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New York: Oxford University Press. Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tooby |
(1994). Beyond intuition and instinct blindness: Toward an evolutionarily rigorous cognitive science. Cognition, 50(1-3), 41-77. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tooby |
Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. (2003). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tooby |
Evolutionary psychology: Theoretical Foundations. In Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. London: Macmillan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tooby |
Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (2005). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tooby |
Evolutionary psychology: Conceptual foundations. In D. M. Buss (Ed. ), Evolutionary Psychology Handbook. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tooby |
New York: Wiley. Cosmides, Leda; Tooby, John (2008). "Evolutionary Psychology". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tooby |
In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Evolution Psychology. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tooby |
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 158–61. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tooby |
doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n99. ISBN 978-1412965804. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tooby |
The Flint Adolescent Study (FAS) is a longitudinal interview study of risk and promotive factors associated with alcohol, tobacco and other drug use across a lifetime.The study is led by Marc A. Zimmerman, director of the Prevention Research Center and the Michigan Youth Violence Prevention Center at the University of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint_Adolescent_Study |
In 1994, a cohort of 850 youth was recruited from the Flint Community Schools. A sample of predominantly African American youth was followed for four years in high school (1994-1998), four years after high school as they experienced the transition to young adulthood (1999-2003), and another four years during their late... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint_Adolescent_Study |
Now in their 30s, the original FAS participants are parents to over 400 children aged 5–16 years old. The "Flint Adolescent Study – Generation 2" expands on the scope of the original study to explore how parenting factors are associated with children's alcohol and drug use and other risk factors. The specific aim of FA... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint_Adolescent_Study |
The study is also examining how these factors may influence substance use in their children (G2). The specific aims are FAS Gen 2 are: To examine how individual and family factors measured across adolescence and young adulthood predict G1's parenting attitudes and behaviors. To identify which G1 parenting attitudes and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint_Adolescent_Study |
To test a social ecological model that incorporates the findings from Aims 1-2 into a comprehensive model testing both longitudinal influences and structural paths. To determine the extent to which Aims 1-2 are influenced by neighborhood characteristics. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint_Adolescent_Study |
The meridian 18° east of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, Europe, Africa, the Atlantic Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole. The 18th meridian east forms a great circle with the 162nd meridian west. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th_meridian_east |
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 18th meridian east passes through: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th_meridian_east |
Martin McQuillan (born 1972) is a Scottish-born literary theorist, cultural critic and journalist currently employed at Edge Hill University. He was Professor of Literary Theory and Cultural Analysis and Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Kingston University, London, where he was also Co-Director of The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_McQuillan |
Born in 1972 as the third of seven children, he was educated in Scotland, attending his local comprehensive St. Brendan's High School, Linwood. He went to the University of Glasgow at the age of 16 to study English Literature. He also pursued post-graduate study at Glasgow and completed his PhD on the novels of Muriel ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_McQuillan |
He then worked at Staffordshire University before moving to the University of Leeds in 2000. He became Head of School in 2001 and became Professor of Cultural Theory and Analysis in 2005. He works in the spaces between literary theory, art theory, cultural studies and continental philosophy, and writes on the work of J... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_McQuillan |
Roland Barthes: or the Profession of Cultural Studies, (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2011) ISBN 978-0-333-91457-1. Deconstruction after 9/11, (London: Routledge, 2009) ISBN 978-0-415-96494-4. Paul de Man, (London: Routledge, 2001) Deconstructing Disney, (London: Pluto Press, 1999), with Eleanor Byrne. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_McQuillan |
Textual Allegories, by Paul de Man, (UCI Special Collections, 2010) The Portable Rousseau, ed. Paul de Man, (UCI Special Collections, 2010) The Origins of Deconstruction, co-edited with Ika Willis, (Macmillan, 2010) Deconstruction Reading Politics, (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2008) The Politics of Deconstruction: Jacque... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_McQuillan |
The Accademia dei Georgofili (Academy of Georgofili) is an educational institution in Florence, Italy. It was established in 1753. The academy has been a historic institution for over 250 years, and is best known for promoting, amongst scholars and landowners, the studying of agronomy, forestry, economy, geography and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accademia_dei_Georgofili |
The Academy of Georgofili was established in Florence at the beginning of June 1753 as a response to an essay by the abbot Ubaldo Montelatici of the order of Canons Regular of the Lateran, who proposed new horizons of agricultural research. It originated from the need to improve agricultural production through rational... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accademia_dei_Georgofili |
With the Grand Duke Peter Leopold of Lorraine, who granted it his protection, the academy acquired notable prestige. It brought to attention many issues facing agriculture and agricultural economics, including the renewal of agricultural equipment, education, cattle, tenant farming, draining of swampland, land reclamat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accademia_dei_Georgofili |
In addition to studies of Ridolfi, the Academy was fruitfully engaged in the nineteenth century, in the production of wine and an awareness of the poor quality of a great majority of Italian wines, and the need to radically change the technology of the cellar on the forms on the pomological, and thus was born the large... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accademia_dei_Georgofili |
The historical archives covering the period of 1753-1911, with a total of over 12,000 manuscripts preserved, and the library is equipped with 70,000 volumes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accademia_dei_Georgofili |
The term Georgofili comes from the Greek, and literally means "Earth-work-lovers", i.e.: "Devotees of agriculture.". The emblem of the Academy contains the symbols of agricultural activity, dedicated to the Goddess Ceres (I.e. an ear of grain, an olive branch, and a cluster of graphes) as well as those associated with ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accademia_dei_Georgofili |
Ubaldo Montelatici - tutor (4 June 1753) Emmanuel de Nay, Count of Richecourt (1753 - 1757) Giovan Gualberto Franceschi (1757 - 1758) Roberto Pucci (1758 - 1767) Francesco Orsini Rosenberg (1767) Giuseppe Rospigliosi (1797 - 1801) Ubaldo Ferroni (1801 - 1821) Paul Garzoni Venturi (1821th - 1842) Marquis Cosimo Ridolfi ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accademia_dei_Georgofili |
Le Club des bandes dessinées (French for "The Club of Comics") was the first organized association of French devotees to the comic strip as art form. It was founded in May 1962. In 1964 the Club was renamed the Centre d'études des littératures d'expression graphique (CELEG or "Center for Studies of Graphic Literary Exp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Club_des_bandes_dessinées |
Among the founding members of the Club des bandes dessinées was Nouvelle Vague film director Alain Resnais, who served as vice president of the club and at the time owned the largest private collection of comic books in France. Other cofounders were the cartoonist Jean-Claude Forest (creator of Barbarella), the critics... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Club_des_bandes_dessinées |
Giff-Wiff published studies of comic book artists and their works and helped to intellectualize comics as an art form. The Italian writer and philosopher Umberto Eco contributed an article, while the cartoonist Morris showcased unpublished drawings of Lucky Luke. In addition, the Club organized meetings and republished... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Club_des_bandes_dessinées |
Ladislav Matějka (May 30, 1919 in České Budějovice – September 29, 2012 in West Newton, Massachusetts) was a Czech scholar of semiotics and linguistic theory, who translated and published many contributions to Prague linguistic circle theory. He received his doctorate in Charles University in Prague in 1948 and then em... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladislav_Matějka |
In 1962, he founded Michigan Slavic Publications, a series that has published more than 100 volumes by authors such as Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy. From 1982-1993 he edited the series Cross Currents that published material by Milan Kundera, Josef Škvorecký and Czesław Miłosz. His academic correspondence has b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladislav_Matějka |
Serbo-Croatian oral and written verbal art: contacts and conflicts. Rome: Edizioni dell'Ateneo, 1986. Readings in Russian poetics. M. M. Baxtin (Mikhail Bakhtin). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladislav_Matějka |
Compiled by Ladislav Matejka. Ann Arbor: Dept. of Slavic Languages and Literatures, 1971. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladislav_Matějka |
Language and literary theory: in honor of Ladislav Matejka. Benjamin A. Stolz, I. R. Titunik, Lubomír Doležel. Ann Arbor: Michigan Slavic Publications, 1984. == Sources == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladislav_Matějka |
Several expansions of populations of archaic humans (genus Homo) out of Africa and throughout Eurasia took place in the course of the Lower Paleolithic, and into the beginning Middle Paleolithic, between about 2.1 million and 0.2 million years ago (Ma). These expansions are collectively known as Out of Africa I, in con... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
The oldest known human skeletal remains outside of Africa are from Dmanisi, Georgia (Dmanisi skull 4), and are dated to 1.8 Ma. These remains are classified as Homo erectus georgicus. Later waves of expansion are proposed around 1.4 Ma (early Acheulean industries), associated with Homo antecessor and 0.8 Ma (cleaver-pr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Pre-Homo hominin expansion out of Africa is suggested by the presence of Graecopithecus and Ouranopithecus, found in Greece and Anatolia and dated to c. 8 million years ago, but these are probably Homininae but not Hominini. Possibly related are the Trachilos footprints found in Crete, dated to close to 6 million years... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Gracile australopithecines (Australopithecus afarensis) emerged in the same region, around 4 million years ago. The earliest known retouched tools were found in Lomekwi, Kenya, and date back to 3.3 Ma, in the late Pliocene. They might be the product of Australopithecus garhi or Paranthropus aethiopicus, the two known h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Genus Homo is assumed to have emerged by around 2.8 million years ago, with Homo habilis being found at Lake Turkana, Kenya. The delineation of the "human" genus, Homo, from Australopithecus is somewhat contentious, for which reason the superordinate term "hominin" is often used to include both. "Hominin" technically i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
The earliest known hominin presence outside of Africa dates to close to 2 million years ago. A 2018 study claims evidence for human presence at Shangchen, central China, as early as 2.12 Ma based on magnetostratigraphic dating of the lowest layer containing stone artefacts.It has been suggested that Homo floresiensis w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
In any case, the morphology of H. floresiensis has been found to show greatest similarity with Australopithecus sediba, Homo habilis and Dmanisi Man, raising the possibility that the ancestors of H. floresiensis left Africa before the appearance of H. erectus. A phylogenetic analysis published in 2017 suggests that H. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Homo erectus emerges just after 2 million years ago. Early H. erectus would have lived face to face with H. habilis in East Africa for nearly half a million years. The oldest Homo erectus fossils appear almost contemporaneously, shortly after two million years ago, both in Africa and in the Caucasus. The earliest well-... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
A skull found at Dmanisi is evidence for caring for the old. The skull shows that this Homo erectus was advanced in age and had lost all but one tooth years before death, and it is perhaps unlikely that this hominid would have survived alone. It is not certain, however, that this is sufficient proof for caring – a part... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
The earliest known evidence for African H. erectus, dubbed Homo ergaster, is a single occipital bone (KNM-ER 2598), described as "H. erectus-like", and dated to about 1.9 Ma (contemporary with Homo rudolfensis). This is followed by a fossil gap, the next available fossil being KNM-ER 3733, a skull dated to 1.6 Ma.Early... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
1.8 – 1.2 Ma), an Oldowan grade layer. These sites attest that early Homo erectus have crossed the North African tracts, which are usually hot and dry. : 2 There is little time between Homo erectus' apparent arrival in South Caucasus around 1.8 Ma, and its probable arrival in East and Southeast Asia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
There is evidence of H. erectus in Yuanmou, China, dating to 1.7 Ma and in Sangiran, on Java, Indonesia, from 1.66 Ma.Ferring et al. (2011) suggest that it was still Homo habilis that reached West Asia, and that early H. erectus developed there. H. erectus would then have dispersed from West Asia, to East Asia (Peking ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
erectus as a temperature sensitive stenobiont, that failed to disperse north of the Alpide Belt. The geographically restricted earliest human presence in the Iberian Peninsula should be regarded as evidence of a sustainable presence of human population in this isolated area. The Pannonian plain, situated south-west of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Apparently, the faunal exchanges between southeastern Europe and the Near East and southern Asia were controlled by the complex interaction of such geographic obstacles as the Bosporus and the Manych Strait, the climate barrier from the north of the Greater Caucasus range, and the 41 kyr glacial Milankovitch cycles tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Bednarik suggests that navigation had appeared by 1 Ma, possibly to exploit offshore fishing grounds. He has reproduced a primitive dirigible (steerable) raft to demonstrate the feasibility of faring across the Lombok Strait on such a device, which he believes to have been done before 850 ka. The strait has maintained ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Archaic humans in Europe beginning about 0.8 Ma (cleaver-producing Acheulean groups) are classified as a separate, erectus-derived species, known as Homo heidelbergensis. H. heidelbergensis from about 0.4 Ma develops its own characteristic industry, known as Clactonian. H. heidelbergensis is closely related to Homo rho... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Most attention as to the route taken from Africa to West Asia is given to the Levantine land corridor and the Bab-el-Mandeb straits. The latter separates the Horn of Africa and Arabia, and may have allowed dry passage during some periods of the Pleistocene. Another candidate is the Strait of Gibraltar. A route across t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
The use by hominins of the Levantine corridor, connecting Egypt via the Sinai peninsula with the Eastern Mediterranean, has been associated to the phenomenon of rising and declining humidity of the desert belt of northern Africa, known as the Sahara pump. The numerous hominin sites in the Levant, such as Ubeidiya and M... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Bab-el-Mandeb is a 30 km strait between East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, with a small island, Perim, 3 km off the Arabian bank. The strait has a major appeal in the study of Eurasian expansion in that it brings East Africa close to Eurasia. It does not require hopping from one water body to the next across the No... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
The Strait of Gibraltar is the Atlantic entryway to the Mediterranean, where Spanish and Moroccan banks are only 14 km apart. A decrease in sea levels in the Pleistocene due to glaciation would not have brought this down to less than 10 km. Deep currents push westwards, and surface water flows strongly back into the Me... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Entrance into Eurasia across the strait of Gibraltar could explain the hominin remains at Barranco León in southeastern Spain (1.4 Ma) and Sima del Elefante in northern Spain (1.2 Ma). But the site of Pirro Nord in southern Italy, allegedly from 1.3 – 1.7 Ma, suggests a possible arrival from the East. Resolution is ins... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Passage across the Strait of Sicily was suggested by Alimen (1975) based on the 1973 discovery of Oldowan grade tools in Sicily. Radiometric dates, however, have not been produced, and the artefacts might as well be from the Middle Pleistocene, and it is unlikely that there was a land bridge during the Pleistocene. : 3 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
For a given species in a given environment, available resources will limit the number of individuals that can survive indefinitely. This is the carrying capacity. Upon reaching this threshold, individuals may find it easier to gather resources in the poorer yet less exploited peripheral environment than in the preferre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
This flexibility could then have been positively selected and amplified, leading to Homo erectus' adaptation to the peripheral open habitats. A new and environmentally flexible hominin population could have come back to the old niche and replaced the ancestral population. Moreover, some step-wise shrinking of the woodl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Lithic analysis implies that Oldowan hominins were not predators. However, Homo erectus appears to have followed animal migrations to the north during wetter periods, likely as a source of scavenged food. The sabre-tooth cat Megantereon was an apex predator of the Early and Middle Pleistocene (before MIS 12). It became... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
1.5 Ma, but had already moved out through the Sinai, and is among the faunal remains of the Levantine hominin site of Ubeidiya, c. 1.4 Ma. It could not break bone marrow and its kills were likely an important food source for hominins, especially in glacial periods.In colder Eurasian times, the hominin diet would have t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen suggest that the success of hominins within Eurasia once out of Africa is in part due to the absence of zoonotic diseases outside their original habitat. Zoonotic diseases are those that are transmitted from animals to humans. While a disease specific to hominins must keep its human host aliv... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
Still, these infections are well accustomed to human presence, having evolved alongside them. The higher an African ape's population density, the better a disease fares. 55% of chimps at the Gombe reserve die of disease, most of them zoonotic. The majority of these diseases are still restricted to hot and damp African ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
While Homo habilis was certainly bipedal, its long arms are indicative of an arboreal adaptation. Homo erectus had longer legs and shorter arms, revealing a transition to obligate terrestriality, though it remains unclear how this change in relative leg length might have been an advantage. Sheer body size, on the other... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa |
The four occupations (simplified Chinese: 士农工商; traditional Chinese: 士農工商; pinyin: Shì nóng gōng shāng), or "four categories of the people" (Chinese: 四民; pinyin: sì mín), was an occupation classification used in ancient China by either Confucian or Legalist scholars as far back as the late Zhou dynasty and is considere... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
The four categories were not socioeconomic classes; wealth and standing did not correspond to these categories, nor were they hereditary.The system did not factor in all social groups present in premodern Chinese society, and its broad categories were more an idealization than a practical reality. The commercialization... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
There was also a gradual fusion of the wealthy merchant and landholding gentry classes, culminating in the late Ming dynasty. In some manner this system of social order was adopted throughout the Chinese cultural sphere. In Japanese it is called "Shi, nō, kō, shō" (士農工商, shinōkōshō), although in Japan it became a hered... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
From existing literary evidence, commoner categories in China were employed for the first time during the Warring States period (403–221 BC). Despite this, Eastern-Han (AD 25–220) historian Ban Gu (AD 32–92) asserted in his Book of Han that the four occupations for commoners had existed in the Western Zhou (c. 1050–771... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Ban explained the social hierarchy of each group in descending order: Scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants; each of the four peoples had their respective profession. Those who studied in order to occupy positions of rank were called the shi (scholars). Those who cultivated the soil and propagated grains were call... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Those who manifested skill (qiao) and made utensils were called gong (artisans). Those who transported valuable articles and sold commodities were called shang (merchants). The Rites of Zhou described the four groups in a different order, with merchants before farmers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
The Han-era text Guliang Zhuan placed merchants second after scholars, and the Warring States-era Xunzi placed farmers before scholars. The Shuo Yuan mentioned a quotation which stressed the ideal of equality between the four occupations.Anthony J. Barbieri-Low, Professor of Early Chinese History at the University of C... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Beneath the four occupations were the "mean people" (Chinese: 賤民 jiànmín), outcasts from "humiliating" occupations such as entertainers and prostitutes.The four occupations were not a hereditary system. The four occupations system differed from those of European feudalism in that people were not born into the specific ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
During the ancient Shang (1600–1046 BC) and Early Zhou dynasties (1046–771 BC), the shi were regarded as a knightly social order of low-level aristocratic lineage compared to dukes and marquises. This social class was distinguished by their right to ride in chariots and command battles from mobile chariots, while they ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Hua Bao lowered his bow and was subsequently shot dead. In 624 B.C. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
a disgraced shi from the State of Jin led a suicidal charge of chariots to redeem his reputation, turning the tide of the battle. In the Battle of Bi, 597 BC, the routing chariot forces of Jin were bogged down in mud, but pursuing enemy troops stopped to help them get dislodged and allowed them to escape.As chariot war... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Under Duke Xiao of Qin and the chief minister and reformer Shang Yang (d. 338 BC), the ancient State of Qin was transformed by a new meritocratic yet harsh philosophy of Legalism. This philosophy stressed stern punishments for those who disobeyed the publicly known laws while rewarding those who labored for the state a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
When the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) unified China under the Legalist system, the emperor assigned administration to dedicated officials rather than nobility, ending feudalism in China, replacing it with a centralized, bureaucratic government. The form of government created by the first emperor and his advisors was used b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
However, the Qin became infamous for its oppressive measures, and so collapsed into a state of civil war after the death of the Emperor. The victor of this war was Liu Bang, who initiated four centuries of unification of China proper under the Han dynasty (202 BC–AD 220). In 165 BC, Emperor Wen introduced the first met... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
141–87 BC), cemented the ideology of Confucius into mainstream governance installed a system of recommendation and nomination in government service known as xiaolian, and a national academy whereby officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the Confucian classics, from which Emperor Wu would se... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
The shi class also became less aristocratic and more bureaucratic due to the highly competitive nature of the exams during the Song period.Beyond serving in the administration and the judiciary, scholar-officials also provided government-funded social services, such as prefectural or county schools, free-of-charge publ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Since Neolithic times in China, agriculture was a key element to the rise of China's civilization and every other civilization. The food that farmers produced sustained the whole of society, while the land tax exacted on farmers' lots and landholders' property produced much of the state revenue for China's pre-modern r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
It was first suspended in the state of Qin by Shang Yang and other states soon followed suit.From AD 485–763, land was equally distributed to farmers under the Equal-field system (均田). Families were issued plots of land on the basis of how many able men, including slaves, they had; a woman would be entitled to a smalle... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
As government control weakened in the 8th century, land reverted into the hands of private owners. Song dynasty (950–1279) rural farmers engaged in the small-scale production of wine, charcoal, paper, textiles, and other goods.By the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the socioeconomic class of farmers grew more and more indist... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Artisans and craftsmen—their class identified with the Chinese character meaning labour—were much like farmers in the respect that they produced essential goods needed by themselves and the rest of society. Although they could not provide the state with much of its revenues since they often had no land of their own to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Hence, artisans could create their own small enterprises in selling their work and that of others, and like the merchants, they formed their own guilds.Researchers have pointed to the rise of wage labour in late Ming and early Qing workshops in textile, paper and other industries, achieving large-scale production by us... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
In the late of Ming dynasty there were many porcelain kilns created that led the Ming dynasty to be economically well off. The Qing emperors like the Kangxi Emperor helped the growth of porcelain export and by allowing an organization of private maritime trade that assisted families who owned private kilns. Chinese exp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Even as knowledge of silk production spread to the rest of the world, Song dynasty China was able to maintain near-monopoly on manufacture by large scale industrialization, through the two-person draw loom, commercialized mulberry cultivation, and a factory production. The organization of silk weaving in 18th-century C... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
In Ancient pre-Imperial China, merchants were highly regarded as necessary for the circulation of essential goods. The legendary Emperor Shun, prior to receiving the throne from his predecessor, was said to be a merchant. Archaeological artifacts and oracle bones suggest a high status was accorded to merchant activity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
In the Spring and Autumn Period, Hegemon of China Duke Huan of Qi appointed Guan Zhong, a merchant, as Prime Minister. He cut taxes for merchants, built rest stops for merchants, and encouraged other lords to lower tariffs.In Imperial China, the merchants, traders, and peddlers of goods were viewed by the scholarly eli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
The distinction between gentry and merchants was not as clear or entrenched as in Japan and Europe, and merchants were even welcomed by gentry if they abided by Confucian moral duties. Merchants accepted and promoted Confucian society by funding education and charities, and advocating Confucian values of self-cultivati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
William Rowe's research of rural elites in late imperial Hanyang, Hubei shows that there was a very high level of overlap and mixing between the gentry and the merchants.Han dynasty writers mention merchants owning huge tracts of land. A merchant who owned property worth a thousand catties of gold—equivalent to ten mil... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Some merchant families made fortunes worth over a hundred million cash, which was equivalent to the wealth acquired by the highest officials in government. Itinerant merchants who traded between a network of towns and cities were often rich as they had the ability to avoid registering as merchants (unlike the shopkeepe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Historians like Yu Yingshi and Billy So have shown that as Chinese society became increasingly commercialized from the Song dynasty onward, Confucianism had gradually begun to accept and even support business and trade as legitimate and viable professions, as long as merchants stayed away from unethical actions. Mercha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Since the Song government took over several key industries and imposed strict state monopolies, the government itself acted as a large commercial enterprise run by scholar-officials. The state also had to contend with the merchant guilds; whenever the state requisitioned goods and assessed taxes it dealt with guild hea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Merchants began to imitate the highly cultivated nature and manners of scholar-officials in order to appear more cultured and gain higher prestige and acceptance by the scholarly elite. They even purchased printed books that served as guides to proper conduct and behavior and which promoted merchant morality and busine... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
The scholar-officials' dependence upon merchants received semi-legal standing when scholar-official Qiu Jun (1420–1495), argued that the state should only mitigate market affairs during times of pending crisis and that merchants were the best gauge in determining the strength of a nation's riches in resources. The Impe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
The state realized that merchants could buy salt licenses with silver and in turn boost state revenues to the point where buying grain was not an issue.Merchants banded in organisations known as huiguan or gongsuo; pooling capital was popular as it distributed risk and eased the barriers to market entry. They formed pa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
Outside of China, the same values permeated and prevailed across other East Asian societies where China exerted considerable influence. Japan and Korea were heavily influenced by Confucian thought that the four occupational social hierarchy in those societies were modeled from that of China's. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucian_classes |
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