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Global sales of proprietary drugs are estimated $735 billion in 2010, or almost 90% of the total pharma market. Global sales of generics are about $100 billion, or just over 10% of the total pharma market. Due to the much lower unit price, their market share will be close to 30% on an API volume/volume basis. | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
Sulfur trioxide pyridine complex is the compound with the formula CHNSO. It is a colourless solid that dissolves in polar organic solvents. It is the adduct formed from the Lewis base pyridine and the Lewis acid sulfur trioxide. The compound is mainly used as a source of sulfur trioxide, for example in the synthesis... | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
Photothermal effect is a phenomenon associated with electromagnetic radiation. It is produced by the photoexcitation of material, resulting in the production of thermal energy (heat).
It is sometimes used during treatment of blood vessel lesions, laser resurfacing, laser hair removal and laser surgery. | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
This is the oldest and still most commonly used technique, particularly for flame AAS. In this case, a separate source (a deuterium lamp) with broad emission is used to measure the background absorption over the entire width of the exit slit of the spectrometer. The use of a separate lamp makes this technique the least... | 3 | Analytical Chemistry |
According to ISO 13600, an energy carrier is either a substance or a phenomenon that can be used to produce mechanical work or heat or to operate chemical or physical processes. It is any system or substance that contains energy for conversion as usable energy later or somewhere else. This could be converted for use in... | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
Flexibility
Your DNA sequence of interest can be moved across any expression system in just one recombination step when you create the entry clone with it.
Speed
Instead of taking two or more days with conventional restriction and ligation cloning, the Gateway approach allows for the creation of the expression construc... | 1 | Biochemistry |
The European Union Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive and Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive were adopted in early 2003 and came into effect on July 1, 2006, restricting the inclusion of lead in most consumer electronics sold in the EU, and having a broad effect on consumer electronics sold ... | 8 | Metallurgy |
As discussed above in types, a swept-tuned spectrum analyzer down-converts a portion of the input signal spectrum to the center frequency of a band-pass filter by sweeping the voltage-controlled oscillator through a range of frequencies, enabling the consideration of the full frequency range of the instrument.
The band... | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
For the special case of simple cubic crystals, the lattice vectors are orthogonal and of equal length (usually denoted a); similarly for the reciprocal lattice. So, in this common case, the Miller indices (ℓmn) and [ℓmn] both simply denote normals/directions in Cartesian coordinates. For cubic crystals with lattice con... | 3 | Analytical Chemistry |
* Gene therapy for color blindness
* Gene therapy for epilepsy
* Gene therapy for osteoarthritis
* Gene therapy in Parkinson's disease
* Gene therapy of the human retina
Gene therapies are under development for:
* Usher syndrome deafness
* Otoferlin mutation deafness | 1 | Biochemistry |
In instances in which DNA samples are degraded, like if there are intense fires or all that remains are bone fragments, standard STR testing on those samples can be inadequate. When standard STR testing is done on highly degraded samples, the larger STR loci often drop out, and only partial DNA profiles are obtained. P... | 1 | Biochemistry |
Common crystals exhibit broken translation symmetry: they have repeated patterns in space and are not invariant under arbitrary translations or rotations. The laws of physics are unchanged by arbitrary translations and rotations. However, if we hold fixed the atoms of a crystal, the dynamics of an electron or other par... | 3 | Analytical Chemistry |
Protein adsorption often results in significant conformational changes, which refers to changes in the secondary, tertiary, and quartary structures of proteins. In addition to adsorption rates and amounts, orientation and conformation are of critical importance. These conformational changes can affect protein interac... | 1 | Biochemistry |
Ammonolysis can be used to synthesize nitrides (and oxynitrides) by reacting various metal precursors with ammonia, some options include chemical vapor deposition, treating metals or metal oxides with ammonia gas, or liquid supercritical ammonia (also known as "ammonothermal" synthesis, analogous to hydrothermal synthe... | 1 | Biochemistry |
Some polysilicates are ladder polymers. One example is provided by the mineral tremolite.
In the area of coordination chemistry, the ladder structure is seen in some coordination polymers. Illustrative is the polymer [CuI(2-picoline]. When the 2-picoline is replaced by a tertiary phosphine, it forms a tetrameric cub... | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
The German chemist Wilhelm Körner suggested the prefixes ortho-, meta-, para- to distinguish di-substituted benzene derivatives in 1867; however, he did not use the prefixes to distinguish the relative positions of the substituents on a benzene ring. It was the German chemist Carl Gräbe who, in 1869, first used the pre... | 2 | Environmental Chemistry |
Lactobacillus fermentation and accompanying production of acid provides a protective vaginal microbiome that protects against the proliferation of pathogenic organisms. | 1 | Biochemistry |
The saprobic index is only regarded as a valid estimate if the sum of the abundance classes is at least 20. For example, if a survey only found a total of 500 individuals of any species, the sample would still be valid if the survey found four species with 125 individuals each (abundance class 5).
Likewise, a single wa... | 2 | Environmental Chemistry |
The sample suspended in a suitable medium is placed in a hermetically closed metabolic chamber. The mitochondria are brought into defined “states” by the sequential addition of substrates or inhibitors. Since the mitochondria consume oxygen, the oxygen concentration drops. This change of oxygen concentration is recorde... | 1 | Biochemistry |
*Vibration - either sinusoidal vibration or gyratory vibration.
**Sinusoidal Vibration occurs at an angled plane relative to the horizontal. The vibration is in a wave pattern determined by frequency and amplitude.
**Gyratory Vibration occurs at near level plane at low angles in a reciprocating side to side motion.
*G... | 8 | Metallurgy |
The primary convention for expressing tacticity is in terms of the relative weight fraction of triad or higher-order components, as described above. An alternative expression for tacticity is the average length of meso and racemo sequences within the polymer molecule. The average meso sequence length may be approxima... | 4 | Stereochemistry |
Hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) is distinct from PCET. In HAT, the proton and electron start in the same orbitals and move together to the final orbital. HAT is recognized as a radical pathway, although the stoichiometry is similar to that for PCET. | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
Several routes exist for the production of cyclohexenone. For the laboratory scale, it can be produced from resorcinol via 1,3-cyclohexanedione.
Cyclohexenone is obtained by Birch reduction of anisole followed by acid hydrolysis.
It can be obtained from cyclohexanone by α-bromination followed by treatment with base. Hy... | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
Effluent spreading is a process in which a slurry of effluent from a dairy farm's milking parlor is pumped and spread on pasture. Commonly a rotating sprinkler is used. Dairy manure contains ammonium NH4-N.
In New Zealand the application of effluent is a permitted activity, although spreading in excess is an environmen... | 9 | Geochemistry |
In classical thermodynamics, a commonly considered model is the heat engine. It consists of four bodies: the working body, the hot reservoir, the cold reservoir, and the work reservoir. A cyclic process leaves the working body in an unchanged state, and is envisaged as being repeated indefinitely often. Work transfers ... | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
Crayfish have also been hypothesized as being suitable bioindicators, under the appropriate conditions. One example of use is an examination of accumulation of microplastics in the digestive tract of red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) being used as a bioindicator of wider microplastics pollution. | 2 | Environmental Chemistry |
The Sleeping Beauty (SB) transposase is the recombinase that drives the Sleeping Beauty transposon system. SB transposase belongs to the DD[E/D] family of transposases, which in turn belong to a large superfamily of polynucleotidyl transferases that includes RNase H, RuvC Holliday resolvase, RAG proteins, and retrovir... | 1 | Biochemistry |
The properties of many polymers are affected by hydrogen bonds within and/or between the chains. Prominent examples include cellulose and its derived fibers, such as cotton and flax. In nylon, hydrogen bonds between carbonyl and the amide NH effectively link adjacent chains, which gives the material mechanical strengt... | 6 | Supramolecular Chemistry |
A kaliapparat is a laboratory device invented in 1831 by Justus von Liebig (1803–1873) for the analysis of carbon in organic compounds. The device, made of glass, consists of a series of five bulbs connected and arranged in a triangular shape.
To determine the carbon in an organic compound with a kaliapparat, the subst... | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
Stays made from puddled iron bar were used as a cheaper alternative to copper for joining the inner and outer firebox plates of steam locomotives. The incorporated stringers gave flexibility akin to stranded wire rope and stays made of the material were therefore resistant to snapping in service. Wrought iron rivets m... | 8 | Metallurgy |
The Peter Debye Award in Physical Chemistry is awarded annually by the American Chemical Society "to encourage and reward outstanding research in physical chemistry". The award is named after Peter Debye and
granted without regard to age or nationality. | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
Nucleic acid extraction apparatus based on the Tajima pipette (see Fig. 2) are one of the most widespread instruments to perform the Boom method.
The Tajima pipette was invented by Hideji Tajima, founder and president of
Precision System Sciences (PSS) Inc., a Japanese manufacturer of precision and measuring instrument... | 1 | Biochemistry |
Viruses (i.e., measles, mumps, or parainfluenza), especially viruses that have an RNA genome, have been shown to have evolved to utilize RNA modifications in many ways when taking over the host cell. Viruses are known to utilize the RNA modifications in different parts of their infection cycle from immune evasion to pr... | 1 | Biochemistry |
The translational energy of the molecule is given by the kinetic energy expression:
where is the mass of the molecule and is its velocity. | 4 | Stereochemistry |
RNA velocity is based on bridging measurements to a underlying mechanism, mRNA splicing, with two modes indicating the current and future state. It is a method used to predict the future gene expression of a cell based on the measurement of both spliced and unspliced transcripts of mRNA.
RNA velocity could be used to i... | 1 | Biochemistry |
Born in Fukuchiyama, Kyoto in 1928, Shimomura was brought up in Manchukuo (Manchuria, China) and Osaka, Japan while his father served as an officer in the Imperial Japanese Army. Later, his family moved to Isahaya, Nagasaki, 25 km from the epicenter of the August 1945 atomic bombing of the city. He recalled hearing, as... | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
A collection of data from the United States found that about half the water stations tested had hardness over 120 mg per litre of calcium carbonate equivalent, placing them in the categories "hard" or "very hard". The other half were classified as soft or moderately hard. More than 85% of American homes have hard water... | 3 | Analytical Chemistry |
Archaeometallurgical study has many uses in both the chemical and anthropological fields. Analysis contributes valuable insights into many archaeological questions, from technological choice to social organisation. Any project concerned with the relationship that the human species has had to the metals known to us is a... | 8 | Metallurgy |
AFM-IR has been used to study the surface plasmon resonance in heavily silicon-doped indium arsenide microparticles. Gold split ring resonators have been studied for use with Surface-Enhanced Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy. In this case AFM-IR was used to measure the local field enhancement of the plasmonics structur... | 3 | Analytical Chemistry |
Sputtering (in particular radio-frequency magnetron sputtering) has been applied to the fabrication of LAGP thin-films starting from a LAGP target. Depending on the temperature of the substrate during the deposition, LAGP can be deposited in the cold sputtering or hot sputtering configuration.
The film stoichiometry an... | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
Bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T) or uracil (U).
Amino acids: Alanine (Ala, A), Arginine (Arg, R), Asparagine (Asn, N), Aspartic acid (Asp, D), Cysteine (Cys, C), Glutamic acid (Glu, E), Glutamine (Gln, Q), Glycine (Gly, G), Histidine (His, H), Isoleucine (Ile, I), Leucine (Leu, L), Lysine (... | 1 | Biochemistry |
There is a need for a computer program that is easier to operate and that requires a simpler data structure than most currently available models. Therefore, the SaltModod program was designed keeping in mind a relative simplicity of operation to facilitate the use by field technicians, engineers and project planners in... | 9 | Geochemistry |
Since 1 January 2010, it has been illegal to use newly manufactured HCFCs to service refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment; only reclaimed and recycled HCFCs may be used. In practice this means that the gas has to be removed from the equipment before servicing and replaced afterwards, rather than refilling with... | 2 | Environmental Chemistry |
The other function of retromer is the recycling of protein cargo directly back to the plasma membrane. Dysfunction of this branch of the retromer recycling pathway causes endosomal protein traffic jams that are linked to Alzheimer’s disease. It has been suggested that recycling dysfunction is the “fire” that drives ... | 1 | Biochemistry |
The apparatus for testing consists of a closed testing cabinet/chamber, where a salt water (5% NaCl) solution is atomized by means of spray nozzle(s) using pressurized air. This produces a corrosive environment of dense salt water fog (also referred to as a mist or spray) in the chamber, so that test samples exposed to... | 8 | Metallurgy |
The urea molecule is planar when in a solid crystal because of sp hybridization of the N orbitals. It is non-planar with C symmetry when in the gas phase or in aqueous solution, with C–N–H and H–N–H bond angles that are intermediate between the trigonal planar angle of 120° and the tetrahedral angle of 109.5°. In solid... | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
The Open Regulatory Annotation Database (also known as ORegAnno) is designed to promote community-based curation of regulatory information. Specifically, the database contains information about regulatory regions, transcription factor binding sites, regulatory variants, and haplotypes. | 1 | Biochemistry |
The behaviour of the coals ash residue at high temperature is a critical factor in selecting coals for steam power generation. Most furnaces are designed to remove ash as a powdery residue. Coal which has ash that fuses into a hard glassy slag known as clinker' is usually unsatisfactory in furnaces as it requires clean... | 3 | Analytical Chemistry |
The misorientation distribution (MD) is analogous to the ODF used in characterizing texture. The MD describes the probability of the misorientation between any two grains falling into a range around a given misorientation . While similar to a probability density, the MD is not mathematically the same due to the norm... | 3 | Analytical Chemistry |
Eogan (1994) noted that around 250 surviving gold objects are known to date to the Early Bronze Age, 165 of those from Ireland, and the other 83 from Britain. From analysing the designs of the earliest gold artefacts in Britain, Eogan noted that they "form a homogeneous group" which, when "taken in conjunction with oth... | 8 | Metallurgy |
The usual equipment includes a seal-able metabolic chamber, an oxygen sensor, and devices for data recording, stirring, thermostatisation and a way to introduce chemicals into the chamber. As described above for whole-animal respirometry the choice of materials is very important. Plastic materials are not suitable for ... | 1 | Biochemistry |
Studies published in 2000 considered this hypothetical effect to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum. Although periods of increased atmospheric methane match periods of continental-slope failure, later work found that the distinct deuterium/hydrogen (D/H) isotope ratio indica... | 6 | Supramolecular Chemistry |
In enzymatic analysis (which is widely used in medical laboratories) the color reaction is preceded by a reaction catalyzed by an enzyme. As the enzyme is specific to a particular substrate, more accurate results can be obtained. Enzymatic analysis is always carried out in a buffer solution at a specified temperature ... | 3 | Analytical Chemistry |
* In emulsions a phase inversion is when the dispersed phase becomes the dispersion medium and the dispersion medium becomes the dispersed phase, for example when cream becomes butter. | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
The clay hypothesis for the origin of life was proposed by Graham Cairns-Smith in 1985. It postulates that complex organic molecules arose gradually on pre-existing, non-organic replication surfaces of silicate crystals in contact with an aqueous solution. The clay mineral montmorillonite has been shown to catalyze the... | 9 | Geochemistry |
Less ambiguous than the above ichnogenera, are the traces left behind by invertebrates such as Hibbertopterus, a giant "sea scorpion" or eurypterid of the early Paleozoic era. This marine arthropod produced a spectacular track preserved in Scotland.
Bioerosion through time has produced a magnificent record of borings, ... | 2 | Environmental Chemistry |
Long intergenic Non-coding RNA (LincRNA) is defined as RNA transcripts that are longer than 200 nucleotides. These RNAs must not have open reading frames that encode proteins. The term “intergenic” refers to the identification of these transcripts from regions of the genome that do not contain protein-encoding genes. ... | 1 | Biochemistry |
Enzymes can catalyze up to several million reactions per second. Enzyme rates depend on solution conditions and substrate concentration. Like other enzymes POLR2 has a saturation curve and a maximum velocity (V). It has a K (substrate concentration required for one-half V) and a k (the number of substrate molecules han... | 1 | Biochemistry |
Selegiline is considered by some to be a nootropic, both at clinical and sub-clinical dosages, and has been used off-label to improve cognitive performance. It has been shown to have protective activity against a range of neurotoxins and to increase the production of several brain growth factors, such as nerve growth f... | 4 | Stereochemistry |
The source material was pig iron produced by a blast furnace using charcoal and the manganese rich iron ore from the Dannemora mine. A V-shaped hearth using charcoal was used to heat up the pig iron bar that was presented to a tuyere that decarbonized it and made it melt and fall in drops that solidified in a pool of s... | 8 | Metallurgy |
Cibacron Blue F3GA, Procion Blue HB, or Reactive blue 2 is a purinergic receptor antagonist, such as P2Y purinoceptor, and also an ATP receptor channels antagonist. It has a formula of CHClNOS and a molecular weight of 774.2 g/mol. Cibacron blue is soluble in water and DMSO, however insoluble in ethanol. In water, satu... | 3 | Analytical Chemistry |
Electroviscous effects, in chemistry of colloids and surface chemistry, according to an IUPAC definition, are the effects of the particle surface charge on viscosity of a fluid.
Viscoelectric is an effect by which an electric field near a charged interface influences the structure of the surrounding fluid and affects t... | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
For many years, alongside scientific research, he has carried out an intense dissemination activity, also on the relationship between science and society and between science and peace, with particular reference to energy and resource issues. He is convinced that scientists have a great responsibility that derives from ... | 5 | Photochemistry |
Photodegradation of plastics and other materials can be inhibited with polymer stabilizers, which are widely used. These additives include antioxidants, which interrupt degradation processes. Typical antioxidants are derivatives of aniline. Another type of additive are UV-absorbers. These agents capture the photon and ... | 5 | Photochemistry |
Once the TALEN constructs have been assembled, they are inserted into plasmids; the target cells are then transfected with the plasmids, and the gene products are expressed and enter the nucleus to access the genome. Alternatively, TALEN constructs can be delivered to the cells as mRNAs, which removes the possibility o... | 1 | Biochemistry |
To fix carbon dioxide into sugar molecules in the process of photosynthesis, chloroplasts use an enzyme called RuBisCO. RuBisCO has trouble distinguishing between carbon dioxide and oxygen, so at high oxygen concentrations, RuBisCO starts accidentally adding oxygen to sugar precursors. This has the result of ATP energy... | 5 | Photochemistry |
The metals involved in a bimetallic strip can vary in composition so long as their thermal expansion coefficients differ. The metal of lower thermal expansion coefficient is sometimes called the passive metal, while the other is called the active metal. Copper, steel, brass, iron, and nickel are commonly used metals in... | 8 | Metallurgy |
Diastereoselective conjugate addition reactions of chiral organocuprates provide β-functionalized ketones in high yield and diastereoselectivity. A disadvantage of these reactions is the requirement of a full equivalent of enantiopure starting material.
More recently, catalytic enantioselective methods have been develo... | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
Carbon dioxide affects the curve in two ways. First, CO accumulation causes carbamino compounds to be generated through chemical interactions, which bind to hemoglobin forming carbaminohemoglobin. CO is considered an Allosteric regulation as the inhibition happens not at the binding site of hemoglobin. Second, it influ... | 1 | Biochemistry |
Sea salt is salt that is produced by the evaporation of seawater. It is used as a seasoning in foods, cooking, cosmetics and for preserving food. It is also called bay salt, solar salt, or simply salt. Like mined rock salt, production of sea salt has been dated to prehistoric times. | 9 | Geochemistry |
The slides are then immersed in a solution that cause the cells to lyse. The lysis solution often used in the comet assay consists of a highly concentrated aqueous salt (often, common table salt can be used) and a detergent (such as Triton X-100 or sarcosinate). The pH of the lysis solution can be adjusted (usually bet... | 1 | Biochemistry |
Clustering of genes in prokaryotes was known for a long time. Their genes are grouped in operons, genes within operons share a common promoter unit. These genes are mostly functionally related. The genome of prokaryotes is relatively very simple and compact. In eukaryotes the genome is huge and only a small amount of i... | 1 | Biochemistry |
The reversibility of the interconversion of 3-sulfolene with buta-1,3-diene and sulfur dioxide suggests the use of sulfolene as a recyclable aprotic dipolar solvent, in replacement for dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), which is often used but difficult to separate and poorly reusable. As a model reaction, the reaction of benz... | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
Often called a "squirrel cage" (because of its general similarity in appearance to exercise wheels for pet rodents) or "scroll fan", the centrifugal fan has a moving component (called an impeller) that consists of a central shaft about which a set of blades that form a spiral, or ribs, are positioned. Centrifugal fans ... | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
Neurotrophins that interact with p75NTR include NGF, NT-3, BDNF, and NT-4/5. Neurotrophins activating p75NTR may initiate apoptosis (for example, via c-Jun N-terminal kinases signaling, and subsequent p53, Jax-like proteins and caspase activation). This effect can be counteracted by anti-apoptotic signaling by TrkA.
N... | 1 | Biochemistry |
Following the action potential, characteristically generated by the influx of Na through voltage gated Na channels, there is a period of repolarization in which the Na channels are inactivated while K channels are activated. Further study of K channels shows that there are four types which influence the repolarization... | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
Glycogen serves as the secondary long-term energy storage in animal and fungal cells, with the primary energy stores being held in adipose tissue. Glycogen is made primarily by the liver, and the muscles but can also be made by glycogenesis within the brain and stomach.
Glycogen is analogous to starch, a glucose polyme... | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
Biological carbon sequestration (also called biosequestration) is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by continual or enhanced biological processes. This form of carbon sequestration occurs through increased rates of photosynthesis via land-use practices such as reforestation and su... | 5 | Photochemistry |
More recently, starting in the 1920s, organic farming and horticulture have made frequent use of companion planting, since many other means of fertilizing, weed reduction and pest control are forbidden. Permaculture advocates similar methods.
The list of companion plants used in such systems is large, and includes veg... | 1 | Biochemistry |
A large number of biologically important modified monosaccharides exist:
* Amino sugars such as:
** galactosamine
** glucosamine
** sialic acid
** N-acetylglucosamine
* Sulfosugars such as:
** sulfoquinovose
* Others such as:
** ascorbic acid
** mannitol
** glucuronic acid | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
The cylindrospermopsin biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) was described from Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii AWT205 in 2008. | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
Compounds containing 2 geminal phosphonate groups are known as bisphosphonates. They were first synthesized in 1897 by Von Baeyer and Hofmann and now form the basis for an important class of drugs, used to treat osteoporosis and similar diseases. Examples include HEDP (etidronic acid or Didronel), which is prepared fro... | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
Anaerobic microbial mineralization of recalcitrant organic pollutants is of great environmental significance and involves intriguing novel biochemical reactions. In particular, hydrocarbons and halogenated compounds have long been doubted to be degradable in the absence of oxygen, but the isolation of hitherto unknown ... | 2 | Environmental Chemistry |
In 2005, Myriad Genetics reported the results of its Phase II clinical trial of Flurizan; it was the largest ever Alzheimers drug treatment trial using R-flurbiprofen. Patients were split into three treatment groups, receiving placebo, 400 or 800 mg R-flurbiprofen twice daily for a year. Result from this trial showed ... | 4 | Stereochemistry |
Phycoerythrocyanin is a kind of phycobiliprotein, magenta chromoprotein involved in photosynthesis of some Cyanobacteria. This chromoprotein consists of alpha- and beta-subunits, generally aggregated as hexamer. Alpha-phycoerythrocyanin contains a phycoviolobilin, a violet bilin, that covalently attached at Cys-84, and... | 1 | Biochemistry |
Often, reactivity and reaction mechanisms are pictured as the behavior of isolated molecules in which the solvent is treated as a passive support. However, the nature of the solvent can actually influence reaction rates and order of a chemical reaction.
Performing a reaction without solvent can affect reaction-rate fo... | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
Mechanical spalling occurs at high-stress contact points, for example, in a ball bearing. Spalling occurs in preference to brinelling, where the maximal shear stress occurs not at the surface, but just below, shearing the spall off.
One of the simplest forms of mechanical spalling is plate impact, in which two waves of... | 8 | Metallurgy |
The Potential of Mean Force of a system with N particles is by construction the potential that gives the average force over all the configurations of all the n+1...N particles acting on a particle j at any fixed configuration keeping fixed a set of particles 1...n
Above, is the averaged force, i.e. "mean force" on par... | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
Recovery of metals from oxide matrixes is generally carried out using mineral acids. However, electrochemical dissolution of metal oxides in DES can allow to enhance the dissolution up to more than 10 000 times in pH neutral solutions.
Studies have shown that ionic oxides such as ZnO tend to have high solubility in ChC... | 8 | Metallurgy |
When a dry porous medium is brought into contact with a liquid, it will absorb the liquid at a rate which decreases over time. When considering evaporation, liquid penetration will reach a limit dependent on parameters of temperature, humidity and permeability. This process is known as evaporation limited capillary pen... | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
The typical impurity in triflic anhydride is triflic acid, which is also a colorless liquid. Samples of triflic anhydride can be assayed by F NMR spectroscopy: −72.6 ppm vs. −77.3 for TfOH (std CFCl). | 0 | Organic Chemistry |
Particular advantages of the powder technology include:
# Very high levels of purity and uniformity in starting materials
# Preservation of purity, due to the simpler subsequent fabrication process (fewer steps) that it makes possible
# Stabilization of the details of repetitive operations, by control of grain size dur... | 8 | Metallurgy |
The previous derivations assumed that there is only one species, A, adsorbing onto the surface. This section considers the case when there are two distinct adsorbates present in the system. Consider two species A and B that compete for the same adsorption sites. The following hypotheses are made here:
# All the sites a... | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
The significance of CIA for astrophysics was recognized early-on, especially where dense atmospheres of mixtures of molecular hydrogen and helium gas exist. | 7 | Physical Chemistry |
In microholography, focused beams of light are used to record submicrometre-sized holograms in a photorefractive material, usually by the use of collinear beams. The writing process may use the same kinds of media that are used in other types of holographic data storage, and may use two–photon processes to form the hol... | 5 | Photochemistry |
An earthworm's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food... | 1 | Biochemistry |
The mechanism for chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) replication has not been conclusively determined, but two main models have been proposed. Scientists have attempted to observe chloroplast replication via electron microscopy since the 1970s. The results of the microscopy experiments led to the idea that chloroplast DNA replica... | 5 | Photochemistry |
Possibly the most exciting potential use for PECO is producing hydrogen to be used as a source of renewable energy. Photoelectrochemical oxidation reactions that take place within PEC cells are the key to water splitting for hydrogen production. While the main concern with this technology is stability, systems that use... | 5 | Photochemistry |
T-1123 can be produced from m-diethylaminophenol, methyl isocyanate and methyl iodide. First, m-diethylaminophenol is reacted with methyl isocyanate to produce a methylcarbamate. The resulting methylcarbamate is then reacted with methyl iodide to produce T-1123. | 1 | Biochemistry |
This large and diverse class of steroids are biosynthesized from isoprenoids and structurally resemble cholesterol. Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestogens. | 1 | Biochemistry |
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