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| Thermosets consist of closely cross-linked polymers. Cross-links are shown as red dots in the figure.
| Elastomers consist of wide-meshed cross-linked polymers. The wide mesh allows the ma... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 413 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Engineering plastics
Engineering plastics are more robust and are used to manufacture products such as vehicle parts, building and construction materials, and some machine parts. In some cases, they are polymer blends formed by mixing different plastics together (ABS, HIPS etc.). Engineering plastics can replace metal... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 487 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Aramids: best known for their use in the manufacture of body armor, this class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers also has applications in aerospace and military and includes Kevlar, Nomex, and Twaron.
Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylenes (UHMWPE)
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK): strong, chemical- and heat-... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 459 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While a conductivity of up to 80 kilosiemens per centimeter (kS/cm) in stretch-oriented polyacetylene has been achieved, it does not approach that of most metals. For example, copper has a conductivity of several hundred kS/cm.
Bio... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 472 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Production
Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made, with more than half of this having been produced since 2004. Since the birth of the plastic industry in the 1950s, global production has increased enormously, reaching 400 million tonnes a year in 2021; this is up from 381 ... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 455 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
In 2017, the global plastics market was dominated by thermoplastics– polymers that can be melted and recast. Thermoplastics include polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS) and synthetic fibers, which together represent 86% of all plastics.
Com... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 490 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Film blowing - Plastic films (carrier bags, sheeting)
Blow molding - Small thin-walled hollow objects in large quantities (drinks bottles, toys)
Rotational molding - Large thick-walled hollow objects (IBC tanks)
Injection molding - Solid objects (phone cases, keyboards)
Spinning - Produces fibers (nylon, spandex etc.)... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 432 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Applications
The largest application for plastics is as packaging materials, but they are used in a wide range of other sectors, including: construction (pipes, gutters, door and windows), textiles (stretchable fabrics, fleece), consumer goods (toys, tableware, toothbrushes), transportation (headlights, bumpers, body p... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 470 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
As additives change the properties of plastics they have to be considered during recycling. Presently, almost all recycling is performed by simply remelting and fabricating used plastic into new items. Additives present risks in recycled products due to their difficulty to remove. When plastic products are recycled, it... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 502 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Poor countries
Additives can also be problematic if waste is burned, especially when burning is uncontrolled or takes place in low-technology incinerators, as is common in many developing countries. Incomplete combustion can cause emissions of hazardous substances such as acid gases and ash, which can contain persisten... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 512 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
While a finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of its parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 430 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
It is estimated that this waste is made up of 81% polymer resin, 13% polymer fibers and 32% additives. In 2018 more than 343 million tons of plastic waste were generated, 90% of which was composed of post-consumer plastic waste (industrial, agricultural, commercial and municipal plastic waste). The rest was pre-consume... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 415 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Plastics degrade by a variety of processes, the most significant of which is usually photo-oxidation. Their chemical structure determines their fate. Polymers' marine degradation takes much longer as a result of the saline environment and cooling effect of the sea, contributing to the persistence of plastic debris in ... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 189 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Microbial species capable of degrading plastics are known to science, some of which are potentially useful for disposal of certain classes of plastic waste.
In 1975, a team of Japanese scientists studying ponds containing waste water from a nylon factory discovered a strain of Flavobacterium that digests certain byprod... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 375 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Acinetobacter has been found to partially degrade low-molecular-weight polyethylene oligomers. When used in combination, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Sphingomonas can degrade over 40% of the weight of plastic bags in less than three months. The thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis (strain 707) was isolated ... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 345 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Recycling
Pyrolysis
By heating to above 500 °C (932 °F) in the absence of oxygen (pyrolysis), plastics can be broken down into simpler hydrocarbons, which can be used as feedstocks for the fabrication of new plastics. These hydrocarbons can also be used as fuels.
Greenhouse gas emissions
According to the Organisat... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 481 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Incineration of plastics
Quickly burning plastics at very high temperatures breaks down many toxic components, such as dioxins and furans. This approach is widely used in municipal solid waste incineration. Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally treat the flue gas to decrease pollutants further, which is need... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 405 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Parkesine, invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855 and patented the following year, is considered the first man-made plastic. It was manufactured from cellulose (the major component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid as a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) coul... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 437 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
The discovery of polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) is credited to employees of the Calico Printers' Association in the UK in 1941; it was licensed to DuPont for the US and ICI otherwise, and as one of the few plastics appropriate as a replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting in widespread use for bottles ... | Plastic | Wikipedia | 318 | 26145195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic | Technology | Materials | null |
Symptomatic treatment, supportive care, supportive therapy, or palliative treatment is any medical therapy of a disease that only affects its symptoms, not the underlying cause. It is usually aimed at reducing the signs and symptoms for the comfort and well-being of the patient, but it also may be useful in reducing or... | Symptomatic treatment | Wikipedia | 488 | 4013678 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptomatic%20treatment | Biology and health sciences | Medical procedures | null |
Finally, symptomatic treatment is not exempt from adverse effects, and may be a cause of iatrogenic consequences (i.e., ill effects caused by the treatment itself), such as allergic reactions, stomach bleeding, central nervous system effects (nausea, dizziness, etc.). | Symptomatic treatment | Wikipedia | 61 | 4013678 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptomatic%20treatment | Biology and health sciences | Medical procedures | null |
A number of animals are capable of aerial locomotion, either by powered flight or by gliding. This trait has appeared by evolution many times, without any single common ancestor. Flight has evolved at least four times in separate animals: insects, pterosaurs, birds, and bats. Gliding has evolved on many more occasions.... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 436 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Powered flight
Powered flight has evolved at least four times: first in the insects, then in pterosaurs, next in birds, and last in bats. Studies on theropod dinosaurs do suggest multiple (at least 3) independent acquisitions of powered flight however, and a recent study proposes independent acquisitions amidst the dif... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 336 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Gliding and parachuting
While gliding occurs independently from powered flight, it has some ecological advantages of its own as it is the simplest form of flight. Gliding is a very energy-efficient way of travelling from tree to tree. Although moving through the canopy running along the branches may be less energetical... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 294 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Worldwide, the distribution of gliding animals is uneven, as most inhabit rain forests in Southeast Asia. (Despite seemingly suitable rain forest habitats, few gliders are found in India or New Guinea and none in Madagascar.) Additionally, a variety of gliding vertebrates are found in Africa, a family of hylids (flying... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 469 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
The evolution of flight is one of the most striking and demanding in animal evolution, and has attracted the attention of many prominent scientists and generated many theories. Additionally, because flying animals tend to be small and have a low mass (both of which increase the surface-area-to-mass ratio), they tend to... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 338 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Birds have an extensive fossil record, along with many forms documenting both their evolution from small theropod dinosaurs and the numerous bird-like forms of theropod which did not survive the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous. Indeed, Archaeopteryx is arguably the most famous transitional fossil in the wo... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 306 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Gliding and parachuting
During a free-fall with no aerodynamic forces, the object accelerates due to gravity, resulting in increasing velocity as the object descends. During parachuting, animals use the aerodynamic forces on their body to counteract the force of gravity. Any object moving through air experiences a drag... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 496 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
A bird or bat flying through the air at a constant speed moves its wings up and down (usually with some fore-aft movement as well). Because the animal is in motion, there is some airflow relative to its body which, combined with the velocity of its wings, generates a faster airflow moving over the wing. This will gener... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 322 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Flying and soaring
Largest. The largest known flying animal was formerly thought to be Pteranodon, a pterosaur with a wingspan of up to . However, the more recently discovered azhdarchid pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus is much larger, with estimates of the wingspan ranging from . Some other recently discovered azhdarchid pte... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 234 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Smallest. There is no minimum size for getting airborne. Indeed, there are many bacteria floating in the atmosphere that constitute part of the aeroplankton. However, to move about under one's own power and not be overly affected by the wind requires a certain amount of size. The smallest flying vertebrates are the bee... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 382 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Gliding and parachuting
Most efficient glider. This can be taken as the animal that moves most horizontal distance per metre fallen. Flying squirrels are known to glide up to , but have measured glide ratio of about 2. Flying fish have been observed to glide for hundreds of metres on the drafts on the edge of waves wi... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 411 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Non-avian dinosaurs
Theropods (gliding and flying). There were several species of theropod dinosaur thought to be capable of gliding or flying, that are not classified as birds (though they are closely related). Some species (Microraptor gui, Microraptor zhaoianus, and Changyuraptor) have been found that were fully fe... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 443 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Spiders
Ballooning spiders (parachuting). The young of some species of spiders travel through the air by using silk draglines to catch the wind, as may some smaller species of adult spider, such as the money spider family. This behavior is commonly known as "ballooning". Ballooning spiders make up part of the aeroplan... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 267 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Fish
Flying fish. There are over 50 species of flying fish belonging to the family Exocoetidae. They are mostly marine fishes of small to medium size. The largest flying fish can reach lengths of but most species measure less than in length. They can be divided into two-winged varieties and four-winged varieties. Be... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 511 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Rhacophoridae flying frogs. A number of the Rhacophoridae, such as Wallace's flying frog (Rhacophorus nigropalmatus), have adaptations for gliding, the main feature being enlarged toe membranes. For example, the Malayan flying frog Rhacophorus prominanus glides using the membranes between the toes of its limbs, and sma... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 184 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Draco lizards. There are 28 species of lizard of the genus Draco, found in Sri Lanka, India, and Southeast Asia. They live in trees, feeding on tree ants, but nest on the forest floor. They can glide for up to and over this distance they lose only in height. Unusually, their patagium (gliding membrane) is supported o... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 442 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Flying squirrels (subfamily Petauristinae). There are more than 40 living species divided between 14 genera of flying squirrel. Flying squirrels are found in Asia (most species), North America (genus Glaucomys) and Europe (Siberian flying squirrel). They inhabit tropical, temperate, and Subarctic environments, with the... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 478 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Sifaka, a type of lemur, and possibly some other primates (possible limited gliding or parachuting). A number of primates have been suggested to have adaptations that allow limited gliding or parachuting: sifakas, indris, galagos and saki monkeys. Most notably, the sifaka, a type of lemur, has thick hairs on its forear... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 410 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Extinct
Reptiles
Extinct reptiles similar to Draco. There are a number of unrelated extinct lizard-like reptiles with similar "wings" to the Draco lizards. These include the Late Permian Weigeltisauridae, the Triassic Kuehneosauridae and Mecistotrachelos, and the Cretaceous lizard Xianglong. The largest of these, Kue... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 327 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Mammals
Volaticotherium antiquum. A gliding eutriconodont, long considered the earliest gliding mammal until the discovery of contemporary gliding haramiyidans. It lived around 164 million years ago and used a fur-covered skin membrane to glide through the air; it lived around 165 million years ago, during the Middle-... | Flying and gliding animals | Wikipedia | 207 | 4014603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals | Biology and health sciences | Ethology | Biology |
Digital multimedia broadcasting (DMB) is a digital radio transmission technology developed in South Korea as part of the national IT project for sending multimedia such as TV, radio and datacasting to mobile devices such as mobile phones, laptops and GPS navigation systems. This technology, sometimes known as mobile TV... | Digital multimedia broadcasting | Wikipedia | 485 | 30860031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20multimedia%20broadcasting | Technology | Broadcasting | null |
T-DMB is an [ETSI] standard (TS 102 427 and TS 102 428). As of December 14, 2007, ITU formally approved T-DMB as the global standard, along with three other standards, like DVB-H, 1seg, and MediaFLO.
Smart DMB
Smart DMB started in January 2013 in South Korea. Smart DMB has a VOD service and quality has been improved... | Digital multimedia broadcasting | Wikipedia | 468 | 30860031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20multimedia%20broadcasting | Technology | Broadcasting | null |
Around one million receivers have been sold . 14 million DMB receivers were sold including T-DMB and S-DMB in South Korea, and 40% of the new cell phones have the capability to see DMB.
Receivers are integrated in car navigation systems, mobile phones, portable media players, laptop computers and digital cameras. In m... | Digital multimedia broadcasting | Wikipedia | 391 | 30860031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20multimedia%20broadcasting | Technology | Broadcasting | null |
In Mexico most cell phone carriers offer DMB broadcasting as part of their basic plans. As of 2008 the vast majority of Mexico receives DMB signals.
Ghana is running a T-DMB service in Accra and Kumasi on mobile network since May 2008.
Netherlands: MFD, T-Systems and private investors are planning a DMB service unde... | Digital multimedia broadcasting | Wikipedia | 433 | 30860031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20multimedia%20broadcasting | Technology | Broadcasting | null |
A coffeemaker, coffee maker or coffee machine is a cooking appliance used to brew coffee. While there are many different types of coffeemakers, the two most common brewing principles use gravity or pressure to move hot water through coffee grounds. In the most common devices, coffee grounds are placed into a paper or m... | Coffeemaker | Wikipedia | 425 | 30860428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffeemaker | Technology | Household appliances | null |
An interconnector (also known as a DC tie in the USA) is a structure which enables high voltage DC electricity to flow between electrical grids. An electrical interconnector allows electricity to flow between separate AC networks, or to link synchronous grids. They can be formed of submarine power cables or underground... | Interconnector | Wikipedia | 418 | 44572867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interconnector | Technology | Electricity transmission and distribution | null |
Genome editing, or genome engineering, or gene editing, is a type of genetic engineering in which DNA is inserted, deleted, modified or replaced in the genome of a living organism. Unlike early genetic engineering techniques that randomly inserts genetic material into a host genome, genome editing targets the insertion... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 449 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
In May 2019, lawyers in China reported, in light of the purported creation by Chinese scientist He Jiankui of the first gene-edited humans (see Lulu and Nana controversy), the drafting of regulations that anyone manipulating the human genome by gene-editing techniques, like CRISPR, would be held responsible for any rel... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 450 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Homologous recombination
Early methods to target genes to certain sites within a genome of an organism (called gene targeting) relied on homologous recombination (HR). By creating DNA constructs that contain a template that matches the targeted genome sequence it is possible that the HR processes within the cell will ... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 375 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
A common form of Genome editing relies on the concept of DNA double stranded break (DSB) repair mechanics. There are two major pathways that repair DSB; non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homology directed repair (HDR). NHEJ uses a variety of enzymes to directly join the DNA ends while the more accurate HDR uses a h... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 387 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Meganucleases, found commonly in microbial species, have the unique property of having very long recognition sequences (>14bp) thus making them naturally very specific. However, there is virtually no chance of finding the exact meganuclease required to act on a chosen specific DNA sequence. To overcome this challenge, ... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 400 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
As opposed to meganucleases, the concept behind ZFNs and TALEN technology is based on a non-specific DNA cutting catalytic domain, which can then be linked to specific DNA sequence recognizing peptides such as zinc fingers and transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs). The first step to this was to find an endonuc... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 494 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Several approaches are used to design specific zinc finger nucleases for the chosen sequences. The most widespread involves combining zinc-finger units with known specificities (modular assembly). Various selection techniques, using bacteria, yeast or mammal cells have been developed to identify the combinations that o... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 468 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Zinc finger nucleases are research and development tools that have already been used to modify a range of genomes, in particular by the laboratories in the Zinc Finger Consortium. The US company Sangamo BioSciences uses zinc finger nucleases to carry out research into the genetic engineering of stem cells and the modif... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 108 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) are specific DNA-binding proteins that feature an array of 33 or 34-amino acid repeats. TALENs are artificial restriction enzymes designed by fusing the DNA cutting domain of a nuclease to TALE domains, which can be tailored to specifically recognize a unique DNA... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 450 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
TALEN constructs are used in a similar way to designed zinc finger nucleases, and have three advantages in targeted mutagenesis: (1) DNA binding specificity is higher, (2) off-target effects are lower, and (3) construction of DNA-binding domains is easier.
CRISPR
CRISPRs (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindr... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 491 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
TALE nucleases being the most precise and specific method yields a higher efficiency than the previous two methods. It achieves such efficiency because the DNA-binding element consists of an array of TALE subunits, each of them having the capability of recognizing a specific DNA nucleotide chain independent from others... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 414 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
The methods for scientists and researchers wanting to study genomic diversity and all possible associated phenotypes were very slow, expensive, and inefficient. Prior to this new revolution, researchers would have to do single-gene manipulations and tweak the genome one little section at a time, observe the phenotype, ... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 352 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
MAGE experiments can be divided into three classes, characterized by varying degrees of scale and complexity: (i) many target sites, single genetic mutations; (ii) single target site, many genetic mutations; and (iii) many target sites, many genetic mutations. An example of class three was reflected in 2009, where Chur... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 440 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Targeted gene modification in animals
The combination of recent discoveries in genetic engineering, particularly gene editing and the latest improvement in bovine reproduction technologies (e.g. in vitro embryo culture) allows for genome editing directly in fertilised oocytes using synthetic highly specific endonuclea... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 388 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Genome editing using Meganuclease, ZFNs, and TALEN provides a new strategy for genetic manipulation in plants and are likely to assist in the engineering of desired plant traits by modifying endogenous genes. For instance, site-specific gene addition in major crop species can be used for 'trait stacking' whereby severa... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 453 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
A common delivery method for CRISPR/Cas9 in plants is Agrobacterium-based transformation. T-DNA is introduced directly into the plant genome by a T4SS mechanism. Cas9 and gRNA-based expression cassettes are turned into Ti plasmids, which are transformed in Agrobacterium for plant application. To improve Cas9 delivery i... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 488 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Antiviral applications for therapies targeting human viruses such as HIV, herpes, and hepatitis B virus are under research. CRISPR can be used to target the virus or the host to disrupt genes encoding the virus cell-surface receptor proteins. In November 2018, He Jiankui announced that he had edited two human embryos, ... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 510 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
Genome editing occurs also as a natural process without artificial genetic engineering. The agents that are competent to edit genetic codes are viruses or subviral RNA-agents.
Although GEEN has higher efficiency than many other methods in reverse genetics, it is still not highly efficient; in many cases less than half... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 511 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
The American National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Medicine issued a report in February 2017 giving qualified support to human genome editing. They recommended that clinical trials for genome editing might one day be permitted once answers have been found to safety and efficiency problems "but only for s... | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 488 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
In 2020, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna for "the development of a method for genome editing". | Genome editing | Wikipedia | 33 | 34930586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome%20editing | Technology | Biotechnology | null |
A variety of orthopedic boots are used for the treatment of injuries of the foot or ankle. Along with orthopedic casts, leg braces, splints and orthotics, they can immobilize and shift weight bearing to help treat injuries to the foot area.
A controlled ankle motion walking boot, also referred to as a controlled ankle... | Orthopedic boot | Wikipedia | 449 | 37434964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthopedic%20boot | Technology | Devices | null |
Filasterea is a proposed basal Filozoan clade of single-celled ameboid eukaryotes that includes Ministeria and Capsaspora. It is a sister clade to the Choanozoa in which the Choanoflagellatea and Animals appeared, originally proposed by Shalchian-Tabrizi et al. in 2008, based on a phylogenomic analysis with 78 genes. F... | Filasterea | Wikipedia | 389 | 23256800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filasterea | Biology and health sciences | Eukaryotes | Plants |
Taxonomy
Class Filasterea Shalchian-Tabrizi et al. 2008
Order Ministeriida Cavalier-Smith 1997
Family Ministeriidae Cavalier-Smith 2008
Genus Ministeria Patterson et al. 1993
Ministeria marisola Patterson et al. 1993
Ministeria vibrans Tong 1997
Family Txikisporidae Urrutia, Feist & Bass 2021
Genus Txikispora Ur... | Filasterea | Wikipedia | 202 | 23256800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filasterea | Biology and health sciences | Eukaryotes | Plants |
Holozoa () is a clade of organisms that includes animals and their closest single-celled relatives, but excludes fungi and all other organisms. Together they amount to more than 1.5 million species of purely heterotrophic organisms, including around 300 unicellular species. It consists of various subgroups, namely Meta... | Holozoa | Wikipedia | 392 | 23257027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holozoa | Biology and health sciences | Eukaryotes | Plants |
Choanoflagellata, with around 250 species, are the closest living relatives of animals. They are free-living unicellular or colonial flagellates that feed on bacteria using a characteristic "collar" of microvilli. The collar of choanoflagellates closely resembles sponge collar cells, leading to theories since the 19th ... | Holozoa | Wikipedia | 420 | 23257027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holozoa | Biology and health sciences | Eukaryotes | Plants |
Genetics
The first sequenced unicellular holozoan genome was that of Monosiga brevicollis, a choanoflagellate. It measures around 41.6 mega–base-pairs (Mbp) and contains around 9200 coding genes, making it comparable in size to the genome of filamentous fungi. Animal genomes are usually larger (e.g. human genome, 2900 ... | Holozoa | Wikipedia | 511 | 23257027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holozoa | Biology and health sciences | Eukaryotes | Plants |
The quest to elucidate the evolutionary origins of animals from a unicellular ancestor requires an examination of the transition to multicellularity. In the absence of a fossil record documenting this evolution, insights into the unicellular ancestor of animals are obtained from the analysis of shared genes and genetic... | Holozoa | Wikipedia | 500 | 23257027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holozoa | Biology and health sciences | Eukaryotes | Plants |
Additionally, many biological processes seen in animals are already present in their unicellular relatives, such as sexual reproduction and gametogenesis in the choanoflagellate Salpingoeca rosetta and several types of multicellular differentiation.
Fossil record
A billion-year-old freshwater microscopic fossil name... | Holozoa | Wikipedia | 415 | 23257027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holozoa | Biology and health sciences | Eukaryotes | Plants |
Holozoa was first recognized as a clade in 2002 through a phylogenomic analysis by Franz Bernd Lang, Charles J. O'Kelly and other collaborators, as part of a paper published in the journal Current Biology. The study used complete mitochondrial genomes of a choanoflagellate (Monosiga brevicollis) and an ichthyosporean (... | Holozoa | Wikipedia | 395 | 23257027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holozoa | Biology and health sciences | Eukaryotes | Plants |
Holozoa
Incertae sedis: Bicellum brasieri
Tunicaraptor
Ichthyosporea [Mesomycetozoea ]
Dermocystida
Ichthyophonida
Pluriformea
Corallochytrium
Syssomonas
Filozoa
Filasterea
Capsaspora
Ministeria
Pigoraptor
Txikispora
Choanozoa [Choanozoa (P)]
Choanoflagellata [Choanoflagellatea ]
Craspedida
Acanthoe... | Holozoa | Wikipedia | 138 | 23257027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holozoa | Biology and health sciences | Eukaryotes | Plants |
Bay mud consists of thick deposits of soft, unconsolidated silty clay, which is saturated with water; these soil layers are situated at the bottom of certain estuaries, which are normally in temperate regions that have experienced cyclical glacial cycles.
Example locations are Cape Cod Bay, Chongming Dongtan Reserve... | Bay mud | Wikipedia | 446 | 5387354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay%20mud | Physical sciences | Oceanic and coastal landforms | Earth science |
Bay muds originate from two generalized sources. First alluvial deposits of clays, silts and sand occur from streams tributary to a given bay. The extent of these unconsolidated interglacial deposits typically ranges throughout a given bay to the extent of the historical perimeter marshlands. Second, in periods of h... | Bay mud | Wikipedia | 473 | 5387354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay%20mud | Physical sciences | Oceanic and coastal landforms | Earth science |
A number of notable buildings have been constructed over bay muds, typically employing special mitigation designs to withstand seismic risks and settlement issues. Complicating design issues, fill (beginning about 1850 CE) is sometimes found deposited on the surface level. For example, the Dakin Building in Brisbane,... | Bay mud | Wikipedia | 458 | 5387354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay%20mud | Physical sciences | Oceanic and coastal landforms | Earth science |
Bay muds occur in bays and estuaries throughout the temperate regions of the world. In North America, prominent instances are: (a) the Stellwagen Bank formed 16,000 to 9000 BCE by glaciation of Cape Cod Bay in Massachusetts, (b) Florida Bay, (c) in California Morro Bay and San Francisco Bay and (d) Knik & Turnagain Ar... | Bay mud | Wikipedia | 390 | 5387354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay%20mud | Physical sciences | Oceanic and coastal landforms | Earth science |
In the case of dredging within the United States, a permit is almost always required from the United States Army Corps of Engineers, after submission of extensive data on the project limits, chemical properties of the bay muds to be disturbed, a dredge disposal plan and often a complete Environmental Impact Statement ... | Bay mud | Wikipedia | 464 | 5387354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay%20mud | Physical sciences | Oceanic and coastal landforms | Earth science |
Sea level rise
Sea level rise will have a huge impact on the ecosystems surrounding and within bays all across the globe. Sea level rise in California will completely engulf bay mud that makes up San Francisco Bay. In order to deal with sea level rise the California Coastal Commission has adopted policy guidelines to ... | Bay mud | Wikipedia | 61 | 5387354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay%20mud | Physical sciences | Oceanic and coastal landforms | Earth science |
Arduino () is an Italian open-source hardware and software company, project, and user community that designs and manufactures single-board microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for building digital devices. Its hardware products are licensed under a CC BY-SA license, while the software is licensed under the GNU Les... | Arduino | Wikipedia | 433 | 5389424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino | Technology | Specific hardware | null |
The Arduino project was started at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (IDII) in Ivrea, Italy. At that time, the students used a BASIC Stamp microcontroller at a cost of $50. In 2004, Hernando Barragán created the development platform Wiring as a Master's thesis project at IDII, under the supervision of Massimo Banz... | Arduino | Wikipedia | 406 | 5389424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino | Technology | Specific hardware | null |
At the end of 2008, Gianluca Martino's company, Smart Projects, registered the Arduino trademark in Italy and kept this a secret from the other co-founders for about two years. This was revealed when the Arduino company tried to register the trademark in other areas of the world (they originally registered only in the ... | Arduino | Wikipedia | 456 | 5389424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino | Technology | Specific hardware | null |
By 2017 Arduino AG owned many Arduino trademarks. In July 2017 BCMI, founded by Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, David Mellis and Tom Igoe, acquired Arduino AG and all the Arduino trademarks. Fabio Violante is the new CEO replacing Federico Musto, who no longer works for Arduino AG.
Post-dispute
In October 2017, Ard... | Arduino | Wikipedia | 419 | 5389424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino | Technology | Specific hardware | null |
Most Arduino boards consist of an Atmel 8-bit AVR microcontroller (ATmega8, ATmega168, ATmega328, ATmega1280, or ATmega2560) with varying amounts of flash memory, pins, and features. The 32-bit Arduino Due, based on the Atmel SAM3X8E was introduced in 2012. The boards use single or double-row pins or female headers tha... | Arduino | Wikipedia | 441 | 5389424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino | Technology | Specific hardware | null |
The Arduino board exposes most of the microcontroller's I/O pins for use by other circuits. The Diecimila, Duemilanove, and current Uno provide 14 digital I/O pins, six of which can produce pulse-width modulated signals, and six analog inputs, which can also be used as six digital I/O pins. These pins are on the top of... | Arduino | Wikipedia | 460 | 5389424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino | Technology | Specific hardware | null |
The Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is a cross-platform application (for Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux) that is based on Processing IDE which is written in Java. It uses the Wiring API as programming style and HAL. It includes a code editor with features such as text cutting and pasting, searchin... | Arduino | Wikipedia | 461 | 5389424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino | Technology | Specific hardware | null |
The system still uses Arduino CLI (Command Line Interface), but improvements include a more professional development environment and autocompletion support. The application frontend is based on the Eclipse Theia Open Source IDE. Its main new features are:
Modern, fully featured development environment
New Board Manag... | Arduino | Wikipedia | 412 | 5389424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino | Technology | Specific hardware | null |
Most Arduino boards contain a light-emitting diode (LED) and a current-limiting resistor connected between pin 13 and ground, which is a convenient feature for many tests and program functions. A typical program used by beginners, akin to Hello, World!, is "blink", which repeatedly blinks the on-board LED integrated in... | Arduino | Wikipedia | 399 | 5389424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino | Technology | Specific hardware | null |
Applications
Arduboy, a handheld game console based on Arduino
Arduinome, a MIDI controller device that mimics the Monome
Ardupilot, drone software and hardware
ArduSat, a cubesat based on Arduino
C-STEM Studio, a platform for hands-on integrated learning of computing, science, technology, engineering, and mathema... | Arduino | Wikipedia | 203 | 5389424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino | Technology | Specific hardware | null |
A feral horse is a free-roaming horse of domesticated stock. As such, a feral horse is not a wild animal in the sense of an animal without domesticated ancestors. However, some populations of feral horses are managed as wildlife, and these horses often are popularly called "wild" horses. Feral horses are descended f... | Feral horse | Wikipedia | 355 | 5390350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral%20horse | Biology and health sciences | Equidae | Animals |
Americas
The best-known examples of modern day "wild" horses are those of the American West. When Europeans reintroduced the horse to the Americas, beginning with the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the 15th century, some horses escaped and formed feral herds known today as mustangs. Isolated populations of wi... | Feral horse | Wikipedia | 479 | 5390350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral%20horse | Biology and health sciences | Equidae | Animals |
Oceania
Australia has the largest population in the world, with about 400,000 horses. The Australian name equivalent to the mustang is the brumby, descendants of horses brought to Australia by British settlers.
Modern feral horses
Modern types of feral horses that have a significant percentage of their number living ... | Feral horse | Wikipedia | 80 | 5390350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral%20horse | Biology and health sciences | Equidae | Animals |
Africa
Kundudo horse, in the Kundudo region, Ethiopia; threatened with extinction
Namib desert horse in Namibia
North America
see also Free-roaming horse management in North America
Alberta Mountain Horse or Alberta Wildie, in the foothills of the Eastern Slopes of the Rocky Mountains of Alberta, Canada
Banker h... | Feral horse | Wikipedia | 512 | 5390350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral%20horse | Biology and health sciences | Equidae | Animals |
Semi-feral horses
In the United Kingdom, herds of free-roaming ponies live in apparently wild conditions in various areas, notably Dartmoor, Exmoor, Cumbria (Fell Pony), and the New Forest. Similar horse and pony populations exist elsewhere on the European continent. These animals, however, are not truly feral, as al... | Feral horse | Wikipedia | 477 | 5390350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral%20horse | Biology and health sciences | Equidae | Animals |
If a feral population lives close to civilization, their behavior can lead them to damage human-built livestock fencing and related structures. In some cases, where feral horses compete with domestic livestock, particularly on public lands where multiple uses are permitted, such as in the Western United States, there i... | Feral horse | Wikipedia | 272 | 5390350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral%20horse | Biology and health sciences | Equidae | Animals |
In mechanics, a constant of motion is a physical quantity conserved throughout the motion, imposing in effect a constraint on the motion. However, it is a mathematical constraint, the natural consequence of the equations of motion, rather than a physical constraint (which would require extra constraint forces). Commo... | Constant of motion | Wikipedia | 492 | 5391037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant%20of%20motion | Physical sciences | Classical mechanics | Physics |
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