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Lobate: the anterior digits (2–4) are edged with lobes of skin. Lobes expand or contract when a bird swims. In grebes, coots, phalaropes, finfoots and some palmate-footed ducks on the hallux (1). Grebes have more webbing between the toes than coots and phalaropes.
The palmate foot is most common. | Webbed foot | Wikipedia | 86 | 53769380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webbed%20foot | Biology and health sciences | External anatomy and regions of the body | Biology |
Mammals
Some semiaquatic mammals have webbed feet. Most of these have interdigital webbing, as opposed to the syndactyly found in birds. Some notable examples include the platypus, the beaver, the otter, and the water opossum. Capybaras have slightly webbed feet, while hippopotamuses have webbed toes.
Function
Swim... | Webbed foot | Wikipedia | 399 | 53769380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webbed%20foot | Biology and health sciences | External anatomy and regions of the body | Biology |
Most fully aquatic vertebrates do not use paddling modes of locomotion, instead using undulatory modes of locomotion or flipper locomotion. Fully aquatic mammals and animals typically have flippers instead of webbed feet, which are a more heavily specialized and modified limb. It is hypothesized that an evolutionary tr... | Webbed foot | Wikipedia | 469 | 53769380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webbed%20foot | Biology and health sciences | External anatomy and regions of the body | Biology |
Terrestrial locomotion
While webbed feet have mainly arisen in swimming species, they can also aid in terrestrial locomotors by increasing contact area on slick or soft surfaces. For P. rangei, the Namib sand gecko, their webbed feet may serve as sand shoes that enable them to move atop sand dunes. However, some ecolo... | Webbed foot | Wikipedia | 194 | 53769380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webbed%20foot | Biology and health sciences | External anatomy and regions of the body | Biology |
In fluid dynamics, Taylor–Culick flow describes the axisymmetric flow inside a long slender cylinder with one end closed, supplied by a constant flow injection through the sidewall. The flow is named after Geoffrey Ingram Taylor and F. E. C. Culick. In 1956, Taylor showed that when a fluid forced into porous sheet of c... | Taylor–Culick flow | Wikipedia | 453 | 60117345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor%E2%80%93Culick%20flow | Physical sciences | Fluid mechanics | Physics |
Lifting equipment, also known as lifting gear, is a general term for any equipment that can be used to lift and lower loads. Types of lifting equipment include heavy machinery such as the patient lift, overhead cranes, forklifts, jacks, building cradles, and passenger lifts, and can also include smaller accessories suc... | Lifting equipment | Wikipedia | 392 | 36660129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifting%20equipment | Technology | Tools | null |
Lifting equipment can be assigned a Working Load Limit (WLL) in the interests of avoiding failure; Working Load Limit is calculated by dividing the Minimum Breaking Load of the equipment by a safety factor. WLL as a concept is not restricted to lifting, being also relevant for mooring ropes. Minimum Breaking Load is al... | Lifting equipment | Wikipedia | 123 | 36660129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifting%20equipment | Technology | Tools | null |
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning that focuses on utilizing neural networks to perform tasks such as classification, regression, and representation learning. The field takes inspiration from biological neuroscience and is centered around stacking artificial neurons into layers and "training" them to process... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 427 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Importantly, a deep learning process can learn which features to optimally place at which level on its own. Prior to deep learning, machine learning techniques often involved hand-crafted feature engineering to transform the data into a more suitable representation for a classification algorithm to operate on. In the d... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 500 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
The classic universal approximation theorem concerns the capacity of feedforward neural networks with a single hidden layer of finite size to approximate continuous functions. In 1989, the first proof was published by George Cybenko for sigmoid activation functions and was generalised to feed-forward multi-layer archit... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 470 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Frank Rosenblatt (1958) proposed the perceptron, an MLP with 3 layers: an input layer, a hidden layer with randomized weights that did not learn, and an output layer. He later published a 1962 book that also introduced variants and computer experiments, including a version with four-layer perceptrons "with adaptive pre... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 507 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Backpropagation is an efficient application of the chain rule derived by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1673 to networks of differentiable nodes. The terminology "back-propagating errors" was actually introduced in 1962 by Rosenblatt, but he did not know how to implement this, although Henry J. Kelley had a continuous pr... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 462 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
In the 1980s, backpropagation did not work well for deep learning with long credit assignment paths. To overcome this problem, in 1991, Jürgen Schmidhuber proposed a hierarchy of RNNs pre-trained one level at a time by self-supervised learning where each RNN tries to predict its own next input, which is the next unexpe... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 414 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
During 1985–1995, inspired by statistical mechanics, several architectures and methods were developed by Terry Sejnowski, Peter Dayan, Geoffrey Hinton, etc., including the Boltzmann machine, restricted Boltzmann machine, Helmholtz machine, and the wake-sleep algorithm. These were designed for unsupervised learning of d... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 503 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
In 2003, LSTM became competitive with traditional speech recognizers on certain tasks. In 2006, Alex Graves, Santiago Fernández, Faustino Gomez, and Schmidhuber combined it with connectionist temporal classification (CTC) in stacks of LSTMs. In 2009, it became the first RNN to win a pattern recognition contest, in conn... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 230 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
The 2009 NIPS Workshop on Deep Learning for Speech Recognition was motivated by the limitations of deep generative models of speech, and the possibility that given more capable hardware and large-scale data sets that deep neural nets might become practical. It was believed that pre-training DNNs using generative models... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 469 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
In 2011, a CNN named DanNet by Dan Ciresan, Ueli Meier, Jonathan Masci, Luca Maria Gambardella, and Jürgen Schmidhuber achieved for the first time superhuman performance in a visual pattern recognition contest, outperforming traditional methods by a factor of 3. It then won more contests. They also showed how max-pooli... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 375 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Generative adversarial network (GAN) by (Ian Goodfellow et al., 2014) (based on Jürgen Schmidhuber's principle of artificial curiosity)
became state of the art in generative modeling during 2014-2018 period. Excellent image quality is achieved by Nvidia's StyleGAN (2018) based on the Progressive GAN by Tero Karras et ... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 400 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Artificial neural networks (ANNs) or connectionist systems are computing systems inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. Such systems learn (progressively improve their ability) to do tasks by considering examples, generally without task-specific programming. For example, in image reco... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 442 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Deep neural networks
A deep neural network (DNN) is an artificial neural network with multiple layers between the input and output layers. There are different types of neural networks but they always consist of the same components: neurons, synapses, weights, biases, and functions. These components as a whole function... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 486 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Challenges
As with ANNs, many issues can arise with naively trained DNNs. Two common issues are overfitting and computation time.
DNNs are prone to overfitting because of the added layers of abstraction, which allow them to model rare dependencies in the training data. Regularization methods such as Ivakhnenko's unit... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 422 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Hardware
Since the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more efficient methods for training deep neural networks that contain many layers of non-linear hidden units and a very large output layer. By 2019, graphics processing units (GPUs), often with AI-specific enhancem... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 486 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
The initial success in speech recognition was based on small-scale recognition tasks based on TIMIT. The data set contains 630 speakers from eight major dialects of American English, where each speaker reads 10 sentences. Its small size lets many configurations be tried. More importantly, the TIMIT task concerns phone-... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 473 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Closely related to the progress that has been made in image recognition is the increasing application of deep learning techniques to various visual art tasks. DNNs have proven themselves capable, for example, of
identifying the style period of a given painting
Neural Style Transfer capturing the style of a given artwor... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 446 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
A large percentage of candidate drugs fail to win regulatory approval. These failures are caused by insufficient efficacy (on-target effect), undesired interactions (off-target effects), or unanticipated toxic effects. Research has explored use of deep learning to predict the biomolecular targets, off-targets, and toxi... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 424 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Deep Neural Network Estimations
Deep neural networks can be used to estimate the entropy of a stochastic process and called Neural Joint Entropy Estimator (NJEE). Such an estimation provides insights on the effects of input random variables on an independent random variable. Practically, the DNN is trained as a classi... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 433 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Materials science
In November 2023, researchers at Google DeepMind and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory announced that they had developed an AI system known as GNoME. This system has contributed to materials science by discovering over 2 million new materials within a relatively short timeframe. GNoME employs dee... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 425 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
In addition, the integration of Physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) into the deep BSDE framework enhances its capability by embedding the underlying physical laws directly into the neural network architecture. This ensures that the solutions not only fit the data but also adhere to the governing stochastic differe... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 333 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Relation to human cognitive and brain development
Deep learning is closely related to a class of theories of brain development (specifically, neocortical development) proposed by cognitive neuroscientists in the early 1990s. These developmental theories were instantiated in computational models, making them predecesso... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 463 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Google's DeepMind Technologies developed a system capable of learning how to play Atari video games using only pixels as data input. In 2015 they demonstrated their AlphaGo system, which learned the game of Go well enough to beat a professional Go player. Google Translate uses a neural network to translate between more... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 376 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Others point out that deep learning should be looked at as a step towards realizing strong AI, not as an all-encompassing solution. Despite the power of deep learning methods, they still lack much of the functionality needed to realize this goal entirely. Research psychologist Gary Marcus noted:
Realistically, deep lea... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 444 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Cyber threat
As deep learning moves from the lab into the world, research and experience show that artificial neural networks are vulnerable to hacks and deception. By identifying patterns that these systems use to function, attackers can modify inputs to ANNs in such a way that the ANN finds a match that human observ... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 448 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Data collection ethics
The deep learning systems that are trained using supervised learning often rely on data that is created and/or annotated by humans. It has been argued that not only low-paid clickwork (such as on Amazon Mechanical Turk) is regularly deployed for this purpose, but also implicit forms of human mic... | Deep learning | Wikipedia | 210 | 32472154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20learning | Technology | Artificial intelligence concepts | null |
Vulkan is a low-level, low-overhead cross-platform API and open standard for 3D graphics and computing. It was intended to address the shortcomings of OpenGL, and allow developers more control over the GPU. It is designed to support a wide variety of GPUs, CPUs and operating systems, and it is also designed to work wit... | Vulkan | Wikipedia | 434 | 45578566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkan | Technology | Software development: General | null |
Cross-platform
Vulkan is available on multiple modern operating systems and architectures, and provides a single API for both desktop and mobile graphics devices, whereas previously these were split between OpenGL and OpenGL ES respectively. Like OpenGL, and in contrast to Direct3D 12, the Vulkan API is not locked to ... | Vulkan | Wikipedia | 501 | 45578566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkan | Technology | Software development: General | null |
Others
Vulkan provides unified management of compute kernels and graphical shaders, eliminating the need to use a separate compute API in conjunction with a graphics API.
Ray tracing is provided in a set of cross-vendor extensions, which together are analogous to the OptiX and DirectX Raytracing APIs. No such functi... | Vulkan | Wikipedia | 474 | 45578566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkan | Technology | Software development: General | null |
Vulkan 1.2
On January 15, 2020, Vulkan 1.2 was released by the Khronos Group. This second major update to the API integrates 23 additional commonly-used proven Vulkan extensions into the base Vulkan standard. Some of the most important features are "timeline semaphores for easily managed synchronization", "a formal mem... | Vulkan | Wikipedia | 511 | 45578566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkan | Technology | Software development: General | null |
2015
In early 2015, LunarG (funded by Valve) developed and showcased a Linux driver for Intel which enabled Vulkan compatibility on the HD 4000 series integrated graphics, despite the open-source Mesa drivers not being fully compatible with OpenGL 4.0 until later that year. There is still the possibility of Sandy Bridg... | Vulkan | Wikipedia | 486 | 45578566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkan | Technology | Software development: General | null |
On February 3, 2020, the Raspberry Pi Foundation announced that it was working on an open source Vulkan driver for their Raspberry Pi, a popular single board computer. On June 20, 2020, a graphics engineer revealed that he had created one after two years of work that was capable of running VkQuake3 at over 100FPS on th... | Vulkan | Wikipedia | 474 | 45578566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkan | Technology | Software development: General | null |
On Linux, as of March 2023 there is incomplete Vulkan support for Haswell with it not being Vulkan 1.0 compliant. Apart from Haswell, Ivy Bridge and Broadwell are also supported by a legacy Vulkan driver in Mesa called HASVK. Skylake and newer being supported by a driver in Mesa called ANV.
AMD
On Windows, Vulkan 1.2... | Vulkan | Wikipedia | 504 | 45578566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkan | Technology | Software development: General | null |
Apple
As of June 2022, Apple devices do not provide native support for the Vulkan API. Vulkan support is available via the open-source library MoltenVK, which provides a Vulkan implementation on top of the Metal graphics API provided on iOS and macOS devices, though it has some limitations in regards to certain advanc... | Vulkan | Wikipedia | 488 | 45578566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkan | Technology | Software development: General | null |
Climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities occurs everywhere on Earth, and while Antarctica is less vulnerable to it than any other continent, climate change in Antarctica has been observed. Since 1959, there has been an average temperature increase of >0.05 °C/decade since 1957 across the ... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 440 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The West Antarctic ice sheet is likely to completely melt unless temperatures are reduced by below 2020 levels. The loss of this ice sheet would take between 2,000 and 13,000 years, although several centuries of high greenhouse emissions could shorten this time to 500 years. A sea-level rise of would occur if the ice... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 425 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
There were fewer than twenty permanent weather stations across the continent and only two in the continent's interior. Automatic weather stations were deployed relatively late, and their observational record was brief for much of the 20th century satellite temperature measurements began in 1981 and are typically limite... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 363 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
By 2009, researchers were able to combine historical weather-station data with satellite measurements to create consistent temperature records going back to 1957 that demonstrated warming of >0.05 °C/decade since 1957 across the continent, with cooling in East Antarctica offset by the average temperature increase of at... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 497 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Between 1971 and 2018, over 90% of thermal energy from global heating entered the oceans. The Southern Ocean absorbs the most heat; after 2005, it accounted for between 67% and 98% of all heat entering the oceans. The temperature in the ocean's upper layer in West Antarctica has warmed by since 1955, and the Antarctic... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 372 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
As bottom water weakens while the flow of warmer, fresher waters strengthens near the surface, the surface waters become more buoyant, and less likely to sink and mix with the lower layers, increasing ocean stratification. One study says the strength of the circulation would halve by 2050 under the worst climate-change... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 266 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Contrasting temperature trends across parts of Antarctica mean that some locations, particularly at the coasts, lose mass while locations further inland continue to gain mass. These contrasting trends and the remoteness of the region make estimating an average trend difficult. In 2018, a systematic review of all previo... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 475 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
By 2100, net ice loss from Antarctica is expected to add about to global sea-level rise. Other processes may cause West Antarctica to contribute more to sea-level rise. Marine ice-sheet instability is the potential for warm water currents to enter between the seafloor and the base of the ice sheet once the sheet is no... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 356 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Over longer timescales, the West Antarctic ice sheet, which is much smaller than the East Antarctic ice sheet and is grounded deep below sea level, is considered highly vulnerable. The melting of all of the ice in West Antarctica would increase global sea-level rise to . Mountain ice caps that are not in contact with w... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 475 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The loss of all of this ice would add between and to sea levels, depending on the ice sheet model used. Isostatic rebound of the newly ice-free land would add between and . Evidence from the Pleistocene shows partial loss can occur at lower warming levels; Wilkes Basin is estimated to have lost enough ice to add to... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 485 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Unlike the Arctic, there has been little change in marine primary production across the Southern Ocean in the available observations. Estimates say an increase in Southern Ocean primary production could occur after 2100; this increase would block many nutrients from travelling to other oceans, leading to decreased prod... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 390 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Climate change is particularly threatening to penguins. As early as 2008, it was estimated every Southern Ocean temperature increase of reduces king penguin populations by nine percent. Under the worst-case warming scenario, king penguins will permanently lose at least two of their current eight breeding sites, and 70... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 491 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Tourism in Antarctica has significantly increased since 2020; 74,400 tourists arrived there in late 2019 and early 2020. The development of Antarctica for the purposes of industry, tourism, and an increase in research facilities may put pressure on the continent and threaten its status as largely untouched land. Regula... | Climate change in Antarctica | Wikipedia | 289 | 46905624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20in%20Antarctica | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The Galactic cloud, G cloud, G-Cloud or G-Cloud complex, is an interstellar cloud located next to the Local Interstellar Cloud, within the Local Bubble. It is unknown whether the Solar System is embedded in the Local Interstellar Cloud or in the region where the two clouds are interacting, although the Solar System is... | G-Cloud | Wikipedia | 155 | 36672320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-Cloud | Physical sciences | Notable patches of universe | Astronomy |
Seasonal tropical forest, also known as moist deciduous, semi-evergreen seasonal, tropical mixed or monsoon forest, typically contains a range of tree species: only some of which drop some or all of their leaves during the dry season. This tropical forest is classified under the Walter system as (i) tropical climate wi... | Seasonal tropical forest | Wikipedia | 344 | 48593539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal%20tropical%20forest | Physical sciences | Forests | Earth science |
The climate of seasonal forests is typically controlled by a system called the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), located near the equator and created by the convergence of the trade winds from the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The position of these bands vary seasonally, moving north in the northern summer an... | Seasonal tropical forest | Wikipedia | 476 | 48593539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal%20tropical%20forest | Physical sciences | Forests | Earth science |
Information technology (IT) is a set of related fields that encompass computer systems, software, programming languages, data and information processing, and storage. IT forms part of information and communications technology (ICT). An information technology system (IT system) is generally an information system, a comm... | Information technology | Wikipedia | 451 | 36674345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20technology | Technology | Basics_3 | null |
Ideas of computer science were first mentioned before the 1950s under the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard University, where they had discussed and began thinking of computer circuits and numerical calculations. As time went on, the field of information technology and computer science became mor... | Information technology | Wikipedia | 504 | 36674345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20technology | Technology | Basics_3 | null |
Several other breakthroughs in semiconductor technology include the integrated circuit (IC) invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, silicon dioxide surface passivation by Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick in 1955, the first planar silicon dioxide transistors by Fro... | Information technology | Wikipedia | 491 | 36674345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20technology | Technology | Basics_3 | null |
Early electronic computers such as Colossus made use of punched tape, a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes, a technology now obsolete. Electronic data storage, which is used in modern computers, dates from World War II, when a form of delay-line memory was developed to remove the clu... | Information technology | Wikipedia | 498 | 36674345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20technology | Technology | Basics_3 | null |
In recent years, the extensible markup language (XML) has become a popular format for data representation. Although XML data can be stored in normal file systems, it is commonly held in relational databases to take advantage of their "robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort." As... | Information technology | Wikipedia | 379 | 36674345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20technology | Technology | Basics_3 | null |
Email
The technology and services it provides for sending and receiving electronic messages (called "letters" or "electronic letters") over a distributed (including global) computer network. In terms of the composition of elements and the principle of operation, electronic mail practically repeats the system of regula... | Information technology | Wikipedia | 416 | 36674345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20technology | Technology | Basics_3 | null |
Commercial effects
Companies in the information technology field are often discussed as a group as the "tech sector" or the "tech industry." These titles can be misleading at times and should not be mistaken for "tech companies;" which are generally large scale, for-profit corporations that sell consumer technology a... | Information technology | Wikipedia | 504 | 36674345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20technology | Technology | Basics_3 | null |
IT projects
Research suggests that IT projects in business and public administration can easily become significant in scale. Work conducted by McKinsey in collaboration with the University of Oxford suggested that half of all large-scale IT projects (those with initial cost estimates of $15 million or more) often faile... | Information technology | Wikipedia | 70 | 36674345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20technology | Technology | Basics_3 | null |
Taxonomy is a practice and science concerned with classification or categorization. Typically, there are two parts to it: the development of an underlying scheme of classes (a taxonomy) and the allocation of things to the classes (classification).
Originally, taxonomy referred only to the classification of organisms o... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 509 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
By contrast, in the context of legal terminology, an open-ended contextual taxonomy is employed—a taxonomy holding only with respect to a specific context. In scenarios taken from the legal domain, a formal account of the open-texture of legal terms is modeled, which suggests varying notions of the "core" and "penumbra... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 385 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Taxonomy in biology encompasses the description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms. Uses of taxonomy include:
Alpha taxonomy, the description and basic classification of new species, subspecies, and other taxa
Linnaean taxonomy, the original classification scheme of Carl Linnaeus
rank-base... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 483 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Engström et al. suggest and evaluate the use of a taxonomy to bridge the communication between researchers and practitioners engaged in the area of software testing. They have also developed a web-based tool to facilitate and encourage the use of the taxonomy. The tool and its source code are available for public use.
... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 335 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Research publishing
Citing inadequacies with current practices in listing authors of papers in medical research journals, Drummond Rennie and co-authors called in a 1997 article in JAMA, the Journal of the American Medical Association for
a radical conceptual and systematic change, to reflect the realities of multipl... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 462 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
About conceptual classification Suppe wrote: "Classification is intrinsic to the use of language, hence to most if not all communication. Whenever we use nominative phrases we are classifying the designated subject as being importantly similar to other entities bearing the same designation; that is, we classify them to... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 408 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
In linguistics, is-a relations are called hyponymy. When one word describes a category, but another describe some subset of that category, the larger term is called a hypernym with respect to the smaller, and the smaller is called a "hyponym" with respect to the larger. Such a hyponym, in turn, may have further subcate... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 237 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
There is a widespread opinion in knowledge organization and related fields that such classes corresponds to concepts. We can, for example, classify "waterfowls" into the classes "ducks", "geese", and "swans"; we can also say, however, that the concept “waterfowl” is a generic broader term in relation to the concepts "d... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 506 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Hull (1998) continued: "Two fundamentally different sorts of classification are those that reflect structural organization and those that are systematically related to historical development." What is referred to is that in biological classification the anatomical traits of organisms is one kind of classification, the ... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 326 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Logical and rationalist approaches
Logical division, or logical partitioning (top-down classification or downward classification) is an approach that divides a class into subclasses and then divide subclasses into their subclasses, and so on, which finally forms a tree of classes. The root of the tree is the original ... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 411 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Historical and hermeneutical approaches
Genealogical classification is classification of items according to their common heritage. This must also be done on the basis of some empirical characteristics, but these characteristics are developed by the theory of evolution. Charles Darwin's main contribution to classificat... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 472 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Artificial versus natural classification
Natural classification is a concept closely related to the concept natural kind. Carl Linnaeus is often recognized as the first scholar to clearly have differentiated "artificial" and "natural" classifications A natural classification is one, using Plato's metaphor, that is “ca... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 449 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Taxonomic monism vs. pluralism
Stamos (2004) wrote: "The fact is, modern scientists classify atoms into elements based on proton number rather than anything else because it alone is the causally privileged factor [gold is atomic number 79 in the periodic table because it has 79 protons in its nucleus]. Thus nature its... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 339 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Bursten (2020) wrote, however "Hepler-Smith, a historian of chemistry, and I, a philosopher whose work often draws on chemistry, found common ground in a shared frustration with our disciplines’ emphases on the chemical elements as the stereotypical example of a natural kind. The frustration we shared was that while th... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 455 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Hornbostel–Sachs classification of musical instruments
Hornbostel–Sachs is a system of musical instrument classification devised by Erich Moritz von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs, and first published in 1914. In the original classification, the top categories are:
Idiophones: instruments that rely on the body of the inst... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 499 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
Business, organizations, and economics
Classification of customers, for marketing (as in Master data management) or for profitability (e.g. by Activity-based costing)
Classified information, as in legal or government documentation
Job classification, as in job analysis
Standard Industrial Classification, economic ... | Taxonomy | Wikipedia | 347 | 36675611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | Physical sciences | Science basics | Basics and measurement |
The Laniakea Supercluster (; Hawaiian for "open skies" or "immense heaven") or the Local Supercluster (LSC or LS) is the galaxy supercluster that is home to the Milky Way and approximately 100,000 other nearby galaxies.
It was defined in September 2014, when a group of astronomers including R. Brent Tully of the Unive... | Laniakea Supercluster | Wikipedia | 448 | 43733503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laniakea%20Supercluster | Physical sciences | Notable galaxy clusters | Astronomy |
The most massive galaxy clusters of the Laniakea Supercluster are Virgo, Hydra, Centaurus, Abell 3565, Abell 3574, Abell 3521, Fornax, Eridanus, and Norma. The entire supercluster consists of approximately 300 to 500 known galaxy clusters and groups. The real number may be much larger because some of these are traversi... | Laniakea Supercluster | Wikipedia | 445 | 43733503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laniakea%20Supercluster | Physical sciences | Notable galaxy clusters | Astronomy |
The Local Sheet in astronomy is a nearby extragalactic region of space where the Milky Way, the members of the Local Group and other galaxies share a similar peculiar velocity. This region lies within a radius of about , thick, and galaxies beyond that distance show markedly different velocities. The Local Group has o... | Local Sheet | Wikipedia | 334 | 32501050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local%20Sheet | Physical sciences | Notable galaxy clusters | Astronomy |
Estimation (or estimating) is the process of finding an estimate or approximation, which is a value that is usable for some purpose even if input data may be incomplete, uncertain, or unstable. The value is nonetheless usable because it is derived from the best information available. Typically, estimation involves "usi... | Estimation | Wikipedia | 340 | 36687154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estimation | Mathematics | Basics | null |
In making an estimate, the goal is often most useful to generate a range of possible outcomes that is precise enough to be useful but not so precise that it is likely to be inaccurate. For example, in trying to guess the number of candies in the jar, if fifty were visible, and the total volume of the jar seemed to be a... | Estimation | Wikipedia | 437 | 36687154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estimation | Mathematics | Basics | null |
Estimation is important in business and economics because too many variables exist to figure out how large-scale activities will develop. Estimation in project planning can be particularly significant, because plans for the distribution of labor and purchases of raw materials must be made, despite the inability to know... | Estimation | Wikipedia | 262 | 36687154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estimation | Mathematics | Basics | null |
A circumstellar disc (or circumstellar disk) is a torus, pancake or ring-shaped accretion disk of matter composed of gas, dust, planetesimals, asteroids, or collision fragments in orbit around a star. Around the youngest stars, they are the reservoirs of material out of which planets may form. Around mature stars, they... | Circumstellar disc | Wikipedia | 475 | 48609118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar%20disc | Physical sciences | Stellar astronomy | Astronomy |
The infall of gas onto a binary system allows the formation of circumstellar and circumbinary discs. The formation of such a disc will occur for any binary system in which infalling gas contains some degree of angular momentum. A general progression of disc formation is observed with increasing levels of angular moment... | Circumstellar disc | Wikipedia | 437 | 48609118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar%20disc | Physical sciences | Stellar astronomy | Astronomy |
Short-Term Variability
The indicative timescale that governs the short-term evolution of accretion onto binaries within circumbinary disks is the binary's orbital period . Accretion into the inner cavity is not constant, and varies depending on and the behavior of the gas along the innermost region of the cavity. For... | Circumstellar disc | Wikipedia | 488 | 48609118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar%20disc | Physical sciences | Stellar astronomy | Astronomy |
Strong evidence of tilted disks is seen in the systems Her X-1, SMC X-1, and SS 433 (among others), where a periodic line-of-sight blockage of X-ray emissions is seen on the order of 50–200 days; much slower than the systems' binary orbit of ~1 day. The periodic blockage is believed to result from precession of a circu... | Circumstellar disc | Wikipedia | 431 | 48609118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar%20disc | Physical sciences | Stellar astronomy | Astronomy |
Stages in circumstellar discs refer to the structure and the main composition of the disc at different times during its evolution. Stages include the phases when the disc is composed mainly of submicron-sized particles, the evolution of these particles into grains and larger objects, the agglomeration of larger objects... | Circumstellar disc | Wikipedia | 457 | 48609118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar%20disc | Physical sciences | Stellar astronomy | Astronomy |
Dissipation is a process that occurs continuously in circumstellar discs throughout the lifetime of the central star, and at the same time, for the same stage, is a process that is present in different parts of the disc. Dissipation can be divided in inner disc dissipation, mid-disc dissipation, and outer disc dissipat... | Circumstellar disc | Wikipedia | 504 | 48609118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar%20disc | Physical sciences | Stellar astronomy | Astronomy |
Viscosity in the disc, whether molecular, turbulent or other, transports angular momentum outwards in the disc and most of the mass inwards, eventually accreting onto the central object. The mass accretion onto the star in terms of the disc viscosity is expressed:
where is the inner radius.
Direct imaging
Protop... | Circumstellar disc | Wikipedia | 346 | 48609118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar%20disc | Physical sciences | Stellar astronomy | Astronomy |
Increasing methane emissions are a major contributor to the rising concentration of greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere, and are responsible for up to one-third of near-term global heating. During 2019, about 60% (360 million tons) of methane released globally was from human activities, while natural sources contrib... | Methane emissions | Wikipedia | 438 | 53830256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane%20emissions | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
The atmospheric methane (CH4) concentration is increasing and exceeded 1860 parts per billion in 2019, equal to two-and-a-half times the pre-industrial level. The methane itself causes direct radiative forcing that is second only to that of carbon dioxide (CO2). Due to interactions with oxygen compounds stimulated by ... | Methane emissions | Wikipedia | 499 | 53830256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane%20emissions | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Natural sources have always been a part of the methane cycle. Wetland emissions have been declining due to draining for agricultural and building areas.
Methanogenesis
Most ecological emissions of methane relate directly to methanogens generating methane in warm, moist soils as well as in the digestive tracts of cer... | Methane emissions | Wikipedia | 479 | 53830256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane%20emissions | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
For example, plants that produce methane can emit as much as two to four times more methane during the day than during the night. This is directly related to the fact that plants tend to rely on solar energy to enact chemical processes.
Additionally, methane emissions are affected by the level of water sources. Season... | Methane emissions | Wikipedia | 479 | 53830256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane%20emissions | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
Increases in methane levels due to modern human activities arise from a number of specific sources including industrial activity; from extraction of oil and natural gas from underground reserves; transportation via pipeline of oil and natural gas; and thawing permafrost in Arctic regions, due to global warming which is... | Methane emissions | Wikipedia | 386 | 53830256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane%20emissions | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
A 2013 study by a team of researchers led by Scot M. Miller, said that U.S. greenhouse gas reduction policies in 2013 were based on what appeared to be significant underestimates of anthropogenic methane emissions. The article said, that "greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and fossil fuel extraction and processi... | Methane emissions | Wikipedia | 512 | 53830256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane%20emissions | Physical sciences | Climate change | Earth science |
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