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During World War I, Germans experimented with numerous poisonous gases as weapons. After the first German chlorine gas attacks, Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine. It was believed that the ammonia in the pad neutralized the chlorine. These pads were held over the face un... | Urine | Wikipedia | 503 | 3938382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urine | Biology and health sciences | Urinary system | Biology |
Language
The English word urine (, ) comes from the Latin (-ae, f.), which is cognate with ancient words in various Indo-European languages that concern water, liquid, diving, rain, and urination (for example Sanskrit meaning 'it rains' or meaning 'water' and Greek meaning 'to urinate'). The onomatopoetic term pis... | Urine | Wikipedia | 182 | 3938382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urine | Biology and health sciences | Urinary system | Biology |
The Atatürk Dam (), originally the Karababa Dam, is the third largest dam in the world and it is a zoned rock-fill dam with a central core on the Euphrates River on the border of Adıyaman Province and Şanlıurfa Province in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Built both to generate electricity and to irrigate th... | Atatürk Dam | Wikipedia | 480 | 2114529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk%20Dam | Technology | Dams | null |
Dolsar Engineering and ATA Construction, two prominent Turkish companies, signed for the building of the dam. The construction of the cofferdam began in 1985 and was completed in 1987. The fill work for the main dam lasted from 1987 to 1990. The Atatürk Dam, listed in international construction publications as the worl... | Atatürk Dam | Wikipedia | 445 | 2114529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk%20Dam | Technology | Dams | null |
Originating in the mountains of eastern Anatolia and flowing southwards to Syria and Iraq, the Euphrates and the Tigris are very irregular rivers, used to cause great problems each year with droughts in summer and flooding in winter. The water of the Euphrates River is regulated by means of large reservoirs of the Keba... | Atatürk Dam | Wikipedia | 490 | 2114529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk%20Dam | Technology | Dams | null |
Some 10 towns and 156 villages of three provinces are located around the Lake Atatürk Dam. The lake provides a fisheries and recreation site. For transportation purposes, several ferries have been operated in the reservoir. The reservoir lake is called "sea" by local people.
Geostrategic importance
About 90% of Euphra... | Atatürk Dam | Wikipedia | 490 | 2114529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk%20Dam | Technology | Dams | null |
Two damaging earthquakes of M w 5.5 and M w 5.1 occurred in the town of Samsat near the Atatürk Reservoir in 2017 and 2018, respectively. The spatio-temporal evolution of seismicity and its source properties in relation to the temporal water-level variations and the stresses resulting from surface loading and pore-pr... | Atatürk Dam | Wikipedia | 139 | 2114529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk%20Dam | Technology | Dams | null |
In 1931 the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) published the CIE 1931 color spaces which define the relationship between the visible spectrum and the visual sensation of specific colors by human color vision. The CIE color spaces are mathematical models that create a "standard observer", which attempts to p... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 355 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
The human eye with normal vision has three kinds of cone cells that sense light, having peaks of spectral sensitivity in short ("S", – ), medium ("M", – ), and long ("L", – ) wavelengths. These cone cells underlie human color perception in conditions of medium and high brightness; in very dim light color vision dimi... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 467 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
Consider two light sources composed of different mixtures of various wavelengths. Such light sources may appear to be the same color; this effect is called "metamerism." Such light sources have the same apparent color to an observer when they produce the same tristimulus values, regardless of the spectral power distrib... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 493 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
Since the XYZ values are defined much earlier than the characterization of cone cells in the 1950s (by Ragnar Granit), the physiological meaning of these values are known only much later. The Hunt-Pointer-Estevez matrix from the 1980s relates XYZ with LMS. When inverted, it shows how the three cone responses add up to ... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 474 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
The CIE's color matching functions , and are the numerical description of the chromatic response of the observer (described above). They can be thought of as the spectral sensitivity curves of three linear light detectors yielding the CIE tristimulus values X, Y and Z. Collectively, these three functions describe the... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 464 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
The reflective and transmissive cases are very similar to the emissive case, with a few differences. The spectral radiance Le,Ω,λ is replaced by the spectral reflectance (or transmittance) S(λ) of the object being measured, multiplied by the spectral power distribution of the illuminant I(λ).
where
K is a scaling fa... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 441 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
The figure on the right shows the related chromaticity diagram. The outer curved boundary is the spectral locus, with wavelengths shown in nanometers. The chromaticity diagram is a tool to specify how the human eye will experience light with a given spectrum. It cannot specify colors of objects (or printing inks), sinc... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 103 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
The chromaticity diagram illustrates a number of interesting properties of the CIE XYZ color space:
The diagram represents all of the chromaticities visible to the average person. These are shown in color and this region is called the gamut of human vision. The gamut of all visible chromaticities on the CIE plot is th... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 466 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
It can be seen that, given three real sources, these sources cannot cover the gamut of human vision. Geometrically stated, there are no three points within the gamut that form a triangle that includes the entire gamut; or more simply, the gamut of human vision is not a triangle.
Light with a flat power spectrum in ter... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 83 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
Mixing colors specified with the CIE xy chromaticity diagram
When two or more colors are additively mixed, the x and y chromaticity coordinates of the resulting color (xmix,ymix) may be calculated from the chromaticities of the mixture components (x1,y1; x2,y2; …; xn,yn) and their corresponding luminances (L1, L2, …,... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 511 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
The experiments were conducted by using a circular split screen (a bipartite field) 2 degrees in diameter, which is the angular size of the human fovea. On one side a test color was projected while on the other an observer-adjustable color was projected. The adjustable color was a mixture of the three monochromatic pri... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 380 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
For wavelengths between the blue and green primaries, some red primary must be added to allow matching, resulting in negative values of . Likewise, between the green and red primaries, some blue must be added and will be negative. For wavelengths below the wavelength of the blue primary, or above the wavelength of the... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 402 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
The color matching functions and primaries were settled upon by a CIE special commission after considerable deliberation. The cut-offs at the short- and long-wavelength side of the diagram are chosen somewhat arbitrarily; the human eye can actually see light with wavelengths up to about , but with a sensitivity that is... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 511 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
The new color matching functions were to be everywhere greater than or equal to zero. In 1931, computations were done by hand or slide rule, and the specification of positive values was a useful computational simplification.
The color matching function would be exactly equal to the photopic luminous efficiency functi... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 263 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
In geometrical terms, choosing the new color space amounts to choosing a new triangle in rg chromaticity space. In the figure above-right, the rg chromaticity coordinates are shown on the two axes in black, along with the gamut of the 1931 standard observer. Shown in red are the CIE xy chromaticity axes which were dete... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 489 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
Cr = {1.27496, -0.27777, 0.00280576}
Cg = {-1.7393, 2.76726, -0.0279521}
Cb = {-0.743104, 0.140911, 1.60219}
The r and g coordinates of the XYZ primaries are indicated in the rg chromaticity space diagram above.
The integrals of the XYZ color matching functions must all be equal by requirement 3 above, and this is se... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 349 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
Judd and Vos corrections for the 2° CMF
The most serious problem with the 1931 CIE XYZ color matching functions is the error in the photopic Y (or function on the blue end of the spectrum. The Judd (1951) and its following Vos (1978) corrections sought to correct for the issue without deviating from the original meth... | CIE 1931 color space | Wikipedia | 426 | 2116016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%201931%20color%20space | Physical sciences | Basics | Physics |
The pharaoh ant (Monomorium pharaonis) is a small (2 mm) yellow or light brown, almost transparent ant notorious for being a major indoor nuisance pest, especially in hospitals. A cryptogenic species, it has now been introduced to virtually every area of the world, including Europe, the Americas, Australasia and South... | Pharaoh ant | Wikipedia | 474 | 2116156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh%20ant | Biology and health sciences | Hymenoptera | Animals |
Colony proliferation
Each colony produces sexually reproductive individuals roughly twice a year. However, colonies raised in a laboratory can be manipulated to produce sexuals at any time of year. Colonies proliferate by "budding" (also called "satelliting" or "fractionating"), where a subset of the colony including q... | Pharaoh ant | Wikipedia | 491 | 2116156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh%20ant | Biology and health sciences | Hymenoptera | Animals |
Pharaoh ants utilize three types of pheromones. One is a long-lasting attractive chemical that is used to build a trail network. It remains detectable even if the ants do not use the trail for several days. Pharaoh ants cease activity at night and begin each day of work at around 8 am, yet parts of the trail network ar... | Pharaoh ant | Wikipedia | 452 | 2116156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh%20ant | Biology and health sciences | Hymenoptera | Animals |
Foraging
Pharaoh ants use a positive feedback system of foraging. Each morning, scouts will search for food. When one finds it, it will immediately return to the nest. This causes several ants to follow the successful scout's trail back to the food source. Soon, a large group will be upon the food. Scouts are thought t... | Pharaoh ant | Wikipedia | 352 | 2116156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh%20ant | Biology and health sciences | Hymenoptera | Animals |
While pheromones explain the pharaoh ant's foraging ability, each forager's capability to find its way back to the nest requires a different explanation. In fact, the pharaoh ant relies on geometry to show it the way home. Each fork in the trail system spreads at an angle between 50 and 60 degrees. When returning to th... | Pharaoh ant | Wikipedia | 413 | 2116156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh%20ant | Biology and health sciences | Hymenoptera | Animals |
Pharaoh ants have a sophisticated strategy for food preference. They implement two related behaviors. The first is known as satiation. The workers will at first show a strong preference for a particular food type. However, if this food is offered alone, with no other options, for several weeks, workers will afterward s... | Pharaoh ant | Wikipedia | 433 | 2116156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh%20ant | Biology and health sciences | Hymenoptera | Animals |
Pharaoh ant colonies contain many queens. The ratio of queens to workers is variable and dependent on the size of the colony. An individual colony normally contains 1,000–2,500 workers, but often a high density of nests gives the impression of massive colonies. In a small colony, there will be more queens relative to w... | Pharaoh ant | Wikipedia | 495 | 2116156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh%20ant | Biology and health sciences | Hymenoptera | Animals |
During copulation, sperm is transferred from male to female inside a spermatophore. There are several theories regarding the adaptive value of using a spermatophore. It contains certain chemicals that may inhibit the female's sex drive. Alternatively, it may physically plug the female's gonophore. In either explanation... | Pharaoh ant | Wikipedia | 433 | 2116156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh%20ant | Biology and health sciences | Hymenoptera | Animals |
Colony interaction
When social ants encounter ants from another colony, behavior can be either aggressive or non-aggressive. Aggressive behavior is very commonly seen; the attacking worker usually bites the opponent at the petiole. In non-aggressive behavior, antennation occurs when the two ants meet. In the case of Mo... | Pharaoh ant | Wikipedia | 448 | 2116156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh%20ant | Biology and health sciences | Hymenoptera | Animals |
The recommended method to eliminate pharaoh ants is by the use of baits attractive to the species. Modern baits use insect growth regulators (IGRs) as the active substance; the ants are attracted to the bait by its food content, and take it back to the nest. Over a period of weeks the IGR prevents the production of wor... | Pharaoh ant | Wikipedia | 112 | 2116156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh%20ant | Biology and health sciences | Hymenoptera | Animals |
USB-C, or USB Type-C, is a 24-pin connector (not a protocol) that supersedes previous USB connectors and can carry audio, video, and other data, to connect to monitors or external drives. It can also provide and receive power, to power, e.g., a laptop or a mobile phone. It is used not only by USB technology, but also b... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 432 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
USB 3.2, released in September 2017, fully replaced the USB 3.1 and USB 3.0 specifications. It preserves the former USB 3.1 SuperSpeed and SuperSpeed+ data transfer modes and introduces two additional data transfer modes by newly applying two-lane operations, with signalling rates of 10 Gbit/s (SuperSpeed USB 10 Gbps; ... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 505 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
Name
USB Type-C and USB-C are trademarks of the USB Implementers Forum.
Connectors
The 24-pin double-sided connector is slightly larger than the micro-B connector, with a USB-C receptacle measuring wide, high, and deep.
Cables
Type-C cables can be split among various categories and subcategories. The first one is... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 466 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
In order to achieve longer cable lengths, cable variants with active electronics to amplify the signals also exist. The Type-C standard mostly mandates these active cables to behave similar to passive cables with vast backwards compatibility. But they are not mandated to support all possible features and typically have... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 382 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
Hosts and peripheral devices
For any two pieces of equipment connecting over USB, one is a host (with a downstream-facing port, DFP) and the other is a peripheral device (with an upstream-facing port, UFP). Some products, such as mobile phones, can take either role, whichever is opposite that of the connected equipment... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 382 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
An older device can connect to a modern (USB-C) host by using a legacy cable, with a Standard-B, Mini-B, or Micro-B plug on the device end and a USB-C plug on the other. Similarly, a modern device can connect to a legacy host by using a legacy cable with a USB-C plug on the device end and a Standard-A plug on the host ... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 417 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
An Alternate Mode dedicates some of the physical wires in a USB-C cable for direct device-to-host transmission using non-USB data protocols, such as DisplayPort or Thunderbolt. The four high-speed lanes, two side-band pins, and (for dock, detachable device and permanent-cable applications only) five additional pins can... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 511 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
The plug has only one USB 2.0 high-speed differential pair, and one of the CC pins (CC2) is replaced by VCONN, to power optional electronics in the cable, and the other is used to actually carry the Configuration Channel (CC) signals. These signals are used to determine the orientation of the cable, as well as to carry... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 474 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
USB 3.2 Specification USB 3.2, released in September 2017, replaces the USB 3.1 specification. It preserves existing USB 3.1 SuperSpeed and SuperSpeed+ data modes and introduces two new SuperSpeed+ transfer modes over the USB-C connector using two-lane operation, doubling the signalling rates to 10 and 20 Gbit/s (raw d... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 457 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
USB 3.1 Type-C to Type-C Full-Featured cable DisplayPort, Mobile High-Definition Link (MHL), HDMI and Thunderbolt (20Gbit/s, or 40Gbit/s with cable length up to 0.5 m) Alternate Mode Type-C ports can be interconnected with standard passive Full-Featured USB Type-C cables. These cables are only marked with standard "tri... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 502 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
However, to connect a USB 2.0/1.1 device to a USB-C host, use of pull-down resistors Rd on the CC pins is required, as the source (host) will not supply V until a connection is detected through the CC pins.
This means many USB-A–to–USB-C cables will only work in the A to C direction (connecting to a USB-C devices, e.g... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 434 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
The D+/D− link for USB 2.0/1.1 is typically not used when a USB 3.x connection is active, but devices like hubs open simultaneous 2.0 and 3.x uplinks in order to allow operation of both types of devices connected to it. Other devices may have the ability to fall back to 2.0, in case the 3.x connection fails. For this, ... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 466 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
If a reversible Type-C cable is required but Power Delivery support is not, the test plug will need to be arranged as below, with CC1 and CC2 both being pulled down with an Rd resistor value or pulled up as Rp resistor value from the test plug:
This mirroring of test signals will only provide 7 test signals for debug ... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 385 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
Software support
Android from version 6.0 "Marshmallow" onwards works with USB 3.1 and USB-C.
ChromeOS, starting with the Chromebook Pixel 2015, supports USB 3.1, USB-C, Alternate Modes, Power Delivery, and USB Dual-Role support.
FreeBSD released the Extensible Host Controller Interface, supporting USB 3.0, with rel... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 488 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
It is also used on USB-C docks designed to connect a device to a power source, external display, USB hub, and optional extra (such as a network port) with a single cable. These functions are sometimes implemented directly into the display instead of a separate dock, meaning a user connects their device to the display v... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 508 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
When an active set of USB-C headphones or adapter is used, digital audio is sent through the USB-C port. The conversion by the DAC and amplifier is done inside of the headphones or adapter, instead of on the phone. The sound quality is dependent on the headphones/adapter's DAC. Active adapters with a built-in DAC have ... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 370 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
In 2021, the European Commission proposed the use of USB-C as a universal charger. On 4 October 2022, the European Parliament voted in favor of the new law, Radio Equipment Directive 2022/2380, with 602 votes in favor, 13 against and 8 abstentions. The regulation requires that all new mobile phones, tablets, cameras, h... | USB-C | Wikipedia | 321 | 41512342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C | Technology | User interface | null |
Argon–argon (or 40Ar/39Ar) dating is a radiometric dating method invented to supersede potassiumargon (K/Ar) dating in accuracy. The older method required splitting samples into two for separate potassium and argon measurements, while the newer method requires only one rock fragment or mineral grain and uses a single m... | Argon–argon dating | Wikipedia | 441 | 1461205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon%E2%80%93argon%20dating | Physical sciences | Geochronology | Earth science |
where λ is the radioactive decay constant of 40K (approximately 5.5 x 10−10 year−1, corresponding to a half-life of approximately 1.25 billion years), J is the J-factor (parameter associated with the irradiation process), and R is the 40Ar*/39Ar ratio. The J factor relates to the fluence of the neutron bombardment duri... | Argon–argon dating | Wikipedia | 428 | 1461205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon%E2%80%93argon%20dating | Physical sciences | Geochronology | Earth science |
Dating minerals may provide age information on a rock, but assumptions must be made. Minerals usually only record the last time they cooled down below the closure temperature, and this may not represent all of the events which the rock has undergone, and may not match the age of intrusion. Thus, discretion and interpre... | Argon–argon dating | Wikipedia | 254 | 1461205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon%E2%80%93argon%20dating | Physical sciences | Geochronology | Earth science |
A laser rangefinder, also known as a laser telemeter, is a rangefinder that uses a laser beam to determine the distance to an object. The most common form of laser rangefinder operates on the time of flight principle by sending a laser pulse in a narrow beam towards the object and measuring the time taken by the pulse ... | Laser rangefinder | Wikipedia | 445 | 1461372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser%20rangefinder | Technology | Surveying tools | null |
Some of the laser light might reflect off leaves or branches which are closer than the object, giving an early return and a reading which is too low. Alternatively, over distances longer than 360 m, if the target is in proximity to the earth, it may simply vanish into a mirage, caused by temperature gradients in the ai... | Laser rangefinder | Wikipedia | 492 | 1461372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser%20rangefinder | Technology | Surveying tools | null |
Handheld military rangefinders operate at ranges of 2 km up to 25 km and are combined with binoculars or monoculars. When the rangefinder is equipped with a digital magnetic compass (DMC) and inclinometer it is capable of providing magnetic azimuth, inclination, and height (length) of targets. Some rangefinders can als... | Laser rangefinder | Wikipedia | 499 | 1461372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser%20rangefinder | Technology | Surveying tools | null |
Laser rangefinders used in computer vision applications often have depth resolutions of 0.1 mm or less. This can be achieved by using triangulation or refraction measurement techniques unlike to the time of flight techniques used in LIDAR.
Forestry
Special laser rangefinders are used in forestry. These devices have a... | Laser rangefinder | Wikipedia | 367 | 1461372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser%20rangefinder | Technology | Surveying tools | null |
Laser rangefinders are also used in several industries like construction, renovation and real estate as alternatives to tape measures, and was first introduced by Leica Geosystems in 1993 in France. To measure a large object like a room with a tape measure, one would need another person to hold the tape at the far wall... | Laser rangefinder | Wikipedia | 288 | 1461372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser%20rangefinder | Technology | Surveying tools | null |
The tradition and style of garden design represented by Persian gardens or Iranian gardens () is a style of "landscape" garden which emerged in the Achaemenid Empire. Humayun's Tomb and the Taj Mahal have some of the largest Persian gardens in the world, from the era of the Mughal Empire in India.
Concept and etymolog... | Persian gardens | Wikipedia | 415 | 1463084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian%20gardens | Technology | Buildings and infrastructure | null |
Persian gardens may originate as early as 4000 BC, but it is clear that this tradition began with the Achaemenid dynasty around the 6th century BCE. Decorated pottery of that time displays the typical cross plan of the Persian garden. The outline of Pasargadae, built around 500 BC, is still viewable today. Classical I... | Persian gardens | Wikipedia | 305 | 1463084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian%20gardens | Technology | Buildings and infrastructure | null |
Under the Abbasid dynasty (8th century AD), this type of garden became an integral part of representational architecture.
The Persian garden is a landscape garden, designed individually and created intentionally as a space embedded in the aesthetic and spiritual context of its past and contemporary cultural, political,... | Persian gardens | Wikipedia | 429 | 1463084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian%20gardens | Technology | Buildings and infrastructure | null |
The Mughal emperor Babur introduced the Persian garden to India, attempting to replicate the cool, refreshing aura of his homeland in the Ferghana Valley through the construction of Persian-style gardens, like those at other Timurid cities like Samarkand and Herat. Babur was a zealous gardener and personally designed a... | Persian gardens | Wikipedia | 477 | 1463084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian%20gardens | Technology | Buildings and infrastructure | null |
Iran's dry heat makes shade important in gardens, which would be nearly unusable without it. Trees and trellises largely feature as biotic shade; pavilions and walls are also structurally prominent in blocking the sun.
The heat also makes water important, both in the design and maintenance of the garden. Irrigation ma... | Persian gardens | Wikipedia | 348 | 1463084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian%20gardens | Technology | Buildings and infrastructure | null |
The oldest representational descriptions and illustrations of Persian gardens come from travelers who reached Iran from the west. These accounts include Ibn Battuta in the fourteenth century, Ruy González de Clavijo in the fifteenth century and Engelbert Kaempfer in the seventeenth century. Battuta and Clavijo made onl... | Persian gardens | Wikipedia | 494 | 1463084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian%20gardens | Technology | Buildings and infrastructure | null |
Boostān
Much like many other parks, the Persian park serves a casual public function with emphasis on plant life. They provide pathways and seating, but are otherwise usually limited in terms of structural elements. The purpose of such places is relaxation and socialisation.
Bāgh
Like the other casual garden, the park... | Persian gardens | Wikipedia | 346 | 1463084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian%20gardens | Technology | Buildings and infrastructure | null |
Enantioselective synthesis, also called asymmetric synthesis, is a form of chemical synthesis. It is defined by IUPAC as "a chemical reaction (or reaction sequence) in which one or more new elements of chirality are formed in a substrate molecule and which produces the stereoisomeric (enantiomeric or diastereomeric) pr... | Enantioselective synthesis | Wikipedia | 426 | 1463286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantioselective%20synthesis | Physical sciences | Synthetic strategies | Chemistry |
As such enantioselective synthesis is of great importance but it can also be difficult to achieve. Enantiomers possess identical enthalpies and entropies and hence should be produced in equal amounts by an undirected process – leading to a racemic mixture. Enantioselective synthesis can be achieved by using a chiral fe... | Enantioselective synthesis | Wikipedia | 445 | 1463286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantioselective%20synthesis | Physical sciences | Synthetic strategies | Chemistry |
Enantioselective catalysis
Enantioselective catalysis (known traditionally as "asymmetric catalysis") is performed using chiral catalysts, which are typically chiral coordination complexes. Catalysis is effective for a broader range of transformations than any other method of enantioselective synthesis. The chiral meta... | Enantioselective synthesis | Wikipedia | 492 | 1463286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantioselective%20synthesis | Physical sciences | Synthetic strategies | Chemistry |
Biocatalysis makes use of biological compounds, ranging from isolated enzymes to living cells, to perform chemical transformations.
The advantages of these reagents include very high e.e.s and reagent specificity, as well as mild operating conditions and low environmental impact. Biocatalysts are more commonly used in ... | Enantioselective synthesis | Wikipedia | 433 | 1463286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantioselective%20synthesis | Physical sciences | Synthetic strategies | Chemistry |
Separation and analysis of enantiomers
The two enantiomers of a molecule possess many of the same physical properties (e.g. melting point, boiling point, polarity etc.) and so behave identically to each other. As a result, they will migrate with an identical Rf in thin layer chromatography and have identical retention ... | Enantioselective synthesis | Wikipedia | 510 | 1463286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantioselective%20synthesis | Physical sciences | Synthetic strategies | Chemistry |
One of the most accurate ways of determining the chirality of compound is to determine its absolute configuration by X-ray crystallography. However this is a labour-intensive process which requires that a suitable single crystal be grown.
History
Inception (1815–1905)
In 1815 the French physicist Jean-Baptiste Biot s... | Enantioselective synthesis | Wikipedia | 323 | 1463286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantioselective%20synthesis | Physical sciences | Synthetic strategies | Chemistry |
The first enantioselective chemical synthesis is most often attributed to Willy Marckwald, Universität zu Berlin, for a brucine-catalyzed enantioselective decarboxylation of 2-ethyl-2-methylmalonic acid reported in 1904. A slight excess of the levorotary form of the product of the reaction, 2-methylbutyric acid, was pr... | Enantioselective synthesis | Wikipedia | 427 | 1463286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantioselective%20synthesis | Physical sciences | Synthetic strategies | Chemistry |
It was not until the 1950s that major progress really began. Driven in part by chemists such as R. B. Woodward and Vladimir Prelog but also by the development of new techniques.
The first of these was X-ray crystallography, which was used to determine the absolute configuration of an organic compound by Johannes Bijvoe... | Enantioselective synthesis | Wikipedia | 478 | 1463286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantioselective%20synthesis | Physical sciences | Synthetic strategies | Chemistry |
Metal-catalysed enantioselective synthesis was pioneered by William S. Knowles, Ryōji Noyori and K. Barry Sharpless; for which they would receive the 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Knowles and Noyori began with the development of asymmetric hydrogenation, which they developed independently in 1968. Knowles replaced the... | Enantioselective synthesis | Wikipedia | 395 | 1463286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantioselective%20synthesis | Physical sciences | Synthetic strategies | Chemistry |
Chiral auxiliaries were introduced by E.J. Corey in 1978 and featured prominently in the work of Dieter Enders. Around the same time enantioselective organocatalysis was developed, with pioneering work including the Hajos–Parrish–Eder–Sauer–Wiechert reaction.
Enzyme-catalyzed enantioselective reactions became more and ... | Enantioselective synthesis | Wikipedia | 147 | 1463286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantioselective%20synthesis | Physical sciences | Synthetic strategies | Chemistry |
Agricultural extension is the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education. The field of 'extension' now encompasses a wider range of communication and learning activities organized for rural people by educators from different disciplines, including agriculture... | Agricultural extension | Wikipedia | 430 | 1464343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural%20extension | Technology | Academic disciplines | null |
In the US, an extension agent is a university employee who develops and delivers educational programs to assist people in economic and community development, leadership, family issues, agriculture and environment. Another program area provided by extension agents is 4-H and youth activities. Many extension agents work ... | Agricultural extension | Wikipedia | 187 | 1464343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural%20extension | Technology | Academic disciplines | null |
1949: The central task of extension is to help rural families help themselves by applying science, whether physical or social, to the daily routines of farming, homemaking, and family and community living.
1965: Agricultural extension has been described as a system of out-of-school education for rural people.
1966: E... | Agricultural extension | Wikipedia | 435 | 1464343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural%20extension | Technology | Academic disciplines | null |
The birth of the modern extension service has been attributed to events that took place in Ireland in the middle of the 19th century. Between 1845–51 the Irish potato crop was destroyed by fungal diseases and a severe famine occurred. The British Government arranged for "practical instructors" to travel to rural areas ... | Agricultural extension | Wikipedia | 371 | 1464343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural%20extension | Technology | Academic disciplines | null |
Colonial agriculture: Experimental stations were established in many Asian countries by the colonial powers. The focus of attention was usually on export crops such as rubber, tea, cotton, and sugar. Technical advice was provided to plantation managers and large landowners. Assistance to small farmers who grew subsiste... | Agricultural extension | Wikipedia | 428 | 1464343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural%20extension | Technology | Academic disciplines | null |
Several of the institutional innovations that have come up in response to the weaknesses in public research and extension system have given enough indications of the emergence of an agricultural innovation system in India. This has resulted in the blurring of the clearly demarcated institutional boundaries between rese... | Agricultural extension | Wikipedia | 367 | 1464343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural%20extension | Technology | Academic disciplines | null |
Technology transfer (persuasive + paternalistic): This paradigm was prevalent in colonial times and reappeared in the 1970s and 1980s when the "Training and Visit" system was established across Asia. Technology transfer involves a top-down approach that delivers specific recommendations to farmers about the practices t... | Agricultural extension | Wikipedia | 427 | 1464343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural%20extension | Technology | Academic disciplines | null |
Squat lobsters are dorsoventrally flattened crustaceans with long tails held curled beneath the cephalothorax. They are found in the two superfamilies Galatheoidea and Chirostyloidea, which form part of the decapod infraorder Anomura, alongside groups including the hermit crabs and mole crabs. They are distributed worl... | Squat lobster | Wikipedia | 355 | 1465291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squat%20lobster | Biology and health sciences | Crabs and hermit crabs | Animals |
The cephalothorax is made of 19 body segments (somites), although the divisions are not obvious and are most easily inferred from the paired appendages. From front to back, these are the two pairs of antennae, six pairs of mouthparts (mandibles, maxillae, maxillules and three pairs of maxillipeds), and five pairs of pe... | Squat lobster | Wikipedia | 420 | 1465291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squat%20lobster | Biology and health sciences | Crabs and hermit crabs | Animals |
The most conspicuous appendages are the pereiopods, and the largest of these is the first pair. These each end in a chela (claw), and are therefore known as the "chelipeds"; they can be more than six times the body length, although some groups show sexual dimorphism, with females having proportionally shorter chelipeds... | Squat lobster | Wikipedia | 492 | 1465291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squat%20lobster | Biology and health sciences | Crabs and hermit crabs | Animals |
Development
Fecundity or number of eggs increases with smaller sized eggs and increasing body size of the parent. This results in increasing incubation time and consequently, increased egg volume. The trend of larger numbers of eggs and smaller sized eggs is mostly found in lower latitudes and cooler temperatures in o... | Squat lobster | Wikipedia | 444 | 1465291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squat%20lobster | Biology and health sciences | Crabs and hermit crabs | Animals |
Ontogenetic migrations and pelagic aggregation
Pleuroncodes planipes perform vertical migration into the water column from the benthos at different stages in development, an example of ontogenetic niche shift. Early larval stages are found mostly near the sea surface, but older larval and juvenile stages have a wide v... | Squat lobster | Wikipedia | 467 | 1465291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squat%20lobster | Biology and health sciences | Crabs and hermit crabs | Animals |
Aggression and agonistic behavior
While squat lobsters look like true lobsters, they are more closely related to hermit crabs. Instead of carrying shells on their backs, they squeeze their bodies into crevices and leave their claws exposed to defend themselves from predators or other squat lobsters.
Squat lobsters ar... | Squat lobster | Wikipedia | 506 | 1465291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squat%20lobster | Biology and health sciences | Crabs and hermit crabs | Animals |
Fisheries
Flesh from these animals is often commercially sold in restaurants as "langostino" or sometimes dishonestly called "lobster" when incorporated in seafood dishes. As well as being used for human consumption, there is demand for squat lobster meat to be used as feed in fish farms and shrimp or prawn farms. This... | Squat lobster | Wikipedia | 465 | 1465291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squat%20lobster | Biology and health sciences | Crabs and hermit crabs | Animals |
Broadly, squat lobsters are classified into two superfamilies: Chirostyloidea and Galatheoidea. Chirostyloidea contain the families Chirostylidae, Eumunididae, and Kiwaidae. Galatheoidea contain the families Galatheidae, Munididae, Munidopsidae, and Porcellanidae. The systematics of squat lobsters and the classificatio... | Squat lobster | Wikipedia | 431 | 1465291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squat%20lobster | Biology and health sciences | Crabs and hermit crabs | Animals |
Evolutionary history
Squat lobsters contain a total of around 60 genera, divided into over 900 recognized species; more than 120 undescribed species likely exist. It is likely that squat lobsters underwent deep sea colonization multiple times in evolutionary history. Squat lobsters underwent rapid diversification in t... | Squat lobster | Wikipedia | 399 | 1465291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squat%20lobster | Biology and health sciences | Crabs and hermit crabs | Animals |
The Oslo Metro ( or or simply ) is the rapid transit system of Oslo, Norway, operated by Sporveien T-banen on contract from the transit authority Ruter. The network consists of five lines that all run through the city centre, with a total length of , serving 101 stations of which 17 are underground or indoors. In addi... | Oslo Metro | Wikipedia | 506 | 1465643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo%20Metro | Technology | Scandinavia | null |
In 1912, the construction of the first underground railway in the Nordic Countries started, when A/S Holmenkolbanen started construction of an extension of their line from Majorstuen to Nationaltheatret. The line was opened in 1928, with one intermediate station at Valkyrie Plass, giving the two suburban lines access ... | Oslo Metro | Wikipedia | 498 | 1465643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo%20Metro | Technology | Scandinavia | null |
At the time there were two suburban tramways on the east side, the Ekeberg Line (opened in 1919) and the Østensjø Line (1923). Only the latter would be connected to the T-bane; the Ekeberg Line would remain a tramway, but three new lines were to be built—the Grorud Line on the north side and the Furuset Line on the sou... | Oslo Metro | Wikipedia | 363 | 1465643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo%20Metro | Technology | Scandinavia | null |
The eastern network was extended from Jernbanetorget to Sentrum in 1977. This station was forced to close in 1983, due to water leakage, and when it opened again in 1987, renamed Stortinget, the west network tunnel had also been extended there. Through services were not possible at the time because of incompatibility o... | Oslo Metro | Wikipedia | 429 | 1465643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo%20Metro | Technology | Scandinavia | null |
The Oslo Metro operates in all fifteen boroughs of Oslo, as well as reaching a bit inside the neighbouring municipality of Bærum. There are five lines, numbered 1 to 5, each colour-coded. They all pass through the Common Tunnel, serving eight branch lines. In addition two lines operate to the Ring Line. Two branches ar... | Oslo Metro | Wikipedia | 483 | 1465643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo%20Metro | Technology | Scandinavia | null |
Stations in the city center are located close to large employment centers as well as connection possibilities to other modes of transport, such as tram, rail and bus. All stations can be identified at ground level by signs with a blue T in a circle. Stations outside the center are unmanned since the 1995, with ticket m... | Oslo Metro | Wikipedia | 499 | 1465643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo%20Metro | Technology | Scandinavia | null |
Bus services are provided to numerous stations. Most bus services provide feeding to the metro system where possible, and then do not continue into town. However, since the metro operates solely into town, instead of across it, many buses operate between stations on different lines, or provide alternative routes across... | Oslo Metro | Wikipedia | 499 | 1465643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo%20Metro | Technology | Scandinavia | null |
When the Holmenkollen Line was connected to the T-bane it was still using old teak cars; to allow through services the T2000, capable of dual-system running, was delivered in 1993. They were not particularly successful and only 12 units were delivered, operating in pairs on the Holmenkollen line sometimes connecting wi... | Oslo Metro | Wikipedia | 230 | 1465643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo%20Metro | Technology | Scandinavia | null |
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