special Forces Group was the first deployed SF unit, intended to train and lead UW forces behind enemy lines in the event of a Warsaw Pact invasion of Western Europe. As the U.S. became involved in Southeast Asia, it was realized that specialists trained to lead guerrillas could also help defend against hostile guerrillas, so SF acquired the additional mission of Foreign Internal Defense (FID), working with Host Nation (HN) forces in a spectrum of counter-guerrilla activities from indirect support to combat command.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14355446", "title": "Foreign internal defense", "section": "Section::::Direct combat role.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 287, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 287, "end_character": 512, "text": "Historically, one of the first missions for special operations forces was unconventional warfare (UW), or training and leading guerrillas in occupied countries. In WWII, this was a mission of the UK-US-French Jedburgh teams in occupied Europe. Shortly after the end of the war, US and UK advisors worked with Greek and Turkish forces. After the war, and the organization of US Army Special Forces, the first deployments went to Europe to operate guerrillas when the expected Warsaw Pact invasion overran Europe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
2bvn7d	How is a Damping Coefficient Interpreted in Equations Concerning Harmonic Motion?	[ { "answer": "I think the phrase should be \"with resistance proportional to instantaneous velocity\". \n\nOne way of commonly modelling drag or resistance is to assume that the resistance an object feels is linearly proportional to it's velocity at any given moment. This is sometimes called [Stokes drag](_URL_0_).\n\nThe idea behind it is that the faster an object is moving the more drag it feels. This is unlike something like rolling friction, which is always the same (to a good approximation) no matter how fast you're going. \n\nIf you want some practical experience, walk around in a pool. It's quite easy to move slowly, but in order to walk faster you need to exert even more force. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's a rate at which energy leaves the system. Depending on how this compares to the resonant frequency gives the under over critical damped regime. Instantaneous velocity is just dx/dt. Typically when understanding the behavior of an ODE you want to understand the relevant timescales. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2987943", "title": "Duffing equation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 283, "text": "The equation describes the motion of a damped oscillator with a more complex potential than in simple harmonic motion (which corresponds to the case formula_13); in physical terms, it models, for example, a spring pendulum whose spring's stiffness does not exactly obey Hooke's law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "821611", "title": "Complex harmonic motion", "section": "Section::::Different Types of Complex Harmonic Motion.:Damped Harmonic Motion.:Introduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 304, "text": "Damped harmonic motion is a real oscillation, in which an object is hanging on a spring. Because of the existence of internal friction and air resistance, the system will over time experience a decrease in amplitude. The decrease of amplitude is due to the fact that the energy goes into thermal energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3075539", "title": "Anharmonicity", "section": "Section::::General principle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 462, "text": "Treating the nonlinear restorative force as a function \"F(x-x)\" of the displacement of x from its natural position, we may replace \"F\" by its linear approximation \"F\"=\"F'(0)*(x-x)\" at zero displacement. The approximating function \"F\" is linear, so it will describe simple harmonic motion. Further, this function \"F\" is accurate when \"x-x\" is small. For this reason, anharmonic motion can be approximated as harmonic motion as long as the oscillations are small.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22583329", "title": "Magnetization dynamics", "section": "Section::::Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 291, "text": "Since without damping formula_23 is directed perpendicular to both the moment and the field, the damping term of the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation provides for a change in the moment towards the applied field. The Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation can also be written in terms of torques,\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "821611", "title": "Complex harmonic motion", "section": "Section::::Different Types of Complex Harmonic Motion.:Damped Harmonic Motion.:Introduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 413, "text": "Damped harmonic motion happens because the spring is not very efficient at storing and releasing energy so that the energy dies out. The damping force is proportional to the velocity of the object and is at the opposite direction of the motion so that the object slows down quickly. Specifically, When an object is damping, the damping force will relate to velocity with a coefficient c. The equation is \"F=-cv\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28437", "title": "Simple harmonic motion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 730, "text": "Simple harmonic motion can serve as a mathematical model for a variety of motions, such as the oscillation of a spring. In addition, other phenomena can be approximated by simple harmonic motion, including the motion of a simple pendulum as well as molecular vibration. Simple harmonic motion is typified by the motion of a mass on a spring when it is subject to the linear elastic restoring force given by Hooke's law. The motion is sinusoidal in time and demonstrates a single resonant frequency. For simple harmonic motion to be an accurate model for a pendulum, the net force on the object at the end of the pendulum must be proportional to the displacement. This is a good approximation when the angle of the swing is small.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20646772", "title": "Vibration", "section": "Section::::Vibration analysis.:Forced vibration with damping.:Applying \"complex\" forces to the mass–spring–damper model.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 690, "text": "In the previous section, the vibration solution was given for a single harmonic force, but the Fourier transform in general gives multiple harmonic forces. The second mathematical tool, \"the principle of superposition\", allows the summation of the solutions from multiple forces if the system is linear. In the case of the spring–mass–damper model, the system is linear if the spring force is proportional to the displacement and the damping is proportional to the velocity over the range of motion of interest. Hence, the solution to the problem with a square wave is summing the predicted vibration from each one of the harmonic forces found in the frequency spectrum of the square wave.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
21m396	How does Morocco get the honor of being America's first ally, yet we were in cahoots with France during the Revolutionary war?	[ { "answer": "Morocco's early relations with the US were actually somewhat mixed. [Michael Oren writes](_URL_2_) that the ruler of Morocco at the time, Sidi Muhammad bin `Abdallah, \n\n > claimed to have been the first monarch to have recognized American independence and the first Muslim leader to seek a formal treaty with the young Republic. Congress dallied, however, and managed to offend the emperor. In relatiation, the Moroccans began seizing American ships (28).\n\nPeace came at a price, and for $20,000 the US was able to buy back its ships and secure [the longest-standing treaty in US diplomatic history](_URL_1_). [The US consulate in Tangier](_URL_0_) would also become the US's oldest legation building and its first piece of property owned beyond its borders.\n\nThe concessions that the nascent US paid to Morocco set a costly precedent and other North African states picked up on how they could also extract money from the US. The US did not have a navy and so its merchant ships were easy prey. It was not until 1815 that the US was able to put together a navy and force a peace with the `barbary states,' putting an end to the concessions that at times accounted for 20% of the US's annual budget.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "268409", "title": "Barbary Wars", "section": "Section::::Barbary corsairs.:Attacks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 520, "text": "During the American Revolutionary War, the pirates attacked American ships. On December 20, 1777, Morocco's sultan Mohammed III declared that merchant ships of the new American nation would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage into the Mediterranean and along the coast. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship stands as America's oldest unbroken friendship treaty with a foreign power. In 1787, Morocco became one of the first nations to recognize the United States of America.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36628857", "title": "Genetic studies on Moroccans", "section": "Section::::Early Islamic era.:Sharifian dynasties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 531, "text": "Morocco was the first nation to recognize the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1777. In the beginning of the American Revolution, American merchant ships in the Atlantic Ocean were subject to attack by the Barbary pirates. On 20 December 1777, Morocco's Sultan Mohammed III declared that American merchant ships would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship, signed in 1786, stands as the U.S.'s oldest non-broken friendship treaty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19291", "title": "Morocco", "section": "Section::::History.:Sharifian dynasties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 531, "text": "Morocco was the first nation to recognise the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1777. In the beginning of the American Revolution, American merchant ships in the Atlantic Ocean were subject to attack by the Barbary pirates. On 20 December 1777, Morocco's Sultan Mohammed III declared that American merchant ships would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. The Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship, signed in 1786, stands as the U.S.'s oldest non-broken friendship treaty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25641272", "title": "France–Americas relations", "section": "Section::::Consolidation and conflict (18th century).:American war of independence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 462, "text": "France soon became again involved in North America, this time by supporting the American revolutionary war of independence. A Franco-American alliance was formed in 1778 between Louis XVI's France and the United States, during the American Revolutionary War. France successfully contributed in expelling the British from the nascent United States. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 3 September 1783, recognizing American independence and the end of hostilities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15993528", "title": "Morocco–United States relations", "section": "Section::::History.:Later 19th, early 20th Centuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 902, "text": "Around the turn of the 20th century, as European colonizers gazed hungrily at Morocco's resources and strategically located harbors, the United States strongly defended the Kingdom's right to its continued sovereignty at the Conference of Madrid (1880), and again at the Algeciras Conference in 1906. In fact, the European powers were edging towards engaging in a continental war because of Morocco in 1905. President Theodore Roosevelt played an important role in settling the affair during the 1906 Algeciras Conference. Elihu Root, his Secretary of State, declared, \"Fair play is what the United States asks - for Morocco and for all the interested nations - and it confidently expects that outcome.” President Roosevelt offered a compromise plan which the European powers accepted. The proposal granted Morocco a greater deal of autonomy and allowed for all European nations to trade with Morocco.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24623754", "title": "France–Morocco relations", "section": "Section::::History.:Industrial era.:First Franco-Moroccan War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 1033, "text": "After the troubled periods of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, France again showed a strong interest in Morocco in the 1830s, as a possible extension of her sphere of influence in the Maghreb, after Algeria and Tunisia. The First Franco-Moroccan War took place in 1844, as a consequence of Morocco's alliance with Algeria's Abd-El-Kader against France. Following several incident at the border between Algeria and Morocco, and the refusal of Morocco to abandon its support to Algeria, France faced Morocco victoriously in the Bombardment of Tangiers (August 6, 1844), the Battle of Isly (August 14, 1844), and the Bombardment of Mogador (August 15–17, 1844). The war was formally ended September 10 with the signing of the Treaty of Tangiers, in which Morocco agreed to arrest and outlaw Abd-El-Kader, reduce the size of its garrison at Oujda, and establish a commission to demarcate the border. The border, which is essentially the modern border between Morocco and Algeria, was agreed in the Treaty of Lalla Maghnia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "785698", "title": "French protectorate in Morocco", "section": "Section::::Prelude.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 506, "text": "French activity in Morocco began during the end of the 19th century. In 1904 the French government was trying to establish a protectorate over Morocco, and had managed to sign two bilateral secret agreements with Britain (8 April 1904, see Entente cordiale) and Spain (7 October 1904), which guaranteed the support of the powers in question in this endeavour. France and Spain secretly partitioned the territory of the sultanate, with Spain receiving concessions in the far north and south of the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
41a8tm	how do herbivorous animals that birth only one offspring at a time, maintain higher populations than their predatory counterparts that birth multiples in a litter?	[ { "answer": "because plants are a more common form of food and requires less energy to collect. predators have to compete with eachother to survive and most of the time an entire litter doesn't survive", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5171071", "title": "Irruptive growth", "section": "Section::::In mammal populations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 715, "text": "Larger herbivores like pronghorn and deer are also known to exhibit irruptive growth; this occurs in populations with high reproduction and delayed density dependent inhibition. The time that a species is most likely to irrupt in population growth is when a population is first inhabiting an area or when predators are first removed, and both weather and food supplies are in the species' favor. When an area is being colonized, populations of species can grow rapidly and predator species are often not present to limit growth. Resource availability is not an issue either for colonizing populations, which will also experience little intraspecific and interspecific competition in early settlement of a location.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33774645", "title": "Cyclosalpa bakeri", "section": "Section::::Biology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 732, "text": "Individuals within the aggregate are sequential hermaphrodites. They usually start life as females but later develop into males. Eggs are produced by the females and are fertilised by sperm from another aggregate. There is no larval form and a single embryo develops in each individual in the aggregate. This later becomes detached from the aggregate and becomes a solitary individual ready to undergo asexual reproduction by budding again. The animal's rapid growth and this alternation of generations means that the population can build up rapidly when there is a plentiful food supply such as a bloom of phytoplankton. The salps themselves are eaten by fish, turtles, birds, jellyfish, heteropods, siphonophores and ctenophores.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "396412", "title": "Changeling", "section": "Section::::In the modern world.:In nature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 564, "text": "Several species of birds, fish, and arthropods regularly practice brood parasitism, or non-reciprocal offspring-swapping. Rather than raising their young on their own, they will lay their egg in another's nest, leaving the burden of raising their young on the unsuspecting parents, which are of another species altogether. More often than not, the invading species hatches sooner than its \"step-siblings\" and grows faster, eventually hogging most nourishment brought in and may actually \"evict\" the young of the host species by pushing them out of their own nest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19546047", "title": "Ctenosaura acanthura", "section": "Section::::Diet and behavior.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 228, "text": "They are primarily herbivorous, eating flowers, leaves, stems, and fruit, but they will opportunistically eat smaller animals, eggs, and arthropods. Juveniles tend to be insectivores becoming more herbivorous as they get older.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "83443", "title": "Birth", "section": "Section::::Other animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 1053, "text": "Many reptiles and the vast majority of invertebrates, most fish, amphibians and all birds are oviparous, that is, they lay eggs with little or no embryonic development taking place within the mother. In aquatic organisms, fertilization is nearly always external with sperm and eggs being liberated into the water (an exception is sharks and rays, which have internal fertilization). Millions of eggs may be produced with no further parental involvement, in the expectation that a small number may survive to become mature individuals. Terrestrial invertebrates may also produce large numbers of eggs, a few of which may avoid predation and carry on the species. Some fish, reptiles and amphibians have adopted a different strategy and invest their effort in producing a small number of young at a more advanced stage which are more likely to survive to adulthood. Birds care for their young in the nest and provide for their needs after hatching and it is perhaps unsurprising that internal development does not occur in birds, given their need to fly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20648143", "title": "Cestoda", "section": "Section::::Life cycle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 733, "text": "Cestodes produce large numbers of eggs, but each one has a low probability of finding a host. To increase their chances, different species have adopted various strategies of egg release. In the Pseudophyllidea, many eggs are released in the brief period when their aquatic intermediate hosts are abundant (semelparity). In contrast, in the terrestrial Cyclophyllidea, proglottids are released steadily over a period of years, or as long as their host lives (interoparity). Another strategy is to have very long-lived larvae; for example, in \"Echinococcus\", the hydatid larvae can survive for ten years or more in humans and other vertebrate hosts, giving the tapeworm an exceptionally long time window in which to find another host.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21304415", "title": "Sexual reproduction", "section": "Section::::Plants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 699, "text": "Animals typically produce gametes directly by meiosis. Male gametes are called sperm, and female gametes are called eggs or ova. In animals, fertilization follows immediately after meiosis. Plants on the other hand have mitosis occurring in spores, which are produced by meiosis. The spores germinate into the gametophyte phase. The gametophytes of different groups of plants vary in size; angiosperms have as few as three cells in pollen, and mosses and other so called primitive plants may have several million cells. Plants have an alternation of generations where the sporophyte phase is succeeded by the gametophyte phase. The sporophyte phase produces spores within the sporangium by meiosis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
jbqal	What happens to the movement areas in the brains of paralyzed individuals?	[ { "answer": "Also what are the movement areas apart from the motor cortex?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Atrophy I suppose. We were always told in undergraduate classes that when you lose a limb, the area devoted to that area shrinks and surrounding areas take over it - though there is no gain-of-function associated with this area increase.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In a paralyzed person, the unused motor cortex can be \"adopted\" by nearby cortex and used for its purposes. It probably wouldn't be used for visual or auditory abilities though. According to this [motor homunculus](_URL_0_) the unused cortex could possibly be readapted for upper body motor skills in paraplegics, or facial motor skills in quadriplegics. Or, since the somatosensory cortex is next to the motor cortex, paralyzed individuals may have heightened sensitivity to touch in non-paralyzed parts of the body.\n\nI don't really know much about the mechanics of neuroplasticity. I know it involves changes in the amounts of neurotransmitters that are released by neurons, but I don't know how that translates to new connections being made.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The neuroplasticity of the brain will be great in children before 4 year olds after that it is very difficult to regain or compensate with cell loss. By the way, cerebellum has a wonderful plasticity. If you have cerebellectomy or lesions from stroke or something else, the rest part of cerebellum will take place the function of the rest and it is clinically seen that these patients will be better (less imbalance) from time to time.\nFor the motor cortex, if the lesion is limited to that part. The area of the brain beneath the cortex (called pyramidal tract) will be released from control and then give the muscles more spastic. So we normally see that the patient will have a flaccid limb immediately after stroke or paralyzed but later become spastic that can compensate for walking training. \nSo I would say, it is difficult for that compensatory abilities will be occur in adult with fully neurodevelopment (have some low level plasticity) but if that occur in a very young children, there is some possibilities that the other part of the brain might compensate for that loss function. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your question needs to be more specified to get a better answer (though, there are some lovely general responses in the thread).\n\nI say this because there are many, many possible answers to your question. This one is just plain fun and I try to use this reference any time I can:\n\n[Women with complete spinal cord injuries still feel sexual pleasure (via self stimulation) mediated by the vagus nerve](_URL_0_). And the catch is, the probably shouldn't. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I would highly recommend reading the papers on cross-education written by Tibor Hortobagyi. He is a neurophysiologist/biomechanist from ECU (now at Groningen) It has more to do with non-decussated pyramidal motor pathways and the clinical applications at this point deal more with stroke victims, but there is a lot of potential.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Also what are the movement areas apart from the motor cortex?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Atrophy I suppose. We were always told in undergraduate classes that when you lose a limb, the area devoted to that area shrinks and surrounding areas take over it - though there is no gain-of-function associated with this area increase.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In a paralyzed person, the unused motor cortex can be \"adopted\" by nearby cortex and used for its purposes. It probably wouldn't be used for visual or auditory abilities though. According to this [motor homunculus](_URL_0_) the unused cortex could possibly be readapted for upper body motor skills in paraplegics, or facial motor skills in quadriplegics. Or, since the somatosensory cortex is next to the motor cortex, paralyzed individuals may have heightened sensitivity to touch in non-paralyzed parts of the body.\n\nI don't really know much about the mechanics of neuroplasticity. I know it involves changes in the amounts of neurotransmitters that are released by neurons, but I don't know how that translates to new connections being made.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The neuroplasticity of the brain will be great in children before 4 year olds after that it is very difficult to regain or compensate with cell loss. By the way, cerebellum has a wonderful plasticity. If you have cerebellectomy or lesions from stroke or something else, the rest part of cerebellum will take place the function of the rest and it is clinically seen that these patients will be better (less imbalance) from time to time.\nFor the motor cortex, if the lesion is limited to that part. The area of the brain beneath the cortex (called pyramidal tract) will be released from control and then give the muscles more spastic. So we normally see that the patient will have a flaccid limb immediately after stroke or paralyzed but later become spastic that can compensate for walking training. \nSo I would say, it is difficult for that compensatory abilities will be occur in adult with fully neurodevelopment (have some low level plasticity) but if that occur in a very young children, there is some possibilities that the other part of the brain might compensate for that loss function. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your question needs to be more specified to get a better answer (though, there are some lovely general responses in the thread).\n\nI say this because there are many, many possible answers to your question. This one is just plain fun and I try to use this reference any time I can:\n\n[Women with complete spinal cord injuries still feel sexual pleasure (via self stimulation) mediated by the vagus nerve](_URL_0_). And the catch is, the probably shouldn't. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I would highly recommend reading the papers on cross-education written by Tibor Hortobagyi. He is a neurophysiologist/biomechanist from ECU (now at Groningen) It has more to do with non-decussated pyramidal motor pathways and the clinical applications at this point deal more with stroke victims, but there is a lot of potential.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31848417", "title": "Upper motor neuron syndrome", "section": "Section::::Presentation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 395, "text": "The upper motor neuron syndrome signs are seen in conditions where motor areas in the brain and/or spinal cord are damaged or fail to develop normally. These include spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis and acquired brain injury including stroke. The impact of impairment of muscles for an individual is problems with movement, and posture, which often affects their function.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48518958", "title": "CHCHD10", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Frontotemporal dementia and/or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 2 (FTDALS2).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 429, "text": "frontotemporal dementia and/or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Frontotemporal dementia is characterized by frontal and temporal lobe atrophy associated with neuronal loss, gliosis, and dementia. Patients exhibit progressive changes in social, behavioral, and/or language function. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is characterized by the death of motor neurons in the brain, brainstem, and spinal cord, resulting in fatal paralysis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50335175", "title": "Corticospinal tract", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 342, "text": "After patients are lesioned in some part of the pyramidal tracts, they are paralyzed on the corresponding side of the body. However, they can re-learn some crude, basic motions, just no fine movements. This implies that the connections to these tracts are crucial for fine movement, and only partial recovery is possible if they are damaged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "599264", "title": "Pyramidal tracts", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 302, "text": "Severe disabling involuntary movements such as hemiballismus or severe chorea might exhaust the patient and become a life threatening situation. In the past, this condition was treated by partial section of the pyramidal tract either at the primary motor cortex or at the cruz cerebri (pedunculotomy).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1448698", "title": "Upper motor neuron lesion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 234, "text": "Upper motor neuron lesions occur in the brain or the spinal cord as the result of stroke, multiple sclerosis, traumatic brain injury, cerebral palsy, atypical parkinsonisms, Multiple System Atrophy, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1004706", "title": "Dysarthria", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 727, "text": "These result in lesions to key areas of the brain involved in planning, executing, or regulating motor operations in skeletal muscles (i.e. muscles of the limbs), including muscles of the head and neck (dysfunction of which characterises dysarthria). These can result in dysfunction, or failure of: the motor or somatosensory cortex of the brain, corticobulbar pathways, the cerebellum, basal nuclei (consisting of the putamen, globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, substantia nigra etc.), brainstem (from which the cranial nerves originate), or the neuro-muscular junction (in diseases such as myasthenia gravis) which block the nervous system's ability to activate motor units and effect correct range and strength of movements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "487049", "title": "Globus pallidus", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 502, "text": "The globus pallidus is a structure in the brain involved in the regulation of voluntary movement. It is part of the basal ganglia, which, among many other things, regulate movements that occur on the subconscious level. If the globus pallidus is damaged, it can cause movement disorders, as its regulatory function will be impaired. There may be cases in which damage is deliberately induced, as in a procedure known as a pallidotomy, in which a lesion is created to reduce involuntary muscle tremors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1t98ks	Where did the sugar molecules in DNA and RNA come from originally?	[ { "answer": "Good question. These days, the sugar molecules in DNA and RNA (called ribose in the case of RNA; deoxyribose in the case of DNA) come from the human body. They are produced inside our cells using energy from food.\n\nBefore there were human bodies or cells to manufacture ribose, it could be produced chemically from formaldehyde (H2CO) in a non-reducing atmosphere, with the help of some energy (lightning discharge, UV radiation, etc). This is called the [formose reaction](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19179706", "title": "Abiogenesis", "section": "Section::::Other models.:Extraterrestrial organic molecules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 143, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 143, "end_character": 884, "text": "Glycolaldehyde, the first example of an interstellar sugar molecule, was detected in the star-forming region near the centre of our galaxy. It was discovered in 2000 by Jes Jørgensen and Jan M. Hollis. In 2012, Jørgensen's team reported the detection of glycolaldehyde in a distant star system. The molecule was found around the protostellar binary IRAS 16293-2422 400 light years from Earth. Glycolaldehyde is needed to form RNA, which is similar in function to DNA. These findings suggest that complex organic molecules may form in stellar systems prior to the formation of planets, eventually arriving on young planets early in their formation. Because sugars are associated with both metabolism and the genetic code, two of the most basic aspects of life, it is thought the discovery of extraterrestrial sugar increases the likelihood that life may exist elsewhere in our galaxy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1686272", "title": "Chemical biology", "section": "Section::::Systems of interest.:Glycobiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 601, "text": "While DNA, RNA and proteins are all encoded at the genetic level, there exists a separate system of trafficked molecules in the cell that are not encoded directly at any direct level: sugars. Thus, glycobiology is an area of dense research for chemical biologists. For instance, live cells can be supplied with synthetic variants of natural sugars in order to probe the function of the sugars in vivo. Carolyn Bertozzi, previously at University of California, Berkeley, has developed a method for site-specifically reacting molecules the surface of cells that have been labeled with synthetic sugars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25758", "title": "RNA", "section": "Section::::Key discoveries in RNA biology.:Relevance for prebiotic chemistry and abiogenesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 247, "text": "In 1967, Carl Woese hypothesized that RNA might be catalytic and suggested that the earliest forms of life (self-replicating molecules) could have relied on RNA both to carry genetic information and to catalyze biochemical reactions—an RNA world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16234480", "title": "History of virology", "section": "Section::::Pioneers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 444, "text": "In 1935, Wendell Stanley examined the tobacco mosaic virus and found it was mostly made of protein. In 1939, Stanley and Max Lauffer (1914) separated the virus into protein and nucleic acid, which was shown by Stanley's postdoctoral fellow Hubert S. Loring to be specifically RNA. The discovery of RNA in the particles was important because in 1928, Fred Griffith (c.1879–1941) provided the first evidence that its \"cousin\", DNA, formed genes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7955", "title": "DNA", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 146, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 146, "end_character": 376, "text": "In 1933, while studying virgin sea urchin eggs, Jean Brachet suggested that DNA is found in the cell nucleus and that RNA is present exclusively in the cytoplasm. At the time, \"yeast nucleic acid\" (RNA) was thought to occur only in plants, while \"thymus nucleic acid\" (DNA) only in animals. The latter was thought to be a tetramer, with the function of buffering cellular pH.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29732133", "title": "History of RNA biology", "section": "Section::::1930–1950.:RNA and DNA have distinct chemical properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 835, "text": "When first studied in the early 1900s, the chemical and biological differences between RNA and DNA were not apparent, and they were named after the materials from which they were isolated; RNA was initially known as \"yeast nucleic acid\" and DNA was \"thymus nucleic acid\". Using diagnostic chemical tests, carbohydrate chemists showed that the two nucleic acids contained different sugars, whereupon the common name for RNA became \"ribose nucleic acid\". Other early biochemical studies showed that RNA was readily broken down at high pH, while DNA was stable (although denatured) in alkali. Nucleoside composition analysis showed first that RNA contained similar nucleobases to DNA, with uracil instead of thymine, and that RNA contained a number of minor nucleobase components, e.g. small amounts of pseudouridine and dimethylguanine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1763082", "title": "History of genetics", "section": "Section::::Early timeline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 382, "text": "BULLET::::- 1933: Jean Brachet, while studying virgin sea urchin eggs, suggested that DNA is found in cell nucleus and that RNA is present exclusively in the cytoplasm. At the time, \"yeast nucleic acid\" (RNA) was thought to occur only in plants, while \"thymus nucleic acid\" (DNA) only in animals. The latter was thought to be a tetramer, with the function of buffering cellular pH.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1j80uk	What would need to change or evolve in order for us to be able to see light outside of the visible spectrum with our naked eye?	[ { "answer": "The molecules that absorb specific colors/wavelengths of light are found in the cone and rod cells of the retina. They are called opsins or [photopsins](_URL_0_) for the color proteins in the cone cells and [rhodopsins](_URL_3_) for the black/white night vision in the rod cells.\n\nReally all that would need to happen would be mutation to alter the protein so that it absorbed a photon in the UV or the IR range. There are plenty of examples of this already in nature -- salmon have a [UV opsin](_URL_2_) and snakes have an [IR opsin](_URL_1_). The salmon story is actually pretty interesting -- their ability to detect UV (and polarized) light is pretty nifty in the world of vertebrates, and actually changes when they go from fresh - > salt water and back when they go back from salt - > fresh water.\n\nAnyway, \"all\" you would need is a gene duplication and/or some sort of mutation to broaden the absorption characteristics of the human opsin. Rhodopsin would be a good one to start with. That would leave you with an expansion of the monochrome sensitivity and you could see more light in the dark. Kind of like black and white film, which has more UV sensitivity than the human eye.\n\nA more complicated question is \"What would have to happen for us to perceive this light differently?\" like an additional color for vision. That's more complicated, as different colors (and monochrome from rods) are processed differently from the photoreceptor all the way down the visual system to the cortex. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1843931", "title": "Luminous efficacy", "section": "Section::::Luminous efficacy of radiation.:Explanation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 578, "text": "Wavelengths of light outside of the visible spectrum are not useful for illumination because they cannot be seen by the human eye. Furthermore, the eye responds more to some wavelengths of light than others, even within the visible spectrum. This response of the eye is represented by the luminosity function. This is a standardized function which represents the response of a \"typical\" eye under bright conditions (photopic vision). One can also define a similar curve for dim conditions (scotopic vision). When neither is specified, photopic conditions are generally assumed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15387", "title": "Irreducible complexity", "section": "Section::::Stated examples.:Eye.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 552, "text": "Behe maintains that the complexity of light sensitivity at the molecular level and the minute biochemical reactions required for those first \"simple patches of photoreceptor[s]\" still defies explanation, and that the proposed series of infinitesimal steps to get from patches of photoreceptors to a fully functional eye would actually be considered great, complex leaps in evolution if viewed on the molecular scale. Other intelligent design proponents claim that the evolution of the entire visual system would be difficult rather than the eye alone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21280496", "title": "Visual perception", "section": "Section::::Visual system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 336, "text": "The human visual system is generally believed to be sensitive to visible light in the range of wavelengths between 370 and 730 nanometers (0.00000037 to 0.00000073 meters) of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, some research suggests that humans can perceive light in wavelengths down to 340 nanometers (UV-A), especially the young.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "569650", "title": "Stimulus modality", "section": "Section::::Light modality.:Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 313, "text": "The stimulus modality for vision is light; the human eye is able to access only a limited section of the electromagnetic spectrum, between 380 and 760 nanometres. Specific inhibitory responses that take place in the visual cortex help create a visual focus on a specific point rather than the entire surrounding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1110766", "title": "Melanopsin", "section": "Section::::Function.:Effects on circadian rhythm.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 762, "text": "In mammals, the eye is the main photosensitive organ for the transmission of light signals to the brain. However, blind humans are still able to entrain to the environmental light-dark cycle, despite having no conscious perception of the light. One study exposed subjects to bright light for a prolonged duration of time and measured their melatonin concentrations. Melatonin was not only suppressed in visually unimpaired humans, but also in blind participants, suggesting that the photic pathway used by the circadian system is functionally intact despite blindness. Therefore, physicians no longer practice enucleation of blind patients, or removal of the eyes at birth, since the eyes play a critical role in the photoentrainment of the circadian pacemaker.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "749810", "title": "VISTA (telescope)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 351, "text": "Observing at wavelengths longer than those visible to the human eye allows VISTA to study objects that may be almost impossible to see in visible light because they are cool, obscured by dust clouds or because their light has been stretched towards redder wavelengths by the expansion of space during the light's long journey from the early Universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1881067", "title": "Scotopic vision", "section": "Section::::Wavelength sensitivity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 296, "text": "For adaption to occur at very low levels, the human eye needs to have a large sample of light across the signal in order to get a reliable image. This leads to the human eye being unable to resolve high spatial frequencies in low light since the observer is spatially averaging the light signal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
2cpidg	what is actually going on when water "opens up" whiskey?	[ { "answer": "It's dilution, pure and simple.\n\nBecause most whiskey has high alcoholic content, there is likely to be some \"burn\" in the taste or smell. By adding some water, you dilute that, which allows some of the more subtle flavor to emerge (because the more aggressive flavors are lessened).\n\nIn theory, you could dilute an entire bottle to the same effect. However, as taste is a purely personal experience, it would be highly impolite.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because our tastebuds can't handle the full impact of what it's sending you, so you tend to miss things in the burn. In order to be able to catch all of the subtleties, you have to dilute it. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "purists will tell you the only acceptable water to add is water from the same spring as used the make the whisky.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is another factor beyond simple dilution of the alcohol. The various flavours in whiskey are several organic compounds (ex [whisky lactone](_URL_1_)). Organic compounds tend to be more soluble in ethanol than water, so dilution of the alcohol will force these compounds out of solution and into the air above. Since scent is such a big role in taste it is possible that this is a mechanism by which more scent is found in dilute solutions. This is as far as I know, unconfirmed in whiskeys, but it is certainly the cause of [louche](_URL_0_) in absinthe.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41542078", "title": "Whiskey in My Water", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 385, "text": "\"Whiskey in My Water\" is a song recorded by American country music artist Tyler Farr. It was released on November 2013 by Columbia Nashville as the fourth and final single from his debut album \"Redneck Crazy\". Farr wrote the song with Phillip LaRue and Jon Ozier. The song garnered mixed reviews from critics who commended Farr's vocal delivery over lyrics they felt were nondescript.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4529615", "title": "Branch water", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 982, "text": "BULLET::::- When a whiskey's natural palate is desired to be weakened or ‘cut’ (i.e., diluted by addition of another liquid, or watered down) before bottling or in a mixed drink, the water that is used is very important to the final product. The preferred source of water is called ’branch water’. Branch water comes directly from the stream that the distillery is built on; some companies even bottle this water, so that bar customers can further dilute their bourbon with the original bourbon water. This branch water starts its life in the underground limestone aquifer shelf that exists under most of Kentucky and a part of neighboring Tennessee. The limestone shelf acts as a naturally porous filter for water that passes through it. Branch water is particular for its lack of character, with no traces of iron or other minerals that would be harmful to the whiskey-making process, distressing the taste. The limestone is unique in its ability to leach the iron from the water\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46509407", "title": "Whiskey in a Bottle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 416, "text": "\"Whiskey in a Bottle\" is a song by American hip hop recording artist Yelawolf, featured on his 2015 album \"Love Story\". Written by Yelawolf and producer WLPWR, it contains elements of \"Adormeceu\", written by Cezar de Mercês (Antonio Cezar Albuquerque de Mercês) and Jorge Amiden (Jorge Pereira da Neves) from the Brazilian band O Terço. The song was released as the third single from the album on February 17, 2015.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "424698", "title": "Whiskey in the Jar", "section": "Section::::Story.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 885, "text": "\"Whiskey in the Jar\" is the tale of a highwayman or footpad who, after robbing a military or government official, is betrayed by a woman; whether she is his wife or sweetheart is not made clear. Various versions of the song take place in Kerry, Kilmoganny, Cork, Sligo Town, and other locales throughout Ireland. It is also sometimes placed in the American South, in various places among the Ozarks or Appalachians, possibly due to Irish settlement in these places. Names in the song change, and the official can be a Captain or a Colonel, called Farrell or Pepper among other names. The protagonist's wife or lover is sometimes called Molly, Jenny, Emzy, or Ginny among various other names. The details of the betrayal are also different, being either betraying him to the person he robbed and replacing his ammunition with sand or water, or not, resulting in his killing the person.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33723083", "title": "Jizi Temple", "section": "Section::::Boiling Wells.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 295, "text": "Water in the boiling wells is constantly bubbling, giving it the appearance of boiling, although the bubbling is actually caused by gas released from cracks beneath the wells. The water of each well is drinkable, and each well has a different flavour, apparently similar to beer or soft drinks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41542078", "title": "Whiskey in My Water", "section": "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 458, "text": "\"Whiskey in My Water\" debuted at number 58 on the \"Billboard\" Country Airplay chart for the week of November 23, 2013. It also debuted at number 46 on the US \"Billboard\" Hot Country Songs chart for the week of December 28. On the week of April 12, 2014 the song debuted at number 98 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, peaked at number 51 the week of July 15, and remained on the chart for eighteen weeks. The song has sold 548,000 copies in the US as of July 2014.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29192774", "title": "Whiskey River", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 327, "text": "\"Whiskey River\" is a song co-written and recorded by American country music singer Johnny Bush. He released the song in 1972 through RCA Victor and included it on his album \"Whiskey River\". Bush later re-recorded the song in 1981 and released it through the Delta label, with \"When My Conscience Hurts the Most\" on the b-side.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
3sdnzu	Why Delta-V and not Acceleration?	[ { "answer": "Acceleration is the measure of how quickly your velocity is changing, whereas delta-v is the total required change in velocity in order to complete a maneuver. So if in order to get to a certain orbit you will need to increase your velocity by 1000 m/s, an acceleration of 10 m/s/s will allow you to complete the maneuver in 100 seconds. \nDelta-v: A change of 1000 m/s.\nAcceleration: 10 m/s/s.\n\nThe reason why delta-v is useful is because typically fuel gives you a specific impulse (for every unit of fuel you get so much change in momentum), so it is a more useful figure when talking about fuel consumption.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "772517", "title": "Tsiolkovsky rocket equation", "section": "Section::::Derivation.:Most popular derivation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 632, "text": "formula_37 (delta v) is the integration over time of the magnitude of the acceleration produced by using the rocket engine (what would be the actual acceleration if external forces were absent). In free space, for the case of acceleration in the direction of the velocity, this is the increase of the speed. In the case of an acceleration in opposite direction (deceleration) it is the decrease of the speed. Of course gravity and drag also accelerate the vehicle, and they can add or subtract to the change in velocity experienced by the vehicle. Hence delta-v is not usually the actual change in speed or velocity of the vehicle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "194465", "title": "Delta-v", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 408, "text": "Delta-\"v\" is typically provided by the thrust of a rocket engine, but can be created by other engines. The time-rate of change of delta-\"v\" is the magnitude of the acceleration \"caused by the engines\", i.e., the thrust per total vehicle mass. The actual acceleration vector would be found by adding thrust per mass on to the gravity vector and the vectors representing any other forces acting on the object.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "772517", "title": "Tsiolkovsky rocket equation", "section": "Section::::Terms of the equation.:Delta-\"v\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 425, "text": "Delta-\"v\" (literally \"change in velocity\"), symbolised as Δ\"v\" and pronounced \"delta-vee\", as used in spacecraft flight dynamics, is a measure of the impulse that is needed to perform a maneuver such as launching from, or landing on a planet or moon, or an in-space orbital maneuver. It is a scalar that has the units of speed. As used in this context, it is \"not\" the same as the physical change in velocity of the vehicle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "194465", "title": "Delta-v", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 445, "text": "Delta-\"v (literally \"change in velocity\"), symbolised as ∆\"v and pronounced \"delta-vee\", as used in spacecraft flight dynamics, is a measure of the impulse per unit of spacecraft mass that is needed to perform a maneuver such as launch from, or landing on a planet or moon, or in-space orbital maneuver. It is a scalar that has the units of speed. As used in this context, it is \"not\" the same as the physical change in velocity of the vehicle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "931880", "title": "Delta-v budget", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 457, "text": "Delta-\"v\" is a scalar quantity dependent only on the desired trajectory and not on the mass of the space vehicle. For example, although more fuel is needed to transfer a heavier communication satellite from low Earth orbit to geosynchronous orbit than for a lighter one, the delta-\"v\" required is the same. Also delta-\"v\" is additive, as contrasted to rocket burn time, the latter having greater effect later in the mission when more fuel has been used up.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50775420", "title": "Glossary of aerospace engineering", "section": "Section::::D.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 102, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 102, "end_character": 431, "text": "BULLET::::- Delta-v — (literally \"change in velocity\"), symbolised as ∆\"v\" and pronounced \"delta-vee\", as used in spacecraft flight dynamics, is a measure of the impulse that is needed to perform a maneuver such as launch from, or landing on a planet or moon, or in-space orbital maneuver. It is a scalar that has the units of speed. As used in this context, it is \"not\" the same as the physical change in velocity of the vehicle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "931880", "title": "Delta-v budget", "section": "Section::::General principles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 222, "text": "Because delta-v depends on the position and motion of celestial bodies, particularly when using the slingshot effect and Oberth effect, the delta-v budget changes with launch time. These can be plotted on a porkchop plot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
uw7ff	On the day of the Berlin Wall's construction, were citizens who were visiting the other side stuck there?	[ { "answer": "No, because they were legally citizens of West Germany, and could therefore leave at will.\n\nSome East Germans who were in the West at the time decided to stay there, though.\n\nSee [here](_URL_1_), [here](_URL_3_) and [here](_URL_0_).\n\nEdit: also [here](_URL_2_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My father told the story of he and his family traveling to Berlin for a weekend getaway (air force family stationed in W.Germany... I forget where) They hit a road block outside of the city and were advised to turn around and head back to base as movements were being restricted and they weren't sure how safe things would be in the city.\n\nI wish I had more details about this anecdote, but my dad passed away 13 years ago, so I can't go ask him.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41241707", "title": "June 1965", "section": "Section::::June 13, 1965 (Sunday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 605, "text": "BULLET::::- On the final day that the Berlin Wall was open to visitors traveling from West Berlin to East Berlin, 70,000 people came over from West Germany to see their relatives. For two weeks, under an agreement between East Germany and West Germany on September 24, 1964, West Berliners were allowed to travel passes to come through five checkpoints at the wall, and there were but the agreement expired at midnight. During the pass period, 600,000 people obtained passes. \"The wall technically closed at midnight\", a UPI reporter noted, \"but actually guards kept crossing points open for stragglers,\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "242099", "title": "History of Berlin", "section": "Section::::West and East Germany (1945–1990).:Student movement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 128, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 128, "end_character": 622, "text": "The Wall afforded unique opportunities for social gatherings. The physical wall was set some distance behind the actual sector border, up to several meters behind in some places. The West Berlin police were not legally allowed to enter the space between the border and the wall, as it was technically in East Berlin and outside their jurisdiction: many people took the opportunity to throw loud parties in this space, with the West Berlin authorities powerless to intervene. In 1968 and after, West Berlin became one of the centers of the student revolt; in particular, the Kreuzberg borough was the center of many riots.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32842267", "title": "List of deaths at the Berlin Wall", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 497, "text": "There were numerous deaths at the Berlin Wall, which stood as a barrier between West Berlin and East Berlin from 13 August 1961 until 9 November 1989. Before the rise of the Berlin Wall in 1961, 3.5 million East Germans circumvented Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions, many by crossing over the border from East Berlin into West Berlin, from where they could then travel to West Germany and other Western European countries. Between 1961 and 1989, the Wall prevented almost all such emigration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23849734", "title": "Mass killings under communist regimes", "section": "Section::::States where mass killings have occurred.:Others.:East Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 89, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 89, "end_character": 361, "text": "In 1961, East Germany erected the Berlin Wall following the Berlin crisis. Even though crossing between East Germany and West Germany was possible for motivated and approved travelers, thousands of East Germans tried to defect by crossing the wall illegally. Of these, between 136 and 227 people were killed by the Berlin Wall guards in the years 1961 to 1989.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "156604", "title": "Brandenburg Gate", "section": "Section::::History.:Cold War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 541, "text": "Vehicles and pedestrians could travel freely through the gate, located in East Berlin, until the Berlin Wall was built, 13 August 1961. Brandenburg Gate border crossing was later closed on 14 August 1961. West Berliners gathered on the western side of the gate to demonstrate against the Berlin Wall, among them West Berlin's governing Mayor Willy Brandt, who had spontaneously returned from a federal election campaigning tour in West Germany earlier on the same day. It was closed throughout the Berlin Wall period until 22 December 1989.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "900258", "title": "Conrad Schumann", "section": "Section::::Defection to West Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 371, "text": "On 15 August 1961, the 19-year-old Schumann was sent to the corner of Ruppiner Strasse and Bernauer Strasse to guard the Berlin Wall on its third day of construction. At that time and place, the wall was only a single coil of concertina wire. From the other side, West Germans shouted to him, \"\"Komm' rüber!\"\" (\"Come over!\"), and a police car pulled up to wait for him. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2118750", "title": "Ricardo Wall", "section": "Section::::Military career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 351, "text": "Wall was posted on other missions by the Duke of Líria y Jérica, such as to the King of Prussia, who decorated him as a Knight of the Red Eagle. While a Stuart ambassadorship to Berlin did not materialise, Wall took the opportunity to cultivate numerous contacts throughout Europe, in Parma, Vienna, Dresden as well as in Saint Petersburg and Moscow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
6e6ud9	why does an orchestra need a chief to perform? what is the man with a stick doing?	[ { "answer": "The conductor? He's keeping time. Imagine a group of people trying to read a book out loud together. The \"man with a stick\" makes sure everyone is literally, on the same page, by giving cues and in general maintaining a beat for everyone to follow.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The conductor (person with the stick) sets the pace for all the different areas of instruments, to keep the whole group playing at the same tempo/timing. He or she also directs each instrument section in how loud or quietly they should play their part.\n\n\nThe conductor of an orchestra is similar to the director for a movie in that they have an idea in their head of how everything should go, and then they coordinate everyone in how to play their part so that it fits together seamlessly. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22706", "title": "Orchestra", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 479, "text": "Orchestras are usually led by a conductor who directs the performance with movements of the hands and arms, often made easier for the musicians to see by use of a conductor's baton. The conductor unifies the orchestra, sets the tempo and shapes the sound of the ensemble. The conductor also prepares the orchestra by leading rehearsals before the public concert, in which the conductor provides instructions to the musicians on their interpretation of the music being performed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47398", "title": "Orchestration", "section": "Section::::As profession.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1203, "text": "An orchestrator is a trained musical professional who assigns instruments from an orchestra or other musical ensemble to a piece of music written by a composer, or who adapts music composed for another medium for an orchestra. Orchestrators may work for musical theatre productions, film production companies or recording studios. Some orchestrators teach at colleges, conservatories or universities. The training done by orchestrators varies. Most have completed formal postsecondary education in music, such as a Bachelor of Music (B.Mus.), Master of Music (M.Mus.) or an artist's diploma. Orchestrators who teach at universities, colleges and conservatories may be required to hold a master's degree or a Doctorate (the latter may be a Ph.D. or a D.M.A). Orchestrators who work for film companies, musical theatre companies and other organizations may be hired solely based on their orchestration experience, even if they do not hold academic credentials. In the 2010s, as the percentage of faculty holding terminal degrees and/or Doctoral degrees is part of how an institution is rated, this is causing an increasing number of postsecondary institutions to require terminal and/or Doctoral degrees.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2335981", "title": "Rehearsal", "section": "Section::::Music.:Amateur classical ensembles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 938, "text": "Amateur orchestras or chamber ensembles, such as university or community groups rehearse music for a number of reasons. While an amateur ensemble does rehearsals for many of the same reasons as a professional ensemble—to coordinate the rhythmic ensemble and intonation—with an amateur group the conductor has to do much more teaching to the orchestra. However, amateur musicians are much more likely to make note mistakes, transposition errors or play with incorrect intonation or rhythms; the conductor must point these issues out to the performers and give them advice on how to correct them. In amateur groups, players may not have strong ensemble skills, so the conductor may have to coach players about how to learn to blend their sound well with other sections or how to coordinate rhythmic passages that are played by different sections, or how to mark their part after they make an error to prevent the error from being repeated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2335981", "title": "Rehearsal", "section": "Section::::Music.:Professional classical ensembles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 870, "text": "The conductor leads orchestral rehearsals. He calls out bar numbers or rehearsal letters to direct the orchestra to sections which he would like to perform. While classical conductors do not typically speak to direct the orchestra during concerts, during rehearsals, the conductor speaks to communicate his artistic vision for the piece and explain the \"articulation\" (note lengths), tone colors, and tempos he would like to use. During initial rehearsals, the conductor frequently stops the rehearsal to ask players or sections to change the way they are playing or provide guidance to the orchestra. For a choir, the choral conductor will lead rehearsals. In cases where a choir is preparing a piece which will be sung with an orchestra, the initial rehearsals may be led by the choir's conductor and the rehearsals closer to the concert by the orchestra's conductor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "915354", "title": "Concertmaster", "section": "Section::::Duties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 568, "text": "In performances given in America and/or featuring American or British orchestras, the concertmaster will usually walk onstage individually after the rest of the orchestra is seated, and bow and receive applause before the conductor appears. In continental European orchestras, this practice is uncommon. There, the concertmaster usually walks onstage with the rest of the orchestra. As the representative of the orchestra, the concertmaster will usually shake hands with the conductor at the beginning or end of a concert as a sign of mutual respect and appreciation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "915354", "title": "Concertmaster", "section": "Section::::Orchestra.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 551, "text": "In an orchestra, the concertmaster is the leader of the first violin section. There is another violin section, the second violins, led by the principal second violin. Any violin solo in an orchestral work is played by the concertmaster (except in the case of a concerto, in which case a guest soloist usually plays). It is usually required that the concertmaster be the most skilled musician in the section, experienced at learning music quickly, counting rests accurately and leading the rest of the string section by their playing and bow gestures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "915354", "title": "Concertmaster", "section": "Section::::Orchestra.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 947, "text": "The concertmaster sits to the conductor's left, closest to the audience, in what is called the \"first chair,\" \"first [music] stand\" or outside of the US \"first desk.\" (In one instance, Ferdinand David had been concertmaster of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra since Felix Mendelssohn became conductor in 1835. In 1847, Joseph Joachim joined David on the first desk.) The concertmaster makes decisions regarding bowing and other technical details of violin playing for the violins, and sometimes all of the string players. They lead the orchestra in tuning before concerts and rehearsals, and other technical aspects of orchestra management. Leading the orchestral tuning is not a mere formality; if the concertmaster believes that a section is not adequately tuned, they will signal to the oboe player to play another \"A.\" Several larger orchestras have one or more assistant concertmasters, who lead the orchestra in the concertmaster's absence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
96ft3k	why does corn pop and expand into yummy cinema treats?	[ { "answer": "All grains pop with enough heat... Rice, corn even wheat, ragi etc. I don't know why they pop but they do pop if heated. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The hard kernel provides resistance, allowing pressure to build then pop. \n\nThe pressure is caused by the moisture content creating steam.\n\nThe resulting airy foam is the starchy inside of the kernal, which is very briefly exploded then solidifies into an airy mass. \n\nOther grains will puff (see: puffed wheat cereal) but corn's harder outer shell allows for more pressure and a larger release of energy giving a large fluffy popped corn.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "54671638", "title": "Tiny but Mighty Popcorn", "section": "Section::::History.:Kelty family.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 391, "text": "Since 1854, the ancestors of Richard Kelty (1936-2015) had been growing a heirloom popcorn variety out of small kernels, whose hulls would disintegrate after being popped, resulting in a richer taste. The popcorn had been introduced to the Kelty family by Native Americans, who shared it with them. The Kelty family had never sold the popcorn, which was only grown for personal consumption.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20656228", "title": "Maize", "section": "Section::::Origin.:Connection with 'parviglumis' subspecies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 403, "text": "In 1939, George Beadle demonstrated that the kernels of teosinte are readily \"popped\" for human consumption, like modern popcorn. Some have argued it would have taken too many generations of selective breeding to produce large, compressed ears for efficient cultivation. However, studies of the hybrids readily made by intercrossing teosinte and modern maize suggest this objection is not well founded.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4247100", "title": "Euryale ferox", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Culinary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 301, "text": "In India, in the northern (Punjab) and western parts of the country, \"Euryale ferox\" seeds are often roasted or fried, which causes them to pop like popcorn. These are then eaten, often with a sprinkling of oil and spices. It is used in cooking, especially to make a porridge or pudding called kheer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6038844", "title": "Lolly Gobble Bliss Bombs", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 411, "text": "Originally released in the 1970s, it is caramelised, ready-to-eat popcorn, similar to the American Cracker Jack. The concept was first floated by the head food technologist for Greens, Sir Shaun MacMaster, in the late 1960s, but the company delayed the product due to uncertainty of the market appeal. The popcorn is coated with toffee and rolled in crushed peanuts. Flavours include butterscotch and caramel. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42312291", "title": "List of popcorn brands", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 448, "text": "This is a list of notable popcorn brands. Popcorn, also known as popping corn, is a type of corn (maize, \"Zea mays var. everta\") that expands from the kernel and puffs up when heated. Popcorn is able to pop because its kernels have a hard moisture-sealed hull and a dense starchy interior. Pressure builds inside the kernel, and a small explosion (or \"pop\") is the end result. Some strains of corn are now cultivated specifically as popping corns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58634259", "title": "SkinnyPop", "section": "Section::::Products.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 260, "text": "SkinnyPop’s original pre-popped popcorn was launched in 2010 and was made with sunflower oil and salt. Different flavors were later introduced. The company released a microwave popcorn product in 2017. Its other products have included popcorn puffs and cakes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "624879", "title": "Corn Pops", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 243, "text": "Corn Pops are made from milled corn. Though the name of the cereal is 'Corn' Pops, since January 2004, its ingredients have included wheat starch, essentially making the cereal multigrain. By 2007, Coconut Oil was added to the US ingredients.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1ct5cp	Could salt water be chemically desalinized?	[ { "answer": "sure, there is no reason a priori that this couldn't be done. In fact, salt metathesis reactions are an example of this.\n\n I don't know of any practical method for doing this, however. \n\n_URL_0_\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I believe what you are talking about is called a Ligand or a molecule which will come in and bind to an ion. \n\nWhile there is no reason to suggest they can't exist for Sodium, there is a small problem. First of all if you want a non-polar molecule you need to eliminate or neutralize the charge for both the sodium and chloride. Which in turn means you need something that is strong enough to reduce sodium yet not so strong that it reacts with water. If you can't make it non-polar then you need a compound which will cause the new complex ions to precipitate out. Both of which presents its own problems.\n\nTypically the largest problem with ionic species is the fact you have to maintain charge neutrality. This is either done by eliminating charge or replacing charged species (Similar to what a ion exchange resin does). In the case of sodium it is so soluble in water that it is very hard to pull it away from water. \n\nEven if you did successfully find a compound that would do this, odds are it would take way more funds to produce it than it currently costs to distill or use other desalination methods.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37615833", "title": "2013 in science", "section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:June.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 430, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 430, "end_character": 205, "text": "BULLET::::- US and German scientists develop a simple and efficient new method for desalinating seawater, using a small electric field to separate salt from water without needing complex filter membranes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "156787", "title": "Desalination", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 390, "text": "Saltwater is desalinated to produce water suitable for human consumption or irrigation. One by-product of desalination is salt. Desalination is used on many seagoing ships and submarines. Most of the modern interest in desalination is focused on cost-effective provision of fresh water for human use. Along with recycled wastewater, it is one of the few rainfall-independent water sources.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5301306", "title": "Portable water purification", "section": "Section::::Techniques.:Chemical disinfection with halogens.:Mixed oxidant (MiOx).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 216, "text": "A simple brine {salt + water} solution in an electrolytic reaction produces a powerful mixed oxidant disinfectant (mostly chlorine in the form of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and some peroxide, ozone, chlorine dioxide).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1558218", "title": "Industrial wastewater treatment", "section": "Section::::Treatment of industrial wastewater.:Brine treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 314, "text": "Brine treatment involves removing dissolved salt ions from the waste stream. Although similarities to seawater or brackish water desalination exist, industrial brine treatment may contain unique combinations of dissolved ions, such as hardness ions or other metals, necessitating specific processes and equipment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "214701", "title": "Water purification", "section": "Section::::Safety and controversies.:Demineralized water.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 1410, "text": "Distillation removes all minerals from water, and the membrane methods of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration remove most to all minerals. This results in demineralized water which is not considered ideal drinking water. The World Health Organization has investigated the health effects of demineralized water since 1980. Experiments in humans found that demineralized water increased diuresis and the elimination of electrolytes, with decreased blood serum potassium concentration. Magnesium, calcium, and other minerals in water can help to protect against nutritional deficiency. Demineralized water may also increase the risk from toxic metals because it more readily leaches materials from piping like lead and cadmium, which is prevented by dissolved minerals such as calcium and magnesium. Low-mineral water has been implicated in specific cases of lead poisoning in infants, when lead from pipes leached at especially high rates into the water. Recommendations for magnesium have been put at a minimum of 10 mg/L with 20–30 mg/L optimum; for calcium a 20 mg/L minimum and a 40–80 mg/L optimum, and a total water hardness (adding magnesium and calcium) of 2 to 4 mmol/L. At water hardness above 5 mmol/L, higher incidence of gallstones, kidney stones, urinary stones, arthrosis, and arthropathies have been observed. Additionally, desalination processes can increase the risk of bacterial contamination.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "156787", "title": "Desalination", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 121, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 121, "end_character": 663, "text": "Desalination has been known to history for millennia as both a concept, and later practice, though in a limited form. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle observed in his work \"Meteorology\" that “salt water, when it turns into vapour, becomes sweet and the vapour does not form salt water again when it condenses,” and also noticed that a fine wax vessel would hold potable water after being submerged long enough in seawater, having acted as a membrane to filter the salt. There are numerous other examples of experimentation in desalination throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages, but desalination was never feasible on a large scale until the modern era.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44295790", "title": "Cantonese salted fish", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 734, "text": "The presence of common salt, sodium chloride, helps to preserve salted fish, through inhibition of bacterial growth. When the solution of salt, or brine, is more concentrated—specifically, has a lower water potential—than the fluid of the fish tissue, osmosis will occur. Water molecules will pass from the fish tissue (higher water potential) into the brine (lower water potential) until the water molecules in these two solutions are evenly distributed. This is known as a hypertonic environment. Most bacteria cannot survive in such an environment, as their cells shrink and normal biological function cannot continue, eventually terminating in lysis. This lends the antiseptic properties, and hence preservational power, of salt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1j240a	If a magnetic field requires a moving electric charge, how does a permanent magnet work?	[ { "answer": "First of all, a magnetic field doesn't necessarily require a movement of charge. All it needs is a change in electric flux with time.\n\nSecond of all in an atom, the electrons are \"spinning\" around the nucleus, usually in random directions. Every single one of them is like a tiny bar magnet (the more technical term is dipole). In an object where the electrons are mostly \"spinning\" in the same direction, all the dipole moments sum together and make one big dipole.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "316167", "title": "Simple Magnetic Overunity Toy", "section": "Section::::Analysis of operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 568, "text": "The magnetostatic field produced by any arrangement of stationary permanent magnets is a conservative field. This means any magnetic object which moves in a closed-loop path in the field, like the ball in this device, gains no energy from the field, and in the absence of friction ends with the same total energy (kinetic plus potential) it started with. Since any moving object is also subject to friction forces, which dissipate the kinetic energy as it moves, the ball will always end a cycle with less energy than it started with, and will eventually stop moving.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27643777", "title": "Measuring instrument", "section": "Section::::Electricity, electronics and electrical engineering.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 109, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 109, "end_character": 242, "text": "Electrical charges interact via a field. That field is called electric field.If the charge doesn't move. If the charge moves, thus realizing an electric current, especially in an electrically neutral conductor, that field is called magnetic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6207", "title": "Electric current", "section": "Section::::Electromagnetism.:Electromagnetic induction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 224, "text": "Magnetic fields can also be used to make electric currents. When a changing magnetic field is applied to a conductor, an electromotive force (EMF) is induced, which starts an electric current, when there is a suitable path.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "598867", "title": "Magnetic bearing", "section": "Section::::Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 492, "text": "An active magnetic bearing works on the principle of electromagnetic suspension based on the induction of eddy currents in a rotating conductor. When an electrically conducting material is moving in a magnetic field, a current will be generated in the material that counters the change in the magnetic field (known as Lenz's Law). This generates a current that will result in a magnetic field that is oriented opposite to the one from the magnet. The electrically conducting material is thus\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "261621", "title": "Rotating magnetic field", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 977, "text": "A permanent magnet in such a field will rotate so as to maintain its alignment with the external field. This effect was utilized in early alternating current electric motors. A rotating magnetic field can be constructed using two orthogonal coils with a 90 degree phase difference in their alternating currents. However, in practice such a system would be supplied through a three-wire arrangement with unequal currents. This inequality would cause serious problems in the standardization of the conductor size. In order to overcome this, three-phase systems are used where the three currents are equal in magnitude and have a 120 degree phase difference. Three similar coils having mutual geometrical angles of 120 degrees will create the rotating magnetic field in this case. The ability of the three phase system to create the rotating field utilized in electric motors is one of the main reasons why three phase systems dominate in the world electric power supply systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31948597", "title": "Ring ground", "section": "Section::::Theory of Operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 345, "text": "When an electrical conductor moves through a magnetic field, an electric current is induced into the conductor. The same thing also happens when the electrical conductor is stationary and the magnetic field is moving. This is known as electromagnetic induction, and is the underlying principle used in the construction of electrical generators.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1831487", "title": "Eddy current brake", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 571, "text": "A conductive surface moving past a stationary magnet develops circular electric currents called eddy currents induced in it by the magnetic field, as described by Faraday's law of induction. By Lenz's law, the circulating currents create their own magnetic field that opposes the field of the magnet. Thus the moving conductor experiences a drag force from the magnet that opposes its motion, proportional to its velocity. The kinetic energy of the moving object is dissipated as heat generated by the current flowing through the electrical resistance of the conductor. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
2nhcze	why is piracy and copyright law such a derisive issue on the internet? shouldn't artists be entitled to distribute how they want and charge what they feel is appropriate?	[ { "answer": "Artists can and do distribute how ever they want. Unless they have a contract with a big studio such as Sony, whose sole purpose is to squeeze every last cent out of them.\n\nThere's a lot of royalty free music out there, it's just not the way to earn money and do business with.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's considered OK because people like their free stuff and they're willing to do mental gymnastics in order to justify their actions. It really is immoral to just download content without compensating the creator.\n\nThere is something of an exception when it's not reasonably possible to buy the content through normal channels, and definitely an exception when you already purchased the content in a different format, and just need a particular format you can't convert to on your own.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Once upon a time (like 15 years ago), media companies didn't offer people a way to use music/movies on computers or other devices, and there was a large group of younger, tech-savvy people who really wanted to do so. Since the media producers didn't offer any way to do it legally, consumers turned to illegal ways to create/use/distribute media, and justified it by saying that there was no other way.\n\nMedia companies have come around, and now you can get just about any content in digital format. However, many people who grew up in the \"piracy or nothing\" era feel entitled to \"free\" media, and this attitude has been adopted as a convenient way for other people to not feel bad about pirating content.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Piracy isn't ok, but it is a consequence of marketing and pricing. There is no justifying it, but there is some explanation of it.\n\nWith saturation advertising, there's literally almost no direction I can look, right now, where I'm sitting, and not see an advertisement for digital media. The whole point is the advertisers want you to feel that you want this product and you want it now, in order to induce a purchase.\n\nAnd they're successful, at large, too successful, actually. The value of media is inflated, music and video isn't actually worth what they're charging, as evidenced by the rampant piracy. The working class hasn't had a pay raise in 22 years and has less buying power now than they did in the 1980s, cost of living increases, and the price of media has always been ~$15 for an album. And you get less today than ever. You used to get a cover, an insert, and art, bundled with the album. Today, you get an mp3 download. It costs fractions of a penny to digitize the final product and distribute it on the internet, you'd think that would drop the price. It costs $0.017 to produce a CD, just as a point of reference, and digital distribution is orders of magnitude cheaper.\n\nSo here you have a market who wants your product and wants it now, and can't or won't afford it. I'm not saying it's ok, but this is the catalyst that allows people to justify it.\n\nThe way the industry works is an artist is contracted to produce content for the publisher, they don't own their own songs, and they're literally lucky if they get any money, at all, from the sale of their media. Artists make money by performing, and even then, they're responsible for the cost of the production, which cuts into their profits.\n\nSo publishers are seen as big, bad, rich, faceless corporations - profiteering gluttons who don't need any more money for something they own but they didn't make, so fuck em', right? The world is such a big place and so many people do buy the album that they won't even notice I stole a copy... Or so the mindset goes.\n\nThere are scenarios where people do pay, when they feel the price is fair and when they feel the profits are distributed to those whom they see entitled.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6790742", "title": "Mashup (video)", "section": "Section::::Copyright issues.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 292, "text": "Fair use is a limitation and exception to the copyright law. According to the \"Hofstra Law Review\", “If mashup artists could prove that they use others’ songs or clips to criticize, comment, or teach, then mashup artists might be able to use the copyrighted material without authorization.\" \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "245835", "title": "Music of Tanzania", "section": "Section::::Bongo Flava.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 452, "text": "There is still a struggle between the government and the artists concerning a variety of issues mainly censorship and lack of structured copyrights law that can protect artists and their music.Recently the ministry of arts has tried and successful censored prominent musician Diamond Platnumz. Most of these artists have decided to keep publishing their music out for free download on websites like TINA Magazine for faster distribution and promotion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "553671", "title": "Free Culture (book)", "section": "Section::::Themes.:Piracy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 952, "text": "This new role of law is meant to protect copyright owners from 'pirates' who share their content for free, effectively 'robbing' the creator of any profit. Lessig acknowledges piracy is wrong and deserving of punishment, however he is concerned the concept, as it appears in the context of 'internet piracy', has been used inappropriately. This problematic conception follows a certain chain of reasoning: creative work has value; when an individual uses, takes or builds upon someone else's creative work they are appropriating something of value from the creator. If someone appropriates something of value from a creator without the creator's expressed permission, then that someone is 'pirating' the creator's work, and this is wrong. Rochelle Dreyfuss, an NYU Professor of Law, has termed this conception of piracy the \"if value, then right\" theory of creative property — namely, \"if there is value, then someone must have a right to that value.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3878926", "title": "User-generated content", "section": "Section::::Legal problems.:Copyright laws.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 1045, "text": "Copyright laws also play a factor in relation to user-generated content, as users may use such services to upload works—particularly videos—that they do not have the sufficient rights to distribute. In many cases, the use of these materials may be covered by local \"fair use\" laws, especially if the use of the material submitted is transformative. Local laws also vary on who is liable for any resulting copyright infringements caused by user-generated content; in the United States, the Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act (OCILLA)—a portion of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), dictates safe harbor provisions for \"online service providers\" as defined under the act, which grants immunity from secondary liability for the copyright-infringing actions of their users, as long as they promptly remove access to allegedly infringing materials upon the receipt of a notice from a copyright holder or registered agent, and they do not have actual knowledge that their service is being used for infringing activities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40969806", "title": "YouTube Poop", "section": "Section::::Copyright and fair use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 403, "text": "The law in the United Kingdom does allow people to use copyrighted material for the purposes of parody, pastiche, and caricature without infringing on the copyright of the material. Copyright owners are only able to sue the parodist if the work contains hateful or discriminative messages. If the case is then taken to court, it will be down to a judge to decide whether the video meets these criteria.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51536652", "title": "Mashup (culture)", "section": "Section::::Forms of mashup culture.:Political statement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 877, "text": "Murray states \"there’s the question of the kind of Internet we want moving forward – one increasingly controlled by corporate gatekeepers who get to sanction what creative expression looks like, or one in which the freedom of this expression is valued above share price\". Copyright issues have always been limiting the possibilities of mashup culture. Those implications by law have led to the problem of online piracy. Mashups are often created with illegally acquired content. This closeness to illegality has become part of this culture. \"In some cases, the illegality of piracy contributes to the appeal of unauthorized copies online\" states Shiga in her article Copy-and-Persist: The Logic of Mash-Up Culture. Even though copyright laws were intentionally supposed to stop illegal downloads, they contributed to the appeal of mashup and to the culture existing around it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5381636", "title": "File sharing in Canada", "section": "Section::::Legality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 893, "text": "Important distinctions have been made about the legality of downloading versus uploading copyrighted material as well as \"musical works\" versus other copyrighted material. In general, the unauthorized copying or distribution of copyrighted material for profit is illegal under Canada's \"Copyright Act\"; however, the act also states under the section \"Copying for Private Use ... onto an audio recording medium for the private use of the person who makes the copy does not constitute an infringement of the copyright in the musical work, the performer’s performance or the sound recording.\". Furthermore, the Act contains a Private Copying exception that makes it legal to copy a sound recording onto an \"audio recording medium\" for the personal use of the person making the copy. This is supported by a levy on blank audio recording media, which is distributed to record labels and musicians.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
bpqce2	What are the benefits or detriments of using Asphalt covered concrete highways?	[ { "answer": "Asphalt is like a protective glove on the top of the concrete. In Chicago you will notice that on the strictly concrete roadway the concrete has been worn into channels where the cars drive all day everyday. Concrete has the ability to last a long time which allows for the material to breakdown through tire erosion versus other physical means. Retaining a layer of blacktop allows for that road to be refurished while mainting the structure of the concrete underneath the asphalt layer. A roadway that has channels is harder to clear of snow during the winter becasue the blade of the plow cant get into the channels. If those channels are not clear of snow and ice, cars will be traveling on that dangerous surface.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "241387", "title": "Road surface", "section": "Section::::Asphalt.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 557, "text": "An asphalt concrete surface will generally be constructed for high-volume primary highways having an average annual daily traffic load greater than 1200 vehicles per day. Advantages of asphalt roadways include relatively low noise, relatively low cost compared with other paving methods, and perceived ease of repair. Disadvantages include less durability than other paving methods, less tensile strength than concrete, the tendency to become slick and soft in hot weather and a certain amount of hydrocarbon pollution to soil and groundwater or waterways.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48223709", "title": "Plastic roads", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Pros.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 293, "text": "BULLET::::- Plastic-bitumen composite roads have better wear resistance than standard asphalt concrete roads. They do not absorb water, have better flexibility which results in less rutting and less need for repair. Road surfaces remain smooth, are lower maintenance, and absorb sound better.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25897", "title": "Road", "section": "Section::::Maintenance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 115, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 115, "end_character": 402, "text": "Maintenance treatments for asphalt concrete generally include thin asphalt overlays, crack sealing, surface rejuvenating, fog sealingfo, micro milling or diamond grinding and surface treatments. Thin surfacing preserves, protects and improves the functional condition of the road while reducing the need for routing maintenance, leading to extended service life without increasing structural capacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5371", "title": "Concrete", "section": "Section::::In construction.:Roads.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 138, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 138, "end_character": 932, "text": "Concrete roads are more fuel efficient to drive on, more reflective and last significantly longer than other paving surfaces, yet have a much smaller market share than other paving solutions. Modern-paving methods and design practices have changed the economics of concrete paving, so that a well-designed and placed concrete pavement will be less expensive on initial costs and significantly less expensive over the life cycle. Another major benefit is that pervious concrete can be used, which eliminates the need to place storm drains near the road, and reducing the need for slightly sloped roadway to help rainwater to run off. No longer requiring discarding rainwater through use of drains also means that less electricity is needed (more pumping is otherwise needed in the water-distribution system), and no rainwater gets polluted as it no longer mixes with polluted water. Rather, it is immediately absorbed by the ground.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "205592", "title": "Highway engineering", "section": "Section::::Construction, maintenance, and management.:Highway construction.:Surface course construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 340, "text": "There are two most commonly used types of pavement surfaces used in highway construction: hot-mix asphalt and Portland cement concrete. These pavement surface courses provide a smooth and safe riding surface, while simultaneously transferring the heavy traffic loads through the various base courses and into the underlying subgrade soils.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9606667", "title": "Pervious concrete", "section": "Section::::Cold climates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 393, "text": "Using permeable concrete for pavements can make them safer for pedestrians in the winter because water won't settle on the surface and freeze leading to dangerously icy conditions. Roads can also be made safer for cars by the use of permeable concrete as the reduction in the formation of standing water will reduce the possibility of aquaplaning and porous roads will also reduce tire noise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "387797", "title": "Asphalt concrete", "section": "Section::::Mixture formulations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 305, "text": "A variety of specialty asphalt concrete mixtures have been developed to meet specific needs, such as stone-matrix asphalt, which is designed to ensure a very strong wearing surface, or porous asphalt pavements, which are permeable and allow water to drain through the pavement for controlling stormwater.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
ovc5c	Just finished making a high temperature superconductor for solids lab. How exactly does the Meissner effect (pic inside) work?	[ { "answer": "Although no dynamical explanation yet exist it's not actually a repulsion in the usual sense that keeps the magnet suspended. Because magnetic fields are excluded from the superconductor it locks into position. You can push the superconductor closer to the magnet, or further away, and it will stay there to. You can also suspend the superconductor under the magnet and it also stays there.\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "791863", "title": "Seebeck coefficient", "section": "Section::::Measurement.:Absolute Seebeck coefficient.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 446, "text": "The combination of the superconductor-thermocouple technique up to 18 K, with the Thomson-coefficient-integration technique above 18 K, allowed determination of the absolute Seebeck coefficient of lead up to room temperature. By proxy, these measurements led to the determination of absolute Seebeck coefficients for \"all materials\", even up to higher temperatures, by a combination of Thomson coefficient integrations and thermocouple circuits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26884", "title": "Superconductivity", "section": "Section::::History of superconductivity.:Conventional theories (1950s).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 289, "text": "Also in 1950, Maxwell and Reynolds \"et al.\" found that the critical temperature of a superconductor depends on the isotopic mass of the constituent element. This important discovery pointed to the electron-phonon interaction as the microscopic mechanism responsible for superconductivity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9476", "title": "Electron", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Conductivity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 594, "text": "When cooled below a point called the critical temperature, materials can undergo a phase transition in which they lose all resistivity to electric current, in a process known as superconductivity. In BCS theory, pairs of electrons called Cooper pairs have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called phonons, thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical resistance. (Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100 nm, so they can overlap each other.) However, the mechanism by which higher temperature superconductors operate remains uncertain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "98918", "title": "Bolometer", "section": "Section::::Hot electron bolometer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 626, "text": "The hot electron bolometer (HEB) operates at cryogenic temperatures, typically within a few degrees of absolute zero. At these very low temperatures, the electron system in a metal is weakly coupled to the phonon system. Power coupled to the electron system drives it out of thermal equilibrium with the phonon system, creating hot electrons. Phonons in the metal are typically well-coupled to substrate phonons and act as a thermal reservoir. In describing the performance of the HEB, the relevant heat capacity is the electronic heat capacity and the relevant thermal conductance is the electron-phonon thermal conductance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59257416", "title": "Heterometallic copper-aluminum superatom", "section": "Section::::Synthesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 790, "text": "Fischer’s lab team utilized a bottom-up approach to create this superatom. Instead of examining existing materials, they built compounds made of individual copper and aluminum atoms. A protective argon atmosphere and conventional Schlenk and glovebox techniques were used (due to the moisture sensitivity of the compounds) when combining the metal atoms, which were bound to organic compounds in a test tube, at an atomic level. After adding a solvent, the copper and aluminum atoms separated from the organic compounds and formed a reddish-black cluster at the bottom of the test tube. Since this reaction takes place spontaneously, or without the input of energy, it proves how stable the arrangement of copper and aluminum atoms is and which direction the chemical reaction takes place.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1929545", "title": "History of superconductivity", "section": "Section::::High-temperature superconductors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 943, "text": "In 1986, J. Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Mueller discovered superconductivity in a lanthanum-based cuprate perovskite material, which had a transition temperature of 35 K (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1987) and was the first of the high-temperature superconductors. It was shortly found (by Ching-Wu Chu) that replacing the lanthanum with yttrium, i.e. making YBCO, raised the critical temperature to 92 K, which was important because liquid nitrogen could then be used as a refrigerant (at atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of nitrogen is 77 K). This is important commercially because liquid nitrogen can be produced cheaply on-site with no raw materials, and is not prone to some of the problems (solid air plugs, etc.) of helium in piping. Many other cuprate superconductors have since been discovered, and the theory of superconductivity in these materials is one of the major outstanding challenges of theoretical condensed-matter physics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26884", "title": "Superconductivity", "section": "Section::::High-temperature superconductivity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 256, "text": "Since about 1993, the highest-temperature superconductor has been a ceramic material consisting of mercury, barium, calcium, copper and oxygen (HgBaCaCuO) with \"T\" = 133–138 K. The latter experiment (138 K) still awaits experimental confirmation, however.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
9b8r7m	How was the clean up of the Dunkirk beach done?	[ { "answer": "The Germans cleaned up, hardworking as ever.\n\nAs in need of new equipment as Germans were, they practically pressed anything intact into service. The British left behind eight divisions' worth of equipment in Dunkirk, including nearly 900 field guns, about as many AT guns, 300 heavy artillery pieces, 700 tanks, 500 anti-aircraft guns, 11.000 machine guns, 20.000 motorcycles and Bren carriers, and a whooping 45.000 trucks and lorries.\n\nThe amount of mileage Germans got from Dunkirk equipment is nothing short of extraordinary. Due to the finiteness of ammunition, artillery mainly went to coastal defense and other fixed duties, as well as reserve and rear line units. The 2-pounder AT gun became the 40mm PaK 192(e). The 25-pounder became the 114mm leFH 361(e). Several of the BL 60-pounders went to coastal batteries. The 94mm FlaK M 39(e), the designation for the 3.7'' heavy AA gun, was so liked that the Germans started producing ammo for it. Thousands of Bren guns were modified to fire the 8x57 and used by occupation forces, designated LeMG 138(e).\n\nThe vehicles were used even more. SdKfz 731(e), aka the Bren carriers, were used to an immense degree. Germans put anything from MG 34's to light AT cannons on them. Cruiser tanks were converted to flamethrower vehicles and issued to the 18th Panzer Division in Soviet Union. Tens of thousands of Bedford trucks, already similar to the German Opels, were used to motorize the Wehrmacht.\n\nThen there is Major Alfred Becker, Wehrmacht's tank chopper par excellence, who made something out of any Allied vehicle available. Vickers Mk VI tanks became self propelled guns armed with the 105mm leFH 16, along with munition carrier and command version: Becker's 227th Infantry Division whose artillery was armed by these had the only self-propelled artillery unit in Barbarossa. French Lorraine 37L's were made into tank destroyers(Marder I) or self-propelled artillery pieces armed with 105 and 150 milimeter guns. Hotchkiss tanks were turned into tank destroyers, self propelled artillery, or even were armed with the Wurfrahmen rocket artillery. Baukommando Becker, formed in 1942 and headed by Major Becker and staffed by many of his Krefeld comrades from his old artillery battery, was literally forming combat-worthy converted vehicles from even battle wrecks left over from two years ago left exposed to the elements, using the Hotchkiss plants near Paris. More than two thousand battle-worthy vehicles were created by Becker in France using nothing but Allied scrap and armor plates from Alkett.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31033", "title": "Great Molasses Flood", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Cleanup.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 608, "text": "Cleanup crews used salt water from a fireboat to wash away the molasses and sand to absorb it, and the harbor was brown with molasses until summer. The cleanup in the immediate area took weeks, with several hundred people contributing to the effort, and it took longer to clean the rest of Greater Boston and its suburbs. Rescue workers, cleanup crews, and sight-seers had tracked molasses through the streets and spread it to subway platforms, to the seats inside trains and streetcars, to pay telephone handsets, into homes, and to countless other places. \"Everything that a Bostonian touched was sticky.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "637197", "title": "Collapse of the World Trade Center", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Cleanup.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 948, "text": "The cleanup was a massive operation coordinated by the City of New York Department of Design and Construction. On September 22, a preliminary cleanup plan was delivered by Controlled Demolition, Inc. (CDI) of Phoenix, Maryland. Costing hundreds of millions of dollars, it involved round-the-clock operations with many contractors and subcontractors. By early November, with a third of the debris removed, officials began to reduce the number of firefighters and police officers assigned to recovering the remains of victims, in order to prioritize the removal of debris. This caused confrontations with firefighters. Despite efforts to extinguish the blaze, the large pile of debris burned for three months, until the majority of the rubble was finally removed from the site. In 2007, the demolition of the surrounding damaged buildings was still ongoing as new construction proceeded on the World Trade Center's replacement, 1 World Trade Center.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "667813", "title": "Utah Beach", "section": "Section::::D-Day (June 6, 1944).:Landing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 439, "text": "Removal of mines and obstacles from the beach, a job that had to be performed quickly before the tide came in at 10:30, was the assignment of 237th and 299th Combat Engineer Battalions and the eight dozer tanks. The teams used explosives to destroy beach obstacles and blow gaps in the sea wall to allow quicker access for troops and vehicles. The dozer tanks pushed the wreckage out of the way to create clear lanes for further landings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15527486", "title": "MS Riverdance", "section": "Section::::Salvage.:Recovery attempts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 1323, "text": "A trench was dug in the sand alongside the ship, which had been made watertight. Four 20-tonne containers were placed on the port side, and water was to be pumped from the starboard to port tanks in an effort to right the ship. No date was set for the operation, due to the strong winds at the time. Once the ship was righted, it was expected to take several weeks to refloat her. Attempts to right her were abandoned on 12 March after storms battered her with winds, causing her to sink further into the sand and the list to increase to 100 degrees. The salvage plan was re-evaluated early in the week commencing 17 March. Meanwhile, work continued to reduce the threat of pollution from the vessel and clearing up any wreckage that was deposited from the vessel. A meeting between the salvors, insurers and owners of the ship took place on 20 March to discuss options for salvage. One option considered was to scrap her on site. On 21 March 2008, it was revealed that she had been declared a \"constructive total loss\" due to further damage inflicted by the storms earlier in the month. The preferred option was to refloat her and remove her by sea, but she would be cut up on site if the refloating operation failed. The plan was to use mechanical winches to haul her upright, rather than relying upon flotation devices.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48936686", "title": "Dunkirk (2017 film)", "section": "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 348, "text": "Filming in Dunkirk took place at the location of the real evacuation, while the street scenes were shot in nearby Malo-les-Bains because most of the buildings in Dunkirk were destroyed in the war. Shooting times on the beach and mole were determined by tidal patterns. French labour strikes and working time regulations also affected the schedule.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15488329", "title": "1969 Santa Barbara oil spill", "section": "Section::::Oil spill.:Continued spill.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 971, "text": "Total cleanup time for most of the beaches was about 45 days after the initial spill, although globs of tar continued to wash ashore due to the high seep rate, and bigger patches came ashore during subsequent spills. Most beaches were open to the public by June 1, although some of the rocky areas on the shore were not cleaned until around August 15. Yet oil continued to pool and wash up on shore; on August 26, the harbor was so full of oil that once again it had to be closed, with cleanup crews spreading straw from boats to bunch the oil up again, just as they had six months before. Indeed, oil from the spill persisted in the ocean into 1970, with large areas of crude still being observed. Since the spill occurred during the stormy season, when beach sand is at its lowest levels (it replenishes during the course of a normal spring and summer), one fear was that regions of oily sand would be revealed during the following winter; however this did not happen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27046954", "title": "Deepwater Horizon oil spill", "section": "Section::::Containment, collection and use of dispersants.:Removal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 417, "text": "After the well was captured, the cleanup of shore became the main task of the response works. Two main types of affected coast were sandy beaches and marshes. On beaches the main techniques were sifting sand, removing tar balls, and digging out tar mats manually or by using mechanical devices. For marshes, techniques such as vacuum and pumping, low-pressure flush, vegetation cutting, and bioremediation were used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
f41lzj	why does the engine of this plane rumble?	[ { "answer": "Resonance frequency, basically the structure is receiving a little push in step with how the material normally flexes since each push is perfectly timed it is like pushing someone on a swing at the perfect time when the swing has reached its peak. _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "247935", "title": "Aircraft noise pollution", "section": "Section::::Mechanisms of sound production.:Engine and other mechanical noise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 319, "text": "Aircraft gas turbine engines (jet engines) are responsible for much of the aircraft noise during takeoff and climb, such as the \"buzzsaw noise\" generated when the tips of the fan blades reach supersonic speeds. However, with advances in noise reduction technologies—the airframe is typically more noisy during landing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9922671", "title": "Airwolf (helicopter)", "section": "Section::::The \"Airwolf\" helicopter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 344, "text": "Sound effects were also associated with many of the aircraft's abilities. When \"Airwolf\" bolted across the sky in \"turbo boost\" mode, one would hear it \"howl like a wolf\" as it made a glass-shattering sound effect. When sitting idle, the aircraft made a mechanical trilling sound, and while hovering the rotor blades made a ghostly wind drone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5889217", "title": "S7 Airlines Flight 778", "section": "Section::::Flight and accident.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 373, "text": "After touchdown, the aircraft's spoilers were armed and the autobrake was deployed to LOW mode. The pilot then deployed the right engine (number 2) thrust reverser. However, at the same time, the left (number 1) engine started to generate significant forward thrust, which led to an increase in airplane speed and the onset of torque that pulled the airplane to the right.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33401734", "title": "Airlines PNG Flight 1600", "section": "Section::::History of flight.:Propeller overspeed.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 490, "text": "Wagstaff recalled Spencer moving the power levers back \"quite quickly.\" Shortly after the power levers had been moved back, both propellers oversped simultaneously, exceeding by over 60% their maximum permitted speed of 1,200 rpm and seriously damaging both engines. The noise in the cockpit became deafening, rendering communication between the pilots extremely difficult, and internal damage to the engines caused smoke to enter the cockpit and cabin through the air conditioning system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58858795", "title": "Gas turbine engine thrust", "section": "Section::::Transferring thrust to the aircraft.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 783, "text": "The engine thrust acts along the engine centreline. The aircraft \"holds\" the engine on the outer casing of the engine at some distance from the engine centreline (at the engine mounts). This arrangement causes the engine casing to bend (known as backbone bending) and the round rotor casings to distort (ovalization). Distortion of the engine structure has to be controlled with suitable mount locations to maintain acceptable rotor and seal clearances and prevent rubbing. A well-publicized example of excessive structural deformation occurred with the original Pratt & Whitney JT9D engine installation in the Boeing 747 aircraft. The engine mounting arrangement had to be revised with the addition of an extra thrust frame to reduce the casing deflections to an acceptable amount.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "177543", "title": "STS-1", "section": "Section::::Mission summary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 949, "text": "Ignition of the three Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) was sensed as a sharp increase in noise. The stack rocked \"downwards\" (towards the crew's feet), then back up to the vertical, at which point both Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) ignited. Crippen likened lift-off to a \"steam catapult shot\" (such as when an aircraft is launched from an aircraft carrier). The stack's combined northwards translation and climb above the launch tower's lightning rod were readily apparent to Young. After clearing the tower the stack began a right roll (until the +Z axis or vertical fin pointed) to a launch azimuth of 067° True (in order to achieve an orbital inclination of 40.3°), and pitched to a \"heads down\" attitude (to reduce loading on the wings). Simultaneously control was passed from the launch team in Florida to Flight Director Neil Hutchinson's Silver team in Flight Control Room 1 (FCR 1) in Texas with astronaut Dan Brandenstein as their CAPCOM.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28806593", "title": "Asymmetrical aircraft", "section": "Section::::Types of asymmetry.:Engine torque.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 309, "text": "On a powerful propeller-driven aircraft, the engine torque driving the propeller creates an equal and opposite torque on the engine itself. Because the engine is fixed to the airframe, this reactive torque is transmitted to the aircraft, causing a tendency to roll in the opposite direction to the propeller.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null
1dk3oq	Is the super-massive black hole at the center of the Milky Way spinning in the plane of the rest of our galaxy? Would this just be a coincidence, or does one or the other have ability to influence the other into matching it?	[ { "answer": " > Is the SMBH really massive enough to gravitationally pull the rest of the galaxy to rotate around it? Or as it migrated (I'm assuming that's what happened?) to the center, did the galaxy impart the rotational direction?\n\nThe BH is part of the galaxy, it appeared and grew as a part of normal processes that exist in most galaxies.\n\nThe galaxy as a whole has a spin. When galactic matter falls into the BH, spin is conserved. The BH grows by feeding on galactic stuff, in the center of the galaxy, more or less. Ergo, the spin of the BH should follow the direction of the overall galactic spin pretty closely.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A black hole's spin is determined by the matter which has fallen into it (and by its initial spin, for example when a stellar core collapses to form a BH, it has some spin). Since most of the matter which has fallen in came from the plane of the galaxy, we tend to assume that the SMBH's axis of spin is roughly aligned with the axis of spin of the Milky Way. The SMBH's spin does not, however, determine the spin of the rest of the galaxy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's likely that our black hole spins on the plane of our galaxy disk as most other galaxies do. Evidence is in visible polar jets coming from the center of some galaxies.\n\nRead about polar jets here:\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The answer to your question is: we don't know yet, but we will rather shortly. Indeed, one can assume that the spin axis is oriented with the disk, but since the mass of the SMBH is correlated with the spherical bulge component of a galaxy rather than the disk, it's not a great assumption. \n\nShep Doeleman, Vincent Fish, and a crack team of psycho badasses are actually trying to image the event horizon of our black hole (Sgr A), with a collection of telescopes in the millimeter wave around the world, and are getting pretty close. I saw a colloquium about it recently in my department; pretty lovely stuff.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "175184", "title": "European Southern Observatory", "section": "Section::::ESO telescopes: research and discoveries.:Milky Way black hole.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 710, "text": "Stars at the centre of the Milky Way are so densely packed that special imaging techniques (such as adaptive optics) were needed to boost the resolution of the VLT. Thanks to these techniques, astronomers were able to watch individual stars with unprecedented accuracy as they circled the Galactic Center. Their paths conclusively demonstrated that they were orbiting in the immense gravitational grip of a supermassive black hole nearly three million times more massive than the sun. The VLT observations also revealed flashes of infrared light emerging from the region at regular intervals. While the cause of this phenomenon is unknown, observers have suggested that the black hole may be spinning rapidly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "864424", "title": "Sombrero Galaxy", "section": "Section::::Nucleus.:Central supermassive black hole.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 483, "text": "In the 1990s, a research group led by John Kormendy demonstrated that a supermassive black hole is present within the Sombrero Galaxy. Using spectroscopy data from both the CFHT and the Hubble Space Telescope, the group showed that the speed of revolution of the stars within the center of the galaxy could not be maintained unless a mass 1 billion times the mass of the Sun, or , is present in the center. This is among the most massive black holes measured in any nearby galaxies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "215706", "title": "Supermassive black hole", "section": "Section::::History of research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 570, "text": "Donald Lynden-Bell and Martin Rees hypothesized in 1971 that the center of the Milky Way galaxy would contain a massive black hole. Sagittarius A was discovered and named on February 13 and 15, 1974, by astronomers Bruce Balick and Robert Brown using the Green Bank Interferometer of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. They discovered a radio source that emits synchrotron radiation; it was found to be dense and immobile because of its gravitation. This was, therefore, the first indication that a supermassive black hole exists in the center of the Milky Way.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4417259", "title": "Double Helix Nebula", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 276, "text": "This nebula is seen as circumstantial evidence that the magnetic fields at the center of the galaxy are extremely strong, more than 1,000 times stronger than those of the Sun. If so, they may be driven by the massive disc of gas orbiting the central super-massive black hole.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52015", "title": "Proper motion", "section": "Section::::Usefulness in astronomy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 213, "text": "Stellar proper motions have been used to infer the presence of a super-massive black hole at the center of the Milky Way. This black hole is suspected to be Sgr A, with a mass of 4.2 × , where is the solar mass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "510340", "title": "Stellar black hole", "section": "Section::::Candidates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 401, "text": "Our Milky Way galaxy contains several stellar-mass Black Hole Candidates (BHCs) which are closer to us than the supermassive black hole in the Galactic center region. Most of these candidates are members of X-ray binary systems in which the compact object draws matter from its partner via an accretion disk. The probable black holes in these pairs range from three to more than a dozen solar masses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22685412", "title": "Sagittarius A", "section": "Section::::Sagittarius A.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 489, "text": "Astronomers now have evidence there is a supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy. Sagittarius A* (abbreviated Sgr A) is agreed to be the most plausible candidate for the location of this supermassive black hole. The Very Large Telescope and Keck Telescope detected stars orbiting Sgr A at speeds greater than that of any other stars in the galaxy. One star, designated S2, was calculated to orbit Sgr A* at speeds of over 5,000 kilometers per second at its closest approach.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]	null

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