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Young researcher Harry Govier Seeley was commissioned to bring order to the pterosaur collection of the Sedgwick Museum in Cambridge. He soon concluded that it was best to create a new genus for the Cambridge Greensand material that he named Ornithocheirus (meaning "bird hand"), as he in this period still considered pt... | Ornithocheirus | Wikipedia | 333 | 3808275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithocheirus | Biology and health sciences | Pterosaurs | Animals |
When Seeley published his conclusions in his 1870 book The Ornithosauria, this provoked a reaction by the leading British paleontologist of his day, Sir Richard Owen. Owen was not an evolutionist and he therefore considered the name Ornithocheirus to be inappropriate; he also thought it was possible to distinguish two ... | Ornithocheirus | Wikipedia | 420 | 3808275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithocheirus | Biology and health sciences | Pterosaurs | Animals |
In 1914 Reginald Walter Hooley made a new attempt to structure the large number of species. Hooley synonymized Owen's Criorhynchus to Ornithocheirus, in which he also sunk Coloborhynchus into that genus, meaning that the only generic name he kept was Ornithocheirus. To allow for a greater differentiation, Hooley create... | Ornithocheirus | Wikipedia | 402 | 3808275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithocheirus | Biology and health sciences | Pterosaurs | Animals |
From the seventies onwards many new pterosaur fossils were found in Brazil in deposits slightly older than the Cambridge Greensand, 110 million years old. Unlike the English material, these new finds included some of the best preserved large pterosaur skeletons and several new genera names were given to them, such as A... | Ornithocheirus | Wikipedia | 255 | 3808275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithocheirus | Biology and health sciences | Pterosaurs | Animals |
As a result, though over forty species have been named in the genus Ornithocheirus over the years, only O. simus is currently considered valid by all pterosaur researchers. The species Tropeognathus mesembrinus, which was named by Peter Wellnhofer in 1987, was assigned to Ornithocheirus by David Unwin in 2003, making T... | Ornithocheirus | Wikipedia | 313 | 3808275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithocheirus | Biology and health sciences | Pterosaurs | Animals |
Misassigned species:
O. compressirostris (Hooley, 1914) = Pterodactylus compressirostris, Owen, 1851 [now classified as Lonchodectes]
O. crassidens (Seeley, 1870) = [now classified as Amblydectes]
O. cuvieri (Seeley, 1870) = Pterodactylus cuvieri, Bowerbank, 1851 [now classified as Cimoliopterus]
O. curtus (Hooley, 191... | Ornithocheirus | Wikipedia | 510 | 3808275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithocheirus | Biology and health sciences | Pterosaurs | Animals |
Description
The type species, Ornithocheirus simus, is only known from fragmentary jaw tips. It bore a distinctive convex "keeled" crest on its snout similar to its relatives. Ornithocheirus had relatively narrow jaw tips compared to the related Coloborhynchus and Tropeognathus, which had prominently-expanded rosette... | Ornithocheirus | Wikipedia | 418 | 3808275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithocheirus | Biology and health sciences | Pterosaurs | Animals |
Personality disorders (PD) are a class of mental health conditions characterized by enduring maladaptive patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience, exhibited across many contexts and deviating from those accepted by the culture. These patterns develop early, are inflexible, and are associated with significa... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 436 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
The ICD is a collection of alpha-numerical codes which have been assigned to all known clinical states, and provides uniform terminology for medical records, billing, statistics and research. The DSM defines psychiatric diagnoses based on research and expert consensus. Both have deliberately aligned their diagnoses to ... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 453 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
Cluster A (odd or eccentric disorders)
Cluster A personality disorders are often associated with schizophrenia. People with these disorders can be paranoid and have difficulty being understood by others, as they often have odd or eccentric modes of speaking and an unwillingness and inability to form and maintain close... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 509 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
DSM-5 general criteria
Both the DSM-5 and the ICD-11 diagnostic systems provide a definition and six criteria for a general personality disorder. These criteria should be met by all personality disorder cases before a more specific diagnosis can be made. The DSM-5 indicates that any personality disorder diagnosis must... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 293 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
The ICD-11 personality disorder section differs substantially from the previous edition, ICD-10. All distinct PDs have been merged into one: personality disorder (), which can be coded as mild (), moderate (), severe (), or severity unspecified (). Severity is determined by the level of distress experienced and degree ... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 321 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
There is an enduring disturbance characterized by problems in functioning of aspects of the self (e.g., identity, self-worth, accuracy of self-view, self-direction), and/or interpersonal dysfunction (e.g., ability to develop and maintain close and mutually satisfying relationships, ability to understand others' perspec... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 304 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
ICD-10
The ICD-10 lists these general guideline criteria:
Markedly disharmonious attitudes and behavior, generally involving several areas of functioning, e.g. affectivity, arousal, impulse control, ways of perceiving and thinking, and style of relating to others;
The abnormal behavior pattern is enduring, of long s... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 445 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
Other personality types and Millon's description
Some types of personality disorder were in previous versions of the diagnostic manuals but have been deleted. Examples include sadistic personality disorder (pervasive pattern of cruel, demeaning, and aggressive behavior) and self-defeating personality disorder or masoc... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 499 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
Attribution
Many who have a personality disorder do not recognize any abnormality and defend valiantly their continued occupancy of their personality role. This group have been termed the Type R, or treatment-resisting personality disorders, as opposed to the Type S or treatment-seeking ones, who are keen on altering ... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 445 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
The disorders in each of the three clusters may share with each other underlying common vulnerability factors involving cognition, affect and impulse control, and behavioral maintenance or inhibition, respectively. But they may also have a spectrum relationship to certain syndromal mental disorders:
Paranoid, schizoid... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 466 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
In the workplace
Depending on the diagnosis, severity and individual, and the job itself, personality disorders can be associated with difficulty coping with work or the workplace—potentially leading to problems with others by interfering with interpersonal relationships. Indirect effects also play a role; for example... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 507 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
Versus normal personality
The issue of the relationship between normal personality and personality disorders is one of the important issues in personality and clinical psychology. The personality disorders classification (DSM-5 and ICD-10) follows a categorical approach that views personality disorders as discrete ent... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 490 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
As of 2002, there were over fifty published studies relating the five factor model (FFM) to personality disorders. Since that time, quite a number of additional studies have expanded on this research base and provided further empirical support for understanding the DSM personality disorders in terms of the FFM domains.... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 458 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
The problems associated with low openness are difficulties adapting to change, low tolerance for different worldviews or lifestyles, emotional flattening, alexithymia and a narrow range of interests. Rigidity is the most obvious aspect of (low) openness among personality disorders and that shows lack of knowledge of on... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 400 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
Socioeconomic status
Socioeconomic status has also been looked at as a potential cause for personality disorders. There is a strong association with low parental/neighborhood socioeconomic status and personality disorder symptoms. In a 2015 publication from Bonn, Germany, which compared parental socioeconomic status a... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 433 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
Neurobiological correlates – hippocampus, amygdala
Research shows that several brain regions are altered in personality disorders, particularly: hippocampus up to 18% smaller, a smaller amygdala, malfunctions in the striatum-nucleus accumbens and the cingulum neural pathways connecting them and taking care of the feed... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 479 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
The management and treatment of personality disorders can be a challenging and controversial area, for by definition the difficulties have been enduring and affect multiple areas of functioning. This often involves interpersonal issues, and there can be difficulties in seeking and obtaining help from organizations in t... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 375 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
Therapists in this area can become disheartened by lack of initial progress, or by apparent progress that then leads to setbacks. Clients may be perceived as negative, rejecting, demanding, aggressive or manipulative. This has been looked at in terms of both therapist and client; in terms of social skills, coping effor... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 454 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
A screening survey across 13 countries by the World Health Organization using DSM-IV criteria, reported in 2009 a prevalence estimate of around 6% for personality disorders. The rate sometimes varied with demographic and socioeconomic factors, and functional impairment was partly explained by co-occurring mental disord... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 409 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
Before the 20th century
Personality disorder is a term with a distinctly modern meaning, owing in part to its clinical usage and the institutional character of modern psychiatry. The currently accepted meaning must be understood in the context of historical changing classification systems such as DSM-IV and its predec... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 508 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
The German psychiatrist Koch sought to make the moral insanity concept more scientific, and in 1891 suggested the phrase 'psychopathic inferiority', theorized to be a congenital disorder. This referred to continual and rigid patterns of misconduct or dysfunction in the absence of apparent "mental retardation" or illnes... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 511 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
In 1939, psychiatrist David Henderson published a theory of 'psychopathic states' that contributed to popularly linking the term to anti-social behavior. Hervey M. Cleckley's 1941 text, The Mask of Sanity, based on his personal categorization of similarities he noted in some prisoners, marked the start of the modern cl... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 479 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
American psychiatrists officially recognized concepts of enduring personality disturbances in the first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in the 1950s, which relied heavily on psychoanalytic concepts. Somewhat more neutral language was employed in the DSM-II in 1968, though the terms and description... | Personality disorder | Wikipedia | 415 | 21378217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20disorder | Biology and health sciences | Mental disorder | null |
In astronomical spectroscopy, the Lyman-alpha forest is a series of absorption lines in the spectra of distant galaxies and quasars arising from the Lyman-alpha electron transition of the neutral hydrogen atom. As the light travels through multiple gas clouds with different redshifts, multiple absorption lines are fo... | Lyman-alpha forest | Wikipedia | 465 | 554088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyman-alpha%20forest | Physical sciences | Active galactic nucleus | Astronomy |
The Lyman-alpha forest is an important probe of the intergalactic medium and can be used to determine the frequency and density of clouds containing neutral hydrogen, as well as their temperature. Searching for lines from other elements like helium, carbon and silicon (matching in redshift), the abundance of heavier el... | Lyman-alpha forest | Wikipedia | 227 | 554088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyman-alpha%20forest | Physical sciences | Active galactic nucleus | Astronomy |
The law of superposition is an axiom that forms one of the bases of the sciences of geology, archaeology, and other fields pertaining to geological stratigraphy. In its plainest form, it states that in undeformed stratigraphic sequences, the oldest strata will lie at the bottom of the sequence, while newer material sta... | Law of superposition | Wikipedia | 507 | 554386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20of%20superposition | Physical sciences | Stratigraphy | Earth science |
Other limitations to stratification and superposition
Original stratification induced by natural processes can subsequently be disrupted or permutated by a number of factors, including animal interference and vegetation, as well as limestone crystallization.
Stratification behaves in a different manner with surface-... | Law of superposition | Wikipedia | 83 | 554386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20of%20superposition | Physical sciences | Stratigraphy | Earth science |
In geology and related fields, a stratum (: strata) is a layer of rock or sediment characterized by certain lithologic properties or attributes that distinguish it from adjacent layers from which it is separated by visible surfaces known as either bedding surfaces or bedding planes. Prior to the publication of the Inte... | Stratum | Wikipedia | 332 | 554469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratum | Physical sciences | Stratigraphy | Earth science |
Types of stratum
In the study of rock and sediment strata, geologists have recognized a number of different types of strata, including bed, flow, band, and key bed. A bed is a single stratum that is lithologically distinguishable from other layers above and below it. In the classification hierarchy of sedimentary litho... | Stratum | Wikipedia | 280 | 554469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratum | Physical sciences | Stratigraphy | Earth science |
Thresher sharks are large mackerel sharks of the family Alopiidae found in all temperate and tropical oceans of the world; the family contains three extant species, all within the genus Alopias.
All three thresher shark species have been listed as vulnerable by the World Conservation Union since 2007 (IUCN). All three... | Thresher shark | Wikipedia | 456 | 554877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thresher%20shark | Biology and health sciences | Sharks | Animals |
Within the family, an analysis of allozyme variation by Eitner (1995) found the common thresher is the most basal member, with a sister relationship to a group containing the unrecognized fourth Alopias species and a clade comprising the bigeye and pelagic threshers. However, the position of the undescribed fourth spec... | Thresher shark | Wikipedia | 480 | 554877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thresher%20shark | Biology and health sciences | Sharks | Animals |
Thresher sharks are fairly slender, with small dorsal fins and large, recurved pectoral fins. With the exception of the bigeye thresher, these sharks have relatively small eyes positioned to the forward of the head. Coloration ranges from brownish, bluish or purplish gray dorsally with lighter shades ventrally.
The thr... | Thresher shark | Wikipedia | 475 | 554877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thresher%20shark | Biology and health sciences | Sharks | Animals |
No distinct breeding season is observed by thresher sharks. Fertilization and embryonic development occur internally; this ovoviviparous or live-bearing mode of reproduction results in a small litter (usually two to four) of large well-developed pups, up to at birth in thintail threshers. The young fish exhaust their ... | Thresher shark | Wikipedia | 259 | 554877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thresher%20shark | Biology and health sciences | Sharks | Animals |
In null-hypothesis significance testing, the p-value is the probability of obtaining test results at least as extreme as the result actually observed, under the assumption that the null hypothesis is correct. A very small p-value means that such an extreme observed outcome would be very unlikely under the null hypothes... | P-value | Wikipedia | 431 | 554994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value | Mathematics | Statistics and probability | null |
The p-value is used in the context of null hypothesis testing in order to quantify the statistical significance of a result, the result being the observed value of the chosen statistic . The lower the p-value is, the lower the probability of getting that result if the null hypothesis were true. A result is said to be s... | P-value | Wikipedia | 443 | 554994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value | Mathematics | Statistics and probability | null |
In a significance test, the null hypothesis is rejected if the p-value is less than or equal to a predefined threshold value , which is referred to as the alpha level or significance level. is not derived from the data, but rather is set by the researcher before examining the data. is commonly set to 0.05, though lo... | P-value | Wikipedia | 387 | 554994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value | Mathematics | Statistics and probability | null |
In parametric hypothesis testing problems, a simple or point hypothesis refers to a hypothesis where the parameter's value is assumed to be a single number. In contrast, in a composite hypothesis the parameter's value is given by a set of numbers. When the null-hypothesis is composite (or the distribution of the statis... | P-value | Wikipedia | 478 | 554994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value | Mathematics | Statistics and probability | null |
According to the ASA, there is widespread agreement that p-values are often misused and misinterpreted. One practice that has been particularly criticized is accepting the alternative hypothesis for any p-value nominally less than 0.05 without other supporting evidence. Although p-values are helpful in assessing how in... | P-value | Wikipedia | 471 | 554994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value | Mathematics | Statistics and probability | null |
For the important case in which the data are hypothesized to be a random sample from a normal distribution, depending on the nature of the test statistic and the hypotheses of interest about its distribution, different null hypothesis tests have been developed. Some such tests are the z-test for hypotheses concerning t... | P-value | Wikipedia | 433 | 554994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value | Mathematics | Statistics and probability | null |
Suppose that the experimental results show the coin turning up heads 14 times out of 20 total flips. The full data would be a sequence of twenty times the symbol "H" or "T". The statistic on which one might focus could be the total number of heads. The null hypothesis is that the coin is fair, and coin tosses are ind... | P-value | Wikipedia | 512 | 554994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value | Mathematics | Statistics and probability | null |
However, had one more head been obtained, the resulting p-value (two-tailed) would have been 0.0414 (4.14%), in which case the null hypothesis would be rejected at the 0.05 level.
Optional stopping
The difference between the two meanings of "extreme" appear when we consider a sequential hypothesis testing, or option... | P-value | Wikipedia | 337 | 554994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value | Mathematics | Statistics and probability | null |
P-value computations date back to the 1700s, where they were computed for the human sex ratio at birth, and used to compute statistical significance compared to the null hypothesis of equal probability of male and female births. John Arbuthnot studied this question in 1710, and examined birth records in London for each... | P-value | Wikipedia | 493 | 554994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value | Mathematics | Statistics and probability | null |
He then computed a table of values, similar to Elderton but, importantly, reversed the roles of χ2 and p. That is, rather than computing p for different values of χ2 (and degrees of freedom n), he computed values of χ2 that yield specified p-values, specifically 0.99, 0.98, 0.95, 0,90, 0.80, 0.70, 0.50, 0.30, 0.20, 0.1... | P-value | Wikipedia | 477 | 554994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value | Mathematics | Statistics and probability | null |
In later editions, Fisher explicitly contrasted the use of the p-value for statistical inference in science with the Neyman–Pearson method, which he terms "Acceptance Procedures". Fisher emphasizes that while fixed levels such as 5%, 2%, and 1% are convenient, the exact p-value can be used, and the strength of evidence... | P-value | Wikipedia | 377 | 554994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value | Mathematics | Statistics and probability | null |
In electromagnetism, displacement current density is the quantity appearing in Maxwell's equations that is defined in terms of the rate of change of , the electric displacement field. Displacement current density has the same units as electric current density, and it is a source of the magnetic field just as actual cu... | Displacement current | Wikipedia | 508 | 555119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement%20current | Physical sciences | Electrodynamics | Physics |
This polarization is the displacement current as it was originally conceived by Maxwell. Maxwell made no special treatment of the vacuum, treating it as a material medium. For Maxwell, the effect of was simply to change the relative permittivity in the relation .
The modern justification of displacement current is e... | Displacement current | Wikipedia | 446 | 555119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement%20current | Physical sciences | Electrodynamics | Physics |
where
is the closed line integral around some closed curve ;
is the magnetic field measured in teslas;
is the vector dot product;
is an infinitesimal vector line element along the curve , that is, a vector with magnitude equal to the length element of , and direction given by the tangent to the curve ;
is the... | Displacement current | Wikipedia | 506 | 555119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement%20current | Physical sciences | Electrodynamics | Physics |
As depicted in the figure to the right, the current crossing surface is entirely conduction current. Applying the Ampère-Maxwell equation to surface yields:
However, the current crossing surface is entirely displacement current. Applying this law to surface , which is bounded by exactly the same curve , but lies be... | Displacement current | Wikipedia | 509 | 555119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement%20current | Physical sciences | Electrodynamics | Physics |
and the fact that the divergence of the magnetic field is zero. An identical wave equation can be found for the electric field by taking the curl:
If , , and are zero, the result is:
The electric field can be expressed in the general form:
where is the electric potential (which can be chosen to satisfy Poisson's e... | Displacement current | Wikipedia | 489 | 555119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement%20current | Physical sciences | Electrodynamics | Physics |
With some change of symbols (and units) combined with the results deduced in the section (, , and the material constant these equations take the familiar form between a parallel plate capacitor with uniform electric field, and neglecting fringing effects around the edges of the plates:
When it came to deriving the e... | Displacement current | Wikipedia | 213 | 555119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement%20current | Physical sciences | Electrodynamics | Physics |
In computer science, type conversion, type casting, type coercion, and type juggling are different ways of changing an expression from one data type to another. An example would be the conversion of an integer value into a floating point value or its textual representation as a string, and vice versa. Type conversions ... | Type conversion | Wikipedia | 344 | 555390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%20conversion | Technology | Programming languages | null |
In most ALGOL-like languages, such as Pascal, Modula-2, Ada and Delphi, conversion and casting are distinctly different concepts. In these languages, conversion refers to either implicitly or explicitly changing a value from one data type storage format to another, e.g. a 16-bit integer to a 32-bit integer. The storage... | Type conversion | Wikipedia | 440 | 555390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%20conversion | Technology | Programming languages | null |
Although , , and belong to different data types, they will be automatically converted to equal data types each time a comparison or assignment is executed. This behavior should be used with caution, as unintended consequences can arise. Data can be lost when converting representations from floating-point to integer, a... | Type conversion | Wikipedia | 404 | 555390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%20conversion | Technology | Programming languages | null |
Type promotion
One special case of implicit type conversion is type promotion, where an object is automatically converted into another data type representing a superset of the original type. Promotions are commonly used with types smaller than the native type of the target platform's arithmetic logic unit (ALU), before... | Type conversion | Wikipedia | 488 | 555390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%20conversion | Technology | Programming languages | null |
Bulldog b = (Bulldog) animal; // if (animal is Bulldog), stat.type(animal) is Bulldog, else an exception
b = animal as Bulldog; // if (animal is Bulldog), b = (Bulldog) animal, else b = null
animal = null;
b = animal as Bulldog; // b == null
In C++ a similar effect can be achieved using C++-style cas... | Type conversion | Wikipedia | 486 | 555390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%20conversion | Technology | Programming languages | null |
Eiffel is a fully compliant language for Microsoft .NET Framework. Before development of .NET, Eiffel already had extensive class libraries. Using the .NET type libraries, particularly with commonly used types such as strings, poses a conversion problem. Existing Eiffel software uses the string classes (such as STRING_... | Type conversion | Wikipedia | 507 | 555390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%20conversion | Technology | Programming languages | null |
then, becomes equivalent to:
my_system_string := my_string.to_cil
In Eiffel, the setup for type conversion is included in the class code, but then appears to happen as automatically as explicit type conversion in client code. The includes not just assignments but other types of attachments as well, such a... | Type conversion | Wikipedia | 451 | 555390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%20conversion | Technology | Programming languages | null |
Go
In Go, a type assertion can be used to access a concrete type value from an interface value. It is a safe assertion that it will panic (in the case of one return value), or return a zero value (if two return values are used), if the value is not of that concrete type.
t := i.(T)
This type assertions tell the syst... | Type conversion | Wikipedia | 240 | 555390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%20conversion | Technology | Programming languages | null |
A blender (sometimes called a mixer or liquidiser in British English) is a kitchen and laboratory appliance used to mix, crush, purée or emulsify food and other substances. A stationary blender consists of a blender container with a rotating metal or plastic blade at the bottom, powered by an electric motor that is in... | Blender | Wikipedia | 481 | 555505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender | Technology | Household appliances | null |
The hand-held immersion blender, stick blender, hand blender or wand blender has no container of its own, but instead has a mixing head with rotating blades that can be immersed in a container. Immersion blenders are convenient for homogenizing volumes that are too large to fit in the bowl of a stationary blender or as... | Blender | Wikipedia | 416 | 555505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender | Technology | Household appliances | null |
In the 1930s, Louis Hamilton, Chester Beach and Fred Osius produced Poplawski's invention under the brand name Hamilton Beach Company. Fred Osius improved the appliance, making another kind of blender. He approached Fred Waring, a popular musician, who financed and promoted the "Miracle Mixer", released in 1933. Howeve... | Blender | Wikipedia | 297 | 555505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender | Technology | Household appliances | null |
In Europe, the Swiss Traugott Oertli developed a blender based on the technical construction and design style conception of the first Waring Blendor (1937–1942), releasing in 1943 the Turmix Standmixer. Based on the blender, Traugott also developed another kind of appliance to extract juice of any juicy fruit or vegeta... | Blender | Wikipedia | 257 | 555505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender | Technology | Household appliances | null |
South America
In Brazil, Waldemar Clemente, ex-staffer of General Electric and owner of Walita electric appliance company since 1939, designed a blender based on the Turmix Standmixer and released in 1944 the Walita Neutron blender. Clemente also created the name liquidificador, which ever since designated a blender i... | Blender | Wikipedia | 479 | 555505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender | Technology | Household appliances | null |
In 1996 Tom Dickson, founder and CEO of Blendtec, introduced the WildSide blending jar—a unique design that eliminated the need for stir sticks and plungers to make thicker blends. The technology was so effective that Vita-Mix decided to use the design in the company's commercial blending containers. In 2010 the United... | Blender | Wikipedia | 471 | 555505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender | Technology | Household appliances | null |
In physics and probability theory, Mean-field theory (MFT) or Self-consistent field theory studies the behavior of high-dimensional random (stochastic) models by studying a simpler model that approximates the original by averaging over degrees of freedom (the number of values in the final calculation of a statistic tha... | Mean-field theory | Wikipedia | 467 | 555768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean-field%20theory | Physical sciences | Physics basics: General | Physics |
Quite often, MFT provides a convenient launch point for studying higher-order fluctuations. For example, when computing the partition function, studying the combinatorics of the interaction terms in the Hamiltonian can sometimes at best produce perturbation results or Feynman diagrams that correct the mean-field approx... | Mean-field theory | Wikipedia | 511 | 555768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean-field%20theory | Physical sciences | Physics basics: General | Physics |
In order to minimise, we take the derivative with respect to the single-degree-of-freedom probabilities using a Lagrange multiplier to ensure proper normalization. The end result is the set of self-consistency equations
where the mean field is given by
Applications
Mean field theory can be applied to a number of p... | Mean-field theory | Wikipedia | 504 | 555768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean-field%20theory | Physical sciences | Physics basics: General | Physics |
The summation over neighboring spins can be rewritten as , where means "nearest neighbor of ", and the prefactor avoids double counting, since each bond participates in two spins. Simplifying leads to the final expression
where is the coordination number. At this point, the Ising Hamiltonian has been decoupled i... | Mean-field theory | Wikipedia | 441 | 555768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean-field%20theory | Physical sciences | Physics basics: General | Physics |
In mean field theory, the mean field appearing in the single-site problem is a time-independent scalar or vector quantity. However, this isn't always the case: in a variant of mean field theory called dynamical mean field theory (DMFT), the mean field becomes a time-dependent quantity. For instance, DMFT can be applied... | Mean-field theory | Wikipedia | 90 | 555768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean-field%20theory | Physical sciences | Physics basics: General | Physics |
A stove or range is a device that generates heat inside or on top of the device, for -local heating or cooking. Stoves can be powered with many fuels, such as natural gas, electricity, gasoline, wood, and coal.
Due to concerns about air pollution, efforts have been made to improve stove design. Pellet stoves are a typ... | Stove | Wikipedia | 469 | 556358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove | Technology | Household appliances | null |
The earliest recorded stove was created in Alsace, France in 1490. It was entirely made out of brick and tile, including the flue pipe. In similar times, the Ancient Egyptian, Jewish and Roman people used stone and brick ovens, fueled with wood, in order to make bread and other culinary staples. These designs did not d... | Stove | Wikipedia | 370 | 556358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove | Technology | Household appliances | null |
Benjamin Franklin designed the "Pennsylvania fireplace", now known as the Franklin stove in 1742, which incorporated the fundamental concepts of the heating stove. The Franklin stove used a grate to burn wood and had sliding doors to control the draught, or flow of air, through it. It had a labyrinthine path for hot ex... | Stove | Wikipedia | 430 | 556358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove | Technology | Household appliances | null |
The earliest reported use of gas for cooking, according to the Gas Museum in Leicester, England, was by a Moravian called Zachaus Winzler in 1802. However, the first commercially produced gas stove, invented by Englishman James Sharp, did not enter the market until 1834. By the end of the century, the stoves became pop... | Stove | Wikipedia | 489 | 556358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove | Technology | Household appliances | null |
Westinghouse decided to make a few hundred production units to develop the market. Those were named Cool Top 2 (CT2) Induction ranges. The development work was done at the same R&D location by a team led by Bill Moreland and Terry Malarkey. The ranges were priced at $1,500 ($8,260 in 2017 dollars), including a set of h... | Stove | Wikipedia | 494 | 556358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove | Technology | Household appliances | null |
Coal-burning
The most common stove for heating in the industrial world for almost a century and a half was the coal stove that burned coal. Coal stoves came in all sizes and shapes and different operating principles. Coal burns at a much higher temperature than wood, and coal stoves must be constructed to resist the h... | Stove | Wikipedia | 378 | 556358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove | Technology | Household appliances | null |
Gas
Gas stoves were first introduced by Moravian Zachaus Winzler in 1802. Today, according to the US Energy Information Administration, 35% of American households use gas stoves. They are chosen as they offer better temperature control, durability, low cost, and speed of heating. In June 2023, Stanford researchers fou... | Stove | Wikipedia | 471 | 556358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove | Technology | Household appliances | null |
Enclosing a fire also prevents air from being sucked from the room into the chimney. This can represent a significant loss of heat as an open fireplace can pull away many cubic meters of heated air per hour. Efficiency is generally regarded as the maximum heat output of a stove or fire, and is usually referred to by ma... | Stove | Wikipedia | 350 | 556358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove | Technology | Household appliances | null |
Modern designs
As concerns about air pollution, deforestation, and climate change have increased, new efforts have been made to improve stove design. The largest strides have been made in innovations for biomass-burning stoves, such as the wood-burning stoves used in many of the world's most populous countries. These n... | Stove | Wikipedia | 453 | 556358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove | Technology | Household appliances | null |
Other efficient stoves are based on Top Lit updraft (T-LUD) or wood gas or smoke burner stove, a principle applied and made popular by Dr. Thomas Reed, which use small pieces of sticks, chips of wood or shavings, leaves, etc., as fuel. The efficiency is very high — up to 50 percent — as compared to traditional stoves t... | Stove | Wikipedia | 507 | 556358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove | Technology | Household appliances | null |
Air-tight stoves are a more sophisticated version of traditional wood-burning stoves.
Emission regulation
Many countries legislate to control emissions.
Since 2015, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Phase III Woodstove Regulations in the United States requiring that all wood stoves being manufac... | Stove | Wikipedia | 398 | 556358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove | Technology | Household appliances | null |
SB 1256, a bill that would ban the sale of disposable, single-use propane cylinders in California, is set to be presented for approval to Governor Gavin Newsom. If signed into law, the ban would take effect in January 2023 and would be the first of its kind in the United States. SB 1256 aims to phase out the cylinders ... | Stove | Wikipedia | 419 | 556358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stove | Technology | Household appliances | null |
In radiometry, irradiance is the radiant flux received by a surface per unit area. The SI unit of irradiance is the watt per square metre (symbol W⋅m−2 or W/m2). The CGS unit erg per square centimetre per second (erg⋅cm−2⋅s−1) is often used in astronomy. Irradiance is often called intensity, but this term is avoided i... | Irradiance | Wikipedia | 505 | 556970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irradiance | Physical sciences | Electromagnetic radiation | Physics |
μ0 is the vacuum permeability;
ε0 is the vacuum permittivity;
is the impedance of free space.
This formula assumes that the magnetic susceptibility is negligible; i.e. that μr ≈ 1 (μ ≈ μ0) where μr is the relative magnetic permeability of the propagation medium. This assumption is typically valid in transparent med... | Irradiance | Wikipedia | 428 | 556970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irradiance | Physical sciences | Electromagnetic radiation | Physics |
The Broad Breasted White is commercially the most widely used breed of domesticated turkey. These birds have shorter breast bones and larger breasts, sometimes rendering them unable to breed without human assistance (typically via artificial insemination). They produce more breast meat and their pin feathers are less ... | Broad Breasted White turkey | Wikipedia | 269 | 5152311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad%20Breasted%20White%20turkey | Biology and health sciences | Turkeys | Animals |
A facultative biped is an animal that is capable of walking or running on two legs (bipedal), as a response to exceptional circumstances (facultative), while normally walking or running on four limbs or more. In contrast, obligate bipedalism is where walking or running on two legs is the primary method of locomotion. F... | Facultative bipedalism | Wikipedia | 480 | 5157838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facultative%20bipedalism | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Facultatively bipedal species
Facultative bipedalism occurs in some species of antbears, cockroaches, jerboa, kangaroo rats, primates, and lizards. It arose independently in lizard and mammal lineages.
Primates
Bipedalism is found commonly throughout the primate order. Among apes, it is found in bonobos, chimpanzees,... | Facultative bipedalism | Wikipedia | 504 | 5157838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facultative%20bipedalism | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Olive baboons are described as a quadrupedal primates, but bipedalism is observed occasionally and spontaneously in captivity and in the wild. Bipedal walking is rarely used, but most often occurs when the infant loses its grip on the mother while she's walking quadrupedally as they attempt to catch their balance. Imma... | Facultative bipedalism | Wikipedia | 448 | 5157838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facultative%20bipedalism | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Chimpanzees exhibit bipedalism most often when carrying valuable resources (such as food gathering/transporting) because chimps can carry more than twice as much when walking bipedally as opposed to walking quadrupedally. Bipedalism is practiced both on the ground and up high when feeding from fruit trees. Foraging for... | Facultative bipedalism | Wikipedia | 391 | 5157838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facultative%20bipedalism | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Lizards
Many families of lizards, including Agamidae, Teiidae, Crotaphytidae, Iguanidae, and Phrynosomatidae, have been observed to engage in facultative bipedalism. In lizards, rapid acceleration of the hind legs induces a friction force with the ground, which produces a ground reaction force on the rear legs. When t... | Facultative bipedalism | Wikipedia | 464 | 5157838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facultative%20bipedalism | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Reptile origins
Bipedalism was common in all major groups of dinosaurs. Phylogenetic studies indicate that bipedalism in dinosaurs arose from one common ancestor, while quadrupedalism arose in multiple lines, coinciding with an increase in body size. To understand how bipedalism arose in dinosaurs, scientists studied ... | Facultative bipedalism | Wikipedia | 465 | 5157838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facultative%20bipedalism | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Possible selective pressures for facultative bipedalism include resource gathering, such as food, and physical advantages. Great apes that engage in male-male fights have an advantage when standing on their hind legs, as this allows them to use their forelimbs to strike their opponent. In primates, bipedal locomotion m... | Facultative bipedalism | Wikipedia | 304 | 5157838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facultative%20bipedalism | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Air medical services are the use of aircraft, including both fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters to provide various kinds of urgent medical care, especially prehospital, emergency and critical care to patients during aeromedical evacuation and rescue operations.
History
During World War I, air transport was used to pr... | Air medical services | Wikipedia | 486 | 32993239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20medical%20services | Technology | Transport | null |
Effective use of helicopter services for trauma depends on the ground responder's ability to determine whether the patient's condition warrants air medical transport. Protocols and training must be developed to ensure appropriate triage criteria are applied. Excessively stringent criteria can prevent rapid care and tra... | Air medical services | Wikipedia | 506 | 32993239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20medical%20services | Technology | Transport | null |
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