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Al-Nasawi wrote in the early 11th century that mathematicians had not agreed on the form of the numerals, but most of them had agreed to train themselves with the forms now known as Eastern Arabic numerals. The oldest specimens of the written numerals available are from Egypt and date to 873–874 AD. They show three for... | Arabic numerals | Wikipedia | 466 | 1786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic%20numerals | Mathematics | Language | null |
From the 980s, Gerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Sylvester II) used his position to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in Barcelona in his youth. He was known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the astrolabe from Lupitus of Barcelona after he had returned to France.
The receptio... | Arabic numerals | Wikipedia | 491 | 1786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic%20numerals | Mathematics | Language | null |
By the late 14th century, only a few texts using Arabic numerals appeared outside of Italy. This suggests that the use of Arabic numerals in commercial practice, and the significant advantage they conferred, remained a virtual Italian monopoly until the late 15th century. This may in part have been due to language barr... | Arabic numerals | Wikipedia | 329 | 1786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic%20numerals | Mathematics | Language | null |
Russia
Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals, Cyrillic numerals, derived from the Cyrillic alphabet, were used by South and East Slavs. The system was used in Russia as late as the early 18th century, although it was formally replaced in official use by Peter the Great in 1699. Reasons for Peter's switch from t... | Arabic numerals | Wikipedia | 483 | 1786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic%20numerals | Mathematics | Language | null |
The acre ( ) is a unit of land area used in the British imperial and the United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one chain by one furlong (66 by 660 feet), which is exactly equal to 10 square chains, of a square mile, 4,840 square yards, or 43,560 square feet, and approximately 4,04... | Acre | Wikipedia | 506 | 1797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre | Physical sciences | Area | null |
US survey acres
In the international yard and pound agreement of 1959, the United States and five countries of the Commonwealth of Nations defined the international yard to be exactly 0.9144 metre. The US authorities decided that, while the refined definition would apply nationally in all other respects, the US survey ... | Acre | Wikipedia | 401 | 1797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre | Physical sciences | Area | null |
Use
The acre is commonly used in many current and former Commonwealth countries by custom, and in a few it continues as a statute measure. These include Antigua and Barbuda, American Samoa, The Bahamas, Belize, the British Virgin Islands, Canada, the Cayman Islands, Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Grenada, Ghana, Guam... | Acre | Wikipedia | 481 | 1797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre | Physical sciences | Area | null |
1 acre (both variants) is equal to the following customary units:
66 feet × 660 feet (43,560 square feet)
10 square chains (1 chain = 66 feet = 22 yards = 4 rods = 100 links)
1 acre is approximately 208.71 feet × 208.71 feet (a square)
4,840 square yards
43,560 square feet
160 perches. A perch is equal to a squar... | Acre | Wikipedia | 444 | 1797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre | Physical sciences | Area | null |
Before the enactment of the metric system, many countries in Europe used their own official acres. In France, the traditional unit of area was the arpent carré, a measure based on the Roman system of land measurement.
The was used only in Normandy (and neighbouring places outside its traditional borders), but its valu... | Acre | Wikipedia | 470 | 1797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre | Physical sciences | Area | null |
The acre is related to the square mile, with 640 acres making up one square mile. One mile is 5280 feet (1760 yards). In western Canada and the western United States, divisions of land area were typically based on the square mile, and fractions thereof. If the square mile is divided into quarters, each quarter has a si... | Acre | Wikipedia | 502 | 1797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre | Physical sciences | Area | null |
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleoside triphosphate that provides energy to drive and support many processes in living cells, such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, and chemical synthesis. Found in all known forms of life, it is often referred to as the "molecular unit of currency" for intracellul... | Adenosine triphosphate | Wikipedia | 492 | 1800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine%20triphosphate | Biology and health sciences | Biochemistry and molecular biology | null |
ATP is stable in aqueous solutions between pH 6.8 and 7.4 (in the absence of catalysts). At more extreme pH levels, it rapidly hydrolyses to ADP and phosphate. Living cells maintain the ratio of ATP to ADP at a point ten orders of magnitude from equilibrium, with ATP concentrations fivefold higher than the concentrati... | Adenosine triphosphate | Wikipedia | 439 | 1800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine%20triphosphate | Biology and health sciences | Biochemistry and molecular biology | null |
Along with pH, the free energy change of ATP hydrolysis is also associated with Mg2+ concentration, from ΔG°' = −35.7 kJ/mol at a Mg2+ concentration of zero, to ΔG°' = −31 kJ/mol at [Mg2+] = 5 mM. Higher concentrations of Mg2+ decrease free energy released in the reaction due to binding of Mg2+ ions to negatively charg... | Adenosine triphosphate | Wikipedia | 442 | 1800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine%20triphosphate | Biology and health sciences | Biochemistry and molecular biology | null |
Glycolysis is viewed as consisting of two phases with five steps each. In phase 1, "the preparatory phase", glucose is converted to 2 d-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (g3p). One ATP is invested in Step 1, and another ATP is invested in Step 3. Steps 1 and 3 of glycolysis are referred to as "Priming Steps". In Phase 2, two ... | Adenosine triphosphate | Wikipedia | 430 | 1800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine%20triphosphate | Biology and health sciences | Biochemistry and molecular biology | null |
In the mitochondrion, pyruvate is oxidized by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex to the acetyl group, which is fully oxidized to carbon dioxide by the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle). Every "turn" of the citric acid cycle produces two molecules of carbon dioxide, one equivalent of ATP guanosine tripho... | Adenosine triphosphate | Wikipedia | 445 | 1800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine%20triphosphate | Biology and health sciences | Biochemistry and molecular biology | null |
In oxidative phosphorylation, the passage of electrons from NADH and FADH2 through the electron transport chain releases the energy to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix and into the intermembrane space. This pumping generates a proton motive force that is the net effect of a pH gradient and an electric poten... | Adenosine triphosphate | Wikipedia | 408 | 1800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine%20triphosphate | Biology and health sciences | Biochemistry and molecular biology | null |
In the presence of air and various cofactors and enzymes, fatty acids are converted to acetyl-CoA. The pathway is called beta-oxidation. Each cycle of beta-oxidation shortens the fatty acid chain by two carbon atoms and produces one equivalent each of acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH2. The acetyl-CoA is metabolized by the ci... | Adenosine triphosphate | Wikipedia | 507 | 1800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine%20triphosphate | Biology and health sciences | Biochemistry and molecular biology | null |
Production, anaerobic conditions
Fermentation is the metabolism of organic compounds in the absence of air. It involves substrate-level phosphorylation in the absence of a respiratory electron transport chain. The equation for the reaction of glucose to form lactic acid is:
+ 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 + 2 ATP + 2
Anaerobic... | Adenosine triphosphate | Wikipedia | 510 | 1800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine%20triphosphate | Biology and health sciences | Biochemistry and molecular biology | null |
ATP is also a substrate of adenylate cyclase, most commonly in G protein-coupled receptor signal transduction pathways and is transformed to second messenger, cyclic AMP, which is involved in triggering calcium signals by the release of calcium from intracellular stores. This form of signal transduction is particularly... | Adenosine triphosphate | Wikipedia | 493 | 1800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine%20triphosphate | Biology and health sciences | Biochemistry and molecular biology | null |
Muscle contraction
ATP fuels muscle contractions. Muscle contractions are regulated by signaling pathways, although different muscle types being regulated by specific pathways and stimuli based on their particular function. However, in all muscle types, contraction is performed by the proteins actin and myosin.
ATP i... | Adenosine triphosphate | Wikipedia | 495 | 1800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine%20triphosphate | Biology and health sciences | Biochemistry and molecular biology | null |
Most useful ATP analogs cannot be hydrolyzed as ATP would be; instead, they trap the enzyme in a structure closely related to the ATP-bound state. Adenosine 5′-(γ-thiotriphosphate) is an extremely common ATP analog in which one of the gamma-phosphate oxygens is replaced by a sulfur atom; this anion is hydrolyzed at a d... | Adenosine triphosphate | Wikipedia | 376 | 1800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine%20triphosphate | Biology and health sciences | Biochemistry and molecular biology | null |
An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of such infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. A lim... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 321 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Antibiotics have been used since ancient times. Many civilizations used topical application of moldy bread, with many references to its beneficial effects arising from ancient Egypt, Nubia, China, Serbia, Greece, and Rome. The first person to directly document the use of molds to treat infections was John Parkinson (15... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 451 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
The term antibiotic was first used in 1942 by Selman Waksman and his collaborators in journal articles to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution. This definition excluded substances that kill bacteria but that are not produced by mi... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 472 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Antibiotics may be given as a preventive measure and this is usually limited to at-risk populations such as those with a weakened immune system (particularly in HIV cases to prevent pneumonia), those taking immunosuppressive drugs, cancer patients, and those having surgery. Their use in surgical procedures is to help p... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 426 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Global consumption
Antibiotic consumption varies widely between countries. The WHO report on surveillance of antibiotic consumption published in 2018 analysed 2015 data from 65 countries. As measured in defined daily doses per 1,000 inhabitants per day. Mongolia had the highest consumption with a rate of 64.4. Burundi ... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 418 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Birth control pills
There are few well-controlled studies on whether antibiotic use increases the risk of oral contraceptive failure. The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do not interfere with birth control pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotic... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 417 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Antibiotics such as metronidazole, tinidazole, cephamandole, latamoxef, cefoperazone, cefmenoxime, and furazolidone, cause a disulfiram-like chemical reaction with alcohol by inhibiting its breakdown by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, which may result in vomiting, nausea, and shortness of breath. In addition, the efficacy ... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 340 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
In important infectious diseases, including tuberculosis, combination therapy (i.e., the concurrent application of two or more antibiotics) has been used to delay or prevent the emergence of resistance. In acute bacterial infections, antibiotics as part of combination therapy are prescribed for their synergistic effect... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 302 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial en... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 508 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR) is a naturally occurring process. AMR is driven largely by the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials. Yet, at the same time, many people around the world do not have access to essential antimicrobials. The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a common phenomenon mainly cause... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 428 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 457 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Per The ICU Book, "The first rule of antibiotics is to try not to use them, and the second rule is try not to use too many of them." Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. However, potential harm from antibiotics extends beyond s... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 380 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicr... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 493 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Studies have shown that common misconceptions about the effectiveness and necessity of antibiotics to treat common mild illnesses contribute to their overuse.
Other forms of antibiotic-associated harm include anaphylaxis, drug toxicity most notably kidney and liver damage, and super-infections with resistant organisms... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 456 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
This heralded the era of antibacterial treatment that was begun with the discovery of a series of arsenic-derived synthetic antibiotics by both Alfred Bertheim and Ehrlich in 1907. Ehrlich and Bertheim had experimented with various chemicals derived from dyes to treat trypanosomiasis in mice and spirochaeta infection i... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 497 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
In 1874, physician Sir William Roberts noted that cultures of the mould Penicillium glaucum that is used in the making of some types of blue cheese did not display bacterial contamination.
In 1895 Vincenzo Tiberio, Italian physician, published a paper on the antibacterial power of some extracts of mold.
In 1897, doct... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 418 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Ernst Chain, Howard Florey and Edward Abraham succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical struc... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 453 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Antibiotic pipeline
Both the WHO and the Infectious Disease Society of America report that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. The Infectious Disease Society of America report noted that the number of new antibiotics approved for marketing per year had been d... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 330 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Possible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. In the US, the Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act was introduced with the aim of fast tracking t... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 474 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
In addition to screening natural products for direct antibacterial activity, they are sometimes screened for the ability to suppress antibiotic resistance and antibiotic tolerance. For example, some secondary metabolites inhibit drug efflux pumps, thereby increasing the concentration of antibiotic able to reach its cel... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 396 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Antibodies (anti-tetanus immunoglobulin) have been used in the treatment and prevention of tetanus since the 1910s, and this approach continues to be a useful way of controlling bacterial diseases. The monoclonal antibody bezlotoxumab, for example, has been approved by the US FDA and EMA for recurrent Clostridioides di... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 470 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Fecal microbiota transplants involve transferring the full intestinal microbiota from a healthy human donor (in the form of stool) to patients with C. difficile infection. Although this procedure has not been officially approved by the US FDA, its use is permitted under some conditions in patients with antibiotic-resis... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 492 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Although the function of CRISPR-Cas9 in nature is to protect bacteria, the DNA sequences in the CRISPR component of the system can be modified so that the Cas9 nuclease targets bacterial resistance genes or bacterial virulence genes instead of viral genes. The modified CRISPR-Cas9 system can then be administered to bac... | Antibiotic | Wikipedia | 379 | 1805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic | Biology and health sciences | Drugs and medication | null |
Allotropy or allotropism () is the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms, in the same physical state, known as allotropes of the elements. Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element: the atoms of the element are bonded together in different manners.
For example,... | Allotropy | Wikipedia | 478 | 1839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropy | Physical sciences | Basics_4 | null |
By 1912, Ostwald noted that the allotropy of elements is just a special case of the phenomenon of polymorphism known for compounds, and proposed that the terms allotrope and allotropy be abandoned and replaced by polymorph and polymorphism. Although many other chemists have repeated this advice, IUPAC and most chemistr... | Allotropy | Wikipedia | 496 | 1839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropy | Physical sciences | Basics_4 | null |
Most stable structure under standard conditions.
Structures stable below room temperature.
Structures stable above room temperature.
Structures stable above atmospheric pressure.
Lanthanides and actinides
Cerium, samarium, dysprosium and ytterbium have three allotropes.
Praseodymium, neodymium, gadolinium and te... | Allotropy | Wikipedia | 343 | 1839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropy | Physical sciences | Basics_4 | null |
Alternative medicine is any practice that aims to achieve the healing effects of medicine despite lacking biological plausibility, testability, repeatability or evidence of effectiveness. Unlike modern medicine, which employs the scientific method to test plausible therapies by way of responsible and ethical clinical t... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 465 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
The alternative medicine sector is a highly profitable industry with a strong lobby, and faces far less regulation over the use and marketing of unproven treatments. Complementary medicine (CM), complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), integrated medicine or integrative medicine (IM), and holistic medicine attempt... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 451 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Alternative medicine
Alternative medicine is defined loosely as a set of products, practices, and theories that are believed or perceived by their users to have the healing effects of medicine, but whose effectiveness has not been established using scientific methods, or whose theory and practice is not part of biomedi... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 464 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Several medical organizations differentiate between complementary and alternative medicine including the UK National Health Service (NHS), Cancer Research UK, and the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the latter of which states that "Complementary medicine is used in addition to standard treatments" ... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 385 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Traditional medicine (TM) refers to certain practices within a culture which have existed since before the advent of medical science, Many TM practices are based on "holistic" approaches to disease and health, versus the scientific evidence-based methods in conventional medicine. The 2019 WHO report defines traditional... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 360 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Critics say the expression is deceptive because it implies there is an effective alternative to science-based medicine, and that complementary is deceptive because it implies that the treatment increases the effectiveness of (complements) science-based medicine, while alternative medicines that have been tested nearly ... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 508 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Supernatural energies
Bases of belief may include belief in existence of supernatural energies undetected by the science of physics, as in biofields, or in belief in properties of the energies of physics that are inconsistent with the laws of physics, as in energy medicine.
Herbal remedies and other substances
Substa... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 365 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Whole medical systems: Cut across more than one of the other groups; examples include traditional Chinese medicine, naturopathy, homeopathy, and ayurveda.
Mind-body interventions: Explore the interconnection between the mind, body, and spirit, under the premise that they affect "bodily functions and symptoms". A conne... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 332 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
The history of alternative medicine may refer to the history of a group of diverse medical practices that were collectively promoted as "alternative medicine" beginning in the 1970s, to the collection of individual histories of members of that group, or to the history of western medical practices that were labeled "irr... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 483 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
An analysis of trends in the criticism of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in five prestigious American medical journals during the period of reorganization within medicine (1965–1999) was reported as showing that the medical profession had responded to the growth of CAM in three phases, and that in each ph... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 485 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
There is a general scientific consensus that alternative therapies lack the requisite scientific validation, and their effectiveness is either unproved or disproved. Many of the claims regarding the efficacy of alternative medicines are controversial, since research on them is frequently of low quality and methodologic... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 432 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
, the Cochrane Library had 145 CAM-related Cochrane systematic reviews and 340 non-Cochrane systematic reviews. An analysis of the conclusions of only the 145 Cochrane reviews was done by two readers. In 83% of the cases, the readers agreed. In the 17% in which they disagreed, a third reader agreed with one of the init... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 498 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Placebos do not have a physical effect on diseases or improve overall outcomes, but patients may report improvements in subjective outcomes such as pain and nausea. A 1955 study suggested that a substantial part of a medicine's impact was due to the placebo effect. However, reassessments found the study to have flawed ... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 483 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
In addition to the social-cultural underpinnings of the popularity of alternative medicine, there are several psychological issues that are critical to its growth, notably psychological effects, such as the will to believe, cognitive biases that help maintain self-esteem and promote harmonious social functioning, and t... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 499 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Patients can be averse to the painful, unpleasant, and sometimes-dangerous side effects of biomedical treatments. Treatments for severe diseases such as cancer and HIV infection have well-known, significant side-effects. Even low-risk medications such as antibiotics can have potential to cause life-threatening anaphyla... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 387 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Commentators including David Horrobin have proposed adopting a prize system to reward medical research. This stands in opposition to the current mechanism for funding research proposals in most countries around the world. In the US, the NCCIH provides public research funding for alternative medicine. The NCCIH has spen... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 486 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
A survey of Americans found that 88 percent thought that "there are some good ways of treating sickness that medical science does not recognize". Use of magnets was the most common tool in energy medicine in America, and among users of it, 58 percent described it as at least "sort of scientific", when it is not at all ... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 410 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
In palliative care
Complementary therapies are often used in palliative care or by practitioners attempting to manage chronic pain in patients. Integrative medicine is considered more acceptable in the interdisciplinary approach used in palliative care than in other areas of medicine. "From its early experiences of car... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 496 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
According to the Institute of Medicine, use of alternative medical techniques may result in several types of harm:
"Direct harm, which results in adverse patient outcome."
"Economic harm, which results in monetary loss but presents no health hazard;"
"Indirect harm, which results in a delay of appropriate treatment,... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 387 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
An exception to the normal thinking regarding side-effects is homeopathy. Since 1938, the FDA has regulated homeopathic products in "several significantly different ways from other drugs." Homeopathic preparations, termed "remedies", are extremely dilute, often far beyond the point where a single molecule of the origin... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 491 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is not as well researched as conventional medicine, which undergoes intense research before release to the public. Practitioners of science-based medicine also discard practices and treatments when they are shown ineffective, while alternative practitioners do not. Funding f... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 488 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
In March 2009, a staff writer for The Washington Post reported that the impending national discussion about broadening access to health care, improving medical practice and saving money was giving a group of scientists an opening to propose shutting down the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. T... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 509 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Many alternative medical treatments are not patentable, which may lead to less research funding from the private sector. In addition, in most countries, alternative therapies (in contrast to pharmaceuticals) can be marketed without any proof of efficacy – also a disincentive for manufacturers to fund scientific researc... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 318 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
Conflicts of interest
Some commentators have said that special consideration must be given to the issue of conflicts of interest in alternative medicine. Edzard Ernst has said that most researchers into alternative medicine are at risk of "unidirectional bias" because of a generally uncritical belief in their chosen su... | Alternative medicine | Wikipedia | 344 | 1845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20medicine | Biology and health sciences | Alternative and traditional medicine | null |
An allele (or allelomorph) is a variant of the sequence of nucleotides at a particular location, or locus, on a DNA molecule.
Alleles can differ at a single position through single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), but they can also have insertions and deletions of up to several thousand base pairs.
Most alleles observ... | Allele | Wikipedia | 463 | 1911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allele | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
In many cases, genotypic interactions between the two alleles at a locus can be described as dominant or recessive, according to which of the two homozygous phenotypes the heterozygote most resembles. Where the heterozygote is indistinguishable from one of the homozygotes, the allele expressed is the one that leads to ... | Allele | Wikipedia | 430 | 1911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allele | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
A population or species of organisms typically includes multiple alleles at each locus among various individuals. Allelic variation at a locus is measurable as the number of alleles (polymorphism) present, or the proportion of heterozygotes in the population. A null allele is a gene variant that lacks the gene's normal... | Allele | Wikipedia | 511 | 1911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allele | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
With three alleles:
and
In the case of multiple alleles at a diploid locus, the number of possible genotypes (G) with a number of alleles (a) is given by the expression:
Allelic dominance in genetic disorders
A number of genetic disorders are caused when an individual inherits two recessive alleles for a single... | Allele | Wikipedia | 415 | 1911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allele | Biology and health sciences | Genetics | Biology |
Ampicillin is an antibiotic belonging to the aminopenicillin class of the penicillin family. The drug is used to prevent and treat several bacterial infections, such as respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, salmonellosis, and endocarditis. It may also be used to prevent group B streptococc... | Ampicillin | Wikipedia | 470 | 1912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampicillin | Biology and health sciences | Antibiotics | Health |
Bacteria
Ampicillin is used to treat infections by many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. It was the first "broad spectrum" penicillin with activity against gram-positive bacteria, including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, some isolates of Staphylococcus aureus (but not penicillin-resistant or... | Ampicillin | Wikipedia | 478 | 1912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampicillin | Biology and health sciences | Antibiotics | Health |
Ampicillin crosses the placenta and remains in the amniotic fluid at 50–100% of the concentration in maternal plasma; this can lead to high concentrations of ampicillin in the newborn.
While lactating mothers secrete some ampicillin into their breast milk, the amount is minimal.
In newborns, ampicillin has a longer h... | Ampicillin | Wikipedia | 440 | 1912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampicillin | Biology and health sciences | Antibiotics | Health |
Ampicillin reacts with probenecid and methotrexate to decrease renal excretion. Large doses of ampicillin can increase the risk of bleeding with concurrent use of warfarin and other oral anticoagulants, possibly by inhibiting platelet aggregation. Ampicillin has been said to make oral contraceptives less effective, but... | Ampicillin | Wikipedia | 467 | 1912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampicillin | Biology and health sciences | Antibiotics | Health |
Pharmacokinetics
Ampicillin is well-absorbed from the GI tract (though food reduces its absorption), and reaches peak concentrations in one to two hours. The bioavailability is around 62% for parenteral routes. Unlike other penicillins, which usually bind 60–90% to plasma proteins, ampicillin binds to only 15–20%.
Amp... | Ampicillin | Wikipedia | 353 | 1912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampicillin | Biology and health sciences | Antibiotics | Health |
Veterinary use
In veterinary medicine, ampicillin is used in cats, dogs, and farm animals to treat:
Anal gland infections
Cutaneous infections, such as abscesses, cellulitis, and pustular dermatitis
E. coli and Salmonella infections in cattle, sheep, and goats (oral form). Ampicillin use for this purpose had decline... | Ampicillin | Wikipedia | 244 | 1912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampicillin | Biology and health sciences | Antibiotics | Health |
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR) occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from antimicrobials, which are drugs used to treat infections. This resistance affects all classes of microbes, including bacteria (antibiotic resistance), viruses (antiviral resistance), protozoa (antiprotozoal resistance), a... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 429 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
The WHO defines antimicrobial resistance as a microorganism's resistance to an antimicrobial drug that was once able to treat an infection by that microorganism. A person cannot become resistant to antibiotics. Resistance is a property of the microbe, not a person or other organism infected by a microbe. All types of m... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 496 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Causes
AMR is driven largely by the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials. Yet, at the same time, many people around the world do not have access to essential antimicrobials. This leads to microbes either evolving a defense against drugs used to treat them, or certain strains of microbes that have a natural resistance ... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 424 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Some contemporary antimicrobial resistances have also evolved naturally before the use of antimicrobials of human clinical uses. For instance, methicillin-resistance evolved as a pathogen of hedgehogs, possibly as a co-evolutionary adaptation of the pathogen to hedgehogs that are infected by a dermatophyte that natural... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 494 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Self-medication is higher outside the hospital environment, and this is linked to higher use of antibiotics, with the majority of antibiotics being used in the community rather than hospitals. The prevalence of self-medication in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) ranges from 8.1% to 93%. Accessibility, affordabi... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 399 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
According to research conducted in the US that aimed to evaluate physicians' attitudes and knowledge on antimicrobial resistance in ambulatory settings, only 63% of those surveyed reported antibiotic resistance as a problem in their local practices, while 23% reported the aggressive prescription of antibiotics as neces... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 414 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
A 2024 United Nations High-Level Meeting on AMR has pledged to reduce deaths associated with bacterial AMR by 10% over the next six years. In their first major declaration on the issue since 2016, global leaders also committed to raising $100 million to update and implement AMR action plans. However, the final draft of... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 461 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Farmers typically use antibiotics in animal feed to improve growth rates and prevent infections. However, this is illogical as antibiotics are used to treat infections and not prevent infections. 80% of antibiotic use in the U.S. is for agricultural purposes and about 70% of these are medically important. Overusing ant... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 404 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Most pesticides protect crops against insects and plants, but in some cases antimicrobial pesticides are used to protect against various microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, and protozoa. The overuse of many pesticides in an effort to have a higher yield of crops has resulted in many of these microbe... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 463 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
For simplicity, wild bird populations can be divided into two major categories, wild sedentary birds and wild migrating birds. Wild sedentary bird exposure to AMR is through increased contact with densely populated areas, human waste, domestic animals, and domestic animal/livestock waste. Wild migrating birds interact... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 359 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Some scientists have argued that the inability of known causative agents of contagious diseases to survive being frozen and thawed makes this threat unlikely. Instead, there have been suggestions that when modern pathogenic bacteria interact with the ancient ones, they may, through horizontal gene transfer, pick up gen... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 438 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
The study, "Shorter and Longer Antibiotic Durations for Respiratory Infections: To Fight Antimicrobial Resistance—A Retrospective Cross-Sectional Study in a Secondary Care Setting in the UK," highlights the urgency of reevaluating antibiotic treatment durations amidst the global challenge of antimicrobial resistance (A... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 484 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Excessive antimicrobial use has become one of the top contributors to the evolution of antimicrobial resistance. Since the beginning of the antimicrobial era, antimicrobials have been used to treat a wide range of infectious diseases. Overuse of antimicrobials has become the primary cause of rising levels of antimicrob... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 396 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
At the hospital level
Antimicrobial stewardship teams in hospitals are encouraging optimal use of antimicrobials. The goals of antimicrobial stewardship are to help practitioners pick the right drug at the right dose and duration of therapy while preventing misuse and minimizing the development of resistance. Stewards... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 334 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Parents play a critical role in reducing unnecessary antibiotic use, particularly during cold and flu season when children frequently experience respiratory illnesses. Many of these illnesses are caused by viruses, such as colds or the flu, which antibiotics cannot treat. Misusing antibiotics in these situations not on... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 503 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Country examples
The Netherlands has the lowest rate of antibiotic prescribing in the OECD, at a rate of 11.4 defined daily doses (DDD) per 1,000 people per day in 2011. The defined daily dose (DDD) is a statistical measure of drug consumption, defined by the World Health Organization (WHO).
Germany and Sweden also h... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 493 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Industrial wastewater treatment
Manufacturers of antimicrobials need to improve the treatment of their wastewater (by using industrial wastewater treatment processes) to reduce the release of residues into the environment.
Limiting antimicrobial use in animals and farming
It is established that the use of antibiotic... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 367 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) collect data on antibiotic use in humans and in a more limited fashion in animals. About 80% of antibiotic use in the U.S. is for agriculture purposes, and about 70% of these are medically important. This gives reason for conc... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 254 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
At the 79th United Nations General Assembly High-Level Meeting on AMR on 26 September 2024, world leaders approved a political declaration committing to a clear set of targets and actions, including reducing the estimated 4.95 million human deaths associated with bacterial AMR annually by 10% by 2030.
The increasing i... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 336 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
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