text stringlengths 26 3.6k | page_title stringlengths 1 71 | source stringclasses 1
value | token_count int64 10 512 | id stringlengths 2 8 | url stringlengths 31 117 | topic stringclasses 4
values | section stringlengths 4 49 ⌀ | sublist stringclasses 9
values |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adverse events
Acupuncture is generally safe when administered by an experienced, appropriately trained practitioner using clean-needle technique and sterile single-use needles. When improperly delivered it can cause adverse effects. Accidents and infections are associated with infractions of sterile technique or negl... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 463 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
A 2013 review found (without restrictions regarding publication date, study type or language) 295 cases of infections; mycobacterium was the pathogen in at least 96%. Likely sources of infection include towels, hot packs or boiling tank water, and reusing reprocessed needles. Possible sources of infection include conta... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 179 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
English-language
A 2013 systematic review of the English-language case reports found that serious adverse events associated with acupuncture are rare, but that acupuncture is not without risk. Between 2000 and 2011 the English-language literature from 25 countries and regions reported 294 adverse events. The majority ... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 509 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
A 2012 review found that a number of adverse events were reported after acupuncture in the UK's National Health Service (NHS), 95% of which were not severe, though miscategorization and under-reporting may alter the total figures. From January 2009 to December 2011, 468 safety incidents were recognized within the NHS o... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 250 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
A 2010 systematic review of the Chinese-language literature found numerous acupuncture-related adverse events, including pneumothorax, fainting, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and infection as the most frequent, and cardiovascular injuries, subarachnoid hemorrhage, pneumothorax, and recurrent cerebral hemorrhage as the most ... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 494 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Children and pregnancy
Although acupuncture has been practiced for thousands of years in China, its use in pediatrics in the United States did not become common until the early 2000s. In 2007, the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) conducted by the National Center For Health Statistics (NCHS) estimated that appro... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 483 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Four adverse events associated with moxibustion were bruising, burns and cellulitis, spinal epidural abscess, and large superficial basal cell carcinoma. Ten adverse events were associated with cupping. The minor ones were keloid scarring, burns, and bullae; the serious ones were acquired hemophilia A, stroke following... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 512 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Many within the scientific community consider acupuncture to be quackery and pseudoscience, having no effect other than as "theatrical placebo". David Gorski has argued that of all forms of quackery, acupuncture has perhaps gained most acceptance among physicians and institutions. Academics Massimo Pigliucci and Maarte... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 432 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Many acupuncturists attribute pain relief to the release of endorphins when needles penetrate, but no longer support the idea that acupuncture can affect a disease. Some studies suggest acupuncture causes a series of events within the central nervous system, and that it is possible to inhibit acupuncture's analgesic ef... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 379 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
According to an article in Rheumatology, the first documentation of an "organized system of diagnosis and treatment" for acupuncture was in Inner Classic of Huang Di (Huangdi Neijing) from about 100 BC. Gold and silver needles found in the tomb of Liu Sheng from around 100 BC are believed to be the earliest archaeologi... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 503 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
According to historians Lu Gwei-djen and Joseph Needham, there is substantial evidence that acupuncture may have begun around 600 BC. Some hieroglyphs and pictographs from that era suggests acupuncture and moxibustion were practised. However, historians Lu and Needham said it was unlikely a needle could be made out of ... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 422 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
It is not certain when specific acupuncture points were introduced, but the autobiography of Bian Que from around 400–500 BC references inserting needles at designated areas. Bian Que believed there was a single acupuncture point at the top of one's skull that he called the point "of the hundred meetings." Texts dated ... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 440 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Acupuncture needles during this period were much thicker than most modern ones and often resulted in infection. Infection is caused by a lack of sterilization, but at that time it was believed to be caused by use of the wrong needle, or needling in the wrong place, or at the wrong time. Later, many needles were heated ... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 470 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Decline
By the end of the Song dynasty (1279 AD), acupuncture had lost much of its status in China. It became rarer in the following centuries, and was associated with less prestigious professions like alchemy, shamanism, midwifery and moxibustion. Additionally, by the 18th century, scientific rationality was becoming ... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 416 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Acupuncture began to spread to Europe in the second half of the 17th century. Around this time the surgeon-general of the Dutch East India Company met Japanese and Chinese acupuncture practitioners and later encouraged Europeans to further investigate it. He published the first in-depth description of acupuncture for t... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 441 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
New practices were adopted in the 20th century, such as using a cluster of needles, electrified needles, or leaving needles inserted for up to a week. A lot of emphasis developed on using acupuncture on the ear. Acupuncture research organizations such as the International Society of Acupuncture were founded in the 1940... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 490 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
In 2006, a BBC documentary Alternative Medicine filmed a patient undergoing open heart surgery allegedly under acupuncture-induced anesthesia. It was later revealed that the patient had been given a cocktail of anesthetics.
In 2010, UNESCO inscribed "acupuncture and moxibustion of traditional Chinese medicine" on the ... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 383 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
The use of acupuncture in Germany increased by 20% in 2007, after the German acupuncture trials supported its efficacy for certain uses. In 2011, there were more than one million users, and insurance companies have estimated that two-thirds of German users are women. As a result of the trials, German public health insu... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 442 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
In Japan, acupuncturists are licensed by the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare after passing an examination and graduating from a technical school or university. In Australia, the Chinese Medicine Board of Australia regulates acupuncture, among other Chinese medical traditions, and restricts the use of titles like... | Acupuncture | Wikipedia | 235 | 1537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Amaranthus is a cosmopolitan group of more than 50 species which make up the genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants collectively known as amaranths. Some of the better known names include "prostrate pigweed" and "love lies bleeding". Some amaranth species are cultivated as leaf vegetables, pseudocereals, and o... | Amaranth | Wikipedia | 428 | 1542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | Biology and health sciences | Caryophyllales | null |
Amaranth is a herbaceous plant or shrub that is either annual or perennial across the genus. Flowers vary interspecifically from the presence of 3 or 5 tepals and stamens, whereas a 7-porate pollen grain structure remains consistent across the family. Species across the genus contain concentric rings of vascular bundle... | Amaranth | Wikipedia | 496 | 1542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | Biology and health sciences | Caryophyllales | null |
In 1955, Sauer classified the genus into two subgenera, differentiating only between monoecious and dioecious species: Acnida (L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson and Amaranthus. Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was (and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse... | Amaranth | Wikipedia | 499 | 1542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | Biology and health sciences | Caryophyllales | null |
Amaranthus acanthochiton – greenstripe
Amaranthus acutilobus – a synonym of Amaranthus viridis
Amaranthus albus – white pigweed, tumble pigweed
Amaranthus anderssonii
Amaranthus arenicola – sandhill amaranth
Amaranthus australis – southern amaranth
Amaranthus bigelovii – Bigelow's amaranth
Amaranthus blitoides –... | Amaranth | Wikipedia | 509 | 1542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | Biology and health sciences | Caryophyllales | null |
Amaranthus retroflexus – red-root amaranth, redroot pigweed, common amaranth
Amaranthus saradhiana - purpal stem amaranth, green leaf amaranth
Amaranthus scleranthoides – variously Amaranthus sclerantoides
Amaranthus scleropoides – bone-bract amaranth
Amaranthus spinosus – spiny amaranth, prickly amaranth, thorny a... | Amaranth | Wikipedia | 206 | 1542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | Biology and health sciences | Caryophyllales | null |
Etymology
"Amaranth" derives from Greek (), "unfading", with the Greek word for "flower", (), factoring into the word's development as amaranth, the unfading flower. Amarant is an archaic variant. The name was first applied to the related Celosia (Amaranthus and Celosia share long-lasting dried flowers), as Amaranth... | Amaranth | Wikipedia | 501 | 1542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | Biology and health sciences | Caryophyllales | null |
Uncooked amaranth grain by weight is 12% water, 65% carbohydrates (including 7% dietary fiber), 14% protein, and 7% fat (table). A reference serving of uncooked amaranth grain provides of food energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, fo... | Amaranth | Wikipedia | 429 | 1542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | Biology and health sciences | Caryophyllales | null |
Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, its palatability, ease of cooking, and a protein that is particularly well-suited to human nutritional needs, interest in amaranth seeds (especially A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus) revived in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and i... | Amaranth | Wikipedia | 382 | 1542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | Biology and health sciences | Caryophyllales | null |
It has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons:
A small amount of seed plants a large area (seeding rate 1 kg/ha).
Yields are high compared to the seeding rate: 1,000 kg or more per hectare.
It is easily harvested and easily process... | Amaranth | Wikipedia | 447 | 1542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | Biology and health sciences | Caryophyllales | null |
In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in India, it is called and is a popular red leafy vegetable (referred to in the class of vegetable preparations called ). It is called chua in Kumaun area of Uttarakhand, where it is a popular red-green vegetable. In Karnataka in India, it is called (). It is used to prepare curries such as... | Amaranth | Wikipedia | 386 | 1542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | Biology and health sciences | Caryophyllales | null |
In Bantu regions of Uganda and western Kenya, it is known as doodo or litoto. It is also known among the Kalenjin as a drought crop (chepkerta). In Lingala (spoken in the Congo), it is known as or . In Nigeria, it is a common vegetable and goes with all Nigerian starch dishes. It is known in Yoruba as , a short form o... | Amaranth | Wikipedia | 450 | 1542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | Biology and health sciences | Caryophyllales | null |
The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as Amaranthus caudatus (love-lies-bleeding), a vigorous, hardy annual with dark purplish flowers crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, A. hypochondriacus (prince's feather), has deeply veined, lance-shaped leaves, purple on the und... | Amaranth | Wikipedia | 458 | 1542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth | Biology and health sciences | Caryophyllales | null |
Aquaculture (less commonly spelled aquiculture), also known as aquafarming, is the controlled cultivation ("farming") of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae and other organisms of value such as aquatic plants (e.g. lotus). Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater, brackish water, and saltwat... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 403 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), aquaculture "is understood to mean the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection fr... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 460 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
About 430 (97%) of the species cultured were domesticated during the 20th and 21st centuries, of which an estimated 106 came in the decade to 2007. Given the long-term importance of agriculture, to date, only 0.08% of known land plant species and 0.0002% of known land animal species have been domesticated, compared w... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 440 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Microalgae, also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae, constitute the majority of cultivated algae. Macroalgae commonly known as seaweed also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and specific requirements, they are not easily cultivated on a large scale and are most ... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 511 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Crustaceans
Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply thereafter. Global production reached more than 1.6 million tonnes in 2003, worth about US$9 billion. About 75% of farmed shrimp is produced in Asia, in particular in China and Thailand. The other 25% is produced mainly in Latin Amer... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 505 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Abalone farming began in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Japan and China. Since the mid-1990s, this industry has become increasingly successful. Overfishing and poaching have reduced wild populations to the extent that farmed abalone now supplies most abalone meat. Sustainably farmed molluscs can be certified by Seaf... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 410 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Global fish production peaked at about 171 million tonnes in 2016, with aquaculture representing 47 percent of the total and 53 percent if non-food uses (including reduction to fishmeal and fish oil) are excluded. With capture fishery production relatively static since the late 1980s, aquaculture has been responsible f... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 468 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
About 90% of all U.S. shrimp consumption is farmed and imported. In recent years, salmon aquaculture has become a major export in southern Chile, especially in Puerto Montt, Chile's fastest-growing city.
A United Nations report titled The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture released in May 2014 maintained fis... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 412 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Mariculture is the cultivation of marine organisms in seawater, variously in sheltered coastal waters ("inshore"), open ocean ("offshore"), and on land ("onshore"). Farmed species include algae (from microalgae (such as phytoplankton) to macroalgae (such as seaweed); shellfish (such as shrimp), lobster, oysters), and ... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 332 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
"Multi-trophic" refers to the incorporation of species from different trophic or nutritional levels in the same system. This is one potential distinction from the age-old practice of aquatic polyculture, which could simply be the co-culture of different fish species from the same trophic level. In this case, these orga... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 509 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Technology
Uncrewed vessels, like ROVs and AUVs, are now being used in aquaculture in various ways, such as site planning, cage or net inspection, environmental monitoring, disaster assessment, and risk reduction. The use of uncrewed vessels aims to increase safety, efficiency, and accuracy of aquaculture operations.... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 461 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Farming of carnivorous species like salmon and shrimp leads to a high demand for forage fish to match the nutrition they get in the wild. Fish do not actually produce omega-3 fatty acids, but instead accumulate them from either consuming microalgae that produce these fatty acids, as is the case with forage fish like he... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 493 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Another impact aquaculture production can have on wild fish is the risk of fish escaping from coastal pens, where they can interbreed with their wild counterparts, diluting wild genetic stocks. Escaped fish can become invasive, out-competing native species.
Animal welfare
As with the farming of terrestrial animals, s... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 299 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Optimal stocking density is often defined by the carrying capacity of the stocked environment and the amount of individual space needed by the fish, which is very species specific. Although behavioural interactions such as shoaling may mean that high stocking densities are beneficial to some species, in many cultured s... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 471 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Not surprisingly disease and parasitism can have a major effect on fish welfare and it is important for farmers not only to manage infected stock but also to apply disease prevention measures. However, prevention methods, such as vaccination, can also induce stress because of the extra handling and injection. Other met... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 432 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Sea cage aquaculture is responsible for nutrient enrichment of the waters in which they are established. This results from fish wastes and uneaten feed inputs. Elements of most concern are nitrogen and phosphorus which can promote algal growth, including harmful algal blooms which can be toxic to fish. Flushing times, ... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 500 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Needs of the aquaculture sector in vaccines
Aquaculture has an average annual growth rate of 9.2%, however, the success and continued expansion of the fish farming sector is highly dependent on the control of fish pathogens including a wide range of viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. In 2014, it was estimated tha... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 269 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Development of new vaccines
It is the important mortality in cages among farmed fish, the debates around DNA injection vaccines, although effective, their safety and their side effects but also societal expectations for cleaner fish and security, lead research on new vaccine vectors. Several initiatives are financed by... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 264 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Recent vaccines development in aquaculture
There are 24 vaccines available and one for lobsters. The first vaccine was used in the USA against enteric red mouth in 1976. However, there are 19 companies and some small stakeholders are producing vaccines for aquaculture nowadays. The novel approaches are a way forward to... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 500 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Salinization/acidification of soils
Sediment from abandoned aquaculture farms can remain hypersaline, acidic and eroded. This material can remain unusable for aquaculture purposes for long periods thereafter. Various chemical treatments, such as adding lime, can aggravate the problem by modify the physicochemical chara... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 410 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Aquaculture in an area can provide for crucial ecological functions for the inhabitants. Shellfish beds or cages can provide habitat structure. This structure can be used as shelter by invertebrates, small fish or crustaceans to potentially increase their abundance and maintain biodiversity. Increased shelter raises st... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 462 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Some profitable aquaculture cooperatives promote sustainable practices. New methods lessen the risk of biological and chemical pollution through minimizing fish stress, fallowing netpens, and applying integrated pest management. Vaccines are being used more and more to reduce antibiotic use for disease control.
Onshor... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 474 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Global goals
The UN Sustainable Development Goal 14 ("life below water"), Target 14.7 includes aquaculture: "By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing states and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquacu... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 400 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
Oral tradition in China tells of the culture of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, as long ago as 2000–2100 BCE (around 4,000 years BP), but the earliest significant evidence lies in the literature, in the earliest monograph on fish culture called The Classic of Fish Culture, by Fan Li, written around 475 BCE ( BP). Ano... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 508 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
In the first half of the 18th century, German Stephan Ludwig Jacobi experimented with external fertilization of brown trout and salmon. He wrote an article "" (On the Artificial Production of Trout and Salmon) summarizing his findings, and earning him a reputation as the founder of artificial fish-rearing. By the latt... | Aquaculture | Wikipedia | 381 | 1634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture | Technology | Forms | null |
In algorithmic information theory (a subfield of computer science and mathematics), the Kolmogorov complexity of an object, such as a piece of text, is the length of a shortest computer program (in a predetermined programming language) that produces the object as output. It is a measure of the computational resources n... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 477 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
More formally, the complexity of a string is the length of the shortest possible description of the string in some fixed universal description language (the sensitivity of complexity relative to the choice of description language is discussed below). It can be shown that the Kolmogorov complexity of any string cannot b... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 501 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
The length of the shortest description will depend on the choice of description language; but the effect of changing languages is bounded (a result called the invariance theorem).
Plain Kolmogorov complexity C
There are two definitions of Kolmogorov complexity: plain and prefix-free. The plain complexity is the minim... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 416 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
Prefix-free Kolmogorov complexity K
A prefix-free code is a subset of such that given any two different words in the set, neither is a prefix of the other. The benefit of a prefix-free code is that we can build a machine that reads words from the code forward in one direction, and as soon as it reads the last symbol... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 512 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
The invariance theorem follows: Given any description language L, the optimal description language is at least as efficient as L, with some constant overhead.
Proof: Any description D in L can be converted into a description in the optimal language by first describing L as a computer program P (part 1), and then using... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 433 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
The concept and theory of Kolmogorov Complexity is based on a crucial theorem first discovered by Ray Solomonoff, who published it in 1960, describing it in "A Preliminary Report on a General Theory of Inductive Inference" as part of his invention of algorithmic probability. He gave a more complete description in his 1... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 506 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, methods developed to approximate Kolmogorov complexity relied on popular compression algorithms like LZW, which made difficult or impossible to provide any estimation to short strings until a method based on Algorithmic probability was introduced, offering the only alternative to comp... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 478 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
function KolmogorovComplexity(string s)
for i = 1 to infinity:
for each string p of length exactly i
if isValidProgram(p) and evaluate(p) == s
return i
This program iterates through all possible programs (by iterating through all possible strings and only considering those w... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 453 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
Using KolmogorovComplexity as a subroutine, the program tries every string, starting with the shortest, until it returns a string with Kolmogorov complexity at least bits, i.e. a string that cannot be produced by any program shorter than bits. However, the overall length of the above program that produced s is only ... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 423 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
A string s is compressible by a number c if it has a description whose length does not exceed |s| − c bits. This is equivalent to saying that . Otherwise, s is incompressible by c. A string incompressible by 1 is said to be simply incompressible – by the pigeonhole principle, which applies because every compressed str... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 487 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
If FA is provable from the axioms of S, then the corresponding assertion A must be true. This "formalization" can be achieved based on a Gödel numbering.
Theorem: There exists a constant L (which only depends on S and on the choice of description language) such that there does not exist a string s for which the statem... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 464 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
function GenerateProvablyComplexString(int n)
for i = 1 to infinity:
if NthProofProvesComplexityFormula(i) and ComplexityLowerBoundNthProof(i) ≥ n
return StringNthProof(i)
Given an n, this procedure tries every proof until it finds a string and a proof in the formal system S of the formula K... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 398 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
The minimum message length principle of statistical and inductive inference and machine learning was developed by C.S. Wallace and D.M. Boulton in 1968. MML is Bayesian (i.e. it incorporates prior beliefs) and information-theoretic. It has the desirable properties of statistical invariance (i.e. the inference transform... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 380 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
This definition can be extended to define a notion of randomness for infinite sequences from a finite alphabet. These algorithmically random sequences can be defined in three equivalent ways. One way uses an effective analogue of measure theory; another uses effective martingales. The third way defines an infinite seq... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 509 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
Run the program , and record its runtime length .
Generate all programs with length . Run every one of them for up to steps. Note the outputs of those that have halted.
Output the string with the lowest lexicographic order that has not been output by any of those.
Let the string output by the program be .
The prog... | Kolmogorov complexity | Wikipedia | 463 | 1635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%20complexity | Mathematics | Complexity theory | null |
Aloe (; also written Aloë) is a genus containing over 650 species of flowering succulent plants. The most widely known species is Aloe vera, or "true aloe". It is called this because it is cultivated as the standard source for assorted pharmaceutical purposes. Other species, such as Aloe ferox, are also cultivated or ... | Aloe | Wikipedia | 506 | 1650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloe | Biology and health sciences | Monocots | null |
The circumscription of the genus has varied widely. Many genera, such as Lomatophyllum, have been brought into synonymy. Species at one time placed in Aloe, such as Agave americana, have been moved to other genera. Molecular phylogenetic studies, particularly from 2010 onwards, suggested that as then circumscribed, Alo... | Aloe | Wikipedia | 178 | 1650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloe | Biology and health sciences | Monocots | null |
Aloe aculeata Pole-Evans
Aloe africana Mill.
Aloe albida (Stapf) Reynolds
Aloe albiflora Guillaumin
Aloe arborescens Mill.
Aloe arenicola Reynolds
Aloe argenticauda Merxm. & Giess
Aloe bakeri Scott-Elliot
Aloe ballii Reynolds
Aloe ballyi Reynolds
Aloe brevifolia Mill.
Aloe broomii Schönland
Aloe... | Aloe | Wikipedia | 498 | 1650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloe | Biology and health sciences | Monocots | null |
Uses
Aloe species are frequently cultivated as ornamental plants both in gardens and in pots. Many aloe species are highly decorative and are valued by collectors of succulents. Aloe vera is used both internally and externally on humans as folk or alternative medicine. The Aloe species is known for its medicinal and co... | Aloe | Wikipedia | 407 | 1650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloe | Biology and health sciences | Monocots | null |
Chemical properties
According to W. A. Shenstone, two classes of aloins are recognized: (1) nataloins, which yield picric and oxalic acids with nitric acid, and do not give a red coloration with nitric acid; and (2) barbaloins, which yield aloetic acid (C7H2N3O5), chrysammic acid (C7H2N2O6), picric and oxalic acids wi... | Aloe | Wikipedia | 310 | 1650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloe | Biology and health sciences | Monocots | null |
Amaryllis () is the only genus in the subtribe Amaryllidinae (tribe Amaryllideae). It is a small genus of flowering bulbs, with two species. The better known of the two, Amaryllis belladonna, is a native of the Western Cape region of South Africa, particularly the rocky southwest area between the Olifants River Valley ... | Amaryllis | Wikipedia | 460 | 1680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaryllis | Biology and health sciences | Monocots | null |
Taxonomy
The single genus is in subtribe Amaryllidinae, in the tribe Amaryllideae. The taxonomy of the genus has been controversial. In 1753 Carl Linnaeus created the name Amaryllis belladonna, the type species of the genus Amaryllis. At the time both South African and South American plants were placed in the same genu... | Amaryllis | Wikipedia | 469 | 1680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaryllis | Biology and health sciences | Monocots | null |
Habitat
In areas of its native habitat with mountainous fynbos, flowering tends to be suppressed until after bush fires as dense overhead vegetation prevents growth. In more open sandy areas of the Western Cape, the plant flowers annually. Plants tend to be very localized in dense concentrations due to the seeds' larg... | Amaryllis | Wikipedia | 359 | 1680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaryllis | Biology and health sciences | Monocots | null |
There is an Amaryllis belladonna hybrid which was bred in the 1800s in Australia. No one knows the exact species it was crossed with to produce color variations of white, cream, peach, magenta and nearly red hues. The hybrids were crossed back onto the original Amaryllis belladonna and with each other to produce natura... | Amaryllis | Wikipedia | 299 | 1680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaryllis | Biology and health sciences | Monocots | null |
Arthritis is a general medical term used to describe a disorder that affects joints. Symptoms generally include joint pain and stiffness. Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, swelling, and decreased range of motion of the affected joints. In certain types of arthritis, other organs such as the skin are also affe... | Arthritis | Wikipedia | 478 | 1776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis | Biology and health sciences | Non-infectious disease | null |
Joint pain can also be a symptom of other diseases. In this case, the person may not have arthritis and instead have one of the following diseases:
Psoriasis
Reactive arthritis
Ehlers–Danlos syndrome
Iron overload
Hepatitis
Lyme disease
Sjögren's disease
Hashimoto's thyroiditis
Celiac disease
Non-celiac glut... | Arthritis | Wikipedia | 449 | 1776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis | Biology and health sciences | Non-infectious disease | null |
Diagnosis is made by clinical examination from an appropriate health professional, and may be supported by tests such as radiologic imaging and blood tests, depending on the type of suspected arthritis. Pain patterns may vary depending on the arthritis type and the location. Rheumatoid arthritis is generally worse in t... | Arthritis | Wikipedia | 373 | 1776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis | Biology and health sciences | Non-infectious disease | null |
Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common form of arthritis. It affects humans and other animals, notably dogs, but also occurs in cats and horses. It can affect both the larger (ie. knee, hip, shoulder, etc.) and the smaller joints (ie. fingers, toes, foot, etc.) of the body. The disease is caused by daily wear and tear ... | Arthritis | Wikipedia | 365 | 1776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis | Biology and health sciences | Non-infectious disease | null |
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a disorder in which the body's own immune system starts to attack body tissues specifically the cartilage at the end of bones known as articular cartilage. The attack is not only directed at the joint but to many other parts of the body. RA often affects joints in the fingers, wrists, knees... | Arthritis | Wikipedia | 337 | 1776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis | Biology and health sciences | Non-infectious disease | null |
Gout is caused by deposition of uric acid crystals in the joints, causing inflammation. There is also an uncommon form of gouty arthritis caused by the formation of rhomboid crystals of calcium pyrophosphate known as pseudogout. In the early stages, the gouty arthritis usually occurs in one joint, but with time, it can... | Arthritis | Wikipedia | 472 | 1776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis | Biology and health sciences | Non-infectious disease | null |
Treatment
There is no known cure for arthritis and rheumatic diseases. Treatment options vary depending on the type of arthritis and include physical therapy, exercise and diet, orthopedic bracing, and oral and topical medications. Joint replacement surgery may be required to repair damage, restore function, or relieve... | Arthritis | Wikipedia | 432 | 1776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis | Biology and health sciences | Non-infectious disease | null |
The drugs to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA) range from corticosteroids to monoclonal antibodies given intravenously. Due to the autoimmune nature of RA, treatments may include not only pain medications and anti-inflammatory drugs, but also another category of drugs called disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs)... | Arthritis | Wikipedia | 486 | 1776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis | Biology and health sciences | Non-infectious disease | null |
Pulsed electromagnetic field therapy (PEMFT) has tentative evidence supporting improved functioning but no evidence of improved pain in osteoarthritis. The FDA has not approved PEMFT for the treatment of arthritis. In Canada, PEMF devices are legally licensed by Health Canada for the treatment of pain associated with a... | Arthritis | Wikipedia | 239 | 1776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis | Biology and health sciences | Non-infectious disease | null |
Disability due to musculoskeletal disorders increased by 45% from 1990 to 2010. Of these, osteoarthritis is the fastest increasing major health condition. Among the many reports on the increased prevalence of musculoskeletal conditions, data from Africa are lacking and underestimated. A systematic review assessed the p... | Arthritis | Wikipedia | 448 | 1776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis | Biology and health sciences | Non-infectious disease | null |
In 1715, William Musgrave published the second edition of his most important medical work, De arthritide symptomatica, which concerned arthritis and its effects. Augustin Jacob Landré-Beauvais, a 28-year-old resident physician at Salpêtrière Asylum in France was the first person to describe the symptoms of rheumatoid a... | Arthritis | Wikipedia | 290 | 1776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis | Biology and health sciences | Non-infectious disease | null |
Acetylene (systematic name: ethyne) is the chemical compound with the formula and structure . It is a hydrocarbon and the simplest alkyne. This colorless gas is widely used as a fuel and a chemical building block. It is unstable in its pure form and thus is usually handled as a solution. Pure acetylene is odorless, bu... | Acetylene | Wikipedia | 437 | 1778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylene | Physical sciences | Aliphatic hydrocarbons | Chemistry |
It is a recovered side product in production of ethylene by cracking of hydrocarbons. Approximately 400,000 tonnes were produced by this method in 1983. Its presence in ethylene is usually undesirable because of its explosive character and its ability to poison Ziegler–Natta catalysts. It is selectively hydrogenated in... | Acetylene | Wikipedia | 476 | 1778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylene | Physical sciences | Aliphatic hydrocarbons | Chemistry |
Changes of state
At atmospheric pressure, acetylene cannot exist as a liquid and does not have a melting point. The triple point on the phase diagram corresponds to the melting point (−80.8 °C) at the minimal pressure at which liquid acetylene can exist (1.27 atm). At temperatures below the triple point, solid acetylen... | Acetylene | Wikipedia | 196 | 1778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylene | Physical sciences | Aliphatic hydrocarbons | Chemistry |
Welding
Approximately 20% of acetylene is supplied by the industrial gases industry for oxyacetylene gas welding and cutting due to the high temperature of the flame. Combustion of acetylene with oxygen produces a flame of over , releasing 11.8 kJ/g. Oxygen with acetylene is the hottest burning common gas mixture. Acet... | Acetylene | Wikipedia | 439 | 1778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylene | Physical sciences | Aliphatic hydrocarbons | Chemistry |
In addition to ethynylation, acetylene reacts with carbon monoxide, acetylene reacts to give acrylic acid, or acrylic esters. Metal catalysts are required. These derivatives form products such as acrylic fibers, glasses, paints, resins, and polymers. Except in China, use of acetylene as a chemical feedstock has declin... | Acetylene | Wikipedia | 508 | 1778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylene | Physical sciences | Aliphatic hydrocarbons | Chemistry |
Acetylene combustion produces a strong, bright light and the ubiquity of carbide lamps drove much acetylene commercialization in the early 20th century. Common applications included coastal lighthouses, street lights, and automobile and mining headlamps. In most of these applications, direct combustion is a fire hazard... | Acetylene | Wikipedia | 498 | 1778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylene | Physical sciences | Aliphatic hydrocarbons | Chemistry |
Vinyl acetate is used instead of acetylene for some vinylations, which are more accurately described as transvinylations. Higher esters of vinyl acetate have been used in the synthesis of vinyl formate.
Organometallic chemistry
Acetylene and its derivatives (2-butyne, diphenylacetylene, etc.) form complexes with tran... | Acetylene | Wikipedia | 292 | 1778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylene | Physical sciences | Aliphatic hydrocarbons | Chemistry |
Safety and handling
Acetylene is not especially toxic, but when generated from calcium carbide, or CAC2, it can contain toxic impurities such as traces of phosphine and arsine, which gives it a distinct garlic-like smell. It is also highly flammable, as are most light hydrocarbons, hence its use in welding. Its most si... | Acetylene | Wikipedia | 481 | 1778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylene | Physical sciences | Aliphatic hydrocarbons | Chemistry |
The ten Arabic numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) are the most commonly used symbols for writing numbers. The term often also implies a positional notation number with a decimal base, in particular when contrasted with Roman numerals. However the symbols are also used to write numbers in other bases, such as o... | Arabic numerals | Wikipedia | 490 | 1786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic%20numerals | Mathematics | Language | null |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.