id int64 0 18.9k | biography stringlengths 151 1.51k | qa listlengths 1 25 |
|---|---|---|
2,064 | Track lighting, invented by Lightolier, was popular at one period of time because it was much easier to install than recessed lighting, and individual fixtures are decorative and can be easily aimed at a wall. It has regained some popularity recently in low-voltage tracks, which often look nothing like their predecesso... | [
{
"answer": "Lightolier",
"question": "Who invented track lighting?"
},
{
"answer": "master transformer",
"question": "What feeds all the fixtures in low voltage tracks instead of each light having a line-to-low voltage transformer."
},
{
"answer": "cable lighting",
"question": "What... |
2,065 | A sconce is a wall-mounted fixture, particularly one that shines up and sometimes down as well. A torchiere is an uplight intended for ambient lighting. It is typically a floor lamp but may be wall-mounted like a sconce. | [
{
"answer": "torchiere",
"question": "What is a uplight used for ambient lighting?"
}
] |
2,066 | The portable or table lamp is probably the most common fixture, found in many homes and offices. The standard lamp and shade that sits on a table is general lighting, while the desk lamp is considered task lighting. Magnifier lamps are also task lighting. | [
{
"answer": "table lamp",
"question": "What is one type of fixture commonly found in offices?"
},
{
"answer": "task lighting",
"question": "Magnifier lamps are considered what type of lighting? "
}
] |
2,067 | The illuminated ceiling was once popular in the 1960s and 1970s but fell out of favor after the 1980s. This uses diffuser panels hung like a suspended ceiling below fluorescent lights, and is considered general lighting. Other forms include neon, which is not usually intended to illuminate anything else, but to actuall... | [
{
"answer": "dark nightclub",
"question": "When would neon lighting be considered general lighting?"
},
{
"answer": "illuminated ceiling",
"question": "What uses diffuser panels below fluorescent lights?"
},
{
"answer": "accent lighting",
"question": "Normally neon lighting is consid... |
2,068 | In a movie theater, steps in the aisles are usually marked with a row of small lights for convenience and safety, when the film has started and the other lights are off. Traditionally made up of small low wattage, low voltage lamps in a track or translucent tube, these are rapidly being replaced with LED based versions... | [
{
"answer": "small lights",
"question": "What do steps in move theater aisles have for safety markings?"
},
{
"answer": "LED based versions",
"question": "What are the low wattage lamps being replaced with in movie theaters?"
},
{
"answer": "translucent tube",
"question": "What kind ... |
2,069 | Street Lights are used to light roadways and walkways at night. Some manufacturers are designing LED and photovoltaic luminaires to provide an energy-efficient alternative to traditional street light fixtures. | [
{
"answer": "Street Lights",
"question": "What is used to light walkways at night?"
},
{
"answer": "photovoltaic luminaires",
"question": "What kind of lights are being designed for energy efficiency?"
}
] |
2,070 | Floodlights can be used to illuminate outdoor playing fields or work zones during nighttime hours. The most common type of floodlights are metal halide and high pressure sodium lights. | [
{
"answer": "Floodlights",
"question": "What kind of light is used to illuminate outdoor playing fields at night?"
}
] |
2,071 | Sometimes security lighting can be used along roadways in urban areas, or behind homes or commercial facilities. These are extremely bright lights used to deter crime. Security lights may include floodlights. | [
{
"answer": "security lighting",
"question": "Extremely bright lights used to deter crime are called?"
}
] |
2,072 | Entry lights can be used outside to illuminate and signal the entrance to a property. These lights are installed for safety, security, and for decoration. | [
{
"answer": "Entry lights",
"question": "What type of light would be used illuminate the entrance to a property?"
}
] |
2,073 | Vehicles typically include headlamps and tail lights. Headlamps are white or selective yellow lights placed in the front of the vehicle, designed to illuminate the upcoming road and to make the vehicle more visible. Many manufactures are turning to LED headlights as an energy-efficient alternative to traditional headla... | [
{
"answer": "red",
"question": "What color are tail lights?"
},
{
"answer": "white or selective yellow",
"question": "What color are headlamps on a vehicle?"
},
{
"answer": "late 1950s",
"question": "When did automakers start using electroluminescent technology to backlight gauges?"
... |
2,074 | Commonly called 'light bulbs', lamps are the removable and replaceable part of a light fixture, which converts electrical energy into electromagnetic radiation. While lamps have traditionally been rated and marketed primarily in terms of their power consumption, expressed in watts, proliferation of lighting technology ... | [
{
"answer": "light bulbs",
"question": "What is the removable and replaceable part of a light fixture?"
},
{
"answer": "electrical energy",
"question": "What does a light bulb convert into electromagnetic radiation?"
},
{
"answer": "60 w",
"question": "Huge much light does a 13 W com... |
2,075 | Lighting design as it applies to the built environment is known as 'architectural lighting design'. Lighting of structures considers aesthetic elements as well as practical considerations of quantity of light required, occupants of the structure, energy efficiency and cost. Artificial lighting takes into account the am... | [
{
"answer": "architectural lighting design",
"question": "What is designing as it applies to built environments?"
},
{
"answer": "kno",
"question": "Would you consider aesthetic elements alone in architectural lighting design?"
},
{
"answer": "Radiance",
"question": "What is the name... |
2,076 | In some design instances, materials used on walls and furniture play a key role in the lighting effect< for example dark paint tends to absorb light, making the room appear smaller and more dim than it is, whereas light paint does the opposite. In addition to paint, reflective surfaces also have an effect on lighting d... | [
{
"answer": "dark paint",
"question": "What type of paint tends to absorb light?"
},
{
"answer": "light paint",
"question": "What kind of paint makes a room a room look larger and brighter?"
}
] |
2,077 | Photometric studies (also sometimes referred to as "layouts" or "point by points") are often used to simulate lighting designs for projects before they are built or renovated. This enables architects, lighting designers, and engineers to determine whether a proposed lighting setup will deliver the amount of light inten... | [
{
"answer": "Photometric studies",
"question": "What type of study is used to simulate lighting designs?"
}
] |
2,078 | Lighting illuminates the performers and artists in a live theatre, dance, or musical performance, and is selected and arranged to create dramatic effects. Stage lighting uses general illumination technology in devices configured for easy adjustment of their output characteristics.[citation needed] The setup of stage li... | [
{
"answer": "lighting cues",
"question": "What is prepared prior to the performance for the lighting operator?"
}
] |
2,079 | Motion picture and television production use many of the same tools and methods of stage lighting. Especially in the early days of these industries, very high light levels were required and heat produced by lighting equipment presented substantial challenges. Modern cameras require less light, and modern light sources ... | [
{
"answer": "stage lighting",
"question": "Motion pictures employee the similar lighting techniques as which other form of lighting?"
}
] |
2,080 | Measurement of light or photometry is generally concerned with the amount of useful light falling on a surface and the amount of light emerging from a lamp or other source, along with the colors that can be rendered by this light. The human eye responds differently to light from different parts of the visible spectrum,... | [
{
"answer": "candela (cd)",
"question": "What is the basic SI unit of measurement?"
},
{
"answer": "cd/m2",
"question": "What is the SI unit for lumiance?"
},
{
"answer": "stilb",
"question": "What is the CGS unit of lumiance?"
},
{
"answer": "lumen (lm)",
"question": "Wh... |
2,081 | The SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance, being the luminous power per area, is measured in Lux. It is used in photometry as a measure of the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface. It is analogous to the radiometric unit watts per square metre, but with the po... | [
{
"answer": "luminosity function",
"question": "What is a standardized model of human visual brightness?"
},
{
"answer": "Lux",
"question": "What is the SI unit of illuminace and luminous emittance?"
}
] |
2,082 | Several measurement methods have been developed to control glare resulting from indoor lighting design. The Unified Glare Rating (UGR), the Visual Comfort Probability, and the Daylight Glare Index are some of the most well-known methods of measurement. In addition to these new methods, four main factors influence the d... | [
{
"answer": "Unified Glare Rating",
"question": "What does UGR stand for?"
}
] |
2,083 | To define light source color properties, the lighting industry predominantly relies on two metrics, correlated color temperature (CCT), commonly used as an indication of the apparent "warmth" or "coolness" of the light emitted by a source, and color rendering index (CRI), an indication of the light source’s ability to ... | [
{
"answer": "correlated color temperature",
"question": "What does CCT stand for?"
},
{
"answer": "color rendering index",
"question": "What does CRI stand for?"
},
{
"answer": "CRI",
"question": "What metric indicates a lights ability to make object appear natural?"
},
{
"an... |
2,084 | For example, in order to meet the expectations for good color rendering in retail applications, research suggests using the well-established CRI along with another metric called gamut area index (GAI). GAI represents the relative separation of object colors illuminated by a light source; the greater the GAI, the greate... | [
{
"answer": "gamut area index",
"question": "What does GAI stand for?"
},
{
"answer": "GAI",
"question": "The relative separating of object colors illuminated by a light source is known as?"
},
{
"answer": "ano",
"question": "Would a lower GAI mean higher apparent saturation or vivid... |
2,085 | Typical measurements of light have used a Dosimeter. Dosimeters measure an individual's or an object's exposure to something in the environment, such as light dosimeters and ultraviolet dosimeters. | [
{
"answer": "light dosimeters",
"question": "What is typically used to measure light?"
}
] |
2,086 | In order to specifically measure the amount of light entering the eye, personal circadian light meter called the Daysimeter has been developed. This is the first device created to accurately measure and characterize light (intensity, spectrum, timing, and duration) entering the eye that affects the human body's clock. | [
{
"answer": "Daysimeter",
"question": "What measures the amount of light entering the eye?"
},
{
"answer": "circadian light meter",
"question": "A Daysimeter what type of personal meter?"
}
] |
2,087 | The small, head-mounted device measures an individual's daily rest and activity patterns, as well as exposure to short-wavelength light that stimulates the circadian system. The device measures activity and light together at regular time intervals and electronically stores and logs its operating temperature. The Daysim... | [
{
"answer": "30",
"question": "How many days can the Daysimeter gather for analysis?"
},
{
"answer": "short-wavelength light",
"question": "What type of light stimulates the circadian system?"
}
] |
2,088 | Specification of illumination requirements is the basic concept of deciding how much illumination is required for a given task. Clearly, much less light is required to illuminate a hallway compared to that needed for a word processing work station. Generally speaking, the energy expended is proportional to the design i... | [
{
"answer": "Specification of illumination requirements",
"question": "What is a basic concept of deciding how much illumination is required for a given task? "
}
] |
2,089 | Lighting control systems reduce energy usage and cost by helping to provide light only when and where it is needed. Lighting control systems typically incorporate the use of time schedules, occupancy control, and photocell control (i.e.daylight harvesting). Some systems also support demand response and will automatical... | [
{
"answer": "Lighting control",
"question": "What can help reduce energy and usage cost by providing light only when or where it is needed? "
}
] |
2,090 | Many newer control systems are using wireless mesh open standards (such as ZigBee), which provides benefits including easier installation (no need to run control wires) and interoperability with other standards-based building control systems (e.g. security). | [
{
"answer": "wireless mesh open standards",
"question": "What type of standard do newer control systems use? "
},
{
"answer": "ZigBee",
"question": "What is the name of one type of control system used? "
},
{
"answer": "no",
"question": "Does a wireless mesh open standard make instal... |
2,091 | Occupancy sensors to allow operation for whenever someone is within the area being scanned can control lighting. When motion can no longer be detected, the lights shut off. Passive infrared sensors react to changes in heat, such as the pattern created by a moving person. The control must have an unobstructed view of th... | [
{
"answer": "Occupancy sensors",
"question": "What sensor controls light with motion sensors? "
},
{
"answer": "changes in heat",
"question": "What does a passive infrared sensor react to? "
},
{
"answer": "Ultrasonic sensors",
"question": "What type of sensor transmits sound above t... |
2,092 | Daylighting is the oldest method of interior lighting. Daylighting is simply designing a space to use as much natural light as possible. This decreases energy consumption and costs, and requires less heating and cooling from the building. Daylighting has also been proven to have positive effects on patients in hospital... | [
{
"answer": "Daylighting",
"question": "What is the oldest method of interior lighting? "
},
{
"answer": "not",
"question": "Daylighting has been proven to have negative effects on people?"
}
] |
2,093 | In recent years light emitting diodes (LEDs) are becoming increasingly efficient leading to an extraordinary increase in the use of solid state lighting. In many situations, controlling the light emission of LEDs may be done most effectively by using the principles of nonimaging optics. | [
{
"answer": "LEDs",
"question": "What is a form of solid state lighting?"
},
{
"answer": "nonimaging optics",
"question": "What is the best way to control light emissions of LEDs?"
}
] |
2,094 | Beyond the energy factors being considered, it is important not to over-design illumination, lest adverse health effects such as headache frequency, stress, and increased blood pressure be induced by the higher lighting levels. In addition, glare or excess light can decrease worker efficiency. | [
{
"answer": "higher lighting levels",
"question": "What can cause health effects such headache frequency?"
}
] |
2,095 | Analysis of lighting quality particularly emphasizes use of natural lighting, but also considers spectral content if artificial light is to be used. Not only will greater reliance on natural light reduce energy consumption, but will favorably impact human health and performance. New studies have shown that the performa... | [
{
"answer": "Alzheimer's Disease",
"question": "Maximizing the right amount of light at the appropriate time for elderly may help systems of what? "
},
{
"answer": "24",
"question": "The human circadian system is entrained to how many hours light-dark pattern?"
},
{
"answer": "disrupt th... |
2,096 | A study conducted in 1972 and 1981, documented by Robert Ulrich, surveyed 23 surgical patients assigned to rooms looking out on a natural scene. The study concluded that patients assigned to rooms with windows allowing lots of natural light had shorter postoperative hospital stays, received fewer negative evaluative co... | [
{
"answer": "Robert Ulrich",
"question": "Who documented 23 surgical patients assigned rooms looking out on a natural scene?"
},
{
"answer": "no",
"question": "Did the patients with natural scenes have longer postoperative hospital stays?"
},
{
"answer": "no",
"question": "Did patien... |
2,097 | Alison Jing Xu, assistant professor of management at the University of Toronto Scarborough and Aparna Labroo of Northwestern University conducted a series of studies analyzing the correlation between lighting and human emotion. The researchers asked participants to rate a number of things such as: the spiciness of chic... | [
{
"answer": "University of Toronto Scarborough",
"question": "What University was Alision Jing Xu the assistant professor of management at?"
},
{
"answer": "Northwestern University",
"question": "What Univerity was Aparna Labroo associated with?"
}
] |
2,098 | In 1849, Dr. Abraham Gesner, a Canadian geologist, devised a method where kerosene could be distilled from petroleum. Earlier coal-gas methods had been used for lighting since the 1820s, but they were expensive. Gesner's kerosene was cheap, easy to produce, could be burned in existing lamps, and did not produce an offe... | [
{
"answer": "Dr. Abraham Gesner",
"question": "What devised a method where kerosene could be distilled from petroleum?"
},
{
"answer": "1849",
"question": "What year was it discovered that petroleum could be distilled into kerosene? "
},
{
"answer": "coal-gas methods",
"question": "W... |
2,099 | Compact fluorescent lamps (aka 'CFLs') use less power to supply the same amount of light as an incandescent lamp, however they contain mercury which is a dispose hazard. Due to the ability to reduce electric consumption, many organizations have undertaken measures to encourage the adoption of CFLs. Some electric utilit... | [
{
"answer": "Compact fluorescent lamps",
"question": "What does CFL stand for?"
},
{
"answer": "not",
"question": "Are all CFLs suitable for dimming?"
}
] |
2,100 | LED lamps have been advocated as the newest and best environmental lighting method. According to the Energy Saving Trust, LED lamps use only 10% power compared to a standard incandescent bulb, where compact fluorescent lamps use 20% and energy saving halogen lamps 70%. The lifetime is also much longer — up to 50,000 ho... | [
{
"answer": "10%",
"question": "How much more power does a standard incandescent bulb use compared to LED?"
},
{
"answer": "50,000",
"question": "What is the average lifetime of a CFL?"
},
{
"answer": "50,000 hours",
"question": "What is the average lifetime of a CFL?"
},
{
"... |
2,101 | Light pollution is a growing problem in reaction to excess light being given off by numerous signs, houses, and buildings. Polluting light is often wasted light involving unnecessary energy costs and carbon dioxide emissions. Light pollution is described as artificial light that is excessive or intrudes where it is not... | [
{
"answer": "Light pollution",
"question": "What is known as artificial light that is excessive or intrusive?"
},
{
"answer": "glare",
"question": "What causes sharp shadows around buildings? "
}
] |
2,102 | From a military standpoint, lighting is a critical part of the battlefield conditions. Shadows are good places to hide, while bright areas are more exposed. It is often beneficial to fight with the Sun or other light source behind you, giving your enemy disturbing visual glare and partially hiding your own movements in... | [
{
"answer": "searchlights and flares",
"question": "In a battlefield does not have natural light what could you use instead? "
},
{
"answer": "light",
"question": "The use of what may disclose your own hidden position on a battlefield? "
},
{
"answer": "infrared cameras",
"question":... |
2,103 | Flares can also be used by the military to mark positions, usually for targeting, but laser-guided and GPS weapons have eliminated this need for the most part. | [
{
"answer": "Flares",
"question": "What can be used by military for targeting?"
},
{
"answer": "laser-guided and GPS weapons",
"question": "What has eliminated the need for flares on a battlefield?"
}
] |
2,104 | The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) is an international authority and standard defining organization on color and lighting. Publishing widely used standard metrics such as various CIE color spaces and the color rendering index. | [
{
"answer": "International Commission on Illumination",
"question": "What does the CIE stand for?"
}
] |
2,105 | The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA), in conjunction with organizations like ANSI and ASHRAE, publishes guidelines, standards, and handbooks that allow categorization of the illumination needs of different built environments. Manufacturers of lighting equipment publish photometric data for thei... | [
{
"answer": "The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America",
"question": "What does the IESNA stand for? "
},
{
"answer": "ANSI and ASHRAE",
"question": "Who else publishes along with IESNA? "
},
{
"answer": "distribution of light released",
"question": "What defines photo me... |
2,106 | The International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD) is an organization which focuses on the advancement of lighting design education and the recognition of independent professional lighting designers. Those fully independent designers who meet the requirements for professional membership in the association typic... | [
{
"answer": "The International Association of Lighting Designers",
"question": "What does IALD stand for?"
}
] |
2,107 | The Professional Lighting Designers Association (PLDA), formerly known as ELDA is an organisation focusing on the promotion of the profession of Architectural Lighting Design. They publish a monthly newsletter and organise different events throughout the world. | [
{
"answer": "The Professional Lighting Designers Association",
"question": "What does PLDA stand for?"
},
{
"answer": "ELDA",
"question": "What was the PLDA formerly known as?"
}
] |
2,108 | The National Council on Qualifications for the Lighting Professions (NCQLP) offers the Lighting Certification Examination which tests rudimentary lighting design principles. Individuals who pass this exam become ‘Lighting Certified’ and may append the abbreviation LC to their name. This certification process is one of ... | [
{
"answer": "NCQLP",
"question": "Who offers the Lighting Certification Examination? "
},
{
"answer": "The National Council on Qualifications for the Lighting Professions",
"question": "What does NCQLP stand for?"
},
{
"answer": "LC",
"question": "Which abbreviation can you append to... |
2,109 | The Professional Lighting And Sound Association (PLASA) is a UK-based trade organisation representing the 500+ individual and corporate members drawn from the technical services sector. Its members include manufacturers and distributors of stage and entertainment lighting, sound, rigging and similar products and servic... | [
{
"answer": "The Professional Lighting And Sound Association",
"question": "What does PLASA stand for? "
},
{
"answer": "UK",
"question": "Where is PLASA based?"
},
{
"answer": "500+",
"question": "How many individuals does PLASA represent?"
},
{
"answer": "Restriction of Haz... |
2,110 | Separation of powers is a political doctrine originating in the writings of Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws where he urged for a constitutional government with three separate branches of government. Each of the three branches would have defined abilities to check the powers of the other branches. This idea was ca... | [
{
"answer": "Separation of powers",
"question": "Which political practice did Montesquieu originate?"
},
{
"answer": "three",
"question": "How many divisions of the government did Montesquieu call for?"
},
{
"answer": "United States Constitution",
"question": "What document was great... |
2,111 | During the Age of Enlightenment, philosophers such as John Locke advocated the principle in their writings, whereas others, such as Thomas Hobbes, strongly opposed it. Montesquieu was one of the foremost supporters of separating the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. His writings considerably influenced the... | [
{
"answer": "John Locke",
"question": "Which Enlightenment thinker supported the idea of separation of powers?"
},
{
"answer": "Thomas Hobbes",
"question": "Which Enlightenment thinker was against the separation of powers?"
},
{
"answer": "Montesquieu",
"question": "Who was a leading... |
2,113 | Congress has the sole power to legislate for the United States. Under the nondelegation doctrine, Congress may not delegate its lawmaking responsibilities to any other agency. In this vein, the Supreme Court held in the 1998 case Clinton v. City of New York that Congress could not delegate a "line-item veto" to the Pre... | [
{
"answer": "Congress",
"question": "What is the only branch of U.S. government imbued with lawmaking abilities?"
},
{
"answer": "Clinton v. City of New York",
"question": "Which court case upheld the rule of nondelegation?"
},
{
"answer": "1998",
"question": "When was Clinton v. Cit... |
2,114 | Where Congress does not make great and sweeping delegations of its authority, the Supreme Court has been less stringent. One of the earliest cases involving the exact limits of non-delegation was Wayman v. Southard 23 U.S. (10 Wet.) 1, 42 (1825). Congress had delegated to the courts the power to prescribe judicial proc... | [
{
"answer": "Wayman v. Southard",
"question": "What was one of the first times the Supreme Court tried a case regarding nondelegation?"
},
{
"answer": "1825",
"question": "In what year was Wayman v. Southard tried by the U.S. Supreme Court?"
},
{
"answer": "John Marshall",
"question"... |
2,115 | Marshall's words and future court decisions gave Congress much latitude in delegating powers. It was not until the 1930s that the Supreme Court held a delegation of authority unconstitutional. In a case involving the creation of the National Recovery Administration called A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States... | [
{
"answer": "the 1930s",
"question": "When was the first time that a Congressional attempt at delegating lawmaking responsibility was found to be in violation of the Constitution?"
},
{
"answer": "National Recovery Administration",
"question": "The establishment of what body was the subject of A... |
2,116 | Executive power is vested, with exceptions and qualifications, in the President. By law (Section 2.) the president becomes the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, Militia of several states when called into service, has power to make treaties and appointments to office "with the Advice and Consent of the Senate," r... | [
{
"answer": "Army and Navy",
"question": "Which branches of the national military does the U.S. president command?"
},
{
"answer": "Senate",
"question": "Whose approval is required for the president's appointees to take office?"
},
{
"answer": "impeachment",
"question": "What is a Co... |
2,117 | Congress often writes legislation to restrain executive officials to the performance of their duties, as laid out by the laws Congress passes. In INS v. Chadha (1983), the Supreme Court decided (a) The prescription for legislative action in Art. I, § 1—requiring all legislative powers to be vested in a Congress consist... | [
{
"answer": "the performance of their duties",
"question": "To what does congress attempt to limit executive officials?"
},
{
"answer": "INS v. Chadha",
"question": "What court case affirmed the mandates of the first and seventh sections of Article I of the Constitution?"
},
{
"answer": ... |
2,118 | Judicial power—the power to decide cases and controversies—is vested in the Supreme Court and inferior courts established by Congress. The judges must be appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate, hold office during good behavior and receive compensations that may not be diminished during the... | [
{
"answer": "Judicial",
"question": "In what branch is the ability to try legal cases placed?"
},
{
"answer": "president",
"question": "Who nominates justices for the U.S. Supreme Court?"
},
{
"answer": "Senate",
"question": "Who must approve presidential appointees to the Supreme Co... |
2,119 | Congress may establish "legislative courts," which do not take the form of judicial agencies or commissions, whose members do not have the same security of tenure or compensation as the constitutional court judges. Legislative courts may not exercise the judicial power of the United States. In Murray's Lessee v. Hoboke... | [
{
"answer": "legislative courts",
"question": "What kind of courts did congress establish?"
},
{
"answer": "judicial power of the United States",
"question": "What power are legislative courts not allowed to exercise?"
}
] |
2,120 | The president exercises a check over Congress through his power to veto bills, but Congress may override any veto (excluding the so-called "pocket veto") by a two-thirds majority in each house. When the two houses of Congress cannot agree on a date for adjournment, the president may settle the dispute. Either house or ... | [
{
"answer": "President",
"question": "Who can determine a date of adjournment if congress cannot agree?"
},
{
"answer": "The president",
"question": "Who can call congress into emergency session?"
},
{
"answer": "The Vice President",
"question": "Who serves as president of the Senate... |
2,121 | The president, as noted above, appoints judges with the Senate's advice and consent. He also has the power to issue pardons and reprieves. Such pardons are not subject to confirmation by either the House of Representatives or the Senate, or even to acceptance by the recipient. | [
{
"answer": "The president",
"question": "Who has the power to issue a pardon?"
},
{
"answer": "The president",
"question": "Who has the power to issue a reprieve? "
}
] |
2,122 | The president is the civilian Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States. He has the authority to command them to take appropriate military action in the event of a sudden crisis. However, only the Congress is explicitly granted the power to declare war per se, as well as to raise, fund and maintain t... | [
{
"answer": "The president",
"question": "Who is the commander and chief of the Army?"
},
{
"answer": "Congress",
"question": "Who has the power to declare ware?"
},
{
"answer": "the Senate",
"question": "Who has the responsibility to confirm Generals and Admirals?"
}
] |
2,123 | Courts check both the executive branch and the legislative branch through judicial review. This concept is not written into the Constitution, but was envisioned by many of the Constitution's Framers (for example, The Federalist Papers mention it). The Supreme Court established a precedent for judicial review in Marbury... | [
{
"answer": "Courts",
"question": "Who is responsible for judicial review?"
},
{
"answer": "Marbury v. Madison",
"question": "What is the court case that established judicial review?"
}
] |
2,124 | A common misperception is that the Supreme Court is the only court that may determine constitutionality; the power is exercised even by the inferior courts. But only Supreme Court decisions are binding across the nation. Decisions of a Court of Appeals, for instance, are binding only in the circuit over which the court... | [
{
"answer": "the Supreme Court",
"question": "Which courts decisions are binding across the entire United States?"
}
] |
2,125 | The power to review the constitutionality of laws may be limited by Congress, which has the power to set the jurisdiction of the courts. The only constitutional limit on Congress' power to set the jurisdiction of the judiciary relates to the Supreme Court; the Supreme Court may exercise only appellate jurisdiction exce... | [
{
"answer": "Congress",
"question": "Who can limit judicial review of a law?"
},
{
"answer": "the Supreme Court",
"question": "Who's judicial power does congress have the right to limit?"
}
] |
2,126 | The Chief Justice presides in the Senate during a president's impeachment trial. The rules of the Senate, however, generally do not grant much authority to the presiding officer. Thus, the Chief Justice's role in this regard is a limited one. | [
{
"answer": "The Chief Justice",
"question": "Who presides over an impeachment trial?"
}
] |
2,127 | The Constitution does not explicitly indicate the pre-eminence of any particular branch of government. However, James Madison wrote in Federalist 51, regarding the ability of each branch to defend itself from actions by the others, that "it is not possible to give to each department an equal power of self-defense. In r... | [
{
"answer": "James Madison",
"question": "Who wrote that the legislative branch was the predominate branch of government?"
},
{
"answer": "Federalist 51",
"question": "In which Federalist paper did James Madison state that the legislative branch of government was predominate?"
}
] |
2,128 | Throughout America's history dominance of one of the three branches has essentially been a see-saw struggle between Congress and the president. Both have had periods of great power and weakness such as immediately after the Civil War when republicans had a majority in Congress and were able to pass major legislation an... | [
{
"answer": "Congress",
"question": "Immediately following the civil war which branch of government was seen to have the greater amount of power?"
}
] |
2,129 | The first six presidents of the United States did not make extensive use of the veto power: George Washington only vetoed two bills, James Monroe one, and John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and John Quincy Adams none. James Madison, a firm believer in a strong executive, vetoed seven bills. None of the first six Presidents, ... | [
{
"answer": "two",
"question": "How many bills did George Washington veto?"
},
{
"answer": "one",
"question": "How many bills did James Monroe veto?"
},
{
"answer": "twelve",
"question": "How many bills did Andrew Jackson veto"
},
{
"answer": "Andrew Jackson",
"question":... |
2,130 | Some of Jackson's successors made no use of the veto power, while others used it intermittently. It was only after the Civil War that presidents began to use the power to truly counterbalance Congress. Andrew Johnson, a Democrat, vetoed several Reconstruction bills passed by the "Radical Republicans." Congress, however... | [
{
"answer": "fifteen",
"question": "How many of Andrew Johnson's veto's were over turned by Congress"
},
{
"answer": "Tenure of Office Act",
"question": "What act did congress pass that gave the senate the right to approve the dismissal of a cabinet official?"
}
] |
2,131 | Johnson's impeachment was perceived to have done great damage to the presidency, which came to be almost subordinate to Congress. Some believed that the president would become a mere figurehead, with the Speaker of the House of Representatives becoming a de facto Prime Minister. Grover Cleveland, the first Democratic P... | [
{
"answer": "Grover Cleveland",
"question": "Who was the first president to veto over 400 bills?"
},
{
"answer": "Grover Cleveland",
"question": "Under which President was the Tenure of Office Act repealed? "
}
] |
2,132 | Several twentieth-century presidents have attempted to greatly expand the power of the presidency. Theodore Roosevelt, for instance, claimed that the president was permitted to do whatever was not explicitly prohibited by the law—in direct contrast to his immediate successor, William Howard Taft. Franklin Delano Roosev... | [
{
"answer": "Franklin Roosevelt",
"question": "Which President attempted to pack the supreme court?"
},
{
"answer": "Congress",
"question": "Who had granted Franklin Roosevelt sweeping authority during the great depression?"
}
] |
2,133 | Richard Nixon used national security as a basis for his expansion of power. He asserted, for example, that "the inherent power of the President to safeguard the security of the nation" authorized him to order a wiretap without a judge's warrant. Nixon also asserted that "executive privilege" shielded him from all legis... | [
{
"answer": "national security",
"question": "Under what basis did Richard Nixon assert an expansion of the power of the President?"
}
] |
2,134 | It is said[by whom?] on one side of this debate that separation of powers means that powers are shared among different branches; no one branch may act unilaterally on issues (other than perhaps minor questions), but must obtain some form of agreement across branches. That is, it is argued that "checks and balances" app... | [
{
"answer": "checks and balances",
"question": "What term is used when one branch of government must get approval from at least one other branch of government?"
}
] |
2,135 | An example of the first view is the regulation of attorneys and judges, and the establishment of rules for the conduct of the courts, by the Congress and in the states the legislatures. Although in practice these matters are delegated to the Supreme Court, the Congress holds these powers and delegates them to the Supre... | [
{
"answer": "the Supreme Court",
"question": "Who has congress delegated the responsibility of establishing the rules of conduct for the courts to? "
}
] |
2,136 | An example of the second view at the State level is found in the view of the Florida Supreme Court, that only the Florida Supreme Court may license and regulate attorneys appearing before the courts of Florida, and only the Florida Supreme Court may set rules for procedures in the Florida courts.[citation needed] The S... | [
{
"answer": "the Florida Supreme Court",
"question": "Who may license and regulate attorneys in Florida?"
},
{
"answer": "the Florida Supreme Court",
"question": "Who sets the procedures to be followed in the Florida court system?"
}
] |
2,137 | Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton "architect", from ἀρχι- "chief" and τέκτων "builder") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived ... | [
{
"answer": "Architectural",
"question": "What is the latin word for architecture?"
},
{
"answer": "architectura",
"question": "What is the Latin word for architecture?"
},
{
"answer": "Architecture",
"question": "What do you call the planning and building of buildings?"
},
{
... |
2,138 | The earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura, by the Roman architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century AD. According to Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodi... | [
{
"answer": "De architectura",
"question": "What is the oldest architecture plans that has survived?"
},
{
"answer": "Roman architect Vitruvius",
"question": "Who created the oldest surviving architecture plans?"
},
{
"answer": "1st century AD.",
"question": "When did Vitruvius creat... |
2,139 | According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the ... | [
{
"answer": "16th century",
"question": "When were the styles of arts created?"
},
{
"answer": "Vasari",
"question": "Who wrote Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects?"
},
{
"answer": "Italian, French, Spanish and English",
"question": "By the 18th century wh... |
2,140 | In the early 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the titled suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only "true Christian form of architecture." | [
{
"answer": "Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin",
"question": "Who wrote the book Contrasts?"
},
{
"answer": "1836",
"question": "What year was Contrasts written in?"
},
{
"answer": "Contrasts",
"question": "What was the name of Pugin's book?"
},
{
"answer": "1836",
"question... |
2,141 | The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, published 1849, was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, an... | [
{
"answer": "John Ruskin",
"question": "Who wrote Seven Lamps of Architecture?"
},
{
"answer": "John Ruskin",
"question": "Who was the author of Seven Lamps of Architecture?"
},
{
"answer": "art critic",
"question": "What was Ruskin's career? "
},
{
"answer": "1849",
"que... |
2,142 | For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, at the very least. | [
{
"answer": "not",
"question": "Does Ruskin believe all buildings are works of architecture?"
},
{
"answer": "the aesthetic",
"question": "What was most significant in architecture according to Ruskin?"
},
{
"answer": "it is in some way \"adorned\"",
"question": "To be true architect... |
2,143 | On the difference between the ideals of architecture and mere construction, the renowned 20th-century architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I... | [
{
"answer": "20th-century",
"question": "What century was the architect Le Corbusier in?"
},
{
"answer": "Le Corbusier",
"question": "Who wrote on the topic of architectural ideals contrasted with simple construction? "
},
{
"answer": "Architect",
"question": "What was Le Corbusier '... |
2,144 | While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, it had the effect of introducing the concept of "function" in place of Vitruvius' "utility". "Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, percepti... | [
{
"answer": "Function",
"question": "What term replaced Vitruvius' term \"utility\"?"
},
{
"answer": "aesthetic, psychological and cultural",
"question": "In addition to being practically useful what other aspects did a building need in order to be considered functional?"
},
{
"answer": ... |
2,145 | Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology. | [
{
"answer": "rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology.",
"question": "What are some philosophies that modern architects use?"
},
{
"answer": "philosophies",
"question": "Rationalism and empiricism are examples of what?"
},
{
"answer": "their approach t... |
2,146 | In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of sustainability, hence sustainable architecture. To satisfy the contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the producti... | [
{
"answer": "late 20th century",
"question": "When was the conecept, Sustainable architecture used?"
},
{
"answer": "sustainability",
"question": "What novel concept was introduced at the end of the 20th century?"
},
{
"answer": "environment",
"question": "To what should a building b... |
2,147 | Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a craft, and "architecture" is the name given... | [
{
"answer": "shelter, security, worship",
"question": "What dynamic needs were the reason for building to be done?"
},
{
"answer": "knowledge",
"question": "Oral traditions allowed what to become formalized in human cultures?"
},
{
"answer": "a craft",
"question": "What was building ... |
2,148 | It is widely assumed that architectural success was the product of a process of trial and error, with progressively less trial and more replication as the results of the process proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacul... | [
{
"answer": "vernacular buildings",
"question": "What type of buildings are are built mostly through out the world?"
},
{
"answer": "a surplus in production",
"question": "Why did the economy begin to expand?"
},
{
"answer": "trial and error",
"question": "Through what process is it ... |
2,149 | In many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the political power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or th... | [
{
"answer": "Egypt and Mesopotamia",
"question": "What civilizations used the divine and supernatural in their architecture?"
},
{
"answer": "Egypt and Mesopotamia",
"question": "What are two examples of past civilizations?"
},
{
"answer": "the divine and the supernatural",
"question... |
2,150 | Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–5th centuries BCE; the Shilpa Shastras of ancient India and Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka. | [
{
"answer": "Kao Gong Ji",
"question": "Name one Asian architectural writer."
},
{
"answer": "China",
"question": "What country produced the Kao Gong Ji?"
},
{
"answer": "7th–5th centuries BCE",
"question": "When was the Kao Gong Ji written?"
},
{
"answer": "Manjusri Vasthu V... |
2,151 | The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines from that of Europe; Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. Hindu temple architecture, which developed around the 3rd century BCE, is g... | [
{
"answer": "pantheistic religion",
"question": "What religion led to architectural changes in many Asian countries?"
},
{
"answer": "Buddhist architecture",
"question": "Which cultures architecture showed a lot of diversity?"
},
{
"answer": "3rd century BCE",
"question": "When did H... |
2,152 | Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incorporating architectural forms from the ancient Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa, Spain and the Indian Sub-continent. The wide... | [
{
"answer": "European architecture",
"question": "What cultures architecture inspired Islamic architecture to use pointed arch's?"
},
{
"answer": "7th century CE",
"question": "When was Islamic architecture first seen?"
},
{
"answer": "Byzantium",
"question": "In addition to forms fr... |
2,153 | The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals. From about 900 CE onwards, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic. | [
{
"answer": "abbeys and cathedrals.",
"question": "What type of buildings were took the most effort to build?"
},
{
"answer": "abbeys and cathedrals",
"question": "What were the most important buildings of the time?"
},
{
"answer": "clerics and tradesmen",
"question": "What two group... |
2,154 | In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there was a revival of Classical learning accompanied by the development of Renaissance Humanism which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the Medieval period. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brun... | [
{
"answer": "1400",
"question": "When was Renaissance Humanism developed?"
},
{
"answer": "1400 onwards",
"question": "When did the Classical learning revival begin?"
},
{
"answer": "Europe",
"question": "What continent did this revival take place on?"
},
{
"answer": "Renaiss... |
2,155 | Architecture has to do with planning and designing form, space and ambience to reflect functional, technical, social, environmental and aesthetic considerations. It requires the creative manipulation and coordination of materials and technology, and of light and shadow. Often, conflicting requirements must be resolved.... | [
{
"answer": "functional, technical, social, environmental and aesthetic",
"question": "What sort of considerations does architectural design take into account? "
},
{
"answer": "form, space and ambience",
"question": "In architecture what aspects are planned and designed?"
},
{
"answer":... |
2,156 | Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote s... | [
{
"answer": "Nunzia Rondanini",
"question": "Who said that architecture was able extend beyond function?"
},
{
"answer": "Through its aesthetic dimension",
"question": "In what way did Nunzia Rondanini believe architecture moved past mere functionality?"
},
{
"answer": "social life",
... |
2,157 | To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality". | [
{
"answer": "art for art's sake",
"question": "What is a reactionary thing to limit formalism's meaning to?"
},
{
"answer": "quest for perfection or originality",
"question": "What sort of quest lacks purpose?"
},
{
"answer": "form",
"question": "What ends up being reduced in quality... |
2,158 | The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Architectural "style" developed in the form of the Classical orders. | [
{
"answer": "civic ideals",
"question": "From what ideals did Classical architecture emerge?"
},
{
"answer": "new building types",
"question": "These civic ideas allowed what to come into being?"
},
{
"answer": "religious or empirical ones",
"question": "What ideals were Greek and Ro... |
2,159 | Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time. These texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman Architect Vitruvius. Some of the most important early examples of canonic architecture are reli... | [
{
"answer": "ancient time",
"question": "When were architectural writings first made?"
},
{
"answer": "specific formal prescriptions",
"question": "Aside from general advice what did the texts contain?"
},
{
"answer": "canons",
"question": "What is another term for specific formal pr... |
2,160 | In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporar... | [
{
"answer": "guilds",
"question": "What organizations were created by Medieval craftsmen?"
},
{
"answer": "written contracts",
"question": "What records of the guilds are still in existence?"
},
{
"answer": "ecclesiastical buildings",
"question": "What was the main thing the contract... |
2,161 | A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and engineering which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the genera... | [
{
"answer": "proportions and structure",
"question": "What aspects of buildings did science and engineering have an effect on?"
},
{
"answer": "generalist",
"question": "Who still could handle the structural calculations for designing at that time?"
}
] |
2,162 | With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building design. There was also the rise of the "gent... | [
{
"answer": "architecture and engineering",
"question": "What two fields began to grow apart?"
},
{
"answer": "technical aspects of building design",
"question": "What did architects often neglect in their pursuit of aesthetics?"
},
{
"answer": "\"gentleman architect\"",
"question": ... |
2,163 | Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production. | [
{
"answer": "mass production and consumption",
"question": "What started with the Industrial Revolution?"
},
{
"answer": "ornamented products",
"question": "What became cheap enough for the middle class to buy?"
},
{
"answer": "Aesthetics",
"question": "As products came within their ... |
2,164 | Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could use current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals. | [
{
"answer": "pattern books and architectural journals",
"question": "What kind of books did housebuilders use?"
},
{
"answer": "current architectural design",
"question": "What type of design did these texts allow the builders to incorporate?"
}
] |
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