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Employees who work overtime hours experience numerous mental, physical, and social effects. In a landmark study, the World Health Organization and the International Labour Organization estimated that over 745,000 people died from ischemic heart disease or stroke in 2016 as a result of having worked 55 hours or more per week. Significant effects include stress, lack of free time, poor work-life balance, and health risks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
Employee performance levels could also be lowered. Long work hours could lead to tiredness, fatigue, and lack of attentiveness. As a result, suggestions have been proposed for risk mitigation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
The health and safety effects of overtime work vary widely and much remains unknown. Some studies have reported numerous adverse health effects, including increased alcohol and tobacco usage, decreased birthweight in offspring, and decreased cognitive functioning found both subjectively and objectively using specialized testing. However, other studies have not established such relationships between overtime work and decreased health. Work shifts lasting 9–12 hours, work shifts exceeding 12 hours, and work weeks exceeding 40 hours have each demonstrated—in some studies—varying levels of decreased cognitive testing performance and increased workplace injury. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
Inconsistencies between studies may be secondary to numerous workplace and employee factors, which make it difficult for researchers to establish specific causal relationships. A larger amount of data exist regarding the male workforce, whereas additional studies are needed to better assess impacts of overtime work and extended shifts on women. A survey about events between 1987 and 2000 found that in a cohort of 10,793 men and women, overtime work was associated with a 61% excess rate of injury compared to jobs without overtime. Injury rate was directly proportional to length of the work shift and number of hours in the work week. Study authors found excess injury risk not only associated with jobs that are more hazardous, but also with overall fatigue from working overtime and extended work shifts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
The mental effects on workers will vary based upon the work they do, the number of hours they work, and the individual working. Groupon performed a study in July 2016 on the effects of work. The results found that 38% work too much, 46% never had time to relax, and 60% of pollers have an unhealthy work-life balance. While this research showed some trends concerning the effects, other research has been performed to test the satisfaction levels of employees. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
A 2004 study of workers in Australia showed a trend that satisfaction levels decreased as the number of hours worked increased. They also stated that these effects could be lessened for those who enjoyed working extensive hours. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
These types of workers are more satisfied with their work-life balance. In addition to working satisfaction, another Australian longitudinal cohort study revealed poorer mental health in workers with long working hours. The authors conducted a 12-year longitudinal follow-up cohort consisting of 18,420 people and 90,637 observations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
With the Mental Component Summary (MCS) of the Short Form 36 (SF-36) measure, they noted a 48% increased probability regarding mental health decline in those workers working 49–59 hours per week, compared with those under standard working hours (that is, 35–40 hours per week). The probability increased by 53% in those working more than 60 hours a week. They also found a difference by gender; among those working 49–59 hours per week, the SF-36 scores are lower among female than male, indicating worse mental health among female workers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
These impacts can also be seen with working longer daily hours: even in the case of a 4-10 work week, with 40 hours spread over 4 days, the longer days were shown to have higher fatigue for government employees impacted.Similar gender differences were noted in other studies. In follow-up to the Whitehall study, a research team conducted a prospective cohort study following 2,960 middle-age full-time workers consisting of 2,248 men and 712 women. The results revealed a 267% increase in depression symptoms and a 284% increase in anxiety symptoms among those female workers working more than 55 hours per week, compared with those under standard working hours (35–40 hours per week). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
They also indicated a trend that for every 10-hour increase in weekly working hours, an associated 40% increase in depression symptoms and 31% increase in anxiety symptoms were noted. Similar trends were not noted among male workers. Similarly, Margot Shields surveyed 3,830 men and women between the ages of 25 and 54 who worked 35 hours or more per week between 1994 and 1997. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
She analyzed the relationship between working hours and depression. Her results found that women had increased likelihood of experiencing depression as more hours were worked.Suicidal ideation is another concern for overtime work. Research conducted in South Korea recruited 67,471 samples, and the results revealed 30% higher suicidal ideation among workers having working hours more than 60 hours (31% increase in male workers and 33% increase in female workers). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
There was also increased suicidal ideation noted among workers working for 51–60 hours per week in both males and females.In summary, mental effects related to overtime work include lower working satisfaction, depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation. Among these, depression and anxiety are more predominant among female workers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
Some research has proposed probable reasons for the gender difference. Female workers tend to take on more household responsibilities after work, which contributes to their mental stress. Also, female workers have been reported as relative minorities within the working place; at times experiencing lower job control, bullying, discrimination, etc. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
Consecutive periods of working straight shifts, lack of breaks during the day, and consecutive days of working without a day off lead to decreased efficiency and productivity in workers. A synopsis of the book "Tired Cops: The Importance of Managing Police Fatigue" by Bryan Vila analyzed how these affected police officers in 2000. The abnormal work and sleep schedules were leading causes of the limited efficiency of police officers. This downturn in their effectiveness created unsafe environments for the communities around them.Long-term effects were researched by The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
They studied the link between overtime and the increased risk of cardiovascular disorder (CVD) events. Their results included evidence that showed that for people who worked at least 10 years for each additional hour worked, starting from the 46th hour, his or her risk of a CVD event increased by 1%. In addition to these health risks, María Beniell, who received her Ph.D. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
in Economics from the Center for Monetary and Financial Studies (CEMFI), researched the correlation between working long hours and the likelihood of individuals smoking, drinking, having a high body mass index (BMI), and being less physically active. The long-term effects of alcohol consumption include increased on-the-job injuries and loss of productivity, family problems, risk of high blood pressure, stroke, other cardiovascular diseases, and more. The effects of smoking, in addition to similarities of the effects of alcohol, include increased risk of heart attacks, emphysema, and a large amount of cancers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
Margot Shields' 1994–1997 study also analyzed the relationship between long hours and changes in weight, smoking, drinking, and exercising. For men, longer hours were associated with unhealthy weight gain. Increased smoking occurred for both men and women, and an increase in drinking existed for women. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
No relationship could be drawn regarding changes in physical activity.In Osaka, Japan, researchers completed a 5-year study on the effects of long work hours on hypertension in 1999. At the end of their study, they had surveyed 941 male Japanese white-collar workers. They concluded that long work hours are negatively-associated with the risk for hypertension.Authors of one paper performed a mental analysis on four published cohort studies and nineteen unpublished studies looking at the effect of "long working hours" (defined by the authors as 55 or more hours per week) to look for an association of developing Type II Diabetes compared to a referent group of workers only working 35–40 hours per week. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
They found that there was statistically-significant evidence for an association between longer working hours and development of Type II Diabetes, but only for individuals of low socioeconomic status such as manual laborers, when compared to other SES groups. The lower SES group working longer hours had a 29% increased risk of developing Type II diabetes; even after adjusting for physical activity, smoking, alcohol use, and obesity. However another author commented that residual confounding might account for this higher risk in the lower SES group compared to the higher SES group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
They also postulated that sleep may be a mediator for this association, since inadequate sleep or sleep of poor quality / quantity can be a predictor of Type II diabetes. The workers in the lower SES group may have less control over their schedule, and this may include disruptive schedules interfering with circadian rhythm.One large-scale study using data from the Individual-Participant-Data Meta-analysis in Working Population Consortium involving 85,494 workers from several European countries also looked at the effects of long work hours and the association with developing atrial fibrillation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
These participants were free of atrial fibrillation at baseline. Mean age was 43.4 years. During follow up over 10 years, those working long hours (55 hours or more per week) were at 40% higher risk of developing atrial fibrillation compared to those working a standard 35-40 hour-week. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
In their study, the investigators controlled for age, sex, SES, smoking, BMI, physical activity, and alcohol consumption. The investigators also commented that this association between long working hours and atrial fibrillation appeared to be independent of classic risk factors of atrial fibrillation due to the similarities of the exposed group (long work hours) and the referent group.For Coronary Heart Disease (CHD), a meta-analysis of four prospective studies published in 2012 found a 1.4-fold increased risk of CHD associated with long working hours. The investigators also noted that this association was higher for men than women. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
They hypothesized underlying mechanisms for this association may include longer exposure to stress, sleep deprivation, and / or dysregulation of the HPA axis causing an increase in cortisol production. They also noted that this estimate might have been biased for several reasons. One reason could have been if workers with underlying CHD reduced their working hours in the years before a CHD event. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
A second reason could be due to confounding of SES. A meta-analysis adjusting for these factors found the risk of a CHD event to be 1.13 instead. Furthermore, the study authors also found a 1.3-times higher risk for those working long hours. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
Work-life balance is a major aspect of employees' lives. Naturally, the more hours someone works, the less time they will have to spend with their family or other leisure activities. In 2007, professors from Penn State Abington analyzed the tradeoff between working overtime and home and family life activities. A major finding was that workers struggled to take time off for personal or family needs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
However, the additional income from working long hours could limit the actual impact of this loss of time. More specifically, the impact of having a child exponentially increased the impact of working overtime. Especially at a young age, it is very important in child development for the parents to be involved to provide care and positive experiences. Due to this reason, work-life conflicts arise much more frequently for parents, as stress levels are heightened. These effects are even worse for single parents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
"Karoshi" (translated as worked to death) is a concern in Japan. A paper published in 2006 showed that over a quarter of Japan's workforce were working 50 hours or more per week with half of them working 60 hours or more per week. The Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare launched an investigation in 2002 to examine 300 cases of possible Karoshi (death from being over-worked) during a time frame between 2002 and 2005. From their study, they recommended that employers offer a physician interview / guidance for any employee working over 100 hours overtime / month or if an employee requested a doctor's assessment.Overall research evidence has shown that long working hours increases mortality risk. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
A UK census-based longitudinal study of 414,949 people aged 20–64 years, showed that overtime work increases mortality risk in men working for more than 55 hours per week. The authors showed that mortality is higher in technical, semi-routine, or routine occupations (positions with high demand, low levels of control, or perceived imbalance between effort and reward). The authors also demonstrated that increased mortality risk was mainly attributed to cardiovascular disease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
Similar results were found in other studies. A 30-year longitudinal study in Denmark of 5,249 employed Caucasian men aged 40–59 years showed that men working 41–45 hours per week had a 59% increased risk of mortality due to ischemic heart disease compared to men working less than 40 hours per week. The authors also found that physical fitness played a significant role, where among men with low physical fitness, those working more than 45 hours per week had more than twice the risk of death by ischemic heart disease compared to men working less than 40 hours per week; while this increased risk was not seen among the fittest men. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
Furthermore, a study based on data from the Swedish twin registry showed that there was an association between overtime work of more than 5 hours a week and increased mortality in women. This association was also seen in men, but only in the first five years of follow-up. In contrast, the authors showed that working less than five hours a week of overtime decreases the risk of mortality in men. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
Other studies argue that there is no direct cause-and-effect relationship between hours worked and short and long-term risks. Their claims include comments about factors that alter the outcome of effects. These include an individual's personality, occupation, and income. This research was done through a HILDA (Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia) survey in 2001 and was completed in 2004. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
Prior research into these counter-arguments was completed by a group of researchers in 1997. They found links between increased CVD events and mental health disorders along with decreases in production as the number of hours worked increased. However, they state that further research is necessary before definitive conclusions can be made, as factors of each individual have vast consequences on the effect of working overtime. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
In addition, workers who work overtime when it is not mandatory find that there are very minimal effects on their fatigue levels.In contrast, a Japanese study of 1,105 employees has demonstrated that longer working hours is associated with better health status in older employees. The authors of this study showed that overall health differed by age group, which reflects a generational difference with respect to their attitudes toward work. Among older workers, longer work hours might be beneficial as work-based social networks offer a structured environment, social support, and companionship. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
While a definitive conclusion could not be made, suggestions exist to minimize the potential risks of long working hours. Creation of the work schedule should be managed properly to avoid multiple consecutive shifts, long periods of working without rest, and balanced breaks during the day. For families with children, it is very important that employees can manage their schedule for family or personal needs. This will help alleviate stress, provide flexible work hours throughout the year, and avoid many work-life conflicts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
In 1981, Jay Kim and Anthony Campagna, researchers from Ohio State University, studied the effects Flextime. Flextime allows workers to change their start and end work time. They first analyzed a wide range of studies done on flextime. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
Then they separated 353 employees into two groups: one that allowed flextime, and one that did not (control group). Their study found that flextime largely reduced unpaid absences for employees. They also found a general increase in worker performance. Flextime could impact coordinating schedules and meetings, as employee work schedules may vary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_overtime |
Video self-modeling (VSM) is a form of observational learning in which individuals observe themselves performing a behavior successfully on video, and then imitate the targeted behavior. VSM allows individuals to view themselves being successful, acting appropriately, or performing new tasks. Peter Dowrick, a key researcher in the development of self-modeling, described two forms of VSM, feedforward and self-review. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Self-review involves someone with a relatively well developed skill watching examples of best performance. A good example of this is the procedure used by Laura Wilkinson, gold medal platform diver, prior to every meet. In an interview after her gold medal performance, she was asked how she prepares for competition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
She said that she watches a video that consists of her best dives along with encouragement from family and coaches. Self-review is mainly used in sports training as a form of visual imaging. Feedforward, on the other hand, is used with people who do not have a skill or when a new skill is emerging. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Thus, feedforward is the method most often used in instructional or clinical settings. Because Feedforward involves new skills or behaviors performed by the viewer, it usually requires some degree of video editing to make it appear that the viewer is performing in an advanced manner. The term feedforward can be contrasted with the more traditional term feedback as it relates to receiving information about performance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Feedback allows people to see how they are doing. Feedforward allows them to see how they could be performing; a future self. Feedforward is mainly used in education and therapy circles and mainly with children with disabilities. It has been found to be especially effective with children with autism who tend to be visual learners and who seem to attend better to monitors than to live models. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Research across an array of behaviors and many types of disabilities has been ongoing since 1970 with very positive results. Researchers report that changes occur rapidly, there is good maintenance, and that changes generalize across settings. Adoption by educators and therapists has lagged behind the research possibly because of the technology requirements for editing videos. The advent of user-friendly editing software such as iMovie and Movie Maker has gone a long way in solving that problem. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Another reason that the use of VSM seems to be gathering momentum is an article that appeared in 2007 by Scott Bellini and Jennifer Akulian. These researchers conducted a meta-analyses of all forms of video modeling and concluded that both peer and self-modeling met the Council for Exceptional Children's requirements for research-based methods. Self-modeling has several attributes that sets it apart as a good tool to use with children with disabilities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
It uses only positive imagery which makes it fit well into most positive behavior support plans. Effects of VSM should be seen almost immediately. If change is not seen after two or three viewings, one can move quickly to an alternate intervention. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Finally, there appears to be no real down-side to the method. No damage is done if it does not work for an individual. As Buggey states in his book, the only tangible outcome when no results are seen is that the person ends up with a flattering video of him or herself. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
In his book, Seeing is Believing, Tom Buggey lists three major ways video footage can be collected and compiled into a feedforward video: Imitation – Particularly useful with language skills. Children are prompted to say words or phrases. Words can be new or rarely used and phrases and sentences can be longer or more complex than presently used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Individual words can even be extracted from videos using video editing software and joined into sentences. Role playing – Particularly useful for social skills. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Children act out scenes of proper behavior that are usually challenging for them. For example, the triggers of tantrums can be determined and then each trigger can become a scene in the VSM video – with the person performing appropriate alternative behaviors rather than tantruming. Let the camera roll to capture rare behaviors – typically used with persons who cannot imitate or follow directions. This can be very time-consuming; however, it has been used effectively for eating problems. A child can be filmed during several lunch periods and best examples of appropriate eating (such as putting food to mouth) can be extracted and combined into a feedforward movie. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Although VSM has shown overwhelming success with a range of ages and types of disabilities it has had problematic results with children under 4 yrs and with persons with very severe cognitive disabilities (although it has been successful with children with severe autism). Users must use caution to not depict behavior that is far beyond the viewer's ability. Showing skills beyond the reach of individuals can cause frustration and work counter to the purpose of VSM. Both speech/language and physical or occupational therapists need to be consulted when the skills needing to be addressed fall within their areas of expertise. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
(update: 2017. Studies with children under the age of 4 were restricted to the training of social skills. However, The Dept. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
of Education in Minnesota (MDOE) funded a training project for its Birth to 3 caregivers in 2013. Participants were trained in the use of VSM and were required to record and report results to a MDOE supervisor. Over 90 personnel were trained and 87 submitted results. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
All but 3 reported positive results. The skills addressed were mainly functional and language-based. Because none of these cases involved training social interaction skills, it was hypothesized that use of VSM with children under 4 was practical for certain behaviors.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Users should also be aware of the differences between self-modeling and self-observation. While self-modeling involves edited videos depicting only positive imagery, self-observation involves watching raw, unedited footage of behavior. The classic example of self-observation is watching game films in sports. Much can be gained by using self-observation; however, there is a risk that if behaviors viewed are too negative (e.g. a lineman missing blocking assignments 60% of the time) it could adversely affect self-confidence, and thus the performance of the viewer. Buggey suggests that use of self-observation with children with disabilities should be used with extreme caution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Many self-modeling researchers point to Albert Bandura's studies on social learning as key to the understanding of the effectiveness of VSM. Bandura made two fundamental findings that relate directly to self modeling. The first is that the best models are those as close to the viewer as possible in all attributes including ability. You cannot get closer than when the model and viewer are the same person with only a slight change in ability. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
The other finding involves self-efficacy, the belief that one can succeed at a task. Bandura found that the higher the belief in success, the higher the success rate. Self-modeling allows children to see themselves succeeding, and increases self-efficacy (as long as the new behavior is attainable and developmentally appropriate). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
One of the reasons VSM may work so well with social behaviors may have been uncovered by Thomas Kehle and colleagues. While working with children with emotional disorders who had had VSM intervention, they noticed that clients had difficulty remembering negative behaviors during exit interviews. They hypothesized that these individual were not only getting new memories based on VSM experiences, but they were also supplanting memories of the old behaviors. Their hypothesis was substantiated in the 2002 study. Their findings are preliminary and there have not been any published replications, but if substantiated, it raises both interesting methodological and ethical issues. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Any behavior that can be observed, and thus filmed, can be a subject of a self-modeling video. In their meta-analysis article, Bellini and Akulian identified behaviors that were addressed in studies they evaluated. These include: Cognitive skills such as math computation Selective mutism Language skills Functional skills such as making beds or getting dressed Physical skills such as swimming or lifting legs when walking Depression Stuttering Oral reading fluency == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_self-modeling |
Vitality (from Middle French vitalité, from Latin vītālitās, from Latin vīta 'life') is the capacity to live, grow, or develop. Vitality is also the characteristic that distinguishes living from non-living things. To experience vitality is regarded as a basic psychological drive and, in philosophy, a component to the will to live. As such, people seek to maximize their vitality or their experience of vitality—that which corresponds to an enhanced physiological capacity and mental state. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitality |
The pursuit and maintenance of health and vitality have been at the forefront of medicine and natural philosophy throughout history. Life depends upon various biological processes known as vital processes. Historically, these vital processes have been viewed as having either mechanistic or non-mechanistic causes. The latter point of view is characteristic of vitalism, the doctrine that the phenomena of life cannot be explained by purely chemical and physical mechanisms.Prior to the 19th century, theoreticians often held that human lifespan had been less limited in the past, and that aging was due to a loss of, and failure to maintain, vitality. A commonly held view was that people are born with finite vitality, which diminishes over time until illness and debility set in, and finally death. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitality |
In traditional cultures, the capacity for life is often directly equated with the soul or breath. This can be found in the Hindu concept prana, where vitality in the body derives from a subtle principle in the air and in food, as well as in Hebrew and ancient Greek texts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitality |
Low vitality or fatigue is a common complaint by older patients. Low vitality is an early indicator of frailty and may reflect an underlying medical illness. Vitality level was measured in 2,487 Copenhagen patients using a standardized, subjective, self-reported vitality scale and was found to be inversely related to DNA damage (as measured in peripheral blood mononuclear cells). DNA damage indicates cellular disfunction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitality |
System of Government Under the Holy Prophet is a book written by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_Government_Under_the_Holy_Prophet |
Herd behavior is the behavior of individuals in a group acting collectively without centralized direction. Herd behavior occurs in animals in herds, packs, bird flocks, fish schools and so on, as well as in humans. Voting, demonstrations, riots, general strikes, sporting events, religious gatherings, everyday decision-making, judgement and opinion-forming, are all forms of human-based herd behavior. Raafat, Chater and Frith proposed an integrated approach to herding, describing two key issues, the mechanisms of transmission of thoughts or behavior between individuals and the patterns of connections between them. They suggested that bringing together diverse theoretical approaches of herding behavior illuminates the applicability of the concept to many domains, ranging from cognitive neuroscience to economics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
A group of animals fleeing from a predator shows the nature of herd behavior, for example in 1971, in the oft cited article "Geometry For The Selfish Herd", evolutionary biologist W. D. Hamilton asserted that each individual group member reduces the danger to itself by moving as close as possible to the center of the fleeing group. Thus the herd appears as a unit in moving together, but its function emerges from the uncoordinated behavior of self-serving individuals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Asymmetric aggregation of animals under panic conditions has been observed in many species, including humans, mice, and ants. Theoretical models have demonstrated symmetry-breaking similar to observations in empirical studies. For example, when panicked individuals are confined to a room with two equal and equidistant exits, a majority will favor one exit while the minority will favor the other. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Possible mechanisms for this behavior include Hamilton’s selfish herd theory, neighbor copying, or the byproduct of communication by social animals or runaway positive feedback. Characteristics of escape panic include: Individuals attempt to move faster than normal. Interactions between individuals become physical. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Exits become arched and clogged. Escape is slowed by fallen individuals serving as obstacles. Individuals display a tendency towards mass or copied behavior. Alternative or less used exits are overlooked. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
The philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche were among the first to criticize what they referred to as "the crowd" (Kierkegaard) and "herd morality" and the "herd instinct" (Nietzsche) in human society. Modern psychological and economic research has identified herd behavior in humans to explain the phenomenon of large numbers of people acting in the same way at the same time. The British surgeon Wilfred Trotter popularized the "herd behavior" phrase in his book, Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War (1914). In The Theory of the Leisure Class, Thorstein Veblen explained economic behavior in terms of social influences such as "emulation," where some members of a group mimic other members of higher status. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
In "The Metropolis and Mental Life" (1903), early sociologist George Simmel referred to the "impulse to sociability in man", and sought to describe "the forms of association by which a mere sum of separate individuals are made into a 'society' ". Other social scientists explored behaviors related to herding, such as Sigmund Freud (crowd psychology), Carl Jung (collective unconscious), Everett Dean Martin (Behavior of Crowds) and Gustave Le Bon (the popular mind). Swarm theory observed in non-human societies is a related concept and is being explored as it occurs in human society. Scottish journalist Charles Mackay identifies multiple facets of herd behaviour in his 1841 work, Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
"Benign" herding behaviors may occur frequently in everyday decisions based on learning from the information of others, as when a person on the street decides which of two restaurants to dine in. Suppose that both look appealing, but both are empty because it is early evening; so at random, this person chooses restaurant A. Soon a couple walks down the same street in search of a place to eat. They see that restaurant A has customers while B is empty, and choose A on the assumption that having customers makes it the better choice. Because other passersby do the same thing into the evening, restaurant A does more business that night than B. This phenomenon is also referred as an information cascade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Crowds that gather on behalf of a grievance can involve herding behavior that turns violent, particularly when confronted by an opposing ethnic or racial group. The Los Angeles riots of 1992, New York Draft Riots and Tulsa Race Riot are notorious in U.S. history. The idea of a "group mind" or "mob behavior" was put forward by the French social psychologists Gabriel Tarde and Gustave Le Bon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Sheeple (; a portmanteau of "sheep" and "people") is a derogatory term that highlights the passive herd behavior of people easily controlled by a governing power or market fads which likens them to sheep, a herd animal that is "easily" led about. The term is used to describe those who voluntarily acquiesce to a suggestion without any significant critical analysis or research, in large part due to the majority of a population having a similar mindset. Word Spy defines it as "people who are meek, easily persuaded, and tend to follow the crowd (sheep + people)". Merriam-Webster defines the term as "people who are docile, compliant, or easily influenced: people likened to sheep". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
The word is pluralia tantum, which means it does not have a singular form. While its origins are unclear, the word was used by W. R. Anderson in his column Round About Radio, published in London 1945, where he wrote:The simple truth is that you can get away with anything, in government. That covers almost all the evils of the time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Once in, nobody, apparently, can turn you out. The People, as ever (I spell it "Sheeple"), will stand anything.Another early use was from Ernest Rogers, whose 1949 book The Old Hokum Bucket contained a chapter entitled "We the Sheeple". The Wall Street Journal first reported the label in print in 1984; the reporter heard the word used by the proprietor of the American Opinion bookstore. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
In this usage, taxpayers were derided for their blind conformity as opposed to those who thought independently. The term was first popularized in the late 1980s and early 1990s by conspiracy theorist and broadcaster Bill Cooper on his radio program The Hour of the Time which was broadcast internationally via shortwave radio stations. The program gained a small, yet dedicated following, inspiring many individuals who would later broadcast their own radio programs critical of the United States government. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
This then led to its regular use on the radio program Coast to Coast AM by Art Bell throughout the 1990s and early 2000s. These combined factors significantly increased the popularity of the word and led to its widespread use. The term can also be used for those who seem inordinately tolerant, or welcoming, of widespread policies. In a column entitled "A Nation of Sheeple", columnist Walter E. Williams writes, "Americans sheepishly accepted all sorts of Transportation Security Administration nonsense. In the name of security, we've allowed fingernail clippers, eyeglass screwdrivers, and toy soldiers to be taken from us prior to boarding a plane." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Currency crises tend to display herding behavior when foreign and domestic investors convert a government's currency into physical assets (like gold) or foreign currencies when they realize the government is unable to repay its debts. This is called a speculative attack and it will tend to cause moderate inflation in the short term. When consumers realize that the inflation of needed commodities is increasing, they will begin to stockpile and hoard goods, which will accelerate the rate of inflation even faster. This will ultimately crash the currency and likely lead to civil unrest. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Large stock market trends often begin and end with periods of frenzied buying (bubbles) or selling (crashes). Many observers cite these episodes as clear examples of herding behavior that is irrational and driven by emotion—greed in the bubbles, fear in the crashes. Individual investors join the crowd of others in a rush to get in or out of the market.Some followers of the technical analysis school of investing see the herding behavior of investors as an example of extreme market sentiment. The academic study of behavioral finance has identified herding in the collective irrationality of investors, particularly the work of Nobel laureates Vernon L. Smith, Amos Tversky, Daniel Kahneman, and Robert Shiller. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Hey and Morone (2004) analyzed a model of herd behavior in a market context. Some empirical works on methods for detecting and measuring the extent of herding include Christie and Huang (1995) and Chang, Cheng and Khorana (2000). These results refer to a market with a well-defined fundamental value. A notable incident of possible herding is the 2007 uranium bubble, which started with flooding of the Cigar Lake Mine in Saskatchewan, during the year 2006. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
There are two strands of work in economic theory that consider why herding occurs and provide frameworks for examining its causes and consequences. The first of these strands is that on herd behavior in a non-market context. The seminal references are Banerjee (1992) and Bikhchandani, Hirshleifer and Welch (1992), both of which showed that herd behavior may result from private information not publicly shared. More specifically, both of these papers showed that individuals, acting sequentially on the basis of private information and public knowledge about the behavior of others, may end up choosing the socially undesirable option. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
A large subsequent literature has examined the causes and consequences of such "herds" and information cascades.The second strands concerns information aggregation in market contexts. A very early reference is the classic paper by Grossman and Stiglitz (1976) that showed that uninformed traders in a market context can become informed through the price in such a way that private information is aggregated correctly and efficiently. Subsequent work has shown that markets may systematically overweight public information; it has also studied the role of strategic trading as an obstacle to efficient information aggregation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Herd behavior is often a useful tool in marketing and, if used properly, can lead to increases in sales and changes to the structure of society. Whilst it has been shown that financial incentives cause action in large numbers of people, herd mentality often wins out in a case of "Keeping up with the Joneses". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Communications technologies have contributed to the proliferation to consumer choice and "the power of crowds", Consumers increasingly have more access to opinions and information from both opinion leaders and formers on platforms that have largely user-generated content, and thus have more tools with which to complete any decision-making process. Popularity is seen as an indication of better quality, and consumers will use the opinions of others posted on these platforms as a powerful compass to guide them towards products and brands that align with their preconceptions and the decisions of others in their peer groups. Taking into account differences in needs and their position in the socialization process, Lessig & Park examined groups of students and housewives and the influence that these reference groups have on one another. By way of herd mentality, students tended to encourage each other towards beer, hamburger and cigarettes, whilst housewives tended to encourage each other towards furniture and detergent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Whilst this particular study was done in 1977, one cannot discount its findings in today's society. A study done by Burke, Leykin, Li and Zhang in 2014 on the social influence on shopper behavior shows that shoppers are influenced by direct interactions with companions, and as a group size grows, herd behaviour becomes more apparent. Discussions that create excitement and interest have greater impact on touch frequency and purchase likelihood grows with greater involvement caused by a large group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Shoppers in this Midwestern American shopping outlet were monitored and their purchases noted, and it was found up to a point, potential customers preferred to be in stores which had moderate levels of traffic. The other people in the store not only served as company, but also provided an inference point on which potential customers could model their behavior and make purchase decisions, as with any reference group or community. Social media can also be a powerful tool in perpetuating herd behaviour. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Its immeasurable amount of user-generated content serves as a platform for opinion leaders to take the stage and influence purchase decisions, and recommendations from peers and evidence of positive online experience all serve to help consumers make purchasing decisions. Gunawan and Huarng's 2015 study concluded that social influence is essential in framing attitudes towards brands, which in turn leads to purchase intention. Influencers form norms which their peers are found to follow, and targeting extroverted personalities increases chances of purchase even further. This is because the stronger personalities tend to be more engaged on consumer platforms and thus spread word of mouth information more efficiently. Many brands have begun to realise the importance of brand ambassadors and influencers, and it is being shown more clearly that herd behaviour can be used to drive sales and profits exponentially in favour of any brand through examination of these instances. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Marketing can easily transcend beyond commercial roots, in that it can be used to encourage action to do with health, environmentalism and general society. Herd mentality often takes a front seat when it comes to social marketing, paving the way for campaigns such as Earth Day, and the variety of anti-smoking and anti-obesity campaigns seen in every country. Within cultures and communities, marketers must aim to influence opinion leaders who in turn influence each other, as it is the herd mentality of any group of people that ensures a social campaign's success. A campaign run by Som la Pera in Spain to combat teenage obesity found that campaigns run in schools are more effective due to influence of teachers and peers, and students' high visibility, and their interaction with one another. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Opinion leaders in schools created the logo and branding for the campaign, built content for social media and led in-school presentations to engage audience interaction. It was thus concluded that the success of the campaign was rooted in the fact that its means of communication was the audience itself, giving the target audience a sense of ownership and empowerment. As mentioned previously, students exert a high level of influence over one another, and by encouraging stronger personalities to lead opinions, the organizers of the campaign were able to secure the attention of other students who identified with the reference group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Herd behaviour not only applies to students in schools where they are highly visible, but also amongst communities where perceived action plays a strong role. Between 2003 and 2004, California State University carried out a study to measure household conservation of energy, and motivations for doing so. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
It was found that factors like saving the environment, saving money or social responsibility did not have as great an impact on each household as the perceived behaviour of their neighbours did. Although the financial incentives of saving money, closely followed by moral incentives of protecting the environment, are often thought of as being a community's greatest guiding compass, more households responded to the encouragement to save energy when they were told that 77% of their neighbours were using fans instead of air conditioning, proving that communities are more likely to engage in a behaviour if they think that everyone else is already taking part. Herd behaviours shown in the two examples exemplify that it can be a powerful tool in social marketing, and if harnessed correctly, has the potential to achieve great change. It is clear that opinion leaders and their influence achieve huge reach among their reference groups and thus can be used as the loudest voices to encourage others in any collective direction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior |
Occupational rehabilitation is the science and practices of returning injured workers to a level of daily work activities that is appropriate to their functional and cognitive capacity related to their position of which may be influenced by the severity of a worker's injuries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_rehabilitation |
Occupational therapistsare the core profession in vocational rehab. The role of occupational therapists in the workplace is to facilitate individuals' ability to return to work. Occupational therapists assist their clients in reaching their maximum level of function with the aim of meeting the physical and emotional demands of their job. Occupational therapists are also qualified to make recommendations to employers on how to adapt job demands to meet the functional status of an employee in order to prevent further injury and enable productivity during occupational rehabilitation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_rehabilitation |
Individual functional capacity evaluations are used to screen for person-environment fit. Industrial occupational therapists use a collaborative approach involving the workers and employers to encourage a supportive work environment that empowers the worker to reach productivity and other work related goals. Occupational therapy interventions in vocational rehabilitation include developing assertiveness; communication and interpersonal skills; controlling anger; and stress management, adapting environment, identification and use of compensatory strategies to enable functions within the job. Occupational psychology Physiotherapists Kinesiologist Occupational physicians Vocational rehabilitation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_rehabilitation |
Many workers have an increased risk of developing common mental disorders (CMDs) in the workplace due to job stressors such as job insecurity, bullying or psychological harassment, low social support at work, employee perceptions of fairness in the workplace, and an imbalance between job demands and rewards. These CMDs may include anxiety disorders, alcohol dependence, addiction-related disorders, suicidal ideation, and depression | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_rehabilitation |
A symptom of CMDs is having disorganized and deteriorated habits. Therefore, during work rehabilitation, occupational therapists and/or other rehabilitation professionals often use a graded environment, intentionally eliminating barriers to increase individuals' performance and self-esteem. An integrative approach, based on the three key disciplines of medicine, public health, and psychology, is being utilized by occupational therapists to reduce job stressors and improve the psychological well-being of employees with CMDs. The purpose of an integrative approach is to prevent further harm to the employee and to learn how to manage the illness through health promotion, occupational psychology, positive psychology management, psychiatry, and occupational medicine.Cognitive work hardening programs administered by occupational therapists using the Canadian Model of Client-Centered Enablement (CMCE) improve return to work outcomes of employees who have depression. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_rehabilitation |
Cognitive work hardening incorporates meaningful occupations or work tasks that are graded to fit individual needs within an environment that is supportive in order to improve self-worth. Cognitive work hardening programs are individualized to promote interpersonal communication and coping skills within a real-life work setting.The Stimulating Healthy Participation and Relapse Prevention (SHARP) approach is used for individuals with CMDs who experience many sick absences from work. The SHARP approach encompasses five steps including: listing positive and negative situations encountered in the workplace; solutions to negative situations or problems; support need for solutions; planning how to implement solutions; and evaluation of implementation == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_rehabilitation |
Selective dissemination of information ("SDI") was originally a phrase related to library and information science. SDI refers to tools and resources used to keep a user informed of new resources on specified topics, including the current-awareness services used to inform about new library acquisitions.SDI services pre-date the World Wide Web, and the term itself is somewhat dated. Contemporary analogous systems for SDI services include alerts, current awareness tools or trackers. These systems provide automated searches that inform the user of the availability of new resources meeting the user's specified keywords and search parameters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_dissemination_of_information |
Alerts can be received a number of ways, including email, RSS feeds, voice mail, Instant messaging, and text messaging. Selective dissemination of information was a concept first described by Hans Peter Luhn of IBM in the 1950s. Software was developed in many companies and in government to provide this service in the 1950s and 60s, which allowed distribution of items recently published in abstract journals to be routed to individuals who are likely to be interested in the contents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_dissemination_of_information |
For example, the system at Ft. Monmouth automatically sent out (by mail) a different set of abstracts to each of about 1,000 scientists and engineers in the army depending on what they were working on. The selection was based on an "interest profile," a list of keywords that described their interests. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_dissemination_of_information |
In some organizations, the 'interest profile' was much more than a simple list of keywords. Librarians or information professionals conducted extensive interviews with their clients to establish a fairly complex profile for each individual. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_dissemination_of_information |
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