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Blue carbon management is another type of ocean-based biological carbon dioxide removal (CDR). It can involve land-based as well as ocean-based measures. The term usually refers to the role that tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses can play in carbon sequestration. Some of these efforts can also take place in deep o... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 501 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Scientists estimated the potential range of negative emissions from BECCS in 2018 as 0–22 Gt per year. , BECCS was capturing approximately 2 million tonnes per year of CO2 annually. The cost and availability of biomass limits wide deployment of BECCS. BECCS currently forms a big part of achieving climate targets beyond... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 461 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Energy consumption for cooling is likely to rise significantly due to increasing heat and availability of devices in poorer countries. Of the 2.8 billion people living in the hottest parts of the world, only 8% currently have air conditioners, compared with 90% of people in the US and Japan. Adoption of air conditioner... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 507 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Between one quarter and three quarters of cars on the road by 2050 are forecast to be electric vehicles. Hydrogen may be a solution for long-distance heavy freight trucks, if batteries alone are too heavy.
Shipping
In the shipping industry, the use of liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a marine bunker fuel is driven by ... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 462 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Experts expect emissions from aviation to rise in most projections, at least until 2040. They currently amount to 180 Mt of or 11% of transport emissions. Aviation biofuel and hydrogen can only cover a small proportion of flights in the coming years. Experts expect hybrid-driven aircraft to start commercial regional s... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 482 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Industry is the largest emitter of greenhouse gases when direct and indirect emissions are included. Electrification can reduce emissions from industry. Green hydrogen can play a major role in energy-intensive industries for which electricity is not an option. Further mitigation options involve the steel and cement ind... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 453 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Positive secondary effects that occur from climate mitigation and adaptation measures have been mentioned in research since the 1990s. The IPCC first mentioned the role of co-benefits in 2001, followed by its fourth and fifth assessment cycle stressing improved working environment, reduced waste, health benefits and re... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 510 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The health benefits from climate change mitigation are significant. Potential measures can not only mitigate future health impacts from climate change but also improve health directly. Climate change mitigation is interconnected with various health co-benefits, such as those from reduced air pollution. Air pollution ge... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 444 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Several factors affect mitigation cost estimates. One is the baseline. This is a reference scenario that the alternative mitigation scenario is compared with. Others are the way costs are modelled, and assumptions about future government policy. Cost estimates for mitigation for specific regions depend on the quantity ... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 494 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
It is possible to avoid some of the costs of the effects of climate change by limiting climate change. According to the Stern Review, inaction can be as high as the equivalent of losing at least 5% of global gross domestic product (GDP) each year, now and forever. This can be up to 20% of GDP or more when including a w... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 421 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
An evaluation was conducted on 1,500 climate policy interventions made between 1998 and 2022. The interventions took place in 41 countries and across 6 continents, which together contributed 81% of the world's total emissions as of 2019. The evaluation found 63 successful interventions that resulted in significant emis... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 463 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Imposing additional costs on greenhouse gas emissions can make fossil fuels less competitive and accelerate investments into low-carbon sources of energy. A growing number of countries raise a fixed carbon tax or participate in dynamic carbon emission trading (ETS) systems. In 2021, more than 21% of global greenhouse g... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 391 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Historically efforts to deal with climate change have taken place at a multinational level. They involve attempts to reach a consensus decision at the United Nations, under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This is the dominant approach historically of engaging as many international go... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 497 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
In order to decarbonise societies the state needs to play a predominant role. This is because it requires a massive coordination effort. This strong government role can only work well if there is social cohesion, political stability and trust.
For land-based mitigation options, finance is a major barrier. Other barrie... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 420 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
In the European Union, government-driven policies and the European Green Deal have helped position greentech (as an example) as a vital area for venture capital investment. By 2023, venture capital in the EU's greentech sector equaled that of the United States, reflecting a concerted effort to drive innovation and miti... | Climate change mitigation | Wikipedia | 362 | 2119179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20mitigation | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
In mathematics, a differentiable manifold (also differential manifold) is a type of manifold that is locally similar enough to a vector space to allow one to apply calculus. Any manifold can be described by a collection of charts (atlas). One may then apply ideas from calculus while working within the individual charts... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 432 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
The emergence of differential geometry as a distinct discipline is generally credited to Carl Friedrich Gauss and Bernhard Riemann. Riemann first described manifolds in his famous habilitation lecture before the faculty at Göttingen. He motivated the idea of a manifold by an intuitive process of varying a given object ... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 458 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
the natural domain of the right-hand side being . Since and are homeomorphisms, it follows that is a homeomorphism from to . Consequently it's just a bicontinuous function, thus even if both functions and are differentiable, their differential properties will not necessarily be strongly linked to one another, as ... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 437 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
Given a differentiable atlas on a topological space, one says that a chart is differentiably compatible with the atlas, or differentiable relative to the given atlas, if the inclusion of the chart into the collection of charts comprising the given differentiable atlas results in a differentiable atlas. A differentiable... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 433 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
The notion of a manifold is identical to that of a topological manifold. However, there is a notable distinction to be made. Given a topological space, it is meaningful to ask whether or not it is a topological manifold. By contrast, it is not meaningful to ask whether or not a given topological space is (for instance... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 443 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
is differentiable at , that is is a differentiable function from the open set , considered as a subset of , to . In general, there will be many available charts; however, the definition of differentiability does not depend on the choice of chart at p. It follows from the chain rule applied to the transition functions... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 512 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
If the function f is fixed, then the mapping
is a linear functional on the tangent space. This linear functional is often denoted by df(p) and is called the differential of f at p:
Definition of tangent space and differentiation in local coordinates
Let be a topological -manifold with a smooth atlas Given let d... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 416 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
Every open covering of a Ck manifold M has a Ck partition of unity. This allows for certain constructions from the topology of Ck functions on Rn to be carried over to the category of differentiable manifolds. In particular, it is possible to discuss integration by choosing a partition of unity subordinate to a particu... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 460 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
One may construct an atlas for the tangent bundle consisting of charts based on , where Uα denotes one of the charts in the atlas for M. Each of these new charts is the tangent bundle for the charts Uα. The transition maps on this atlas are defined from the transition maps on the original manifold, and retain the origi... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 475 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
A frame (or, in more precise terms, a tangent frame), is an ordered basis of particular tangent space. Likewise, a tangent frame is a linear isomorphism of Rn to this tangent space. A moving tangent frame is an ordered list of vector fields that give a basis at every point of their domain. One may also regard a moving... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 425 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
Many of the techniques from multivariate calculus also apply, mutatis mutandis, to differentiable manifolds. One can define the directional derivative of a differentiable function along a tangent vector to the manifold, for instance, and this leads to a means of generalizing the total derivative of a function: the diff... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 467 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
Usually the rank of a function is a pointwise property. However, if the function has maximal rank, then the rank will remain constant in a neighborhood of a point. A differentiable function "usually" has maximal rank, in a precise sense given by Sard's theorem. Functions of maximal rank at a point are called immersion... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 421 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
The bundle of differential forms, at each point, consists of all totally antisymmetric multilinear maps on the tangent space at that point. It is naturally divided into n-forms for each n at most equal to the dimension of the manifold; an n-form is an n-variable form, also called a form of degree n. The 1-forms are the... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 495 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
With this observation as motivation, one can define an equivalence relation on the space of smooth atlases on by declaring that smooth atlases and are equivalent if there is a homeomorphism such that is smoothly compatible with and such that is smoothly compatible with
More briefly, one could say that two smoo... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 491 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
The classification of n-manifolds for n greater than three is known to be impossible, even up to homotopy equivalence. Given any finitely presented group, one can construct a closed 4-manifold having that group as fundamental group. Since there is no algorithm to decide the isomorphism problem for finitely presented gr... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 404 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
A pseudo-Riemannian manifold (also called a semi-Riemannian manifold) is a generalization of the notion of Riemannian manifold where the inner products are allowed to have an indefinite signature, as opposed to being positive-definite; they are still required to be non-degenerate. Every smooth pseudo-Riemannian and Rie... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 511 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
Pseudogroups
The notion of a pseudogroup provides a flexible generalization of atlases in order to allow a variety of different structures to be defined on manifolds in a uniform way. A pseudogroup consists of a topological space S and a collection Γ consisting of homeomorphisms from open subsets of S to other open s... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 390 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
Sometimes, it can be useful to use an alternative approach to endow a manifold with a Ck-structure. Here k = 1, 2, ..., ∞, or ω for real analytic manifolds. Instead of considering coordinate charts, it is possible to start with functions defined on the manifold itself. The structure sheaf of M, denoted Ck, is a sort of... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 477 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
A differentiable manifold (of class Ck) consists of a pair where M is a second countable Hausdorff space, and OM is a sheaf of local R-algebras defined on M, such that the locally ringed space is locally isomorphic to . In this way, differentiable manifolds can be thought of as schemes modeled on Rn. This means that ... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 416 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
A final advantage of this approach is that it allows for natural direct descriptions of many of the fundamental objects of study to differential geometry and topology.
The cotangent space at a point is Ip/Ip2, where Ip is the maximal ideal of the stalk OM,p.
In general, the entire cotangent bundle can be obtained by ... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 350 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
It is possible to reconstruct a manifold from its algebra of scalars, first as a set, but also as a topological space – this is an application of the Banach–Stone theorem, and is more formally known as the spectrum of a C*-algebra. First, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the points of M and the algebra homo... | Differentiable manifold | Wikipedia | 331 | 2119219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable%20manifold | Mathematics | Topology | null |
Native copper is an uncombined form of copper that occurs as a natural mineral. Copper is one of the few metallic elements to occur in native form, although it most commonly occurs in oxidized states and mixed with other elements. Native copper was an important ore of copper in historic times and was used by pre-histor... | Native copper | Wikipedia | 403 | 2119766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native%20copper | Physical sciences | Minerals | Earth science |
The emperor dragonfly or blue emperor (Anax imperator) is a large species of hawker dragonfly of the family Aeshnidae. It is the largest dragonfly in most of Europe, including the United Kingdom, although exceeded in some areas by other species.
Nomenclature
The generic name Anax is from the ancient Greek , "lord"; th... | Emperor dragonfly | Wikipedia | 456 | 2119871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20dragonfly | Biology and health sciences | Odonata | Animals |
Behaviour
They frequently fly high up into the sky in search of prey, which includes butterflies, other odonata and tadpoles. If their hunt is successful, they eat their smaller prey while flying. The dragonflies breed in a variety of aquatic habitats from large ponds to dikes and slow-moving rivers, but require a plen... | Emperor dragonfly | Wikipedia | 236 | 2119871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20dragonfly | Biology and health sciences | Odonata | Animals |
Ocimum tenuiflorum, commonly known as holy basil, tulsi or tulasi (), is an aromatic perennial plant in the family Lamiaceae. It is widely cultivated throughout the Southeast Asian tropics. It is native to tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Australia and the western Pacific. This plant has escaped from cultivat... | Ocimum tenuiflorum | Wikipedia | 395 | 2122837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocimum%20tenuiflorum | Biology and health sciences | Herbs and spices | Plants |
Specific aroma compounds in the essential oil are camphor (32%), eucalyptol (19%), ⍺-bisabolene (17%), eugenol (14%), germacrene (11%) and β-bisabolene (11%). In addition, more than 60 different aroma compounds were found through gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis of holy basil. However, other studies have s... | Ocimum tenuiflorum | Wikipedia | 506 | 2122837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocimum%20tenuiflorum | Biology and health sciences | Herbs and spices | Plants |
Tulasi is a sacred plant for Hindus, particularly the Vaishnavite sect. It is worshipped as the avatar of Lakshmi, and is often planted in courtyards of Hindu houses or temples to Hanuman. The ritual lighting of lamps each evening during Kartik includes the worship of the tulsi plant. Vaishnavites are also known as "th... | Ocimum tenuiflorum | Wikipedia | 195 | 2122837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocimum%20tenuiflorum | Biology and health sciences | Herbs and spices | Plants |
A steam devil is a small, weak whirlwind over water (or sometimes wet land) that has drawn fog into the vortex, thus rendering it visible. They form over large lakes and oceans during cold air outbreaks while the water is still relatively warm, and can be an important mechanism in vertically transporting moisture. They... | Steam devil | Wikipedia | 314 | 31716306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam%20devil | Physical sciences | Storms | Earth science |
Appearance
Steam devils are vortices typically about 50 to 200 metres in diameter, essentially vertical, and up to 500 metres high. The general shape is like a small waterspout but they should not be considered related. Steam devils rotate with a cyclonic direction of motion, but not very fast or powerfully, usually ... | Steam devil | Wikipedia | 434 | 31716306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam%20devil | Physical sciences | Storms | Earth science |
Formation
A precondition for the formation of steam devils is the presence of a layer of moist air on the water with the misty air (called arctic steam fog) being drawn upwards into fog streamers (non-rotating columns of steam fog). For this to happen the body of water must be unfrozen, and thus relatively warm, and t... | Steam devil | Wikipedia | 477 | 31716306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam%20devil | Physical sciences | Storms | Earth science |
Steam devils are seen on the Great Lakes in early winter. They occur in the Atlantic off the coast of the Carolinas when cold air from the continent blows across the Gulf Stream. Steam devils can occur on small lakes and even over hot springs, but rather more rarely than on large bodies of water. It is also possible ... | Steam devil | Wikipedia | 286 | 31716306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam%20devil | Physical sciences | Storms | Earth science |
The transmission coefficient is used in physics and electrical engineering when wave propagation in a medium containing discontinuities is considered. A transmission coefficient describes the amplitude, intensity, or total power of a transmitted wave relative to an incident wave.
Overview
Different fields of applicat... | Transmission coefficient | Wikipedia | 426 | 5318198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission%20coefficient | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
Consider a wave travelling through a transmission line with a step in impedance from to . When the wave transitions through the impedance step, a portion of the wave will be reflected back to the source. Because the voltage on a transmission line is always the sum of the forward and reflected waves at that point, i... | Transmission coefficient | Wikipedia | 487 | 5318198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission%20coefficient | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
The fire lance () was a gunpowder weapon used by lighting it on fire, and is the ancestor of modern firearms. It first appeared in 10th–12th century China and was used to great effect during the Jin-Song Wars. It began as a small pyrotechnic device attached to a polearm weapon, used to gain a shock advantage at the sta... | Fire lance | Wikipedia | 475 | 5318699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%20lance | Technology | Firearms | null |
By 1232, the Jin were also using fire lances, but with improved reusable barrels consisting of durable paper material. According to the History of Jin, these fire lances had a range of roughly three meters:
In 1233, Jin soldiers used fire lances successfully against the Mongols. Pucha Guannu led 450 Jin fire lancers a... | Fire lance | Wikipedia | 443 | 5318699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%20lance | Technology | Firearms | null |
Radium and radon are important contributors to environmental radioactivity. Radon occurs naturally as a result of decay of radioactive elements in soil and it can accumulate in houses built on areas where such decay occurs. Radon is a major cause of cancer; it is estimated to contribute to ~2% of all cancer related dea... | Radium and radon in the environment | Wikipedia | 511 | 5321285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium%20and%20radon%20in%20the%20environment | Physical sciences | Geochemistry | Earth science |
Radon concentration in open air varies between 1 and 100 Bq m−3. Radon can be found in some spring waters and hot springs. The towns of Misasa, Japan, and Bad Kreuznach, Germany boast radium-rich springs which emit radon, as does Radium Springs, New Mexico.
Radon exhausts naturally from the ground, particularly in cer... | Radium and radon in the environment | Wikipedia | 406 | 5321285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium%20and%20radon%20in%20the%20environment | Physical sciences | Geochemistry | Earth science |
Radon in rainwater
Rainwater can be highly radioactive due to high levels of radon and its decay progenies 214Bi and 214Pb; the concentrations of these radioisotopes can be high enough to seriously disrupt radiation monitoring at nuclear power plants. The highest levels of radon in rainwater occur during thunderstorms,... | Radium and radon in the environment | Wikipedia | 464 | 5321285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium%20and%20radon%20in%20the%20environment | Physical sciences | Geochemistry | Earth science |
A common unit of exposure of lung tissue to alpha emitters is the working level month (WLM), this is where the human lungs have been exposed for 170 hours (a typical month worth of work for a miner) to air which has 3.7 kBq of 222Rn (in equilibrium with its decay products). This is air which has the alpha dose rate of ... | Radium and radon in the environment | Wikipedia | 487 | 5321285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium%20and%20radon%20in%20the%20environment | Physical sciences | Geochemistry | Earth science |
The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) recommends action for any house with a concentration higher than 8 pCi/L (300 Bq/m3).
The United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends action for any house with a concentration higher than 148 Bq/m3 (given as 4 pCi/L). Nearly one in 15 ho... | Radium and radon in the environment | Wikipedia | 154 | 5321285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium%20and%20radon%20in%20the%20environment | Physical sciences | Geochemistry | Earth science |
Whole genome sequencing (WGS) is the process of determining the entirety, or nearly the entirety, of the DNA sequence of an organism's genome at a single time. This entails sequencing all of an organism's chromosomal DNA as well as DNA contained in the mitochondria and, for plants, in the chloroplast.
Whole genome seq... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 342 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
The first virus to have its complete genome sequenced was the Bacteriophage MS2 by 1976. In 1992, yeast chromosome III was the first chromosome of any organism to be fully sequenced. The first organism whose entire genome was fully sequenced was Haemophilus influenzae in 1995. After it, the genomes of other bacteria an... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 406 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
In 1999, the entire DNA sequence of human chromosome 22, the second shortest human autosome, was published. By the year 2000, the second animal and second invertebrate (yet first insect) genome was sequenced – that of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster – a popular choice of model organism in experimental research. T... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 446 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Sequencing of nearly an entire human genome was first accomplished in 2000 partly through the use of shotgun sequencing technology. While full genome shotgun sequencing for small (4000–7000 base pair) genomes was already in use in 1979, broader application benefited from pairwise end sequencing, known colloquially as d... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 508 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Analysis
In principle, full genome sequencing can provide the raw nucleotide sequence of an individual organism's DNA at a single point in time. However, further analysis must be performed to provide the biological or medical meaning of this sequence, such as how this knowledge can be used to help prevent disease. Met... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 458 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
In June 2009, Illumina announced that they were launching their own Personal Full Genome Sequencing Service at a depth of 30× for $48,000 per genome. In August, the founder of Helicos Biosciences, Stephen Quake, stated that using the company's Single Molecule Sequencer he sequenced his own full genome for less than $50... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 416 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
For humans, DNA arrays currently provide genotypic information on up to one million genetic variants, while full genome sequencing will provide information on all six billion bases in the human genome, or 3,000 times more data. Because of this, full genome sequencing is considered a disruptive innovation to the DNA arr... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 472 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
The distribution of somatic mutations across the human genome is very uneven, such that the gene-rich, early-replicating regions receive fewer mutations than gene-poor, late-replicating heterochromatin, likely due to differential DNA repair activity. In particular, the histone modification H3K9me3 is associated with hi... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 395 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Due to recent cost reductions (see above) whole genome sequencing has become a realistic application in DNA diagnostics. In 2013, the 3Gb-TEST consortium obtained funding from the European Union to prepare the health care system for these innovations in DNA diagnostics. Quality assessment schemes, Health technology ass... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 233 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
In 2018, researchers at Rady Children's Hospital Institute for Genomic Medicine in San Diego determined that rapid whole-genome sequencing (rWGS) could diagnose genetic disorders in time to change acute medical or surgical management (clinical utility) and improve outcomes in acutely ill infants. In a retrospective coh... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 498 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Meta-analysis of whole genome sequencing studies provides an attractive solution to the problem of collecting large sample sizes for discovering rare variants associated with complex phenotypes. Some methods have been developed to enable functionally informed rare variant association analysis in biobank-scale cohorts u... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 445 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Some ethicists insist that the privacy of individuals undergoing genetic testing must be protected, and is of particular concern when minors undergo genetic testing. Illumina's CEO, Jay Flatley, wrongly claimed in February 2009 that "by 2019 it will have become routine to map infants' genes when they are born". This po... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 366 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Privacy concerns can also arise when whole genome sequencing is used in scientific research studies. Researchers often need to put information on patient's genotypes and phenotypes into public scientific databases, such as locus specific databases. Although only anonymous patient data are submitted to locus specific da... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 419 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Genomic coverage
In terms of genomic coverage and accuracy, whole genome sequencing can broadly be classified into either of the following:
A draft sequence, covering approximately 90% of the genome at approximately 99.9% accuracy
A finished sequence, covering more than 95% of the genome at approximately 99.99% accur... | Whole genome sequencing | Wikipedia | 102 | 21647820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20genome%20sequencing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
In mathematics, specifically order theory, the join of a subset of a partially ordered set is the supremum (least upper bound) of denoted and similarly, the meet of is the infimum (greatest lower bound), denoted In general, the join and meet of a subset of a partially ordered set need not exist. Join and meet are... | Join and meet | Wikipedia | 445 | 3956618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Join%20and%20meet | Mathematics | Order theory | null |
If the meet does exist then it is denoted If all pairs of elements from have a meet, then the meet is a binary operation on and it is easy to see that this operation fulfills the following three conditions: For any elements
(commutativity),
(associativity), and
(idempotency).
Joins are defined dually with the j... | Join and meet | Wikipedia | 502 | 3956618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Join%20and%20meet | Mathematics | Order theory | null |
If is a meet-semilattice, then the meet may be extended to a well-defined meet of any non-empty finite set, by the technique described in iterated binary operations. Alternatively, if the meet defines or is defined by a partial order, some subsets of indeed have infima with respect to this, and it is reasonable to c... | Join and meet | Wikipedia | 302 | 3956618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Join%20and%20meet | Mathematics | Order theory | null |
The net capacity factor is the unitless ratio of actual electrical energy output over a given period of time to the theoretical maximum electrical energy output over that period. The theoretical maximum energy output of a given installation is defined as that due to its continuous operation at full nameplate capacity o... | Capacity factor | Wikipedia | 484 | 3957510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity%20factor | Technology | Concepts | null |
Wind farm
The Danish offshore wind farm Horns Rev 2 has a nameplate capacity of 209.3 MW.
it has produced 6416 GWh since its commissioning 7 years ago, i.e. an average annual production of 875 GWh/year and a capacity factor of:
Sites with lower capacity factors may be deemed feasible for wind farms, for example the o... | Capacity factor | Wikipedia | 396 | 3957510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity%20factor | Technology | Concepts | null |
Photovoltaic power station
At the low range of capacity factors is the photovoltaic power station, which supplies power to the electricity grid from a large-scale photovoltaic system (PV system).
An inherent limit to its capacity factor comes from its requirement of daylight, preferably with a sun unobstructed by clou... | Capacity factor | Wikipedia | 470 | 3957510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity%20factor | Technology | Concepts | null |
A plant can also have its output curtailed or intentionally left idle because the electricity is not needed or because the price of electricity is too low to make production economical.
This accounts for most of the unused capacity of peaking power plants and load following power plants.
Peaking plants may operate for ... | Capacity factor | Wikipedia | 444 | 3957510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity%20factor | Technology | Concepts | null |
For renewable energy sources such as solar power, wind power and hydroelectricity, the main reason for reduced capacity factor is generally the availability of the energy source.
The plant may be capable of producing electricity, but its "fuel" (wind, sunlight or water) may not be available.
A hydroelectric plant's p... | Capacity factor | Wikipedia | 452 | 3957510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity%20factor | Technology | Concepts | null |
Nuclear power 88.7% (2006 - 2012 average of US's plants).
Hydroelectricity, worldwide average 44%, range of 10% - 99% depending on water availability (with or without regulation via storage dam).
Wind farms 21-52% (as of 2022).
CSP solar with storage and Natural Gas backup in Spain 63%, California 33%.
Photovoltaic... | Capacity factor | Wikipedia | 137 | 3957510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity%20factor | Technology | Concepts | null |
|-
! colspan="8"| Non-fossil fuels !! Coal !! colspan="4" | Natural Gas !! colspan="3" | Petroleum Liquids
|-
!Nuclear !! Hydro !!Wind !!Solar PV !!Solar CSP !!Landfill Gas and !!Other Biomass including Wood !! Geothermal !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !!
|-
|89.9% ||38.9% ||32.4% ||NA ||NA ||68.9% ||56.7% ||73.6% ||59... | Capacity factor | Wikipedia | 476 | 3957510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity%20factor | Technology | Concepts | null |
|92.2% ||43.1% ||34.6% ||25.7% ||21.8% ||68.0% ||57.8% ||74.0% ||53.7% ||51.3% ||6.7% ||10.5% || 9.9% ||13.5% ||0.9% || 2.3%
|-
|92.6% ||42.8% ||37.4% ||26.1% ||23.6% ||73.3% ||49.3% ||77.3% ||54.0% ||57.6% ||11.8% ||13.7% ||NA ||13.9% ||2.5% ||NA | Capacity factor | Wikipedia | 186 | 3957510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity%20factor | Technology | Concepts | null |
However, these values often vary significantly by month.
United Kingdom
The following figures were collected by the Department of Energy and Climate Change on the capacity factors for various types of plants in UK grid: | Capacity factor | Wikipedia | 38 | 3957510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity%20factor | Technology | Concepts | null |
Tritiated water is a radioactive form of water in which the usual protium atoms are replaced with tritium atoms. In its pure form it may be called tritium oxide (T2O or 3H2O) or super-heavy water. Pure T2O is a colorless liquid, and it is corrosive due to self-radiolysis. Diluted, tritiated water is mainly H2O plus som... | Tritiated water | Wikipedia | 465 | 3957700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritiated%20water | Physical sciences | Water | Chemistry |
If tritium exposure is suspected or known, drinking uncontaminated water will help replace the tritium from the body. Increasing sweating, urination or breathing can help the body expel water and thereby the tritium contained in it. However, care should be taken that neither dehydration nor a depletion of the body's el... | Tritiated water | Wikipedia | 99 | 3957700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritiated%20water | Physical sciences | Water | Chemistry |
The availability factor of a power plant is the duration it achieves production of electricity divided by the duration that it was planned to produce electricity. In the field of reliability engineering, availability factor is known as operational availability, . The capacity factor of a plant includes numerous other f... | Availability factor | Wikipedia | 327 | 3958005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability%20factor | Technology | Concepts | null |
Originally the term availability factor was used only for power plants that depended on an active, controlled supply of fuel, typically fossil or later also nuclear. The emergence of renewable energy such as hydro, wind and solar power, which operate without an active, controlled supply of fuel and which come to a stan... | Availability factor | Wikipedia | 210 | 3958005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability%20factor | Technology | Concepts | null |
Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of Earth not submerged by the ocean or another body of water. It makes up 29.2% of Earth's surface and includes all continents and islands. Earth's land surface is almost entirely covered by regolith, a layer of rock, soil, and minerals th... | Land | Wikipedia | 405 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
Though modern terrestrial plants and animals evolved from aquatic creatures, Earth's first cellular life likely originated on land. Survival on land relies on fresh water from rivers, streams, lakes, and glaciers, which constitute only three percent of the water on Earth. The vast majority of human activity throughout ... | Land | Wikipedia | 506 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to (billion years ago); therefore, Earth itself must have been formed by accretion around this time. The formation and evolution of the Solar System bodies occurred in tandem with the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by... | Land | Wikipedia | 497 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
A continuous area of land surrounded by an ocean is called a landmass. Although it is most often written as one word to distinguish it from the usage "land mass"—the measure of land area—it may also be written as two words. There are four major continuous landmasses on Earth: Africa-Eurasia, America (landmass), Antarct... | Land | Wikipedia | 471 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
A difference between uplands, or highlands, and lowlands is drawn in several earth science fields. In river ecology, "upland" rivers are fast-moving and colder than "lowland" rivers, encouraging different species of fish and other aquatic wildlife to live in these habitats. For example, nutrients are more present in sl... | Land | Wikipedia | 507 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
Earthquakes and volcanic activity are common in all types of boundaries. Volcanic activity refers to any rupture in Earth's surface where magma escapes, therefore becoming lava. The Ring of Fire, containing two-thirds of the world's volcanos, and over 70% of Earth's seismological activity, comprises plate boundaries su... | Land | Wikipedia | 479 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
When land is in contact with bodies of water, it can be eroded. The weathering of a coastline may be impacted by the tides, caused by changes in gravitational forces on larger bodies of water. Coasts are important zones in natural ecosystems, often home to a wide range of biodiversity. On land, they harbour important e... | Land | Wikipedia | 411 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
A subcontinental area of land surrounded by water is an island, and a chain of islands is an archipelago. The smaller the island, the larger the percentage of its land area will be adjacent to the water, and subsequently will be coast or beach. Islands can be formed by a variety of processes. The Hawaiian islands, for ... | Land | Wikipedia | 400 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
Wide, flat areas of land are called plains, which cover more than one-third of Earth's land area. When they occur as lowered areas between mountains, they can create valleys, canyons or gorges, and ravines. A plateau can be thought of as an elevated plain. Plains are known to have fertile soils and be important for agr... | Land | Wikipedia | 445 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
Land cover change detection using remote sensing and geospatial data provides baseline information for assessing the climate change impacts on habitats and biodiversity, as well as natural resources, in the target areas. Land cover change detection and mapping is a key component of interdisciplinary land change science... | Land | Wikipedia | 492 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
Continental crust is the layer of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks that forms the geological continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores, known as continental shelves. This layer is sometimes called sial because its bulk composition is richer in aluminium silicate and has a lower density... | Land | Wikipedia | 512 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
Deserts have an arid climate, generally defined to mean that they receive less than of precipitation per year. They make up around one fifth of the Earth's land area, are found on every continent, and can be very hot or very cold (see polar desert). They are home to animals and plants which evolved to be tolerant of d... | Land | Wikipedia | 484 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
Unlike plants, terrestrial animals are not a monophyletic group—that is, a group including all terrestrial animals does not encompass all lineages from a common ancestor. This is because there are organisms, such as the whale, that evolved from terrestrial mammals back to an aquatic lifestyle. Many megafauna of the pas... | Land | Wikipedia | 476 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
Ancient Near Eastern cultures conceived of the world as a flat disk of land surrounded by ocean. The Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts reveal that the ancient Egyptians believed Nun (the ocean) was a circular body surrounding nbwt (a term meaning "dry lands" or "islands"). The Hebrew Bible, drawing on other Near Eastern i... | Land | Wikipedia | 422 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
Two major eras of exploration occurred in human history: one of divergence, and one of convergence. The former saw humans moving out of Africa, settling in new lands, and developing distinct cultures in relative isolation. Early explorers settled in Europe and Asia; 14,000 years ago, some crossed the Ice Age land bridg... | Land | Wikipedia | 477 | 40083369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land | Physical sciences | Geography | null |
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