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Section: Physiological context > Slow subsystem. Bursts differ from tonic firing, typically associated with Poisson distributed spike times for a given average firing rate, in that bursting involves a physiological "slow subsystem" that eventually depletes as the bursting continues and then must be replenished before t... | Wikipedia - Bursting - Physiological context > Slow subsystem | 307 | 1,553 | null |
Section: Statistical detection. In isolation or in mathematical models bursting can be recognized since the environment and state of the neuron can be carefully observed and modulated. When observing neurons in the wild, however, bursting may be difficult to distinguish from normal firing patterns. In order to recogniz... | Wikipedia - Bursting - Statistical detection | 186 | 973 | null |
Section: Mathematical models. Neuron behavior is often modeled as single-compartment, non-linear dynamical systems, where the neuron states represent physiological quantities such as membrane voltage, current flow, and the concentrations of various ions intra- and extracellularly. These models most generally take the s... | Wikipedia - Bursting - Mathematical models | 329 | 1,323 | null |
Section: Purposes > Synaptic plasticity. Synaptic strengths between neurons follow changes that depend on spike timing and bursting. For excitatory synapses of the cortex, pairing an action potential in the pre-synaptic neuron with a burst in the post-synaptic neuron leads to long-term potentiation of the synaptic stre... | Wikipedia - Bursting - Purposes > Synaptic plasticity | 155 | 691 | null |
Section: Purposes > Information content and channel robustness. Due to the all-or-nothing nature of action potentials, single spikes can only encode information in their interspike intervals (ISI). This is an inherently low fidelity method of transferring information as it depends on very accurate timing and is sensiti... | Wikipedia - Bursting - Purposes > Information content and channel robustness | 228 | 1,197 | null |
Section: Example bursting neuron circuits > pre-Bötzinger complex. The pre-Bötzinger complex (preBötC) is located in ventrolateral medulla and is proposed to generate the rhythm underlying inspiratory efforts in mammals. Since the frequency that the lungs need to operate at can vary according to metabolic demand, preBö... | Wikipedia - Bursting - Example bursting neuron circuits > pre-Bötzinger complex | 163 | 794 | null |
Article: Campenot chamber. A Campenot chamber is a three-chamber petri dish culture system devised by Robert Campenot to study neurons. Commonly used in neurobiology, the neuron soma or cell body is physically compartmentalized from its axons allowing for spatial segregation during investigation. This separation, typic... | Wikipedia - Campenot chamber - Summary | 164 | 797 | null |
Section: History of use. The uniqueness of the design allows for biochemical analysis and application of a stimulus at either distal or proximal ends. Campenot chambers have been used for a variety of studies including culturing of iPSC-derived motor neurons to isolate axonal RNA which can then be used for molecular an... | Wikipedia - Campenot chamber - History of use | 303 | 1,489 | null |
Article: Causes of gender incongruence. Gender incongruence is the state of having a gender identity that does not correspond to one's sex assigned at birth. This is experienced by people who identify as transgender or transsexual, and often results in gender dysphoria. The causes of gender incongruence have been studi... | Wikipedia - Causes of gender incongruence - Summary | 171 | 806 | null |
Section: Genetics. Gender identity is genetically heritable, but no convincing candidate genes are known. Gender incongruence has been associated with certain alleles relevant to steroidogenesis. In 2013, a twin study combined a survey of pairs of twins where one or both had undergone, or had plans and medical approval... | Wikipedia - Causes of gender incongruence - Genetics | 250 | 1,227 | null |
Section: Prenatal hormonal environment. Sex hormones in the prenatal environment differentiate the male and female brain. One hypothesis proposes that transgender individuals may have been exposed to atypical levels of sex hormones during later stages of fetal development, leading to brain structures atypical of their ... | Wikipedia - Causes of gender incongruence - Prenatal hormonal environment | 350 | 1,793 | null |
Section: Brain structure. Transgender brain studies, especially those on trans women attracted to women (gynephilic), and those on trans men attracted to men (androphilic), are limited, as they include only a small number of tested individuals. Several studies have found a correlation between gender identity and brain ... | Wikipedia - Causes of gender incongruence - Brain structure | 292 | 1,317 | null |
found that significant sexual dimorphism in BSTc did not establish until adulthood. Chung et al. theorized that changes in fetal hormone levels produce changes in BSTc synaptic density, neuronal activity, or neurochemical content which later lead to size and neuron count changes in BSTc, or alternatively, that the size... | Wikipedia - Causes of gender incongruence - Brain structure | 315 | 1,364 | null |
A 2009 MRI study by Luders et al. found that among 24 trans women not treated with hormone therapy, regional gray matter concentrations were more similar to those of cisgender men than of cisgender women, but there was a significantly greater volume of gray matter in the right putamen compared to cisgender men. Like ea... | Wikipedia - Causes of gender incongruence - Brain structure | 349 | 1,586 | null |
The only female-to-male (FtM) transsexual person available to us for study so far had a BSTc and INAH3 with clear male characteristics. (...) These sex reversals were found not to be influenced by circulating hormone levels in adulthood, and seem thus to have arisen during development" and that "All observations that s... | Wikipedia - Causes of gender incongruence - Brain structure | 341 | 1,521 | null |
It also stated that for both trans women and trans men, "cross-sex hormone treatment affects the gross morphology as well as the white matter microstructure of the brain. Changes are to be expected when hormones reach the brain in pharmacological doses. Consequently, one cannot take hormone-treated transsexual brain pa... | Wikipedia - Causes of gender incongruence - Brain structure | 317 | 1,599 | null |
Section: Brain structure > Androphilic vs. gynephilic trans women. A 2016 review reported that early-onset androphilic transgender women have a brain structure similar to cisgender women's and unlike cisgender men's, but that they have their own brain phenotype. It also reported that gynephilic trans women differ from ... | Wikipedia - Causes of gender incongruence - Brain structure > Androphilic vs. gynephilic trans women | 340 | 1,528 | null |
Section: Onset. According to the DSM-5, gender dysphoria in those assigned male at birth tends to follow one of two broad trajectories: early-onset or late-onset. Early-onset gender dysphoria is behaviorally visible in childhood. Sometimes, gender dysphoria may stop for a while in this group, and they may identify as g... | Wikipedia - Causes of gender incongruence - Onset | 282 | 1,274 | null |
Section: Blanchard's typology. In the 1980s and 1990s, sexologist Ray Blanchard developed a taxonomy of male-to-female transsexualism built upon the work of his colleague Kurt Freund, which argues that trans women have one of two primary causes of gender dysphoria. Blanchard theorized that "homosexual transsexuals" (a ... | Wikipedia - Causes of gender incongruence - Blanchard's typology | 276 | 1,269 | null |
Blanchard argued that there are significant differences between the two groups, including sexuality, age of transition, ethnicity, IQ, fetishism, and quality of adjustment. Blanchard's typology has been criticized in papers from Veale, Nuttbrock, Moser, and others who argue that it is poorly representative of trans wom... | Wikipedia - Causes of gender incongruence - Blanchard's typology | 254 | 1,133 | null |
Article: Central nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain, spinal cord and retina. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterally s... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Summary | 193 | 894 | null |
Section: Overview. In vertebrates, the brain and spinal cord are both enclosed in the meninges. The meninges provide a barrier to chemicals dissolved in the blood, protecting the brain from most neurotoxins commonly found in food. Within the meninges the brain and spinal cord are bathed in cerebral spinal fluid which r... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Overview | 262 | 1,205 | null |
Section: Structure > White and gray matter. Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the CNS and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is composed of white and gray matter. This can also be seen macroscopically on brain tissue. The white matter consists of axons and oligodendrocyt... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Structure > White and gray matter | 328 | 1,499 | null |
Section: Structure > Spinal cord. From and to the spinal cord are projections of the peripheral nervous system in the form of spinal nerves (sometimes segmental nerves). The nerves connect the spinal cord to skin, joints, muscles etc. and allow for the transmission of efferent motor as well as afferent sensory signals ... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Structure > Spinal cord | 210 | 1,006 | null |
Section: Structure > Spinal cord > Cranial nerves. Apart from the spinal cord, there are also peripheral nerves of the PNS that synapse through intermediaries or ganglia directly on the CNS. These 12 nerves exist in the head and neck region and are called cranial nerves. Cranial nerves bring information to the CNS to a... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Structure > Spinal cord > Cranial nerves | 187 | 879 | null |
Section: Structure > Brain > Brainstem. The brainstem consists of the medulla, the pons and the midbrain. The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, which both have similar organization and functional properties. The tracts passing from the spinal cord to the brain pass through here. Regulatory ... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Structure > Brain > Brainstem | 345 | 1,618 | null |
Section: Structure > Brain > Cerebellum. The cerebellum lies behind the pons. The cerebellum is composed of several dividing fissures and lobes. Its function includes the control of posture and the coordination of movements of parts of the body, including the eyes and head, as well as the limbs. Further, it is involved... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Structure > Brain > Cerebellum | 221 | 1,096 | null |
Section: Structure > Brain > Diencephalon. The two structures of the diencephalon worth noting are the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a linkage between incoming pathways from the peripheral nervous system as well as the optical nerve (though it does not receive input from the olfactory nerve) to th... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Structure > Brain > Diencephalon | 235 | 1,096 | null |
Section: Structure > Brain > Cerebrum. The cerebrum of cerebral hemispheres make up the largest visual portion of the human brain. Various structures combine to form the cerebral hemispheres, among others: the cortex, basal ganglia, amygdala and hippocampus. The hemispheres together control a large portion of the funct... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Structure > Brain > Cerebrum | 212 | 1,027 | null |
Section: Structure > Difference from the peripheral nervous system. The PNS consists of neurons, axons, and Schwann cells. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the CNS and PNS, respectively. Both act to add myelin sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and f... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Structure > Difference from the peripheral nervous system | 244 | 1,062 | null |
Section: Development. During early development of the vertebrate embryo, a longitudinal groove on the neural plate gradually deepens and the ridges on either side of the groove (the neural folds) become elevated, and ultimately meet, transforming the groove into a closed tube called the neural tube. The formation of th... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Development | 342 | 1,465 | null |
The telencephalon differentiates into, among other things, the striatum, the hippocampus and the neocortex, and its cavity becomes the first and second ventricles (lateral ventricles). Diencephalon elaborations include the subthalamus, hypothalamus, thalamus and epithalamus, and its cavity forms the third ventricle. Th... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Development | 178 | 661 | null |
Section: Development > Evolution > Chordata. The CNS of chordates differs from that of other animals in being placed dorsally in the body, above the gut and notochord/spine. The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of vertebrates and during evolution. The major trend that can be... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Development > Evolution > Chordata | 182 | 836 | null |
Section: Development > Evolution > Chordata > Mammals. Mammals – which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles – are the only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of the cerebral cortex (main part of the telencephalon excluding olfactory bulb) known as th... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Development > Evolution > Chordata > Mammals | 338 | 1,391 | null |
Section: Clinical significance > Diseases. There are many CNS diseases and conditions, including infections such as encephalitis and poliomyelitis, early-onset neurological disorders including ADHD and autism, seizure disorders such as epilepsy, headache disorders such as migraine, late-onset neurodegenerative diseases... | Wikipedia - Central nervous system - Clinical significance > Diseases | 236 | 1,136 | null |
Section: The model. The model is an iterative map where at each time step, the behavior of one neuron is updated as the following equations: x n + 1 = f ( x n , y n ) = x n 2 exp ( y n − x n ) + k y n + 1 = g ( x n , y n ) = a y n − b x n + c {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x_{n+1}=&f(x_{n},y_{n})=x_{n}^{2}\exp {(y_{n... | Wikipedia - Chialvo map - The model | 326 | 872 | null |
Section: Analysis > Fixed points. Considering the case where k = 0 {\displaystyle k=0} and b << a {\displaystyle b<<a} the model mimics the lack of ‘voltage-dependence inactivation’ for real neurons and the evolution of the recovery variable is fixed at y f 0 {\displaystyle y_{f0}} . Therefore, the dynamics of the acti... | Wikipedia - Chialvo map - Analysis > Fixed points | 272 | 737 | null |
Section: Examples > Example 1. A practical implementation is the combination of N {\displaystyle N} neurons over a lattice, for that, it can be defined 0 > d < 1 {\displaystyle 0>d<1} as a coupling constant for combining the neurons. For neurons in a single row, we can define the evolution of action potential on time b... | Wikipedia - Chialvo map - Examples > Example 1 | 345 | 1,024 | null |
Section: Examples > Example 2. Analogous to the previous example, it's possible create a set of coupling neurons over a 2-D lattice, in this case the evolution of action potentials is given by: x n + 1 i , j = ( 1 − d ) f ( x n i , j ) + ( d / 4 ) [ f ( x n i + 1 , j ) + f ( x n i − 1 , j ) + f ( x n i , j + 1 ) + f ( ... | Wikipedia - Chialvo map - Examples > Example 2 | 288 | 704 | null |
With this example spiral waves can be represented for specific values of parameters. In order to visualize the spirals, we set the initial condition in a specific configuration x i j = i ∗ 0.0033 {\displaystyle x^{ij}=i*0.0033} and the recovery as y i j = y f − ( j ∗ 0.0066 ) {\displaystyle y^{ij}=y_{f}-(j*0.0066)} . T... | Wikipedia - Chialvo map - Examples > Example 2 | 303 | 1,082 | null |
Article: Chronobiology. Chronobiology is a field of biology that examines timing processes, including periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms, such as their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms. These cycles are known as biological rhythms. Chronobiology comes from the ancient Greek χρόνος (chrónos, m... | Wikipedia - Chronobiology - Summary | 192 | 939 | null |
Section: The subject. Chronobiology studies variations of the timing and duration of biological activity in living organisms which occur for many essential biological processes. These occur (a) in animals (eating, sleeping, mating, hibernating, migration, cellular regeneration, etc.), (b) in plants (leaf movements, pho... | Wikipedia - Chronobiology - The subject | 327 | 1,561 | null |
Many other important cycles are also studied, including: Infradian rhythms, which are cycles longer than a day. Examples include circannual or annual cycles that govern migration or reproduction cycles in many plants and animals, or the human menstrual cycle. Ultradian rhythms, which are cycles shorter than 24 hours, s... | Wikipedia - Chronobiology - The subject | 221 | 990 | null |
Section: History. A circadian cycle was first observed in the 18th century in the movement of plant leaves by the French scientist Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan. In 1751, Swedish botanist and naturalist Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) designed a flower clock using certain species of flowering plants. By arranging the ... | Wikipedia - Chronobiology - History | 319 | 1,521 | null |
Section: The role of Retinal Ganglion cells > Melanopsin as a circadian photopigment. In 2002, Hattar and his colleagues showed that melanopsin plays a key role in a variety of photic responses, including pupillary light reflex, and synchronization of the biological clock to daily light-dark cycles. He also described t... | Wikipedia - Chronobiology - The role of Retinal Ganglion cells > Melanopsin as a circadian photopigment | 262 | 1,064 | null |
Section: The role of Retinal Ganglion cells > Melanopsin cells relay inputs from rods and cones. Hattar, armed with the knowledge that melanopsin was the photopigment responsible for the photosensitivity of ipRGCs, set out to study the exact role of the ipRGC in photoentrainment. In 2008, Hattar and his research team t... | Wikipedia - Chronobiology - The role of Retinal Ganglion cells > Melanopsin cells relay inputs from rods and cones | 171 | 752 | null |
Section: The role of Retinal Ganglion cells > Distinct ipRGCs. Further research has shown that ipRGCs project to different brain nuclei to control both non-image forming and image forming functions. These brain regions include the SCN, where input from ipRGCs is necessary to photoentrain circadian rhythms, and the oliv... | Wikipedia - Chronobiology - The role of Retinal Ganglion cells > Distinct ipRGCs | 180 | 839 | null |
Section: The role of Retinal Ganglion cells > Diversity in M1 cells. Hattar and his co-workers discovered that, even among the subtypes of ipRGC, there can be designated sets that differentially control circadian versus pupillary behavior. In experiments with M1 ipRGCs, they discovered that the transcription factor Brn... | Wikipedia - Chronobiology - The role of Retinal Ganglion cells > Diversity in M1 cells | 274 | 1,316 | null |
Section: Psychological impact of light exposure > Effect on mood. ipRGCs project to areas of the brain that are important for regulating circadian rhythmicity and sleep, most notably the SCN, subparaventricular nucleus, and the ventrolateral preoptic area. In addition, ipRGCs transmit information to many areas in the l... | Wikipedia - Chronobiology - Psychological impact of light exposure > Effect on mood | 334 | 1,523 | null |
Section: Psychological impact of light exposure > Effect on learning. The hippocampus is a structure in the limbic system that receives projections from ipRGCs. It is required for the consolidation of short-term memories into long-term memories as well as spatial orientation and navigation. Depression and heightened se... | Wikipedia - Chronobiology - Psychological impact of light exposure > Effect on learning | 223 | 1,084 | null |
Section: Research developments. Light and melatonin More recently, light therapy and melatonin administration have been explored by Alfred J. Lewy (OHSU), Josephine Arendt (University of Surrey, UK) and other researchers as a means to reset animal and human circadian rhythms. Additionally, the presence of low-level lig... | Wikipedia - Chronobiology - Research developments | 319 | 1,515 | null |
Article: Clozapine N-oxide. Clozapine N-oxide (CNO) is a synthetic drug used mainly in biomedical research as a ligand to activate Designer Receptors Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs (DREADDs), despite the initial belief that it was biologically inert. However, it has been shown to not enter the brain after admi... | Wikipedia - Clozapine N-oxide - Summary | 180 | 777 | null |
Article: Cognitive development. Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a child's development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of the developed adult brain and cognitive psychology. Qualitative d... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Summary | 311 | 1,695 | null |
His description of the most prominent changes in cognition with age, is generally still accepted today (e.g., how early perception moves from being dependent on concrete, external actions. Later, abstract understanding of observable aspects of reality can be captured; leading to the discovery of underlying abstract rul... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Summary | 297 | 1,607 | null |
Section: History. Jean Piaget is inexorably linked to cognitive development as he was the first to systematically study developmental processes. Despite being the first to develop a systemic study of cognitive development, Piaget was not the first to theorize about cognitive development. Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote Emi... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - History | 347 | 1,731 | null |
She was working on human behavior in older children but only published lecture notes on the subject. Arnold Gesell was the creator of the maturational theory of development. Gesell said that development occurs due to biological hereditary features such as genetics and children will reach developmental milestones when t... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - History | 330 | 1,749 | null |
Kohlberg's six stages follow Piaget's constructivist requirements in that those stages can not be skipped and it is very rare to regress in stages. Notable works: Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Development Approach (1976) and Essays on Moral Development (1981) Lev Vygotsky's theory is based on social lear... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - History | 307 | 1,481 | null |
Section: Beginning of cognition. In cognitive development, the essential issue in beginning cognition is how the nervous system grasps perception and shapes intentionality in the sensorimotor stage (or before) when organisms only demonstrate simple reflexes (see articles perception, cognition, binding problem, multi se... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Beginning of cognition | 338 | 1,909 | null |
(1) How are relevant elements that should be related as a whole selected and separated from elements that belong to other objects, ideas, or events? (2) How is the binding encoded so it can be transferred to other brain systems and used? (3) How are the correct relationships between related elements within the same obj... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Beginning of cognition | 321 | 1,721 | null |
How is the relation between a specific sensory stimulus and the appropriate structural organization of the excitatory inputs in specific neurons formed? The problem of morphogenesis – Cell actions during an embryo formation, including shape changes, cell contact remodeling, cell migration, cell division, and cell extru... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Beginning of cognition | 322 | 1,699 | null |
Thus, it is not only the interaction of gene activity with events and experiences in the environment that contributes to the formation of tissues in morphogenesis. Because the nervous system structures operate over everything that makes us human, the formation of neural tissues in a certain way is essential for shaping... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Beginning of cognition | 312 | 1,789 | null |
Section: Jean Piaget > Criticism. Many of Piaget's claims have fallen out of favor. For example, he claimed that young children cannot conserve numbers. However, further experiments showed that children did not really understand what was being asked of them. When the experiment is done with candies, and the children ar... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Jean Piaget > Criticism | 273 | 1,527 | null |
Section: Current Theories of Cognitive Development > Core Knowledge Theory. Empiricists study how these skills may be learned in such a short time. The debate is over whether these systems are learned by general-purpose learning devices or domain-specific cognition. Moreover, many modern cognitive developmental psychol... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Current Theories of Cognitive Development > Core Knowledge Theory | 158 | 866 | null |
Section: Current Theories of Cognitive Development > Core Knowledge Theory > Place. Very young children appear to have some skill in navigation. This basic ability to infer the direction and distance of unseen locations develops in ways that are not entirely clear. However, there is some evidence that it involves the d... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Current Theories of Cognitive Development > Core Knowledge Theory > Place | 174 | 985 | null |
Section: Current Theories of Cognitive Development > Shared Intentionality. This approach integrates Externalism (a group of positions in the philosophy of mind: embodied cognition, embodied embedded cognition, enactivism, extended mind, and situated cognition) with the Empiricist ideas about the beginning of cognition... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Current Theories of Cognitive Development > Shared Intentionality | 347 | 1,815 | null |
This non-local neuronal coupling succeeds due to a low-frequency oscillator (mother's heartbeats) that coordinates relevant local neuronal networks in specific subsystems of these two organisms, which already exhibit gamma activity (similar embodied information in both). The registered cooperative neuronal activity in ... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Current Theories of Cognitive Development > Shared Intentionality | 346 | 1,878 | null |
For the innate sensitivity to specific patterns of information (referred to as core domains according to the Core Knowledge Theory) or for pairing the relevant cue with a particular symbol saved in the sensorimotor structures (embodied information according to Externalism), the organism only with an ability of reflex r... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Current Theories of Cognitive Development > Shared Intentionality | 217 | 1,213 | null |
Section: Key Topics of Study in Cognitive Development > Language Acquisition. A major, well-studied process and consequence of cognitive development is language acquisition. The traditional view was that this is the result of deterministic, human-specific genetic structures and processes. Other traditions, however, hav... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Key Topics of Study in Cognitive Development > Language Acquisition | 309 | 1,641 | null |
Section: Other theories > Whorf's hypothesis. While working as a student of Edward Sapir, Benjamin Lee Whorf posited that a person's thinking depends on the structure and content of their social group's language. Per Whorf, language determines our thoughts and perceptions. For example, it used to be thought that the Gr... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Other theories > Whorf's hypothesis | 194 | 947 | null |
Section: Neuroscience. During development, especially the first few years of life, children show interesting patterns of neural development and a high degree of neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity, as explained by the World Health Organization, can be summed up in three points. Any adaptive mechanism used by the nervous s... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Neuroscience | 312 | 1,648 | null |
Section: Neuroscience > Cultural influences > Figure-line task. Behavioral research has shown that one's strength in independent (tasks which are focused on influencing others or oneself) or interdependent tasks (tasks where one changes their own behavior to favor others) differ based on their cultural context. In gene... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Neuroscience > Cultural influences > Figure-line task | 163 | 852 | null |
Section: Neuroscience > Cultural influences > Transcultural neuroimaging studies. New studies in transcultural neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that one's cultural background can influence the neural activity that underlies both high (for example, social cognition) and low (for example, perception) level cognitiv... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - Neuroscience > Cultural influences > Transcultural neuroimaging studies | 169 | 916 | null |
Section: In underrepresented groups > Deaf and hard-of-hearing. Being deaf or hard-of-hearing has been noted to impact cognitive development as hearing loss impacts social development, language acquisition, and the culture reacts to a deaf child. Cognitive development in academic achievement, reading development, langu... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - In underrepresented groups > Deaf and hard-of-hearing | 195 | 1,063 | null |
Section: In underrepresented groups > Transgender people. Since the 2010s there has been an increase in research into how transgender people fit into cognitive development theory. At the earliest, transgender children can begin to socially transition during identity exploration. In 2015, Kristina Olson and colleagues s... | Wikipedia - Cognitive development - In underrepresented groups > Transgender people | 193 | 1,091 | null |
Article: Common coding theory. Common coding theory is a cognitive psychology theory describing how perceptual representations (e.g. of things we can see and hear) and motor representations (e.g. of hand actions) are linked. The theory claims that there is a shared representation (a common code) for both perception and... | Wikipedia - Common coding theory - Summary | 203 | 1,056 | null |
Section: Background. The classical approach to cognition is a 'sandwich' model which assumes three stages of information processing: perception, cognition and then action. In this model, perception and action do not interact directly, instead cognitive processing is needed to convert perceptual representations into act... | Wikipedia - Common coding theory - Background | 285 | 1,585 | null |
Section: Evidence for common coding. From the year 2000 onwards, a growing number of results have been interpreted in favor of the common coding theory. For instance, one functional MRI study demonstrated that the brain's response to the 2/3 power law of motion (i.e., which dictates a strong coupling between movement c... | Wikipedia - Common coding theory - Evidence for common coding | 231 | 1,277 | null |
Section: Commensurate representation. Common coding posits, on top of separate coding, further domains of representation in which afferent and efferent information share the same format and dimensionality of representation. Common coding refers to 'late' afferent representations (referring to events in the environment)... | Wikipedia - Common coding theory - Commensurate representation | 192 | 1,028 | null |
Section: Ideomotor principle. In line with the ideomotor theory of William James (1890) and Hermann Lotze (1852), the common coding theory posits that actions are represented in terms of their perceptual consequences. Actions are represented like any other events, the sole distinctive feature being that they are (or ca... | Wikipedia - Common coding theory - Ideomotor principle | 268 | 1,309 | null |
Section: Related approaches. While most traditional approaches tend to stress the relative independence of perception and action, some theories have argued for closer links. Motor theories of speech and action perception have made a case for motor contributions to perception. Close non-representational connections betw... | Wikipedia - Common coding theory - Related approaches | 185 | 1,079 | null |
Article: Compartmental neuron models. Compartmental modelling of dendrites deals with multi-compartment modelling of the dendrites, to make the understanding of the electrical behavior of complex dendrites easier. Basically, compartmental modelling of dendrites is a very helpful tool to develop new biological neuron mo... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Summary | 200 | 1,013 | null |
Section: Introduction. Compartmental modelling is a very natural way of modelling dynamical systems that have certain inherent properties with conservation principles. The compartmental modelling is an elegant way, a state space formulation to elegantly capture the dynamical systems that are governed by the conservatio... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Introduction | 287 | 1,474 | null |
Section: Multiple compartments. Complicated dendritic structures can be treated as multiple compartments interconnected. The dendrites are divided into small compartments and they are linked together as shown in the figure. It is assumed that the compartment is isopotential and spatially uniform in its properties. Memb... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Multiple compartments | 254 | 1,071 | null |
The longitudinal resistance is given by r L {\displaystyle r_{L}} . Now according to the balance that should exist for each compartment, we can say i cap i + i ion i = i long i + i electrode i {\displaystyle i_{\text{cap}}^{i}+i_{\text{ion}}^{i}=i_{\text{long}}^{i}+i_{\text{electrode}}^{i}} .....eq(1) where i cap i {\d... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Multiple compartments | 338 | 820 | null |
Then to compute i long i {\displaystyle i_{\text{long}}^{i}} , we need total axial resistance. As the compartments are simply cylinders we can say R long = r L L 1 2 π a 1 2 + r L L 2 2 π a 2 2 {\displaystyle R_{\text{long}}={\frac {r_{L}L_{1}}{2\pi a_{1}^{2}}}+{\frac {r_{L}L_{2}}{2\pi a_{2}^{2}}}} .....eq(3) Using ohm... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Multiple compartments | 340 | 735 | null |
As the compartments are simply cylinders we can say R long = r L L 1 2 π a 1 2 + r L L 2 2 π a 2 2 {\displaystyle R_{\text{long}}={\frac {r_{L}L_{1}}{2\pi a_{1}^{2}}}+{\frac {r_{L}L_{2}}{2\pi a_{2}^{2}}}} .....eq(3) Using ohms law we can express current from ith to jth compartment as i long 1 = g 1 , 2 ( V 2 − V 1 ) {\... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Multiple compartments | 620 | 1,170 | null |
If we put all these together we get c 1 d V 1 d t + V 1 r M 1 = g 1 , 2 ( V 2 − V 1 ) + I electrode 1 A 1 {\displaystyle c_{1}{\frac {dV_{1}}{dt}}+{\frac {V_{1}}{r_{M1}}}=g_{1,2}(V_{2}-V_{1})+{\frac {I_{\text{electrode}}^{1}}{A_{1}}}} c 2 d V 2 d t + V 2 r M 2 = g 2 , 1 ( V 1 − V 2 ) + I electrode 2 A 2 {\displaystyle ... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Multiple compartments | 350 | 601 | null |
r M 1 = V 2 − V 1 r 1 + I electrode 1 A 1 {\displaystyle c_{1}{\frac {dV_{1}}{dt}}+{\frac {V_{1}}{r_{M1}}}={\frac {V_{2}-V_{1}}{r_{1}}}+{\frac {I_{\text{electrode}}^{1}}{A_{1}}}} c 2 d V 2 d t + V 2 r M 2 = V 1 − V 2 r 2 + I electrode 2 A 2 {\displaystyle c_{2}{\frac {dV_{2}}{dt}}+{\frac {V_{2}}{r_{M2}}}={\frac {V_{1}-... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Multiple compartments | 350 | 657 | null |
r M ( r + r M ) r + 2 r M {\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{i_{1}}}={\frac {r_{M}(r+r_{M})}{r+2r_{M}}}} also R input,coupled R input,uncoupled = 1 − r M r + 2 r M {\displaystyle {\frac {R_{\text{input,coupled}}}{R_{\text{input,uncoupled}}}}=1-{\frac {r_{M}}{r+2r_{M}}}} i.e. the input resistance decreases. For increment in ... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Multiple compartments | 343 | 772 | null |
Section: Multiple compartments > Increased computational accuracy in multi-compartmental cable models. Input at the center Each dendritic section is subdivided into segments, which are typically seen as uniform circular cylinders or tapered circular cylinders. In the traditional compartmental model, point process locat... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Multiple compartments > Increased computational accuracy in multi-compartmental cable models | 280 | 1,550 | null |
Section: Some applications > Information processing. A theoretical framework along with a technological platform are provided by computational models to enhance the understanding of nervous system functions. There was a lot of advancement in the molecular and biophysical mechanisms underlying the neuronal activity. The... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Some applications > Information processing | 333 | 1,860 | null |
Section: Some applications > Midbrain dopaminergic neuron. Movement, motivation, attention, neurological and psychiatric disorders and addictive behavior have a strong influence by Dopaminergic signalling. The dopaminergic neurons have a low irregular basal firing frequency in 1–8 Hz range in vivo in the ventral tegmen... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Some applications > Midbrain dopaminergic neuron | 206 | 1,000 | null |
Section: Some applications > Mode locking. There are many important applications in neuroscience for Mode-locking response of excitable systems to periodic forcing. For example, The theta rhythm drives the spatially extended place cells in the hippocampus to generate a code giving information about spatial location. Th... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Some applications > Mode locking | 248 | 1,233 | null |
Section: Some applications > Action potential (AP) initiation site. Establishing a unique site for AP initiation at the axon initial segment is no longer accepted. The APs can be initiated and conducted by different sub-regions of the neuron morphology, which widened the capabilities of individual neurons in computatio... | Wikipedia - Compartmental neuron models - Some applications > Action potential (AP) initiation site | 159 | 818 | null |
Article: Computational anatomy. Computational anatomy is an interdisciplinary field of biology focused on quantitative investigation and modelling of anatomical shapes variability. It involves the development and application of mathematical, statistical and data-analytical methods for modelling and simulation of biolog... | Wikipedia - Computational anatomy - Summary | 348 | 1,886 | null |
The kinetic energy is defined through a Sobolev smoothness norm with strictly more than two generalized, square-integrable derivatives for each component of the flow velocity, which guarantees that the flows in R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} are diffeomorphisms. It also implies that the diffeomorphic shape moment... | Wikipedia - Computational anatomy - Summary | 257 | 1,278 | null |
Section: Genesis. At computational anatomy's heart is the comparison of shape by recognizing in one shape the other. This connects it to D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson's developments On Growth and Form which has led to scientific explanations of morphogenesis, the process by which patterns are formed in biology. Albrecht Du... | Wikipedia - Computational anatomy - Genesis | 312 | 1,662 | null |
Section: History. Computational anatomy is the study of shape and form at the morphome or gross anatomy millimeter, or morphology scale, focusing on the study of sub-manifolds of R 3 , {\displaystyle {\mathbb {R} }^{3},} points, curves surfaces and subvolumes of human anatomy. An early modern computational neuro-anatom... | Wikipedia - Computational anatomy - History | 336 | 1,693 | null |
This was the basis for the strong departure from much of the previous work on advanced methods for spatial normalization and image registration which were historically built on notions of addition and basis expansion. The structure preserving transformations central to the modern field of Computational Anatomy, homeomo... | Wikipedia - Computational anatomy - History | 273 | 1,054 | null |
The template or collection of templates are elements in the orbit m t e m p ∈ M {\displaystyle m_{\mathrm {temp} }\in {\mathcal {M}}} of shapes. The Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulations of the equations of motion of computational anatomy took off post 1997 with several pivotal meetings including the 1997 Luminy meet... | Wikipedia - Computational anatomy - History | 340 | 1,600 | null |
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