Split (1)

train · 123k rows

text stringlengths 26 3.6k	page_title stringlengths 1 71	source stringclasses 1 value	token_count int64 10 512	id stringlengths 2 8	url stringlengths 31 117	topic stringclasses 4 values	section stringlengths 4 49 ⌀	sublist stringclasses 9 values
Coastal wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth and generate vital services that benefit human societies around the world. Sediment-stabilization by wetlands such as salt marshes and mangroves serves to protect coastal communities from storm-waves, flooding, and land erosion. Coastal wetlands also re...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	283	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
Salt marshes are a transition from the ocean to the land, where fresh and saltwater mix. The soil in these marshes is often made up of mud and a layer of organic material called peat. Peat is characterized as waterlogged and root-filled decomposing plant matter that often causes low oxygen levels (hypoxia). These hypox...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	501	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans. In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in tropical waters near Ecuador. Physically formed by brown macroalgae, kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over th...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	366	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
Ecosystems, even those with seemingly distinct borders, rarely function independently of other adjacent systems. Ecologists are increasingly recognizing the important effects that cross-ecosystem transport of energy and nutrients have on plant and animal populations and communities. A well known example of this is how ...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	483	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
The green world hypothesis predicts loss of predator control on herbivores could result in runaway consumption that would eventually denude a landscape or seascape of vegetation. Since the inception of the green world hypothesis, ecologists have tried to understand the prevalence of indirect and alternating effects of ...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	432	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
Seascape ecology is the marine and coastal version of landscape ecology. It is currently emerging as an interdisciplinary and spatially explicit ecological science with relevance to marine management, biodiversity conservation, and restoration. Seascapes are complex ocean spaces, shaped by dynamic and interconnected pa...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	416	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
The diagram at the right graphically illustrates the ecosystem service synergies between mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs. The ecosystem services provided by intact reefs, seagrasses, and mangroves are both highly valuable and mutually enhance each other. Coastal protection (storm/wave attenuation) maintains the ...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	345	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
Network ecology has advanced understanding of ecosystems by providing a powerful framework to analyse biological communities. Previous studies used this framework to assess food web robustness against species extinctions, defined as the fraction of initial species that remain present in the ecosystem after a primary ex...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	382	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
In contrast to the open ocean where biogeochemical cycling is largely dominated by pelagic processes driven primarily by ocean circulation, in the coastal zone, pelagic and benthic processes interact strongly and are driven by a complex and dynamic physical environment. Eutrophication in coastal areas leads to shifts t...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	493	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
Artisanal fisheries use simple fishing gears and small vessels. Their activities tend to be confined to coastal areas. In general, top-down and bottom-up forces determine ecosystem functioning and dynamics. Fisheries as a top-down force can shorten and destabilise food webs, while effects driven by climate change can a...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	507	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
Frameworks have been developed that attempt to address and integrate these complex issues, such as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework which links drivers, ecosystem services, and human welfare However, obtaining the environmental data that is necessary to use such frameworks is difficult, especially in count...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	478	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
Marine ecosystems are affected by diverse pressures and consequently may undergo significant changes that can be interpreted as regime shifts. Marine ecosystems worldwide are affected by increasing natural and anthropogenic pressures and consequently undergo significant changes at unprecedented rates. Affected by these...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	466	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
There is evidence, that changes in the intensity of the Iberian coastal upwelling (resulting from the strengthening or weakening northern winds) had occurred in the last decades. However, the character of these changes is contradictory where some authors observed intensification of upwelling-favourable winds while othe...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	503	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
Approximately 40% of the global mangrove has been lost since the 1950's with more than 9,736 km2 of the world's mangroves continuing to be degraded in the 20 years period between 1996 and 2016. Saltmarshes are drained when coastal land is claimed for agriculture, and deforestation is an increasing threat to shoreline v...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	487	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
Conservation and connectivity There has recently been a perceptual shift away from habitat representation as the sole or primary focus of conservation prioritisation, towards consideration of ecological processes that shape the distribution and abundance of biodiversity features. In marine ecosystems, connectivity proc...	Marine coastal ecosystem	Wikipedia	467	65970498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem	Physical sciences	Oceanography	Earth science
1 (one, unit, unity) is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the first and smallest positive integer of the infinite sequence of natural numbers. This fundamental property has led to its unique uses in other fields, ranging from science to sports, where it commonly denotes the first, leading, or top thing in a group. 1 ...	1	Wikipedia	351	77591639	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1	Mathematics	Basics	null
Different mathematical constructions of the natural numbers represent 1 in various ways. In Giuseppe Peano's original formulation of the Peano axioms, a set of postulates to define the natural numbers in a precise and logical way, 1 was treated as the starting point of the sequence of natural numbers. Peano later revis...	1	Wikipedia	466	77591639	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1	Mathematics	Basics	null
One originates from the Old English word an, derived from the Germanic root , from the Proto-Indo-European root *oi-no- (meaning "one, unique"). Linguistically, one is a cardinal number used for counting and expressing the number of items in a collection of things. One is most commonly a determiner used with singular c...	1	Wikipedia	443	77591639	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1	Mathematics	Basics	null
The most commonly used glyph in the modern Western world to represent the number 1 is the Arabic numeral, a vertical line, often with a serif at the top and sometimes a short horizontal line at the bottom. It can be traced back to the Brahmic script of ancient India, as represented by Ashoka as a simple vertical line i...	1	Wikipedia	500	77591639	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1	Mathematics	Basics	null
In other fields In digital technology, data is represented by binary code, i.e., a base-2 numeral system with numbers represented by a sequence of 1s and 0s. Digitised data is represented in physical devices, such as computers, as pulses of electricity through switching devices such as transistors or logic gates where...	1	Wikipedia	459	77591639	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1	Mathematics	Basics	null
A stretch sensor is a sensor which can be used to measure deformation and stretching forces such as tension or bending. They are usually made from a material that is itself soft and stretchable. Most stretch sensors fall into one of three categories. The first type consists of an electrical conductor for which the ele...	Stretch sensor	Wikipedia	291	60987806	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stretch%20sensor	Technology	Components	null
Anthias anthias, the swallowtail sea perch or marine goldfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish from the family Anthiadidae. It is native to the eastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea where it is associated with reefs. It is found in the aquarium trade. Description Anthias anthias has a rather deep bod...	Anthias anthias	Wikipedia	327	56164172	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthias%20anthias	Biology and health sciences	Acanthomorpha	Animals
Habitat and biology Anthias anthias occurs from in depth and lives among rocks and corals, hiding in caves during the day. It emerges at night to feed on zooplankton, small crustacea and smaller fishes. This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite, all individuals hatch as females. Each time a male dies, one of the lar...	Anthias anthias	Wikipedia	343	56164172	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthias%20anthias	Biology and health sciences	Acanthomorpha	Animals
A peninsula is a landform that extends from a mainland and is surrounded by water on most sides. Peninsulas exist on each continent. The largest peninsula in the world is the Arabian Peninsula. Etymology The word peninsula derives , . The word entered English in the 16th century. Definitions A peninsula is generall...	Peninsula	Wikipedia	445	51807646	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsula	Physical sciences	Oceanic and coastal landforms	null
Others In the case of formation from volcanoes, when a volcano erupts magma near water, it may form a peninsula (e.g., the Alaskan Peninsula). Peninsulas formed from volcanoes are especially common when the volcano erupts near shallow water. Marine sediment may form peninsulas by the creation of limestone. A rift peni...	Peninsula	Wikipedia	292	51807646	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsula	Physical sciences	Oceanic and coastal landforms	null
Height above mean sea level is a measure of a location's vertical distance (height, elevation or altitude) in reference to a vertical datum based on a historic mean sea level. In geodesy, it is formalized as orthometric height. The zero level varies in different countries due to different reference points and historic ...	Height above mean sea level	Wikipedia	483	71840293	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height%20above%20mean%20sea%20level	Physical sciences	Metric	Basics and measurement
Yoga as exercise is a physical activity consisting mainly of postures, often connected by flowing sequences, sometimes accompanied by breathing exercises, and frequently ending with relaxation lying down or meditation. Yoga in this form has become familiar across the world, especially in the US and Europe. It is derive...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	393	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
Haṭha yoga's non-postural practices such as its purifications are much reduced or absent in yoga as exercise. The term "hatha yoga" is also in use with a different meaning, a gentle unbranded yoga practice, independent of the major schools, often mainly for women. Practices vary from wholly secular, for exercise and re...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	287	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
Haṭha yoga flourished among secretive ascetic groups such as Nath yogins in South Asia from c. 1100-c. 1900. Instruction was directly from guru to individual pupil, in a long-term relationship. It was associated with religions, especially Hinduism but also Jainism and Buddhism. Its objectives were to manipulate vital f...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	367	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
From the 1850s onwards, there developed in India a culture of physical exercise to counter the colonial stereotype of supposed "degeneracy" of Indians compared to the British, a belief reinforced by then-current ideas of Lamarckism and eugenics. This culture was taken up from the 1880s to the early 20th century by Indi...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	432	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
In 1925, Kuvalayananda's rival Paramahansa Yogananda, having moved from India to America, set up the Self-Realization Fellowship in Los Angeles, and taught yoga, including asanas, breathing, chanting and meditation, to "tens of thousands of Americans". In 1923, Yogananda's younger brother, Bishnu Charan Ghosh, founded ...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	323	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
Among Krishnamacharya's pupils were people who became influential yoga teachers themselves: the Russian Eugenie V. Peterson, known as Indra Devi (from 1937), who moved to Hollywood, taught yoga to celebrities, and wrote the bestselling book Forever Young, Forever Healthy; Pattabhi Jois (from 1927), who founded the flow...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	395	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
Three changes around the 1960s allowed yoga as exercise to become a worldwide commodity. People were for the first time able to travel freely around the world: consumers could go to the east; Indians could migrate to Europe and America; and business people and religious leaders could go where they liked to sell their w...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	340	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
The market for yoga grew, argues the scholar of religion Andrea Jain, with the creation of an "endless" variety of second-generation yoga brands, saleable products, "constructed and marketed for immediate consumption", based on earlier developments. For example, in 1997 John Friend, once a financial analyst, who had in...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	401	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
The anthropologist Sarah Strauss contrasts the goal of classical yoga, the isolation of the self or kaivalya, with the modern goals of good health, reduced stress, and physical flexibility. Sjoman notes that many of the asanas in Iyengar's Light on Yoga can be traced to his teacher, Krishnamacharya, "but not beyond him...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	462	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
Asanas can be classified in different ways, which may overlap: for example, by the position of the head and feet (standing, sitting, reclining, inverted), by whether balancing is required, or by the effect on the spine (forward bend, backbend, twist), giving a set of asana types agreed by most authors. The yoga guru Dh...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	442	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
The tradition begun by Krishnamacharya survives at the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram in Chennai; his son T. K. V. Desikachar and his grandson Kausthub Desikachar continued to teach in small groups, coordinating asana movements with the breath, and personalising the teaching according to the needs of individual students...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	473	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
Treated as a form of exercise, a complete yoga session with asanas and pranayama provides 3.3 ± 1.6 METs, on average a moderate workout. Surya Namaskar ranged from a light 2.9 to a vigorous 7.4 METs; the average for a session of yoga practice without Surya Namaskar was a light 2.9 ± 0.8 METs. Physical or Hindu Since...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	320	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
Authorities differ on whether yoga is purely exercise. For example, in 2012, New York state decided that yoga was exempt from state sales tax as it did not constitute "true exercise", whereas in 2014 the District of Columbia was clear that yoga premises were subject to the local sales tax on premises "the purpose of wh...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	215	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
However, Haṭha yoga's "ecstatic ... transcendent ... possibly subversive" elements remain in yoga used as exercise. The yoga teacher and author Jessamyn Stanley writes that modern Western society "does not respect the esoteric or spiritual at all", making people skeptical about any alignment of yoga as practised in the...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	330	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
In a secular context, the journalists Nell Frizzell and Reni Eddo-Lodge have debated (in The Guardian) whether Western yoga classes represent "cultural appropriation." In Frizzell's view, yoga has become a new entity, a long way from the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and while some practitioners are culturally insensitive,...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	475	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
The practice of asanas has been claimed to improve flexibility, strength, and balance; to alleviate stress and anxiety, and to reduce the symptoms of lower back pain. A review of five studies noted that three psychological (positive affect, mindfulness, self-compassion) and four biological mechanisms (posterior hypotha...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	420	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
For the separation phase, the yoga session begins by going into a neutral and if possible a secluded practice hall; worries, responsibilities, ego and shoes are all left outside; and the yoga teacher is treated with deference. The actual yoga practice forms the transition state, combining practical instructions with th...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	511	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
By the 21st century, yoga as exercise had become a flourishing business, professionally marketed. A 2016 Ipsos study reported that 36.7 million Americans practise yoga, making the business of classes, clothing and equipment worth $16 billion in America, compared to $10 billion in 2012, and $80 billion worldwide. 72 per...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	443	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
Teacher training, as of 2017, could cost between $2,000 and $5,000. It can take up to 3 years to obtain a teaching certificate. Yoga training courses, as of 2017, were still unregulated in the UK; the British Wheel of Yoga has been appointed the activity's official governing body by Sport England, but it lacks power to...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	426	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
Kate Churchill's 2009 film Enlighten Up! follows an unemployed journalist for six months as, on the filmmaker's invitation, he travels the globe – New York, Boulder, California, Hawaii, India – to practise under yoga masters including Jois, Norman Allen, and Iyengar. The critic Roger Ebert found it interesting and peac...	Yoga as exercise	Wikipedia	341	59580357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga%20as%20exercise	Biology and health sciences	Physical fitness	Health
The earliest known life forms on Earth may be as old as 4.1 billion years (or Ga) according to biologically fractionated graphite inside a single zircon grain in the Jack Hills range of Australia. The earliest evidence of life found in a stratigraphic unit, not just a single mineral grain, is the 3.7 Ga metasedimentary...	Earliest known life forms	Wikipedia	293	53365898	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earliest%20known%20life%20forms	Biology and health sciences	Biology basics	Biology
Earth is the only place in the universe known to harbor life, where it exists in multiple environments. The origin of life on Earth was at least 3.5 billion years ago, possibly as early as 3.8-4.1 billion years ago. Since its emergence, life has persisted in several geological environments. The Earth's biosphere extend...	Earliest known life forms	Wikipedia	327	53365898	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earliest%20known%20life%20forms	Biology and health sciences	Biology basics	Biology
Geochemical evidence The age of Earth is about 4.54 billion years; the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago according to the stromatolite record. Some computer models suggest life began as early as 4.5 billion years ago. The oldest evidence of life is indirect in the ...	Earliest known life forms	Wikipedia	458	53365898	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earliest%20known%20life%20forms	Biology and health sciences	Biology basics	Biology
Metasedimentary rocks from the 3.5 Ga Dresser Formation, which experienced less metamorphism than the sequences in Greenland, contain better preserved geochemical evidence. Carbon isotopes as well as sulfur isotopes found in barite, which are fractionated by microbial metabolisms during sulfate reduction, are consisten...	Earliest known life forms	Wikipedia	470	53365898	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earliest%20known%20life%20forms	Biology and health sciences	Biology basics	Biology
Most archean stromatolites older than 3.0 Ga are found in Australia or South Africa. Stratiform stromatolites from the Pilbara Craton have been identified in the 3.47 Ga Mount Ada Basalt. Barberton, South Africa hosts stratiform stromatolites in the 3.46 Hooggenoeg, 3.42 Kromberg and 3.33 Ga Mendon Formations of the On...	Earliest known life forms	Wikipedia	315	53365898	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earliest%20known%20life%20forms	Biology and health sciences	Biology basics	Biology
The 3.48 Ga Dresser formation hosts microfossils of prokaryotic filaments in silica veins, the earliest fossil evidence of life on Earth, but their origins may be volcanic. 3.465-billion-year-old Australian Apex chert rocks may once have contained microorganisms, although the validity of these findings has been contest...	Earliest known life forms	Wikipedia	448	53365898	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earliest%20known%20life%20forms	Biology and health sciences	Biology basics	Biology
Other indigenous biomarkers can be dated to the Mesoproterozoic era (1.6-1.0 Ga). The 1.4 Ga Hongshuizhuang Formation in the North China Craton contains hydrocarbons in shales that were likely sourced from prokaryotes. Biomarkers were found in siltstones from the 1.38 Ga Roper Group of the McArthur Basin. Hydrocarbons ...	Earliest known life forms	Wikipedia	409	53365898	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earliest%20known%20life%20forms	Biology and health sciences	Biology basics	Biology
While current geochemical evidence dates the origin of life to possibly as early as 4.1 Ga, and fossil evidence shows life at 3.5 Ga, some researchers speculate that life may have started nearly 4.5 billion years ago. According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it co...	Earliest known life forms	Wikipedia	241	53365898	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earliest%20known%20life%20forms	Biology and health sciences	Biology basics	Biology
A large language model (LLM) is a type of machine learning model designed for natural language processing tasks such as language generation. LLMs are language models with many parameters, and are trained with self-supervised learning on a vast amount of text. The largest and most capable LLMs are generative pretrained...	Large language model	Wikipedia	450	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
Although decoder-only GPT-1 was introduced in 2018, it was GPT-2 in 2019 that caught widespread attention because OpenAI at first deemed it too powerful to release publicly, out of fear of malicious use. GPT-3 in 2020 went a step further and is available only via API with no offering of downloading the model to execut...	Large language model	Wikipedia	436	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
As machine learning algorithms process numbers rather than text, the text must be converted to numbers. In the first step, a vocabulary is decided upon, then integer indices are arbitrarily but uniquely assigned to each vocabulary entry, and finally, an embedding is associated to the integer index. Algorithms include b...	Large language model	Wikipedia	433	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
Problems A token vocabulary based on the frequencies extracted from mainly English corpora uses as few tokens as possible for an average English word. An average word in another language encoded by such an English-optimized tokenizer is however split into suboptimal amount of tokens. GPT-2 tokenizer can use up to 15 t...	Large language model	Wikipedia	511	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
Prompt engineering, attention mechanism, and context window Most results previously achievable only by (costly) fine-tuning, can be achieved through prompt engineering, although limited to the scope of a single conversation (more precisely, limited to the scope of a context window). In order to find out which tokens...	Large language model	Wikipedia	452	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
A model may be pre-trained either to predict how the segment continues, or what is missing in the segment, given a segment from its training dataset. It can be either autoregressive (i.e. predicting how the segment continues, the way GPTs do it): for example given a segment "I like to eat", the model predicts "ice cre...	Large language model	Wikipedia	505	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
For Transformer-based LLM, training cost is much higher than inference cost. It costs 6 FLOPs per parameter to train on one token, whereas it costs 1 to 2 FLOPs per parameter to infer on one token. Tool use There are certain tasks that, in principle, cannot be solved by any LLM, at least not without the use of extern...	Large language model	Wikipedia	444	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
The ReAct pattern, a portmanteau of "Reason + Act", constructs an agent out of an LLM, using the LLM as a planner. The LLM is prompted to "think out loud". Specifically, the language model is prompted with a textual description of the environment, a goal, a list of possible actions, and a record of the actions and obse...	Large language model	Wikipedia	507	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
Post-training quantization aims to decrease the space requirement by lowering precision of the parameters of a trained model, while preserving most of its performance. The simplest form of quantization simply truncates all numbers to a given number of bits. It can be improved by using a different quantization codebook ...	Large language model	Wikipedia	479	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
GPT-4 can use both text and image as inputs (although the vision component was not released to the public until GPT-4V); Google DeepMind's Gemini is also multimodal. Mistral introduced its own multimodel Pixtral 12B model in September 2024. Properties Scaling laws The performance of an LLM after pretraining largel...	Large language model	Wikipedia	507	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
The most intriguing among emergent abilities is in-context learning from example demonstrations. In-context learning is involved in tasks, such as: reported arithmetics, decoding the International Phonetic Alphabet, unscrambling a word's letters, disambiguate word in context, converting spatial words, cardinal directi...	Large language model	Wikipedia	478	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
NLP researchers were evenly split when asked, in a 2022 survey, whether (untuned) LLMs "could (ever) understand natural language in some nontrivial sense". Proponents of "LLM understanding" believe that some LLM abilities, such as mathematical reasoning, imply an ability to "understand" certain concepts. A Microsoft te...	Large language model	Wikipedia	317	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
In contrast, some proponents of the "LLMs lack understanding" school believe that existing LLMs are "simply remixing and recombining existing writing", a phenomenon known as stochastic parrot, or they point to the deficits existing LLMs continue to have in prediction skills, reasoning skills, agency, and explainability...	Large language model	Wikipedia	450	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
Perplexity The canonical measure of the performance of an LLM is its perplexity on a given text corpus. Perplexity measures how well a model predicts the contents of a dataset; the higher the likelihood the model assigns to the dataset, the lower the perplexity. In mathematical terms, perplexity is the exponential of ...	Large language model	Wikipedia	453	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
Task-specific datasets and benchmarks A large number of testing datasets and benchmarks have also been developed to evaluate the capabilities of language models on more specific downstream tasks. Tests may be designed to evaluate a variety of capabilities, including general knowledge, commonsense reasoning, and mathem...	Large language model	Wikipedia	467	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
Adversarially constructed evaluations Because of the rapid pace of improvement of large language models, evaluation benchmarks have suffered from short lifespans, with state of the art models quickly "saturating" existing benchmarks, exceeding the performance of human annotators, leading to efforts to replace or augme...	Large language model	Wikipedia	452	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
Wider impact In 2023, Nature Biomedical Engineering wrote that "it is no longer possible to accurately distinguish" human-written text from text created by large language models, and that "It is all but certain that general-purpose large language models will rapidly proliferate... It is a rather safe bet that they wil...	Large language model	Wikipedia	457	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
While LLMs have shown remarkable capabilities in generating human-like text, they are susceptible to inheriting and amplifying biases present in their training data. This can manifest in skewed representations or unfair treatment of different demographics, such as those based on race, gender, language, and cultural gro...	Large language model	Wikipedia	298	73248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20language%20model	Technology	Computer science	null
A hook is a tool consisting of a length of material, typically metal, that contains a portion that is curved/bent back or has a deeply grooved indentation, which serves to grab, latch or in any way attach itself onto another object. The hook's design allows traction forces to be relayed through the curved/indented port...	Hook	Wikipedia	215	47690389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hook	Technology	Rigid components	null
Bagging hook, a large sickle or reaping hook used for harvesting grain Bondage hook, used in sexual bondage play Cabin hook, a hooked bar that engages into an eye screw, used on doors Cap hook, hat ornament of the 15th and 16th centuries Cargo hook, different types of hook systems for helicopters Crochet hook, use...	Hook	Wikipedia	347	47690389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hook	Technology	Rigid components	null
Random column packing is the practice of packing a distillation column with randomly fitting filtration material in order to optimize surface area over which reactants can interact while minimizing the complexity of construction of such columns. Random column packing is an alternative to structured column packing. Pac...	Random column packing	Wikipedia	420	57939963	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random%20column%20packing	Physical sciences	Phase separations	Chemistry
Pall ring Pall rings are the most common form of random packing. They are similar to Lessing rings and were developed from the Raschig ring. Pall rings have similar cylindrical dimensions but has rows of windows which increase performance by increasing the surface area. They are suited for low pressure drop and high c...	Random column packing	Wikipedia	283	57939963	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random%20column%20packing	Physical sciences	Phase separations	Chemistry
The South Pole Wall (SPW or The South Pole Wall) is a massive cosmic structure formed by a giant wall of galaxies (a galaxy filament) that extends across at least 1.37 billion light-years of space, the nearest light (and consequently part) of which is aged about half a billion light-years. The structure, in its astrono...	South Pole Wall	Wikipedia	459	64514823	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Pole%20Wall	Physical sciences	Notable patches of universe	Astronomy
The upper mantle of Earth is a very thick layer of rock inside the planet, which begins just beneath the crust (at about under the oceans and about under the continents) and ends at the top of the lower mantle at . Temperatures range from approximately at the upper boundary with the crust to approximately at the bo...	Upper mantle	Wikipedia	501	61044116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper%20mantle	Physical sciences	Tectonics	Earth science
Transition zone The transition zone is located between the upper mantle and the lower mantle between a depth of and . This is thought to occur as a result of the rearrangement of grains in olivine to form a denser crystal structure as a result of the increase in pressure with increasing depth. Below a depth of , due...	Upper mantle	Wikipedia	479	61044116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper%20mantle	Physical sciences	Tectonics	Earth science
Temperatures range from approximately at the upper boundary with the crust to approximately at the core-mantle boundary. The highest temperature of the upper mantle is . Although the high temperature far exceeds the melting points of the mantle rocks at the surface, the mantle is almost exclusively solid. The enor...	Upper mantle	Wikipedia	453	61044116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper%20mantle	Physical sciences	Tectonics	Earth science
Upper mantle material that has come up onto the surface comprises about 55% olivine and 35% pyroxene, and 5 to 10% of calcium oxide and aluminum oxide. The upper mantle is dominantly peridotite, composed primarily of variable proportions of the minerals olivine, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, and an aluminous phase. Th...	Upper mantle	Wikipedia	498	61044116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper%20mantle	Physical sciences	Tectonics	Earth science
Exploration of the mantle is generally conducted at the seabed rather than on land because of the oceanic crust's relative thinness as compared to the significantly thicker continental crust. The first attempt at mantle exploration, known as Project Mohole, was abandoned in 1966 after repeated failures and cost overru...	Upper mantle	Wikipedia	505	61044116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper%20mantle	Physical sciences	Tectonics	Earth science
In 2023 JOIDES Resolution recovered cores of what appeared to be rock from the upper mantle after drilling only a few hundred meters into the Atlantis Massif. The borehole reached a maximum depth of 1,268 meters and recovered 886 meters of rock samples consisting of primarily peridotite. There is debate over the extent...	Upper mantle	Wikipedia	125	61044116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper%20mantle	Physical sciences	Tectonics	Earth science
Generative artificial intelligence (generative AI, GenAI, or GAI) is a subset of artificial intelligence that uses generative models to produce text, images, videos, or other forms of data. These models learn the underlying patterns and structures of their training data and use them to produce new data based on the inp...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	309	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
Early history Since its inception, researchers in the field have raised philosophical and ethical arguments about the nature of the human mind and the consequences of creating artificial beings with human-like intelligence; these issues have previously been explored by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. The...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	504	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
In 2014, advancements such as the variational autoencoder and generative adversarial network produced the first practical deep neural networks capable of learning generative models, as opposed to discriminative ones, for complex data such as images. These deep generative models were the first to output not only class l...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	474	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
In March 2023, GPT-4's release represented another jump in generative AI capabilities. A team from Microsoft Research controversially argued that it "could reasonably be viewed as an early (yet still incomplete) version of an artificial general intelligence (AGI) system." However, this assessment was contested by other...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	440	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
Modalities A generative AI system is constructed by applying unsupervised machine learning (invoking for instance neural network architectures such as generative adversarial networks (GANs), variation autoencoders (VAEs), transformers, or self-supervised machine learning trained on a dataset. The capabilities of a gen...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	398	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
Generative AI can also be trained extensively on audio clips to produce natural-sounding speech synthesis and text-to-speech capabilities. An early pioneer in this field was 15.ai, launched in March 2020, which demonstrated the ability to clone character voices using as little as 15 seconds of training data. The websit...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	447	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
3D modeling Artificially intelligent computer-aided design (CAD) can use text-to-3D, image-to-3D, and video-to-3D to automate 3D modeling. AI-based CAD libraries could also be developed using linked open data of schematics and diagrams. AI CAD assistants are used as tools to help streamline workflow. Software and hard...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	493	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
In 2022, the United States New Export Controls on Advanced Computing and Semiconductors to China imposed restrictions on exports to China of GPU and AI accelerator chips used for generative AI. Chips such as the NVIDIA A800 and the Biren Technology BR104 were developed to meet the requirements of the sanctions. There ...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	476	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
As of 2024, several lawsuits related to the use of copyrighted material in training are ongoing. Getty Images has sued Stability AI over the use of its images to train Stable diffusion. Both the Authors Guild and The New York Times have sued Microsoft and OpenAI over the use of their works to train ChatGPT. Copyright ...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	437	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
The intersection of AI and employment concerns among underrepresented groups globally remains a critical facet. While AI promises efficiency enhancements and skill acquisition, concerns about job displacement and biased recruiting processes persist among these groups, as outlined in surveys by Fast Company. To leverage...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	468	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
Instances of users abusing software to generate controversial statements in the vocal style of celebrities, public officials, and other famous individuals have raised ethical concerns over voice generation AI. In response, companies such as ElevenLabs have stated that they would work on mitigating potential abuse throu...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	487	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
Scientists and journalists have expressed concerns about the environmental impact that the development and deployment of generative models are having: high CO2 emissions, large amounts of freshwater used for data centers, and high amounts of electricity usage. There is also concern that these impacts may increase as th...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	503	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
The adoption of generative AI tools led to an explosion of AI-generated content across multiple domains. A study from University College London estimated that in 2023, more than 60,000 scholarly articles—over 1% of all publications—were likely written with LLM assistance. According to Stanford University's Institute fo...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	424	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
In April 2023, the German tabloid Die Aktuelle published a fake AI-generated interview with former racing driver Michael Schumacher, who had not made any public appearances since 2013 after sustaining a brain injury in a skiing accident. The story included two possible disclosures: the cover included the line "deceptiv...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	480	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
In 2023, Google reportedly pitched a tool to news outlets that claimed to "produce news stories" based on input data provided, such as "details of current events". Some news company executives who viewed the pitch described it as "[taking] for granted the effort that went into producing accurate and artful news stories...	Generative artificial intelligence	Wikipedia	512	73291755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative%20artificial%20intelligence	Technology	Artificial intelligence concepts	null
In zoology, copulation is animal sexual behavior in which a male introduces sperm into the female's body, especially directly into her reproductive tract. This is an aspect of mating. Many aquatic animals use external fertilization, whereas internal fertilization may have developed from a need to maintain gametes in a ...	Copulation (zoology)	Wikipedia	393	53409225	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copulation%20%28zoology%29	Biology and health sciences	Ethology	Biology
Sexual behavior can be classified into behavioral states associated with reward motivation ("wanting"), reward consummation also known as pleasure ("liking"), and satiety ("inhibition"); these behavioral states are regulated in mammals by reward-based sexual learning, fluctuations in various neurochemicals (i.e., dopam...	Copulation (zoology)	Wikipedia	488	53409225	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copulation%20%28zoology%29	Biology and health sciences	Ethology	Biology

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.