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Steps towards progress
React based in Sweden has produced informative material on AMR for the general public.
Videos are being produced for the general public to generate interest and awareness.
The Irish Department of Health published a National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance in October 2017. The Strategy ... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 495 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
In 2016 the Secretary-General of the United Nations convened the Interagency Coordination Group (IACG) on Antimicrobial Resistance. The IACG worked with international organizations and experts in human, animal, and plant health to create a plan to fight antimicrobial resistance. Their report released in April 2019 high... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 139 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
The five main mechanisms by which bacteria exhibit resistance to antibiotics are:
Drug inactivation or modification: for example, enzymatic deactivation of penicillin G in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of β-lactamases. Drugs may also be chemically modified through the addition of functional... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 499 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
The six pathogens causing most deaths associated with resistance are Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. They were responsible for 929,000 deaths attributable to resistance and 3.57 million deaths associated with... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 214 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Some bacteria are naturally resistant to certain antibiotics; for example, gram-negative bacteria are resistant to most β-lactam antibiotics due to the presence of β-lactamase. Antibiotic resistance can also be acquired as a result of either genetic mutation or horizontal gene transfer. Although mutations are rare, wit... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 504 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
In one study, which has implications for space microbiology, a non-pathogenic strain E. coli MG1655 was exposed to trace levels of the broad spectrum antibiotic chloramphenicol, under simulated microgravity (LSMMG, or Low Shear Modeled Microgravity) over 1000 generations. The adapted strain acquired resistance to not o... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 448 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Resistance to HIV antivirals is problematic, and even multi-drug resistant strains have evolved. One source of resistance is that many current HIV drugs, including NRTIs and NNRTIs, target reverse transcriptase; however, HIV-1 reverse transcriptase is highly error prone and thus mutations conferring resistance arise ra... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 461 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
The emergence of Candida auris as a potential human pathogen that sometimes exhibits multi-class antifungal drug resistance is concerning and has been associated with several outbreaks globally. The WHO has released a priority fungal pathogen list, including pathogens with antifungal resistance.
The identification of ... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 503 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
In 2022, genomic epidemiologists reported results from a global survey of antimicrobial resistance via genomic wastewater-based epidemiology, finding large regional variations, providing maps, and suggesting resistance genes are also passed on between microbial species that are not closely related. The WHO provides the... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 391 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
The phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance caused by overuse of antibiotics was predicted as early as 1945 by Alexander Fleming who said "The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily under-dose himself and by exposing his microbes to n... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 449 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
For the United States 2016 budget, U.S. president Barack Obama proposed to nearly double the amount of federal funding to "combat and prevent" antibiotic resistance to more than $1.2 billion. Many international funding agencies like USAID, DFID, SIDA and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation have pledged money for developing... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 420 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
As of 2023, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) remains a significant public health threat in the United States. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's 2023 Report on Antibiotic Resistance Threats, over 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur in the U.S. each year, leading to at least 35,000... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 414 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
The U.S. government continues to prioritize AMR mitigation through policy and legislation. In 2023, the National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria (CARB) 2023-2028 was released, outlining strategic objectives for reducing antibiotic-resistant infections, advancing infection prevention, and acceler... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 430 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) can facilitate a precision medicine approach to treatment by helping clinicians to prescribe more effective and targeted antimicrobial therapy. At the same time with traditional phenotypic AST it can take 12 to 48 hours to obtain a result due to the time taken for organisms to... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 450 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Vaccines
Vaccines are an essential part of the response to reduce AMR as they prevent infections, reduce the use and overuse of antimicrobials, and slow the emergence and spread of drug-resistant pathogens.
Microorganisms usually do not develop resistance to vaccines because vaccines reduce the spread of the infection ... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 478 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Numerous investigators have suggested that a multiple-antigen vaccine would be more effective, but a lack of biomarkers defining human protective immunity keep these proposals in the logical, but strictly hypothetical arena.
Antibody therapy
Antibodies are promising against antimicrobial resistance. Monoclonal antibod... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 451 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
The potential crisis at hand is the result of a marked decrease in industry research and development. Poor financial investment in antibiotic research has exacerbated the situation. The pharmaceutical industry has little incentive to invest in antibiotics because of the high risk and because the potential financial ret... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 434 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
The discovery and development of new antimicrobial agents has been facilitated by regulatory advances, which have been principally led by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). These processes are increasingly aligned although important differences remain and drug developers mus... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 383 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
During the last decades, copper and silver nanomaterials have demonstrated appealing features for the development of a new family of antimicrobial agents. Nanoparticles (1–100 nm) show unique properties and promise as antimicrobial agents against resistant bacteria. Silver (AgNPs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are ext... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 443 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
Phage therapy relies on the use of naturally occurring bacteriophages to infect and lyse bacteria at the site of infection in a host. Due to current advances in genetics and biotechnology these bacteriophages can possibly be manufactured to treat specific infections. Phages can be bioengineered to target multidrug-resi... | Antimicrobial resistance | Wikipedia | 308 | 1914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20resistance | Biology and health sciences | Anti-infectives | Health |
In immunology, an antigen (Ag) is a molecule, moiety, foreign particulate matter, or an allergen, such as pollen, that can bind to a specific antibody or T-cell receptor. The presence of antigens in the body may trigger an immune response.
Antigens can be proteins, peptides (amino acid chains), polysaccharides (chain... | Antigen | Wikipedia | 394 | 1915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen | Biology and health sciences | Immune system | Biology |
Etymology
Paul Ehrlich coined the term antibody () in his side-chain theory at the end of the 19th century. In 1899, Ladislas Deutsch (László Detre) named the hypothetical substances halfway between bacterial constituents and antibodies "antigenic or immunogenic substances" (). He originally believed those substances t... | Antigen | Wikipedia | 157 | 1915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen | Biology and health sciences | Immune system | Biology |
Terminology
Epitope – the distinct surface features of an antigen, its antigenic determinant.Antigenic molecules, normally "large" biological polymers, usually present surface features that can act as points of interaction for specific antibodies. Any such feature constitutes an epitope. Most antigens have the potenti... | Antigen | Wikipedia | 433 | 1915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen | Biology and health sciences | Immune system | Biology |
Antigen-presenting cells present antigens in the form of peptides on histocompatibility molecules. The T cells selectively recognize the antigens; depending on the antigen and the type of the histocompatibility molecule, different types of T cells will be activated. For T-cell receptor (TCR) recognition, the peptide mu... | Antigen | Wikipedia | 420 | 1915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen | Biology and health sciences | Immune system | Biology |
Exogenous antigens
Exogenous antigens are antigens that have entered the body from the outside, for example, by inhalation, ingestion or injection. The immune system's response to exogenous antigens is often subclinical. By endocytosis or phagocytosis, exogenous antigens are taken into the antigen-presenting cells (APC... | Antigen | Wikipedia | 484 | 1915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen | Biology and health sciences | Immune system | Biology |
Neoantigens
Neoantigens are those that are entirely absent from the normal human genome. As compared with nonmutated self-proteins, neoantigens are of relevance to tumor control, as the quality of the T cell pool that is available for these antigens is not affected by central T cell tolerance. Technology to systematic... | Antigen | Wikipedia | 462 | 1915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen | Biology and health sciences | Immune system | Biology |
The false-negative rate of cancer exome sequencing is low—i.e.: the majority of neoantigens occur within exonic sequence with sufficient coverage. However, the vast majority of mutations within expressed genes do not produce neoantigens that are recognized by autologous T cells.
As of 2015 mass spectrometry resolution... | Antigen | Wikipedia | 370 | 1915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen | Biology and health sciences | Immune system | Biology |
Argo Navis (the Ship Argo), or simply Argo, is one of Ptolemy's 48 constellations, now a grouping of three IAU constellations. It is formerly a single large constellation in the southern sky. The genitive is "Argus Navis", abbreviated "Arg". John Flamsteed and other early modern astronomers called it Navis (the Ship), ... | Argo Navis | Wikipedia | 439 | 1924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argo%20Navis | Physical sciences | Asterism | Astronomy |
Over time, Argo became identified exclusively with ancient Greek myth of Jason and the Argonauts. In Ptolemy's Almagest, Argo Navis occupies the portion of the Milky Way between Canis Major and Centaurus, with stars marking such details as the "little shield", the "steering-oar", the "mast-holder", and the "stern-orna... | Argo Navis | Wikipedia | 381 | 1924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argo%20Navis | Physical sciences | Asterism | Astronomy |
The final breakup and abolition of Argo Navis was proposed by Sir John Herschel in 1841 and again in 1844. Despite this, the constellation remained in use in parallel with its constituent parts into the 20th century. In 1922, along with the other constellations, it received a three-letter abbreviation: Arg. The breakup... | Argo Navis | Wikipedia | 479 | 1924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argo%20Navis | Physical sciences | Asterism | Astronomy |
Antlia (; from Ancient Greek ἀντλία) is a constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere. Its name means "pump" in Latin and Greek; it represents an air pump. Originally Antlia Pneumatica, the constellation was established by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in the 18th century. Its non-specific (single-word) name, alread... | Antlia | Wikipedia | 485 | 1926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antlia | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
Although visible to the Ancient Greeks, Antlia's stars were too faint to have been commonly recognised as a figurative object, or part of one, in ancient asterisms. The stars that now comprise Antlia are in a zone of the sky associated with the asterism/old constellation Argo Navis, the ship, the Argo, of the Argonauts... | Antlia | Wikipedia | 435 | 1926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antlia | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
Lacaille gave nine stars Bayer designations, labelling them Alpha through to Theta, combining two stars next to each other as Zeta. Gould later added a tenth, Iota Antliae. Beta and Gamma Antliae (now HR 4339 and HD 90156) ended up in the neighbouring constellation Hydra once the constellation boundaries were delineate... | Antlia | Wikipedia | 306 | 1926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antlia | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
Located near Alpha is Delta Antliae, a binary star, 450 ± 10 light-years distant from Earth. The primary is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B9.5V and magnitude 5.6, and the secondary is a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F9Ve and magnitude 9.6. Zeta Antliae is a wide optical double star... | Antlia | Wikipedia | 411 | 1926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antlia | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
T Antliae is a yellow-white supergiant of spectral type F6Iab and Classical Cepheid variable ranging between magnitude 8.88 and 9.82 over 5.9 days. U Antliae is a red C-type carbon star and is an irregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 5.27 and 6.04. At 910 ± 50 light-years distant, it is around 5819 times as... | Antlia | Wikipedia | 512 | 1926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antlia | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
Antlia contains many faint galaxies, the brightest of which is NGC 2997 at magnitude 10.6. It is a loosely wound face-on spiral galaxy of type Sc. Though nondescript in most amateur telescopes, it presents bright clusters of young stars and many dark dust lanes in photographs. Discovered in 1997, the Antlia Dwarf is a ... | Antlia | Wikipedia | 248 | 1926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antlia | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
Ara (Latin for "the Altar") is a southern constellation between Scorpius, Telescopium, Triangulum Australe, and Norma. It was (as ) one of the Greek bulk (namely 48) described by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations designated by the International Astronomical Union.
T... | Ara (constellation) | Wikipedia | 462 | 1927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ara%20%28constellation%29 | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
The Castle of Knowledge by Robert Record of 1556 lists the constellation stating that "Under the Scorpions tayle, standeth the Altar."; a decade later a translation of a fairly recent mainly astrological work by Marcellus Palingenius of 1565, by Barnabe Googe states "Here mayst thou both the Altar, and the myghty Cup b... | Ara (constellation) | Wikipedia | 463 | 1927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ara%20%28constellation%29 | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
Beta Arae, apparent magnitude 2.85, is the brightest star in the constellation, about 0.1 mag brighter than Alpha Arae although the difference in brightness between the two is undetectable by the unaided eye. Beta is an orange-hued star of spectral type K3Ib-IIa that has been classified as a supergiant or bright giant,... | Ara (constellation) | Wikipedia | 448 | 1927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ara%20%28constellation%29 | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
Epsilon1 Arae is an orange giant of apparent magnitude 4.1, 360 ± 10 light-years distant from Earth. It is around 74% more massive than the Sun. At an age of about 1.7 billion years, the outer envelope of the star has expanded to almost 34 times the Sun's radius.
Eta Arae is an orange giant of apparent magnitude 3.76,... | Ara (constellation) | Wikipedia | 467 | 1927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ara%20%28constellation%29 | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
Ara also contains Westerlund 1, a super star cluster containing itself the possible red supergiant Westerlund 1-237 and the red supergiant Westerlund 1-26. The latter is one of the largest stars known with an estimate varying between and .
Although Ara lies close to the heart of the Milky Way, two spiral galaxies (NG... | Ara (constellation) | Wikipedia | 339 | 1927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ara%20%28constellation%29 | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
Apus is a small constellation in the southern sky. It represents a bird-of-paradise, and its name means "without feet" in Greek because the bird-of-paradise was once wrongly believed to lack feet. First depicted on a celestial globe by Petrus Plancius in 1598, it was charted on a star atlas by Johann Bayer in his 1603 ... | Apus | Wikipedia | 380 | 1933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apus | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
After its introduction on Plancius's globe, the constellation's first known appearance in a celestial atlas was in German cartographer Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603. Bayer called it Apis Indica while fellow astronomers Johannes Kepler and his son-in-law Jakob Bartsch called it Apus or Avis Indica. The name Apus is... | Apus | Wikipedia | 471 | 1933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apus | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
Alpha Apodis is an orange giant of spectral type K3III located 430 ± 20 light-years away from Earth, with an apparent magnitude of 3.8. It spent much of its life as a blue-white (B-type) main sequence star before expanding, cooling and brightening as it used up its core hydrogen. It has swollen to 48 times the Sun's di... | Apus | Wikipedia | 472 | 1933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apus | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
Eta Apodis is a white main sequence star located 140.8 ± 0.9 light-years distant. Of apparent magnitude 4.89, it is 1.77 times as massive, 15.5 times as luminous as the Sun and has 2.13 times its radius. Aged 250 ± 200 million years old, this star is emitting an excess of 24 μm infrared radiation, which may be caused b... | Apus | Wikipedia | 385 | 1933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apus | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
Two star systems have had exoplanets discovered by doppler spectroscopy, and the substellar companion of a third star system—the sunlike star HD 131664—has since been found to be a brown dwarf with a calculated mass of the companion to 23 times that of Jupiter (minimum of 18 and maximum of 49 Jovian masses). HD 134606 ... | Apus | Wikipedia | 433 | 1933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apus | Physical sciences | Other | Astronomy |
The word aeon , also spelled eon (in American and Australian English), originally meant "life", "vital force" or "being", "generation" or "a period of time", though it tended to be translated as "age" in the sense of "ages", "forever", "timeless" or "for eternity". It is a Latin transliteration from the ancient Greek ... | Aeon | Wikipedia | 389 | 1941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeon | Physical sciences | Time | Basics and measurement |
According to Christian universalism, the Greek New Testament scriptures use the word () to mean a long period and the word () to mean "during a long period"; thus, there was a time before the aeons, and the aeonian period is finite. After each person's mortal life ends, they are judged worthy of aeonian life or aeoni... | Aeon | Wikipedia | 373 | 1941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeon | Physical sciences | Time | Basics and measurement |
An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers or freight (cargo). Airlines use aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements, in which they both offer and operate the same flight. Generally, airline companies... | Airline | Wikipedia | 366 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
The earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was Aircraft Transport and Travel, formed by George Holt Thomas in 1916; via a series of takeovers and mergers, this company is an ancestor of modern-day British Airways. Using a fleet of former military Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the... | Airline | Wikipedia | 443 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
The first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919. In its first year, the D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the D.L.R. network was more than 3000 km (1... | Airline | Wikipedia | 477 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
By the early 1920s, small airlines were struggling to compete, and there was a movement towards increased rationalization and consolidation. In 1924, Imperial Airways was formed from the merger of Instone Air Line Company, British Marine Air Navigation, Daimler Airway and Handley Page Transport, to allow British airlin... | Airline | Wikipedia | 504 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
Although Germany lacked colonies, it also began expanding its services globally. In 1931, the airship Graf Zeppelin began offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America, usually every two weeks, which continued until 1937. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg entered passenger service and suc... | Airline | Wikipedia | 363 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
Tony Jannus conducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on January 1, 1914, for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line. The 23-minute flight traveled between St. Petersburg, Florida and Tampa, Florida, passing some above Tampa Bay in Jannus' Benoist XIV wood and muslin biplane flying boat. Hi... | Airline | Wikipedia | 482 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
At the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan Am, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am and Northwest Airways (which began flights to Canada in the 19... | Airline | Wikipedia | 397 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
The next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody ("jumbo jet") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality. Conc... | Airline | Wikipedia | 419 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loya... | Airline | Wikipedia | 440 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S. legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-fre... | Airline | Wikipedia | 492 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
Although Philippine Airlines (PAL) was officially founded on February 26, 1941, its license to operate as an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate Emmanuel N. Bachrach on 3 December 1930, making it Asia's oldest scheduled carrier still in operation. Commer... | Airline | Wikipedia | 416 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
Cathay Pacific was one of the first airlines to be launched among the other Asian countries in 1946. The license to operate as an airliner was granted by the federal government body after reviewing the necessity at the national assembly. The Hanjin occupies the largest ownership of Korean Air as well as few low-budget ... | Airline | Wikipedia | 477 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
During the era of decolonization, newly born Asian countries started to embrace air transport. Among the first Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacific of Hong Kong (founded in September 1946), Orient Airways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in October 1946), Air Ceylon (later SriLankan Airlines... | Airline | Wikipedia | 398 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
Only five airline groups – Avianca, Panama's Copa, Mexico's Volaris, the Irelandia group and LATAM Airlines – have international subsidiaries and cover many destinations within the Americas as well as major hubs in other continents. LATAM with Chile as the central operation along with Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil an... | Airline | Wikipedia | 496 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
In the United States, the airline industry is dominated by four large firms. Because of industry consolidation, after fuel prices dropped considerably in 2015, very little of the savings were passed on to consumers.
International
Groups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standar... | Airline | Wikipedia | 466 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
Airlines have substantial fixed and operating costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, booking commissions, advertising, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a ... | Airline | Wikipedia | 505 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
Operating costs for US major airlines are primarily aircraft operating expense including jet fuel, aircraft maintenance, depreciation and aircrew for 44%, servicing expense for 29% (traffic 11%, passenger 11% and aircraft 7%), 14% for reservations and sales and 13% for overheads (administration 6% and advertising 2%). ... | Airline | Wikipedia | 469 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
A complicating factor is that of origin-destination control ("O&D control"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for A$200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay A$1400. Should the airline pre... | Airline | Wikipedia | 485 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
For the IATA, the global airline industry revenue was $754 billion in 2017 for a $38.4 billion collective profit, and should rise by 10.7% to $834 billion in 2018 for a $33.8 billion profit forecast, down by 12% due to rising jet fuel and labor costs.
The demand for air transport will be less elastic for longer flight... | Airline | Wikipedia | 484 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. For example, Reagan National Airport attracts profitable routes due pa... | Airline | Wikipedia | 443 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
A more recent development is the airline alliance, which became prevalent in the late 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. The largest are Star Alliance, SkyTeam and Oneworld, and these accounted for over 60% of global commercial air traffic . Alliances of airlines co... | Airline | Wikipedia | 404 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
One argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms ... | Airline | Wikipedia | 477 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
Despite continuing efficiency improvements from the major aircraft manufacturers, the expanding demand for global air travel has resulted in growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Currently, the aviation sector, including US domestic and global international travel, make approximately 1.6 percent of global anthropogen... | Airline | Wikipedia | 459 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
The various types of airline personnel include flight crew, responsible for the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew members include: pilots (captain and first officer: some older aircraft also required a flight engineer and/or a navigator); flight attendants (led by a purser on larger aircraft); In-flight security p... | Airline | Wikipedia | 373 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but countries with a deregulated airline industry have more competition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, India and other markets exhibit this trend. The in... | Airline | Wikipedia | 497 | 1942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline | Technology | Aviation | null |
Apparent magnitude () is a measure of the brightness of a star, astronomical object or other celestial objects like artificial satellites. Its value depends on its intrinsic luminosity, its distance, and any extinction of the object's light caused by interstellar dust along the line of sight to the observer.
Unless st... | Apparent magnitude | Wikipedia | 509 | 1962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
Amateur astronomers commonly express the darkness of the sky in terms of limiting magnitude, i.e. the apparent magnitude of the faintest star they can see with the naked eye. This can be useful as a way of monitoring the spread of light pollution.
Apparent magnitude is technically a measure of illuminance, which can a... | Apparent magnitude | Wikipedia | 426 | 1962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
Defining and calibrating what magnitude 0.0 means is difficult, and different types of measurements which detect different kinds of light (possibly by using filters) have different zero points. Pogson's original 1856 paper defined magnitude 6.0 to be the faintest star the unaided eye can see, but the true limit for fai... | Apparent magnitude | Wikipedia | 469 | 1962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
Precision measurement of magnitude (photometry) requires calibration of the photographic or (usually) electronic detection apparatus. This generally involves contemporaneous observation, under identical conditions, of standard stars whose magnitude using that spectral filter is accurately known. Moreover, as the amount... | Apparent magnitude | Wikipedia | 499 | 1962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
Example: Sun and Moon
What is the ratio in brightness between the Sun and the full Moon?
The apparent magnitude of the Sun is −26.832 (brighter), and the mean magnitude of the full moon is −12.74 (dimmer).
Difference in magnitude:
Brightness factor:
The Sun appears to be approximately times as bright as the full ... | Apparent magnitude | Wikipedia | 484 | 1962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
In the case of a planet or asteroid, the absolute magnitude rather means the apparent magnitude it would have if it were from both the observer and the Sun, and fully illuminated at maximum opposition (a configuration that is only theoretically achievable, with the observer situated on the surface of the Sun).
Stand... | Apparent magnitude | Wikipedia | 492 | 1962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
For objects within the Milky Way with a given absolute magnitude, 5 is added to the apparent magnitude for every tenfold increase in the distance to the object. For objects at very great distances (far beyond the Milky Way), this relationship must be adjusted for redshifts and for non-Euclidean distance measures due to... | Apparent magnitude | Wikipedia | 128 | 1962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
In astronomy, absolute magnitude () is a measure of the luminosity of a celestial object on an inverse logarithmic astronomical magnitude scale; the more luminous (intrinsically bright) an object, the lower its magnitude number. An object's absolute magnitude is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the ob... | Absolute magnitude | Wikipedia | 506 | 1963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
Stars and galaxies
In stellar and galactic astronomy, the standard distance is 10 parsecs (about 32.616 light-years, 308.57 petameters or 308.57 trillion kilometres). A star at 10 parsecs has a parallax of 0.1″ (100 milliarcseconds). Galaxies (and other extended objects) are much larger than 10 parsecs; their light is ... | Absolute magnitude | Wikipedia | 500 | 1963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
The Greek astronomer Hipparchus established a numerical scale to describe the brightness of each star appearing in the sky. The brightest stars in the sky were assigned an apparent magnitude , and the dimmest stars visible to the naked eye are assigned . The difference between them corresponds to a factor of 100 in bri... | Absolute magnitude | Wikipedia | 499 | 1963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
where
is the Sun's luminosity (bolometric luminosity)
is the star's luminosity (bolometric luminosity)
is the bolometric magnitude of the Sun
is the bolometric magnitude of the star.
In August 2015, the International Astronomical Union passed Resolution B2 defining the zero points of the absolute and apparent bolo... | Absolute magnitude | Wikipedia | 506 | 1963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
For planets and asteroids, a definition of absolute magnitude that is more meaningful for non-stellar objects is used. The absolute magnitude, commonly called , is defined as the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were one astronomical unit (AU) from both the Sun and the observer, and in conditions of ... | Absolute magnitude | Wikipedia | 509 | 1963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
We have ,
At quarter phase, (according to the diffuse reflector model), this yields an apparent magnitude of The actual value is somewhat lower than that, This is not a good approximation, because the phase curve of the Moon is too complicated for the diffuse reflector model. A more accurate formula is given in the... | Absolute magnitude | Wikipedia | 508 | 1963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
If an object has an atmosphere, it reflects light more or less isotropically in all directions, and its brightness can be modelled as a diffuse reflector. Bodies with no atmosphere, like asteroids or moons, tend to reflect light more strongly to the direction of the incident light, and their brightness increases rapidl... | Absolute magnitude | Wikipedia | 465 | 1963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
where are the total and nuclear apparent magnitudes of the comet, respectively, are its "absolute" total and nuclear magnitudes, and are the body-sun and body-observer distances, is the Astronomical Unit, and are the slope parameters characterising the comet's activity. For , this reduces to the formula for a pur... | Absolute magnitude | Wikipedia | 382 | 1963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute%20magnitude | Physical sciences | Basics | Astronomy |
Alpha Centauri (, α Cen, or Alpha Cen) is a triple star system in the southern constellation of Centaurus. It consists of three stars: Rigil Kentaurus (), Toliman (), and Proxima Centauri (). Proxima Centauri is the closest star to the Sun at 4.2465 light-years (1.3020 pc).
and B are Sun-like stars (class G and K, re... | Alpha Centauri | Wikipedia | 509 | 1979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20Centauri | Physical sciences | Notable stars | null |
Etymology and nomenclature
α Centauri (Latinised to Alpha Centauri) is the system's designation given by J. Bayer in 1603. It belongs to the constellation Centaurus, named after the half human, half horse creature in Greek mythology. Heracles accidentally wounded the centaur and placed him in the sky after his death. ... | Alpha Centauri | Wikipedia | 475 | 1979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20Centauri | Physical sciences | Notable stars | null |
Other names
During the 19th century, the northern amateur popularist E.H. Burritt used the now-obscure name Bungula (). Its origin is not known, but it may have been coined from the Greek letter beta () and Latin 'hoof', originally for Beta Centauri (the other hoof).
In Chinese astronomy, Nán Mén, meaning Southern ... | Alpha Centauri | Wikipedia | 503 | 1979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20Centauri | Physical sciences | Notable stars | null |
As seen from Earth, Proxima Centauri is 2.2° southwest from this distance is about four times the angular diameter of the Moon. Proxima Centauri appears as a deep-red star of a typical apparent magnitude of 11.1 in a sparsely populated star field, requiring moderately sized telescopes to be seen. Listed as V645 Cen in... | Alpha Centauri | Wikipedia | 431 | 1979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20Centauri | Physical sciences | Notable stars | null |
The large proper motion of Alpha Centauri AB was discovered by Manuel John Johnson, observing from Saint Helena, who informed Thomas Henderson at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope of it. The parallax of Alpha Centauri was subsequently determined by Henderson from many exacting positional observations of the AB s... | Alpha Centauri | Wikipedia | 437 | 1979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20Centauri | Physical sciences | Notable stars | null |
In the 1830s, Thomas Henderson discovered the true distance to by analysing his many astrometric mural circle observations. He then realised this system also likely had a high proper motion. In this case, the apparent stellar motion was found using Nicolas Louis de Lacaille's astrometric observations of 1751–1752, by ... | Alpha Centauri | Wikipedia | 297 | 1979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20Centauri | Physical sciences | Notable stars | null |
Based on the system's common proper motion and radial velocities, will continue to change its position in the sky significantly and will gradually brighten. For example, in about 6,200 CE, α Centauri's true motion will cause an extremely rare first-magnitude stellar conjunction with Beta Centauri, forming a brilliant ... | Alpha Centauri | Wikipedia | 479 | 1979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20Centauri | Physical sciences | Notable stars | null |
Viewed from Earth, the apparent orbit of A and B means that their separation and position angle (PA) are in continuous change throughout their projected orbit. Observed stellar positions in 2019 are separated by 4.92 arcsec through the PA of 337.1°, increasing to 5.49 arcsec through 345.3° in 2020. The closest recent a... | Alpha Centauri | Wikipedia | 512 | 1979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20Centauri | Physical sciences | Notable stars | null |
Alpha Centauri AB System
Alpha Centauri A
Alpha Centauri A, also known as Rigil Kentaurus, is the principal member, or primary, of the binary system. It is a solar-like main-sequence star with a similar yellowish colour, whose stellar classification is spectral type G2-V; it is about 10% more massive than the Sun, wi... | Alpha Centauri | Wikipedia | 498 | 1979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20Centauri | Physical sciences | Notable stars | null |
Planetary system
The Alpha Centauri system as a whole has two confirmed planets, both of them around Proxima Centauri. While other planets have been claimed to exist around all of the stars, none of the discoveries have been confirmed.
Planets of Proxima Centauri
Proxima Centauri b is a terrestrial planet discovere... | Alpha Centauri | Wikipedia | 398 | 1979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20Centauri | Physical sciences | Notable stars | null |
GO Cycle 1 observations are planned for the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) to search for planets around Alpha Centauri A, as well as observations of Epsilon Muscae. The coronographic observations, which occurred on July 26 and 27, 2023, were failures, though there are follow-up observations in March 2024. Pre-launch... | Alpha Centauri | Wikipedia | 405 | 1979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20Centauri | Physical sciences | Notable stars | null |
Hypothetical planets
Additional planets may exist in the Alpha Centauri system, either orbiting Alpha Centauri A or Alpha Centauri B individually, or in large orbits around Alpha Centauri AB. Because both stars are fairly similar to the Sun (for example, in age and metallicity), astronomers have been especially intere... | Alpha Centauri | Wikipedia | 427 | 1979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20Centauri | Physical sciences | Notable stars | null |
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