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Article: Genetics of synesthesia. Synesthesia is a neurological condition where activating one sense unintentionally triggers a response in another. For example, hearing sounds may evoke the perception of colors. While the phenomenon has intrigued researchers for decades, its genetic foundations are still not fully und... | Wikipedia - Genetics of synesthesia - Summary | 170 | 997 | null |
Section: Theories of Inheritance. The genetic mechanism of synesthesia has long been debated, with researchers initially proposing that it followed a simple X-linked inheritance pattern, largely due to the observed higher prevalence in women and the apparent absence of male-to-male transmission in early family studies.... | Wikipedia - Genetics of synesthesia - Theories of Inheritance | 317 | 1,591 | null |
Notably, six key genes identified, COL4A1, ITGA2, MYO10, ROBO3, SLC9A6, and SLIT2 are involved in axonogenesis, the developmental process by which neurons form connections in the brain. These results indicate that synesthesia might originate from variations in neural pathway formation and maintenance during early brain... | Wikipedia - Genetics of synesthesia - Theories of Inheritance | 333 | 1,755 | null |
Section: Using Genome-Wide Linkage Studies to identify associated genes. To investigate the genetic basis of synesthesia, researchers have conducted genome-wide linkage studies, which analyze how traits are inherited within families. These studies often use a statistical measure called the LOD score (logarithm of the o... | Wikipedia - Genetics of synesthesia - Using Genome-Wide Linkage Studies to identify associated genes | 255 | 1,360 | null |
Section: Comparison to Autism Spectrum Disorder. Notably, one of the genomic regions with the highest LOD score in an individual with auditory-visual synesthesia has also been linked to autism spectrum disorders—a condition that similarly involves atypical sensory and perceptual processing. Based on the twin study by T... | Wikipedia - Genetics of synesthesia - Comparison to Autism Spectrum Disorder | 309 | 1,643 | null |
Section: The Universal Neonatal Synesthesia Hypothesis. The Universal Neonatal Synesthesia Hypothesis suggests that synesthesia is a default state of the infant brain, with excessive or non-specific neural connectivity between sensory regions. According to this view, infants may begin life with cross-activation between... | Wikipedia - Genetics of synesthesia - The Universal Neonatal Synesthesia Hypothesis | 264 | 1,385 | null |
Section: Associated Genes > Genes Involved in Apoptosis and Neural Pruning. EFHC1: Plays a role in apoptosis (programmed cell death). Its involvement suggests a potential link to the Universal Neonatal Synesthesia Hypothesis, which posits that all individuals are born with cross-sensory connections that are later prune... | Wikipedia - Genetics of synesthesia - Associated Genes > Genes Involved in Apoptosis and Neural Pruning | 152 | 663 | null |
Section: Associated Genes > Genes with Known Associations to Neurodevelopmental Conditions. SLC9A6 (also involved in neuronal migration): Found in the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative (SFARI) AutDB catalog of autism-associated genes. FGA and HYDIN: Also identified by Tilot et al. (2018) as synesthesia-linke... | Wikipedia - Genetics of synesthesia - Associated Genes > Genes with Known Associations to Neurodevelopmental Conditions | 150 | 713 | null |
Section: Associated Genes > Genes Involved in Colored Sequence Synesthesia. GABARAPL2: Encodes proteins essential for intercellular signaling, likely contributing to the coordination of neural activity across brain regions involved in sensory integration. NDRG4: Plays a critical role in neural differentiation and brain... | Wikipedia - Genetics of synesthesia - Associated Genes > Genes Involved in Colored Sequence Synesthesia | 285 | 1,510 | null |
Section: Synesthesia in Adulthood. While synesthesia is traditionally viewed as a congenital condition, emerging evidence suggests that associative learning and environmental exposure play a significant role in its development. In a landmark study, Bor et al. (2014) demonstrated that non-synesthetic adults can be train... | Wikipedia - Genetics of synesthesia - Synesthesia in Adulthood | 263 | 1,413 | null |
Section: Comparison to Schizophrenia. Recent studies have compared the perceptual and cognitive profiles of individuals with synesthesia and those with schizophrenia, identifying both distinct and overlapping characteristics. Synesthetes often display heightened perceptual integration, particularly in tasks involving m... | Wikipedia - Genetics of synesthesia - Comparison to Schizophrenia | 323 | 1,851 | null |
Section: Gene expression database. The Genevestigator database comprises transciptomic data from numerous public repositories including GEO, Array Express and renowned cancer research projects as TCGA. Depending on the license agreement, it may also contain data from private gene expression studies. All data are manual... | Wikipedia - Genevestigator - Gene expression database | 264 | 1,323 | null |
Section: Early applications. In January 2003, Michael Hauser along with fellow researchers at the Duke Center for Human Genetics (CHG) coined the term “genomic convergence” to describe their endeavor to identify genes affecting the expression of Parkinson disease (PD). Their work successfully combined serial analysis o... | Wikipedia - Genomic convergence - Early applications | 330 | 1,557 | null |
Section: Recent and future applications. Genomic convergence has a countless number of creative applications that combine the strengths of different analyses and studies. Maher Noureddine et al., note in their 2005 paper, “One of the growing problems in the study of complex diseases is how to prioritize research and ma... | Wikipedia - Genomic convergence - Recent and future applications | 233 | 1,123 | null |
Article: Genopolitics. Genopolitics is the study of the genetic basis of political behavior and attitudes. It combines behavior genetics, psychology, and political science and it is closely related to the emerging fields of neuropolitics (the study of the neural basis of political attitudes and behavior) and political ... | Wikipedia - Genopolitics - Summary | 187 | 929 | null |
Section: Twin studies of political attitudes. Psychologists and behavior geneticists began using twin studies in the 1980s to study variation in social attitudes, and these studies suggested that both genes and environment played a role. In particular, Nick Martin and his colleagues published an influential twin study ... | Wikipedia - Genopolitics - Twin studies of political attitudes | 176 | 1,025 | null |
Section: Gene association studies > Candidate genes. Scholars therefore recently turned their attention to specific genes that might be associated with political behaviors and attitudes. In the first-ever research to link specific genes to political phenotypes, a direct association was established between voter turnout... | Wikipedia - Genopolitics - Gene association studies > Candidate genes | 269 | 1,475 | null |
Section: Overview. Genotropism consists of the theory that genes influence human behavior. While identified as entities, genes exist in groups because evolution favors cooperation. Within each gene group, it is possible to detect specific needs that function as mechanisms of screening and natural selection. Szondi arri... | Wikipedia - Genotropism - Overview | 204 | 1,049 | null |
Section: Overview > Instinctual drives. In Szondi's theory, each "need" (a link between genes and behavior) comprises a polarity of positive and negative tendencies. Needs also group together in polarities to form larger wholes called "instinctual drives." Together, behavior tendencies, needs, and drives combine to for... | Wikipedia - Genotropism - Overview > Instinctual drives | 188 | 805 | null |
Section: Overview > The Familial unconscious. Genotropism is the working principle of the familial unconscious, the quantitative sharing of genes across the generations of family. Offspring may inherit several genes from both parents, while others receive fewer genes and exhibit spectrum conditions. (For example, while... | Wikipedia - Genotropism - Overview > The Familial unconscious | 224 | 1,174 | null |
Article: Genotype. The genotype of an organism is its complete set of genetic material. Genotype can also be used to refer to the alleles or variants an individual carries in a particular gene or genetic location. The number of alleles an individual can have in a specific gene depends on the number of copies of each ch... | Wikipedia - Genotype - Summary | 311 | 1,525 | null |
Section: Phenotype. Any given gene will usually cause an observable change in an organism, known as the phenotype. The terms genotype and phenotype are distinct for at least two reasons: To distinguish the source of an observer's knowledge (one can know about genotype by observing DNA; one can know about phenotype by o... | Wikipedia - Genotype - Phenotype | 343 | 1,515 | null |
Section: Mendelian inheritance. Traits that are determined exclusively by genotype are typically inherited in a Mendelian pattern. These laws of inheritance were described extensively by Gregor Mendel, who performed experiments with pea plants to determine how traits were passed on from generation to generation. He stu... | Wikipedia - Genotype - Mendelian inheritance | 345 | 1,561 | null |
An uppercase letter is typically used to represent the dominant allele, and a lowercase letter is used to represent the recessive allele. The possible genotypes of the offspring can then be determined by combining the parent genotypes. In the example on the right, both parents are heterozygous, with a genotype of Bb. T... | Wikipedia - Genotype - Mendelian inheritance | 337 | 1,601 | null |
In autosomal conditions, the sex of the offspring does not play a role in their risk of being affected. In sex-linked conditions, the sex of the offspring affects their chances of having the condition. In humans, females inherit two X chromosomes, one from each parent, while males inherit an X chromosome from their mot... | Wikipedia - Genotype - Mendelian inheritance | 327 | 1,666 | null |
Section: Non-Mendelian inheritance > Epistasis. Epistasis is when the phenotype of one gene is affected by one or more other genes. This is often through some sort of masking effect of one gene on the other. For example, the "A" gene codes for hair color, a dominant "A" allele codes for brown hair, and a recessive "a" ... | Wikipedia - Genotype - Non-Mendelian inheritance > Epistasis | 162 | 651 | null |
Section: Genotyping. Genotyping refers to the method used to determine an individual's genotype. There are a variety of techniques that can be used to assess genotype. The genotyping method typically depends on what information is being sought. Many techniques initially require amplification of the DNA sample, which is... | Wikipedia - Genotype - Genotyping | 304 | 1,456 | null |
Section: Overview. The terms "genotype" and "phenotype" were created by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911, although the meaning of the terms and the significance of the distinction have evolved since they were introduced. It is the organism's physical properties that directly determine its chances of survival and reproductive ... | Wikipedia - Genotype–phenotype distinction - Overview | 348 | 1,624 | null |
Section: Phenotypic plasticity. The concept of phenotypic plasticity defines the degree to which an organism's phenotype is determined by its genotype. A high level of plasticity means that environmental factors have a strong influence on the particular phenotype that develops. If there is little plasticity, the phenot... | Wikipedia - Genotype–phenotype distinction - Phenotypic plasticity | 166 | 823 | null |
Section: Genetic canalization. In contrast to phenotypic plasticity, the concept of genetic canalization addresses the extent to which an organism's phenotype allows conclusions about its genotype. A phenotype is said to be canalized if mutations (changes in the genome) do not noticeably affect the physical properties ... | Wikipedia - Genotype–phenotype distinction - Genetic canalization | 154 | 695 | null |
Section: Importance to evolutionary biology. According to Lewontin, the theoretical task for population genetics is a process in two spaces: a "genotypic space" and a "phenotypic space". The challenge of a complete theory of population genetics is to provide a set of laws that predictably map a population of genotypes ... | Wikipedia - Genotype–phenotype distinction - Importance to evolutionary biology | 329 | 1,006 | null |
12). T1 represents the genetic and epigenetic laws, the aspects of functional biology, or development, that transform a genotype into phenotype. This is the "genotype–phenotype map". T2 is the transformation due to natural selection, T3 are epigenetic relations that predict genotypes based on the selected phenotypes an... | Wikipedia - Genotype–phenotype distinction - Importance to evolutionary biology | 301 | 1,361 | null |
Article: Genotyping by sequencing. In the field of genetic sequencing, genotyping by sequencing, also called GBS, is a method to discover single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in order to perform genotyping studies, such as genome-wide association studies (GWAS). GBS uses restriction enzymes to reduce genome complexity... | Wikipedia - Genotyping by sequencing - Summary | 163 | 761 | null |
Section: Methods. GBS is a robust, simple, and affordable procedure for SNP discovery and mapping. Overall, this approach reduces genome complexity with restriction enzymes (REs) in high-diversity, large genomes species for efficient high-throughput, highly multiplexed sequencing. By using appropriate REs, repetitive r... | Wikipedia - Genotyping by sequencing - Methods | 328 | 1,551 | null |
When initially developed, the GBS approach was tested and validated in recombinant inbred lines (RILs) from a high-resolution maize mapping population (IBM) and doubled haploid (DH) barley lines from the Oregon Wolfe Barley (OWB) mapping population. Up to 96 RE (ApeKI)-digested DNA samples were pooled and processed sim... | Wikipedia - Genotyping by sequencing - Methods | 268 | 1,227 | null |
Article: Germline mosaicism. Germline mosaicism, also called gonadal mosaicism, is a type of genetic mosaicism where more than one set of genetic information is found specifically within the gamete cells; conversely, somatic mosaicism is a type of genetic mosaicism found in somatic cells. Germline mosaicism can be pres... | Wikipedia - Germline mosaicism - Summary | 319 | 1,514 | null |
Section: Inheritance. Germline mosaicism disorders are usually inherited in a pattern that suggests that the condition is dominant in either or both of the parents. That said, diverging from Mendelian gene inheritance patterns, a parent with a recessive allele can produce offspring expressing the phenotype as dominant ... | Wikipedia - Germline mosaicism - Inheritance | 331 | 1,645 | null |
Section: Case studies. A Moroccan family consisting of two healthy unrelated parents and three offspring—including two with Noonan syndrome, a rare autosomal dominant disorder with varying expression and genetic heterogeneity—underwent genetic testing revealing that both of the siblings with NS share the same PTPN11 ha... | Wikipedia - Germline mosaicism - Case studies | 159 | 735 | null |
Section: Details. While almost all of the organisms on Earth share the universal genetic code, in the GNC hypothesis it is argued that two primeval genetic codes preceded the present genetic code as follows: First, there emerged GNC primeval genetic codes involving 4 codons (GGC, GCC, GAC and GUC), which code 4 GADV-am... | Wikipedia - GNC hypothesis - Details | 322 | 1,175 | null |
Article: Haploidisation. Haploidisation is the process of halving the chromosomal content of a cell, producing a haploid cell. Within the normal reproductive cycle, haploidisation is one of the major functional consequences of meiosis, the other being a process of chromosomal crossover that mingles the genetic content ... | Wikipedia - Haploidisation - Summary | 278 | 1,229 | null |
Article: Haploinsufficiency. Haploinsufficiency in genetics describes a model of dominant gene action in diploid organisms, in which a single copy of the wild-type allele at a locus in heterozygous combination with a variant allele is insufficient to produce the wild-type phenotype. Haploinsufficiency may arise from a ... | Wikipedia - Haploinsufficiency - Summary | 330 | 1,380 | null |
Section: Haploinsufficiency in humans. About 3,000 human genes cannot tolerate loss of one of the two alleles. An example of this is seen in the case of Williams syndrome, a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by the haploinsufficiency of genes at 7q11.23. The haploinsufficiency is caused by the copy-number variation (C... | Wikipedia - Haploinsufficiency - Haploinsufficiency in humans | 350 | 1,496 | null |
However, if a mutant allele and a low-expressivity allele are inherited, the residual protein levels falls below that required for normal function, and disease phenotype is present. Copy number variation (CNV) refers to the differences in the number of copies of a particular region of the genome. This leads to too many... | Wikipedia - Haploinsufficiency - Haploinsufficiency in humans | 340 | 1,286 | null |
Article: Haplotype-relative-risk. The haplotype-relative-risk (HRR) method is a family-based method for determining gene allele association to a disease in the presence of actual genetic linkage. Nuclear families with one affected child are sampled using the parental haplotypes not transmitted as a control. While simil... | Wikipedia - Haplotype-relative-risk - Summary | 318 | 1,511 | null |
Section: Calculation. This model represents a case which there is a single locus where all genotypes may lead to expression of the allele in its most simplified definition. Under these parameters a linkage disequilibrium of more than 50% means there is a possible link to the gene allele and inheritance. H R R = P 1 1 −... | Wikipedia - Haplotype-relative-risk - Calculation | 331 | 1,136 | null |
Article: Hayflick limit. The Hayflick limit, or Hayflick phenomenon, is the number of times a normal somatic, differentiated human cell population will divide before cell division stops. The concept of the Hayflick limit was advanced by American anatomist Leonard Hayflick in 1961, at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphi... | Wikipedia - Hayflick limit - Summary | 182 | 877 | null |
Section: History > The belief in cell immortality. Prior to Leonard Hayflick's discovery, it was believed that vertebrate cells had an unlimited potential to replicate. Alexis Carrel, a Nobel Prize-winning surgeon, had stated "that all cells explanted in tissue culture are immortal, and that the lack of continuous cell... | Wikipedia - Hayflick limit - History > The belief in cell immortality | 331 | 1,564 | null |
Section: History > Experiment and discovery. Hayflick first became suspicious of Carrel's claims while working in a lab at the Wistar Institute. Hayflick noticed that one of his cultures of embryonic human fibroblasts had developed an unusual appearance and that cell division had slowed. Initially, he brushed this asid... | Wikipedia - Hayflick limit - History > Experiment and discovery | 327 | 1,696 | null |
Unmixed cell populations were kept as controls. After 20 doublings of the mixed culture, only female cells remained. Cell division ceased in the unmixed control cultures at the anticipated times; when the male control culture stopped dividing, only female cells remained in the mixed culture. This suggested that technic... | Wikipedia - Hayflick limit - History > Experiment and discovery | 162 | 852 | null |
Section: Telomere length. The Hayflick limit has been found to correlate with the length of the telomeric region at the end of chromosomes. During the process of DNA replication of a chromosome, small segments of DNA within each telomere are unable to be copied and are lost. This occurs due to the uneven nature of DNA ... | Wikipedia - Hayflick limit - Telomere length | 266 | 1,272 | null |
Section: Organismal aging. Hayflick suggested that his results in which normal cells have a limited replicative capacity may have significance for understanding human aging at the cellular level. It has been reported that the limited replicative capability of human fibroblasts observed in cell culture is far greater th... | Wikipedia - Hayflick limit - Organismal aging | 205 | 1,113 | null |
Section: Carriers in autosomal inheritances. Autosomal dominant-recessive inheritance is made possible by the fact that the individuals of most species (including all higher animals and plants) have two alleles of most hereditary predispositions because the chromosomes in the cell nucleus are usually present in pairs (... | Wikipedia - Hereditary carrier - Carriers in autosomal inheritances | 272 | 1,304 | null |
Section: Carriers in gonosomal inheritances. Gonosomal recessive genes are also passed on by carriers. The term is used in human genetics in cases of hereditary traits in which the observed trait lies on the female sex chromosome, the X chromosome. These are sex-linked genes. The carriers are always women. Women have t... | Wikipedia - Hereditary carrier - Carriers in gonosomal inheritances | 337 | 1,629 | null |
Section: Overview. In humans, eye color is an example of an inherited characteristic: an individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of the parents. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's genome is called its genotype. The complete set of observable trait... | Wikipedia - Heredity - Overview | 343 | 1,674 | null |
Within cells, the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes. Organisms inherit genetic material from their parents in the form of homologous chromosomes, containing a unique combination of DNA sequences that code for genes. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a... | Wikipedia - Heredity - Overview | 345 | 1,888 | null |
Section: Relation to theory of evolution. When Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution in 1859, one of its major problems was the lack of an underlying mechanism for heredity. Darwin believed in a mix of blending inheritance and the inheritance of acquired traits (pangenesis). Blending inheritance would lead to... | Wikipedia - Heredity - Relation to theory of evolution | 261 | 1,352 | null |
Section: History. Scientists in Antiquity had a variety of ideas about heredity: Theophrastus proposed that male flowers caused female flowers to ripen; Hippocrates speculated that "seeds" were produced by various body parts and transmitted to offspring at the time of conception; and Aristotle thought that male and fem... | Wikipedia - Heredity - History | 346 | 1,762 | null |
The inheritance of acquired traits also formed a part of early Lamarckian ideas on evolution. During the 18th century, Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) discovered "animalcules" in the sperm of humans and other animals. Some scientists speculated they saw a "little man" (homunculus) inside each spe... | Wikipedia - Heredity - History | 267 | 1,299 | null |
Section: History > Gregor Mendel: father of genetics. The idea of particulate inheritance of genes can be attributed to the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel who published his work on pea plants in 1865. However, his work was not widely known and was rediscovered in 1900. It was initially assumed that Mendelian inheritance o... | Wikipedia - Heredity - History > Gregor Mendel: father of genetics | 172 | 830 | null |
Section: History > Modern development of genetics and heredity. In the 1930s, work by Fisher and others resulted in a combination of Mendelian and biometric schools into the modern evolutionary synthesis. The modern synthesis bridged the gap between experimental geneticists and naturalists; and between both and palaeon... | Wikipedia - Heredity - History > Modern development of genetics and heredity | 316 | 1,713 | null |
Formulations such as 'evolution consists primarily of changes in the frequencies of alleles between one generation and another' were proposed rather later. The traditional view is that developmental biology ('evo-devo') played little part in the synthesis, but an account of Gavin de Beer's work by Stephen Jay Gould sug... | Wikipedia - Heredity - History > Modern development of genetics and heredity | 214 | 1,080 | null |
Section: Types. The description of a mode of biological inheritance consists of three main categories: 1. Number of involved loci Monogenetic (also called "simple") – one locus Oligogenic – few loci Polygenetic – many loci 2. Involved chromosomes Autosomal – loci are not situated on a sex chromosome Gonosomal – loci ar... | Wikipedia - Heredity - Types | 314 | 1,372 | null |
Sex-linked interactions Sex-linked inheritance (gonosomal loci) Sex-limited phenotype expression (e.g., cryptorchism) Inheritance through the maternal line (in case of mitochondrial DNA loci) Inheritance through the paternal line (in case of Y-chromosomal loci) 6. Locus–locus interactions Epistasis with other loci (e.g... | Wikipedia - Heredity - Types | 151 | 658 | null |
Section: Types > Dominant and recessive alleles. An allele is said to be dominant if it is always expressed in the appearance of an organism (phenotype) provided that at least one copy of it is present. For example, in peas the allele for green pods, G, is dominant to that for yellow pods, g. Thus pea plants with the p... | Wikipedia - Heredity - Types > Dominant and recessive alleles | 180 | 727 | null |
Article: Horizontal gene transfer in evolution. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) refers to the transfer of genes between distant branches on the tree of life. In evolution, it can scramble the information needed to reconstruct the phylogeny of organisms, how they are related to one another. HGT can also help scientists t... | Wikipedia - Horizontal gene transfer in evolution - Summary | 209 | 965 | null |
Section: Three domains of life. The three main early branches of the tree of life have been intensively studied by microbiologists because the first organisms were microorganisms. Microbiologists (led by Carl Woese) have introduced the term domain for the three main branches of this tree, where domain is a phylogenetic... | Wikipedia - Horizontal gene transfer in evolution - Three domains of life | 337 | 1,648 | null |
Although this may be rare, this possibility is forcing scrutiny of the validity of phylogenetic trees based on SSU rRNAs. Recent discoveries of "rampant" HGT in microorganisms, and the detection of horizontal movement of even genes for the small subunit of ribosomal RNA, have forced biologists to question the accuracy ... | Wikipedia - Horizontal gene transfer in evolution - Three domains of life | 345 | 1,768 | null |
Section: Choice of metaphor: tree, net, cobweb, or ring. In his article Uprooting the Tree of Life, W. Ford Doolittle discusses the Last Universal Common Ancestor – the root of the Tree of Life – and the problems with that concept posed by HGT. He describes the microorganism Archaeoglobus fulgidus as an anomaly with re... | Wikipedia - Horizontal gene transfer in evolution - Choice of metaphor: tree, net, cobweb, or ring | 309 | 1,340 | null |
If there had never been any lateral gene transfer, all these individual gene trees would have the same topology (the same branching order), and the ancestral genes at the root of each tree would have all been present in the last universal common ancestor, a single ancient cell. But extensive transfer means that neither... | Wikipedia - Horizontal gene transfer in evolution - Choice of metaphor: tree, net, cobweb, or ring | 289 | 1,477 | null |
Section: Resolution of uncertainty with phylogenomics. Despite the uncertainties in reconstructing phylogenies back to the beginnings of life, progress is being made in reconstructing the tree of life in the face of uncertainties raised by HGT. The uncertainty of any inferred phylogenetic tree based on a single gene ca... | Wikipedia - Horizontal gene transfer in evolution - Resolution of uncertainty with phylogenomics | 321 | 1,560 | null |
In all these studies, it is the additional data provided by a complete genome sequence that allows one to separate the phylogenetic signal from the noise. This is not to say the tree of life is now resolved – we only have sampled a smattering of genomes, and many groups are not yet touched" These approaches are enablin... | Wikipedia - Horizontal gene transfer in evolution - Resolution of uncertainty with phylogenomics | 275 | 1,314 | null |
Section: Use in evolutionary studies. While HGT is often seen as a challenge for the reconstruction of the tree of life, an alternative view is that oppositely it provides additional valuable information for its reconstruction. First, for the recipient organism, HGT is a DNA mutation like others, and as such, it can be... | Wikipedia - Horizontal gene transfer in evolution - Use in evolutionary studies | 178 | 884 | null |
Article: Hovlinc. Hovlinc RNA is a self-cleaving ribozyme of about 168 nucleotides found in a very long noncoding RNA (vlincRNA) in humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas. The word "hovlinc" comes from "hominin vlincRNA-located" RNA. Hovlinc is only a fourth known case of a ribozyme in human. Self-cleavage activity of Hovli... | Wikipedia - Hovlinc - Summary | 320 | 1,199 | null |
Article: Epigenome. In biology, the epigenome of an organism is the collection of chemical changes to its DNA and histone proteins that affects when, where, and how the DNA is expressed; these changes can be passed down to an organism's offspring via transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. Changes to the epigenome ca... | Wikipedia - Epigenome - Summary | 218 | 1,102 | null |
Section: Types > DNA methylation. Addition of a methyl group to the DNA molecule, typically at cytosine bases. This modification generally leads to gene silencing by preventing the binding of transcription factors and other proteins necessary for gene expression. DNA functionally interacts with a variety of epigenetic ... | Wikipedia - Epigenome - Types > DNA methylation | 207 | 989 | null |
Section: Types > DNA methylation > Methylation sites. CoRSIVs are Correlated Regions of Systemic Interindividual Variation in DNA methylation. They span only 0.1% of the human genome, so they are very rare; they can be inter-correlated over long genomic distances (>50 kbp). CoRSIVs are also associated with genes involv... | Wikipedia - Epigenome - Types > DNA methylation > Methylation sites | 324 | 1,376 | null |
Section: Types > DNA methylation > Factors affecting methylation pattern. Quantification of the heritable basis underlying population epigenomic variation is also important to delineate its cis- and trans-regulatory architecture. In particular, most studies state that inter-individual differences in DNA methylation are... | Wikipedia - Epigenome - Types > DNA methylation > Factors affecting methylation pattern | 190 | 957 | null |
Section: Types > DNA methylation > Methylation in embryos. It was revealed by immunostaining experiments that in human preimplantation embryos there is a global DNA demethylation process. After fertilisation, the DNA methylation level decreases sharply in the early pronuclei. This is a consequence of active DNA demethy... | Wikipedia - Epigenome - Types > DNA methylation > Methylation in embryos | 336 | 1,325 | null |
Section: Types > DNA methylation > Sequence-Dependent Allele-Specific Methylation. DNA methylation imbalances between homologous chromosomes show sequence-dependent behavior. Difference in the methylation state of neighboring cytosines on the same chromosome occurs due to the difference in DNA sequence between the chro... | Wikipedia - Epigenome - Types > DNA methylation > Sequence-Dependent Allele-Specific Methylation | 346 | 1,647 | null |
The intermediate methylation state is referred to the relative frequencies between methylated and unmethylated epialleles. The epiallele frequency variations are correlated with the allele affinity for transcription factors. The analysis of the study suggests that human epigenome in average covers approximately 200 adv... | Wikipedia - Epigenome - Types > DNA methylation > Sequence-Dependent Allele-Specific Methylation | 164 | 888 | null |
Section: Structural modifications > Topological associated domains (TADs). Topological associated domains are a degree of structural organization of the genome of the cell. They are formed by regions of chromatin, sized from 100 kilobases up to megabases, which highly self-interact. The domains are linked by other geno... | Wikipedia - Epigenome - Structural modifications > Topological associated domains (TADs) | 302 | 1,576 | null |
This information derives from the observation that the heterochromatin mark H3K9me3 sequences clearly interrupts near boundary sequences. Thirdly, transcription start sites (TSS), housekeeping genes and tRNA genes are particularly abundant in boundary regions, denoting that those areas have a prolific transcriptional a... | Wikipedia - Epigenome - Structural modifications > Topological associated domains (TADs) | 191 | 1,024 | null |
Section: Structural modifications > Correlation between methylation and 3D structure. The 4D Nucleome project aims to realize a 3D maps of mammalian genomes in order to develop predictive models to correlate epigenomic modifications with genetic variation. In particular the goal is to link genetic and epigenomic modifi... | Wikipedia - Epigenome - Structural modifications > Correlation between methylation and 3D structure | 167 | 881 | null |
Section: Research > Roadmap epigenomics project. One goal of the NIH Roadmap Epigenomics Project Archived 2021-04-08 at the Wayback Machine is to generate human reference epigenomes from normal, healthy individuals across a large variety of cell lines, primary cells, and primary tissues. Data produced by the project, w... | Wikipedia - Epigenome - Research > Roadmap epigenomics project | 350 | 1,577 | null |
Article: Human somatic variation. Human somatic variations are somatic mutations (mutations that occur in somatic cells) both at early stages of development and in adult cells. These variations can lead either to pathogenic phenotypes or not, even if their function in healthy conditions is not completely clear yet. The... | Wikipedia - Human somatic variation - Summary | 220 | 1,108 | null |
Section: Somatic mosaicism in healthy human tissues. Somatic mosaicism arises a result of somatic mutations: genomic (or even mitochondrial) alterations of different sizes ranging from a single nucleotide to chromosome gains or loss within somatic cells. These alterations within somatic cells begin at an early stage (p... | Wikipedia - Human somatic variation - Somatic mosaicism in healthy human tissues | 327 | 1,608 | null |
Early research on somatic mutations in aging showed that deletions, inversion, and translocations of genetic material are common in aging mice and aging genomes tend to contain visible chromosomal changes, mitotic recombination, whole gene deletions, intragenic deletions, and point mutations. Other factors include the ... | Wikipedia - Human somatic variation - Somatic mosaicism in healthy human tissues | 183 | 844 | null |
Section: Somatic cancer-associated mutations in normal tissues. The advent of Next-Generation Sequencing technologies has increased the resolution of mutation detection and has led to the revelation that older individuals not only accumulate chromosomal alterations but also abundant mutations in cancer driver genes. Ag... | Wikipedia - Human somatic variation - Somatic cancer-associated mutations in normal tissues | 342 | 1,820 | null |
The main reasons are the generally slower replicative index, clonally restrictive tissue architecture, difficulty of tissue access, and low frequency of mutation occurrence. Recently, the analysis of somatic mutations in benign tissues adjacent to tumors revealed that 80% of samples harbors clonal mutations, with incre... | Wikipedia - Human somatic variation - Somatic cancer-associated mutations in normal tissues | 150 | 807 | null |
Section: Human somatic variations in brain. Through several recent studies a prevalence of somatic variations, both in pathological and healthy nervous systems, has been highlighted. Somatic aneuploidy such as SNVs (single-nucleotide variations) and CNVs (copy number variations) have been particularly observed and link... | Wikipedia - Human somatic variation - Human somatic variations in brain | 303 | 1,410 | null |
This means that some CNVs can arise in early development without causing diseases, even though, when compared to the CNVs arising in other cell types such as lymphoblast, the brain's ones are more often private. This evidence could be given by the fact that, while lymphoblasts can generate clonal CNVs for a long period... | Wikipedia - Human somatic variation - Human somatic variations in brain | 157 | 732 | null |
Section: Human somatic variations in brain > L1-associated mosaicism in brain cells. The retrotransposon LINE-1 (long interspersed element 1, L1) is a transposable element that has colonized the mammalian germline. L1 retrotransposition can happen also in somatic cells causing mosaicism (SLAVs – L1-associated variation... | Wikipedia - Human somatic variation - Human somatic variations in brain > L1-associated mosaicism in brain cells | 342 | 1,442 | null |
This has been confirmed by single-cell genomic studies. Single-cell paired-end sequencing experiments found out that SLAVs are present both in neurons and glia of hippocampus and frontal cortex. Any neural cell has a similar probability to contain a SLAV, suggesting that somatic variations are a random phaenomenon, not... | Wikipedia - Human somatic variation - Human somatic variations in brain > L1-associated mosaicism in brain cells | 329 | 1,497 | null |
Section: Human somatic variations and the immune system. Human somatic mutations (HSMs) are intensively exploited by the immune system for the production of antibodies. HSMs, recombination in particular, are indeed the reason why antibodies can identify an epitope with such high specificity and sensitivity. Antibodies ... | Wikipedia - Human somatic variation - Human somatic variations and the immune system | 320 | 1,286 | null |
Section: Cardiac mosaicism. Somatic mosaicism has been noted in the heart. Sequencing suggested mosaic variation in the gap junction protein connexin in three patients out of 15 might contribute to atrial fibrillation although subsequent reports in larger numbers of patients found no examples among a large panel of gen... | Wikipedia - Human somatic variation - Cardiac mosaicism | 153 | 817 | null |
Section: Ecology. A hybrid may occasionally be better fitted to the local environment than the parental lineage, and as such, natural selection may favor these individuals. If reproductive isolation is subsequently achieved, a separate species may arise. Reproductive isolation may be genetic, ecological, behavioral, sp... | Wikipedia - Hybrid speciation - Ecology | 167 | 897 | null |
Section: Ecology > Ecological constraints. For a hybrid form to persist, it must be able to exploit the available resources better than either parent species, which, in most cases, it will have to compete with. For example: while grizzly bears and polar bears may be able to mate and produce offspring, a grizzly–polar b... | Wikipedia - Hybrid speciation - Ecology > Ecological constraints | 291 | 1,398 | null |
The other hybrid, the liger, ends up larger than either of its parents: about a thousand pounds (450 kilograms) fully grown. No tiger-lion hybrids are known from the wild, and the ranges of the two species no longer overlap (tigers are not found in Africa, and while there was formerly overlap in the distribution of the... | Wikipedia - Hybrid speciation - Ecology > Ecological constraints | 270 | 1,351 | null |
Section: Genetics of hybridization. Genetics are more variable and malleable in plants than in animals, probably reflecting the higher activity level in animals. Hybrids' genetics will necessarily be less stable than those of species evolving through isolation, which explains why hybrid species appear more common in pl... | Wikipedia - Hybrid speciation - Genetics of hybridization | 341 | 1,776 | null |
Section: Hybrid speciation in animals > Homoploid hybrid speciation. Hybrid speciation in animals is primarily homoploid. While thought not to be very common, a few animal species are the result of hybridization, mostly insects such as tephritid fruitflies that inhabit Lonicera plants and Heliconius butterflies, as wel... | Wikipedia - Hybrid speciation - Hybrid speciation in animals > Homoploid hybrid speciation | 337 | 1,587 | null |
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