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Hagmann et al. (2007) constructed a connection matrix from fiber densities measured between homogeneously distributed and equal-sized ROIs numbering between 500 and 4000. A quantitative analysis of connection matrices obtained for approximately 1,000 ROIs and approximately 50,000 fiber pathways from two subjects demons... | Wikipedia - Connectomics - As a network or graph | 294 | 1,471 | null |
presented evidence for the existence of a structural core of highly and mutually interconnected brain regions, located primarily in posterior medial and parietal cortex. The core comprises portions of the posterior cingulate cortex, the precuneus, the cuneus, the paracentral lobule, the isthmus of the cingulate, the ba... | Wikipedia - Connectomics - As a network or graph | 344 | 1,780 | null |
Those can be found by using either an adjusted t-test, or a sparsity model, with the aim of finding statistically significant connections which are different among those groups. Comparisons between the connectomes (or braingraphs) of healthy women and men have shown that in several deep graph-theoretical parameters, th... | Wikipedia - Connectomics - As a network or graph | 346 | 1,587 | null |
Section: Origin and usage of the term. In 2005, Dr. Olaf Sporns at Indiana University and Dr. Patric Hagmann at Lausanne University Hospital independently and simultaneously suggested the term "connectome" to refer to a map of the neural connections within the brain. This term was directly inspired by the ongoing effor... | Wikipedia - Connectomics - Origin and usage of the term | 338 | 1,663 | null |
The genome is an entity it-self, as it is from the subtle gene interaction that [life] emerges. In a similar manner, one could consider the brain connectome, set of all neuronal connections, as one single entity, thus emphasizing the fact that the huge brain neuronal communication capacity and computational power criti... | Wikipedia - Connectomics - Origin and usage of the term | 164 | 792 | null |
Section: Definition. A convergence-divergence zone (CDZ) is a neural network which receives convergent projections from the sites whose activity is to be recorded, and which returns divergent projections to the same sites. When an experiment is recorded, the signals that converge on the CDZ excite their neurons which s... | Wikipedia - Convergence-divergence zone - Definition | 186 | 916 | null |
Section: Arborescences of CDZ. In addition to convergent-divergent paths, a CDZ may be connected to the rest of the brain in every imaginable way, by input signals that activate or inhibit it, and output signals with which it influences the rest of the system. In particular CDZs may be organized into a system and form ... | Wikipedia - Convergence-divergence zone - Arborescences of CDZ | 331 | 1,521 | null |
Section: History and basics. Initial applications of spectral analysis for finding the relationship between the EEG recordings from different regions of scalp dates back to 1960's. Corticocortical coherence has since been extensively studied using EEG and MEG recording for potential diagnostic applications and beyond. ... | Wikipedia - Corticocortical coherence - History and basics | 182 | 956 | null |
Section: Description. Electrodes are placed on the earlobes, maxilla-occipital junction, mastoid processes or temples. Despite the long history of CES, its underlying principles and mechanisms are still not clear. CES stimulation of 1 mA (milliampere) has shown to reach the thalamic area at a radius of 13.30 mm. CES ha... | Wikipedia - Cranial electrotherapy stimulation - Description | 238 | 1,019 | null |
Section: History. Low intensity electrical stimulation is believed to have originated in the studies of galvanic currents in humans and animals as conducted by Giovanni Aldini, Alessandro Volta and others in the 18th century. Aldini had experimented with galvanic head current as early as 1794 (upon himself) and reporte... | Wikipedia - Cranial electrotherapy stimulation - History | 197 | 990 | null |
Section: Regulation. In the United States, CES technology is classified by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a Class III medical device and must be dispensed by or on the order of a licensed healthcare practitioner, i.e., a physician, psychiatrist, nurse practitioner, psychologist, physician assistant, or occup... | Wikipedia - Cranial electrotherapy stimulation - Regulation | 302 | 1,543 | null |
Article: Crowding. Crowding (or visual crowding) is a perceptual phenomenon where the recognition of objects presented away from the fovea is impaired by the presence of other neighbouring objects (sometimes called "flankers"). It has been suggested that crowding occurs due to mandatory integration of the crowded objec... | Wikipedia - Crowding - Summary | 310 | 1,584 | null |
Section: Bouma's law. The extent of crowding is mostly independent of a letter's or form's size, unlike what is the case in acuity. Instead, it depends very systematically on the distance to its neighbors. If the latter is above a critical value, crowding vanishes. In 1970, Herman Bouma has described a rule-of-thumb fo... | Wikipedia - Crowding - Bouma's law | 309 | 1,223 | null |
Section: History. Crowding, as we know today, is – except in a few special circumstances – the essential bottleneck for human pattern recognition and can be demonstrated in the easiest of ways. It is thus striking that it has been overlooked over the centuries; the cause for degraded pattern recognition has mostly been... | Wikipedia - Crowding - History | 309 | 1,400 | null |
In 1924, then, the Gestalt psychologist Wilhelm Korte was the first to describe, in detail, percepts and phenomena of form perception in indirect vision (peripheral vision). Probably around that time, crowding has become an issue in optometry and ophthalmology when testing amblyopic subjects with eye charts, as is appa... | Wikipedia - Crowding - History | 285 | 1,241 | null |
Article: Decoded neurofeedback. Decoded Neurofeedback (DecNef) is the process of inducing knowledge in a subject by increasing neural activation in predetermined regions in the brain, such as the visual cortex. This is achieved by measuring neural activity in these regions via functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMR... | Wikipedia - Decoded neurofeedback - Summary | 346 | 1,779 | null |
Section: Biophysical mechanisms > Hodgkin–Huxley model. Typical action potentials are initiated by voltage-gated sodium channels. As the transmembrane voltage is increased the probability that a given voltage gated sodium channel is open is increased, thus enabling an influx of Na+ ions. Once the sodium inflow becomes ... | Wikipedia - Depolarizing prepulse - Biophysical mechanisms > Hodgkin–Huxley model | 340 | 1,319 | null |
And as the transmembrane potential drops, the value of h increases, along with the probability that the inactivation gate will be open. The rate of change for an h gate is much slower than that of an m gate, therefore if one precedes a sub-threshold voltage stimulation with a hyperpolarizing prepulse, the value of h ma... | Wikipedia - Depolarizing prepulse - Biophysical mechanisms > Hodgkin–Huxley model | 290 | 1,282 | null |
Section: Biophysical mechanisms > Voltage-gated sodium channel. Since the Hodgkin–Huxley model was first proposed in the 1950s, much has been learned concerning the structure and functionality of voltage-gated sodium channels. Although the exact three dimensional structure of the sodium channel remains unknown, its com... | Wikipedia - Depolarizing prepulse - Biophysical mechanisms > Voltage-gated sodium channel | 311 | 1,516 | null |
Poletto and Van Doren, was as follows: 4 human subjects, each of which had demonstrated the ability to provide reliable pain judgments in previous studies left middle finger rests on a 1 mm diameter polished stainless steel disk electrodes a single stimulus consisted of a burst of three identical prepulse and stim-puls... | Wikipedia - Depolarizing prepulse - Depolarizing prepulse applications > Elevating pain thresholds | 295 | 1,417 | null |
Section: Depolarizing prepulse applications > Nerve fiber recruitment order. In addition to inhibiting neural excitability, it has been observed that preceding an electrical stimulus with a depolarizing prepulse allows one to invert the current-distance relationship controlling nerve fiber recruitment, where the curren... | Wikipedia - Depolarizing prepulse - Depolarizing prepulse applications > Nerve fiber recruitment order | 342 | 1,743 | null |
Article: Diffeomorphometry. Diffeomorphometry is the metric study of imagery, shape and form in the discipline of computational anatomy (CA) in medical imaging. The study of images in computational anatomy rely on high-dimensional diffeomorphism groups φ ∈ Diff V {\displaystyle \varphi \in \operatorname {Diff} _{V}} wh... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - Summary | 350 | 1,155 | null |
The orbit of shapes and forms is made into a metric space by inducing a metric on the group of diffeomorphisms. The study of metrics on groups of diffeomorphisms and the study of metrics between manifolds and surfaces has been an area of significant investigation. In Computational anatomy, the diffeomorphometry metric ... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - Summary | 273 | 921 | null |
The metric between two coordinate systems or diffeomorphisms is then the shortest length or geodesic flow connecting them. The metric on the space associated to the geodesics is given by ρ ( φ , ψ ) = inf ϕ : ϕ 0 = φ , ϕ 1 = ψ ∫ 0 1 ‖ ϕ ˙ t ‖ ϕ t d t {\displaystyle \rho (\varphi ,\psi )=\inf _{\phi :\phi _{0}=\varphi ,... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - Summary | 303 | 835 | null |
The group φ ∈ Diff V {\displaystyle \varphi \in \operatorname {Diff} _{V}} is thusly made into a smooth Riemannian manifold with Riemannian metric ‖ ⋅ ‖ φ {\displaystyle \|\cdot \|_{\varphi }} associated to the tangent spaces at all φ ∈ Diff V {\displaystyle \varphi \in \operatorname {Diff} _{V}} . The Riemannian metri... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - Summary | 333 | 1,022 | null |
In the Riemannian orbit model of Computational anatomy, diffeomorphisms acting on the forms φ ⋅ I ∈ I , φ ∈ Diff V , M ∈ M {\displaystyle \varphi \cdot I\in {\mathcal {I}},\varphi \in \operatorname {Diff} _{V},M\in {\mathcal {M}}} don't act linearly. There are many ways to define metrics, and for the sets associated to... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - Summary | 185 | 693 | null |
Section: The diffeomorphisms group generated as Lagrangian and Eulerian flows. The diffeomorphisms in computational anatomy are generated to satisfy the Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow fields, φ t , t ∈ [ 0 , 1 ] {\displaystyle \varphi _{t},t\in [0,1]} , generated via the ordinary differential equatio... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The diffeomorphisms group generated as Lagrangian and Eulerian flows | 226 | 585 | null |
The diffeomorphisms in computational anatomy are generated to satisfy the Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow fields, φ t , t ∈ [ 0 , 1 ] {\displaystyle \varphi _{t},t\in [0,1]} , generated via the ordinary differential equation with the Eulerian vector fields v ≐ ( v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ) {\displaystyle v\dote... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The diffeomorphisms group generated as Lagrangian and Eulerian flows | 361 | 852 | null |
The inverse for the flow is given by d d t φ t − 1 = − ( D φ t − 1 ) v t , φ 0 − 1 = id , {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}\varphi _{t}^{-1}=-(D\varphi _{t}^{-1})v_{t},\ \varphi _{0}^{-1}=\operatorname {id} ,} and the 3 × 3 {\displaystyle 3\times 3} Jacobian matrix for flows in R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} given a... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The diffeomorphisms group generated as Lagrangian and Eulerian flows | 400 | 1,017 | null |
{\displaystyle \ D\varphi \doteq \left({\frac {\partial \varphi _{i}}{\partial x_{j}}}\right).} To ensure smooth flows of diffeomorphisms with inverse, the vector fields R 3 {\displaystyle {\mathbb {R} }^{3}} must be at least 1-time continuously differentiable in space which are modelled as elements of the Hilbert spac... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The diffeomorphisms group generated as Lagrangian and Eulerian flows | 265 | 764 | null |
Section: The Riemannian orbit model. Shapes in Computational Anatomy (CA) are studied via the use of diffeomorphic mapping for establishing correspondences between anatomical coordinate systems. In this setting, 3-dimensional medical images are modelled as diffeomorphic transformations of some exemplar, termed the temp... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The Riemannian orbit model | 255 | 821 | null |
Section: The Riemannian orbit model > The Riemannian metric. The orbit of shapes and forms in Computational Anatomy are generated by the group action I ≐ { φ ⋅ I : φ ∈ Diff V } {\displaystyle {\mathcal {I}}\doteq \{\varphi \cdot I:\varphi \in \operatorname {Diff} _{V}\}} , M ≐ { φ ⋅ M : φ ∈ Diff V } {\displaystyle {\ma... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The Riemannian orbit model > The Riemannian metric | 188 | 597 | null |
For this a metric is defined on the group which induces the metric on the orbit. Take as the metric for Computational anatomy at each element of the tangent space φ ∈ Diff V {\displaystyle \varphi \in \operatorname {Diff} _{V}} in the group of diffeomorphisms ‖ φ ˙ ‖ φ ≐ ‖ φ ˙ ∘ φ − 1 ‖ V = ‖ v ‖ V , {\displaystyle \|{... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The Riemannian orbit model > The Riemannian metric | 278 | 773 | null |
We model V {\displaystyle V} as a reproducing kernel Hilbert space (RKHS) defined by a 1-1, differential operator A : V → V ∗ {\displaystyle A:V\rightarrow V^{*}} , where V ∗ {\displaystyle V^{*}} is the dual-space. In general, σ ≐ A v ∈ V ∗ {\displaystyle \sigma \doteq Av\in V^{*}} is a generalized function or distrib... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The Riemannian orbit model > The Riemannian metric | 324 | 830 | null |
{\displaystyle \langle v,w\rangle _{V}\doteq \int _{X}Av\cdot w\,dx,\ \|v\|_{V}^{2}\doteq \int _{X}Av\cdot v\,dx,\ v,w\in V\ .} When A v ≐ μ d x {\displaystyle Av\doteq \mu \,dx} , a vector density, ∫ A v ⋅ v d x ≐ ∫ μ ⋅ v d x = ∑ i = 1 3 μ i v i d x . {\displaystyle \int Av\cdot v\,dx\doteq \int \mu \cdot v\,dx=\sum _... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The Riemannian orbit model > The Riemannian metric | 276 | 766 | null |
The Green's operator generated from the Green's function(scalar case) associated to the differential operator smooths. For proper choice of A {\displaystyle A} then ( V , ‖ ⋅ ‖ V ) {\displaystyle (V,\|\cdot \|_{V})} is an RKHS with the operator K = A − 1 : V ∗ → V {\displaystyle K=A^{-1}:V^{*}\rightarrow V} . The Green... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The Riemannian orbit model > The Riemannian metric | 264 | 727 | null |
Section: The diffeomorphometry of the space of shapes and forms > The right-invariant metric on diffeomorphisms. The metric on the group of diffeomorphisms is defined by the distance as defined on pairs of elements in the group of diffeomorphisms according to This distance provides a right-invariant metric of diffeomor... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The diffeomorphometry of the space of shapes and forms > The right-invariant metric on diffeomorphisms | 207 | 629 | null |
Section: The diffeomorphometry of the space of shapes and forms > The metric on shapes and forms. The distance on images, d I : I × I → R + {\displaystyle d_{\mathcal {I}}:{\mathcal {I}}\times {\mathcal {I}}\rightarrow \mathbb {R} ^{+}} , The distance on shapes and forms, d M : M × M → R + {\displaystyle d_{\mathcal {M... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The diffeomorphometry of the space of shapes and forms > The metric on shapes and forms | 153 | 389 | null |
Section: The metric on geodesic flows of landmarks, surfaces, and volumes within the orbit. For calculating the metric, the geodesics are a dynamical system, the flow of coordinates t ↦ ϕ t ∈ Diff V {\displaystyle t\mapsto \phi _{t}\in \operatorname {Diff} _{V}} and the control the vector field t ↦ v t ∈ V {\displaysty... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The metric on geodesic flows of landmarks, surfaces, and volumes within the orbit | 347 | 924 | null |
{\displaystyle {\dot {\phi }}_{t}=v_{t}\cdot \phi _{t},\phi _{0}=\operatorname {id} .} The Hamiltonian view reparameterizes the momentum distribution A v ∈ V ∗ {\displaystyle Av\in V^{*}} in terms of the Hamiltonian momentum, a Lagrange multiplier p : ϕ ˙ ↦ ( p ∣ ϕ ˙ ) {\displaystyle p:{\dot {\phi }}\mapsto (p\mid {\do... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The metric on geodesic flows of landmarks, surfaces, and volumes within the orbit | 355 | 772 | null |
{\displaystyle H(\phi _{t},p_{t},v_{t})=\int _{X}p_{t}\cdot (v_{t}\circ \phi _{t})\,dx-{\frac {1}{2}}\int _{X}Av_{t}\cdot v_{t}\,dx.} The Pontryagin maximum principle gives the Hamiltonian H ( ϕ t , p t ) ≐ max v H ( ϕ t , p t , v ) . {\displaystyle H(\phi _{t},p_{t})\doteq \max _{v}H(\phi _{t},p_{t},v)\ .} The optimiz... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The metric on geodesic flows of landmarks, surfaces, and volumes within the orbit | 370 | 684 | null |
{\displaystyle H(\phi _{t},p_{t})\doteq \max _{v}H(\phi _{t},p_{t},v)\ .} The optimizing vector field v t ≐ argmax v H ( ϕ t , p t , v ) {\displaystyle v_{t}\doteq \operatorname {argmax} _{v}H(\phi _{t},p_{t},v)} with dynamics ϕ ˙ t = ∂ H ( ϕ t , p t ) ∂ p , p ˙ t = − ∂ H ( ϕ t , p t ) ∂ ϕ {\displaystyle {\dot {\phi ... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The metric on geodesic flows of landmarks, surfaces, and volumes within the orbit | 352 | 664 | null |
Along the geodesic the Hamiltonian is constant: H ( ϕ t , p t ) = H ( id , p 0 ) = 1 2 ∫ X p 0 ⋅ v 0 d x {\displaystyle H(\phi _{t},p_{t})=H(\operatorname {id} ,p_{0})={\frac {1}{2}}\int _{X}p_{0}\cdot v_{0}\,dx} . The metric distance between coordinate systems connected via the geodesic determined by the induced dista... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The metric on geodesic flows of landmarks, surfaces, and volumes within the orbit | 230 | 537 | null |
For landmarks, x i , i = 1 , … , n {\displaystyle x_{i},i=1,\dots ,n} , the Hamiltonian momentum p ( i ) , i = 1 , … , n {\displaystyle p(i),i=1,\dots ,n} with Hamiltonian dynamics taking the form H ( ϕ t , p t ) = 1 2 ∑ j ∑ i p t ( i ) ⋅ K ( ϕ t ( x i ) , ϕ t ( x j ) ) p t ( j ) {\displaystyle H(\phi _{t},p_{t})={\fra... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The metric on geodesic flows of landmarks, surfaces, and volumes within the orbit > Landmark or pointset geodesics | 338 | 668 | null |
{p}}_{t}(i)=-(Dv_{t})_{|_{\phi _{t}(x_{i})}}^{T}p_{t}(i),i=1,2,\dots ,n\\\end{cases}}} The metric between landmarks d 2 = ∑ i p 0 ( i ) ⋅ ∑ j K ( x i , x j ) p 0 ( j ) . {\displaystyle d^{2}=\textstyle \sum _{i}p_{0}(i)\cdot \sum _{j}\displaystyle K(x_{i},x_{j})p_{0}(j).} The dynamics associated to these geodesics is s... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The metric on geodesic flows of landmarks, surfaces, and volumes within the orbit > Landmark or pointset geodesics | 182 | 352 | null |
For surfaces, the Hamiltonian momentum is defined across the surface has Hamiltonian H ( ϕ t , p t ) = 1 2 ∫ U ∫ U p t ( u ) ⋅ K ( ϕ t ( m ( u ) ) , ϕ t ( m ( v ) ) ) p t ( v ) d u d v {\displaystyle H(\phi _{t},p_{t})={\frac {1}{2}}\int _{U}\int _{U}p_{t}(u)\cdot K(\phi _{t}(m(u)),\phi _{t}(m(v)))p_{t}(v)\,du\,dv} and... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The metric on geodesic flows of landmarks, surfaces, and volumes within the orbit > Surface geodesics | 345 | 625 | null |
For volumes the Hamiltonian H ( ϕ t , p t ) = 1 2 ∫ R 3 ∫ R 3 p t ( x ) ⋅ K ( ϕ t ( x ) , ϕ t ( y ) ) p t ( y ) d x d y {\displaystyle H(\phi _{t},p_{t})={\frac {1}{2}}\int _{{\mathbb {R} }^{3}}\int _{{\mathbb {R} }^{3}}p_{t}(x)\cdot K(\phi _{t}(x),\phi _{t}(y))p_{t}(y)\,dx\,dy\displaystyle } with dynamics { v t = ∫ X ... | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The metric on geodesic flows of landmarks, surfaces, and volumes within the orbit > Volume geodesics | 348 | 600 | null |
}^{3}\end{cases}}} The metric between volumes d 2 = ( p 0 ∣ v 0 ) = ∫ R 3 p 0 ( x ) ⋅ ∫ R 3 K ( x , y ) p 0 ( y ) d y d x . {\displaystyle \displaystyle d^{2}=(p_{0}\mid v_{0})=\int _{\mathbb {R} ^{3}}p_{0}(x)\cdot \int _{{\mathbb {R} }^{3}}K(x,y)p_{0}(y)\,dy\,dx.} | Wikipedia - Diffeomorphometry - The metric on geodesic flows of landmarks, surfaces, and volumes within the orbit > Volume geodesics | 150 | 265 | null |
Section: Biography. Born in Belleville, Illinois, Ernest Ropiequet Hilgard was the son of a physician, Dr. George Engelmann Hilgard, and Laura Ropiequet Hilgard. Hilgard was initially drawn to engineering; he received a bachelor's degree in chemical engineering from the University of Illinois in 1924. He then studied p... | Wikipedia - Ernest Hilgard - Biography | 197 | 870 | null |
Section: Hidden observer in hypnosis. Hilgard is specifically known for his theory that a so-called "hidden observer" is created in the mind while hypnosis is taking place. His research on the hidden observer during hypnotic pain management was intended to provide support for his neodissociationist theory. This theory ... | Wikipedia - Ernest Hilgard - Hidden observer in hypnosis | 325 | 1,575 | null |
He quietly said to the student, Perhaps there is some part of you that is hearing my voice and processing the information. If there is, I should like the index finger of your right hand to rise as a sign that this is the case(Hilgard, 1977, p. 186). The finger rose. At this, the student requested that he be brought out... | Wikipedia - Ernest Hilgard - Hidden observer in hypnosis | 346 | 1,597 | null |
One of Hilgard's subjects made the following interesting statement about what she experienced, making particular reference to what she sensed was her higher self: The hidden observer is cognizant of everything that is going on ... The hidden observer sees more, he questions more, he's aware of what is going on all of t... | Wikipedia - Ernest Hilgard - Hidden observer in hypnosis | 185 | 844 | null |
Section: Divided consciousness. Divided consciousness is a term coined by Hilgard to define a psychological state in which one's consciousness is split into distinct components, possibly during hypnosis. The theory of a division of consciousness was touched upon by Carl Jung in 1935 when he stated, "The so-called unity... | Wikipedia - Ernest Hilgard - Divided consciousness | 297 | 1,426 | null |
Many psychological studies assume a unity of consciousness. Doubt is cast on this assumption by psychophysical studies in normal subjects and those with blindsight showing the simultaneous dissociation of different modes of reporting of a sensation, and by clinical studies of anosognosic patients showing dissociations ... | Wikipedia - Ernest Hilgard - Divided consciousness | 242 | 1,361 | null |
Section: Duality of personality. This idea of the basic duality of human personality is culturally and historically almost universal. The ancient Chinese called these two independent consciousnesses hun and po, the ancient Egyptians the ka and the ba, and the ancient Greeks the Daemon and the Eidolon. In each case, the... | Wikipedia - Ernest Hilgard - Duality of personality | 299 | 1,346 | null |
Section: Textbooks. Hilgard was also the author of three hugely influential textbooks on topics other than hypnosis. The first, "Conditioning and Learning", jointly authored with Donald Marquis, was very widely cited up until the 1960s. When Gregory Kimble updated a second edition in 1961, Hilgard and Marquis's names w... | Wikipedia - Ernest Hilgard - Textbooks | 256 | 1,232 | null |
Section: Publications. Hilgard E.R. and Marquis D.G 1940. Conditioning and learning. New York: Appleton-Century. Hilgard E.R. and Marquis D.G. 1961. Conditioning and learning. 2nd ed, Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-388876-8 Hilgard E.R. 1948. Theories of learning. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Hilgard E.R. and Bower... | Wikipedia - Ernest Hilgard - Publications | 344 | 1,105 | null |
Section: Background. The divided visual field paradigm capitalizes on the lateralization of the visual system. Each cerebral hemisphere only receives information from one half of the visual field—specifically, from the contralateral hemifield. For example, retinal projections from ganglion cells in the left eye that re... | Wikipedia - Divided visual field paradigm - Background | 232 | 1,101 | null |
Section: Methodology. To enable the lateralized presentation of visual stimuli, participants must first be fixated at a centralized location, and must be unable to anticipate whether an upcoming stimulus will be presented to the right or left of fixation. Because the center of the visual field, the fovea, may project b... | Wikipedia - Divided visual field paradigm - Methodology | 228 | 1,146 | null |
Section: Limitations. A significant difference between RVF/LH and LVF/RH task performance using the divided visual field paradigm does provide evidence of a functional asymmetry between the two cerebral hemispheres. However, as described by Ivry and Robertson (1998), there are limitations to the types of inferences tha... | Wikipedia - Divided visual field paradigm - Limitations | 330 | 1,779 | null |
Section: Introduction. Following the comparative analysis of brain imaging of stuttering and non-stuttering speakers, people who stutter seem to display a heightened dopaminergic activity in striatal regions of the brain. This has been described during a PET study using fluoro-L-DOPA as a marker of presynaptic dopamine... | Wikipedia - Dopamine hypothesis of stuttering - Introduction | 197 | 900 | null |
Section: Arguments in favour of a dopamine hypothesis > Haloperidol. The typical antipsychotic haloperidol has been the most used drug in treatment trials for stuttering. In double-blind placebo-controlled trials with objective speech measures, the group receiving haloperidol displayed significant improvement after a 8... | Wikipedia - Dopamine hypothesis of stuttering - Arguments in favour of a dopamine hypothesis > Haloperidol | 269 | 1,250 | null |
Section: Arguments in favour of a dopamine hypothesis > Aripiprazole. Aripiprazole's mode of action differs from other atypical antipsychotics in its selectivity with dopamine receptors (partial agonist activity on postsynaptic D2 receptor and partial agonist activity on presynaptic D2, D3 and partially D4) and seroton... | Wikipedia - Dopamine hypothesis of stuttering - Arguments in favour of a dopamine hypothesis > Aripiprazole | 203 | 825 | null |
Section: Description. An increasingly adopted view is that many symptoms of neurological or psychiatric diseases originate from brain circuit dysfunctions, which have also been termed 'oscillopathies' or 'disorders of the connectome'. Indeed, evidence accumulates, that the same circuit may be responsible for the same s... | Wikipedia - Dysfunctome - Description | 322 | 1,602 | null |
Article: Ecstasy (emotion). Ecstasy (from Ancient Greek ἔκστασις (ékstasis) 'outside of oneself') is a subjective experience of total involvement of the subject with an object of their awareness. In classical Greek literature, it refers to removal of the mind or body "from its normal place of function." Total involveme... | Wikipedia - Ecstasy (emotion) - Summary | 173 | 888 | null |
Section: Description. From a psychological perspective, ecstasy is a loss of self-control and sometimes a temporary loss of consciousness, which is often associated with religious mysticism, sexual intercourse and the use of certain drugs. For the duration of the ecstasy the ecstatic is out of touch with ordinary life ... | Wikipedia - Ecstasy (emotion) - Description | 150 | 797 | null |
Section: Types. Ecstasy can be deliberately induced using religious or creative activities, meditation, music, dancing, breathing exercises, physical exercise, sexual intercourse or consumption of psychotropic drugs. The particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy is usually also associated with that... | Wikipedia - Ecstasy (emotion) - Types | 350 | 1,880 | null |
Section: Definition. C. Daniel Batson, a pioneer of the term, defines it as "other-oriented emotion elicited by and congruent with the perceived welfare of someone in need". Batson explains this definition in the following way: First, "congruent" here refers not to the specific content of the emotion but to the valence... | Wikipedia - Empathic concern - Definition | 264 | 1,292 | null |
Section: Developmental origins. Empathic concern is thought to emerge later in development and to require more self-control than either emotional contagion or personal distress. Developmental research indicates a broad range of social competencies children bring to their interpersonal relationships. As early as two yea... | Wikipedia - Empathic concern - Developmental origins | 151 | 843 | null |
Section: Contribution of social psychology. Empathic concern may produce an altruistic motivation to help people. The challenge of demonstrating the existence of altruistic motivation is to show how empathic concern leads to helping in ways that cannot be explained by prevailing theories of egoistic motivation. That is... | Wikipedia - Empathic concern - Contribution of social psychology | 183 | 977 | null |
Section: Social neuroscience evidence. Social neuroscience explores the biological underpinnings of empathic concern (and more generally, interpersonal sensitivity), using an integrative approach that bridges the biological and social levels. Neural systems, including autonomic functions, that rely on brain stem neurop... | Wikipedia - Empathic concern - Social neuroscience evidence | 314 | 1,644 | null |
Article: Empathising–systemising theory. The empathising–systemising (E–S) theory is a theory on the psychological basis of autism and male–female neurological differences originally put forward by clinical psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen. It classifies individuals based on abilities in empathic thinking (E) and systema... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Summary | 318 | 1,482 | null |
Section: History. E–S theory was developed by psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen in 2002, as a reconceptualization of cognitive sex differences in the general population. This was done in an effort to understand why the cognitive difficulties in autism appeared to lie in domains in which he says on average females outperfo... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - History | 322 | 1,605 | null |
The second source of inspiration was interpreting gender essentialism from Charles Darwin's seminal book The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. According to The Guardian regarding the publication's 2003 edition: The book [The Essential Difference] has been five years in the writing, partly because he dee... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - History | 245 | 1,308 | null |
Section: Research. According to Baron-Cohen, females on average score higher on measures of empathy and males on average score higher on measures of systemising. This has been found using the child and adolescent versions of the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and the Systemising Quotient (SQ), which are completed by parents abo... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Research | 190 | 947 | null |
Section: Fetal testosterone. While experience and socialization contribute to the observed sex differences in empathy and systemising, Baron-Cohen and colleagues suggest that biology also plays a role. A candidate biological factor influencing E and S is fetal testosterone (FT). FT levels are positively correlated with... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Fetal testosterone | 228 | 1,292 | null |
Section: Extreme male brain theory of autism. Baron-Cohen's work in systemising-empathising led him to investigate whether higher levels of fetal testosterone explain the increased prevalence of autism spectrum disorders among males in his theory known as the "extreme male brain" theory of autism. A review of his book ... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Extreme male brain theory of autism | 333 | 1,553 | null |
The concept of the Extreme Type E brain has been proposed; however, little research has been conducted on this brain profile. Apart from the research using EQ and SQ, several other similar tests also have found female and male differences and that people with autism or Asperger syndrome on average score similarly to bu... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Extreme male brain theory of autism | 348 | 1,863 | null |
Section: Extreme male brain theory of autism > Development of brain structures. The fetal testosterone theory hypothesises that higher levels of testosterone in the amniotic fluid of mothers push brain development towards improved ability to see patterns and analyse complex systems while diminishing communication and e... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Extreme male brain theory of autism > Development of brain structures | 330 | 1,722 | null |
A further example of how brain structure can influence ASD is looking at cases where the corpus callosum does not fully develop (agenesis of corpus callosum). It was found that autism is commonly diagnosed in children where the corpus callosum does not fully develop (45% of children with agenesis of the corpus callosum... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Extreme male brain theory of autism > Development of brain structures | 309 | 1,564 | null |
Section: Cognitive versus affective empathy. Empathy can be subdivided into two major components: cognitive empathy (also termed 'mentalising'), the ability to understand another's mental state; affective or emotional empathy, the ability to emotionally respond to another's mental states. Affective empathy can be subdi... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Cognitive versus affective empathy | 288 | 1,559 | null |
Section: Criticism. Empathising-Systemising theory has also been criticised, from various points of view. A 2004 review of Baron-Cohen's book The Essential Difference by philosopher Neil Levy in Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences characterised it as "very disappointing" with a "superficial notion of intelligence"... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Criticism | 314 | 1,518 | null |
The second part of the theory—that females are more empathic than males—is more problematic ... Other measures, however, show that males are highly socially skilled."Others have criticised the original EQ and SQ, which form most of the research basis behind the notions of empathising and systemising. Both measure more ... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Criticism | 350 | 1,672 | null |
In contrast, research has generally shown a weak negative correlation between empathising and systemising. (It is worth noting that weak correlation between empathising and systemising would support treating them as independent variables, i.e., as distinct dimensions of personality, each of which may or may not correla... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Criticism | 280 | 1,412 | null |
Mirroring Helen Tager-Flusberg's 2003 warnings, Buchen added that it could lead to hurtful discriminatory views of autistic children "Some critics are also rankled by Baron-Cohen's history of headline-grabbing theories—particularly one that autism is an 'extreme male' brain state. They worry that his theory about techn... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Criticism | 339 | 1,638 | null |
She also criticised some of the experimental work that Baron-Cohen cited in support of his views as being methodologically flawed. In her 2017 book Inferior: How Science Got Women Wrong and the New Research That's Rewriting the Story, science journalist Angela Saini criticised Cohen's research, arguing that he had over... | Wikipedia - Empathising–systemising theory - Criticism | 245 | 1,181 | null |
Section: Mechanics and structure. Little is known about the overall structure of emulators. It could operate like a search glossary with a very large associative memory of input-output sequences. Under this system, the emulator receives a motor command input, finds the closest matching input from its database, and then... | Wikipedia - Emulation theory of representation - Mechanics and structure | 340 | 1,690 | null |
Section: Cognitive function > Motor control. Experiments have found that the temporal length of the motor control loop takes approximately 250-400 ms. Motor centers, however, are already making corrections to their previous motor plan about 70 ms after the onset of the movement based on peripheral information that shou... | Wikipedia - Emulation theory of representation - Cognitive function > Motor control | 165 | 902 | null |
Section: Cognitive function > Visual system. Visual modal specific emulators have been experimentally shown to exist in an experiment by Ernst Mach in 1896. In his experiment, the subjects’ eyes were prevented from moving and then they were exposed to a stimulus that would trigger a saccade. Most subjects reported expe... | Wikipedia - Emulation theory of representation - Cognitive function > Visual system | 182 | 955 | null |
Section: Applications for emulators > Robotics. Emulator-like programming has already been applied to many AI. systems. In 1988 Bartlett Mel created a robot he named Murphy. Murphy was a robot arm with three joints and whose main objective was to reach out and grasp an object while avoiding contact with several objects... | Wikipedia - Emulation theory of representation - Applications for emulators > Robotics | 228 | 1,166 | null |
Article: False tagging theory. The false tagging theory (FTT) is a neuroanatomical model of a belief and doubt process that proposes a single, unique function for the prefrontal cortex. The theory was developed by neuroscientist Erik Asp. Evidence indicates that prefrontal-cortex-mediated doubting is at the core of exe... | Wikipedia - False tagging theory - Summary | 221 | 1,068 | null |
Section: Damage to the prefrontal cortex > Psychiatric disease and FTT. Investigations into the phenomenology of pathological confabulations have noted that some prefrontal patients only produce temporal order confabulations, that is, real memories out of correct temporal order but other patients produce more fantastic... | Wikipedia - False tagging theory - Damage to the prefrontal cortex > Psychiatric disease and FTT | 324 | 1,662 | null |
Section: Damage to the prefrontal cortex > Developmental evidence. The prefrontal cortex in children is preferentially underdeveloped in comparison to other brain regions. Children are often credulous, and skeptical thinking develops relatively late in childhood. Increased skepticism during early development parallels ... | Wikipedia - False tagging theory - Damage to the prefrontal cortex > Developmental evidence | 338 | 1,842 | null |
Article: Femoral nerve dysfunction. Femoral nerve dysfunction, also known as femoral neuropathy, is a rare type of peripheral nervous system disorder that arises from damage to nerves, specifically the femoral nerve. Given the location of the femoral nerve, indications of dysfunction are centered around the lack of mob... | Wikipedia - Femoral nerve dysfunction - Summary | 205 | 1,100 | null |
Section: Femoral Nerve. The femoral nerve is the largest nerve of the lumbar plexus. It is located in the pelvis, and travels down at the front of the leg. The nerve has several branches given its origin from the lumbar spine, down the pelvis and further into the lower spine. Anatomically, it is formed by the dorsal di... | Wikipedia - Femoral nerve dysfunction - Femoral Nerve | 241 | 1,094 | null |
Section: Signs and symptoms. Those with femoral nerve dysfunction may present problems of difficulties in movement and a loss of sensation. The patient, in terms of motor skills, may have problems such as quadriceps wasting, loss of knee extension and a lesser extent of hip flexion given the femoral nerve involvement o... | Wikipedia - Femoral nerve dysfunction - Signs and symptoms | 220 | 1,072 | null |
Section: Causes. The symptoms of femoral neuropathy is due to either specifically just the femoral nerve or several damaged nerves. This local cause of damage to just the femoral nerve is termed mononeuropathy. Although damage to the femoral nerve is uncommon due to its location, there are numerous risk factors includi... | Wikipedia - Femoral nerve dysfunction - Causes | 219 | 1,097 | null |
Section: Diagnosis. The diagnosis of femoral neuropathy can be done through physical examinations, several imaging techniques and electrodiagnostic studies. Provided patients do not suffer from haemorrhage, physical examinations is the first line of diagnosis. These examinations are carried out in order to evaluate whe... | Wikipedia - Femoral nerve dysfunction - Diagnosis | 345 | 1,726 | null |
Section: Treatment. Treatment for femoral dysfunction comes in several ways depending on the symptoms of the patient. This includes dealing with the underlying causes, lifestyle remedies, medications, physical therapy and surgery. In order to relieve minor symptoms, patients are to deal with the underlying cause and ma... | Wikipedia - Femoral nerve dysfunction - Treatment | 331 | 1,710 | null |
Section: Epidemiology. Femoral nerve dysfunction is classified under peripheral neuropathy. Although the prevalence of peripheral neuropathy is known to increase with age, medical reports of the peripheral neuropathy diagnosis are still not well documented and highly underdiagnosed. For this reason, there is no epidemi... | Wikipedia - Femoral nerve dysfunction - Epidemiology | 160 | 831 | null |
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