text stringlengths 9 3.55k | source stringlengths 31 280 |
|---|---|
(1999). Foreign direct investment as a catalyst for industrial development. European economic review, 43(2), 335–356. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Markusen |
Markusen, J. R., & Venables, A. J. (2000). The theory of endowment, intra-industry and multi-national trade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Markusen |
Journal of international economics, 52(2), 209–234. Carr, D. L., Markusen, J. R., & Maskus, K. E. (2001). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Markusen |
Estimating the knowledge-capital model of the multinational enterprise. American Economic Review, 91(3), 693–708. Feenstra, R. C., Markusen, J. R., & Rose, A. K. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Markusen |
(2001). Using the gravity equation to differentiate among alternative theories of trade. Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d'économique, 34(2), 430–447. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Markusen |
Ekholm, K., Forslid, R., & Markusen, J. R. (2007), Export platform foreign direct investment. Journal of the European Economics Association, 5, 776–795. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Markusen |
Caron, J., Fally, T., Markusen, J. R. (2014), International trade puzzles: a solution linking production and preferences. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 129, 1501–1552. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Markusen |
Within academia, the history of knowledge is the field covering the accumulated and known human knowledge created or discovered during human history and its historic forms, focus, accumulation, bearers, impacts, mediations, distribution, applications, societal contexts, conditions and methods of production. It is related to, yet separate from, the history of science, the history of scholarship and the history of philosophy. The scope of the history of knowledge encompass all the discovered and created fields of human-derived knowledge such as logic, philosophy, mathematics, science, sociology, psychology and data mining.The history of knowledge is an academic discipline that studies forms of knowledge in the recorded past. The discipline emerged in the 2000 as a response to the digital age and was formally recognised with the introduction of academic institutions such as Geschichte des Wissens. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Academics within the field aim to research the forms, dissemination and production of knowledge with a focus on both ‘high’ and ‘low’ everyday knowledge. Research approaches are based on the theories of Michel Foucault with concepts like ‘orders of knowledge’ and are similar to other fields with the use of social, cultural and political frameworks.The formation of the discipline has roots in the 1950s history of science field and contemporary concepts can be identified in works that go back to the 15th century. The extent studied within the field is dynamic as seen from the research of confessional knowledge to the digital revolution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Concepts applied in this specialty such as ‘scientification’ explain the transformation of information to knowledge. ‘Scientification’ is related to the description of ‘raw’ information given by Peter Burke. Peter Burke is listed among some of the canon authors in the field alongside Martin Mulsow, Pierre Bourdieu and Michel Foucault. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Foundations of the history of knowledge have been traced by academics such as historian Peter Burke in works including ‘What is the History of Knowledge?’. The book identifies the 15th century ‘Advancement of Learning’ in which Francis Bacon writes on the circulation of knowledge. The concept of ‘circulation’ has been used in the field of history since the 2000s and outlines the transfer of knowledge through actors or spaces. In the 19th century, academics expressed a want to historicise knowledge and look at the developments of knowledge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
This is similar to the emergence of the history of natural sciences in the 19th century. The scientific philosopher Auguste Comte was one of the first to try to implement it in the university system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
The philosopher illustrates the growing academic interest towards historicising knowledge. Following Comte, the 1960s second movement of the sociology of knowledge introduced ideas from Michel Foucault and Pierre Bourdieu. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Both authorities analogously impacted the history of knowledge evidenced by Foucault's work on knowledge production sites and Bourdieu's work on situated knowledge in Homo Academicus.The inception of the history of knowledge follows the history of science developments as an academic discipline. George Sarton, in the early years of the 20th century, advocated for a new practice to study the progress on the scientific and foresaw humanities use to science. By the 1950s and 60s, the history of science had implemented itself as an academic discipline in universities across America and Europe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
The shift from the history of science to the German Wissenschaftsgeschichte (history of academic knowledge) involved the inclusion of the humanities and social sciences. The 2000s began the movement towards the German Wissensgeschichte, meaning the history of knowledge. Following the establishment of the history of knowledge, arguments occurred over whether the history of science should be absorbed by the history of knowledge.The history of knowledge's relevancy has coincided with the discussion of the academic term ‘knowledge society’ as reflected in the need for knowledge management since the 1960s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
It has also coincided with the study of the digital revolution which is seen as part of a series of knowledge revolutions. The age of the digital revolution has produced questions at how past knowledge has been circulated and generated. Peter Burke documents that the scholarship being increasingly globalized influenced the growth of the discipline, seen in the independent research in the 1990s with books like ‘Fields of Knowledge’ (1992) and ‘Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge’ (1996). Thereafter the history of knowledge discipline became institutionalized in the 2000s throughout Germany (Erfurt and Kiel). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
The history of knowledge is known for its amplitude of areas to study. Despite this academics are not in consensus on what research the discipline does include. Areas that have been researched include knowledge in non-western contexts, elite knowledge, knowledge in everyday practices, implicit knowledge and religious, social, political or cultural knowledge. Topics can range from medical recipes written by women, 18th century crop failures to the history of American ‘wisdom’ such as pop psychology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Knowledge is a formative concept to the field, however, its definition from Wissensgechichte academics is, as Suzanne Marchand writes, “inconsistent”. Scholars concede a general idea that knowledge is defined as to what has been accepted in the past as knowledge. In opposition Lorraine Daston views this definition as detrimental to the field, writing it as too expansive and argues for the definition of “systemised knowing”. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Daston also states in the ‘History of Science and the History of Knowledge’ that there is no single definition of knowledge.The definitions of knowledge that are used diverge and interdisciplinary measures from areas like epistemology are used in order to provide a clearer notion. This has been contended, as epistemological definitions ignore knowledge that can be applied. Knowledge is variable and what is defined as worth knowing, accepted as knowledge or evidence is dependent on ‘place, time and social group’. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Moreover knowledge is conceptualized differently in languages (Latin; scientia ‘knowing that’ compared to ars ‘knowing how’), complicating scholars' work to define knowledge or the discipline. This is because the understanding of knowledge is affected by language. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Relative to the topic, it has been pointed out that knowledge as a concept risks becoming progressively vague and unable for the use of analysis.The discipline and transdisciplinary movement overlaps with numerous academic fields. The Geschichte des Wissens incorporates researchers from various areas including philosophy, literary history and predominantly social history among others. In geography, an overlap with the history of knowledge can be seen with its recent epistemological shift and its studies on knowledge production sites i.e. the study of scientific knowledge and its geographical environments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Lorraine Daston's definition includes religious knowledge, for confessional knowledge is systemised.In the history of knowledge, the idea that knowledge and history should be plural is based on Michel Foucault's pluralisation of savoir (to know). It is also founded in the anthropology field which pluralises culture in the concept ‘cultures of knowledge’. This is to do with the many forms of knowledge such as the abstract or concrete. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
This contrasts with the 19th century belief that history is a singular narrative. This view is known as the Die Geschichte and was deconstructed in the 20th century. In addition, one scholar asks if the history of knowledge can remove the need for concepts such as “social” and “cultural history”. The same scholar goes on to describe the way Peter Burke uses knowledge as a replacement for culture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Theories, approaches and concepts have been used to study the history of knowledge and allow researchers to uncover small-scale understandings that are then connected to a wider context. For example, concepts that are “political”, “social” and “cultural” which are relevant to the field. In the employment of relevant measures, historians approach the field internally by evaluating the content in adverse to contextual approaches which focus on concepts.Scientification is a concept used in the field and means the transformation of information to knowledge where it is systemised. It constitutes practices that are conventional such as observation which is then disciplined. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
The conception follows closely to Peter Burke's definition of knowledge as a ‘cooked’ form that is transformed from ‘raw’ information. Similarly the methods of objectivity, demonstration, error and belief are derived from traditional scientific methodologies and applied in the research of history. Reasoned however is the use of science that was defined in the 19th century. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
It creates an anachronism when the concept is applied on knowledge practises prior to the century. Michel Foucault's ‘orders of knowledge’ is a concept which defines orders as determined by time or place. When a culture's values intersect with its knowledge practises, it forms a regime. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
The system, seen as centres of knowledge such as a university, is shaped by interactions along with values. This is the basis of Foucault's theory that a ‘regime of truth’ is inherent within society. Historians look at a time frame in history and ask how people interpreted their contextual world by looking at what knowledge influenced the individual interpretations, and then investigating how their understandings affected the orders of knowledge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Some practitioners of the field are seen working at the Geschichte Des Wissens through the University of Zurich. Publications from the institution's co-founders like Philip Sarasin mirror the work of Michel Foucault.The studying of knowledge is not just applied to the understanding of knowledge but also the practical, social and everyday knowledge practices. These areas are studied in order to examine the social and political structures whilst also extending the research past these dominant pure aspects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Part of the objective is to study dismissed everyday knowledge, for example the artisanal. The research not only deviates from the disciplines focal point on the scientific and intellectual forms of knowledge, it also acknowledges the social, political and economic realms wherein knowledge is exerted. Additionally, the social and the cultural are two approaches which study the circumstances and institutions of knowledge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Both concepts employ a focus on external influences instead of knowledge by itself. The social and cultural aspects are related to the social method Wissensoziologie (sociology of knowledge) formed by Karl Mannheim in 1920s Germany. Mannheim also developed the concept ‘Sein-sgebundenheit’ that argues knowledge is linked with the concept ‘social’. It states that individual beliefs and thoughts are determined by their social class. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
The history of knowledge has long been criticized for being “eccentric” yet it has steadfastly grown since its conception as a historical profession. Scholars have contributed to the growth of knowledge within the field whilst also demonstrating its values and weaknesses as a branch of study.The history of knowledge's subject matter is undefined and critics contend the field's vague scope. One reason for this is the specializations of academics working within this discipline are broad. In contrast, drawing knowledge from other disciplines is considered advantageous to the field as it encourages cooperation between scholars. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Simone Lassig also declares that the profession's expansive view is better equipped to study forgotten knowledge in the past whilst also reminding historians of the open-endedness of history.Fields such as the history of science risk being subsumed by the history of knowledge. History of science has amassed criticisms in academic circles with claims of eurocentrism because it stands on the idea that Europe is the foundation of science. The debates towards opting history of knowledge argue it's because of the field's lack of reliance on the “Western” concept. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Contestably, the history of knowledge is branded as a ‘simple reconceptualization’ of the history of science and intellectual history disciplines. This is because it has been noted to resemble what the history of science and intellectual history disciplines have already accomplished. For example, some topics that have been studied under the history of science are now being researched within the history of knowledge.Another deemed limitation in the academic sphere is the focus upon knowledge itself that leaves out the study of knowledge production through the individual and micro-worlds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
For example, people with beliefs interpret their believed notions as knowledge. Evidentially, those who contributed to innovations and the discovery of knowledge including their aims and beliefs are not investigated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
It is argued that when examined it poses a risk for only interpreting past knowledge. This removes what was not known and omits the human aspect. Although the study of “low” knowledge is researched in the field, knowledge of non-elites was not recognised as knowledge in the past. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Moreover, the definition that scholars propose that defines knowledge as the study of what has been accepted as knowledge is seen as limiting to this approach.The history of knowledge looks at forms of knowledge outside of the Western context. However the Foucault concept ‘orders of knowledge’, a central basis in the history of knowledge, has been disputed as homogeneous by academic Peter Burke. He states the theory does not recognise how knowledge and information circulate outside geographical boundaries. Philipp Sarasin, in opposition, notes that the theory used in the history of knowledge encourages a post-colonial outlook. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_knowledge |
Allah as a Lunar deity refers to a historical postulation, now debunked, that "Allah" (the name of God in Islam) originated as a moon god. The claim first arose in 1901 in the scholarship of archeologist Hugo Winckler, who identified the name Allah with a pre-Islamic Arabian deity known as Lah or Hubal, which he called a lunar deity. The general idea was widely propagated in the United States in the 1990s by Christian apologists, first via the publication of Robert Morey's pamphlet The Moon-god Allah: In Archeology of the Middle East (1994), eventually followed by his book The Islamic Invasion: Confronting the World's Fastest-Growing Religion (2001). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
Morey argued, slightly differently, that "Allah" was the name of a moon goddess in pre-Islamic Arabic mythology. Islam's use of a lunar calendar and the prevalence of crescent moon imagery in Islam have also been used to support the notion.Both iterations of the theory have been dismissed by modern scholars as entirely unevidenced. The ongoing propagation of the theory is regarded as an insult both to Muslims and to Arab Christians, who likewise refer to God as "Allah". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
Before Islam, the Kaaba contained a statue representing the god Hubal. On the basis that the Kaaba was also Allah's house, Julius Wellhausen considered Hubal to be an ancient name for Allah. The 20th-century scholar Hugo Winckler in turn claimed that Hubal was a moon god, though others have suggested otherwise. David Leeming describes him as a warrior and rain god, as does Mircea Eliade.More recent scholars have rejected this view, partly because it is speculation but also because of the Nabataean origins of Hubal, a non-native deity imported into the Southern Arabian shrine – one which may have already been associated with Allah. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
Patricia Crone argues that "If Hubal and Allah had been one and the same deity, Hubal ought to have survived as an epithet of Allah, which he did not. And moreover there would not have been traditions in which people are asked to renounce the one for the other." Joseph Lumbard, a professor of classical Islam, has stated that the idea is "not only an insult to Muslims but also an insult to Arab Christians who use the name 'Allah' for God." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
Robert Morey's book The Moon-god Allah in the Archeology of the Middle East claims that Al-‘Uzzá is identical in origin to Hubal, whom he asserts to be a lunar deity. This teaching is repeated in the Chick tracts "Allah Had No Son" and "The Little Bride". In 1996 Janet Parshall, in syndicated radio broadcasts, asserted that Muslims worship a moon god. Pat Robertson said in 2003, "The struggle is whether Hubal, the Moon God of Mecca, known as Allah, is supreme, or whether the Judeo-Christian Jehovah God of the Bible is Supreme. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
"However, recent research from various sources have proven that the "evidence" used by Morey was of the statue retrieved from an excavation site at Hazor, of which there is no connection to "Allah" at all. In fact, Bible scholar and mission strategist Rick Brown openly disagrees with this approach and said: Those who claim that Allah is a pagan deity, most notably the moon god, often base their claims on the fact that a symbol of the crescent moon adorns the tops of many mosques and is widely used as a symbol of Islam. It is in fact true that before the coming of Islam many "gods" and idols were worshipped in the Middle East, but the name of the moon god was Sîn, not Allah, and he was not particularly popular in Arabia, the birthplace of Islam. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
The most prominent idol in Mecca was a god called Hubal, and there is no proof that he was a moon god. It is sometimes claimed that there is a temple to the moon god at Hazor in Palestine. This is based on a representation there of a supplicant wearing a crescent-like pendant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
It is not clear, however, that the pendant symbolizes a moon god, and in any case this is not an Arab religious site but an ancient Canaanite site, which was destroyed by Joshua in about 1250 BC. ... If the ancient Arabs worshipped hundreds of idols, then no doubt the moon god Sîn was included, for even the Hebrews were prone to worship the sun and the moon and the stars, but there is no clear evidence that moon-worship was prominent among the Arabs in any way or that the crescent was used as the symbol of a moon god, and Allah was certainly not the moon god's name. In 2009, anthropologist Gregory Starrett wrote, "a recent survey by the Council for American Islamic Relations reports that as many as 10% of Americans believe Muslims are pagans who worship a moon god or goddess, a belief energetically disseminated by some Christian activists." Ibrahim Hooper of the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) calls the Moon-God theories of Allah evangelical "fantasies" that are "perpetuated in their comic books".Farzana Hassan sees these views as an extension of long-standing Christian claims that Muhammad was an impostor and deceiver, and has stated: "Literature circulated by the Christian Coalition perpetuates the popular Christian belief about Islam being a pagan religion, borrowing aspects of Judeo-Christian monotheism by elevating the moon god Hubal to the rank of Supreme God, or Allah. Muhammad, for fundamentalist Christians, remains an impostor who commissioned his companions to copy words of the Bible as they sat in dark inaccessible places, far removed from public gaze." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
In 8th-century Arab historian Hisham Ibn Al-Kalbi's Book of Idols, the idol Hubal is described as a human figure with a gold hand (replacing the original hand that had broken off the statue). He had seven arrows that were used for divination.Whether or not Hubal was even associated with the moon, both Muhammad and his enemies clearly identified Hubal and Allah as different gods, their supporters fighting on opposing sides in the Battle of Uhud. Ibn Hisham notes that Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, leader of the anti-Islamic army, glorified Hubal after their perceived victory at Uhud: When Abu Sufyan wanted to leave he went to the top of the mountain and shouted loudly saying, "You have done a fine work; victory in war goes by turns. Today in exchange for the day (of Badr). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
Show your superiority, Hubal", i.e. vindicate your religion. The apostle told ‘Umar to get up and answer him and say, Allah is most high and most glorious. We are not equal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
Our dead are in paradise; your dead are in hell. The Quran itself forbids moon worship in verse 37 of Surah Fussilat: "Do not prostrate to the sun or to the moon, but prostrate to Allah, who created them." Islam teaches that Allah is the name of God (as iterated in the Quran), and is the same god worshipped by the members of other Abrahamic religions such as Christianity and Judaism (29:46). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
Before Muhammad, Allah was not considered the sole divinity by Meccans; however, Allah was considered the creator of the world and the giver of rain. The notion of the term may have been vague in the Meccan religion. Allah was associated with companions, whom pre-Islamic Arabs considered as subordinate deities. Meccans held that a kind of kinship existed between Allah and the jinn. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
Allah was thought to have had sons and daughters. The Meccans possibly associated angels with Allah. Allah was invoked in times of distress. Muhammad's father's name was ʿAbd-Allāh meaning "the slave of Allāh". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah_as_a_lunar_deity |
The punk subculture includes a diverse and widely known array of ideologies, fashion, and other forms of expression, visual art, dance, literature, and film. Largely characterised by anti-establishment views, the promotion of individual freedom, and the DIY ethics, the culture originated from punk rock. The punk ethos is primarily made up of beliefs such as non-conformity, anti-authoritarianism, anti-corporatism, a do-it-yourself ethic, anti-consumerist, anti-corporate greed, direct action, and not "selling out". There is a wide range of punk fashion, including T-shirts, leather jackets, Dr. Martens boots, hairstyles such as brightly coloured hair and spiked mohawks, cosmetics, tattoos, jewellery, and body modification. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Women in the hardcore scene typically wore clothing categorized as masculine.Punk aesthetics determine the type of art punks enjoy, which typically has underground, minimalist, iconoclastic, and satirical sensibilities. Punk has generated a considerable amount of poetry and prose, and has its own underground press in the form of zines. Many punk-themed films have been made. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
The punk subculture emerged in the mid-1970s; in New York in 1974 and in the United Kingdom in 1976. Some suggest the name "punk" was borrowed from prison slang.Early punk had an abundance of antecedents and influences, and Jon Savage describes the subculture as a "bricolage" of almost every previous youth culture in the Western world since World War II, "stuck together with safety pins".In the late 1970s, the subculture began to diversify, which led to the proliferation of factions such as new wave, post-punk, 2 Tone, pop punk, hardcore punk, no wave, street punk, and Oi!. Hardcore punk, street punk, and Oi! sought to do away with the frivolities introduced in the later years of the original punk movement. The punk subculture influenced other underground music scenes such as alternative rock, indie music, crossover thrash, and the extreme subgenres of heavy metal (mainly thrash metal, death metal, speed metal, and the NWOBHM). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
The punk subculture is centered on a loud, aggressive genre of rock music called punk rock, usually played by bands consisting of a vocalist, one or two electric guitarists, an electric bassist, and a drummer. In some bands, the musicians contribute backup vocals, which typically consist of shouted slogans, choruses, or football-style chants. While most punk rock uses distorted guitars and noisy drumming sounds derived from 1960s garage rock and 1970s pub rock, some punk bands incorporate elements from other subgenres, such as surf rock, rockabilly, or reggae. Most punk rock songs are short, have simple and somewhat basic arrangements using relatively few chords, and typically have lyrics that express punk ideologies and values, although some punk lyrics are about lighter topics such as partying or romantic relationships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Different punk subcultures often distinguish themselves by having a unique style of punk rock, although not every style of punk rock has its own associated subculture. The earliest form of music to be called "punk rock" was 1960s garage rock, and the term was applied to the genre retroactively by influential rock critics in the early 1970s. In the late 1960s, music now referred to as protopunk originated as a garage rock revival in the northeastern United States. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
The first distinct music scene to claim the punk label appeared in New York City between 1974 and 1976. Around the same time or soon afterward, a punk scene developed in London. Los Angeles subsequently became home to the third major punk scene. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
These three cities formed the backbone of the burgeoning movement, but there were also other punk scenes in cities such as Brisbane, Melbourne, and Sydney in Australia, Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal in Canada, and Boston and San Francisco in the United States. The punk subculture advocates a do-it-yourself (DIY) ethic. During the subculture's infancy members were almost all from a lower economic class, and had become tired of the affluence that was associated with popular rock music at the time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Punks would publish their own music or sign with small independent labels, in hopes to combat what they saw as a money-hungry music industry. The DIY ethic is still popular with punks. The New York City punk rock scene arose from a subcultural underground promoted by artists, reporters, musicians, and a wide variety of non-mainstream enthusiasts. The Velvet Underground's harsh and experimental yet often melodic sound in the mid to late-1960s, much of it relating to transgressive media work by visual artist Andy Warhol, is credited for influencing 1970s bands such as the New York Dolls, the Stooges, and the Ramones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Punk political ideologies are mostly concerned with individual freedom and anti-establishment views. Common punk viewpoints include individual liberty, anti-authoritarianism, a DIY ethic, non-conformity, anti-corporatism, anti-government, direct action, and not "selling out". Some groups and individuals that try to self-identify as being a part of the punk subculture hold pro-Nazi or Fascist views, however, these Nazi/Fascist groups are rejected by almost all of the punk subculture. The belief that such views are opposed to the original ethos of the punk subculture, and its history, has led to internal conflicts and an active push against such views being considered part of punk subculture at all. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Two examples of this are an incident during the 2016 American Music Awards, where the band Green Day chanted anti-racist and anti-fascist messages, and an incident at a show by the Dropkick Murphys, when bassist and singer Ken Casey tackled an individual for giving a Nazi-style salute and later stated that Nazis are not welcome at a Dropkick Murphys show. Band member Tim Brennan later reaffirmed this sentiment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
The song "Nazi Punks Fuck Off" by hardcore punk band Dead Kennedys is a standout example.Early British punks expressed nihilistic and anarchist views with the slogan No Future, which came from the Sex Pistols song "God Save the Queen". In the United States, punks had a different approach to nihilism which was less anarchistic than the British punks. Punk nihilism was expressed in the use of "harder, more self-destructive, consciousness-obliterating substances like heroin, or methamphetamine". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Early punk fashion adapted everyday objects for aesthetic effect: ripped clothing was held together by safety pins or wrapped with tape; ordinary clothing was customised by embellishing it with marker or adorning it with paint; a black bin liner became a dress, shirt or skirt; safety pins and razor blades were used as jewellery. Also popular have been leather, rubber, and PVC clothing that is often associated with transgressive sexuality, like BDSM and S&M. A designer associated with early UK punk fashion was Vivienne Westwood, who made clothes for Malcolm McLaren's boutique in the King's Road, which became famous as "SEX". Many punks wear tight "drainpipe" jeans, plaid/tartan trousers, kilts or skirts, T-shirts, leather jackets (often decorated with painted band logos, pins and buttons, and metal studs, chains or spikes), and footwear such as high-cut Chuck Taylors, trainers, skate shoes, brothel creepers, Dr. Martens boots, and army boots. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Early punks occasionally wore clothes displaying a swastika for shock value; Vivienne Westwood's DESTROY shirt featured an upside-down crucified Jesus and a swastika, notably worn by members of the Sex Pistols. Most contemporary punks are staunchly anti-racist and are more likely to wear a crossed-out swastika symbol than a pro-Nazi symbol. Some punks cut their hair into mohawks or other dramatic shapes, style it to stand in spikes, and colour it with vibrant, unnatural hues. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Some punks are anti-fashion, arguing that punk should be defined by music or ideology. Punk clothing choices challenge the way in which individuals in a nation dress, and the ideals of a traditionalist nation. This is most common in the post-1980s US hardcore punk scene, where members of the subculture often dressed in plain T-shirts and jeans, rather than the more elaborate outfits and spiked, dyed hair of their British counterparts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Many groups adopt a look based on street clothes and working-class outfits. Hardcore punk fans adopted a dressed-down style of T-shirts, jeans, combat boots or trainers, and crewcuts. Women in the hardcore scene typically wore army trousers, band T-shirts, and hooded jumpers.The style of the 1980s hardcore scene contrasted with the more provocative fashion styles of late 1970s punk rockers (elaborate hairdos, torn clothes, patches, safety pins, studs, spikes, etc.). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Circle Jerks frontman Keith Morris described early hardcore fashion as "the...punk scene was basically based on English fashion. But we had nothing to do with that. Black Flag and the Circle Jerks were so far from that. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
We looked like the kid who worked at the gas station or submarine shop." Henry Rollins echoes Morris' point, stating that for him getting dressed up meant putting on a black shirt and some dark pants; Rollins viewed an interest in fashion as being a distraction. Jimmy Gestapo from Murphy's Law describes his own transition from dressing in a punk style (spiked hair and a bondage belt) to adopting a hardcore style (i.e. boots and a shaved head) as being based on a need for more functional clothing. A punk scholar states that "hardcore kids do not look like punks", since hardcore scene members wore basic clothing and short haircuts, in contrast to the "embellished leather jackets and pants" worn in the punk scene.In contrast to Morris' and Rollins' views, another punk scholar claims that the standard hardcore punk clothing and styles included torn jeans, leather jackets, spiked armbands and dog collars, mohawk hairstyles, and DIY ornamentation of clothes with studs, painted band names, political statements, and patches. Yet another punk scholar describes the look that was common in the San Francisco hardcore scene as consisting of biker-style leather jackets, chains, studded wristbands, pierced noses and multiple piercings, painted or tattooed statements (e.g. an anarchy symbol), and hairstyles ranging from military-style haircuts dyed black or blonde to mohawks and shaved heads.The Metropolitan Museum of Art in 2013 hosted a comprehensive exhibit, PUNK: Chaos to Couture, that examined the techniques of hardware, distress, and re-purposing in punk fashion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
In the United Kingdom, the advent of punk in the late 1970s with its "anyone can do it" ethos led to women making significant contributions. In contrast to the rock music and heavy metal scenes of the 1970s, which were dominated by men, the anarchic, counter-cultural mindset of the punk scene in mid- and late 1970s encouraged women to participate. "That was the beauty of the punk thing," Chrissie Hynde later said. " discrimination didn't exist in that scene." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
This participation played a role in the historical development of punk music, especially in the U.S. and U.K. at that time, and continues to influence and enable future generations.Rock historian Helen Reddington states that the popular image of young punk women musicians as focused on the fashion aspects of the scene (fishnet stockings, spiky blond hair, etc.) was stereotypical. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
She states that many, if not most women punks were more interested in the ideology and socio-political implications, rather than the fashion. Music historian Caroline Coon contends that before punk, women in rock music were virtually invisible; in contrast, in punk, she argues "t would be possible to write the whole history of punk music without mentioning any male bands at all – and I think a lot of would find that very surprising." Johnny Rotten wrote that 'During the Pistols era, women were out there playing with the men, taking us on in equal terms ... It wasn't combative, but compatible.' | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Women were involved in bands such as The Runaways, The Slits, The Raincoats, Mo-dettes, Dolly Mixture, and The Innocents. Others take issue with the notion of equal recognition, such as guitarist Viv Albertine, who stated that "the A&R men, the bouncers, the sound mixers, no one took us seriously. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
So, no, we got no respect anywhere we went. People just didn't want us around." The anti-establishment stance of punk opened the space for women who were treated like outsiders in a male-dominated industry. Sonic Youth's Kim Gordon states, "I think women are natural anarchists, because you're always operating in a male framework." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
For some punks, the body was a symbol of opposition, a political statement expressing disgust of all that was "normal" and socially accepted. The idea was to make others outside of the subculture question their own views, which made gender presentation and gender identity a popular factor to be played with. In some ways, punk helped to tear apart the normalised view of gender as a dichotomy. There was a notable amount of cross-dressing in the punk scene; it was not unusual to see men wearing ripped-up skirts, fishnet tights, and excessive makeup, or to see women with shaved heads wearing oversized plaid shirts and jean jackets and heavy combat boots. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Punk created a new cultural space for androgyny and all kinds of gender expression.In trying to reject societal norms, punk embraced one societal norm by deciding that strength and anger was best expressed through masculinity, defining masculine as the "default", where gender did not exist or had no meaning. However, the main reasoning behind this argument equates femininity with popular conceptions of beauty. Everything that was normally supposed to be hidden was brought to the front, both literally and figuratively. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
This could mean anything from wearing bras and underwear on top of clothing to wearing nothing but a bra and underwear. Although that act can seem sexualised, to punks it was just a way of self-expression. Punk seemed to allow people to sexualize themselves and still be taken seriously. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
The nature of punk allowed many to create a non-gender-conforming style. Punks could be free to use femininity or masculinity to make what they were doing even more shocking to their audience. It became popular for some punks to accentuate societal norms. At one concert, Donita Sparks, lead singer of the band L7, pulled out her tampon and threw it into the audience. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Riot grrrl is an underground feminist hardcore punk movement that originated in the early 1990s in Washington, D.C., and the Pacific Northwest, especially Olympia, Washington. It is often associated with third-wave feminism, which is sometimes seen as its starting point. It has also been described as a musical genre that came out of indie rock, with the punk scene serving as an inspiration for a musical movement in which women could express themselves in the same way men had been doing for the past several years. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Punk aesthetics determine the type of art punks enjoy, usually with underground, minimalistic, iconoclastic, and satirical sensibilities. Punk artwork graces album covers, flyers for concerts, and punk zines. Usually straightforward with clear messages, punk art is often concerned with political issues such as social injustice and economic disparity. The use of images of suffering to shock and create feelings of empathy in the viewer is common. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Alternatively, punk artwork may contain images of selfishness, stupidity, or apathy to provoke contempt in the viewer. Much of the earlier artwork was black and white, because it was distributed in zines and reproduced by photocopying at work, school, or at copy shops. Punk art also uses the mass production aesthetic of Andy Warhol's Factory studio. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Punk played a hand in the revival of stencil art, spearheaded by Crass. The Situationists also influenced the look of punk art, particularly that of the Sex Pistols created by Jamie Reid. Punk art often uses collage, exemplified by the art of Jamie Reid, Crass, The Clash, Dead Kennedys, and Winston Smith. John Holmstrom was a punk cartoonist who created work for the Ramones and Punk. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Two dance styles associated with punk are pogo dancing and moshing. The pogo is a dance in which the dancers jump up and down, while either remaining on the spot or moving around; the dance takes its name from its resemblance to the use of a pogo stick, especially in a common version of the dance, where an individual keeps their torso stiff, their arms rigid, and their legs close together. Pogo dancing is closely associated with punk rock and is a precursor to moshing. Moshing or slamdancing is a style of dance where participants push or slam into each other, typically during a live music show. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
It is usually associated with "aggressive" music genres, such as hardcore punk and thrash metal. Stage diving and crowd surfing were originally associated with protopunk bands such as The Stooges, and have appeared at punk, metal, and rock concerts. Ska punk promoted an updated version of skanking. Hardcore dancing is a later development influenced by all of the above-mentioned styles. Psychobillies prefer to "wreck", a form of slam dancing that involves people punching each other in the chest and arms as they move around the circle pit. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Punk has generated a considerable amount of poetry and prose. Punk has its own underground press in the form of punk zines, which feature news, gossip, cultural criticism, and interviews. Some zines take the form of perzines. Important punk zines include Maximum RocknRoll, Punk Planet, No Cure, Cometbus, Flipside, and Search & Destroy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Several novels, biographies, autobiographies, and comic books have been written about punk. Love and Rockets is a comic with a plot involving the Los Angeles punk scene. Just as zines played an important role in spreading information in the punk era (e.g. British fanzines like Mark Perry's Sniffin Glue and Shane MacGowan's Bondage), zines also played an important role in the hardcore scene. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
In the pre-Internet era, zines enabled readers to learn about bands, shows, clubs, and record labels. Zines typically included reviews of shows and records, interviews with bands, letters to the editor, and advertisements for records and labels. Zines were DIY products, "proudly amateur, usually handmade, and always independent", and during the "'90s, zines were the primary way to stay up on punk and hardcore." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
They were the "blogs, comment sections, and social networks of their day. "In the American Midwest, the zine Touch and Go described the regional hardcore scene from 1979 to 1983. We Got Power described the LA scene from 1981 to 1984, and included show reviews of and interviews with such bands as Vancouver's D.O.A., the Misfits, Black Flag, Suicidal Tendencies, and the Circle Jerks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
My Rules was a photo zine that included photos of hardcore shows from across the US. In Effect, which began in 1988, described the New York City scene. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Punk poets include: Richard Hell, Jim Carroll, Patti Smith, John Cooper Clarke, Seething Wells, Raegan Butcher, and Attila the Stockbroker. The Medway Poets performance group included punk musician Billy Childish and had an influence on Tracey Emin. Jim Carroll's autobiographical works are among the first known examples of punk literature. The punk subculture has inspired the cyberpunk and steampunk literature genres, and has even contributed (through Iggy Pop) to classical scholarship. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Many punk-themed films have been made. The No Wave Cinema and Remodernist film movements owe much to punk aesthetics. Several famous punk bands have participated in movies, such as the Ramones in Rock 'n' Roll High School, the Sex Pistols in The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle, and Social Distortion in Another State of Mind. Derek Jarman and Don Letts are notable punk filmmakers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Penelope Spheeris' first instalment of the documentary trilogy "The Decline of Western Civilization" (1981) focuses on the early Los Angeles punk scene through interviews and early concert footage from bands including Black Flag, Circle Jerks, Germs, and Fear. The Decline of Western Civilization III" explores the gutter punk lifestyle in the 1990s. Loren Cass is another example of the punk subculture represented in film.The Japanese cyberpunk movement has roots in the Japanese punk subculture that arose in the 1970s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
The filmmaker Sogo Ishii introduced this subculture to Japanese cinema with his punk films Panic High School (1978) and Crazy Thunder Road (1980), which portrayed the rebellion and anarchy associated with punk, and went on to become highly influential in underground film circles. Crazy Thunder Road in particular was an influential biker film, with a punk biker gang aesthetic that paved the way for Katsuhiro Otomo's manga and anime franchise Akira (1982 debut). Ishii's next film was the frenetic Shuffle (1981), an unofficial short film adaptation of a manga comic strip by Otomo.The documentary film Afro-Punk covers the black experience in the punk DIY scene. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
" sniffing was adopted by punks because public perceptions of sniffing fitted in with their self-image. Originally used experimentally and as a cheap high, adult disgust and hostility encouraged punks to use glue sniffing as a way of shocking society." Model airplane glue and contact cement were among the numerous solvents and inhalants used by punks to achieve euphoria and intoxication. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Glue was typically inhaled by placing a quantity in a plastic bag and "huffing" (inhaling) the vapour. Liquid solvents were typically inhaled by soaking a rag with the solvent and inhaling the vapour. While users inhale solvents for the intoxicating effects, the practice can be harmful or fatal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Straight edge is a philosophy of hardcore punk culture, adherents of which refrain from using alcohol, tobacco, and other recreational drugs, in reaction to the excesses of punk subculture. For some, this extends to refraining from engaging in promiscuous sex, following a vegetarian or vegan diet, and not drinking coffee or taking prescribed medicine. The term straight edge was adopted from the 1981 song "Straight Edge" by the hardcore punk band Minor Threat.Straight edge emerged amid the early-1980s hardcore punk scene. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Since then, a wide variety of beliefs and ideas have been associated with the movement, including vegetarianism and animal rights. Ross Haenfler writes that as of the late 1990s, approximately three out of four straight edge participants were vegetarian or vegan. While the commonly expressed aspects of the straight edge subculture have been abstinence from alcohol, nicotine, and illegal drugs, there have been considerable variations on how far to take the interpretations of "abstaining from intoxicants" or "living drug-free". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Disagreements often arise as to the primary reasons for living straight edge. Straight edge politics are primarily left-wing and revolutionary but there have been conservative offshoots.In 1999, William Tsitsos wrote that straight edge had gone through three eras since its founding in the early 1980s. Bent edge began as a counter-movement to straight edge by members of the Washington, D.C. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
hardcore scene who were frustrated by the rigidity and intolerance in the scene. During the youth crew era, which started in the mid-1980s, the influence of music on the straight edge scene was at an all-time high. By the early 1990s, militant straight edge was a well-known part of the wider punk scene. In the early to mid-1990s, straight edge spread from the United States to Northern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and South America. By the beginning of the 2000s, militant straight edge punks had largely left the broader straight edge culture and movement. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Punks come from all culture and economic classes. Compared to some subcultures, punk ideology is much closer to gender equality. Although the punk subculture is mostly anti-racist, it is overwhelmingly white. However, members of other groups (such as African Americans, other black people, Latinos, and Asians) have contributed to the development of the subculture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Substance abuse has sometimes been a part of the punk scene, with the notable exception of the straight edge movement. Violence has also sometimes appeared in the punk subculture, but has been opposed by some subsets of the subculture, such as the pacifist strain anarcho-punk.Punks often form a local scene, which can have as few as half a dozen members in a small town, or as many as thousands of in a major city. A local scene usually has a small group of dedicated punks surrounded by a more casual periphery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
A typical punk scene is made up of punk and hardcore bands, fans who attend concerts, protests, and other events, zine publishers, reviewers, and other writers, visual artists illustrating zines, and creating posters and album covers, show promoters, and people who work at music venues or independent record labels.Squatting plays a role in many punk communities, providing shelter and other forms of support. Squats in abandoned or condemned housing, and communal "punk houses" often provide bands a place to stay while they are touring. There are some punk communes, such as Essex's Dial House. The Internet has been playing an increasingly large role in punk, specifically in the form of virtual communities and file sharing programs for trading music files. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
In the punk and hardcore subcultures, members of the scene are often evaluated in terms of the authenticity of their commitment to the values or philosophies of the scene, which may range from political beliefs to lifestyle practices. In the punk subculture, the epithet poseur (or "poser") is used to describe "a person who habitually pretends to be something not." The term is used to refer to a person who adopts the dress, speech, and/or mannerisms of a particular subculture, yet who is deemed to not share or understand the values or philosophy of the subculture.While this perceived inauthenticity is viewed with scorn and contempt by members of the subculture, the definition of the term and to whom it should be applied is subjective. An article in Drowned in Sound argues that 1980s-era "hardcore is the true spirit of punk", because "after all the poseurs and fashionistas fucked off to the next trend of skinny pink ties with New Romantic haircuts, singing wimpy lyrics", the punk scene consisted only of people "completely dedicated to the DIY ethics".Proto-punk bands such as the Who, the Stooges, the Velvet Underground, Pink Fairies, the Deviants, and Edgar Broughton Band came out of garage-rock during the late 1960s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.