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The combination of these three elements (copies; variation; competition for survival) forms precisely the condition for Darwinian evolution, and so memes (and hence human cultures) evolve. Large groups of memes that are copied and passed on together are called co-adapted meme complexes, or memeplexes. In Blackmore's de... | Wikipedia - Memetics - History > Decline | 251 | 1,299 | null |
Section: History > "Internet Memetics". A new framework of Internet Memetics initially borrowed Blackmore's conceptual developments but is effectively a data-driven approach, focusing on digital artifacts. This was led primarily by conceptual developments Colin Lankshear and Michele Knobel (2006) and Limor Shifman and ... | Wikipedia - Memetics - History > "Internet Memetics" | 294 | 1,404 | null |
That is, memetics in this conceptualization has been notably testable by the application of social science methodologies. It has been popular enough that following Lankshear and Knobel's (2019) review of empirical trends, they warn those interested in memetics that theoretical development should not be ignored, conclud... | Wikipedia - Memetics - History > "Internet Memetics" | 268 | 1,292 | null |
Section: Criticisms. Critics contend that some of the proponents' assertions are "untested, unsupported or incorrect." Most of the history of memetic criticism has been directed at Dawkins' earlier theory of memetics framed in The Selfish Gene. There have been some serious criticisms of memetics. Namely, there are a fe... | Wikipedia - Memetics - Criticisms | 324 | 1,426 | null |
Meme is thus described in memetics as a sign without its triadic nature. Charles Sanders Peirce's semiotic theory involves a triadic structure: a sign (a reference to an object), an object (the thing being referred to), and an interpretant (the interpreting actor of a sign). For Deacon and Kull, the meme is a degenerat... | Wikipedia - Memetics - Criticisms | 302 | 1,379 | null |
For example, Henry Jenkins, Joshua Green, and Sam Ford, in their book Spreadable Media (2013), criticize Dawkins' idea of the meme, writing that "while the idea of the meme is a compelling one, it may not adequately account for how content circulates through participatory culture." The three authors also criticize othe... | Wikipedia - Memetics - Criticisms | 225 | 1,006 | null |
Section: New developments > Alternative definitions. Dawkins, in A Devil's Chaplain, expanded his definition of meme by saying there are actually two different types of memetic processes (controversial and informative). The first is a type of cultural idea, action, or expression, which does have high variance; for inst... | Wikipedia - Memetics - New developments > Alternative definitions | 320 | 1,478 | null |
DiCarlo (2010) developed the definition of meme further to include the idea of 'memetic equilibrium', which describe a culturally compatible state with biological equilibrium. In "How Problem Solving and Neurotransmission in the Upper Paleolithic led to The Emergence and Maintenance of Memetic Equilibrium in Contempora... | Wikipedia - Memetics - New developments > Alternative definitions | 300 | 1,548 | null |
Limor Shifman (2014) defines Internet memes, memes in digitally mediated contexts, to be (a) a group of digital items sharing common characteristics of content, form, and/or stance, which (b) were created with awareness of each other, and (c) were circulated, imitated, and/or transformed via the Internet by many users.... | Wikipedia - Memetics - New developments > Alternative definitions | 292 | 1,387 | null |
Section: New developments > Memetic analysis. The possibility of quantitative analysis of memes using neuroimaging tools and the suggestion that such studies have already been done was given by McNamara (2011). This author proposes hyperscanning (concurrent scanning of two communicating individuals in two separate MRI ... | Wikipedia - Memetics - New developments > Memetic analysis | 212 | 1,106 | null |
Section: Applications. Research methodologies that apply memetics go by many names: Viral marketing, cultural evolution, the history of ideas, social analytics, and more. Many of these applications do not make reference to the literature on memes directly but are built upon the evolutionary lens of idea propagation tha... | Wikipedia - Memetics - Applications | 327 | 1,723 | null |
The insights gained from these models are being used to engineer memetic solution elements to the sustainability problem. Another application of memetics in the sustainability space is the crowdfunded Climate Meme Project conducted by Joe Brewer and Balazs Laszlo Karafiath in the spring of 2013. This study was based on... | Wikipedia - Memetics - Applications | 328 | 1,684 | null |
Archaeological memetics could assist the application of the meme concept to material culture in particular. Francis Heylighen of the Center Leo Apostel for Interdisciplinary Studies has postulated what he calls "memetic selection criteria". These criteria opened the way to a specialized field of applied memetics to fin... | Wikipedia - Memetics - Applications | 320 | 1,722 | null |
Whitty's approach requires project managers to consider that the reasons for using project management are not consciously driven to maximize profit, and are encouraged to consider project management as naturally occurring, self-serving, evolving process which shapes organizations for its own purpose. Swedish political ... | Wikipedia - Memetics - Applications | 155 | 878 | null |
Section: Terminology. Memeplex – (an abbreviation of meme-complex) is a collection or grouping of memes that have evolved into a mutually supportive or symbiotic relationship. Simply put, a meme-complex is a set of ideas that reinforce each other. Meme-complexes are roughly analogous to the symbiotic collection of indi... | Wikipedia - Memetics - Terminology | 347 | 1,609 | null |
It is that which humans strive for in terms of personal value with respect to cultural artefacts and ideas. The term was coined by Christopher diCarlo. Metamemetic thinking - coined by Diego Fontanive, is the thinking skill & cognitive training capable of making individuals acknowledge illogical memes. Eumemics - the b... | Wikipedia - Memetics - Terminology | 151 | 703 | null |
Article: Mendelian error. A Mendelian error in the genetic analysis of a species, describes an allele in an individual which could not have been received from either of its biological parents by Mendelian inheritance. Inheritance is defined by a set of related individuals who have the same or similar phenotypes for a l... | Wikipedia - Mendelian error - Summary | 276 | 1,447 | null |
Article: Microsatellite. A microsatellite is a tract of repetitive DNA in which certain DNA motifs (ranging in length from one to six or more base pairs) are repeated, typically 5–50 times. Microsatellites occur at thousands of locations within an organism's genome. They have a higher mutation rate than other areas of ... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Summary | 263 | 1,267 | null |
Section: History. Although the first microsatellite was characterised in 1984 at the University of Leicester by Weller, Jeffreys and colleagues as a polymorphic GGAT repeat in the human myoglobin gene, the term "microsatellite" was introduced later, in 1989, by Litt and Luty. The name "satellite" DNA refers to the earl... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - History | 237 | 1,098 | null |
Section: Structures, locations, and functions. A microsatellite is a tract of tandemly repeated (i.e. adjacent) DNA motifs that range in length from one to six or up to ten nucleotides (the exact definition and delineation to the longer minisatellites varies from author to author), and are typically repeated 5–50 times... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Structures, locations, and functions | 327 | 1,374 | null |
Microsatellites in non-coding regions may not have any specific function, and therefore might not be selected against; this allows them to accumulate mutations unhindered over the generations and gives rise to variability that can be used for DNA fingerprinting and identification purposes. Other microsatellites are loc... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Structures, locations, and functions | 256 | 1,231 | null |
Section: Mutation mechanisms and mutation rates. Unlike point mutations, which affect only a single nucleotide, microsatellite mutations lead to the gain or loss of an entire repeat unit, and sometimes two or more repeats simultaneously. Thus, the mutation rate at microsatellite loci is expected to differ from other mu... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Mutation mechanisms and mutation rates | 319 | 1,594 | null |
Section: Mutation mechanisms and mutation rates > Microsatellite mutation rates. Direct estimates of microsatellite mutation rates have been made in numerous organisms, from insects to humans. In the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria, the microsatellite mutation rate was estimated at 2.1 × 10−4 per generation per loc... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Mutation mechanisms and mutation rates > Microsatellite mutation rates | 252 | 1,151 | null |
Section: Biological effects of microsatellite mutations > Effects on proteins. In mammals, 20–40% of proteins contain repeating sequences of amino acids encoded by short sequence repeats. Most of the short sequence repeats within protein-coding portions of the genome have a repeating unit of three nucleotides, since th... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Biological effects of microsatellite mutations > Effects on proteins | 338 | 1,709 | null |
Section: Biological effects of microsatellite mutations > Effects on gene regulation. Length changes of microsatellites within promoters and other cis-regulatory regions can change gene expression quickly, between generations. The human genome contains many (>16,000) short sequence repeats in regulatory regions, which ... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Biological effects of microsatellite mutations > Effects on gene regulation | 237 | 1,119 | null |
Section: Biological effects of microsatellite mutations > Effects within introns. Microsatellites within introns also influence phenotype, through means that are not currently understood. For example, a GAA triplet expansion in the first intron of the X25 gene appears to interfere with transcription, and causes Friedre... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Biological effects of microsatellite mutations > Effects within introns | 258 | 1,166 | null |
Section: Applications. Microsatellites are used for assessing chromosomal DNA deletions in cancer diagnosis. Microsatellites are widely used for DNA profiling, also known as "genetic fingerprinting", of crime stains (in forensics) and of tissues (in transplant patients). They are also widely used in kinship analysis (m... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Applications | 176 | 854 | null |
Section: Applications > Forensic and medical fingerprinting. Microsatellite analysis became popular in the field of forensics in the 1990s. It is used for the genetic fingerprinting of individuals where it permits forensic identification (typically matching a crime stain to a victim or perpetrator). It is also used to ... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Applications > Forensic and medical fingerprinting | 260 | 1,260 | null |
Section: Applications > Genetic linkage analysis. During the 1990s and the first several years of this millennium, microsatellites were the workhorse genetic markers for genome-wide scans to locate any gene responsible for a given phenotype or disease, using segregation observations across generations of a sampled pedi... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Applications > Genetic linkage analysis | 196 | 912 | null |
Section: Analysis. Repetitive DNA is not easily analysed by next generation DNA sequencing methods, for some technologies struggle with homopolymeric tracts. A variety of software approaches have been created for the analysis or raw nextgen DNA sequencing reads to determine the genotype and variants at repetitive loci.... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Analysis | 335 | 1,613 | null |
Section: Analysis > Amplification. Microsatellites can be amplified for identification by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process, using the unique sequences of flanking regions as primers. DNA is repeatedly denatured at a high temperature to separate the double strand, then cooled to allow annealing of primers and... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Analysis > Amplification | 177 | 830 | null |
Section: Analysis > Design of microsatellite primers. If searching for microsatellite markers in specific regions of a genome, for example within a particular intron, primers can be designed manually. This involves searching the genomic DNA sequence for microsatellite repeats, which can be done by eye or by using autom... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Analysis > Design of microsatellite primers | 323 | 1,558 | null |
Microsatellite loci are widely distributed throughout the genome and can be isolated from semi-degraded DNA of older specimens, as all that is needed is a suitable substrate for amplification through PCR. More recent techniques involve using oligonucleotide sequences consisting of repeats complementary to repeats in th... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Analysis > Design of microsatellite primers | 166 | 784 | null |
Section: Analysis > ISSR-PCR. ISSR (for inter-simple sequence repeat) is a general term for a genome region between microsatellite loci. The complementary sequences to two neighboring microsatellites are used as PCR primers; the variable region between them gets amplified. The limited length of amplification cycles dur... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Analysis > ISSR-PCR | 208 | 985 | null |
Section: Analysis > Limitations. Repetitive DNA is not easily analysed by next generation DNA sequencing methods, which struggle with homopolymeric tracts. Therefore, microsatellites are normally analysed by conventional PCR amplification and amplicon size determination. The use of PCR means that microsatellite length ... | Wikipedia - Microsatellite - Analysis > Limitations | 322 | 1,472 | null |
Article: Midparent. In human genetics the midparent value of a trait is defined as the average of the trait value of the father and a scaled version of that of the mother. This value can be used in a study to analyze the data set without heeding sex effects. Studying quantitative traits in heritability studies may be c... | Wikipedia - Midparent - Summary | 234 | 860 | null |
Section: Production > De novo. The minimum constituent parts of a chromosome (centromere, telomeres, and DNA replication sequences) are assembled by using molecular cloning techniques to construct the desired chromosomal contents in vitro. Next, the desired contents of the minichromosome must be transformed into a host... | Wikipedia - Minichromosome - Production > De novo | 152 | 777 | null |
Section: Role in genetic engineering > Plants. In 2006, scientists demonstrated the successful use of telomere truncation in maize plants to produce minichromosomes that could be utilized as a platform for inserting genes into the plant genome. In plants, the telomere sequence is conserved, which implies that this stra... | Wikipedia - Minichromosome - Role in genetic engineering > Plants | 191 | 981 | null |
Section: Mobilome in eukaryotes. Transposable elements are elements that can move about or propagate within the genome, and are the major constituents of the eukaryotic mobilome. Transposable elements can be regarded as genetic parasites because they exploit the host cell's transcription and translation mechanisms to e... | Wikipedia - Mobilome - Mobilome in eukaryotes | 262 | 1,200 | null |
Section: Mobilome in prokaryotes. Plasmids were discovered in the 1940s as genetic materials outside of bacterial chromosomes. Prophages are genomes of bacteriophages (a type of virus) that are inserted into bacterial chromosomes; prophages can then be spread to other bacteria through the lytic cycle and lysogenic cycl... | Wikipedia - Mobilome - Mobilome in prokaryotes | 236 | 1,076 | null |
Section: Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional). Modifications are changes in an individual's DNA due to incidental mutation or intentional genetic modification using various biotechnologies. Although confusion exists between the terms "modification" and "mutation" as they are often used interchangeably, mo... | Wikipedia - Modifications (genetics) - Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) | 201 | 1,064 | null |
Section: Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) > Types of modification > Mutation (incidental). Mutation can be more accurately defined as any non-combinatorial change in phenotype that is able to be consistently inherited from parent to offspring over generations. Mutations can be attributed to many facto... | Wikipedia - Modifications (genetics) - Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) > Types of modification > Mutation (incidental) | 269 | 1,458 | null |
Section: Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) > Types of modification > Genetic engineering (intentional). Genetic engineering is a type of intentional genetic modification, which uses biotechnology to alter an organism's genome. According to World Health Organization (WHO), genetically modified organisms... | Wikipedia - Modifications (genetics) - Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) > Types of modification > Genetic engineering (intentional) | 326 | 1,635 | null |
Section: Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) > Examples > Mutation (incidental). The dandelion: Most dandelions have long stems, but an increase in potential threats in their environment have caused average dandelion stem length to decrease within certain species, allowing them to better avoid said threa... | Wikipedia - Modifications (genetics) - Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) > Examples > Mutation (incidental) | 232 | 1,214 | null |
Section: Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) > Examples > Genetic engineering (intentional). Alzheimer's disease: In a synthetic example in a laboratory, scientists isolated the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene, known for using Alzheimer's in humans, and transmitted it into the nerve cells of worms. ... | Wikipedia - Modifications (genetics) - Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) > Examples > Genetic engineering (intentional) | 340 | 1,812 | null |
Section: Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) > Ethics of genetic engineering > Humans. In April 2015, gene editing technology was used on human embryos and debate about the ethics of such actions persisted since. Nonetheless, scientists and policymakers are in agreement that public deliberations should d... | Wikipedia - Modifications (genetics) - Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) > Ethics of genetic engineering > Humans | 273 | 1,461 | null |
Section: Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) > Ethics of genetic engineering > Foods. Debate also surrounds genetically engineered food in terms of the controversial health and environmental effects that it may have in various time scales. Regulations have been implemented for approval of genetically mod... | Wikipedia - Modifications (genetics) - Genetic modifications (incidental and intentional) > Ethics of genetic engineering > Foods | 275 | 1,693 | null |
Article: Molecular cytogenetics. Molecular cytogenetics combines two disciplines, molecular biology and cytogenetics, and involves the analysis of chromosome structure to help distinguish normal and cancer-causing cells. Human cytogenetics began in 1956 when it was discovered that normal human cells contain 46 chromoso... | Wikipedia - Molecular cytogenetics - Summary | 346 | 1,737 | null |
Section: Common techniques > Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization maps out single copy or repetitive DNA sequences through localization labeling of specific nucleic acids. The technique utilizes different DNA probes labeled with fluorescent tags that bind to one or more specific... | Wikipedia - Molecular cytogenetics - Common techniques > Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) | 318 | 1,703 | null |
Section: Common techniques > Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH). Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), derived from FISH, is used to compare variations in copy number between a biological sample and a reference. CGH was originally developed to observe chromosomal aberrations in tumour cells. This method uses tw... | Wikipedia - Molecular cytogenetics - Common techniques > Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) | 262 | 1,286 | null |
Section: Common techniques > Array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH). Array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) allows CGH to be performed without cell culture and isolation. Instead, it is performed on glass slides containing small DNA fragments. Removing the cell culture and isolation step dramatically si... | Wikipedia - Molecular cytogenetics - Common techniques > Array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) | 160 | 841 | null |
Section: Applications. FISH chromosome in-situ hybridization allows the study cytogenetics in pre- and postnatal samples and is also widely used in cytogenetic testing for cancer. While cytogenetics is the study of chromosomes and their structure, cytogenetic testing involves the analysis of cells in the blood, tissue,... | Wikipedia - Molecular cytogenetics - Applications | 340 | 1,654 | null |
Section: Cancer projects. One of the current projects involving Molecular Cytogenetics involves genomic research on rare cancers, called the Cancer Genome Characterization Initiative (CGCI). The CGCI is a group interested in describing the genetic abnormalities of some rare cancers, by employing advanced sequencing of ... | Wikipedia - Molecular cytogenetics - Cancer projects | 199 | 848 | null |
Article: Mosaic (genetics). Mosaicism or genetic mosaicism is a condition in which a multicellular organism possesses more than one genetic line as the result of genetic mutation. This means that various genetic lines resulted from a single fertilized egg. Mosaicism is one of several possible causes of chimerism, where... | Wikipedia - Mosaic (genetics) - Summary | 189 | 916 | null |
Section: History. In 1929, Alfred Sturtevant studied mosaicism in Drosophila, a genus of fruit fly. H. J. Muller in 1930 demonstrated that mosaicism in Drosophila is always associated with chromosomal rearrangements, and Schultz in 1936 showed that, in all cases studied, these rearrangements were associated with hetero... | Wikipedia - Mosaic (genetics) - History | 321 | 1,472 | null |
Section: Types > Somatic mosaicism. Somatic mosaicism (also known as clonal mosaicism) occurs when the somatic cells of the body are of more than one genotype. In the more common mosaics, different genotypes arise from a single fertilized egg cell, due to mitotic errors at first or later cleavages. Somatic mutation lea... | Wikipedia - Mosaic (genetics) - Types > Somatic mosaicism | 248 | 1,161 | null |
Section: Types > Somatic mosaicism > Trisomies, monosomies, and related conditions. The most common form of mosaicism found through prenatal diagnosis involves trisomies. Although most forms of trisomy are due to problems in meiosis and affect all cells of the organism, some cases occur where the trisomy occurs in only... | Wikipedia - Mosaic (genetics) - Types > Somatic mosaicism > Trisomies, monosomies, and related conditions | 343 | 1,436 | null |
Also monosomies can present with some form of mosaicism. The only non-lethal full monosomy occurring in humans is the one causing Turner's syndrome. Around 30% of Turner's syndrome cases demonstrate mosaicism, while complete monosomy (45, X) occurs in about 50–60% of cases. Mosaicism isn't necessarily deleterious, thou... | Wikipedia - Mosaic (genetics) - Types > Somatic mosaicism > Trisomies, monosomies, and related conditions | 335 | 1,477 | null |
Section: Types > Somatic mosaicism > Mitotic recombination. One basic mechanism that can produce mosaic tissue is mitotic recombination or somatic crossover. It was first discovered by Curt Stern in Drosophila in 1936. The amount of tissue that is mosaic depends on where in the tree of cell division the exchange takes ... | Wikipedia - Mosaic (genetics) - Types > Somatic mosaicism > Mitotic recombination | 247 | 1,079 | null |
Section: Use in experimental biology. Genetic mosaics are a particularly powerful tool when used in the commonly studied fruit fly, where specially selected strains frequently lose an X or a Y chromosome in one of the first embryonic cell divisions. These mosaics can then be used to analyze such things as courtship beh... | Wikipedia - Mosaic (genetics) - Use in experimental biology | 319 | 1,466 | null |
Therefore, the cells that do not carry the marker (which are dark) can be identified as carrying a mutation. Using negatively marked clones is sometimes inconvenient, especially when generating very small patches of cells, where seeing a dark spot on a bright background is more difficult than a bright spot on a dark ba... | Wikipedia - Mosaic (genetics) - Use in experimental biology | 238 | 1,093 | null |
Section: Distribution. The greatest clade diversity of haplogroup Z is found in East Asia and Central Asia. However, its greatest frequency appears in some peoples of Russia, such as Evens from Kamchatka (8/39 Z1a2a, 3/39 Z1a3, 11/39 = 28.2% Z total) and from Berezovka, Srednekolymsky District, Sakha Republic (3/15 Z1a... | Wikipedia - Haplogroup Z - Distribution | 334 | 965 | null |
2013, or 19,600 [95% CI 12,500 <-> 29,300] ybp according to YFull. Among the members (Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4, and Z7) of haplogroup Z, Nepalese populations were characterized by rare clades Z3a1a and Z7, of which Z3a1a was the most frequent sub-clade in Newar, with a frequency of 16.5%. Z3, found in East Asia, North Asia, and ... | Wikipedia - Haplogroup Z - Distribution | 327 | 1,061 | null |
(TMRCA 24,300 [95% CI 19,300 <-> 30,300] ybp) Z-T152C!* – Hong Kong Z1 (TMRCA 18,600 [95% CI 10,900 <-> 29,500] ybp) Z1a – Koryak, Buryat, Kalmyk, Mongol (Hinggan, Hulunbuir, Xilingol), Khakas, Shor, Altai Kizhi, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uyghur, Turk, Arab (Uzbekistan) (TMRCA 7,600 [95% CI 5,100 <-> 10,900] ybp) Z1a1 – Italy, H... | Wikipedia - Haplogroup Z - Subclades > Tree | 349 | 836 | null |
(Eastern Finland Province), Estonia (Rapla County) Z1a1b – Evenk (Sakha Republic), Dolgan Z1a1b* – Nganasan (Taimyr Peninsula), Yukaghir (lower Indigirka River basin), Even (Sakkyryyr, Eveno-Bytantaysky National district or Momsky district of Sakha Republic), Evenk (Iengra River basin, Nyukzha river basin) Z1a1b1 Z1a1b... | Wikipedia - Haplogroup Z - Subclades > Tree | 350 | 869 | null |
Evenk (Nyukzha River basin), Yakut (central Yakutia) Z1a3a Z1a3a* – Even (Kamchatka) Z1a3a1 – Yukaghir (lower Kolyma River basin), Even (Berezovka) Z1a3b – Even (Berezovka), Yakut Z1a4 (TMRCA 5,500 [95% CI 3,200 <-> 9,000] ybp) Z1a4* – Uyghur, Tubalar, Buryat (Irkutsk Oblast) Z1a4a – Uyghur Z1b – Tofalar Z1b1 (G251A) -... | Wikipedia - Haplogroup Z - Subclades > Tree | 349 | 794 | null |
ybp) Z3a – China (Mongol, Xibo, Deng, etc.), Kazakh (TMRCA 12,900 [95% CI 9,000 <-> 18,000] ybp) Z3a1 Z3a1a Z3a1a - Nepal (Newar, Magar, Tharu, Eastern Nepal, Kathmandu) Z3a1a* – Lachungpa, Lepcha Z3a1a1 – China Z3a1a2 – Gallong, Dirang Monpa, Thailand (Khon Mueang in Mae Hong Son Province), Vietnam (Hà Nhì) Z3a1b – Ya... | Wikipedia - Haplogroup Z - Subclades > Tree | 341 | 848 | null |
Z3+G11696A+C16380T - China Z3+G11696A+T454C - China Z3+T8227C – China Z3+T8227C+A13629G - China Z3+T8227C+T4363C - Korea Z3+T8227C+T4363C+A12996G - China (HGDP She people) Z3+T8227C+T4363C+A12996G+T773C - Pakistan (HGDP Hazara) Z3g (Z3+G7337A) - Japan, Kazakhstan (Jetisuu) Z3+A13105G! | Wikipedia - Haplogroup Z - Subclades > Tree | 171 | 285 | null |
Z3+G11696A+C16380T - China Z3+G11696A+T454C - China Z3+T8227C – China Z3+T8227C+A13629G - China Z3+T8227C+T4363C - Korea Z3+T8227C+T4363C+A12996G - China (HGDP She people) Z3+T8227C+T4363C+A12996G+T773C - Pakistan (HGDP Hazara) Z3g (Z3+G7337A) - Japan, Kazakhstan (Jetisuu) Z3+A13105G! - China (Barghut from Inner Mongol... | Wikipedia - Haplogroup Z - Subclades > Tree | 436 | 1,016 | null |
Article: Multifactorial disease. Multifactorial diseases, also known as complex diseases, are not confined to any specific pattern of single gene inheritance and are likely to be caused when multiple genes come together along with the effects of environmental factors. In fact, the terms 'multifactorial' and 'polygenic'... | Wikipedia - Multifactorial disease - Summary | 298 | 1,507 | null |
Section: Characteristics. Multifactorial disorders exhibit a combination of distinct characteristics which are clearly differentiated from Mendelian inheritance. The risk of multifactorial diseases may get increased due to environmental influences. The disease is not sex-limited but it occurs more frequently in one gen... | Wikipedia - Multifactorial disease - Characteristics | 187 | 991 | null |
Section: Risk Factors. The risk for multifactorial disorders is mainly determined by universal risk factors. Risk factors are divided into three categories; genetic, environmental and complex factors (for example overweight). Genetic risk factors are associated with the permanent changes in the base pair sequence of hu... | Wikipedia - Multifactorial disease - Risk Factors | 248 | 1,285 | null |
Section: Multifactorial Disorders; Continuous or Discontinuous. Autosomal or sex-linked single gene conditions generally produce distinct phenotypes, said to be discontinuous: the individual either has the trait or does not. However, multifactorial traits may be discontinuous or continuous. Continuous traits exhibit no... | Wikipedia - Multifactorial disease - Multifactorial Disorders; Continuous or Discontinuous | 289 | 1,464 | null |
Section: History. Francis Galton was the first scientist who studied multifactorial diseases and was the cousin of Charles Darwin. Major focus of Galton was on 'inheritance of traits' and he observed "blending" characters. The average contribution of each several ancestor to the total heritage of the offspring and is n... | Wikipedia - Multifactorial disease - History | 155 | 784 | null |
Article: Museomics. Museomics is the study of genomic data obtained from ancient DNA (aDNA) and historic DNA (hDNA) specimens in museum collections. Early research in this area focused on short sequences of DNA from mitochondrial genes, but sequencing of whole genomes has become possible. Next-generation sequencing (NG... | Wikipedia - Museomics - Summary | 350 | 1,846 | null |
PCR amplification of damaged templates can further substitute uracils with thymine (T), completing a C to T substitution path. Such errors tend to occur towards the ends of molecules, accumulate with time, and can be significant in specimens a century-old or later. Robust genomic and statistical techniques are needed t... | Wikipedia - Museomics - Summary | 196 | 1,061 | null |
Article: Mutation accumulation theory. The mutation accumulation theory of aging was first proposed by Peter Medawar in 1952 as an evolutionary explanation for biological aging and the associated decline in fitness that accompanies it. Medawar used the term 'senescence' to refer to this process. The theory explains tha... | Wikipedia - Mutation accumulation theory - Summary | 155 | 824 | null |
Section: Background and history. Despite Charles Darwin's completion of his theory of biological evolution in the 19th century, the modern logical framework for evolutionary theories of aging wouldn't emerge until almost a century later. Though August Weismann did propose his theory of programmed death, it was met with... | Wikipedia - Mutation accumulation theory - Background and history | 225 | 1,158 | null |
Section: Mechanism of action. Amongst almost all populations, the likelihood that an individual will reproduce is related directly to their age. Starting at 0 at birth, the probability increases to its maximum in young adulthood once sexual maturity has been reached, before gradually decreasing with age. This decrease ... | Wikipedia - Mutation accumulation theory - Mechanism of action | 254 | 1,404 | null |
Section: Evidence supporting the mutation accumulation theory > Predation and Delayed Senescence. In populations where extrinsic mortality is low, the drop in reproductive probability after maturity is less severe than in other cases. The mutation accumulation theory therefore predicts that such populations would evolv... | Wikipedia - Mutation accumulation theory - Evidence supporting the mutation accumulation theory > Predation and Delayed Senescence | 240 | 1,310 | null |
Section: Evidence supporting the mutation accumulation theory > Age-specific reproductive success of Drosophila Melanogaster. In the interest of finding specific evidence for the mutation accumulation theory, separate from that which also supports the similar antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis, an experiment was conduc... | Wikipedia - Mutation accumulation theory - Evidence supporting the mutation accumulation theory > Age-specific reproductive success of Drosophila Melanogaster | 202 | 1,117 | null |
Article: Nagoya Protocol. The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity, also known as the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS), is a 2010 supplementary agreement to the 1992 Conve... | Wikipedia - Nagoya Protocol - Summary | 240 | 1,323 | null |
Section: Adoption and ratification. The protocol was adopted on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, at the tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, held from 18 to 29 October 2010 and entered into force on 12 October 2014. The parties to the treaty decided in 2016 to consider the inclusion of digital sequence info... | Wikipedia - Nagoya Protocol - Adoption and ratification | 165 | 795 | null |
Section: Obligations > Compliance obligations. Specific obligations to support compliance with the domestic legislation or regulatory requirements of the contracting party providing genetic resources, and contractual obligations reflected in mutually agreed terms, are a significant innovation of the Nagoya Protocol. Co... | Wikipedia - Nagoya Protocol - Obligations > Compliance obligations | 178 | 1,139 | null |
Section: Implementation. The Nagoya Protocol's success will require effective implementation at the domestic level. A range of tools and mechanisms provided by the Nagoya Protocol will assist contracting parties including: Establishing national focal points (NFPs) and competent national authorities (CNAs) to serve as c... | Wikipedia - Nagoya Protocol - Implementation | 166 | 965 | null |
Section: Implementation > European Union. The European Union has ratified a European Nagoya Protocol regulation to implement the Protocol. Scientists must file a unsolicited Due Diligence Declaration to national authorities when a biological resource is used in connection to a funded research project. The declaration p... | Wikipedia - Nagoya Protocol - Implementation > European Union | 220 | 1,156 | null |
Section: Criticism. However, there are concerns that the added bureaucracy and legislation will, overall, be damaging to the monitoring and collection of biodiversity, to conservation, to the international response to infectious diseases, and to research. Many scientists have voiced concern over the protocol, fearing t... | Wikipedia - Nagoya Protocol - Criticism | 266 | 1,616 | null |
Section: The process. The process of neofunctionalization begins with a gene duplication event, which is thought to occur as a defense mechanism against the accumulation of deleterious mutations. Following the gene duplication event there are two identical copies of the ancestral gene performing exactly the same functi... | Wikipedia - Neofunctionalization - The process | 164 | 847 | null |
Section: Selective constraints. Neofunctionalization is also commonly referred to as "mutation during non-functionality" or "mutation during redundancy". Regardless of if the mutation arises after non-functionality of a gene or due to redundant gene copies, the important aspect is that in both scenarios one copy of the... | Wikipedia - Neofunctionalization - Selective constraints | 305 | 1,459 | null |
Section: Neosubfunctionalization. Neosubfunctionalization occurs when neofunctionalization is the result of subfunctionalization. In other words, once a gene duplication event occurs forming paralogs that after an evolutionary period subfunctionalize, one gene copy continues on this evolutionary journey and accumulates... | Wikipedia - Neofunctionalization - Neosubfunctionalization | 164 | 767 | null |
Section: Examples. The evolution of the antifreeze protein in the Antarctic zoarcid fish Lycodichthys dearborni provides a prime example of neofunctionalization after gene duplication. In the case of the Antarctic zoarcid fish type III antifreeze protein gene (AFPIII; P12102) diverged from a paralogous copy of sialic a... | Wikipedia - Neofunctionalization - Examples | 315 | 1,340 | null |
Section: Concept. While crime is partially a social and environmental problem, the main idea behind neurocriminology (also known as neurolaw) is that the condition of an individual's brain often needs to be included in the analysis for a complete understanding. This can include conditions such as brain tumors, psychose... | Wikipedia - Neurocriminology - Concept | 159 | 809 | null |
Section: Origins. The origins of neurocriminology go back to one of the founders of modern criminology, 19th-century Italian psychiatrist and prison doctor Cesare Lombroso, whose beliefs that the crime originated from brain abnormalities were partly based on phrenological theories about the shape and size of the human ... | Wikipedia - Neurocriminology - Origins | 266 | 1,270 | null |
Section: Neurophysiological studies. Studies on structural deficiencies suggest that people consistently behaving antisocially have structurally impaired brains. The abnormalities can be either of general character or affect specific regions of the brain that control emotions, aggression or are responsible for ethical ... | Wikipedia - Neurocriminology - Neurophysiological studies | 329 | 1,614 | null |
A 2004 study suggested that the psychopaths’ right hippocampus that partially controls emotions and regulates aggression was significantly bigger than the left. This asymmetry was also true in normal people, but it was much more noticeable in psychopaths. Increase in the volume of the striatum. A study in 2010 found th... | Wikipedia - Neurocriminology - Neurophysiological studies | 343 | 1,682 | null |
As a child, he scored 138 on the Stanford-Binet IQ test, placing in the 99th percentile. He was an Eagle Scout, volunteered as a scoutmaster, and served in Marine Corps. In 1966 Whitman unexpectedly killed his mother as well as wife, ascended the belltower of the University of Texas, Austin, and fired a rifle at studen... | Wikipedia - Neurocriminology - Neurophysiological studies | 337 | 1,543 | null |
Section: Neurofunctional studies. Similarly to neurophysiological studies neurofunctional showed that brains of criminals and psychopaths not only are structures differently but also operate in a different way. As you can see below, both structural and functional abnormalities tend to affect the same areas of the brain... | Wikipedia - Neurocriminology - Neurofunctional studies | 329 | 1,681 | null |
Differences in hormone levels: A 2022 study observed reported crime and hormone levels–mainly that of testosterone and cortisol–within a population of university students as consenting participants. Results from the research found that there was a positive direct correlation between testosterone levels and criminal beh... | Wikipedia - Neurocriminology - Neurofunctional studies | 305 | 1,663 | null |
Drugs function to mimic and take the place of naturally-occurring neurotransmitters–or chemical brain signals–that activate brain chemical receptors and affect arousal, mood, as well as physiological and cognitive function among other neurophysiological effects. In cases of addiction, particular drugs may affect the br... | Wikipedia - Neurocriminology - Neurofunctional studies | 169 | 909 | null |
Section: Ethical Concerns > Free Will. Unlike the founding father of criminology, Cesare Lombroso, who thought that crime was fundamentally biological in its origin and criminals lacked free will altogether, contemporary neurocriminologists seem to take the middle ground approach. They do not argue that biological fact... | Wikipedia - Neurocriminology - Ethical Concerns > Free Will | 202 | 1,000 | null |
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