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lcatraz]], Capone began showing signs of dementia, probably related to a case of untreated [[syphilis]] he had contracted as a young man. He spent the last year of his sentence in the prison hospital, and was released late in 1939. After spending a year in residential treatment at a hospital in [[Baltimore]], he retired to his estate in [[Miami, Florida]]. Capone was now a broken man. He no longer controlled any [[mafia]] interests. On January 21, 1947, he had an [[Apoplexy\|apoplectic stroke]]. He regained consciousness and started to feel better when [[pneumonia]] set in on January 24. The next day he died from cardiac arrest. Capone was initially buried in Mount Olivet Cemetery in Chicago's far South Side between the graves of his father, Gabriele, and brother, Frank, but in March of 1950 the remains of all three were moved to Mount Carmel Cemetery on the far West Side.[[Hillside, Illinois]]. == Popular culture == Notorious as one of the most well known, yet, popular [[American gangsters]] of the [[20th century]], Capone has been the subject of numerous articles, books, and films. He has been portrayed on screen by [[Nicholas Kokenes]], [[Wallace Beery]], [[Paul Muni]], [[Barry Sullivan]], [[Rod Steiger]], [[Neville Brand]], [[Jason Robards]], [[Ben Gazzara]], [[Robert De Niro]] and [[William Forsythe]]. Capone and his [[era]] were highlighted in the 1959 [[television film]] ''[[The Untouchables]]'' and its [[feature film]] and [[television series]] [[remake]]s which has created the popular myth of the personal war between the crime lord and [[Eliot Ness]]. He has also featured as an off-screen character (in a deleted scene that was added to the DVD release) in the 2002 film ''[[Road to Perdition]]'', the comic book, ''[[Tintin in America]]'' as the only real person ever to appear in [[The Adventures of Tintin]] in character and as a ghost in [[Peter F. Hamilton]]'s ''[[The Night's Dawn Trilogy]]'' science fiction novels. Capone is also the subject of [[Prince Buster]] song ''Al Capone'' and is also the namesake of [[Rancid\|Rancid's]] ''Young Al Capone''. Tunnels found under the city of [[Moose Jaw]], [[Saskatchewan]] are said to have been another hideout of Capone's. The tunnels are a very popular tourist attraction, due in part to the alleged link to Capone. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} [http://www.rootdig.com/al_capone.html Al Capone in the 1900-1930 Census] [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/capone.htm Complete FBI files on Al Capone] [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=170&pt=Alphonse%20%27Al%27%20Capone Find-A-Grave Alphonse 'Al' Capone] [http://www.crimelibrary.com/gangsters_outlaws/mob_bosses/capone/hart_10.html?sect=15 A short profile of his older brother Vincenzo] [http://crimemagazine.com/brothers_capone.htm An article on the Brothers Capone] {{imdb name\|id=0135330\|name=Al Capone (I)}} [[Category:1899 births\|Capone, Al]] [[Category:1947 deaths\|Capone, Al]] [[Category:Brooklynites\|Capone, Al]] [[Category:Chicagoans\|Capone, Al]] [[Category:Depression era gangsters\|Capone, Al]] [[Category:Italian-American mobsters\|Capone, Al]] [[Category:Chicago Outfit bosses\|Capone, Al]] [[Category:Drug lords\|Capone, Al]] [[Category:Prisoners convicted of white-collar crimes\|Capone, Al]] [[Category:Roman Catholics\|Capone, Al]] [[Category:High school dropouts\|Capone, Al]] [[af:Al Capone]] [[ca:Al Capone]] [[da:Al Capone]] [[de:Al Capone]] {{Link FA\|de}} [[es:Al Capone]] [[eo:Al CAPONE]] [[fr:Al Capone]] [[hu:Al Capone]] [[hr:Al Capone]] [[it:Al Capone]] [[he:אל קפונה]] [[lt:Al Kaponė]] [[nl:Al Capone]] [[ja:アル・カポネ]] [[no:Al Capone]] [[pl:Al Capone]] [[pt:Al Capone]] [[fi:Al Capone]] [[sq:Al Capone]] [[sv:Al Capone]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amplifier</title> <id>3214</id> <revision> <id>41538256</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:45:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.227.194.17</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Output [[dynamic range]] */ typo fix</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''amplifier''' can be considered to be ''any'' [[device]] that uses a small amount of energy to control a larger amount, although the term today usually refers to an [[electronics\|electronic]] amplifier. The relationship of the input to the output of an amplifier — usually expressed as a function of the input frequency — is called the [[transfer function]] of the amplifier, and the magnitude of the transfer function is termed the [[gain]]. == General characteristics of amplifiers == Most amplifiers can be characterised by a number of parameters. === Gain === How much an amplifier increases the signal level is called the [[gain]]. This is usually measured in [[decibel]]s (dB). Mathematically speaking, the gain is equal to the output level divided by the input level. === Output [[dynamic range]] === This is the range usually quoted in dB between the lowest useful output and the largest useful output level. Since the lowest useful level is limited by output noise, this is quoted as the amplifier dynamic range. === Bandwidth and rise time === The [[bandwidth]] BW of an amplifier is usually defined as the difference between the lower and upper [[half power point]]s. This is therefore also known as the −3 dB BW. Bandwidths for other response tolerances are sometimes quoted (−1 dB, −6 dB etc. As an example, a good audio amplifier will have a −3 dB BW from around twenty hertz to about twenty kilohertz (the range of normal human hearing). The [[rise time]] of an amplifier is the time taken for the out put to change from 10% to 90% of its final level when driven by a step input. For a [[Gaussian response]] system (or a simple RC roll off), the rise time is given by : Tr = BW/0.35 where BW is in [[hertz\|Hz]] and Tr is in [[second]]s === Settling time and aberrations === Time taken for output to settle to within a certain percentage of the final value (say 0.1%). This is usually specified in oscilloscope vertical amplifiers and high accuracy measurement systems. === Slew rate === [[Slew rate]] is the maximum rate of change of output variable, usually quotes in volts per second (or microsecond). === Sine wave distortion === The properties of amplifier circuits distort the signal. This distortion comes in several forms including [[harmonic distortion]] and [[intermodulation distortion]]. Harmonic distortion is fairly easy to measure. The amplifier output is connected to a [[spectrum analyzer]], (a device which graphs frequency against amplitude). Then a pure tone is applied to the amplifier input. Typically a sinusoidal signal of 1 kHz is used. The largest signal on your analyzer should be the input signal at 1 kHz. You will sometimes see humps at even intervals along the graph at even multiples of that base signal. These are the harmonics. The [[total harmonic distortion]] (THD) is the sum of these components relative to the signal. === Noise === How much noise is introduced by the amplification process? This is an undesirable thing that is the inevitable result of the electronics devices and components. It is measured in either decibels or the peak output voltage produced by the amp when no signal is applied. === Efficiency === How much of the input power is usefully applied to the amplifier's output? Class A amplifiers are very inefficient, in the range of 10–20% with a max efficiency of 25%. Modern Class AB amps are commonly between 35–55% efficient with a theoretical maximum of 78.5%. Commercially available class D amplifiers have reported efficiencies as high as 97%. The efficiency of the amplifier limits the amount of total power output that is usefully available. Note that more efficient amps run much cooler, and often do not need any fans even in multi-kilowatt designs. == Electronic amplifiers == {{main\|electronic amplifier}} There are numerous types of electronic amplifier depending upon the application. The most common type of amplifier is the electronic amplifier, commonly used in [[radio]] and [[television]] [[transmitter\|transmitters]] and [[receiver (radio)\|receivers]], [[high-fidelity]] ("hi-fi") stereo equipment, microcomputers and other electronic digital equipment, and [[guitar]] and other [[instrument amplifier]]s. Its critical components are [[active device]]s, such as [[vacuum tube]]s or [[transistor]]s. === Class === Amplifiers are commonly classified by the conduction angle of the input signal through the amplifying device; see [[electronic amplifier]]. Where efficiency is not a consideration, most small signal linear amplifiers are designed as class A, which means that one active device amplifies all portions (360deg) of the input signal. Class B transmits 180deg of the input signal to the output with each device. Class AB transmits between 180 and 360 degrees selected by the amplifier creator. These classes are usually used in efficient low frequency amplifiers (such as audio and hi-fi) owing to their relatively high efficiency, or other designs where both linearity is important and efficiency is important (cell phones, cell towers, TV transmitters). Another popular RF amplifier class is Class C which means that they amplify less than 180&deg; of the input signal. The signal is restored to almost sinusoidal shape by the tuned circuit, and efficiency is higher than A, AB or B classes of amplification, but linearity is very poor. There are non-linear, or switch mode amplifiers that are popular in applications where efficiency and raw power generation is important. Class D, E, F are popular switch mode amplifiers. There are methods of making them linear, but linearity is generally even less than the linear modes of operation. Common switch mode applications are Audio subwoofers, AM and FM radio transmitters, and some long battery life cellphones. === Vacuum tube (valve) amplifiers === {{main\|valve amplifier}} Today most sound systems use [[transistor]]
a\| </math>, is defined to be: :<math>\|a\| := \begin{cases} a, & \mbox{if } a \ge 0 \\ -a, & \mbox{if } a < 0, \end{cases} </math> where <math>-a</math> is the [[additive inverse]] of <math>a</math>, and <math>0</math> is the additive [[identity element]]. == Distance== The absolute value is closely related to the idea of distance. As noted above, the absolute value of a real or complex number is the [[distance]] from that number to the origin, along the real number line, for real numbers, or in the complex plane, for complex numbers, and more generally, the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers is the distance between them. The standard [[Euclidean distance]] between two points :<math>a = (a_1, a_2, \cdots , a_n) </math> and :<math>b = (b_1, b_2, \cdots , b_n) </math> in [[Euclidean space\|Euclidean ''n''-space]] is defined as: :<math>\sqrt{(a_1-b_1)^2 + (a_2-b_2)^2 + \cdots + (a_n-b_n)^2}. </math> This can be seen to be a generalization of <math>\|a - b\|,</math> since if <math>a,</math> <math>b </math> are real, then by Proposition 1, :<math>\|a - b\| = \sqrt{(a - b)^2}</math> while if :<math> a = a_1 + i a_2 \,</math> and :<math> b = b_1 + i b_2 \,</math> are complex numbers, then :{\| cellpadding=10 \|- \|<math>\|a - b\| \,</math> \|<math> = \|(a_1 + i a_2) - (b_1 + i b_2)\|\,</math> \|- \| \|<math> = \|(a_1 - b_1) + i(a_2 - b_2)\|\,</math> \|- \| \|<math> = \sqrt{(a_1 - b_1)^2 + (a_2 - b_2)^2}</math> \|} The above shows that the "absolute value" distance for the real numbers or the complex numbers, agrees with the standard Euclidean distance they inherit as a result of considering them as the one and two-dimensional Euclidean spaces respectively. The properties of the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers: non-negativity, identity of indiscernibles, symmetry and the triangle inequality given in Propositions 2 and 3 above, can be seen to motivate the more general notion of a [[distance function]] as follows: A real valued function <math>d</math> on a set <math>X \times X</math> is called a '''distance function''' (or a '''metric''') for <math>X</math>, if it satisfies the following four axioms: :{\| cellpadding=10 \|- \|<math>d(a, b) \ge 0 </math> \|Non-negativity \|- \|<math>d(a, b) = 0 \iff a = b </math> \|Identity of indiscernibles \|- \|<math>d(a, b) = d(b, a) \,</math> \|Symmetry \|- \|<math>d(a+b) \le d(a, c) + d(c, b) </math> \|Triangle inequality \|} ==Fields== The fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers given in Proposition 2 above, can be used to generalize the notion of absolute value to an arbitrary field, as follows. A real-valued function <math>v</math> on a [[field (mathematics)\|field]] <math>F</math> is called an '''absolute value''' (also a ''modulus'', ''magnitude'', ''value'', or ''valuation'') if it satisfies the following four axioms: :{\| cellpadding=10 \|- \|<math>v(a) \ge 0 </math> \|Non-negativity \|- \|<math>v(a) = 0 \iff a = 0 </math> \|Positive-definiteness \|- \|<math>v(ab) = v(a) v(b) \,</math> \|Multiplicativeness \|- \|<math>v(a+b) \le v(a) + v(b) </math> \|Subadditivity or the triangle inequality \|} It follows from the above that <math>v(1) = 1</math>, where <math>1</math> denotes the multiplicative [[identity element]] of <math>F</math>. The real and complex absolute values defined above are examples of absolute values for an arbitrary field. If <math>v</math> is an absolute value on <math>F</math>, then the function <math>d</math> on <math>F \times F</math>, defined by <math>d(a, b) = v(a - b) </math>, is a metric, and if <math> e </math> is the multiplicative identity in <math>F</math>, then the following are equivalent: * <math>d</math> satisfies the [[ultrametric]] inequality <math> d(x, y) \le \mathrm{max}\{d(x, z), d(y, z)\}. </math> * <math> \big\{ v\Big(\sum_{k=1}^n e\Big) : n \in \mathbb{N} \big\} </math> is [[bounded set\|bounded]] in '''R'''. * <math> v\Big(\sum_{k=1}^n e\Big) \le 1</math> for every <math> n \in \mathbb{N}.</math> * <math> v(a + b) \le \mathrm{max}\{v(a), v(b)\} </math> for all <math> a, b \in F.</math> An absolute value which satisfies any (hence all) of the above conditions is said to be '''non-Archimedean''', otherwise it is said to be [[Archimedean field\|Archimedean]].<sup id="ref_Schechter"><small>[[#endnote_Schechter\|3]]</small></sup> == Vector spaces == Again the fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers, can be used, with a slight modification, to generalize the notion to an arbitrary vector space. A real valued function \|\|&middot;\|\| on a [[vector space]] <math>V</math> a over a field <math>F</math>, is called an '''absolute value''' (or more usually a '''[[norm (mathematics)\|norm]]''') if it satisfies the following axioms: For all <math>a</math> in <math>F</math>, and <math>\mathbf{v}</math>, <math>\mathbf{u}</math> in <math>V</math>, :{\| cellpadding=10 \|- \|<math>\\|\mathbf{v}\\| \ge 0 </math> \|Non-negativity \|- \|<math>\\|\mathbf{v}\\| = 0 \iff \mathbf{v} = 0</math> \|Positive-definiteness \|- \|<math>\\|a \mathbf{v}\\| = \|a\| \\|\mathbf{v}\\| </math> \|Positive homogeneity or positive scalability \|- \|<math>\\|\mathbf{v} + \mathbf{u}\\| \le \\|\mathbf{v}\\| + \\|\mathbf{u}\\| </math> \|Subadditivity or triangle inequality \|} The norm of a vector is also called its ''length'' or ''magnitude''. In the case of [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>, the function :<math>\\|(x_1, x_2, \cdots , x_n) \\| = \sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^{n}(x_i)^2}</math> is a norm called the [[Euclidean norm]]. When the real numbers '''R''' are considered as the one-dimensional [[vector space]] [[Euclidean space\|'''R'''<sup>1</sup>]], the absolute value is a [[Norm (mathematics)\|norm]], and is the [[Norm (mathematics)#Examples\|''p''-norm]] for any ''p''. In fact the absolute value is the "only" norm in '''R'''<sup>1</sup>, in the sense that, for every norm \|\|&middot;\|\| in '''R'''<sup>1</sup>, \|\|''x''\|\|=\|\|1\|\|&middot;\|''x''\|. The complex absolute value is a special case of the [[norm (mathematics)\|norm]] in an [[inner product space]]. It is identical to the Euclidean norm, if the [[complex plane]] is identified with the [[Euclidean plane]] '''R'''<sup>2</sup>. == Algorithms == In the [[C programming language]], the <code>abs()</code>, <code>labs()</code>, <code>llabs()</code> (in C99), <code>fabs()</code>, <code>fabsf()</code>, and <code>fabsl()</code> functions compute the absolute value of an operand. Coding the integer version of the function is trivial, ignoring the boundary case where the largest negative integer is input: int abs(int i) { if (i < 0) return -i; else return i; } The [[floating-point]] versions are trickier, as they have to contend with special codes for [[infinity]] and [[not-a-number]]s. Using [[assembly language]], it is possible to take the absolute value of a [[processor register\|register]] in just three instructions (example shown for a 32-bit register on an [[x86]] architecture, [[Intel]] syntax): cdq xor eax, edx sub eax, edx <code>cdq</code> extends the sign bit of <code>eax</code> into <code>edx</code>. If <code>eax</code> is nonnegative, then <code>edx</code> becomes zero, and the latter two instructions have no effect, leaving <code>eax</code> unchanged. If <code>eax</code> is negative, then <code>edx</code> becomes 0xFFFFFFFF, or -1. The next two instructions then become a [[two's complement]] inversion, giving the absolute value of the negative value in <code>eax</code>. == References == * Nahin, Paul J.; [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0691027951/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-5443484-7306247#reader-link ''An Imaginary Tale'']; Princeton University Press; (hardcover, 1998). ISBN 0691027951 * O'Connor, J.J. and Robertson, E.F.; [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Argand.html "Jean Robert Argand"] * Schechter, Eric; ''Handbook of Analysis and Its Foundations'', pp 259-263, [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0126227608/103-5443484-7306247?v=search-inside&keywords=absolute%20value "Absolute Values"], Academic Press (1997) ISBN 0126227608 * Weisstein, Eric W.; [[MathWorld]]: [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/AbsoluteValue.html "Absolute Value"] == Notes == <div id="endnote_Argand"><sup><small>[[#ref_Argand\|1]]</small></sup> [[Jean-Robert Argand]], is credited with introducing the term "modulus" in [[1806]], see: [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0691027951/ref=sib_vae_pg_73/103-5443484-7306247?%5Fencoding=UTF8&keywords=modulus&p=S02K&twc=4&checkSum=0BsRgLAMFNMXnqArYGxr33gLjR56d%2Bc2nsSoQnGOEKE%3D#reader-page Nahin], [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Argand.html O'Connor and Robertson], and [http://functions.wolfram.com/ComplexComponents/Abs/35/ functions.Wolfram.com].</div> <div id="endnote_Wolfram"><sup><small>[[#ref_Wolfram\|2]]</small></sup>
able. <!--Probably not relevant to an article on the medias in Geneva: Due to the proximity to [[France]], [[List of television stations in France\|French television channels]] have always been available in Geneva.--> ===Sport=== The main sport team in Geneva is [[Servette FC]], a [[football (soccer)]] club founded in 1890. Servette was the only club to have remained in the top league in Switzerland since its creation in the 1930s; however, in [[2005]], management problems caused the bankruptcy of the club's parent company, causing the club to be demoted two divisions. Geneva also has an [[ice hockey]] club, [[Genève-Servette HC]], which operates in the Swiss [[Nationalliga A]]. ==Trivia== Since [[1818]], a particular [[chestnut\|chestnut tree]] is used as the official "herald of the [[Spring]]" in Geneva. The ''sautier'' (secretary of the Parliament of the Canton of Geneva) observes the tree and notes the day of arrival of the first bud. While this event has no practical impact, the sautier issues a formal press release and the local newspaper will usually mention the news. In 2005, the first bud appeared on 19 March, according to the [http://www.geneve.ch/grandconseil/data/rapportgestion_divers/marronnier2005.pdf press release] (in French). ==References== * Jean de Senarclens, "''Geneva: Historic Guide''", Editions du Tricorne, 1995. ISBN 2829301447 == External links == {{commons\|Geneva}} [http://www.ville-ge.ch/index_e.htm Official website of the City of Geneva] [http://www.geneva-tourism.ch Geneva Tourism] ''[[Tribune de Genève]]'': [http://www.tdg.ch/tghome/english_corner/last_news.html Daily news from the city] (English) [http://www.geneva.ch/GenevaHistory.htm Brief history of Geneva] [http://www.geneva.info/ Geneva information] [http://www.tpg.ch Geneva public transport] {{wikitravel}} [http://www.egeneve.ch/ Tales of Geneva life (from 1905 till 2005)] [http://www.geneve.ch/grandconseil/service/accueilmarron.asp The Official Chestnut tree], on the website of the Canton of Geneva (in French) [http://www.gen-gen.ch/ Geneva Genealogical Society], featuring a genealogical tree of more than 170'000 people (all linked together), a forum, and much more {{Municipalities of the Canton of Geneva}} [[Category:Geneva\| ]] [[Category:Cantonal capitals of Switzerland]] [[af:Genève]] [[ar:جنيف]] [[bg:Женева]] [[ca:Ginebra]] [[cs:Ženeva]] [[da:Geneve]] [[de:Genf]] [[es:Ginebra (ciudad)]] [[eo:Ĝenevo]] [[eu:Ginebra (hiria)]] [[fr:Genève]] [[ko:제네바]] [[hi:जेनेवा]] [[io:Genève (urbo)]] [[id:Jenewa]] [[it:Ginevra (città)]] [[he:ז'נבה]] [[la:Genava]] [[hu:Genf]] [[nl:Genève]] [[ja:ジュネーヴ]] [[no:Genève]] [[nn:Genève]] [[pl:Genewa]] [[pt:Genebra]] [[ro:Geneva]] [[rm:Genevra]] [[ru:Женева]] [[scn:Ginevra (cità)]] [[simple:Geneva]] [[sk:Ženeva]] [[sr:Женева]] [[fi:Geneve]] [[sv:Genève]] [[vi:Geneva]] [[tr:Cenevre]] [[zh:日内瓦]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gerard Manley Hopkins</title> <id>12523</id> <revision> <id>41585444</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:36:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cathryn</username> <id>556939</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Poetry */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GerardManleyHopkins.jpg\|right\|300px]] '''Gerard Manley Hopkins''' ([[July 28]], [[1844]] - [[June 8]], [[1889]]) was a [[United Kingdom\|British]] [[Victorian era\|Victorian]] [[poet]] and [[Society of Jesus\|Jesuit]] priest. ==Life== Hopkins was born in [[Stratford, Essex]]. He was the eldest of nine children, the son of Catherine and Manley Hopkins, an insurance agent and consul-general for Hawaii based in London. He was educated at [[Highgate grammar school]] and then [[Balliol College, Oxford]], where he studied classics. It was at Oxford that he forged the friendship with [[Robert Bridges]] which would be of importance in his development as a poet, and posthumous acclaim. He began his time at Oxford as a keen socialiser and prolific poet but he seems to have alarmed himself with this change in his behaviour and became more studious and recorded his sins in his diary. He became a follower of [[Edward Pusey]] and a member of the [[Oxford Movement]] and in [[1866]], following the example of [[John Henry Newman]], he converted from [[Anglicanism]] to [[Roman Catholic]]ism. After his graduation in 1867 Newman found him a teaching post but the following year he decided to enter the priesthood, pausing only to visit [[Switzerland]]. Influenced by his father who also wrote poetry, Hopkins wrote poetry while young, winning a prize for his poetry while at grammar school. His decision to become a Jesuit led him to burn much of his early poetry as he felt it incompatible with his vocation. Writing would remain something of a concern for him as he felt that his interest in poetry prevented him from wholly devoting himself to his religion. He continued to write a detailed journal until 1874. Unable to suppress his desire to describe the natural world, he also continued to write occasional poems. He would later write sermons and other religious pieces. In 1875 he was moved, once more, to write a lengthy poem, ''The Wreck of the Deutschland''. This work was inspired by the [[Deutschland (1866)\|Deutschland]], a naval disaster in which 157 people died including five [[Franciscan]] nuns who had been leaving Germany due to harsh anti-[[Catholic]] laws. The work displays both the religious concerns and some of the unusual [[meter (poetry)\|meter]] and rhythms of his subsequent poetry not present in his few remaining early works. It not only depicts the dramatic events and heroic deeds but also tells of the poet's reconciling the terrible events with God's higher purpose. The poem was accepted but not printed by a Jesuit publication and this rejection fuelled his ambivalence about his poetry. The austere and restrictive life of the various Jesuit institutions in which he studied left him at times gloomy. The brilliant student who had left Oxford with a first class honours degree failed his final theology exam. This failure meant that, although ordained in [[1877]] Hopkins, would not likely progress in the order. Whilst not always happy in his studies there was at least stability, the uncertain and varied work after ordination was even less to his liking. He served in various parishes in England and Scotland and taught at [[Mount St Mary's College]], Sheffield, and [[Stonyhurst College]], Lancashire. In 1884 he became professor of Greek literature at [[University College Dublin]]. His Englishness and his disagreement with the Irish politics of the time, as well as his own small stature (5'2"), unprepossessing nature and own personal oddities meant that he was not a particularly effective teacher. This as well as his isolation in Ireland deepened his gloom and his poems of the time, such as ''I Wake and Feel the Fell of Dark'', reflected this; called by Hopkins "terrible sonnets". After suffering ill health for several years and bouts of diarrhoea, Hopkins died of [[typhoid fever]] in 1889 and was buried in [[Glasnevin Cemetery]], Dublin. == Poetry== Much of Hopkins' historical importance has to do with the changes he brought to the form of poetry, which ran contrary to conventional ideas of [[meter (poetry)\|meter]]. Prior to Hopkins, most [[Middle English]] and [[Modern English]] poetry was based on a rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of English's literary heritage. This structure is based on repeating groups of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition. Hopkins called this structure [[running rhythm]], and though he wrote some of his early verse in running rhythm he became fascinated with the older rhythmic structure of the Anglo-Saxon tradition, of which ''[[Beowulf]]'' is the most famous example. Hopkins called this rhythmic structure [[sprung rhythm]]. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot. In reality, it more closely resembles the "rolling stresses" of [[Robinson Jeffers]], another poet who disavowed conventional meter. Hopkins saw sprung rhythm as a way to escape the constraints of running rhythm, which he said inevitably, pushed poetry written in it to become "same and tame." In this way, Hopkins can be seen as anticipating much of [[free verse]]. His work has no great affinity with either of the contemporary [[Pre-Raphaelite]] and [[neo-romanticism]] schools, although he does share their descriptive love of nature and he is often seen as a precursor to [[modernist poetry]] or as a bridge between the two poetic eras. Another influence on him was the [[Welsh language]] he learnt while studying theology at [[St. Beuno's College]] in Wales. The poetic forms of [[Welsh literature]] and particularly [[cynghanedd]] with its emphasis on repeating sounds accorded with his own style and became a prominent feature of his work. This reliance on similar sounding words with close or differing senses mean that his poems are best understood if read aloud. An important element in his work is Hopkins' own concept of "[[inscape]]" which was derived, in part, from the medieval theologian [[Duns Scotus]]. The exact detail of "inscape" is uncertain and probably known to Hopkins alone but it has to do with the individual essence and uniqueness of every physical thing. This is communicated from an object by its "[[instress]]" and ensures the transmission of the item's importance in the wider creation. His poems would then try to present this "inscape" so that a poem like "The Windhover" aims to depict not the bird in general but instead one instance and its relation to the breeze. This is just one inter
or 1941 - [[Kaspar Villiger]], Swiss Federal Councilor [[1942]] - [[Roger Staubach]], American football player [[1943]] - [[Nolan Bushnell]], American video game pioneer 1943 - [[Michael Mann (film director)\|Michael Mann]], American film director, writer, and producer [[1943]] - [[Craig Morton]], American football player [[1944]] - [[Al Kooper]], American musician [[1945]] - [[Charlotte Rampling]], British actress [[1947]] - [[Darrell Waltrip]], American race car driver [[1948]] - [[Christopher Guest]], American actor, writer, director, and composer 1948 - [[Barbara Hershey]], American actress 1948 - [[Errol Morris]], American film director 1948 - [[V. Alexander Stefan]], American physicist, educator, and writer [[1949]] - [[Nigel Olsson]], drummer [[1952]] - [[Joseph Mullin]], Oceanographer [[1953]] - [[John Beilein]], American head coach of the West Virginia University men's basketball team [[1962]] - [[Jennifer Jason Leigh]], American actress [[1964]] - [[Laura Linney]], American actress 1964 - [[Duff McKagen]], American musician ([[Guns N' Roses]]) [[1965]] - [[Gheorghe Hagi]], Romanian footballer [[1966]] - [[Rok Petrovic\|Rok Petrovič]], Slovenian skier (d. [[1993]]) [[1968]] - [[Roberto Alomar]], baseball player [[1969]] - [[Bobby Brown]], American singer [[1971]] - [[Sara Evans]], American singer [[1972]] - [[Mary, Crown Princess of Denmark]] 1972 - [[Koriki Choshu]], Japanese comedian [[1976]] - [[Tony Jaa]], Thai actor [[1976]] - [[Abhishek Bachchan]], Indian actor [[1977]] - [[Ben Ainslie]], British sailor 1977 - [[Ahmad Merritt]], American football player [[1980]] - [[Robin Vik]], [[Czech Republic\|Czech]] [[tennis]] player [[1984]] - [[Carlos Tévez]], Argentinine footballer [[1985]] - [[Cristiano Ronaldo]], Portuguese footballer [[1986]] - [[Reed Sorenson]], [[NASCAR]] Driver [[1989]] - [[Jeremy Sumpter]], American actor ==Deaths== [[995]] - [[William IV of Aquitaine\|William IV, Duke of Aquitaine]] (b. [[937]]) [[1520]] - [[Sten Sture the Younger]], regent of Sweden (b. [[1493]]) [[1578]] - [[Giambattista Moroni]], Italian painter [[1705]] - [[Philipp Jakob Spener]], German theologian (b. [[1635]]) [[1766]] - [[Leopold Josef Graf Daun]], Austrian field marshal (b. [[1705]]) [[1775]] - [[Eusebius Amort]], German Catholic theologian (b. [[1692]]) [[1790]] - [[William Cullen]], Scottish physician and chemist (b. [[1710]]) [[1807]] - [[Pasquale Paoli]], Corsican patriot and military leader (b. [[1725]]) [[1818]] - King [[Charles XIII of Sweden]] (b. [[1748]]) [[1881]] - [[Thomas Carlyle]], Scottish writer and historian (b. [[1795]]) [[1915]] - [[Ross Barnes]], baseball player (b. [[1850]]) [[1917]] - [[Jaber II Al-Sabah]], Emir of [[Kuwait]] (b. [[1860]] ) [[1922]] - [[Slavoljub Eduard Penkala]], Croatian inventor (b. [[1871]]) [[1922]] - [[Christiaan De Wet]], South African general [[1937]] - [[Lou Andreas-Salome]], Russian-born writer (b. [[1861]]) [[1946]] - [[George Arliss]], English actor (b. [[1868]]) [[1962]] - [[Jacques Ibert]], French composer (b. [[1890]]) [[1966]] - [[Ludwig Binswanger]], Swiss psychiatrist (b. [[1881]]) [[1967]] - [[L. L. Bean\|Leon Leonwood Bean]], American department store founder (b. [[1872]]) [[1970]] - [[Rudy York]], baseball player (b. [[1913]]) [[1972]] - [[Marianne Moore]], American poet (b. [[1887]]) [[1976]] - [[Rudy Pompilli]], American musician ([[Bill Haley and His Comets]]) (b. [[1926]]) [[1977]] - [[Oskar Klein]], Swedish physicist (b. [[1894]]) [[1981]] - [[Ella Grasso]], Governor of Connecticut (b. [[1919]]) [[1991]] - [[Dean Jagger]], American actor (b. [[1903]]) [[1992]] - [[Miguel Rolando Covian]], Brazilian physiologist (b. [[1913]]) [[1993]] - [[Joseph L. Mankiewicz]], American writer, producer, and director (b. [[1909]]) [[1995]] - [[Doug McClure]], American actor (b. [[1935]]) [[1997]] - [[Pamela Harriman]], English-born American diplomat (b. [[1920]]) [[1999]] - [[Wassily Leontief]], Russian economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics\|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1906]]) [[2003]] - [[Helge Boes]], American Central Intelligence Agency officer [[2005]] - [[Gnassingbe Eyadema]], [[President of Togo]] (b. [[1937]]) [[2006]] - [[Norma Candal]], Puerto Rican actress and comedienne (b. [[1930]]) 2006 - [[Franklin Cover]], American actor (b. [[1928]]) ==Holidays and observances== [[Catholicism]] - Feast day of [[St Agatha]]. [[Kashmir\|Kashmir Day]] observes as public holiday in [[Pakistan]]. ==External links== * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=05 On this day in Canada] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060205.html NY Times: On this day] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/5 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[February 4]] - [[February 6]] - [[January 5]] - [[March 5]] -- [[Historical anniversaries\|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[Category:Days\|February 05]] [[ceb:Pebrero 5]] [[nap:5 'e frevaro]] [[af:5 Februarie]] [[ar:5 فبراير]] [[an:5 de frebero]] [[ast:5 de febreru]] [[bg:5 февруари]] [[be:5 лютага]] [[bs:5. februar]] [[ca:5 de febrer]] [[cv:Нарăс, 5]] [[co:5 di frivaghju]] [[cs:5. únor]] [[cy:5 Chwefror]] [[da:5. februar]] [[de:5. Februar]] [[et:5. veebruar]] [[el:5 Φεβρουαρίου]] [[es:5 de febrero]] [[eo:5-a de februaro]] [[eu:Otsailaren 5]] [[fo:5. februar]] [[fr:5 février]] [[fy:5 febrewaris]] [[ga:5 Feabhra]] [[gl:5 de febreiro]] [[ko:2월 5일]] [[hr:5. veljače]] [[io:5 di februaro]] [[id:5 Februari]] [[ia:5 de februario]] [[is:5. febrúar]] [[it:5 febbraio]] [[he:5 בפברואר]] [[jv:5 Februari]] [[ka:5 თებერვალი]] [[csb:5 gromicznika]] [[ku:5'ê reşemiyê]] [[lt:Vasario 5]] [[lb:5. Februar]] [[hu:Február 5]] [[mk:5 февруари]] [[ms:5 Februari]] [[nl:5 februari]] [[ja:2月5日]] [[no:5. februar]] [[nn:5. februar]] [[oc:5 de febrièr]] [[os:5 февралы]] [[pl:5 lutego]] [[pt:5 de Fevereiro]] [[ro:5 februarie]] [[ru:5 февраля]] [[se:Guovvamánu 5.]] [[sco:5 Februar]] [[sq:5 Shkurt]] [[scn:5 di frivaru]] [[simple:February 5]] [[sk:5. február]] [[sl:5. februar]] [[sr:5. фебруар]] [[fi:5. helmikuuta]] [[sv:5 februari]] [[tl:Pebrero 5]] [[tt:5. Febräl]] [[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 5]] [[th:5 กุมภาพันธ์]] [[vi:5 tháng 2]] [[tr:5 Şubat]] [[uk:5 лютого]] [[wa:5 di fevrî]] [[zh:2月5日]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fayez Ahmed</title> <id>11120</id> <revision> <id>15908885</id> <timestamp>2005-05-18T06:39:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ragib</username> <id>51413</id> </contributor> <comment>Non notable person, probably self-promotion, removed</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fayed Ahmed''' can refer to: *Suspected [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack\|9-11]] hijacker [[Fayez Banihammad]] {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fox News Channel</title> <id>11121</id> <revision> <id>42043188</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:01:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web\|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser\|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Network \| network_name = Fox News Channel\| network_logo = [[Image:FNC logo.png]]\| country = [[United States]]\| network_type = [[Cable television\|Cable]] [[television network]]\| available = [[United States]] and others; see [[Fox News Channel#International transmission\|"International transmission"]] section below for other availability\| slogan = "We Report, You Decide", "[[Fair and Balanced]]"\| owner = [[News Corporation]]\| key_people = [[Roger Ailes]], Chairman & [[Chief Executive Officer\|CEO]]\| launch_date = [[October 7]], [[1996]]\| website = [http://foxnews.com foxnews.com]\| }} The '''Fox News Channel''' is a popular [[United States\|U.S.]] [[cable television\|cable]] and [[satellite television\|satellite]] [[news]] channel. It is owned by the [[Fox Entertainment Group]], and is a [[subsidiary]] of [[News Corporation]], under major [[shareholder]] and [[chief executive officer]] [[Rupert Murdoch]]. As of January [[2005]], it is available to 85 million subscribers in the U.S. and to further viewers internationally, broadcasting primarily out of its [[New York City]] studios. An audio simulcast of the channel is played on [[XM Satellite Radio]] channel 121. XM also provides [[Fox News Talk]] for talk radio programs syndicated by and featuring Fox News personalities. The network was launched on [[October 7]], [[1996]] to 17 million cable subscribers. The network quickly rose to prominence in the late 1990s as it started taking market share away from competitor [[CNN]]. [[As of 2005]], Fox News' ratings exceeds those of competing news channels for long-term viewers ([[Nielsen Ratings\|Nielsen's]] Points ratings), although [[CNN]] outnumbers Fox News in terms of numbers of individual viewers (Nielsen's Cume ratings). ==History== [[image:IraqWarCoverage-FNC.jpg\|thumb\|Fox News Channel Iraq war coverage]] <!-- This part of the article needs to be expanded --> Rupert Murdoch established Fox News to counter a news media that he believed was predominantly liberal.{{ref\|ruplib}} Murdoch had significant experience with cable news after starting the [[Sky News]] rolling news service in the [[United Kingdom]]. In February [[1996]], after [[Roger Ailes]] (who would later be the president of Fox News) was relieved of duties at [[America's Talking]], in preparation for conversion of the network to [[MSNBC]], Murdoch called Ailes to start the network. A group of Ailes loyalists who followed him throughout the [[NBC]] empire joined him at Fox. From there, the CNBC expatriates, who joined a team already in place at Fox News, created the programming concept and proceeded to select space in New York. Ailes worked individuals, often agitate
ults. There was, essentially, no concept of "find" or "search". This might sound like a serious limitation today, but in an era when the data was most often stored on [[magnetic tape]] such operations were too expensive to contemplate anyway. [[International Business Machines\|IBM]] also had their own DBMS system in 1968, known as '''IMS'''. [[Information Management System\|IMS]] was a development of software written for the [[Project Apollo\|Apollo program]] on the [[System/360]]. IMS was generally similar in concept to Codasyl, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of Codasyl's network model. Both concepts later became known as '''[[navigational database]]s''' due to the way data was accessed, and Bachman's 1973 [[Turing Award]] award presentation was ''The Programmer as Navigator''. IMS is classified as a [[Hierarchical model\|hierarchical database]]. IDS and [[IDMS]] (both CODASYL databases) as well as [[CINCOM]]s [[TOTAL (database)\|TOTAL]] database are classified as [[network model\|network databases]]. ===[[Relational DBMS]]=== [[Edgar Codd]] worked at [[International Business Machines \|IBM]] in [[San Jose, California]], in one of their offshoot offices that was primarily involved in the development of [[hard disk]] systems. He was unhappy with the navigational model of the Codasyl approach, notably the lack of a "search" facility which was becoming increasingly useful when the database was stored on disk instead of tape. In 1970 he wrote a number of papers that outlined a new approach to database construction that eventually culminated in the groundbreaking ''A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks''. In this paper he described a new system for storing and working with large databases. Instead of records being stored in some sort of [[linked list]] of free-form records as in Codasyl, Codd's idea was to use a "[[Table (database)\|table]]" of fixed-length records. A linked-list system would be very inefficient when storing "sparse" databases where some of the data for any one record could be left empty. The relational model solved this by splitting the data into a series of normalized tables, with optional elements being moved out of the main table to where they would take up room only if needed. [[Image:Relational_key.png\|thumb\|300px\|In the relational model, related records are linked together with a "key".]] For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name, login information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach all of these data would be placed in a single record, and unused items would simply not be placed in the database. In the relational approach, the data would be ''normalized'' into a user table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided. Linking the information back together is the key to this system. In the relational model some bit of information was used as a "[[Primary key\|key]]", uniquely defining a particular record. When information was being collected about a user, information stored in the optional (or ''related'') tables would be found by searching for this key. For instance, if the login name of a user is unique, addresses and phone numbers for that user would be recorded with the login name as its key. This "re-linking" of related data back into a single [[collection]] is something that traditional computer languages are not designed for. Just as the navigational approach would require programs to loop in order to collect records, the relational approach would require loops to collect information about any one record. Codd's solution to the necessary looping was a set-oriented language, a suggestion that would later spawn the ubiquitous [[SQL]]. Using a branch of mathematics known as ''[[tuple calculus]]'', he demonstrated that such a system could support all the operations of normal databases (inserting, updating etc.) as well as providing a simple system for finding and returning ''sets'' of data in a single operation. Codd's paper was picked up by two people at Berkeley, [[Eugene Wong]] and [[Michael Stonebraker]]. They started a project known as [[INGRES]] using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project, using student programmers to produce code. Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for widespread use in 1979. During this time a number of people had moved "through" the group &mdash; perhaps as many as 30 people worked on the project, about five at a time. INGRES was similar to [[System R]] in a number of ways, including the use of a "language" for data access, known as [[QUEL]] &mdash; QUEL was in fact relational, having been based on Codd's own Alpha language, but has since been corrupted to follow SQL, thus violating much the same concepts of the relational model as SQL itself. IBM itself did only one test implementation of the relational model, [[PRTV]], and a production one, [[Business System 12]], both now discontinued. [[Honeywell]] did [[MRDS]] for [[Multics]], and now there are two new implementations: [[Alphora Dataphor]] and [[Rel]]. All other DBMS implementations usually called '''relational''' are actually SQL DBMSs. ===SQL DBMS=== IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as '''[[System R]]''' in the early 1970s &mdash; unfortunately System R was conceived as a way of proving Codd's ideas unimplementable, and thus the project was delivered to a group of programmers who weren't under Codd's supervision, never understood his ideas fully and ended up violating several fundamentals of the relational model. The first "quickie" version was ready in [[1974]]/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data could be broken down so that all of the data for a record (much of which is often optional) didn't have to be stored in a single large "chunk". Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in [[1978]] and 79, by which time a standardized [[computer language]], [[SQL]], had been added. Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and superior to Codasyl, pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R, known as '''SQL/DS''', and, later, '''Database 2''' ([[DB2]]). Many of the people involved with INGRES became convinced of the future commercial success of such systems, and formed their own companies to commercialize the work but with an SQL interface. [[Sybase]], [[Informix]], [[NonStop SQL]] and eventually [[Ingres]] itself were all being sold as offshoots to the original INGRES product in the 1980s. Even [[Microsoft SQL Server]] is actually a re-built version of Sybase, and thus, INGRES. Only [[Larry Ellison]]'s [[Oracle Corporation\|Oracle]] started from a different chain, based on IBM's papers on System R by beating them to market when the first version was released in 1978. Stonebraker went on to apply the lessons from INGRES to develop a new database, Postgres, now known as [[PostgreSQL]]. PostgreSQL is now one of the most widely used databases in the world, primarily for global mission critical applications (the .org and .info domain name registries use it as their primary data store, as do many large companies and financial institutions). In [[Sweden]] Codd's paper was also read, [[Mimer SQL]] was developed from the mid-70s at [[Uppsala University]], and in 1984 this project was consolidated into an independent enterprise. In the early 1980s Mimer introduced transaction handling for high robustness in applications, an idea that was subsequently implemented on most other DBMSs. ===[[Object-oriented DBMS]]=== Multidimensional DBMS did have one lasting impact on the market: they led directly to the development of [[object database]] systems. Based on the same general structure and concepts as the multidimensional systems, these new systems allowed the user to store objects directly in the database. That is, the programming constructs being used in the [[object oriented]] (OO) programming world could be used directly in the database, instead of first being converted to some other format. This could happen because of the multidimensional system's concepts of [[ownership]]. In an OO program a particular object will typically contain others; for example, the object representing Bob may contain a reference to a separate object referring to Bob's home address. Adding support for various OO languages and [[polymorphism (computer science)\|polymorphism]] re-created the multidimensional systems as object databases, which continue to serve a niche today. ==Description== A DBMS can be an extremely complex set of software programs that controls the [[organization]], [[Computer storage\|storage]] and [[Data retrieval\|retrieval]] of data (fields, records and files) in a [[database]]<!--this sentence needs to be rewritten or even deleted-->. The basic functionalities that a DBMS must provide are: # A [[Data modeling\|modeling]] [[Formal language\|language]] to define the [[schema]] of each [[database]] hosted in the DBMS, according to the DBMS [[data model]]. #*The three most common organizations are the [[hierarchical model\|hierarchical]], [[network model\|network]] and [[relational model\|relational]] models. A database management system may provide one, two or all three methods. Inverted lists and other methods are also used. The most suitable structure depends on the application and on the transaction rate and the number of inquiries that will be made.<BR>The dominant model in use today is the ad hoc one embedded in SQL, a corruption of the relational model by violating several of its fundamental principles. Ma
name>Gareth Aus</username> <id>553489</id> </contributor> <comment>rm duplification</comment> <text xml:space="preserve"><noinclude>{{Wikipedia-specific help}}</noinclude> {{Shortcut\|[[WP:R]] or [[WP:RDR]]}} ''(To go to a redirect click {{SERVER}}{{localurl:X\|redirect=no}} and change the page name (here X) in the address bar of the browser. Type it in canonical form, i.e., starting with a capital and with underscores for spaces.)'' This section discusses policy on the use and abuse of redirects on the English Wikipedia. ==How to make a redirect== To redirect a page (1) to a different page (2), enter on the top of page 1: '''<nowiki>#REDIRECT [[NAME OF PAGE 2]]</nowiki>''' For example, to redirect the [{{SERVER}}{{localurl:Cambridge University\|redirect=no}} Cambridge University] page to the [[University of Cambridge]] page, [{{SERVER}}{{localurl:Cambridge University\|action=edit}} edit] the Cambridge University page and enter: '''<nowiki>#REDIRECT [[University of Cambridge]]</nowiki>''' Please note that you can redirect only to articles, not sections in them; although the [[syntax]] allows them, e.g. '''<nowiki>#REDIRECT [[University of Cambridge#History]]</nowiki>''' they [[Meta:Help:Redirect#A redirect to an anchor\|don't work]]. Everything after the redirect line will be blanked when you save the page. Any text on the same line as the redirect will stay, but will not be visible unless someone edits the page. To go back and '''edit your redirect after it's working,''' add '''&redirect=no''' to the end of the URL for your redirect. To ''add a reason'', select one of the tags from the Tag column below and add it one space after and on the same line as <nowiki>#REDIRECT [[Wherever]]</nowiki>. E.g. for the redirect page [[University of cambridge]], '''<nowiki>#REDIRECT [[University of Cambridge]] {{R from other capitalisation}} </nowiki>''' That will also add the redirect to the category listed in the Category column below. <!-- It's possible to add a text in the same line after the #REDIRECT to describe why it had been created. There is a [[Wikipedia:Template messages/Redirect pages\|list of Redirect message templates]] (with titles starting with "R_") in the Template namespace that may be used for this, e.g. <nowiki>{</nowiki>{R_to_sort_name}} displays [[Template:R_to_sort_name]], e.g. on [{{SERVER}}{{localurl:Aasen, Ivar Andreas\|redirect=no}} Aasen,_Ivar_Andreas] ''(if you click this link, you won't be redirected. When you click 'Edit this page' there, you will see how it can be used)''. '''Note: This feature is broken right now. See the [[MediaZilla:927\|bug report]].''' --> More examples are included below: == What do we use redirects for? == {\| class="wikitable" !Reason !Usage notes, and text that will be shown !Tag !Category to find articles so tagged \|- \|Abbreviations \|{{R from abbreviation}} [[DSM-IV]] redirects to [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] \|{{tl\|R from abbreviation}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from abbreviation]] \|- \|Misspellings \|{{R from misspelling}} [[Condoleeza Rice]] redirects to [[Condoleezza Rice]] \|{{tl\|R from misspelling}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from misspellings]] \|- \|Other spellings, other punctuation \|{{R from alternate spelling}} [[colour]] redirects to [[color]] [[Al-Jazeera]] redirects to [[Al Jazeera]] \|{{tl\|R from alternate spelling}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from alternate spellings]] \|- \|Other capitalisations, for use in links \|{{R from other capitalisation}} [[Natural Selection]] redirects to [[Natural selection]] \|{{tl\|R for alternate capitalisation}} \|[[:Category:Redirects for alternative capitalisation]] \|- \|Other capitalisations, to ensure that "Go" to a mixed-capitalisation article title is case-insensitive \|{{R from other capitalisation}} Adding a redirect for '''mixed-capitalisation article titles''' (e.g., Isle of Wight) allows "Go" to these articles to be case-insensitive. For example, without the redirect [[Isle of wight]] a "Go" for "Isle Of wight" or any capitalisation other than exactly 'Isle of Wight' would not find the article [[Isle of Wight]]. '''Why''': Articles whose titles contain mixed-capitalisation words (not all initial caps, or not all lower case except the first word) are found via "Go" only by an exact case match. (Articles, including redirects, whose titles are either all initial caps or only first word capitalised are found via "Go" using a case-insensitive match.) Note: "Go" related redirects are needed '''only if''' the article title has more than two words and words following the first have different capitalisations. They are not needed, for example, for proper names which are all initial caps. Examples: Redirect [[Vice chancellor of austria]] to [[Vice Chancellor of Austria]] is needed because the Go search is case-sensitive for mixed-caps titles. Adding this redirect allows the article to be found when a user enters "vice chancellor of austria" or "vice chancellor of Austria" as a Go search. No redirect to [[Francis Ford Coppola]] is needed because the "Go" command is case-insensitive for an article whose title is all initial caps. Any capitalisation (e.g. "francis fOrD CoPPola") entered as a "Go" will find the article. \|{{tl\|R from other capitalisation}} \|[[:Category:Redirects for alternative capitalisation]] \|- \|Other names, pseudonyms, nicknames, and synonyms \|{{R from alternate name}} [[Wellie throwing]] redirects to [[Wellie wanging]] [[Butcher of Kurdistan]] redirects to [[Ali Hassan al-Majid]] [[Rev. Fred Phelps]] redirects to [[Fred Phelps]] [[Linear operator]] redirects to [[Linear transformation]] \|{{tl\|R from alternate name}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from alternate names]] \|- \|Scientific names \|{{R from scientific name}} [[Heosemys depressa]] redirects to [[Arakan Forest Turtle]] [[Deuterium oxide]] redirects to [[Heavy water]] [[1P/Halley]] redirects to [[Comet Halley]] \|{{tl\|R from scientific name}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from scientific names]] \|- \|Other languages \|{{R from alternate language}} [[The Abduction from the Seraglio]] redirects to [[Die Entführung aus dem Serail]] \|{{tl\|R from alternate language}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from alternate languages]] \|- \|Accents \|{{R from ASCII}} [[Kurt Goedel]] and [[Kurt Godel]] redirect to [[Kurt Gödel]] \|{{tl\|R from ASCII}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from titles with ASCII]] \|- \|Plurals, tenses, etc \|{{R from plural}} [[greenhouse gases]] redirects to [[greenhouse gas]], etc. Note that <nowiki>[[greenhouse gas]]es</nowiki> shows up as [[greenhouse gas]]es, so it is not usually necessary to redirect plurals. However third-party websites started adding automatic links to wikipedia from their topics (see, e.g., [http://www.spikemagazine.com/free-new-books/2005/12/explorion-free-travel-books.php]). Many of them follow the opposite naming convention, i.e., topics are named in plural, and the link to wikipedia may land into an empty page, if there is no redirect. <!-- fixed a couple myself --> \|{{tl\|R from plural}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from plurals]] \|- \|Related words \|{{R from related word}} [[Symbiont]] redirects to [[Symbiosis]] \|{{tl\|R from related word}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from related words]] \|- \|Sub-topics or closely related topics that should be explained within the text \|{{R with possibilities}} [[Distributed denial of service]] redirects to [[Denial of service]] \|{{tl\|R with possibilities}} \|[[:Category:Redirects with possibilities]] \|- \|Facilitate disambiguation \|{{R to disambiguation page}} [[America (disambiguation)]] redirects to [[America]] \|{{tl\|R to disambiguation page}} \|[[:Category:Redirects to disambiguation pages]] \|- \|To track statements that date quickly \|{{R for as of}} [[As of 2003]] redirects to [[2003]] See [[Wikipedia:As of]] for more info. \|{{tl\|R for as of}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from "As of"]] \|- \|To redirect to decade article \|{{R to decade}} [[1003 BC]] redirects to [[1000s BC]] \|{{tl\|R to decade}} \|[[:Category:Redirects to decade]] \|- \|To redirect from a shortcut \|{{R from shortcut}} [[WP:CAT]] redirects to [[Wikipedia:Category]] \|{{tl\|R from shortcut}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from shortcut]] \|- \|Oldstyle CamelCase links \|{{R from CamelCase}} [[DemocracY]] redirects to [[Democracy]] \|{{tl\|R from CamelCase}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from CamelCase]] \|- \|links autogenerated from EXIF information \|{{R from EXIF}} [[Adobe Photoshop CS Windows]] redirects to [[Adobe Photoshop]] \|{{tl\|R from EXIF}} \|[[:Category:Redirects from EXIF information]] \|- \|From school microstub to merge location \|{{R from school}} [[Culler Middle School]] redirects to [[Lincoln Public Schools]] \|{{tl\|R from school}} \|[[:Category: Redirects from school articles]] \|} Avoiding broken links (see [[#Renamings and merges\|below]]) * Minor but notable topics [[Template:R with possibilities\|Sub-topic redirects]] are often temporary, eventually being replaced by fully fledged articles on the sub-topic in question. Be conservative when creating sub-topic redirects &mdash; they can sometimes be counter-productive, because they disguise the absence of a proper article from editors. Sub-topic redirects should only be used where the main article has a section on the sub-topic. For example, [[denial of service]] has a section on distributed denial of service. Sub-topics should be '''boldfaced''' on their first appearance in the section, to indicate that they are in fact alternate titles or sub-titles. In accordance with [[wikipedia:naming conventions (precision)]] it's best to have an article at a well-defined, unambiguous term, with redirects from looser colloquial terms, rather than vice versa. Some editors prefer to avoid redirects and link
rs caught on tape] - Gloating about manipulating California's energy market. (''[[CBS Evening News]]'') [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/06/02/eveningnews/main620795.shtml More Enron Tapes] [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/06/16/eveningnews/main623569.shtml Even More Enron tapes] ===Other=== [http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/10/10521.html Yahoo! - Enron Corp. Company Profile] [http://www.elawforenron.com/ Document Repository for Enron Bankruptcy] [http://www.riskbook.com/link_topic/history_best_enron_books.htm The Best Enron Books] reviews books on Enron. [http://www.chron.com/content/news/photos/02/04/11/letter/popup2.htm Suicide note of Enron employee J. Clifford Baxter] (Chron.com) [http://www.nrunwrekords.com NRun Wreckords: 'Corporate America'] ===Directories=== [http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Business/Allegedly_Unethical_Firms/Enron/ Open Directory Project - Enron] directory category * [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317829/us317861/us65309/us282395/us10090036/us10104791/us10041501/ LookSmart - Enron Case] directory category * [http://dir.yahoo.com/Business_and_Economy/Business_to_Business/Energy/Enron/History/ Yahoo - Enron History] directory category [[Category:Enron\|]][[Category:Defunct companies of the United States]] [[de:Enron]] [[es:Enron]] [[fr:Enron]] [[ja:&#12456;&#12531;&#12525;&#12531;]] [[nl:Enron]] [[sv:Enron]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Episcopal Church in the United States of America</title> <id>10167</id> <revision> <id>41888288</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:03:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BrownHairedGirl</username> <id>754619</id> </contributor> <comment>/ Colonies and Revolution: 1607-1789 */ link terms</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:washingtonnationalcathedral.jpg\|thumb\|250px\| [[National Cathedral\|The Cathedral Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul]] in [[Washington DC]] is the [[National Cathedral]] of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America.]] The '''Episcopal Church''' or the '''Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America''' is the American [[national church]] of the [[Anglicanism\|Anglican]] [[Anglican communion\|Communion]]. It includes 108 [[Dioceses of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America\|dioceses]] in the [[United States]], the [[US Virgin Islands]], [[Haiti]], [[Taiwan]], [[Colombia]], the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Honduras]], and has an extra-provincial relationship with the dioceses of [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Venezuela]]. In the United States the Church has a membership of approximately 2.3 million, and has counted among its members more than a quarter of all [[President of the United States\|presidents of the United States]] (see: [[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations]]). The full legal name of the national church corporate body is <b>The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America</b>, but this name is rarely used. It is sometimes known as the '''Episcopal Church in the USA''', abbreviated '''ECUSA'''. The church has its national offices in [[New York City]] but its leader, the [[List of Presiding Bishops in the Episcopal Church in the United States of America\|Presiding Bishop]], is installed ceremonially at [[Washington National Cathedral]]. Its governing body, the general convention, has no fixed home today, meeting at a different site each time it convenes. The incumbent Presiding Bishop is the Most Rev. [[Frank Tracy Griswold]] III. Like many other Anglican churches, it has entered into [[full communion]] with Lutherans, in this case with the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]]. ==History== ===Colonies and Revolution: 1607-1789=== [[Image:Episcopal_Church_USA_Shield.png\|thumb\|right\|175px\|Shield of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] The first [[congregation (worship)\|congregation]] of what would become the Episcopal Church in the United States was founded in [[Jamestown]], [[Virginia]], in 1607 as part of the [[Church of England]]. From there, the church spread throughout the American colonies. The Church of England became the established church in [[Virginia]] in 1609, in the lower part of [[New York]] in 1693; in [[Maryland]] in 1702, in [[South Carolina]] in 1706, and in [[Georgia (U.S. state)\|Georgia]] in 1758. This was a matter of local taxes being given to the [[vestry]] for church use. Virginia attempted to make requirements about attendance, but with a severe shortage of clergy, they were not enforced. These vestries were part of the Church of England, whose clergy reported to the Bishop of London (from 1635) through appointed "commissaries" especially [[James Blair (clergyman)\|James Blair]], who served 1685-1743. After 1702 the "[[Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts]]" (SPG) began missionary activity throughout the colonies. The ministers were few, the [[glebe\|glebes]] small, the salaries inadequate, and the people quite uninterested in religion, as the vestry became in effect a kind of local government. One historian has explained the workings of the [[parish]] [Olmstead p 45]: <blockquote> The parish was a local unit concerned with such matters as the conduct and support of the parish church, the supervision of morals, and the care of the poor. Its officers, who made up the vestry, were ordinarily influential and wealthy property holders chosen by a majority of the parishioners. They appointed the parish ministers, made local assessments, and investigated cases of moral offense for referral to the county court, the next higher judicatory. They also selected the church wardens, who audited the parish accounts and prosecuted morals cases. For several decades the system worked in a democratic fashion, but by the 1660's, the vestries had generally become self-perpetuating units made up of well-to-do landowners. This condition was sharply resented by the small farmers and servants. </blockquote> The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, with the support of the Bishop of London, wanted a bishop for the colonies. Strong opposition arose in the South, where a bishop would threaten the privileges of the lay vestry. Opponents conjured up visions of "episcopal palaces, or pontifical revenues, of spiritual courts, and all the pomp, grandeur, luxury and regalia of an American Lambeth." (New York Gazette or Weekly Post Boy, March 14, 1768.) John Adams later explained, "the apprehension of Episcopacy" contributed to the American Revolution, capturing the attention "not only of the inquiring mind, but of the common people. . . . The objection was not merely to the office of a bishop, though even that was dreaded, but to the authority of parliament, on which it must be founded." (Bonomi, 200) On the eve of Revolution a large fraction of prominent merchants and royal appointees were Anglicans--and were [[Loyalists]]. About 27% of Anglican ministers nationwide supported independence, especially in Virginia. Almost 40% --approaching 90% in New York and New England--were loyalists. Out of 55 Anglican clergy in New York and New England, only three were Patriots, two of those being from Massachusetts. In Maryland, of the 54 clergy in 1775, only 16 remained to take oaths of allegiance to the new government. (McConnell 2003) William Smith made the connection explicit in a [[1762]] report to the Bishop of London. "The Church is the firmest Basis of Monarchy and the English Constitution," he declared. But if dissenters of "more Republican . . . Principles [with] little affinity to the established Religion and manners" of England ever gained the upper hand, the colonists might begin to think of "Independency and separate Government." Thus "in a Political as well as religious view," Smith stated emphatically, the church should be strengthened by an American bishop and the appointment of "prudent Governors who are friends of our Establishment." (Bonomi 201) By [[1775]], about 300 independent congregations were reported throughout the colonies. The church was disestablished in all the states during the [[American Revolution]]. The Episcopal Church was formally separated from the Church of England in 1789 so that clergy would not be required to accept the supremacy of the [[British monarch]]. When the clergy of [[Connecticut]] elected [[Samuel Seabury]] as their [[bishop]], he sought consecration in [[England]]. The [[Oath of Supremacy]] proved too difficult a problem, so he went to [[Scotland]]; the non-juring Scottish bishops there consecrated him in [[Aberdeen]] on [[November 14]], [[1784]], making him the first Episcopal bishop outside the [[British Isles]]. The American bishops thus descend in the [[historic episcopate\|Apostolic succession]] through the non-juring bishops of Scotland, and to this day the nine crosses which symbolise ECUSA's nine original dioceses in its arms form a [[Saint Andrew's Cross]], commemorating the Scottish link. The Church originally took the name of the ''"Protestant Episcopal" Church in the United States of America'' so as to distinguish itself from the other major episcopal Church present in the states at the time, the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. ===The Church in the American Republic (1789-present)=== As the United States grew, new dioceses were established, as well as the [[Convocation of American Churches in Europe]]. ==Church Polity== The basic unit of governance in the Episcopal Church is the [[diocese]]. The ordained leader of the diocese is a [[bishop]]. Groups of dioceses constitute provinces but unlike in other Anglican Churches the provinces of the Episcopal Church do not have an [[archbishop]] with jurisdiction over the other bishops in his or her provi
lowed by landings of major Cuban independence fighters near [[Baracoa]], starting the Cuban second major War of Independence, commonly called the War of '95. Soon, Martí was killed, but Máximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo fought on, defeating the Spanish Governor [[Arsenio Martínez Campos]] victor of the Ten Year War himself and killing his most trusted general at Peralejo, and in a brilliant cavalry campaign invaded all provinces [http://www.spanamwar.com/timeline.htm]. This was the campaign in which [[Winston Churchill]] received a medal from the Spanish [http://www.spanamwar.com/timeline.htm]. Maceo was killed in Havana province while returning from the west [http://www.spanamwar.com/maceodeath.htm], but Calixto Garcia, escaped Spain and soon was at it again, taking Spanish strongholds with cannon and infantry. As the war went on the major limit to Cuban success was weapons supply. Although the weapons and funding come from within the US, strangely enough the major obstacle was the US Coast Guard: of 71 re-supply missions only 27 got through, 5 were stopped by the Spanish but 33 by the US Coast Guard [http://www.spanamwar.com/chadwickcoastguard.htm]. Riots in Havana by rowdy pro-Spanish "Voluntarios" gave the United States a reason to send in the warship ''[[USS Maine (ACR-1)\|USS Maine]]'' to protect U.S. citizens. When the ship blew up on [[15 February]] [[1898]], the United States, alleging that it had been deliberately destroyed by the Spanish, declared war. Various theories have been proposed for how the ship was sunk, with the two principal ones being an internal explosion sparked by a coal bunker fire, and an external mine, said to have been planted either by the Spanish (who commonly used these devices as protection for their ports), the Cubans, or the United States (to create an excuse to enter the war). No conclusive evidence has been found to determine the cause of the ship's sinking. Ultimately, the [[Spanish-American War]] led directly not only to Cuban independence from Spain, but also to the loss by Spain of [[Guam]], [[Puerto Rico]], and the [[Philippines]] to U.S. control. On [[17 July]] [[1898]] the Spanish surrendered and on [[10 December]] [[1898]] they signed the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)\|Treaty of Paris]] in which Spain recognized Cuban independence, albeit with considerable U.S. control, which was resented by the Cubans. ==Cuba in the Early 20th Century== In [[1902]], the United States handed over control to a Cuban government that as a condition of the transfer had included in its constitution provisions implementing the requirements of the [[Platt Amendment]], which among other things gave the United States the right to intervene militarily in Cuba. Land that was in ruins was acquired by U.S. investors, leading to the United States soon controlling three-quarters of the Cuban sugar, the main basis for the Cuban economy. [[Havana]] and [[Varadero]] became tourist resorts, riddled with casinos and strip-clubs. The Cuban population gradually recovered economic power from both Spanish and U.S. interests, and civil rights legislation against discrimination was enacted that ordered minimum employment quotas for Cubans. President [[Tomás Estrada Palma]] was elected in 1902, and Cuba declared independent; however as part of the Platt Amendment, [[Guantanamo Bay]] was leased to the United States, however, the status of the [[Isle of Pines]] as Cuban territory was left undefined. Estrada Palma, a frugal man, governed successfully for his four year term; yet when he tried to extend his time in office, a revolt ensued. In 1906 the United States representative [[William Howard Taft]], notably with the personal diplomacy of [[Frederick Funston]] negotiated an end of the successful revolt led by able young general [[Enrique Loynaz del Castillo]] [http://www.spanamwar.com/delcastillo.htm], who had served under Antonio Maceo in the final war of independence. Estrada Palma resigned. The United States Governor [[Charles Magoon]] [http://library.thinkquest.org/18355/charles_magoon.html] assumed temporary control until 1909. In this period in the area of Manzanillo, Agustín Martín Veloz, [[Blas Roca]], and Francisco (Paquito) Rosales founded the embryonic [[Cuban Communist Party]] [http://www.cnctv.cubasi.cu/manzanillo.php]. For three decades, the country was led by former War of Independence leaders [[List of Presidents of Cuba]], who after being elected did not serve more than two constitutional terms. The Cuban presidential succession: [[José Miguel Gómez]] (1908-1912); [[Mario Garcia Menocal]] (1913 to 1920); [[Alfredo Zayas]] (1921-25) [http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/zayas-bio.htm]. The Castro government would later describe this period as a "pseudo-republic." President [[Gerardo Machado]] was elected by popular vote in 1925, but he was constitutionally barred from reelection. Also in 1925, Abraham Semjovitch, code name Fabio Grobart [http://www.granma.cubaweb.cu/2005/08/31/nacional/articulo01.html], [http://www.cartadecuba.org/castro_el_infiel.htm] a Kremlin Agent helps formally link the Cuban Communist Party to the Communist International [http://www.cyberpresse.ca/monde/article/article_complet.php?path=/monde/article/16/1,151,1062,082005,1133013.shtml] PCC. Machado, who determined to modernize Cuba set in motion a massive civil works with projects as the Central Highway, but at the end of his constitutional term held on to power; the United States, despite the Platt Amendment decided not to interfere militarily. The communists of the PCC did very little to resist Machado in his dictator phase; however, practically everybody else did. In the late 1920s and early 1933s a number of Cuban action groups, including some Mambí, staged a series of uprisings that either failed or did not affect the Capital. After much complex rebellion Machado was asked to leave by the Cuban Army and senior Cuban Civil Leaders in 1933 (ISBN 1593880472). After Machado was deposed there was a confused short interregnum. [[Image:Fulgencio Batista.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Fulgencio Batista, [[Cuba\|Cuban]] [[dictator]].]]About six months later still in September 1933 there was a successful enlisted man and non-commissioned officer mutiny, taking the lower ranks of the Cuban Army to power. A key figure in the process was [[Fulgencio Batista]], an army sergeant holding a key post as a telegraph officer. Then Batista with his straight Taíno hair and very dark skin, often lightened in later photographs, was known at "El Mulato Lindo;" he was probably the first noticeably colored ruler of Cuba since the Spanish conquest. He gradually assumed total command. As this revolutionary process, and because it would limit Batista’s power, the Platt Amendment was repealed. Still, American pressure forced Cuba to reaffirm the agreement which was imposed on the country in 1903 which leased the [[Guantanamo Bay]] naval base to the United States for a nominal sum, under terms which many Cubans at the time found (and some still find) objectionable and colonialistic. To consolidate power, Batista heavy handedly suppressed a series of revolts. Notable at that of Blas Hernandez at the Atares Castle that of the regular army officers at the Hotel Nacional [http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FLAS%2FLAS34_02%2FS0022216X02006405a.pdf&code=845340c7d21785f6417e3dfa463249ff]. With encouragement from U.S. Ambassador [[Sumner Welles]], he separated the Cuban military from the student-labor component of the new revolutionary government, and as army of chief of staff became the country's ''de facto'' leader behind a series of puppet presidents. In 1940, he became the country's official president in an election which many people considered to be rigged. During his tenure, he implemented several [[progressivism\|progressive]] policies regarding welfare and unemployment. Batista was voted out of office in [[1944]]. He was succeeded by Dr. [[Ramón Grau San Martín]], a populist physician who had briefly held the presidency in the 1933 revolutionary process. President Grau passed a number of populist measures favoring workers and also had been instrumental in passing the 1940 Constitution, which has been widely regarded as one of the most progressive ever written in terms of worker protection and human rights. Grau was followed by [[Carlos Prío Socarrás]], also elected democratically, but whose government was tainted by increasing corruption and violent incidents among political factions. [[Fidel Castro]] appears on the public scene at the University of Havana, as a student-gangster, one of the "trigger happy boys" (los muchachos del gatillo alegre)[[Enrique Ros]] and is widely believed responsible for several murders. [[Eduardo Chibás]] was the leader of the [[Partido Ortodoxo]] (Orthodox Party), a liberal democratic group, who was widely expected to win in 1952 on an anticorruption platform. Chibás, entangled in an accusation that proved false, committed suicide before he could run for the presidency, and the opposition was left without its major leader. Taking advantage of the opportunity, Batista, who was running for president in the 1952 elections, but had only a small minority of votes, seized power in an almost bloodless coup three months before the election was to take place. President Prío did nothing to stop the coup, and therefore was forced to leave the island. Due to the corruption of the past two administrations, the general public reaction to the coup was somewhat accepting at first. However, Batista soon encountered stiff opposition when he suspended the balloting and the constitution, beginning to rule by decree. After a very promising start in his first (elected) term his policy was now very hard on the people and discontentment grew. ==The Cuban Revolution== <div id="CubanRevolution"></div> [[Fidel Castro]], a young lawyer from a wealthy f
ties_starting_with_Q\|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R\|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S\|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T\|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U\|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V\|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W\|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X\|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y\|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z\|Z]] ---- #[[Kagoshima University]] #[[Kakatiya Institute of Technology and Science]] #[[Kalamazoo College]] #[[Kamloops International College]] #[[Kanazawa University]] #[[Kangwon National University]] #[[Kansai University]] #[[Kansas State University]] #[[Kanto Gakuin University]] #[[Kao-Yuan Junior College of Technology and Commerce]] #[[Kara Harb Okulu]] #[[Karl Franzens University]] #[[Karlstad University]] #[[Karolinska Institute]] #[[Kasetsart University]] #[[Katholieke Hogeschool Sint-Lieven]] #[[Katholieke Universiteit Leuven]] #[[Katholische Universitat Eichstatt]] #[[Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski (KUL)]] #[[Kazan State University]] #[[Kean College of New Jersey]] #[[Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences]] #[[Keele University]] #[[Keene State College]] #[[Keimyung University]] #[[Keio University]] #[[Keio University of Science and Technology]] #[[Kemper Military School\|Kemper Military School and College]] #[[Kendall College of Art and Design]] #[[Kent State University]] #[[Kenyon College]] #[[Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences]] ([[Iran]]) #[[Kettering University]] #[[Keyin Technical College]] #[[Khon Kaen University]] #[[King Alfred's College]] #[[King College]] #[[KFUPM\|King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals]] ([[Dhahran]], [[Saudi Arabia]]) #[[King's College, Cambridge]] #[[King's College London]] #[[King's College, Halifax]] #[[King's College, Hong Kong]] #[[King's College School of Medicine and Dentistry]] (part of [[King's College London]]) #[[Kingston University]] #[[Kinjo Gakuin University]] #[[Kirksville College of Osteopathic Medicine]] #[[Kirtland Community College]] #[[Kish University]] ([[Kish island]], [[Iran]]) #[[Kishwaukee College]] #[[Kitasato University]] #[[Klaipeda University]] #[[K.N.Toosi University of Technology]] ([[Tehran]], [[Iran]]) #[[Knox College]] #[[Knox College, Otago]] #[[Kobe University]] #[[Koc University]] #[[Kochi National College of Technology]] #[[Kochi University]] #[[Kodiak College]] #[[Kogakuin University]] #[[Kon-Kuk University]] #[[Konan University]] #[[Kongu Engineering College]] #[[Kookmin University]] #[[Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology]] (KAIST) #[[Korea University]] #Kristianstad University College -- see [[University College of Kristianstad]] #[[Kumamoto National College of Technology]] #[[Kumamoto Prefecture College]] #[[Kumamoto University]] #Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan -- see [[Royal Institute of Technology]] #[[Kurume University]]&#12288;([[Japan]]) #[[Kurume institute of Technology]] #[[Kutztown University of Pennsylvania]] #[[Kuwait University]] #[[Kwangju University]] #[[Kwangwoon University]] #[[Kwansei Gakuin University]] #[[Kwantlen University College]] #[[Kyiv University]] #[[Kyoto Institute of Technology]] #[[Kyoto University]] #[[KyungSung University]] #[[Kyungpook National University]] #[[Kyushu Institute of Design]] #[[Kyushu Institute of Technology]] #[[Kyushu Lutheran College]] #[[Kyushu Sangyo University]] #[[Kyushu University]] :''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]] [[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order\|K]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of colleges and universities starting with L</title> <id>6485</id> <revision> <id>35577428</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:52:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vizcarra</username> <id>116263</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A\|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B\|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C\|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D\|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E\|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F\|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G\|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H\|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I\|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J\|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K\|K]] -- '''L''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M\|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N\|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O\|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P\|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q\|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R\|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S\|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T\|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U\|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V\|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W\|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X\|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y\|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z\|Z]] ---- #[[La Salle University]] #[[La Sierra University]] #[[La Trobe University]] #[[LaGrange College]] #[[LaSalle College Group]] #[[Lafayette College]] #[[Lahti Polytechnic]] #[[Lajos Kossuth University of Arts and Sciences]] #[[Lake Forest College]] #[[Lake Superior College]] #[[Lake Superior State University]] #[[Lakehead University]] #[[Lamar University]] #[[Lambton College]] #[[Lambuth University]] #[[Lancaster University]] #[[Landmark College]] #[[Lane Community College]] #[[Langston University]] #[[Lanzhou University]] #[[Lappeenranta University of Technology]] #[[Laramie County Community College]] #[[Las Positas Community College]] #[[Laurentian University]] #[[Lawrence University]] #[[Le Moyne College]] #[[LeTourneau University]] #[[Lebanon Valley College]] #[[Lee College]] ([[Baytown, Texas]]) #[[Leeds Metropolitan University]] #[[Leeward Community College]] #[[Lehigh Carbon Community College]] #[[Lehigh University]] #[[Leiden University]] ([[Leiden]], [[The Netherlands]]) #[[Lenoir-Rhyne College]] #[[Lethbridge Community College]] #[[Lewis & Clark College]] #[[Lewis and Clark Community College ]] #[[Lewis University]] #[[Lewis-Clark State College]] #[[Lewisham College]] #[[Lexington Community College]] #[[Liberal Arts Christian College, Lithuania]] #[[Liberec University of Technology]] #[[Libero Istituto Universitario Carlo Cattaneo]] #[[Liberty University]] #[[Liceu de Macau]] #[[Lillehammer College]] #[[Limestone College]] #[[Lincoln University]] #[[Lincoln University of Pennsylvania]] #[[Linfield College]] #[[Lingnan University]] #[[Linköping Institute of Technology]] #[[Linköping University]] #[[Liverpool John Moores University]] #[[Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania]] #[[Lodz Technical University]] #[[Logan College of Chiropractic]] #[[Loma Linda University]] #[[London Business School]] #[[London Guildhall University]] #[[London School of Economics]] #[[London University]] #[[Long Beach City College]] #[[Long Island University]] #[[Longview Community College]] #[[Longwood College]] #[[Longwood College]] #[[Loras College]] #[[Los Andes University (Colombia)\|Los Andes University]] #[[Los Angeles Community Colleges]] #[[Los Angeles Harbor College]] #[[Los Rios Community College District]] #[[Loughborough University of Technology]] #[[Louisiana State University]] #[[Louisiana State University Medical Center]] #[[Louisiana State University, Shreveport]] #[[Louisiana Tech University]] #[[Louisiana College]] #[[Loyola College]] #[[Loyola Marymount University]] #[[Loyola University, Chicago]] #[[Loyola University, New Orleans]] #[[Ludwig Maximilians Universitat, Munchen]] #[[Lulea University of Technology]] #[[Lund Institute of Technology]] #[[Lund School of Economics and Management]] #[[Lund University]] #[[Luther College]] #[[Lycee de Garcons Esch]] #[[Lycoming College]] #[[Lynchburg College]] #[[Lynn University]] #[[Lyon College]] :''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]] [[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order\|L]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of colleges and universities starting with M</title> <id>6486</id> <revision> <id>38143338</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T13:40:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Howardjp</username> <id>67013</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Mia-Mil */ now that's just offensive</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A\|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B\|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C\|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D\|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E\|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F\|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G\|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H\|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I\|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J\|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K\|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L\|L]] -- '''M''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N\|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O\|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P\|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_an
et." When Berman was killed in a hit on Berman's boss, [[Dutch Schultz]], Runyon quickly assumed the role of [[damage control]] for his deceased friend, correcting erroneous press releases (including one that stated Berman was one of Schultz's gunman, to which Runyon replied, ''Otto would have been as effective a bodyguard as a two year old.'') Runyon frequently contributed sports poems to the ''American'' on boxing and baseball themes, and also wrote numerous short stories and essays. He was the Hearst newspapers' baseball columnist for many years, beginning in 1911, and his knack for spotting the eccentric and the unusual, on the field or in the stands, is credited with revolutionising the way baseball was covered. Perhaps as confirmation, Runyon was inducted into the writers' wing (the [[J.G. Taylor Spink Award]]) of the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] in 1967. He is also a member of the [[International Boxing Hall Of Fame]] and is known for dubbing heavyweight champion [[James J. Braddock]] the [[Cinderella Man]]. [[Gambling]] was a common theme of Runyon's works, and he was a notorious gambler himself. A well-known saying of his paraphrases [[Ecclesiastes]]: "The race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, but that's the way to bet." Runyon's marriage to Ellen Egan produced two children (Mary and Damon, Jr.), and broke up in 1928 over rumors that Runyon had become infatuated with a Mexican girl he had first met while covering the [[Pancho Villa]] raids in 1916 and discovered once again in New York, when she called the American seeking him out. Runyon had promised her in Mexico that, if she would complete the education he paid for her, he would find her a dancing job in New York. Her name was '''Patrice Amati del Grande''', and she became his companion after he separated from his wife. After Ellen Runyon died of the effects of her own drinking problems, Runyon and Patrice married. Though Runyon forged a better relationship with his children, the marriage ended when Patrice left him for a younger man in the same year he died (1946). He died in [[New York City]] from [[throat cancer]] in 1946, at the age of 62, and was interred in the [[Woodlawn Cemetery]] in The [[Bronx, New York]]. The [[Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation]], established in his honor, was set up to fund promising scientists in the field of cancer research. ==Runyon in Popular Culture== ===Books=== ''The Tents of Trouble'' (Poems; 1911) ''Rhymes of the Firing Line'' (1912) ''Guys and Dolls'' (1932) ''Damon Runyon's Blue Plate Special'' (1934) ''Money From Home'' (1935) ''More Than Somewhat'' (1937) ''Furthermore'' (1938) ''Take It Easy'' (1938) ''My Wife Ethel'' (1939) ''My Old Man'' (1939) ''The Best of Runyon'' (1940) ''A Slight Case of Murder'' (with Howard Lindsay, 1940) ''Damon Runyon Favorites'' (1942) ''Capt. Eddie Rickenbacker'' (with W. Kiernan, 1942) ''Runyon a la Carte'' (1944) ''The Damon Runyon Omnibus'' (1944) ''Short Takes'' (1946) ''In Our Town'' (1946) ''The Three Wise Guys and Other Stories'' (1946) ''Trials and Other Tribulations'' (1947) ''Poems for Men'' (1947) ''Runyon First and Last'' (1949) ''Runyon on Broadway'' (1950) ''More Guys and Dolls'' (1950) ''The Turps'' (1951) ''Damon Runyon from First to Last'' (1954) ''A Treasury of Damon Runyon'' (1958) ''The Bloodhounds of Broadway and Other Stories'' (1985) ''Guys, Dolls, and Curveballs: Damon Runyon on Baseball'' (2005; Jim Reisler, editor) ===Films=== Numerous Damon Runyon stories were adapted for the stage and the screen. Some of the best of these include: ''Lady for a Day'' (1933)---Adapted by Bob Riskin, who suggested the name change from Runyon's title "Madame La Gimp," the film garnered Academy Award nominations for Best Picture, Best Director (Frank Capra), Best Actress (May Robson), and Best Adaptation for the Screen (Riskin). This would be remade as ''Pocketful of Miracles'' in 1961, with Bette Davis in the Apple Annie role and a rather jauntily Runyonesque singer named [[Sinatra]] hitting big with its upbeat theme song---which garnered an Oscar nomination for composers [[Sammy Cahn]] and [[Jimmy Van Heusen]] and for co-star Peter Falk (Best Supporting Actor). ''The Lemon Drop Kid'' (1934)---Starring future ''[[I Love Lucy]]'' co-star William Frawley as a racetrack tout. ''Little Miss Marker'' (1934)---The film that made [[Shirley Temple]] a star, launched her career as perhaps America's most beloved [[child film star]], and pushed her past [[Greta Garbo]] as the nation's biggest film draw of the year. Subsequent remakes include ''Sorrwful Jones'' (1949; [[Bob Hope]], [[Lucille Ball]]), ''Forty Pounds of Trouble'' (1963; [[Tony Curtis]]), and ''Little Miss Marker'' (1980; [[Walter Matthau]], [[Julie Andrews]], [[Bob Newhart]], Tony Curtis.) ''A Slight Case of Murder'' (1938; Edward G. Robinson). ''The Big Street'' (1942, adapted from Runyon's story, "The Little Pinks"; Henry Fonda, Lucille Ball). ''Butch Minds the Baby'' (1942; Broderick Crawford, Shemp Howard) ''It Ain't Hay'' (1943, adapted from "Princess O'Hara; Bud Abbott, Lou Costello, Patsy O'Connor) ''Money From Home'' (1953; Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis) ''Guys and Dolls'' (1955; Marlon Brando, Jean Simmons, Frank Sinatra) ===Miscellany=== He was the inspiration for history's first [[telethon]], hosted by [[Milton Berle]] in 1949 to raise funds for the Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation. * He is mentioned in the song: "Department Of Youth" by [[Alice Cooper]]. "We're living proof. And we've never heard of [[Billy Sunday]], [[Damon Runyon]], manners or couth." * It was Damon Runyon who first uttered the famous phrase, "Trust, but verify," that is often attributed to [[U.S. President]] [[Ronald Reagan]]. The president is often quoted as having said it and he probably did (in relation to arms-reduction talks with the [[Soviet Union]]), but Reagan was quoting Runyon. And undoubtedly, as an actor from the same era as Runyon's colorful characters, Reagan knew he was quoting Runyon. * In the movie [[Cinderella Man]], [[Nicholas Campbell]]'s character, Sporty Lewis, was inspired by Damon Runyon. ==References== [[Media:Runyon-Damon_draft.gif\|World War I draft card]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} [http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/spink_bios/runyon_damon.htm Baseball Hall of Fame - Spink Award recipient] [[Category:1884 births\|Runyon, Damon]] [[Category:1947 deaths\|Runyon, Damon]] [[Category:American journalists\|Runyon, Damon]] [[Category:American writers\|Runyon, Damon]] [[Category:American sportswriters\|Runyon, Damon]] [[Category:J.G. Taylor Spink Award\|Runyon, Damon]] [[Category:People from Kansas\|Runyon, Damon]] [[he:&#1491;&#1497;&#1497;&#1502;&#1493;&#1503; &#1512;&#1488;&#1504;&#1497;&#1493;&#1503;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Don Tennant</title> <id>9129</id> <revision> <id>18574444</id> <timestamp>2005-07-11T03:28:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.14.169.157</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Donald G. Tennant''' ([[November 23]], [[1922]] - [[December 8]], [[2001]]) was an American advertising agency executive. He worked at the [[Leo Burnett]] agency in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. The agency is noted for putting anthropomorphic faces of "critters" on packaged goods. He was the first to draw [[Tony the Tiger]] for [[Kellogg's]] Sugar Frosted Flakes in 1952. Tennant was also in charge of the [[Marlboro (cigarette)\|Marlboro]] account and invented the [[Marlboro Man]]. [[Category:1922 births\|Tennant, Don]] [[Category:2001 deaths\|Tennant, Don]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Devo</title> <id>9130</id> <revision> <id>41366389</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:04:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.6.76.2</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Devo 2.0 */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band \| band_name = Devo \| image = [[Image:DevoPromoAreWeNotMenEra.jpg\|325px\|Bob Mothersbaugh, Gerald Casale, Mark Mothersbaugh, Alan Myers & Bob Casale in 1980]] \| years_active = [[1972]]-[[1991]], [[2000]]-present \| country = [[U.S.A.]] \| music_genre = [[New Wave music\|New Wave]] \| record_label = [[Warner Brothers Records]] \| current_members = [[Mark Mothersbaugh]]<br/>[[Bob Mothersbaugh]]<br/>[[Gerald Casale]]<br/>[[Bob Casale]]<br/>[[Alan Myers]] \| }} '''Devo''' (pronounced either DEE-vo or de-VO, sometimes spelled Dev-O and often "DEVO") is an American [[rock music]] music group formed in [[Akron, Ohio]] in 1972. Their style has been variously classified as [[punk rock\|punk]], [[industrial music\|industrial]] and [[Rock (music)\|rock]], but are most often considered to be the 70s/early 80s [[New Wave music\|New Wave]] band that ushered in the synth pop of the [[1980s]], along with other acts such as [[Gary Numan]], [[Oingo Boingo]], and [[The B-52's]]. Devo's music and stage show mingle [[kitsch]] [[science fiction]] themes, deadpan [[surrealism\|surrealist]] humor, and mordantly satirical social commentary in sometimes-[[Consonance and dissonance\|discordant]] pop songs that often feature unusual synthetic instrumentation and [[time signature]]s. Their work has proved hugely influential on subsequent popular music, particularly New Wave, alternative and [[grunge]] music, they created some memorable [[music video]]s popular in the early days of [[MTV]]. ==History== Devo first performed on April 18, [[1973 in music\|1973]] as the "Sextet Devo" at [[Kent State University]]'s Creative Arts Festival at Recital Hall. Founders [[Gerald Casale]], [[Mark Mothersbaugh]], and [[Bob Lewis (musician)\|Bob Lewis]] were studen
y]]{{ref 5}}<td>Big Brother<td>[[RTL II]]<td>[http://www.bigbrother.de Website]<td> * John Milz * Alida Kurras * Karina Schreiber * Jan Geilhufe * Sascha Sirtl * Michael Knopf * ''Upcoming Season'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[Greece]]<td>Big Brother<br>Big Mother<td>[[ANT1]]<td>[http://www.bigmother.gr Website]<td> * Giorgos Triantafyllidis * Alexandros Moskhos * Thodores Jspógloy * Nikos Papadopoulos <tr valign=top> <td>[[Hungary]]<td>Big Brother<br>Nagy Testvér<td>[[TV2]]<td>[http://www.bigbrother.vnet.hu Website]<td> * Evi Párkányi * Zsofi Horvath <tr valign=top> <td>[[India]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[Sony_Entertainment_Television_(India)\|SET]]<td><td> * ''Upcoming Season'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[Italy]]<td>Grande Fratello<td>[[Canale 5]]<td>[http://grandefratello.jumpy.it Website]<td> * Cristina Plevani * Flavio Montrucchio * Floriana Secondi * Serena Garitta * Jonathan Kashanian * ''Current Season'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[Mexico]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[Televisa]]<td>[http://www.bigbrother.naranya.com Website]<td> * Rocio Cardenas * Silvia Irabien * Evelyn Nieto <tr valign=top> <td>[[Middle East]]<td>Big Brother<br>Al Raiss<td>[[Middle East Broadcasting Center\|MBC]]<td>[http://www.2onthenet.com/bigbrother Website]<td> * ''Discontinued''{{ref 6}} <tr valign=top> <td>[[Netherlands]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[Talpa TV]]<td>[http://www.big-brother.nl Website]<td> * Bart Spring in 't Veld * Bianca Hagenbeek * Sandy Boots * Jeanette Godefroy * Joost Hoebink * ''Upcoming Season'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[Nigeria]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[M-Net]]<td>[http://www.mnetafrica.com/BigBrotherNigeria/Enter/ Website]<td> * ''Upcoming Season'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[Norway]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[TVN]]<td>[http://www.bigbrother.no Website]<td> * Lars Joakim Ringom * Veronica Agnes Roso * Eva Lill Baukhol <tr valign=top> <td>[[Pacific]]{{ref 7}}<td>Gran Hermano<td>[[Telesistema]]<br>[[RedTV]]<br>[[ATV]]<td>[http://www.ghpacifico.naranya.com Website]<td> * Juan Sebastián López ''(Ecuador)'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[Philippines]]<td>[[Pinoy Big Brother\|Big Brother]]<td>[[ABS-CBN]]<td>[http://www.pinoybigbrother.com/ Website]<td> * [[Nene Tamayo]] ''Upcoming Season'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[Poland]]<td>Big Brother<br>Wielki Brat<td>[[TVN (Poland)\| TVN]]<td>[http://www.bigbrother.onet.pl Website]<td> Janusz Dzięcioł * Marzena Wieczorek * Piotr Borucki <tr valign=top> <td>[[Portugal]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[TVI]]<td>[http://www.bigbrother.pt/ Website]<td> * Zé Maria Povinho * Henrique Guimarăes * Catarina Eufémia * Nando Geraldes <tr valign=top> <td>[[Romania]]<td>Big Brother<br>Fratele Cel Mare<td>[[PrimaTV]]<td>[http://www.bigbrother.artelecom.ro Website]<td> * Soso Joi * Iustin Popovici <tr valign=top> <td>[[Russia]]<td>Bol'shoy Brat<td>[[TNT (Russian TV)\|TNT]]<td>[http://www.tntbrat.ru/ Website]<td> * Anastasia Yagaylova * ''Upcoming Season'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[Scandinavia]]{{ref 8}}<td>Big Brother<td>[[Kanal5]]<br>[[TVN]]<td>[http://www.bigbrother.no Website]<td> * Britt Goodwin ''(Norway)'' * ''Current Season'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[Serbia]]<td>Veliki Brat<td>[[B92]] <td>[http://www.b92.net/velikibrat Website] <td> * ''Upcoming Season'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[Slovakia]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[TV Markiza]]<td>[http://www.bigbrothersuboj.sk Website]<td> * Richard Tkac <tr valign=top> <td>[[South Africa]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[M-Net]]<td>[http://www.bigbrothersa.com Website]<td> * Ferdinand Rabie * Richard Cawood <tr valign=top> <td>[[Spain]]<td>Gran Hermano<td>[[Telecinco]]<td>[http://www.granhermano.telecinco.es Website]<td> * Ismael Beiro * Sabrina Mahi * Javito García * Pedro Oliva * Nuria Yańez * Juan José Rocamora * Pepe Herrero <tr valign=top> <td>[[Sweden]]<td>[[Big Brother (Swedish TV series)\|Big Brother]]<td>[[Kanal5]]<td>[http://www.bigbrother.se Website]<td> * Angelca Freij * Ulrica Andersson * Danne Sörensen * Carolina Gynning <tr valign=top> <td>[[Switzerland]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[TV3]]<td>[http://www.tv3.ch/bigbrother Website]<td> * Daniela Kanton * Christian Ponleitner <tr valign=top> <td>[[Thailand]]<td>Big Brother<td>[[ITV]]<td>[http://www.bigbrotherthailand.com/ Website]<td> * Nipon Perktim * ''Current Season'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[United Kingdom]]<td>[[Big Brother (UK TV series)\|Big Brother]]<td>[[Channel 4]]<td>[http://www.channel4.com/bigbrother Website]<td> * [[Craig Phillips]] * [[Brian Dowling]] * [[Kate Lawler]] * [[Cameron Stout]] * [[Nadia Almada]] * [[Anthony Hutton]] * ''Upcoming Season'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[United States]]<td>[[Big Brother (USA TV series)\|Big Brother]]<td>[[CBS]]<td>[http://www.cbs.com/primetime/bigbrother6 Website]<td> * [[Eddie McGee]] * [[Will Kirby]] * [[Lisa Donahue]] * [[Jun Song]] * [[Drew Daniel]] * [[Maggie Ausburn]] * ''Upcoming Season'' <tr valign=top> <td>[[Venezuela]]<td>Gran Hermano<td>[[Televen]]<td><td> * ''Upcoming Season'' </table> * {{ref 1}} Panregional version with housemates from [[Angola]], [[Botswana]], [[Ghana]], [[Kenya]], [[Malawi]], [[Namibia]], [[Nigeria]], [[South Africa]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Zambia]] and [[Zimbabwe]]. * {{ref 2}} Greg Mathew had to split his prize with his twin, David, because they entered the house as one person, called Logan and they agreed to share it if they won. * {{ref 3}} Versions from Canada and France have two winners, a male and a female. * {{ref 4}} Planned for the end of the year. Countries taking part: [[Costa Rica]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Panama]]. * {{ref 5}} In 2004 edition, this was the first version to run for 365 days consecutively. The ultimate winner got a prize of 1,000,000 €. Immediately after, Big Brother VI started. This is the first show in television history which has no time limit. The producers of the show said that when the ratings are too low, the show will be cancelled. 200The show is called "Big Brother: Das Dorf", lit. "Big Brother: The Village". The set includes a church, a market place, four houses, etc. The season ends in February 2006. The 7th season will start in autumn 2006. * {{ref 6}} Filmed in Amwaj Island in [[Bahrain]]. Discontinued after 10 days because of religious protests. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3522897.stm] * {{ref 7}} Made in [[Colombia]], this is a panregional version with contestants from [[Chile]], [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]]. Its name came because all of the participating countries are in the border of the [[Pacific Ocean\|Pacific]]. * {{ref 8}} Co-produced version with [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]] taking part. ==Some peculiarities== * In [[France]] and [[Canada]], the format has been developed using couples. Twelve single people stay in the same house until only the winning couple are left. * [[Big Brother (USA TV series)\|Big Brother USA]] currently uses different rules than other countries' versions of the show, as it has starting with its second season (the first season followed the traditional format) In the US version, viewers do not vote for eviction; all voting is done by houseguests. Also, the nominations are done by one houseguest, the HOH (Head of Household). The US version also introduced the Power of Veto, with a houseguest having power to save a housemate from the nominations. It's been adapted in Brazil and since then some countries modified their nominations rules. * The third Dutch edition introduced the notion of "The Battle", in which the house is separated into a luxurious half and a poor half, with two teams of housemates constantly fighting for time in the luxurious half. Separated houses have also been used in [[Spain]], [[Australia]], [[Italy]], [[Poland]], [[Denmark]], [[Slovakia]], [[Greece]], [[UK]], [[Scandinavia]], [[Sweden]], [[Norway]] and [[Germany]]. [[Italy]] and [[Mexico]] added punishment zones to their houses. * The [[Big Brother UK series 5\|fifth UK edition]] introduced the "Evil" touch, where the ''Big Brother'' voice became almost a villain. He was establishing punishments and was proposing hard tasks and secret tricks. This was also seen in [[Australia]], [[Spain]], [[Scandinavia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Belgium]] and [[Mexico]]. * The fifth German edition, running for a full year, separated the contestants into three teams (rich, regular, survivor) and equivalent living areas. The sixth version was running in a small artificial town denominated "Das Dorf". * The fourth Greek season introduced a new element: the mother. In ''Big Mother'' nine houseguest take place in the game with their mothers, with whom they must coexist during the contest. The "mamas" would not be able to win the prize but they would stay with their children until their eviction. However, this proved to be a failure with the show's audience and the show switched back to the traditional "Big Brother" format in mid-season. * There are five special panr
°C lower, and the Earth uninhabitable. It is therefore not correct to say that there is a debate between those who "believe in" and "oppose" the theory that adding carbon dioxide or CH<SUB>4</SUB> to the Earth's atmosphere will result in warmer surface temperatures on Earth, absent indirect mitigating effects. Rather, the debate is about what the net effect of the addition of carbon dioxide and CH<SUB>4</SUB> will be. ===Greenhouse gas emissions=== [[Image:Major greenhouse gas trends.png\|thumb\|right\|350px\|Greenhouse gas trends]] The combustion of fossil fuels, including the coal-burning [[Power station\|power plants]], automobile exhausts, factory smokestacks, and other waste vents of the human environment contribute about 22 billion tons of carbon dioxide and other [[greenhouse gas]]es into the earth's atmosphere each year. About half of human emissions have remained in the atmosphere{{fact}}. Animal agriculture, manure, natural gas, rice paddies, landfills, coal, and other anthropogenic sources contribute about 450 million tons of methane each year according to TAR[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/134.htm#4211]. The atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and CH<SUB>4</SUB> have increased by 31% and 149% respectively above pre-industrial levels since 1750. This is considerably higher than at any time during the last 650,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from [[ice core]]s. From less direct geological evidence it is believed that carbon dioxide values this high were last attained 40 million years ago. About three-quarters of the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere during the past 20 years is due to [[fossil fuel]] burning. The rest is predominantly due to land-use change, especially [[deforestation]] [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/006.htm]. The longest continuous instrumental measurement of carbon dioxide mixing ratios began in 1958 at [[Mauna Loa]]. Since then, the annually averaged value has increased [[monotonic function\|monotonic]]ally from 315 [[parts per million\|ppmv]] (see the [[Keeling Curve]]). The concentration reached 376 ppmv in 2003. South Pole records show similar growth [http://www.cmdl.noaa.gov/info/spo2000.html]. The monthly measurements display small seasonal oscillations. Note that anthropogenic emissions of other pollutants - notably sulphate aerosol - exert a cooling effect; this can account for the plateau/cooling seen in the temperature record in the middle of the 20th century [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/462.htm]. ===Alternative theories=== ====Solar variation theory==== [[Image:Solar-cycle-data.png\|thumb\|right\|20 years of solar output]] {{main\|Solar variation theory}} Direct [[solar variation\|variations in solar output]] appear too small to have substantially affected the climate; nonetheless some researchers (e.g. [http://www.dsri.dk/~hsv/SSR_Paper.pdf]) have proposed that feedbacks from clouds or other processes enhance the effect. In the IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR), it was reported that volcanic and solar forcings might account for half of the temperature variations prior to 1950, but that the net effect of such natural forcings was roughly neutral since then [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/450.htm]. In particular, the change in climate forcing from greenhouse gases since 1750 was estimated to be 8 times larger than the change in forcing due to [[:Image:Solar Activity Proxies.png\|increasing solar activity]] over the same period [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/251.htm#tab611]. Since the TAR, various studies (Lean et al., 2002, Wang et al., 2005) have suggested that changes in irradiance since pre-industrial times are less by a factor of 3-4 than in the reconstructions used in the TAR (e.g. Hoyt and Schatten, 1993, Lean, 2000.). Stott et al. [http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/StottEtAl.pdf] estimated solar forcing to be 16% or 36% of greenhouse warming. ====Other theories==== Various other hypotheses have been proposed, including but not limited to: * The warming is within the range of natural variation. * The warming is a consequence of coming out of a prior cool period &mdash; the [[Little Ice Age]]. * The warming trend itself has not been clearly established. At present, none of these has more than a small number of supporters within the climate science community. ==Climate models== [[Image:Global Warming Predictions.png\|thumb\|250px\|Calculations of global warming through 2100 from a range of [[climate model]]s under the [[SRES]] A2 emissions scenario, one of the IPCC scenarios that assumes no action is taken to reduce emissions.]] [[Image:Global Warming Predictions Map.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|Shows the distribution of warming during the 21<sup>st</sup> century calculated by the HadCM3 climate model (one of those used by the IPCC) if a business as usual scenario is assumed for economic growth and greenhouse gas emissions. The average warming calculated by this model is 3.0&nbsp;°C.]] {{main\|General circulation model}} Scientists have studied this issue with computer models of the climate (see below). These models are accepted by the scientific community as being valid only after it has been shown that they do a good job of simulating known climate variations, such as the difference between summer and winter, the [[North Atlantic Oscillation]], or [[El Niño]]. All climate models that pass these tests also predict that the net effect of adding greenhouse gases will be a warmer climate in the future. The amount of predicted warming varies by model, however, which probably reflects the way different models depict clouds differently. As noted above, climate models have been used by the IPCC to anticipate a warming of 1.4&nbsp;°C to 5.8&nbsp;°C between 1990 and 2100 [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/339.htm]. They have also been used to help investigate the [[Attribution of recent climate change\|causes of recent climate change]] by comparing the observed changes to those that the models predict from various natural and human derived forcing factors. The most recent climate models can produce a good match to observations of global temperature changes over the last century. These models do not unambiguously attribute the warming that occurred from approximately 1910 to 1945 to either natural variation or human effects; however, they suggest that the warming since 1975 is dominated by man-made [[greenhouse gas]] emissions. Adding simulation of the ability of the environment to sink carbon dioxide suggested that rising fossil fuel emissions would decrease absorption from the atmosphere, amplifying climate warming beyond previous predictions, although ''"Globally, the amplification is small at the end of the 21st century in this model because of its low transient climate response and the near-cancellation between large regional changes in the hydrologic and ecosystem responses" ''[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/0504949102v1]. Another suggested mechanism whereby a warming trend may be amplified involves the thawing of [[tundra]], which can release the potent greenhouse gas, methane, that is trapped in large quantities in [[permafrost]] and ice [[clathrates]] [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18725124.500]. Uncertainties in the representation of clouds are a dominant source of uncertainty in existing models, despite clear progress in modeling of clouds [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/271.htm]. There is also an ongoing discussion as to whether climate models are neglecting important indirect and feedback effects of [[solar variability]]. Further, all such models are limited by available computational power, so that they may overlook changes related to small scale processes and weather (e.g. storm systems, hurricanes). However, despite these and other limitations, the [[IPCC]] considered climate models "to be suitable tools to provide useful projections of future climates" [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/309.htm]. In December, 2005 Bellouin et al suggested in Nature that the reflectivity effect of airborne pollutants was about double that previously expected, and that therefore some global warming was being masked. If supported by further studies, this would imply that existing models underpredict future global warming. [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-12/23/content_505942.htm] ==Issues== ===Relation to ozone depletion=== {{main\|Ozone depletion}} Although they are often interlinked in the [[mass media]], the connection between global warming and [[ozone depletion]] is not strong. There are four areas of linkage: * Global warming from carbon dioxide radiative forcing is expected (perhaps somewhat surprisingly) to ''cool'' the [[stratosphere]]. This, in turn, would lead to a relative ''increase'' in [[ozone]] depletion and the frequency of ozone holes. * Conversely, ozone depletion represents a radiative forcing of the climate system. There are two opposed effects: reduced ozone allows more solar radiation to penetrate, thus warming the [[troposphere]]. But a colder stratosphere emits less long-wave radiation, tending to cool the troposphere. Overall, the cooling dominates: the IPCC concludes that ''observed stratospheric [[Ozone\|O<sub>3</sub>]] losses over the past two decades have caused a negative forcing of the surface-troposphere system'' [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/223.htm] of about &#8211;0.15 ± 0.10 W m&#8211;2 [http://www.ipcc.ch/press/SPM.pdf]. * One of the strongest predictions of the global warming theory is that the [[stratosphere]] will cool. However, although this is observed, it is difficult to use it as an [[attribution of recent climate change]]. One of the difficulties of this conclusion includes the fact that warming induced by increased
gue] * [http://www.ccshbrno.cz/ CHC Diocese of Brno] * [http://www.ccshhk.cz/ CHC Diocese of Kralove] * [http://www2.kenyon.edu/Projects/Margin/hussites.htm Notes on the Hussite movement and links to primary sources, from Kenyon college] * [http://archiv.radio.cz/history/history05.html The Hussite Era, from Radio Prague's History Online feature] * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07585a.htm Article on the Hussites from the Catholic Encyclopedia (1917 edition)] * [http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/matthaywood/main/Warwagons.htm Hussite War-wagons, presenting detailed information about the Hussites' most characteristic tactic, by Matthew Haywood] * [http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/joanofarc_letter_march_23_1430.html Letter to the Hussites dictated by Joan of Arc on [[23 March]] [[1430]], translated by Allen Williamson.] * [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/bluedot/hussites.html Short article on the Hussites, from the University of Calgary's 'The End of Europe's Middle Ages'] * [http://www.allempires.com/articles/hussite/hussite1.htm Article on the Tactics of the Hussites] [[Category:Heresy]] [[Category:Protestantism]] [[cs:Husitství]] [[de:Hussiten]] [[eo:Husmovado]] [[fr:Église hussite]] [[hu:Husziták]] [[nl:Hussieten]] [[ja:フス派]] [[pl:Husyci]] [[sk:Husitstvo]] [[sv:Husiter]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HMS Ark Royal</title> <id>14292</id> <revision> <id>34237723</id> <timestamp>2006-01-07T13:32:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdrbot</username> <id>263608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>gdrbot - replaced {{disambig}} with {{shipindex}} (see discussion at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Ships]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ark_royal_r07.600px.jpg\|thumbnail\|300px\|[[HMS Ark Royal (R07)\|HMS ''Ark Royal'' (R07)]] in Greenwich dock, London]] {{shipindex}} '''HMS ''Ark Royal''''' is a name that has been borne by five ships in the [[United Kingdom\|British]] [[Royal Navy]]. * The first [[HMS Ark Royal (1587)\|''Ark Royal'']] was built as ''Ark Raleigh'' at [[Deptford, London\|Deptford]] on the [[River Thames]] in [[1587]], to the order of Sir [[Walter Raleigh]]. She was bought by [[Elizabeth I of England\|Queen Elizabeth's]] navy for £5,000 ("money well given", according to her new commander, [[William Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Effingham\|Lord Howard of Effingham]]) and, as ''Ark Royal'', was the flagship of the [[England\|English]] fleet during the [[Spanish Armada]] campaign of [[1588]]. In [[1608]], under the new monarch [[James I of England\|James I]], she was rebuilt and renamed ''Anne Royal''. She was broken up in [[1636]]. * The second [[HMS Ark Royal (1914)\|''Ark Royal'']], after a gap of almost 300 years, was a merchant ship converted on the building stocks to be a seaplane carrier and was the world's first [[aircraft carrier]]. Built in [[Blyth, Northumberland]], she was launched in [[1914]], she served in the [[Dardanelles Campaign]] and throughout [[World War I]]. She was renamed HMS ''Pegasus'' in [[1934]], to free the name ''Ark Royal'' for a new ship, and was broken up in [[1950]]. * The third [[HMS Ark Royal (91)\|''Ark Royal'' (91)]] was launched in 1938, saw action in [[World War II]], and was sunk by a [[U-boat]] in [[1941]]. * The fourth [[HMS Ark Royal (R09)\|''Ark Royal'' (R09)]] was an [[Audacious class aircraft carrier\|''Audacious''-class fleet aircraft carrier]]. After starring in the [[1970s]] [[BBC]] series "Sailor", she eventually went to the breaker's yard in [[1980]]. * The fifth [[HMS Ark Royal (R07)\|''Ark Royal'' (R07)]] is an [[Invincible class aircraft carrier\|''Invincible''-class aircraft carrier]]. She served in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. == Battle honours == * [[Spanish Armada]] [[1588]] * [[Battle of Cádiz (1596)\|Cádiz]] [[1596]] * [[Naval operations in the Dardanelles Campaign\|Dardanelles]] [[1915]] * [[Allied campaign in Norway\|Norway]] [[1940]] * [[Battle of Cape Spartivento\|Spartivento]] [[1940]] * [[Battle of the Mediterranean\|Mediterranean]] [[1940]]&ndash;[[1941]] * [[German battleship Bismarck\|''Bismarck'']] [[1941]] * [[Malta Convoys]] [[1941]] ==External links== [http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/static/pages/1891.html Royal Navy - HMS Ark Royal] [[de:Ark Royal]] [[ja:&#12450;&#12540;&#12463;&#12539;&#12525;&#12452;&#12516;&#12523;]] [[zh:&#30343;&#23478;&#26041;&#33311;&#21495;&#33322;&#31354;&#27597;&#33328;]] [[Category:Royal Navy ship names\|Ark Royal]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Herman of Alaska</title> <id>14293</id> <revision> <id>34578944</id> <timestamp>2006-01-10T04:42:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wesley</username> <id>63</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">Saint '''Herman of Alaska''' is the first [[saint]] to be canonized by the [[Orthodox Church in America]]. Born: probably in 1756, possibly in 1760, in [[Serpukhov]]. Died: [[December 13]], [[1837]]. Herman of [[Alaska]] was a Russian Orthodox [[monk]] from the [[Valaam Monastery]] in [[Russia]], who traveled with eight other monks in [[1793]] to bring the [[Gospel]] to the native [[Aleut]]s and [[Eskimo]]s in the [[Aleutian Islands]]. As part of the [[Russian colonization of the Americas]] Russians had been exploring and trading there since at least 1740. Thus, he marks the first arrival of [[Eastern Orthodoxy\|Orthodox Christian]] missionaries in [[North America]]. He built a school for the Aleutians, and often defended them from the injustices and exploitation of the Russian traders. He was known to them as "Apa" which means "Grandfather." He lived most of his life as the sole resident of Spruce Island, a tiny wooded island near [[Kodiak Island Borough, Alaska\|Kodiak Island]]. [[Feast day]]s: [[August 9]] and [[December 13]]. {{saint-stub}} [[Category:1756 births\|Herman of Alaska]] [[Category:1837 deaths\|Herman of Alaska]] [[Category:Saints]] [[Category:Monks and nuns]] [[fi:Herman Alaskalainen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hausdorff dimension</title> <id>14294</id> <revision> <id>41573490</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:01:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CSTAR</username> <id>61089</id> </contributor> <comment>/ Results */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Hausdorff dimension''' is an [[extended real number line\|extended]] non-negative [[real number]] (that is a number in the closed infinite interval [0, &infin;]) associated to any [[metric space]]. It was introduced in [[1918]] by the [[mathematician]] [[Felix Hausdorff]]. Many of the technical developments used to compute the Hausdorff dimension for highly irregular sets were obtained by [[Abram Samoilovitch Besicovitch]]. For this reason, Hausdorff dimension is sometimes referred to as '''Hausdorff-Besicovitch dimension'''. It is also less frequently called the '''capacity dimension''' or '''fractal dimension'''. ==Informal discussion== Intuitively, the dimension of a set (for example, a [[subset]] of [[Euclidean space]]) is the number of independent parameters needed to describe a point in the set. One mathematical concept which closely models this naïve idea is that of [[topological dimension]] of a set. For example a point in the plane is described by two independent parameters (the [[cartesian coordinate]]s of the point), so in this sense, the plane is two-dimensional. As one would expect, topological dimension is always a [[natural number]]. However, topological dimension behaves in quite unexpected ways on certain highly irregular sets such as [[fractal]]s. For example the [[Cantor set]] has topological dimension zero, but in some sense it behaves as a higher dimensional space. Hausdorff dimension gives another way to define dimension, which takes the metric into account. [[Image:Sierpinski triangle (blue).jpg\|thumb\|300px\|[[Sierpinski triangle]]. A space having fractional dimension ln 3 / ln 2, which is approximately 1.58]] To define the Hausdorff dimension for ''X'', we first consider the number N(''r'') of [[ball (mathematics)\|balls]] of radius at most ''r'' required to cover ''X'' completely. Clearly, as ''r'' gets smaller N(''r'') gets larger. Very roughly, if N(''r'') grows in the same way as 1/''r''<sup>''d''</sup> as ''r'' is squeezed down towards zero, then we say ''X'' has dimension ''d''. In fact the rigorous definition of Hausdorff dimension is somewhat roundabout, since it first defines an entire family of covering measures for ''X''. It turns out that Hausdorff dimension refines the concept of topological dimension and also relates it to other properties of the space such as area or volume. There are various closely related notions of possibly fractional dimension. For example [[box-counting dimension]], generalises the idea of counting the squares of [[graph paper]] in which a point of ''X'' can be found, as the size of the squares is made smaller and smaller. (The box-counting dimension is also called the [[Minkowski-Bouligand dimension]]). These notions (topological dimension, Hausdorff dimension, Minkowski-Bouligand dimension) all give the same value for many shapes. They give different values for some highly irregular curves. Those curves were originally called "[[monster curve]]s" because they seemed so bizarre and non-intuitive at the time. But [[Benoît Mandelbrot]] says that most shapes found in nature are best modeled by such irregular curves. ==Formal definition== The Hausdorff dimension gives an accurate way to measure the [[dimension]] of an arbitrary [[metric space]]; this includes complicated [[mathematical set\|set]]s such as [[fractal]]s. Suppose (''X'',''d'') is a metric space. As mentioned
or <math>e(t)=r(t)- y(t)</math>, a PID controller has the general form :<math>u(t) = K_P e(t) + K_I \int e(t)dt + K_D \dot{e}(t)</math> The desired closed loop dynamics can be easily obtained by adjusting the three parameters <math> K_P</math>, <math> K_I</math> and <math> K_D</math>. Stability can be ensured using only the proportional term, but the integral term permits the rejection of a step disturbance (often a striking specification in [[process control]]). The derivative term is often omitted. PID controllers are the easiest class of control systems: however, they cannot be used in several more complicated cases, especially if MIMO systems are considered. ===Direct pole placement=== {{Main\|State space (controls)}} For MIMO systems, pole placement can be performed mathematically using a [[State space (controls)\|State space representation]] of the open-loop system and calculating a feedback matrix assigning poles in the desired positions. In complicated system this can require large computer-assisted calculation capabilities, and cannot always ensure robust results. ===Optimal control=== {{Main\|Optimal control}} Optimal control is a particular control technique in which the control signal optimizes a certain "cost index": for example, in the case of a satellite we could need to know the jet thrusts to give in order to bring it again in the desired trajectory after a perturbation, consuming as little fuel as possible in the process. Two classes of optimal controls have been widely used in industrial applications, as it has been shown they can ensure closed-loop stability also. These are [[Model Predictive Control]] ('''MPC''') and [[Linear-Quadratic-Gaussian control]] ('''LQG'''). The first is the more successful one, as it can take account of the presence of constraints over the signals present in the systems, which is an important topic in many industrial processes (by the way, the "optimal control" structure in MPC is only a means to achieve such a result, as it does not optimize a true performance index as a closed-loop control system). Together with PID controllers, MPC systems are the most widely used control technique in [[process control]]. See also: * [[Model predictive control]] * [[H infinity]] ===Adaptive control=== {{Main\|Adaptive control}} Adaptive control uses an on-line identification of the process parameters, obtaining strong robustness properties. Adaptive controls were applied for the first time in the [[Aircraft industry]] in the [[1950s]], and have found particular success in that field. ===Non-linear control systems=== {{Main\|Non-linear control}} Processes in industries like [[Robotics]] and [[Aerospace industry]] typically have strong non-linear dynamics. In control theory is sometimes possible to linearize such classes of system and apply linear techniques: but in many cases it had been necessary to devise from scratch theories permitting control of non-linear systems. These normally take advantage of results based on [[Lyapunov's theory]]. ==See also== * [[Control engineering]] * [[Intelligent control]] * [[Model identification]] * [[Process control]] * [[Robotic unicycle]] * [[Root locus]] * [[Servomechanism]] * [[State space (controls)]] * [[Fractional order control]] * [[Stable polynomial]] * [[Robust control]] * [[Systems theory]] * [[Distributed parameter systems]] (infinite-dimensional systems) * [[Perceptual control theory]] == Appendix A == Derivation of transfer function: <table> <tr><td valign="top"> <td><math>Y(s) = P(s) U(s)\,\!</math> <td valign="middle"> (1) <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr><td valign="top"> <td><math>U(s) = C(s) E(s)\,\!</math> <td valign="middle"> (2) <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr><td valign="top"> <td><math>E(s) = R(s) - Y(s)\,\!</math> <td valign="middle"> (3) <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr><td valign="top">(1) + (2) <td> <math>Y = P C E\,\!</math> <td valign="middle"> (4) <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr><td valign="top">(4) + (3) <td> <math>Y = P C ( R - Y )\,\! </math> <td valign="middle"> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr><td valign="top"> <td><math>Y = P C R - P C Y\,\! </math> <td valign="middle"> ''Expanding out ( R &minus; Y )'' <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr><td valign="top"> <td><math>Y + P C Y = P C R\,\! </math> <td valign="middle"> ''Moving P C Y to the left hand side'' <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr><td valign="top"> <td><math>Y ( 1 + P C ) = P C R\,\! </math> <td valign="middle"> ''Consolidating the common term Y'' <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr><td valign="top"> <td><math>Y = \frac{P C R}{1 + P C}</math> <td valign="middle"> '' Isolating out the term Y'' <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr> <tr><td valign="top"> <td><math>Y = \frac{P C}{1 + P C} R</math><br> <td> (5) </table> [[Category:Control theory\| ]] [[Category:Cybernetics]] [[Category:Engineering]] [[de:Kontrolltheorie]] [[fr:Automatique]] [[fr:Régulation]] [[it:Teoria del controllo]] [[ja:&#21046;&#24481;&#29702;&#35542;]] [[pl:Teoria sterowania]] [[th:&#3607;&#3620;&#3625;&#3598;&#3637;&#3619;&#3632;&#3610;&#3610;&#3588;&#3623;&#3610;&#3588;&#3640;&#3617;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clangers</title> <id>7040</id> <revision> <id>15905140</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Clangers]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cracking knuckles</title> <id>7042</id> <revision> <id>39952212</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T01:17:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Teimu.tm</username> <id>482182</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cracking knuckles''' is the practice of manipulating one's [[finger]]s such that the hand (most usually the knuckle joint) produces a sharp [[sound]], likened to cracking (also likened to popping, etc). To produce the sounds, many people will bend their fingers into unusual positions, or manipulate them in ways which are not commonly experienced in everyday use. For example, bending the [[fingers]] right back towards the back of the hand, or pulling them away from the [[hand]]. In many early [[Film\|motion pictures]] and subsequently [[Parody\|parodied]] in [[animation\|animated]] [[cartoon\|cartoons]], the gesture of cracking knuckles was associated with a "tough guy" image, especially when accompanied by the implicit or explicit threat of [[violence]]. The physical mechanism is unknown, but possibilities that have been suggested include: # [[cavitation]] within the joint &ndash; small cavities of partial vacuum form in the fluid then rapidly collapse, producing a sharp sound (hypothesis in a medical journal) # the sudden stretching of ligaments (hypothesis by one reader of that journal) # release of gas from the joints being adjusted (this applies to the popping that can occur in any joint such as during [[chiropractic manipulation]]) A single event is not enough to cause damage to the [[joint]], although it is possible that prolonged joint stress due to cracking knuckles may eventually lead to a higher risk of joint damage. The long-term consequences of this practice have not been studied thoroughly, and the scientific evidence is inconclusive. However, the common parental advice "Cracking your knuckles gives you [[arthritis]]" may be simply a device to deter children from this practice, which many people find annoying because of the sound it makes. In actual fact, study by Castellanos and Axelrod showed that arthritis was not a product of knuckle cracking. They evaluated 300 consecutive outpatients at Mount Carmel Mercy Hospital to determine whether habitual knuckle cracking is a risk factor for hand dysfunction. They found no relation with osteoarthritis, but noted that 'knuckle crackers were more likely to have hand swelling and lower grip strength.' A [[chiropractic]] perspective: :"As a joint is being distracted, the capsule invaginates inward and as the stress on the capsule reaches a certain threshold, it suddenly snaps back from the synovial fluid, increasing the volume of the capsule (and decreasing pressure) and causing the audible sound. The sudden increase in the volume causes the tension to drop, allowing the joint to increase in movement. Eventually, the elastic limit of the capsule is reached and the process stops. The time elapsed during all this is shorter than that required for completion of the stretch reflex, so it can occur without muscular resistance. The sudden jerk on the capsule and the other periarticular tissues is theorized to cause firing of the high-threshold mechanoreceptors." [http://www.chiro-online.com/interadcom/murphy3.html] == External links == [http://www.chiro-online.com/interadcom/murphy3.html Mecha
i" in childhood) she is considered the embodiment of the [[1950s]] "sex kitten." In the [[1970s]] Bardot established herself as an [[animal rights]] activist. During the [[1990s]] her controversial and outspoken political views on such issues as [[immigration]], [[Islam]], and [[homosexuality]] greatly affected her reputation. ==Career== Bardot was born in [[Paris]] to Charles "Pilou" Bardot and Anne-Marie Mucel. Bardot's beauty and natural sensuality began to show as a teenager and in [[1952]], she appeared on screen for the first time in ''Le Trou Normand''. That same year, at age 18, she married director [[Roger Vadim]], with whom she had been romantically involved for several years. Although the [[European cinema\|European film industry]] was then in the ascendant, her personal rise was remarkable: she has been one of the few [[Europe]]an actresses to receive mass media attention in the [[United States]]. She and [[Marilyn Monroe]] were the icons of female sexuality in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] and whenever she made public appearances in the United States the media hordes covered her every move. Her films of the early and mid 1950s were lightweight romantic dramas, some of them historical, in which she was cast as ing&eacute;nue or siren, often with an element of undress. She played bit-parts in three English-language films, the British comedy ''Doctor at Sea'' (1955), [[Warner Brothers]]' ''Helen of Troy'' (1954), in which she was understudy for the title-role but only appears as Helen's handmaid, and ''Act of Love'' (1954) wth Kirk Douglas. Her French-language films were dubbed for international release. "She is every man's idea of the girl he'd like to meet in Paris" said the film-critic Ivon Addams in 1955. Vadim was not content with this light fare. The [[French New Wave\|New Wave]] of French and Italian art directors and their stars were riding high internationally and he felt Bardot was being undersold. Looking for something more like an art-film to push her as a serious actress, he showcased her in ''[[And God Created Woman]]'' (1956) with [[Jean-Louis Trintignant]]. The film, about an amoral teenager in a respectable small-town setting, was a big international success, riding on the back of Bardot's high profile as a magazine celebrity and pin-up. She may have had an affair with her co-star Trintignant, but this was more likely a pre-release publicity gimmick. The film is often wrongly described as her first film (it was her seventeenth) and to have launched her overnight, but it did help move her towards the cinematic mainstream. It also ruled out a transition to [[Hollywood]], where she was thought too risqu&eacute; to handle. The [[Doris Day]] era was in still in full swing and even [[Jane Russell]] in ''The French Line'' (1953) had been thought to be going too far by showing her midriff. Fluffy erotica like Bardot's ''Cette sacr&eacute;e gamine'' (That Crazy Kid, 1955) was considered fine at the box-office as long as it was clearly labelled "European". Also Bardot's limited English and strong accent (while beguiling to the ears of men) did not suit rapid-fire Hollywood scripts. In any event, staying in Europe benefited her image when the [[1960s]] began to swing and Hollywood slipped into the background for a while, and Bardot was voted honorary sex-goddess to the decade. Divorced from Vadim in 1957, she married actor Jacques Charrier (1959-62), by whom in 1960 she had her only child, '''Nicolas-Jacques Charrier''' from whom she is estranged. She once referred to her only child as "a tumour". The marriage was preyed on by the [[paparazzi]] and there were clashes over Bardot's career-direction. Her films did become more substantial, but this brought a heavy pressure of dual celebrity as she sought critical acclaim while remaining to most of the world a glamour model. ''Vie priv&eacute;e'' (1960), directed by [[Louis Malle]] has more than an element of autobiography in it. The scene in which, returning to her flat, Bardot's character is harangued in the lift by a middle-aged cleaning-lady calling her a tramp and a tart was based on an actual incident, and is a resonant image of celebrity in the mid-[[20th century]]. Soon after, Bardot withdrew to the seclusion of the South of France and is now known to have attempted suicide, but as the sexual revolution of the early 1960s gathered momentum her lifestyle began to seem more like the norm and the pressure lifted. Through the sixties, she was happy to appear in glossy star-vehicles like ''Viva Maria'' (1969), to dabble in pop-music and to perceive her main role as glamour model and icon. In [[1965]] she appeared as herself in the [[Hollywood]] production ''[[Dear Brigitte]]'' starring [[Jimmy Stewart]]. Her other husbands were German millionaire playboy Gunther Sachs (1966-69), and French right-wing politician, Bernard d'Ormale (1992-present), with whom she evidently has the best marital relationship in her history. She has also had reputed relationships with many men including [[Serge Gainsbourg]] and [[Sacha Distel]] (singers), and apparently with [[Jimi Hendrix]] after a chance meeting at the airport in Paris. She is recognized for popularizing [[bikini]] swimwear in early films such as ''Manina'' (Woman without a Veil, 1952) and in her appearances at Cannes and in many photo-shoots. She even sported an early version of the monokini (topless bikini) from time to time. Though this was not considered extraordinary in France, where nudity on beaches is common, it was considered nearly scandalous in the US. The fashions of the 1960s looked effortlessly right and spontaneous on her and she joined (the now-deceased icons) [[Marilyn Monroe]] and [[Jackie Kennedy]], in becoming a subject for [[Andy Warhol]] paintings. In 1970, the sculptor [[Aslan (pin up)\|Alain Gourdon]] used Bardot as the model for a bust of [[Marianne]], the French national emblem. ==Retirement== In [[1974]], just before her fortieth birthday, Bardot announced her retirement. After appearing in more than fifty motion pictures, and recording several music albums, most notably with France's "bad boy" of music, [[Serge Gainsbourg]], she chose to use her fame to promote [[animal rights]]. She is accused of being a [[misanthrope]] and preferring the company of animals to that of humans. In [[1986]], she established the Brigitte Bardot Foundation for the Welfare and Protection of Animals. She raised 3 million French [[franc]]s to fund the foundation by [[auction]]ing off her [[jewelry]] and many personal belongings. Today, she is one of the world's most influential animal rights activists and a major opponent of the consumption of [[horse meat]]. She is also one of the most celebrated supporters of [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]] of the right-wing [[National Front (France)\|Front National]] political party, with which her husband is associated. With the publication of her 2003 book, ''A Scream in the Silence'', the reclusive Bardot has come under considerable fire for anti-[[Muslim]], and anti-[[gay]] comments. In May 2003, The [[MRAP]] ("Mouvement contre le Racisme et pour l'Amitié entre les Peuples" - Movement against racism and for friendship between peoples) announced that it would sue Bardot for her published views. Another organization, The "[[Ligue des Droits de l'Homme]]" (League of Human Rights), announced that it was considering similar legal proceedings. Bardot, in a letter to a French gay magazine, wrote in her defense, "Apart from my husband&mdash;who maybe will cross over one day as well&mdash;I am entirely surrounded by homos. For years they have been my support, my friends, my adopted children, my confidants." On [[June 10]], [[2004]] Bardot was convicted by a French court of "inciting racial hatred." She was fined 5,000 &#8364; and it is the fourth such conviction/fine she has faced from French courts. These recent fines pertain to her aforementioned book. In particular the courts cited passages where Bardot referred to the "Islamization of France" and the "underground and dangerous infiltration of Islam." (France's 5-million member Muslim community is the largest in Europe.) In the book she also referred to homosexuals as "fairground freaks," and she condemns the presence of women in government. Bardot's previous comments that led to convictions included ones encouraging civilian massacres in [[Algeria]]. Bardot has lost a considerable amount of sympathy from her fans due to her now-frequent anti-Muslim, anti-gay and anti-Immigrant outbursts. ==Quotation== "She is the princess of pout, the countess of come hither. Brigitte Bardot exuded a carefree, naïve sexuality that brought a whole new audience to French films." ''[[Time Magazine]]'' "Well, my telephone rang it would not stop, / It's [[John F. Kennedy\|President Kennedy]] callin' me up. / He said, "My friend, Bob, what do we need to make the country grow?" / I said, "My friend, John, Brigitte Bardot, / [[Anita Ekberg]], / [[Sophia Loren]]. / Country'll grow." -- [[Bob Dylan]], "I Shall Be Free," ''[[The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan]]'', 1963 ==Filmography== ''[[The Girl in the Bikini]]'' ([[1952]]) ''[[The Long Teeth]]'' ([[1952]]) ''[[Crazy for Love]]'' ([[1952]]) ''[[His Father's Portrait]]'' ([[1953]]) ''[[Act of Love]]'' ([[1953]]) ''[[Betrayed]]'' ([[1954]]) ''[[Royal Affairs in Versailles]]'' ([[1954]]) ''[[The Light Across the Street]]'' ([[1955]]) ''[[School for Love]]'' ([[1955]]) ''[[Caroline and the Rebels]]'' ([[1955]]) ''[[Doctor at Sea]]'' ([[1955]]) ''[[The Grand Maneuver]]'' ([[1955]]) ''[[Nero's Mistress]]'' ([[1956]]) ''[[Her Bridal Night]]'' ([[1956]]) ''[[Helen of Troy]]'' ([[1956]]) ''[[Naughty Girl]]'' ([[1956]]) *''[[Plucking the Daisy]]'' ([[1956]
ibes known collectively as the Anglo-Saxons. Some researchers suggest this invasion consisted of as few as 10,000 to 25,000 people—not enough to displace existing inhabitants. Analysis of human remains unearthed at an ancient cemetery near Abingdon, England, indicates that Saxon immigrants and native Britons lived side by side. "Probably what we're dealing with is a majority of British people who were dominated politically by a new elite", Miles said. "They were swamped culturally but not genetically". "It is actually quite common to observe important cultural change, including adoption of wholly new identities, with little or no biological change to a population", Simon James, the Leicester University archaeologist, writes. Increasingly, the Romano-British population (the Britons) was assimilated, a process enabled by a lack of clear unity amongst the British people against a unified armed foe, and the culture pushed westwards and northwards. The settlement (or invasion) of England is known as the Saxon Conquest or the [[Anglo-Saxons\|Anglo-Saxon]] (sometimes "English") Conquest. In [[495]], at the [[Battle of Mons Badonicus\|Battle of Mount Badon]] (Badbury rings, Latin ''Mons Badonicus'', Welsh ''Mynydd Baddon'') near the Roman Porchester-Southampton-Poole road, Britons inflicted a severe defeat on an invading Anglo-Saxon army. While it was a major political and military event of the 5th and 6th centuries in Britain, there is no certainty about who commanded the opposing forces. This victory by the British army made it possible to stop the Saxon invasion and secured a long period of peace for Celtic Britain. In the decisive [[Battle of Deorham]], in [[577]], the British people of Southern Britain were separated into the West Welsh ([[Cornwall]], [[Devon]] and western [[Somerset]]) and the [[Wales\|Welsh]] by the advancing Saxons. By the [[4th century]] AD, many Britons had escaped across the English Channel from Wales, Cornwall and southern Britain, with their chiefs, soldiers, families, monks and priests, and started to settle and colonize the west part ([[Armorica]]) of [[Gaul]] (France) where they founded a new nation: [[Brittany]]. This flow of Britons increased when Roman troops and authority were withdrawn from Britain, and raiding and settling by Anglo-Saxons and Scotti into Britain increased. The immigrant Britons gave their new country its current name and contributed to the [[Breton language]], Brezhoneg, a sister language to Welsh and Cornish. The name Brittany (from "Little Britain") arose at this time to distinguish the new Britain from "Great Britain". Brezhoneg (the British language) is still spoken in Brittany in [[2005]]. Beginning with the raid in [[793]] on the monastery at [[Lindisfarne]], [[Vikings]] made many raids on England. At [[Dore]] (now a suburb of the [[Sheffield\|City of Sheffield]]) [[Egbert of Wessex]] received the submission of [[Eanred of Northumbria]] in [[829]] and so became the first Saxon overlord of all England. After a time of plunder and raids, the Vikings began to settle in England and trade, eventually ruling the [[Danelaw]] from the late [[9th century]]. One Viking settlement was in [[York]], called [[Jorvik]] by the Vikings. Viking rule left significant traces in the [[English language]]; the similarity of [[Old English language\|Old English]] and [[Old Norse language\|Old Norse]] led to much borrowing. The principal legacy left behind in those territories from which the languages of the Britons were displaced is that of toponyms. Many of the place-names in England and to a lesser extent Scotland are derived from the Britons' names, including London, Dumbarton, York, Dorchester, Dover and Colchester. Several place-name elements are thought to be wholly or partly Brythonic in origin, particularly bre-, bal-, and -dun for hills, carr for a high rocky place, coomb for a small deep valley. Until recently it has been believed that those areas settled by the Anglo-Saxons were uninhabited at the time or the Britons had fled before them. However, genetic studies show that the British were not pushed out to the Celtic fringes – many tribes remained in what was to become England (see C. Capelli et al. 'A Y chromosome census of the British Isles'. Current Biology 13, 979–984, ([[2003]])). Capelli's findings strengthen the research of Steven Bassett of Birmingham University; his work during the [[1990s]] suggests that much of the West Midlands was only very lightly colonised with Anglian and Saxon settlements. ===See also=== [[Hengest]] (Saxon leader, arrived in England in [[449]], died [[488]]) [[Cerdic of Wessex]] (Saxon leader) [[Bede\|The Venerable Bede]] (c[[672]]-[[735]]) [[Offa]] (reign [[757]] - [[796]]) [[Egbert of Wessex]] ([[770]] - [[839]]) [[Alfred the Great]] ([[848]] - [[900]]) [[Anglo-Saxon Kings]] [[Ælfric]] (c.[[955]] - [[1020]]?) ==England during the Middle Ages== : ''Main article: [[Britain in the Middle Ages]]'' The defeat of [[Monarch\|King]] [[Harold Godwinson]] at the [[Battle of Hastings]] in [[1066]] at the hands of William of [[Normandy]], later styled [[William I of England]] and the subsequent [[Norman Conquest\|Norman takeover]] of [[Saxon England]] led to a sea-change in the history of the small, isolated, island state. William ordered the compilation of the [[Domesday Book]], a survey of the entire population and their lands and property for tax purposes. William ruled over Normandy, then a powerful French kingdom. William and his nobles spoke and conducted court in French, in Normandy as well as in England. The use of the French language by the aristocracy endured for centuries and left an indelible mark in the development of modern English. The English [[Middle Ages]] were to be characterised by [[civil war]], international war, occasional insurrection, and widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and monarchic elite. England was more than self-sufficient in cereals, dairy products, beef and mutton. The nation's international economy was based on the [[Wool#History\|wool trade]], in which the produce of the sheepwalks of northern England was exported to the textile cities of [[Flanders]], where it was worked into cloth. Medieval foreign policy was as much shaped by relations with Flemish textile industry as it was by dynastic adventures in western France. An English textile industry was established in the fifteenth century, providing the basis for rapid English capital accumulation. [[Henry I of England\|Henry I]], also known as "Henry Beauclerc" (so named because of his education&mdash;as his older brother [[William II of England\|William]] was the [[heir apparent]] and thus given the practical training to be king, Henry received the alternate, formal education), worked hard to reform and stabilise the country and smooth the differences between the Anglo-Saxon and [[Anglo-Norman]] societies. The loss of his son, [[William Adelin\|William]], in the wreck of the [[White Ship]] in November [[1120]], was to undermine his reforms. This problem regarding succession was to cast a long shadow over English history. During the disastrous and incompetent reign of [[Stephen I of England\|Stephen]] ([[1135]] - [[1154]]), there was a major swing in the balance of power towards the [[feudal]] [[baron]]s, as [[the Anarchy\|civil war]] and lawlessness broke out. In trying to appease [[Scotland\|Scottish]] and Welsh raiders, he handed over large tracts of land. His conflicts with his cousin [[Empress Matilda\|The Empress Matilda]] (also known as Empress Maud), whom he had earlier promised recognition as heir, were his undoing: she bided her time in [[France]] and, in the autumn of [[1139]], invaded (with her husband, [[Geoffrey of Anjou]] and her half-brother, [[Robert of Gloucester]]). Stephen was captured and his government fell. Matilda was proclaimed queen but was soon at odds with her subjects and was expelled from [[London]]. The period of insurrection and civil war that followed continued until [[1148]], when Matilda returned to France. Stephen effectively reigned unopposed until his death in [[1154]], although his hold on the throne was still uneasy. When Stephen's son and heir apparent [[Eustace IV\|Eustace]] died in 1153 Stephen reached an accommodation with Matilda which allowed her son, Henry of [[Anjou]], (who became [[Henry_II_of_England\|Henry II]]) to succeed Stephen and in which peace between them was guaranteed. The reign of Henry II represents a reversion in power back from the barony to the monarchical state; it was also to see a similar redistribution of legislative power from the Church, again to the monarchical state. This period also presaged a properly constituted legislation and a radical shift away from [[feudalism]]. Henry's successor, [[Richard I of England\|Richard I]], was preoccupied with foreign wars, taking part in the Third Crusade and defending his French territories against Philip II of France. His younger brother [[John of England\|John]], who succeeded him, was not so fortunate; he suffered the loss of Normandy and numerous other French territories. He also managed to antagonise the feudal nobility and leading Church figures to the extent that in 1215, they led an armed rebellion and forced him to sign the [[Magna Carta]], which imposed legal limits on the King's personal powers. John's son, [[Henry III of England\|Henry III]], was only 9 years old when he became King. His reign was punctuated by numerous rebellions and civil wars, often provoked by incompetence and mismanagement in Government, and Henry's perceived over-reliance on French courtiers (thus restricting the influence of the English nobility). One of these rebellions, led (curiously enough) by a disaffected courtier, [[Simon de Montfort]], was notable for its assembly of one of the earliest precursors to the modern [[British Parliament]]. The reign of [
color1=#cccc99 \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_magnetic \| nonmagnetic }} {{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 \| 150 &micro;}} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k \| 27.4 }} {{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 \| 5&ndash;7 }} {{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 \| 16200 }} {{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa \| (&beta; form) 185 }} {{Elementbox_mohshardness \| 9.3 }} {{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa \| 49000 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number \| 7440-42-8 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin \| isotopesof=boron \| color1=#cccc99 \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable \| mn=10 \| sym=B \| na=19.9%* \| n=5 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable \| mn=11 \| sym=B \| na=80.1%* \| n=6 }} \|- \| colspan="6" align="center" \| <small>Boron-10 content may be as low as 19.1% and as<br />high as 20.3% in natural samples. Boron-11 is<br />the remainder in such cases.</small> {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer \| color1=#cccc99 \| color2=black }} '''Boron''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''B''' and [[atomic number]] 5. A trivalent [[metalloid]] element, boron occurs abundantly in the ore [[borax]]. There are several [[allotropy\|allotrope]]s of boron; amorphous boron is a brown powder, but metallic boron is black. The metallic form is hard (9.3 on Mohs' scale) and a poor conductor at room temperature. It is never found free in nature. [[Crystalline]] boron exists in many [[polymorph]]s. Two [[rhombohedral]] forms, α-boron and β-boron containing 12 and 106.7 atoms in the rhombohedral unit cell respectively, and 50-atom [[tetragonal]] boron are the three most characterised crystalline forms. == Notable characteristics == Boron is [[electron]]-deficient, possessing a vacant [[p-block\|p-orbital]]. It is an [[electrophile]]. Compounds of boron often behave as [[Lewis acid]]s, readily bonding with electron-rich substances in an attempt to quench boron's insatiable hunger for electrons. Optical characteristics of this element include the transmittance of [[infrared]] light. At standard temperatures boron is a poor [[electrical conductivity\|electrical conductor]] but is a good conductor at high temperatures. [[Boron nitride]] can be used to make materials that are almost as hard as [[diamond]]. The nitride also acts as an electrical [[insulator]] but conducts heat similar to a [[metal]]. This element also has [[lubrication\|lubricating]] qualities that are similar to [[graphite]]. Boron is also similar to [[carbon]] with its capability to form stable [[covalent bond\|covalently bonded]] molecular networks. ==Applications== The most economically important compounds of boron are: Sodium tetraborate pentahydrate ([[sodium\|Na]]<sub>2</sub>B<sub>4</sub>[[oxygen\|O]]<sub>7</sub> · 5[[water (molecule)\|H<sub>2</sub>O]]), which is used in large amounts in making insulating [[fiberglass]] and [[sodium perborate]] [[Bleach (chemical)\|bleach]], * Orthoboric acid ([[hydrogen\|H]]<sub>3</sub>B[[oxygen\|O]]<sub>3</sub>) or [[boric acid]], used in the production of textile [[fiberglass]] and [[flat panel display]]s or [[eye drop]]s, among many uses, and * Sodium tetraborate decahydrate ([[sodium\|Na]]<sub>2</sub>B<sub>4</sub>[[oxygen\|O]]<sub>7</sub> · 10[[water (molecule)\|H<sub>2</sub>O]]) or [[borax]], used in the production of adhesives, in anti-corrosion systems and many other uses. Of the several hundred uses of boron compounds, one can cite the following ones: * Boron being an essential [[micronutrient]], playing notably a role in plant [[fertilizer\|fertilisation]] and in the building of [[cell wall]] structures, it is used in [[agriculture]]. * Because of its distinctive green flame, amorphous boron is used in [[pyrotechnic]] [[flare]]s. * [[Boric acid]] is an important compound used in [[textile]] products. * [[Boric acid]] is also traditionally used as an [[insecticide]], notably against [[ant]]s or [[cockroach]]es. * Compounds of boron are used extensively in organic synthesis and in the manufacture of [[borosilicate glass\|borosilicate]] and [[borophophosilicate glass\|borophophosilicate]] [[glass]]es. * Other compounds are used as [[wood]] preservatives, and are particularly attractive in this regard because they possess low [[toxicity]]. * Boron-10 is used to assist control of [[nuclear reactor]]s, a [[radiation protection\|shield]] against [[Radioactive decay\|radiation]] and in [[neutron]] detection. * Purified boron-11 ([[#Depleted boron\|depleted boron]]) is used for [[borosilicate glass]]es in [[radiation hardening\|rad-hard]] electronics. * Research is being conducted into fusion power by interaction of hydrogen and boron. Potential benefits include relatively small and uncomplicated reactors and supposedly greater safety. * Boron filaments are high-strength, lightweight materials that are chiefly used for advanced [[aerospace]] structures as a component of [[composite material]]s. * [[Sodium borohydride]] (NaBH<sub>4</sub>), is a popular chemical [[Redox\|reducing agent]], used (for example) for reducing [[aldehyde]]s and [[ketone]]s to [[alcohol]]s. * Boron in trace amounts is used as [[dopant]] for [[P-type semiconductor]]s. Boron compounds are being investigated for use in a broad range of applications, including as components in sugar-permeable membranes, [[carbohydrate]] sensors and [[bioconjugate]]s. Medicinal applications being investigated include boron [[neutron capture]] therapy and [[medication\|drug]] delivery. Other boron compounds show promise in treating [[arthritis]]. [[borane\|Hydrides of boron]] are [[oxidation\|oxidized]] easily and liberate a considerable amount of [[energy]]. They have therefore been studied for use as possible [[rocket fuel]]s. ==History== Compounds of boron ([[Arabic language\|Arabic]] ''Buraq'' from [[Persian language\|Persian]] ''Burah'') have been known of for thousands of years. In early Egypt, [[mummification]] depended upon an ore known as [[natron]], which contained borates as well as some other common salts. Borax [[glaze]]s were used in [[China]] from 300 AD, and boron compounds were used in glassmaking in ancient Rome. The element was not isolated until [[1808]] by Sir [[Humphry Davy]], [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]], and [[Louis Jacques Thénard]], to about 50 percent purity. These men did not recognize the substance as an element. It was [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] in 1824 that identified boron as an element. The first pure boron was produced by the American chemist W. Weintraub in 1909. ==Occurrence== The [[United States]] and [[Turkey]] are the world's largest producers of boron. Boron does not appear in nature in elemental form but is found combined in [[borax]], [[boric acid]], [[colemanite]], [[kernite]], [[ulexite]] and [[borate]]s. Boric acid is sometimes found in [[volcano\|volcanic]] spring waters. Ulexite is a borate [[mineral]] that naturally has properties of [[fiber optics]]. [[Image:Borax crystals.jpg\|thumb\|100px\|right\|Borax crystals]] Economically important sources are from the [[ore]] rasorite (kernite) and tincal (borax ore) which are both found in the [[Mojave Desert]] of [[California]] with borax being the most important source there. [[Turkey]] is another place where extensive borax deposits are found. Pure elemental boron is not easy to prepare. The earliest methods used involve reduction of [[boric oxide]] with metals such as [[magnesium]] or [[aluminium]]. However the product is almost always contaminated with metal [[boride]]s. (The reaction is quite spectacular though.) Pure boron can be prepared by reducing volatile boron halogenides with [[hydrogen]] at high temperatures. In 1997 [[crystalline]] boron (99% pure) cost about [[United States dollar\|US$]]5 per [[gram]] and [[amorphous]] boron cost about US$2 per gram. ; see also [[:category:Borate minerals]] ==Isotopes== Boron has two naturally-occurring and stable [[isotope]]s, <sup>11</sup>B (80.1%) and <sup>10</sup>B (19.9%). The mass difference results in a wide range of &delta;B-11 values in natural waters, ranging from -16 to +59. There are 13 known isotopes of boron, the shortest-lived isotope is <sup>7</sup>B which decays through [[proton emission]] and [[alpha decay]]. It has a [[half-life]] of 3.26500x10<sup>-22</sup> [[Second\|s]]. Isotopic fractionation of boron is controlled by the exchange reactions of the boron species B([[oxygen\|O]][[hydrogen\|H]])<sub>3</sub> and B(OH)<sub>4</sub>. Boron isotopes are also fractionated during [[mineral crystallization]], during H<sub>2</sub>O phase changes in [[hydrothermal]] systems, and during hydrothermal alteration of [[Rock (geology)\|rock]]. The latter effect species preferential removal of the <sup>10</sup>B(OH)<sub>4</sub> [[ion]] onto clays results in solutions enriched in <sup>11</sup>B(OH)<sub>3</sub> may be responsible for the large <sup>11</sup>B enrichment in seawater relative to both [[ocean]]ic crust and [[continent]]al crust; this difference may act as an [[isotopic signature]]. ===Depleted boron=== The boron-10 isotope is good at capturing [[thermal neutron]]s from [[cosmic radiation]] or in [[Pressurized water reactor\|PWR]]s (''P''ressurized ''W''ater ''R''eactor, a type of nuclear power reactor). It then undergoes [[fission]] - producing a [[gamma ray]], an [[alpha particle]], and a [[lithium]] ion. When this happens inside of an [[integrated circuit]], the fission products may then dump charge into nearby chip structures, causing data loss (bit flipping, or [[single event upset]]). In critical [[semiconductor]] designs, '''depleted boron''' - consisting almost entirely of boron-11 - is used, to avoid this effect, as one of [[radiation hardening]] measures. Boron-11 is a by-product of
le Glen\|"Jumonville affair"]] became an international incident and helped to ignite the [[French and Indian War]], a part of the worldwide [[Seven Years' War]]. Washington was later released by the French, on parole, with his promise not to return to the Ohio Country for one year. Washington was always eager to serve in the [[British Army]], which, on the other hand, had a low regard for colonials. His opportunity came in 1755, when he accompanied the [[Braddock Expedition]], a major effort by the British to retake the Ohio Country. The expedition ended in disaster at the [[Braddock Expedition#Battle of the Monongahela\|Battle of the Monongahela]]. Washington distinguished himself in the debacle&mdash;he had two horses shot out from under him, and four bullets pierced his coat&mdash;yet he sustained no injuries and showed coolness under fire in organizing the retreat. In Virginia, Washington was acclaimed as a hero, and he commanded the First Virginia Regiment for several more years, although the focus of the war had shifted elsewhere. In 1758, he accompanied the [[John Forbes (General)\|Forbes Expedition]], which successfully drove the French away from [[Fort Duquesne]]. Washington's goal at the outset of his military career had been to secure a commission as a regular British officer&mdash;rather than staying a mere colonial militia officer. The promotion did not come, and so, in 1759, Washington resigned his commission and married [[Martha Washington\|Martha Dandridge Custis]], a wealthy widow with two children. Washington raised her two children, John Parke Custis and Martha Parke Custis, affectionately called "Jacky" and "Patsy". Later the Washington's raised two of Mrs. Washington's grandchildren, Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Parke Custis, or "Nelly" and "Washy". Washington himself never fathered any of his own. The newlywed couple moved to Mount Vernon where he took up the life of a genteel farmer and [[slavery\|slave]] owner. He held local office and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, the [[House of Burgesses]]. ==American Revolution: 1774-1783== {{main articles\|[[American Revolution]] and [[American Revolutionary War]]}} [[Image:Washington Crossing the Delaware.png\|thumb\|right\|350px\|''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware]],'' by [[Emanuel Leutze]], 1851 , [[Metropolitan Museum of Art\|Metropolitan Museum]]]] In 1774, Washington was chosen as a [[delegate]] from Virginia to the First [[Continental Congress]], convened in the wake of the Boston Tea Party, the British government's punitive closure of Boston Harbor, and the annulment of legislative and judicial rights in Massachusetts. After fighting broke out at Lexington and Concord in April, 1775, Washington appeared at the [[Second Continental Congress]] in military uniform&mdash;the only delegate to do so, signaling his interest in becoming commander of the colonial forces. Washington was the unanimous selection, on [[June 15]] [[1775]]. The [[Massachusetts]] delegate [[John Adams]] suggested his appointment, citing his "skill as an officer... great talents and universal character." He assumed command of the American forces at Cambridge, Massachusetts on [[July 3]]. Washington drove the British forces out of [[Boston, Massachusetts\|Boston]] on [[March 17]], [[1776]], by stationing artillery captured at [[Battle of Ticonderoga (1775)\|Ticonderoga]] on [[Dorchester Heights]], overlooking Boston and its harbor. The British army, led by General [[William Howe]], retreated to [[Halifax Regional Municipality\|Halifax]], [[Canada]]. Washington moved his army to [[New York City]] in anticipation of a British offensive there. In August, the British invaded in overwhelming numbers and Washington led a clumsy retreat that almost failed. He lost the [[Battle of Long Island]] on [[August 22]] but managed to move most of his forces to the mainland. However, several other defeats sent Washington scrambling across [[New Jersey]], leaving the future of the Revolution in doubt. On the night of [[December 25]] [[1776]], Washington staged a brilliant comeback, the [[Battle of Trenton]]. He led the American forces across the [[Delaware River]] to smash the [[Hessians\|Hessian]] forces in [[Trenton, New Jersey]]. Washington followed up the assault with a surprise attack on General [[Charles Cornwallis]]' forces at [[Battle of Princeton\|Princeton]] on the eve of [[January 2]], [[1777]]. The successful attacks built morale among the pro-independence colonists. In summer 1777, the British launched a three-pronged attack, with [[Burgoyne]] marching south from Canada while Howe attacked the national capital of [[Philadelphia]]. Washington moved south, but was badly defeated at the [[Battle of Brandywine]] on [[September 11]]. An attempt to dislodge the British, the [[Battle of Germantown]], failed as a result of fog and confusion, and Washington was forced to retire to winter quarters at the miserably inadequate [[Valley Forge]]. The winter of 1777-1778 was seen as the low point for the Continental Army (and as a result, for the Revolution as a whole), due to their string of crushing losses, and their wretched living conditions. Washington, however, stood steadfast, demanding more supplies from Congress. His men recovered their morale despite the harsh winter conditions. A new system of drill and training was established by [[Baron Friedrich von Steuben]], who had served on the Prussian general staff. Von Steuben's task was to improve the army’s fighting capabilities so that it could match the British in the field. As a result, Valley Forge proved to be a watershed for the fledgling Continental Army which emerged more battle ready than when they first encamped. Washington attacked the British army moving from Philadelphia to New York at the [[Battle of Monmouth]] on [[June 28]] [[1778]], a drawn contest, but the British effort to disrupt the national government had failed. Burgoyne’s invading army, meanwhile, was captured at [[Saratoga]] in October, giving the British a crushing defeat. It now seemed likely that the British would never re-conquer the new nation, and France signed a formal [[Treaty of Alliance\|alliance]] with the U.S. After 1778, the British made one last effort to split apart the new nation, this time focused on the southern states. Rather than attack them there, Washington's forces moved to [[West Point, New York\|West Point]] in New York. In 1779, Washington ordered a fifth of the army to carry out the [[Sullivan Expedition]], an offensive against four of the six nations of the [[Iroquois Confederacy]] that had allied with the British and attacked American settlements along the frontier. There were no battles, but at least forty Iroquois villages were destroyed and the hostile Indians moved permanently to Canada. In 1781, American and French forces and a French fleet trapped General Cornwallis at [[Yorktown, Virginia\|Yorktown]] in Virginia. Washington had quick-marched south, taking command of the American and French forces on [[September 14]], and pressed the siege until Cornwallis surrendered on [[October 17]]. It was the end of significant fighting, though British forces remained in New York City and a few other places until the final peace was ratified in 1783. In March 1783, Washington learned about [[Newburgh conspiracy\|a conspiracy]] planned by some of his officers who were upset about back pay in the Continental Army's winter camp at [[Newburgh, New York]]. They were plotting a [[coup]] against the Continental Congress. He was able to convince them (through use of [[theatre\|theatrics]]) that he had suffered equally or more than they. He was thus able to instill loyalty, and thus end the plot. Later in 1783, by means of the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)\|Treaty of Paris]], the [[Kingdom of Great Britain\|British]] recognized American independence. Washington disbanded his army and on [[November 2]] at [[Rockingham House]] in [[Rocky Hill, New Jersey]], gave an eloquent [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw3&fileName=mgw3b/gwpage016.db&recNum=347 farewell address] to his soldiers. A few days later the [[Evacuation Day (New York)\|British evacuated New York City]], and Washington and the governor took possession of the city; at [[Fraunces Tavern]] in the city on [[December 4]], he formally bade his officers farewell. ==Home in Virginia 1783-1787== [[Image:GW-painting.jpg\|thumb\|left\|280px\|''George Washington'' by [[John Trumbull]], painted in London, 1780, from memory]] On [[December 23]] [[1783]], General Washington resigned his commission as Commander in Chief of the Army to the [[Congress of the Confederation\|Congress of the Confederation]], which was then meeting at the [[Maryland State House]] in [[Annapolis]]. This action was of great significance for the young nation, establishing the precedent that civilian elected officials, rather than military officers, possessed ultimate [[Civilian control of the military\|authority over the military]]. Washington firmly believed that the people are sovereign and that no one should ever come to power in America because of military force, or because of birth in a noble family. General George Washington returned home to Mount Vernon arriving at the gates of his estate around candlelight on Christmas Eve, 1783. He had been absent from his beloved home in service to his country since he assumed command of the Army in 1775. Waiting to greet him was the wife he made the promise to eight years prior to be home by Christmas and four step-grandchildren all born during his absence. The end of the war also took with it George Washington's step-son, Jacky Custis. The boy he raised died of camp fever in 1781 at Yorktown. At the time of Washington's departure from military service, he was listed on the rolls of the Continental Army as "General and Commander in Chi
33-309 AD), Neoplatonist, pupil and biographer of Plotinus. * [[Iamblichus (philosopher)\|Iamblichus]] (242-327 AD), important Neoplatonic philosopher. * [[Calcidius]] (fl. 4th cent. AD), Platonist and author of an important Latin translation and commentary on the Timaeus. * [[Themistius]] (317-388 AD), Aristotelian commentator based in Constantinople. * [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354-430 AD), Christian philosopher and Church father, influenced by Neoplatonism. * [[Hypatia]] (370-415 AD), famous female Neoplatonist and mathematician. Based in Alexandria. Murdered by a Christian mob. * [[Proclus]] (411-485 AD), Athenian Neoplatonist and head of the Academy. * [[Ammonius]] (440-521 AD), Alexandrian Neoplatonist, a pupil of Proclus and teacher of Damascius and Simplicius. * [[Damascius]] (462-540 AD), Neoplatonist and head of the Athenian school. * [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius\|Boethius]] (475-524 AD), Latin Neoplatonist and translator of Aristotle. * [[Simplicius of Cilicia]] (490-560 AD), Aristotelian commentator, pupil of Damascius. * [[John Philoponus]] (490-570 AD), Christian Aristotelian commentator based in Alexandria; pupil of Ammonius. * [[Johannes Scotus Eriugena]] (810-877 AD) Also called "John the Scot". * [[Anselm of Canterbury\|Anselm]] (11th century) Posed the ontological argument for the existence of God. * [[Pierre Abélard]] (1079-1142 AD) Aristotelian (nominalist) and logician. Lived a great love story similar to Romeo and Juliet. * [[Roger Bacon]] (1220-1292 AD) He believed there could and should be a unified science based on observation, experiment and abstract reasoning. * [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1224-1274 AD) Tried to merge the already Platonized Christianity with the philosophy of Aristotle maintaining a distinction between philosophy and religion. * [[Duns Scotus]] (1266-1308 AD) Franciscan theologian. Was a critic of Thomas Aquinas. * [[William of Ockham]] (1285-1347 AD) Observed that nature and reason can only provide us with reliable knowledge about the world; famous for his principle of accepting the simplest of alternatives as the best one (Ockham's Razor). * [[Copernicus]] (1473-1543 AD) Polish churchman who hypothesized that many mathematical difficulties of the time would disappear if we assumed sun was at the center of our planetary system instead of earth (and flatly contradicting the [[Bible]]). * [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] (1469-1527 AD) Studied politics and government in an objective (scientific) manner. * [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546-1601 AD) Astronomer. Made a vast body of measured astronomical observations, which he passed on to [[Johannes Kepler]]. * [[Francis Bacon]] (1561-1626 AD) Believed that scientific knowledge could give power of man over nature. He also believed that the notion that definitions advance knowledge was an illusion. * [[Galileo Galilei]] (1564-1642 AD) Widely considered to be founding father of modern science with study of projectiles, pendulum, gravity. Invented the thermometer. Asserted that earth revolves around its axis. * [[Johannes Kepler]] (1571-1630 AD) Studied theology but he showed that planets move in elliptical motion around the sun (not circular as previously thought by [[Copernicus]]). * [[Thomas Hobbes]] (1588-1679 AD) Believed that only matter existed, everything could be explained in terms of matter in motion. The whole universe he considered a giant machine. In politics he claimed it is the fear of death that forces humans to form societies. Proposed that everyone should agree to hand power to a central authority, the Sovereign, whose job is to impose law and punish lawbreakers (police state). * [[Pierre Gassendi]] (1592-1655 AD) An advocate of the experimental approach to science. * [[René Descartes]] (1596-1650 AD) Metaphysical dualist. Invented analytic [[geometry]], the [[graph]], and Cartesian coordinate system. Often thought to be the first "early modern" philosopher. Famous for a doggedly skeptical methodology which began by wondering whether there was something that we could know for certain. Famous for his conclusion, "I think therefore I am". * [[John Locke]] (1632-1704 AD) Classical empiricist. Famous for his division between primary and secondary qualities. Secularized the notion that there are limits to what humans can apprehend by arguing (in his "Essays concerning Human Understanding") that if we could analyze our own mental faculties and find out what we are capable of and what not we should have discovered the limits of what is knowable by us. He never married. * [[Benedict Spinoza]] (1632-1677 AD) Believed that physical body and soul is one entity. Believed that for the most part we are not aware of the real causes of our actions. Being deprived of freedom of speech himself he was from the first to proclaim its importance. * [[Isaac Newton]] (1642-1727 AD) Accurately analyzed the constituents of light, invented [[calculus]], formulated the gravitational theory in physics, and provided an accurate account of movements of [[planets]] through space. * [[Gottfried Leibniz]] (1646-1716 AD) Rationalist. Invented [[calculus]] independently of Newton. Was offered professorship at 21 which he turned down. Claimed that truths belong in two categories: ones that can be verified with just examining them with logical statements, and the ones that need further observation and application of logic. * [[George Berkeley]] (1685-1753 AD) Classical empiricist. Believed all that exists is the mind and its ideas. * [[Voltaire]] (1694-1778 AD) Writer and satirist. Crusader against tyranny, bigotry and cruelty. He subscribed to Locke's idea that the confidence we have in our beliefs needs to relate to the evidence in their support. * [[David Hume]] (1711-1776 AD) Classical empiricist. Believed that the self consists of continuous conscious sensation. Advocated a political-philosophical outlook that emphasized public utility in a state's legitimacy. * [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] (1712-1778 AD) Democratic political philosopher. Advocate of a theory of the "general will". Argued against the position that civilization was a good thing. * [[Denis Diderot]] (1713-1784 AD) As author and editor of the [[Encyclopédie]] he admitted that his aim was to change the common way of thinking. * [[Adam Smith]] (1723-1790 AD) Economist and philosopher. * [[Edmund Burke]] (1729-1797 AD) Conservate political philosopher. Believed that the wisdom and experience of many generations is likely to be a more reliable guide to action than any one person's opinion. == See also == * [[List of philosophers]] * [[Philosophy]] {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:History of philosophy]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van de filosofie]] [[th:ประวัติปรัชญาตะวันตก]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hinduism</title> <id>13543</id> <revision> <id>42122833</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:44:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.12.21.75</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Practice (Yoga Dharma) */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Hindu religion; for other meanings of the word, see [[Hindu (disambiguation)]]. {{IndicText}} {{portal}} {{Hinduism_small}} '''Hinduism''' ([[Sanskrit]]/[[Hindi]]: '''{{lang\|hi\|हिन्दु धर्म}}'''; also known as ''Sanatana Dharma'' - {{lang\|hi\|सनातन धर्म}}, and ''Vaidika Dharma'' - {{lang\|hi\|वैदिक धर्म}}) is a worldwide religious tradition that is based on the [[Veda\|Vedas]], and is generally regarded as one of the oldest religions still practiced in the world. The term Hinduism is an amorphous concept as Hinduism consists of several schools of thought. [[Hinduism]] evolved from a [[monolithic]] religion into a multitude of traditions over a period of last 4000 years. It encompasses many religious rituals that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects and philosophies. An array of deities, all manifestations of the one Supreme [[monistic]] [[Brahman]], are venerated. It is the third largest [[religion]] in the world, with a following of approximately 1 billion people. Ninety-eight percent of Hindus can be found on the [[Indian subcontinent]], chiefly in [[India]]. It is noteworthy however that the relatively small Himalayan kingdom of [[Nepal]] is the only nation in the world with Hinduism as its state religion. See [[Hindu]] for more about a Hindu and different communities of Hindus. == Core Concepts == The Hindu faiths, practices and philosophies have evolved from the '''Vedic tradition''' (''Vaidika parampar{{Unicode\|ā}}''), with elements from Buddhism, Jainism and other non-Vedic faiths of India. ===The Eternal Way === "''San{{Unicode\|ā}}tana Dharma''" ({{Unicode\|सनातन धर्म}}, ''The Eternal Values''), the traditional name of Hinduism, alludes to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure science of consciousness. This consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a transcendental state that exists within ''and'' beyond our somatic existence, the unsullied ''Soul'' of all. Religion to the Hindu is the eternal search for the divine ''[[Brahman]]'' ({{Unicode\|ब्रह्मन्}}, pronounced as /{{IPA\|brəhmən}}/, nominative singular: {{Unicode\|ब्रह्म}} /{{IPA\|brəhmə}}/), the ''Supreme Immanent and Transcendent Reality'' or the ''Cosmic Spirit''. Hinduism's spiritual tradition as both monotheistic and tolerant is expressed in the ''Rig Vedic'' verse: :{{lang\|sa\|एकं सत् विप्रा बहुधा वदन्ति ।}} RV 1:164:46 '' :''{{Unicode\| ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti}}'' :Truth is One, but sages call it by many names. Hinduism's aspiration is best expressed in the following ''[[mantra]]'': :{{lang\|sa\| ॐ । असतो मा सद्गमय । तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय । मृत्योर्मामृतं गमय ।।}} :{{Unicode\|'''OM''' ''Asato mā sadgamaya, tamaso mā jyotirgamaya, mrityormāmritam gamaya''}} :"OM (Lead me) from falsehood to tru
than any other, this event highlights the "cow sense" prized in stock breeds such as the Quarter horse. The horse and rider select and separate a calf out of a small group. The calf then tries to return to its herdmates; the rider loosens the reins and leaves it entirely to the horse to keep the calf separated, a job the best horses do with relish, savvy, and style. A jury awards points to the cutter. * Team penning: a popular timed event in which a team of 3 riders must select 3 to 5 marked steers out of a herd and drive them into a small pen. The catch: the riders cannot close the gate to the pen till they have corralled all the cattle (and only the intended cattle) inside. * Trail class: in this event, the rider has to maneuver the horse through an obstacle course in a ring. Speed is not important, but total control of the horse is. The horses have to move sideways, make 90 degree turns while moving backwards, a fence has to be opened and/or closed while mounted, and more such maneuvers relevant to everyday [[ranch]] or trail riding tasks are demonstrated. * [[Barrel racing]] and [[pole bending]]: the timed speed/agility events of rodeo. In a barrel race, horse and rider gallop around a cloverleaf pattern of barrels, making agile turns without knocking the barrels over. In pole bending, horse and rider gallop the length of a line of six upright poles, turn sharply and weave through the poles, turn again and weave back, and [[Horse gaits#Gallop\|gallop]] back to the start. * Halter class: here the horse is shown with only a [[halter]] and without a rider, but with a handler controlling the horse from the ground using a leadrope. The standard position of the handler is on the left side with the shoulder near the horse's eye. The horse is taken through a short pattern where the horse and handler must demonstrate control during walk, jog and turns. In regular halter class, judges will put emphasis on the performance and build of the horse when awarding points, in 'showmanship at halter' the performance of the handler and horse are both judged equally. Clothing of the handler and the halters tend to be more flashy in this discipline. Halter class is particularly popular with younger riders who do not yet have the skill or confidence to partake in other forms. * [[Steer wrestling]]: Europe does not allow this activity because of animal welfare concerns, but it occurs in the [[United States of America]], usually at rodeo events. While riding, the rider jumps off his horse onto a steer and 'wrestles' it to the ground. * Roping: also banned in Europe. In [[calf roping]], the rider has to catch a running calf by the neck with a lasso, stop the animal in its tracks, rapidy dismount the horse and immobilize the calf by tying three of its legs together. In [[team roping]], one horse and rider lassos a running steer's horns, while another horse and rider lassos the steer's two hind legs. * Bronc riding (riding a bucking "wild" horse for a timed duration) counts as a separate event, not considered part of Western riding as such. It consists of [[bareback bronc]] riding and of [[saddle bronc]] riding. ===Other horse sports=== * [[Bullfighting]] (''[[rejoneo]]'') * [[Cavalry (sport)]] * [[Driving]], traditionally a buggy, carraige or wagon pulled by a single horse or tandem (team of horses). Some contemporary driving competitions are based on traversing obstacles at speed. Pleasure competitions are judged on the turnout/neatness of horse and buggy. [[Charreada]], the highest form of Mexican horsemanship based on a mixture of Spanish and Native traditions. [[Fox hunting]] * [[Horse hacking]] * [[Horse show]] * [[Jousting]] * [[Hunter Pacing]], a sport where a trained rider rides a trail at speeds based on its condition and then people compete to ride closest to that perfect time. Hunter paces are usually held in a series. Hunter paces are usually a few miles long. * [[Polo]], a team game played on horseback, involves riders using a long-handled [[mallet]] to drive a ball on the ground into the opposing team's [[goal (sport) \| goal]] while the opposing team defends their goal. * ''[[Rapa das bestas]]'' * [[Reining]] * [[Rodeo]] * [[Dressage]] * [[Show Jumping]] * [[Trail Riding]], The art and sport of riding any breed horse, any style across the land. It is important for trail riders to know which areas are safe and which allow horses to cross. Competitive trail riding involves riding over long distances with scheduled stops to take the horses' vital signs. * [[Cross Country Jumping]], a jumping course that contains logs, and natural obstacles mostly. The common clothes worn are usually brighter colors and less conservative. * [[3-Day Eventing]]- a competition where you are judged on your total score from a day of dressage, stadium jumping and cross country * Polocrosse * Campdrafting * Vaulting (gymnastics and dance on horseback) * [[Steeplechase]] * Gymkhana ===Criticism of horses in sport=== Most animal rights groups such as the [http://www.hsus.org Humane Society of the United States] and [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]], which advocate against animal ownership, target wilder horse "sports", with claims of cruelty. Horse racing and rodeo are more easily targeted because of their extensive use of animals in sport. It is difficult for average people (or even experts) to differentiate between normal equine abilities and actual abuse. Rodeo and racing professionals do have a strong case against radical claims. Both sides provide contradictory evidence. One problem is a disagreement about terms like abuse. Animal rights activists have the general viewpoint that all animal ownership is wrong, and thus using horses for riding and sports is also wrong, but these events are 'softer targets' than trail riding or 'refined' sports like dressage. Such extreme viewpoints are rare, however, and many people are more reasonable and worried that sports may cause injuries to horse athletes, just as they do for human athletes. All sports are dangerous, but then one observing horses in nature can see more terrible injuries occurring than occur in sports. This brings a dilemma: If a horse gets an injury while competing, is this immoral? If a horse slips in its pasture while playing, is this ok? Rodeos claim that an injured horse is less profitable than a healthy horse. Activists claim rodeos [[turn a blind eye]] to minor injuries which do not impair performance. They also cite psychological harm, poor living conditions, forced breeding, and the killing of unprofitable horses as forms of abuse. Most horse owners that compete in sports, however, do not force-breed, kill unprofitable horses, or have poor living conditions for their horses. Sports like rodeo and racing are closely monitored by veterinarians to prevent and treat injuries if they occur. Animal living conditions vary, but many rodeo stock live on open ranches when not working on the weekend. Horse professionals that understand equine psychology and care claim they know better what is best for horses than rights activists that live horseless lives and are easily influenced by propaganda. Both groups agree that 'genuine abuse' should be ended within the industry. ==Buying a horse== Buying and caring for a horse or pony can be extremely expensive and time-consuming. First-time buyers are advised to take a knowledgeable friend, preferably a riding instructor with them, to view a prospective horse. The horse should also, preferably, be 'vetted' which means the horse will undergo a scrutinous veterinary examination. This examination is normally undergone in different stages. A 5-stage vetting is the most comprehensive and is recommended. A vetting may give indication of any previous injuries or current ailments the horse or pony may have, which could prove to be expensive to treat and/or limit the horse or pony's ability to be ridden and/or breed. ===Ways to look for a prospective horse=== * Ask at your local riding school or livery yard * Ask at your local Pony/Riding club * Ask your local veterinary practise/farrier * Look through magazines, newspapers * There are many web sites with classified advert * Word of mouth * Dealer - make sure he/she is reputable * Market/sales/auction - be prepared to see some upsetting sights. You will need to have a good eye for a horse - many are sold as seen and could have hidden problems. The horse or pony should come with a passport, and registration details should be changed to your name and address when you buy the horse. ==Caring for a horse== There are many aspects to horse and pony care. ===Basic requirements=== The horse must be checked AT LEAST once a day. It must have access to clean fresh water at all times, and preferably grass or hay too. If you cannot visit your horse every day, you should look at keeping it at a livery yard, where the staff can care for your horse for a fee. The minimum requirements are that the horse/pony has plenty to eat and drink, has regular farriery/dental/veterinary care and its feet are picked out daily to prevent thrush/lameness. It should also have some form of regular exercise whether it is being ridden or turned out in a spacious field. ===Shoeing and foot care=== The horse or pony should be shod every 4-6 weeks. If the horse or pony is unshod (if it is a youngster or not used for ridden work) it must have a trim and levelling every 8-10 weeks. Your farrier should be a qualified and registered farrier, and should advertise this fact with a sticker in his/her van. If you are unsure, contact the Farrier's Registration Council. It is illegal for anyone else other than a registered farrier to shoe or trim a horse's feet in the UK. The farrier should have any one of the following qualifications, the FWCF being the most highly skilled: * DipWCF (Diploma of the Worshipful Company of Farriers) * AWCF (Associateship of the Worshipful Company of Far
ime, each of whom is on ''[[ice skate]]s''. The objective of the game is to score ''[[goal (ice hockey)\|goals]]'' by playing a hard [[Vulcanization\|vulcanized]] [[rubber]] disc, the ''[[hockey puck\|puck]]'', into the opponent's goal net, which is placed at the opposite end of the rink. The players may control the puck using a long [[Hockey stick\|stick]] with a blade that is commonly curved at one end. Players may also redirect the puck with any part of their bodies, subject to certain restrictions. One of the six players is typically a ''[[goaltender]]'', whose primary job is to stop the puck from entering the net, and who is permitted unique gear towards that end. The other five players are typically divided into three forwards and two defencemen. The [[Forward (ice hockey)\|forward]] positions are named ''[[Winger (ice hockey)\|left wing]]'', ''[[Centre (ice hockey)\|centre]]'' and ''[[Winger (ice hockey)\|right wing]]''. Forwards often play together as units or ''lines'', with the same three forwards always playing together. The [[Defenceman (ice hockey)\|defencemen]] usually stay together as a pair, but may change less frequently than the forwards. A substitution of an entire unit at once is called a ''line change''. Substitutions are permitted at any time during the course of the game, although during a stoppage of play the home team is permitted the final change. When players are substituted during play, it is called changing ''on the fly''. A new NHL rule added in the 2005-2006 season prevents a team from changing their line after they ''[[Icing (ice hockey)\|ice]]'' the puck. The boards surrounding the ice help keep the puck in play, and play often proceeds for minutes without interruption. When play is stopped, it is restarted with a ''[[faceoff]]''. There are two major rules of play in ice hockey that limit the movement of the puck: ''[[Offside (ice hockey)\|offside]]'' and ''[[Icing (ice hockey)\|icing]]''. In most competitive leagues, each team may carry at most 23 players on its game roster, two of whom are typically goaltenders. North American professional leagues restrict the total number of skaters to 18 or fewer. The remaining characteristics of the game often depend on the particular [[Ice hockey rules\|code of play]] being used. The two most important codes are those of the [[International Ice Hockey Federation]] (IIHF) and of the North American [[National Hockey League]] (NHL). North American amateur hockey codes, such as those of [[Hockey Canada]] and [[USA Hockey]], tend to be a hybrid of the NHL and IIHF codes, while professional rules generally follow those of the NHL. ==Penalties== [[image:hockeyfight.JPG\|thumb\|Fights often occur near the goal because players want to protect their goaltender.]] A typical game of ice hockey has two to four ''[[Official (ice hockey)\|official]]s'' on the ice charged with enforcing the rules of the game. There are typically two ''linesmen'', who are responsible only for calling offside and [[Icing (ice hockey)\|icing]] violations, and one or two ''referees'', who call goals and all other penalties. In men's hockey, but not in women's, a player may use his hip or shoulder to hit another player if the player has the puck or is the last to have touched it. This use of the hip and shoulder is called ''body [[Checking (ice hockey)\|checking]].'' Not all physical contact is legal -- in particular, most forceful stick-on-body contact is illegal. There are many infractions for which a player may be assessed a ''[[Penalty (ice hockey)\|penalty]]''. For most penalties, the offending player is sent to the ''[[penalty box]]'' and his team has to play without him and with one less man for a short amount of time, giving the other team what is popularly termed a ''[[power play]]''. A two-minute ''minor penalty'' is often called for lesser infractions such as tripping, elbowing, roughing, high-sticking, too many players on the ice, illegal equipment, charging (leaping into an opponent), holding, interference, delay of game, hooking, or cross-checking. More egregious fouls of this type may be penalized by a four-minute ''double-minor'' penalty, particularly those which (inadvertently) cause injury to the victimized player. These penalties end either when the time runs out or the other team scores on the power play; in the case of a goal scored during the first two minutes of a double minor, the penalty clock is set down to two minutes upon a score (effectively expiring the first minor). Five-minute ''major penalties'' are called for especially violent instances of most minor infractions which result in intentional injury to an opponent, as well as for fighting, checking from behind and spearing. Major penalties are always served in full; they do not terminate on a goal scored by the other team. The foul of 'boarding', defined as "check<nowiki>[ing]</nowiki> an opponent in such a manner that causes the opponent to be thrown violently in the boards" by the [http://www.nhl.com/rules/rule44.html NHL Rulebook] is penalised either by a minor or major penalty at the discretion of the referee, based on the violence of the hit. Two varieties of penalty do not always require the offending team to play a man down. Ten-minute ''misconduct'' penalties are served in full by the penalized player, but his team may immediately substitute another player on the ice '''unless''' a minor or major penalty is assessed in conjunction with the misconduct (a ''two-and-ten'' or ''five-and-ten''). In that case, the team designates another player to serve the minor or major; both players go to the penalty box, but only the designee may not be replaced, and he is released upon the expiration of the two or five minutes, at which point the ten-minute misconduct begins. In addition, ''game misconducts'' are assessed for deliberate intent to inflict severe injury on an opponent (at the officials' discretion), or for a major penalty for a stick infraction or repeated major penalties. The offending player is ejected from the game and must immediately leave the playing surface (he does not sit in the penalty box); meanwhile, if a minor or major is assessed in addition, a designated player must serve out that segment of the penalty in the box (similar to the above-mentioned "two-and-ten"). A player who is tripped by an opponent on a ''[[Breakaway (ice hockey)\|breakaway]]''&nbsp;&ndash; when there are no defenders except the goaltender between him and the opponent's goal&nbsp;&ndash; is awarded a ''[[Penalty shot (ice hockey)\|penalty shot]]'', an attempt to score without opposition from any defenders except the goaltender. A penalty shot is also awarded for a defender other than the goaltender covering the puck in the goal crease, intentionally throwing a stick at the puck results in an automatic goal, or intentionally displacing his own goal posts in order to avoid a goal. Officials also stop play for puck movement violations, but no players are penalized for these offenses. The sole exceptions are deliberately falling on or gathering the puck to the body, carrying the puck in the hand, and shooting the puck out of play in one's defensive zone (all penalized two minutes for delay of game). Games are overseen by [[Official (ice hockey)\|officials]] that are selected by the league for which they work. The most common officiating organization is [http://www.usahockey.com USA Hockey], where referees are selected for games depending on their experience level (one, two, three, or four). Officials are divided into on-ice officials and off-ice officials. ==Tactics== [[Image:OHL-Hockey-Plymouth-Whalers-vs-Saginaw-Spirit.jpg\|right\|thumb\|250px\|Winning the face off can be the key to some strategies. A game between Saginaw and Plymouth's OHL teams.]] An important defensive tactic is ''[[Checking (hockey)\|checking]]''&nbsp;&ndash; attempting to take the puck from an opponent or to remove the opponent from play. ''Forechecking'' is checking in the other team's zone; ''backchecking'' is checking while the other team is advancing down the ice toward one's own goal. These terms usually are applied to checking by forwards. ''Stick checking'', ''sweep checking'', and ''poke checking'' are legal uses of the stick to obtain possession of the puck. ''Body checking'' is using one's shoulder or hip to strike an opponent who has the puck or who is the last to have touched it. Offensive tactics include improving a team's position on the ice by advancing the puck out of one's zone towards the opponent's zone, progressively by gaining lines, first your own blue line, then the red line and finally the opponent's blue line. Offensive tactics are designed ultimately to score a goal by taking a shot. When a player purposely directs the puck towards the opponent's goal, he or she is said to [[Shot (hockey)\|shoot the puck]]. A ''deflection'' is a shot which redirects a shot or a pass towards the goal from another player, by allowing the puck to strike the stick and carom towards the goal. A ''one-timer'' is a shot which is struck directly off a pass, without receiving the pass and shooting in two separate actions. A ''deke'' (short for ''decoy'') is a feint with the body and/or stick to fool a defender or the goalie. ''Headmanning the puck'' is the tactic of rapidly passing to the player farthest down the ice. A team that is losing by one or two goals in the last few minutes of play may elect to ''pull the goalie''; that is, removing the goaltender and replacing him or her with an ''[[extra attacker]]'' on the ice in the hope of gaining enough advantage to score a goal. However, this tactic is extremely risky, and often leads to the opposing team extending their lead by scoring a goal in the empty net. Although it is officially prohibited in the rules, at the professional level [[Fighting in hockey\|fights]] are sometimes used to affect morale of the teams, with aggressors
"disco and its melting pot pseudo-philosophy must be fought or Britain's streets will be full of black-worshipping soul boys," though this had been true for twenty years with many white male English teens considering themselves "soul freaks". The emergence of the [[punk rock\|punk]] and [[goth]] scenes contributed to disco's decline. ===Rock versus disco=== Strong disapproval of disco among some rock fans existed throughout the disco era, growing as disco's influence grew, such that the expression "Disco Sucks" was common by the late-1970s among these fans. In [[1979]], Chicago rock deejays [[Steve Dahl]] and [[Garry Meier]] along with [[Michael Veeck]] (son of legendary sports marketer [[Bill Veeck]]) staged a promotional event with an anti-disco theme, ''[[Disco Demolition Night]]'', between games at a [[Chicago White Sox\|White Sox]] doubleheader. The event involved exploding disco records, and ended in a near-riot. The second game of the doubleheader had to be forfeited. White male rock fans who spoke out against the music were sometimes accused of prejudice for objecting to a musical idiom that was strongly associated with both black and homosexual audiences. To further complicate matters, several prominent, popular rock artists recorded songs with audible debts to disco, sometimes to strong critical and commercial response. [[David Bowie]]'s "Golden Years," and [[The Rolling Stones]]' "Miss You" and "Emotional Rescue," are distinguished examples of these disco-rock fusions, and artists such as [[The Who]], [[Rod Stewart]], and to a lesser extent [[Queen (band)\|Queen]] and [[The Clash]] also recorded disco-informed songs. Since the advent of disco and dance music in general, many have argued that more and more rock music has absorbed the rhythmic sensibilities of dance. ==Time of transition== The year 1980 was a transitional time for music, especially dance music, which lost its ''disco sound'', as complex melodic structures and plush elements of the symphony orchestra gave way to a diminutive, ''street'' sound. In the early-[[1980s]], [[George Benson]], [[Rick James]], [[Patrice Rushen]], [[The Brothers Johnson]], [[The Weather Girls]], [[Madonna (singer)\|Madonna]], [[Kool & the Gang]], [[Miquel Brown]], [[Teena Marie]], [[The Commodores]], [[The S.O.S. Band]], and other artists continued to create many ''disco-influenced'' dance hits. At the same time new styles emerged - [[Italo Disco]] and [[Euro Disco]]. The gradual change that occurred in the late-1970s pop-disco sound can be evidenced in such titles as [[Donna Summers]]' ''I Feel Love'' (1977) and ''Hot Stuff'' (1978) [[Rod Stewart]]'s ''Do You Think I'm Sexy''(1978) [[Amii Stewart]]'s ''Knock On Wood'' (1979) [[The Bee Gees]]' ''Tragedy'' (1979) [[Blondie]]'s ''Heart of Glass'' (1979) which foreboded the events of the next decade. Faster tempos and synthesized affects during the early-1980s dance sound, accompanied by simplified backgrounds and rock guitars, directed ''dance music'' toward the ''pop-rock'' genre. Songs such as [[Olivia Newton-John]]'s ''Xanadu'' (1980) Lime's ''Your Love'' (1981) Boystown Gang's ''Can't Take My Eyes off of You'' (1981) Roni Griffith's ''(The Best Part of) Breaking Up'' (1981) Patrick Cowley's ''Do You Wanna Funk'' (1982) [[The Pointer Sisters]]' ''Jump'' (1982) [[The Weather Girls]]' ''It's Raining Men'' (1982) exemplified the emerging dance-music form that dropped the complicated melodic structures of the ''disco style'', as woodwinds, horns, and strings were replaced by synthesizers, which mimicked their sound. Here, one can readily experience the drastic changes, from the musical arrangements - missing all signs of [[symphony]]-[[orchestration]], including [[Orchestral_build\|orchestral builds]] and [[breaks]] - to the [[melody]] - missing all signs of the complicated structures of the typical disco sound, including multiple [[musical_bridge\|bridges]] and fanciful [[refrains]]. ==Regional styles of disco== Main article: ''[[disco orchestration]]'' As with many forms of art, music contains many ''types'', of which there are distinct ''[[genres]]'', and within which there are various ''[[styles]]''. The sound of a disco song, as with the sound of a song of any genre of music, depended on the particular tastes of the artists, and the arrangers, producers, and even the orchestra conductors and [[concertmasters]] dictating the type of stylized playing method of each [[section]] of the [[orchestra]], down to the [[engineers]] and [[mixers]] who assembled all the elements to make a fluid, cohesive ''sculpture of sound'' through melodic continuity. Even without a very knowledgeable ''ear'' for music, one can distinguish the stylings of Van McCoy's ''The Hustle'' (1976) from those of Silver Convention's ''Get Up and Boogie'' (1976), and from those of Chic's ''Good Times''(1978), and Sister sledge's ''We Are Family''(1978). As such, many ''regional sounds'' of ''disco'' developed during the mid-1970s, as a result of collaborative efforts of many individuals with a legacy of formal education and training in music theory and orchestration, whose educational backgrounds laid the foundation for the musical genre that was to burst forth onto the ''dance-music scene'' into what would come to be regarded as ''designer music''. It can be noted that many of the [[Conducting\|conductors]] and [[Orchestra\|players]] of the large city symphony and philharmonic orchestras responsible for the grand productions of ''disco'' were seasoned veterans of orchestras throughout the country, some even going back to the ''[[Big_band\|big-band era]]''. Some of the different regional sounds include: * [[Philadelphia_(orchestra)\|The Philadelphia Symphony Orchestra]] as heard by groups such as [[MFSB]], [[The Three Degrees]], [[The Ritchie Family]]. * [[New_York_(orchestra)\|The New York Philharmonic Orchestra]] was the foundation of the '''New York Sound''', which included [[Van McCoy]] ''The Hustle'', [[Odyssey]]'s ''Native New Yorker'' (1977), [[Gerri Granger]]'s ''Can't Take My Eyes off of You'' (1976) [[Vicki Sue Robinson]]'s ''Turn the Beat Around'' (1976), ** [[Roberta Flack]]'s ''Back Together Again'' (1979), * [[Los_Angeles_(orchestra)\|The Los Angeles Symphony Orchestra]] was the foundation of the '''Los Angeles Sound''', which included: [[Carrie Lucas]]'s ''Dance with Me'' (1979), [[Love Unlimited Orchestra]]'s ''My Sweet Summer Suite'' (1976), [[Tavares]]' ''Heaven Must Be Missing an Angel'' (1976) [[Phyllis Hyman]]'s ''You Know How to Love Me'' (1979), ** [[High Inergy]]'s ''Shoulda Gone Dancing'' (1979) ==Transition from the ''disco sound'' of the 1970s to the ''dance sound'' of the 1980s== The transition from the late-1970s disco styles to the early-1980s dance styles can be illustrated best by analysis of the work of specific artists, arrangers, and producers within each region, respective to the timeperiods. Complex musical structurres basically gave way to a "one-man-band" sound produced on synthesizer keyboards. Also, the increased addition of a slightly different harmonic structure, with elements borrowed from Blues and Jazz, (such as more prominent chords created with acoustic or electric pianos) created a different style of "dance music" in the 1981-83 period. But by this time, the word "disco" became associated with anything danceable, that played in discothèques, so the music continued for a time to be called "disco" by many. Examples include D. Train, Kashif, and Patrice Rushen. Both changes was influenced by some of the great R & B and jazz musicians of the 70's, such as Stevie Wonder and Herbie Hancock, who had pioneered and perfected "one-man-band" type keyboard techniques. ==Disco "spinoffs" rap and "house" music== Finally, disco was largely succeeded for younger listeners by rap, which had started, by rapping over disco tracks. The first commercially popular rap hit was "[[Rapper's Delight]]", which borrowed the bass line from Chic's "Good Times". The two styles existed side by side for a few years, with rap sometimes being used in disco songs such as In Deep's "Last Night A DJ Saved My Life". The two styles together also sparked off "House Music" or "techno" when Afrika Bambataa released the 1982 rap "Planet Rock", which drew several elements from Kraftwerk's "Trans-Europe Express" and the previous year's "Numbers". Electronic sounds in rap were eventually discarded in favor of a more "raw" hip-hop sound. However, the "Planet Rock" sound also spawned a non-"hip-hop" electronic dance trend, with such follow-ups as Planet Patrol's "Play At Your own Risk", the same year, followed by "One More Shot" by C-Bank; and the following year, its popularity skyrocketed with Shannon's "Let The Music Play" Freeze's "AEIOU", and Midnight Star's "Freakazoid". Electronic Dance music or House Music (later called "techno") had now emerged as its own genre, and this became the new "disco", even though it was not addressed as such. =="Retro" revival== In the [[1990s]], a revival of the original disco style began and is exemplified by such songs as "Lemon" by [[U2]] (1993), "Spend Some Time" by [[Brand New Heavies]] (1994), "Cosmic Girl" by [[Jamiroquai]] (1996), "Never Give Up on the Good Times" by [[The Spice Girls]] (1997), and "Strong Enough" by [[Cher (entertainer)\|Cher]] (1998) (who had also released disco songs in the seventies). During the first half of the [[2000s]], there were releases by a number of artists including "Spinning Around" and "Love at First Sight"
laim to be the rightful Trustee of the church's property was not allowed to be considered by the jury when the survivors' and [[Amo Bishop Roden\|Amo Roden]]'s claims were considered. Mitchell was only allowed to defend against the others' claims. Mitchell contends that when Koresh left Mt. Carmel in 1984, he adopted the name "''Davidian Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist''" for his followers, thus "leaving" the church, forfeiting their claim to be the true Branch Davidians. During the pre-trial proceedings, Mitchell's attempts to obtain an injunction against Koresh's remaining followers that would have prohibited them from using the church's name and property was dismissed for "lack of jurisdiction". That is, the judge (who was not a legal professional before he became a judge), felt that the matter involved church issues which the court could not rightly consider. Mitchell disputes this reasoning. Currently, Koresh's remaining followers still have access to the church's property (living on it, and holding regular services there), in spite of the judgment affirmed by Judge Mayfield in December 2000 against them on their claim of being the lawful Trustees of the church's property. Because of the way the government has been portrayed as having acted in the 1993 standoff, the Koresh survivors have received much sympathy and support from various people and groups who felt that the actions that the government took were wrong. This support has provided them with the means to further their assumption of the church's identity and property, to the detriment of those Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists who did not join Koresh. This situation has left those who opposed him in a difficult position in two ways. First, they cannot rightly use the property without conflicts with the survivors and others who are antagonistic or indifferent to the original members' rights. Second, they have a great hurdle to overcome because of the notoriety that Koresh and his followers have brought upon the name and identity of the church. Renos Avraam, one of the imprisoned Davidians, has declared that he is receiving prophetic new light, as the "Chosen Vessel of the Remaining Bride." However, most of the survivors spurn his "Hidden Manna" faction. A new chapel has been built by the survivors and their supporters near the site of the original complex. The ruins of the old building, including the tornado shelter and incomplete swimming pool, can be seen by visitors. There are also several memorials to the victims - both the Davidian victims, and the Federal Agents who lost their lives. Memorial trees with plaques with the name of each Davidian who perished have been planted on the property. Finally, to show their deep sympathy to the victims of the [[Oklahoma City Bombing]], a memorial has been erected at Mt. Carmel for them as well. Approximately fifty [http://www.cesnur.org/2005/pa_pitts.htm] to seventy [http://bdsda.tripod.com/newsletters/april_2005.html] people attended the yearly memorial service on [[April 19]] [[2005]]. Former President [[Bill Clinton]] recently claimed that the two things he regretted the most while in office were standing by while the [[Rwandan genocide]] occurred and failing to find a peaceful resolution to the Waco standoff. ==Bibliography== * Kerstetter, Todd. "'That's Just the American Way': The Branch Davdian Tragedy and Western Religious History", ''[[Western Historical Quarterly]]'', Vol. 35, No. 4, Winter 2004. * Lewis, James R. (ed.). ''From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco'' (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 1994). ISBN 0847679152 (cloth) ISBN 0847679144 (paper) * Reavis, Dick J. ''The Ashes of Waco: An Investigation'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995). ISBN 0684811324 * Tabor, James D. and Eugene V. Gallagher. ''Why Waco?: Cults and the Battle for Religious Freedom in America'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). ISBN 0520201868 * Thibodeau, David and Leon Whiteson. ''A Place Called Waco: A Survivor's Story'' (New York: PublicAffairs, 1999). ISBN 1891620428 * Wright, Stuart A. (ed.). ''Armageddon in Waco: Critical Perspectives on the Branch Davidian Conflict'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). ==See also== * [[Millennialism]] * [[Seventh-day Adventists]] * [[Boards of Canada]] - an [[Electronica]] duo whose work contains many references to the Branch Davidians. ==External links== [http://start.at/mtcarmel The Official Website Of The (Davidian) Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists] [http://www.the-branch.org/study15.html The Warfare of Vernon Howell (a.k.a. David Koresh) and others against the Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists] [http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/bran_arch.html Branch Davidians] [http://www.cesnur.org/2004/waco_wessinger.htm The Branch Davidians and the Waco Media, 1993-2003] by Catherine Wessinger [[Category:Christian eschatology]] [[Category:Cults]] [[Category:McLennan County, Texas]] [[Category:New religious movements]] [[Category:Texas]] [[de:Davidianer]] [[es:Davidianos]] [[fi:Daavidin oksa]] [[lt:Dovydo šaka]] [[nl:Branch Davidians]] [[no:Branch Davidian]] [[sv:Davidianerna]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burwash Hall</title> <id>4779</id> <revision> <id>38166529</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T17:30:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>142.151.164.172</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burwash.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|right\|Burwash dining hall viewed from Charles St.]] '''Burwash Hall''' is the second oldest of the residence buildings at [[Toronto]]'s [[Victoria University in the University of Toronto\|Victoria College]]. Construction began in [[1911]] and was finished in [[1913]]. It was named after [[Nathaniel Burwash]], a former president of Victoria. The building is an extravagant [[Neo-Gothic]] work with turrets, gargoyles, and battlements. The building is divided between the large dining hall in the northwest and the student residence proper. The residence area is divided into two sections. The Upper Houses, built in 1913, consist of four houses: [[North House]], [[Middle House]], [[Gate House]], and [[South House]]. The Lower Houses were built in 1931 and were originally intended to house theology students at Emmanuel College, whose current building was opened the same year. Ryerson House, Nelles House, Caven House, Bowles-Gandier House are now mostly home to undergraduate arts and science students. The latter two are mostly reserved for students in the new Vic One Programme. Famous residents of Burwash include [[Vincent Massey]], [[Lester B. Pearson]], and [[Donald Sutherland]]. The upper houses were gutted and renovated in 1995. The lower houses have only been partially upgraded. Before the renovations the entire building was all male, but now every house but Gate is co-ed. Since its renovations Burwash has been viewed by residents as one of the best residences in Canada. Each Upper House consists of three floors. The lower floor contains a [[common room]] equipped with kitchen facilities, couches and a television. The upper floors each have their own kitchen and dining area. All except North House have a very high bathroom ration, with Gate House being the best with nine washrooms for its twenty-eight residents. Upper Houses are divided between double rooms and singles, with about sixty percent of the population being in doubles. The Lower Houses each have four floors, but are much narrower with each level having only four rooms. Each level also has its own kitchen, but these are much smaller than in the Upper Houses. The Lower Houses do have far larger and better fitted common rooms that are similar to the one's the Upper Houses had before the renovations. The rooms in the Lower Houses are also considered more luxurious with [[hardwood floor]]s and large sizes. Rooms in the Lower Houses are more expensive, however. Until 2003 the Lower Houses were restricted to upper year students but with the [[double cohort]] of graduates from Ontario schools many of the rooms were transformed into doubles and now hold first years. [[Image:Gate House.jpg\|left\|thumb\|300px\|Gate House viewed from the Quad]] To the west the Upper Houses look out on the Vic Quad and the main Victoria College building across it. West of the Lower Houses is the new Lester B. Pearson Garden of Peace and International Understanding and the [[E.J. Pratt Library]] beyond it. The views from the eastern side of the building are less interesting with the Upper Houses looking out at [[Rowell Jackman Hall]] and the Lower Houses seeing the [[St. Michael's College (U of T)\|St. Michael's College]] residence of [[Elmsley]]. The only exception is the view from Gate House's tower that looks down St. Mary's Street. The dining hall is perhaps the best known part of the building to outsiders. It is the University of Toronto's largest holding some 250 students and sixteen large tables. Hanging on the western wall is [[Victoria of the United Kingdom\|Queen Victoria]]'s burial flag, given to the college soon after her death. Under the flag is the [[high table]] where the professors and college administration lunch. The Upper Houses each have their own table. Gate sits in the southwest corner, Middle sits in the far northeast, South is in the table to the west of Middle, while North is one to the west of the southeast corner. <br clear=all> <center> {\| id="toc" style="margin: 0 2em 0 2em;" ! align="center" style="background:#ccccff" width="100%" \| [[Victoria University in the University of Toronto\|Victoria College]] residences\|\| \|- \| align="center" style="font-size: 90%;" colspan="2" \| [[Burwash Hall]] \| [[Annesley Hall]] \| [[Margaret Addison Hall]] \| [[Rowell Jackman Hall]] \|} <
ory of Economic Thought</title> <id>13931</id> <revision> <id>15911515</id> <timestamp>2002-05-05T00:25:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[History of economic thought]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of economic thought]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>House music/History of House Music</title> <id>13933</id> <revision> <id>15911517</id> <timestamp>2003-11-08T10:57:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[House music]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Henry II</title> <id>13934</id> <revision> <id>34266164</id> <timestamp>2006-01-07T18:50:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Iamnotanorange</username> <id>332331</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>t</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Rulers with the title '''Henry II''' include: [[Henry II, Duke of Bavaria]] (951-995) '''[[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor\|Henry II of Germany]]''' (972-1024), Holy Roman Emperor [[Henry II of Austria]] (1107-1177) [[Henry II of Carinthia]] (died 1122) [[Henry II, Duke of Saxony]] (1108-1139) '''[[Henry II of England]]''' (1133-1189) [[Henry II of Champagne]] (1166-1197) [[Henry II of Poland]] (died 1246) [[Henry II, Duke of Brabant]] (1207-1248) [[Henry II, Duke of Swabia]] (1211-1242) [[Henry II, Count of Sayn]] (1202-1246) [[Henry II of Jerusalem]] (died 1324), also Henry II of Cyprus [[Henry II of Castile]] (1334-1379) [[Henry II of Navarre]] (1503-1555) '''[[Henry II of France]]''' (1519-1559) [[Henry II, Prince of Condé]] (1588-1646) [[Henri II de Montmorency]] (1595-1632) [[Hendrik II van Montfoort]] {{disambig}} [[es:Enrique II]] [[fr:Henri II]] [[it:Enrico II]] [[nl:Hendrik II]] [[pl:Henryk II]] [[pt:Henrique II]] [[ru:Генрих II]] [[fi:Henrik II]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Higher-order predicate</title> <id>13936</id> <revision> <id>15911520</id> <timestamp>2004-06-10T16:05:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Charles Matthews</username> <id>12978</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Higher-order logic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hanover, New Hampshire</title> <id>13937</id> <revision> <id>37097778</id> <timestamp>2006-01-28T17:28:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Womble</username> <id>363950</id> </contributor> <comment>/ Geography / link fixing</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dartmouth College Baker building.jpg\|thumb\|275px\|[[Dartmouth College]]'s [[Baker Memorial Library]] is a prominent feature at the center of Hanover]] Located on the [[Connecticut River]] in the state of [[New Hampshire]], [[United States]], '''Hanover''' has a population of 10,850. It best known as the home of [[Dartmouth College]]. Hanover borders the towns of [[Lyme, New Hampshire\|Lyme]], [[Canaan, New Hampshire\|Canaan]], [[Enfield, New Hampshire\|Enfield]], and [[Norwich, Vermont]], as well as the city of [[Lebanon, New Hampshire\|Lebanon]]. Norwich and Hanover share the first and one of the few inter-state school districts in the nation. Norwich and Hanover are two of the small number of towns that travellers must pass through while hiking the [[Appalachian trail]]. Hanover is also the home of the [[US Army Corps of Engineers]] [[Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory]] (CRREL). == History == Prior to its incarnation as Hanover, the town was known as Dresden. In the late 18th century, Dresden was one of a group of neighboring New Hampshire towns that briefly defected to [[Vermont]], when the Republic of Vermont was an independent nation. This status was short-lived, however, as New Hampshire threatened the Republic of Vermont with war, with the aid of the other 12 states, if the towns were not returned. As a result, Vermont rejected the towns' defections, and they were returned to New Hampshire in the US. As an interesting historical note, the name "Dresden" is still used in the Dresden School District, an interstate school district serving both Hanover and [[Norwich, Vermont]]. Since 1769, the town has been home to [[Dartmouth College]]. == Geography == According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 130.0 [[square kilometre\|km&sup2;]] (50.2 [[square mile\|mi&sup2;]]). 127.1 km&sup2; (49.1 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 2.9 km&sup2; (1.1 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 2.23% water. The town is located in [[Grafton County, New Hampshire]]. The tap water of Hanover is supplied by one primary reservoir. Several other reservoirs exist, but none are currently hooked up the town's water supply, and are considered insurance against a catastrophic drought. There are a great many trails and nature preserves in Hanover, and the majority of these trails are suitable for [[snow shoe]]s and cross-country [[ski]]s. == Demographics == As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2\|<sup>2</sup>]] of [[2000]], there are 10,850 people, 2,832 households, and 1,761 families residing in the town. The [[population density]] is 85.3/km&sup2; (221.0/mi&sup2;). There are 2,989 housing units at an average density of 23.5/km&sup2; (60.9/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the town is 87.98% [[White (U.S. Census)\|White]], 1.74% [[African American (U.S. Census)\|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)\|African American]], 0.47% [[Native American (U.S. Census)\|Native American]], 6.76% [[Asian (U.S. Census)\|Asian]], 0.06% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\|Pacific Islander]], 0.88% from [[Race (U.S. Census)\|other races]], and 2.09% from two or more races. 2.54% of the population are [[Hispanic American\|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)\|Latino]] of any race. There are 2,832 households out of which 31.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.7% are [[Marriage\|married couples]] living together, 4.8% have a female householder with no husband present, and 37.8% are non-families. 25.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.47 and the average family size is 2.96. In the town the population is spread out with 15.1% under the age of 18, 37.6% from 18 to 24, 16.6% from 25 to 44, 17.1% from 45 to 64, and 13.6% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 23 years. For every 100 females there are 99.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 96.5 males. The median income for a household in the town is $72,470, and the median income for a family is $99,158. Males have a median income of $63,409 versus $35,771 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the town is $30,393. 9.1% of the population and 0.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 0.0% of those under the age of 18 and 3.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. ''See also'': [[Hanover (CDP), New Hampshire]] == External links == [http://www.hanovernh.org/ Town of Hanover] [http://www.dartmouth.edu Dartmouth College] [http://www.hanoverconservationcouncil.org/about.html Hanover Conservation Commission] [http://www.uvlt.org Upper Valley Land Trust] [http://www.uvtrails.org Upper Valley Trails Alliance] [http://www.uvscene.com uvScene: a community blog for the Upper Valley of NH/VT] {{New Hampshire}} [[de:Hanover (New Hampshire)]] [[Category:Towns in New Hampshire]] [[Category:Grafton County, New Hampshire]] [[Category:University towns]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>High Performance Serial Bus</title> <id>13938</id> <revision> <id>15911522</id> <timestamp>2004-03-29T23:53:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FireWire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>High performance serial bus</title> <id>13939</id> <revision> <id>15911523</id> <timestamp>2004-03-29T23:53:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FireWire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Holy Communion</title> <id>13940</id> <revision> <id>23490458</id> <timestamp>2005-09-18T23:09:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jonathunder</username> <id>112889</id> </contributor> <comment>fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eucharist]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Huntington Beach</title> <id>13941</id> <revision> <id>20806793</id> <timestamp>2005-08-11T21:56:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>OCNative</username> <id>181247</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Huntington Beach''' is the name of several places in the [[United States]]: '''[[Huntington Beach, California\|Huntington Beach]]''' is a coastal city in [[Orange County, California\|Orange County]], [[California]]. *'''[[Huntington Beach State Park\|Huntington Beach]]''' is a state park in [[South Carolina]]. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HMS Beagle</title> <id>13942</id> <revision> <id>420
d, and unto Your people did You achieve a great deliverance and redemption. Whereupon your children entered the sanctuary of Your house, cleansed Your temple, purified Your sanctuary, kindled lights in Your holy courts, and appointed these eight days of Hanukkah in order to give thanks and praises unto Your holy name.'' The same prayer is added to the grace after meals. In addition, the [[Hallel]] Psalms are sung during each morning service and the [[Tachanun]] penitential prayers are omitted. Since Hanukkah lasts eight days it includes at least one, and sometimes two, [[Shabbat\|Sabbaths]]. The weekly [[Parsha\|Torah portion]] for the first Sabbath is almost always ''[[Miketz]]'', telling of [[Joseph]]'s dream and his enslavement in [[Ancient Egypt\|Egypt]]. ==Traditional Hanukkah foods== There is a custom to have Hanukkah parties and to eat foods fried or baked in oil, preferably [[olive oil]], as the original miracle of the Hanukkah menorah involved the discovery of the small flask of oil used by the Jewish High Priest (the [[Kohen]] Gadol). Many [[Ashkenazi]] families make [[potato pancakes]], known as [[latke]]s in [[Yiddish language\|Yiddish]]. Many [[Sephardim]] as well as [[Polish Jews\|Polish]] Ashkenazim and [[Israel]]is have the custom to eat all kinds of [[doughnut]]s ([[bimuelos]] or [[sufganiyot]]) which are [[Frying\|deep-fried]] in [[kosher]] (mainly non animal-fat) oils. ==Hanukkah games: Dreidel and Gelt== ===Dreidel=== [[Image:HanukkahStamp.png\|thumb\|right\|[[United States Postal Service\|US]] [[Postage stamp\|stamp]] honoring Hanukkah and showing a [[Top#Dreidel\|dreidel]].]] The ''dreidel'' (a four-sided "top") is associated with Hanukkah. It has four sides: #&#1504; ([[Nun (letter)\|Nun]]), #&#1490; ([[Gimel (letter)\|Gimel]]), #&#1492; ([[He (letter)\|Hey]]), #&#1513; ([[Shin (letter)\|Shin]]) - In Israel פ ([[Pe (letter)\|Pe]]) These letters also stand for the words ''Nes Gadol Haya Sham'' meaning "a great miracle happened there," or, without the [[nikkud]] (vowel marks), &#1504;&#1505; &#1490;&#1491;&#1493;&#1500; &#1492;&#1497;&#1492; &#1513;&#1501;. In Israel, the fourth letter is פ-Pe instead of shin, stading for "Po", meaning "here", and the entire phrase is therefore "A great miracle happened here." This is done in recognition that the miracle of Hannukah occurred in the land of Israel. Before beginning, each player starts with 10 or 15 coins (''gelt''), and then each player puts one in the pot. The dreidel stops and lands with one of the symbols facing up and the appropriate action is taken, corresponding to one of the following [[Yiddish Language\|Yiddish]] words: Nun - ''nisht'' - "not" - the next player spins Gimel - ''gants'' - "all" - the player takes the entire pot Hey - ''halb'' - "half" - the player takes half of the pot, rounding up if there is an odd number Shin - ''shtel ayn'' - "put in" - the player puts one or two in the pot Another version differs in that nun is "nem" - "take", while gimel is "gib" - "give." The game may last until one person has won everything. The game is played in part to commemorate the jewish children of that time. The Greeks had made a law that the learning of Torah be forbidden. The jewish children would hide in caves, and leave a lookout for Greek soldiers. When a lookout gave a signal, the children would put away the scrolls they were learning from, and take out top's (Dreidel's) and spin them, as if they had been playing a game. ===Chanukkah Gelt=== ''Chanukkah [[gelt]]'' ("Hanukkah money") is used as part of a game on the festival of Hanukkah. It is a term used for the [[money]] used in playing the game of ''dreidel''. Traditionally, gelt came in the form of genuine coins, but most modern games are played using coins made of solid [[chocolate]] wrapped in gold-colored foil. ==Interaction with other traditions== {{See also\|Christian views of Hanukkah}} Hanukkah gained increased importance with many Jewish families in the [[twentieth century]], including large numbers of [[secular Jews]] who wanted a Jewish alternative to the [[Christmas]] celebrations that often overlap with Hanukkah. In recent years, an amalgam of Christmas and Hanukkah has emerged &mdash; dubbed "[[Chrismukkah]]" &mdash; celebrated by some [[Intermarriage\|mixed-faith]] families, particularly in the United States. A decorated tree has come to be called a "[[Hanukkah bush]]". ==Alternative spellings based on transliterating Hebrew letters== As mentioned above, there is a frequent confusion over the many alternative spellings of Hanukkah in the English language. The only standard spelling of Hanukkah is the hebrew five letters - Chet(Ch,H,K) Nun Vav Kaf Hey - plus the vowels, which are not written in advanced Hebrew. Thus, the most accurate transliteration to English is 'Ch(a)n(u)k(a)h'. But as 'ch' is pronounced differently in English than it is in the traditional Romanisation of Hebrew (which was based upon analogies to German and Latin spelling), and the 'kaf' consonant is part of a long syllable instead of a short one, "Hanukkah" (technically with a small dot under the first 'H,' to show it is pronounced like broad Latin and German 'ch') emerged as an alternative that is more pronounceable to the Anglophone eye. [[Image:Hannukah.JPG\|150px\|right\|thumb\|spelling variations are due to transliteration of Hebrew Chet Nun Vav Kaf Hey]] * Hanukkah (most common in the United States) * Chanukah (common alternative in the United States) * Hanukah (less common alternative in the United States) * Chanuka (rare spelling; in Hebrew, dropping the final 'h' would change the gender of the word) * Chanukkah * Hanuka (rare spelling; again, the gender would be masculine instead of feminine, in Hebrew) * Channukah * Hanukka (rare spelling) * Khanike ([[YIVO]] standard [[transliteration]] from the Yiddish and/or Ashkenazic [[pronunciation]] of the Hebrew) * Jenok (rare) == Background == ===Chronology=== [[198 BCE]]: Armies of the Seleucid King [[Antiochus III]] (Antiochus the Great) oust [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes\|Ptolemy V]] from Judea and Samaria. [[175 BCE]]: [[Antiochus IV]] (Epiphanes) ascends the Seleucid throne. [[168 BCE]]: Under the reign of Antiochus IV, the Temple is looted, Jews are massacred, and [[Judaism]] is outlawed. [[167 BCE]]: Antiochus orders an altar to [[Zeus]] erected in the Temple. Mattathias, and his five sons John, Simon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah lead a rebellion against Antiochus. Judah becomes known as Judah Maccabe (Judah The Hammer). [[166 BCE]]: Mattathias dies, and Judah takes his place as leader. The [[Hasmonean]] Jewish Kingdom begins; It lasts until [[63 BCE]] [[165 BCE]]: The Jewish revolt against the [[Seleucid]] monarchy is successful. The Temple is liberated and rededicated (Hanukkah). [[142 BCE]]: Establishment of the Second Jewish Commonwealth. The Seleucids recognize Jewish autonomy. The Seleucid kings have a formal overlordship, which the Hasmoneans acknowledged. This inaugurates a period of great geographical expansion, population growth, and religious, cultural and social development. [[139 BCE]]: The [[Roman Senate]] recognizes Jewish autonomy. [[130 BCE]]: Antiochus VII besieges [[Jerusalem]], but withdraws. [[131 BCE]]: Antiochus VII dies. Israel throws off Syrian rule completely [[96 BCE]]: An eight year civil war begins. [[83 BCE]]: Consolidation of the Kingdom in territory east of the [[Jordan River]]. [[63 BCE]]: The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom comes to an end due to rivalry between the brothers Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II, both of whom appeal to the [[Roman Republic]] to intervene and settle the power struggle on their behalf. The Roman general [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] (Pompey the Great) is dispatched to the area. Twelve thousand Jews are massacred as Romans enter Jerusalem. The Priests of the Temple are struck down at the Altar. Rome annexes Judea. ===Battles of the Maccabean revolt=== {{main\|Maccabees}} There were a number of key battles between the Maccabees and the Seleucid Syrian-Greeks: [[Battle of Adasa]] ([[Judas Maccabeus]] leads the Jews to victory against the forces of Nicanor.) [[Battle of Beth Horon]] (Judas Maccabeus defeats the forces of [[Seron (seleucid)\|Seron]].) [[Battle of Beth Zur]] (Judas Maccabeus defeats the army of [[Lysias (Syrian chancellor)\|Lysias]], recapturing Jerusalem.) [[Battle of Beth-zechariah]] (Elazar the Maccabee is killed in battle. Lysias has success in battle against the Maccabess, but allows them temporary freedom of worship.) [[Battle of Emmaus]] (Judas Maccabeus fights the forces of [[Lysias (Syrian chancellor)\|Lysias]] and [[Gorgias (Syrian general)\|Georgias]]). [[Dathema]] (A Jewish fortress saved by Judas Maccabeus.) [[Battle of Elasa]] (Judas Maccabeus dies in battle against the army of [[Demetrius I Soter\|King Demetrius]] and [[Bacchides]]. He is succeeded by [[Jonathan Maccabaeus]] and [[Simon Maccabaeus]] who continue to lead the Jews in battle.) ==When Hanukkah occurs== {{further\|[[Jewish holidays 2000-2050]]}} The dates of Hanukkah are determined by the [[Hebrew Calendar]]. Hanukkah begins at the 25th day of [[Kislev]] and concluding on the 2nd or 3rd day of [[Tevet]] (Kislev can have 29 or 30 days). The Jewish day begins at sunset, whereas the [[Gregorian Calendar]] begins the day at midnight. So, the first day of Hanukkah actually begins at sunset of the day immediately before the date noted on Gregorian calendars. For example, in 2006 Gregorian calendars will likely list Hanukkah on Saturday, [[December 16]], but 25 Kislev actually begins at sunset on [[December 15]] and so the first candle will be lit on that Friday evening, shortly before sunset since it is also the start of [[Shabbat]]. Two can
ial for almost every successive dynasty. The Zhou initially moved their capital west to an area near modern [[Xi'an]], near the Yellow River, but they would preside over a series of expansions into the [[Yangzi River]] valley. This would be the first of many population migrations from north to south in Chinese history. === Spring and Autumn Period === In the [[8th century BC]], power became decentralized during the [[Spring and Autumn Period]] (春秋時代), named after the influential [[Spring and Autumn Annals]]. In this period, local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie for hegemony. The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples from the northwest, forcing the Zhou to move their capital east to [[Luoyang]]. In each of the perhaps hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only. The [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] (諸子百家) of Chinese philosophy blossomed during this period, and such influential intellectual movements as [[Confucianism]] (儒家), [[Taoism]] (道家), [[Legalism (philosophy)\|Legalism]] (法家) and [[Mohism]] (墨家) were founded. === Warring States Period === After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other is known as the [[Warring States Period]] (戰國時代). Though there remained a nominal [[Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC)\|Zhou]] king until [[256 BC]], he was largely a figurehead and held little real power. As neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modern [[Sichuan]] (四川)and [[Liaoning]] (遼寧), were annexed, they were governed under the new local administrative system of [[commandery]] and [[prefecture]] (郡縣). This system had been in use since the Spring and Autumn Period and parts can still be seen in the modern system of [[Political divisions of China\|Sheng & Xian]] (province and county, 省縣). The final expansion in this period began during the reign of Ying Zheng (嬴政), the king of Qin. His unification of the other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions of [[Zhejiang]] (浙江), [[Fujian]] (福建), [[Guangdong]] (廣東) and [[Guangxi]] (廣西) in [[214 BC]] enabled him to proclaim himself the [[Qin Shi Huang\|First Emperor]] (Shi Huangdi, 始皇帝). == Qin Dynasty: The Beginning of imperial China == Historians often refer to the period from [[Qin Dynasty]] to the end of [[Qing Dynasty]] as imperial China. Though the unified reign of the [[Qin Shi Huang\|Qin]] (秦) Emperor lasted only twelve years, he managed to subdue great parts of what constitutes the core of the [[Han Chinese]] homeland and to unite them under a tightly centralized [[Legalism (philosophy)\|Legalist]] government seated at Xianyang (咸陽)(in modern [[Xi'an]]). The doctrine of legalism that guided the Qin emphasized strict adherance to a legal code and the absolute power of the emperor. This philosophy, while very effective for expanding the empire in a military fashion, proved unworkable for governing it in peace time. The Qin presided over the brutal silencing of political opposition, including the event known as the [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars\|burning and burying of scholars]]. This would be the impitus behind the later Han Synthesis incorporating the more moderate schools of political governance. The [[Qin Dynasty]] is well known for beginning the [[Great Wall of China]], which was later augmented and enhanced during the [[Ming]] Dynasty (明朝). The other major contributions of the Qin included unifying the legal code, written language, and currency of China after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods. Even something as basic as the length of axles for carts had to be made uniform to ensure a viable trading system throughout the empire. == Han Dynasty: A period of prosperity == {{main\|Han Dynasty}} The [[Han Dynasty]] (漢朝) emerged in [[202 BC]]. It was the first dynasty to embrace the philosophy of [[Confucianism]], which became the ideological underpinning of all regimes until the end of imperial China. Under the Han Dynasty, China made great advances in many areas of the arts and sciences. [[Emperor Wu of Han China\|Emperor Wu]] (Han Wudi 漢武帝) consolidated and extended the Chinese empire by pushing back the [[Xiongnu]] (匈奴)(sometimes identified with the [[Huns]]) into the steppes of modern [[Inner Mongolia]] (內蒙古), wresting from them the modern areas of [[Gansu]] (甘肅), [[Ningxia]] (寧夏) and [[Qinghai]] (青海). This enabled the first opening of trading connections between China and the West, the [[Silk Road]] (絲綢之路). Nevertheless, land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. In [[9\|AD 9]], the usurper [[Wang Mang]] (王莽) founded the short-lived Xin ("New") Dynasty (新朝) and started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms. These programs, however, were never supported by the land-holding families, for they favored the peasant and lesser gentry, and the instability they produced brought on chaos and uprisings. [[Emperor Guangwu of Han\|Emperor Guangwu]] (光武帝) reinstated the Han Dynasty with the support of land-holding and merchant families at [[Luoyang]] (洛陽), east of [[Xi'an]]. This new era would be termed the [[Eastern Han Dynasty]] (東漢). Han power declined again amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between [[consort clan]]s and [[eunuch]]s. The [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]] (黃巾之亂) broke out in [[184]], ushering in an era of [[warlords]]. In the ensuing turmoil, three states tried to gain predominance in the Period of the [[Three Kingdoms]] (三國). This time period has been greatly romanticized in works such as ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' (三國演義). == Jin, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties == {{main\|Jin Dynasty}} Though these three kingdoms were reunited temporarily in [[280]] by the (Western) [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)\|Jin Dynasty]] (晉朝), the contemporary non-Han Chinese ([[Wu Hu]], 五胡) ethnic groups controlled much of the country in the early 4th century and provoked large-scale Han Chinese migrations to south of the [[Yangtze River\|Chang Jiang]] (長江). In [[303]] the [[Di]] (氐) people rebelled and later captured [[Chengdu]] (成都). Under [[Liu Yuan]] (劉淵) the [[Xiongnu]] rebelled near today's [[Linfen County]] (山西省臨汾縣). His successor [[Liu Cong]] (劉聰) captured and [[execution (legal)\|executed]] the last two Western Jin emperors. [[Sixteen Kingdoms\|Sixteen kingdoms]] were established by these ethnic groups. The chaotic north was temporarily unified by [[Fu Jiān]] (苻堅) who was defeated at the [[Battle of Feishui]] (淝水之戰) when he attempted to invade the south of China. Later on, [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei]] (北魏太武帝) reunified the north again, marking the beginning of the [[Northern Dynasties]], a sequence of local regimes ruling over the regions north of [[Yangtze River\|Chang Jiang]]. Along with the refugees from the North, [[Emperor Yuan of Jin China]] (晉元帝) reinstated the Jin regime at present [[Nanjing]] (南京) in the south. From this came the sequence of [[Southern dynasties]] of Song (宋), Qi (齊), Liang (梁) and Chen (陳), which all had their capitals at Jiankang (建康) (near today's Nanjing). As China was ruled by two independent dynasties, one in the south and the other in the north, this is called the era of [[Southern and Northern Dynasties]] (南北朝). == Sui Dynasty: Reunification == {{main\|Sui Dynasty}} The [[Sui Dynasty]] (隋朝) managed to reunite the country in [[589]] after almost 300 years of disjunction. The unification is the second shortest dynasty in the history of China after Qin Dynasty, and during this time, millions laboured on the [[Grand Canal of China]] (大運河), still the longest canal in the world to date. == Tang Dynasty: Return to prosperity == {{main\|Tang Dynasty}} On [[June 18]], [[618]], [[Gaozu]] (唐高祖) took the throne, and the [[Tang Dynasty]] (唐朝) was established, opening a new age of prosperity and innovations in arts and technology. [[Buddhism]], which had gradually been established in China from the [[1st century\|first century]], became the predominant religion and was adopted by the royal family and many of the common people. [[Chang'an]] (長安)(modern [[Xi'an]]), the national capital, is thought to have been the world's biggest city at the time. The Tang and [[Han]] are often referred to as the most prosperous periods of Chinese history. The Tang, like the Han, kept the trade routes open to the west and south and there was extensive trade with distant foreign countries and many foreign merchants settled in China. From about [[860]] the Tang Dynasty began to decline due to a series of rebellions within China itself, and in the previously subject Kingdom of [[Nanzhao]] (南詔) to the south. One of the warlords, [[Huang Chao]] (黃巢), captured [[Guangzhou]] (廣州) in [[879]], killing most of the 200,000 inhabitants including most of the large colony of foreign merchant families there. In late [[880]] Luoyang surrendered to him and on 5 January, [[881]] he conquered [[Changan]]. The emperor [[Xizong]] (唐僖宗) fled to [[Chengdu]] and Huang established a new temporary regime, which was eventually destroyed by Tang forces. However, another time of political chaos followed: the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period]]. == Song Dynasty and its northern neighbors, the Liao and the Jin == {{main\|Song Dynasty}} In [[960]], the [[Song Dynasty (960-1279)]] (宋朝) gained power over most of China and established its capital in [[Kaifeng]] (汴京/開封), establishing a period of economic prosperity, while the [[Khitan]] [[Liao Dynasty]] (契丹族遼國) ruled over [[Manchuria]] and eastern [[Mongolia]]. In [[1115]] the [[Jurchen]] [[Jin Dynasty (1115-1234)]] (女真族金國) emerged to prominence, annihilating the Liao Dynasty in 10 years. It also took power over northern China and Kaifeng from the Song Dynast
]] [[Category:18th century books]] [[Category:19th century books]] [[cs:Gotický román]] [[de:Schauerroman]] [[es:Literatura de terror gótico]] [[fr:Roman gothique]] [[nl:Gothic (literatuur)]] [[ja:ゴシック小説]] [[no:Gothic novel]] [[ru:Готический роман]] [[sv:Göticism]] [[zh:哥特小说]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GKOS keyboard</title> <id>12624</id> <revision> <id>41779998</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:20:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Omegatron</username> <id>18931</id> </contributor> <comment>«"WPM" → "[[words per minute\|WPM]]"»</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gkos_opened.jpg\|thumb\|GKOS keyboard plate opened — One implementation of the GKOS keyboard]] The '''GKOS keyboard''' standard for small portable terminals is intended for replacing the [[QWERTY]] where there is not enough room for a large number of keys but still all QWERTY functions are required. Typical applications are cellular terminals/browsers and [[tablet PC]]s. The GKOS [[alphanumeric keyboard\|keyboard]] has 6 keys and they are located on the back of the terminal, 3 keys for each hand. The keypad is split between two hands so that the combination of keys to press would not be too difficult physically, and in order to have the keys located at the finger positions when you hold a calendar shaped object vertically in front of you by two hands. The 3 keys on one side of the device produce characters depending on the shift function (a simple chord) pressed on the other side. For letters, numbers and punctuation, the most difficult combination is pressing two keys simultaneously by one hand while the other hand presses one key or no key at all. The remaining combinations are used for other functions found on the QWERTY keyboard. The thumbs can be used to control the mouse functions on the front panel near the sides. Consequently, most of the front panel can be reserved for the display (wide screen shape). The GKOS keyboard is also referred to as the "SixBack". As the GKOS typing system is new to most people, there is a learning curve before considerable text entry speeds can be reached. But with practice, speeds of 50 [[words per minute\|WPM]] (= 250 characters per minute) have been achieved, practical limit being around 60 WPM. Recently, new capabilities have been introduced to GKOS for even quicker text entry: shortcut words (shorthand) and the "GKOS chordon technique" where common keys between consecutive characters need not be released. These are inherent capabilities of the GKOS system and can be used during typing when desired. ==See also== * [[Chorded keyboard]] * [[Keyer]] ==External links== * [http://gkos.com/ Description of the GKOS keyboard] [[Category:Computer keyboards]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>General Aviation</title> <id>12626</id> <revision> <id>15910298</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[General aviation]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gospel</title> <id>12627</id> <revision> <id>41715416</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:28:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Csernica</username> <id>10643</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}} :''For the genre of Christian-themed music, see [[gospel music]].'' :''For the novel by [[Wilton Barnhardt]], see [[Gospel: a novel]], for the [[manga]], see [[One-Pound Gospel]].'' In [[Christianity]], '''gospel''' means "[[good news (religion)\|good news]]". The word ''gospel'' derives from the [[Old English language\|Old English]] word for "good news", a translation of the [[Greek language\|Greek]] word &epsilon;&upsilon;&alpha;&gamma;&gamma;&#941;&lambda;&iota;&omicron;&nu;, ''evangelion''. From this word comes the term "evangelist." Gospel has generally been used in three ways: #To denote the proclamation of God's saving activity in [[Jesus of Nazareth]] or to denote the message proclaimed by Jesus of Nazareth. This is the original New Testament usage (see Romans 1.1 or Mark 1.1). #More popularly to refer to the four [[Biblical canon\|canonical]] '''gospels''' ([[Gospel of Matthew\|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark\|Mark]], [[Gospel of Luke\|Luke]] and [[Gospel of John\|John]]) and sometimes other non-canonical works (eg. [[Gospel of Thomas]]), that offer a [[narrative]] of the life, death and resurrection of Jesus. #Some modern scholars have used the term to denote a hypothetical [[genre]] of Early Christian [[literature]] (cf. Peter Stuhlmacher, ed., ''Das Evangelium und die Evangelien'', Tübingen 1983, also in English: ''The Gospel and the Gospels''). The expression "gospel" was used by [[Paul of Tarsus\|Paul]] before the literary Gospels of the New Testament canon had been produced, when he reminded the men of the church at [[Corinth]] "of the gospel I preached to you" ([[1 Corinthians]] 15.1) through which, Paul averred, they were being saved, and he characterized it in the simplest terms, emphasizing Christ's appearances after the Resurrection (15.3 &ndash; 8): :"...that Christ died for our sins in according to the [[Tanakh\|scriptures]]; And that he was buried; and that he rose again the third day according to the scriptures; And that he was seen of [[Saint Peter\|Cephas]]; then of the [[Twelve Apostles\|Twelve]]: After that, he was seen of above five hundred brethern at once: of whom the greater part remain unto this present, but some have fallen asleep. After that he was seen of James, then of all the apostles. Last of all, he was seen of me also, as one born out of due time." The use of ''gospel'' (or its Greek equivalent ''evangelion'') to denote a particular genre of writing dates to the 2nd century. It was clearly used to denote a genre in [[Justin Martyr]] (c. 155) and more ambiguously so earlier in [[Ignatius of Antioch]] (c. 117). == Canonical Gospels == {{Gospel Jesus}} Of the many gospels written in antiquity, exactly four gospels came to be accepted as part of the [[New Testament]], or [[Biblical canon\|canonical]]. An insistence upon a canonical four, and no others, was a central theme of [[Irenaeus of Lyons]], c. 185. In his central work, ''Adversus Haereses'' Irenaeus denounced various Christian groups that used only one gospel, such as [[Gospel of the Hebrews\|Aramaic ''Matthew'']], as well as groups that embraced the texts of new revelations, such as the [[Valentinius\|Valentinians]] (''A.H.'' 1.11.9). Irenaeus declared that the four he espoused were the four pillars of the Church: "it is not possible that there can be either more or fewer than four" he stated, presenting as logic the [[analogy]] of the four corners of the earth and the four winds (1.11.8). His image, taken from ''[[Ezekiel]]'' 1, of God's throne borne by four creatures with four faces&mdash;"the four had the face of a man, and the face of a lion, on the right side: and the four had the face of an ox on the left side; they four also had the face of an eagle"&mdash; equivalent to the "four-formed" gospel, is the origin of the conventional symbols of the Evangelists: lion, bull, eagle, man. Irenaeus was successful in declaring that the four gospels collectively, and exclusively these four, contained the truth. By reading each gospel in light of the others, Irenaeus made of ''John'' a lens through which to read ''Matthew'', ''Mark'' and ''Luke''. * [[Gospel according to Matthew]] * [[Gospel according to Mark]] * [[Gospel according to Luke]] * [[Gospel according to John]] === Origin of the canonical Gospels === :''Main discussion: [[Synoptic problem]]''. Among the canonical Gospels, ''Matthew'', ''Mark'', and ''Luke'' include many of the same passages in the life of Jesus and sometimes use identical or very similar wording. ''John'' expresses itself in a different style and relates the same incidents in a different way&mdash; even in a revised narrative order&mdash; and is often full of more encompassing theological and philosophical messages than the first three canonical Gospel accounts. It is ''John'' that explicitly introduces Jesus as God incarnate. (The non-canonical ''[[Gospel of Peter]]'' reports much of the same material as canonical ''Matthew'', ''Mark'' and ''Luke''; and the non-canonical ''[[Gospel of Thomas]]'' reports many of the same sayings of Jesus.) The parallels among the first three Gospel accounts are so telling that many scholars have investigated the relationship between them. In order to study them more closely, German scholar [[Johann Jakob Griesbach\|JJ Griesbach]] (1776) arranged the first three Gospel accounts in a three-column table called a ''[[synopsis]]''. As a result, Matthew, Mark, and Luke have come to be known as the [[synoptic Gospels]]; and the question of the reason for this similarity, and the relationship between these Gospel accounts more generally, is known as the [[Synoptic Problem]]. The understanding found among early Christian writers and scholars has been that the first account of the Gospel to be committed to writing was that according to Matthew, the second Luke, followed by Mark and the final one John; and this order is defended today by proponents of the "Two-Gospel Hypothesis". However, since then Enlightenment scholars have been proposing also many other solutions to the Synoptic Problem; and the dominant view today is that Mark is the first Gospel, with Matthew and Luke borrowing passages both from that Gospel and from at least one other common source, lost to history, termed
ime they drive. Thermal [[Power station\|power stations]] provide [[electricity]] for a large percentage of humanity. However, fire is also used more directly; many nomadic peoples still use fire for cooking. It is also used for [[Tobacco smoking\|smoking]], and as a [[weapon]]. In fact, the use of fire for [[warfare]] has a long [[military history\|history]] up to the present day. [[Homer]] detailed its use by Greek [[commando\|commandoes]] who hid in a [[Trojan Horse\|wooden horse]] to burn [[Troy]] during the [[Trojan war]]. Later the [[Byzantine Empire\|Byzantine]] fleet used [[Greek fire]] to attack ships and men. In the [[Vietnam War]], the Americans dropped a modern version, [[napalm]], from the air. More recently many villages were burned during the [[Rwandan Genocide]]. [[Aerial bombing of cities]], including [[firebombing]], using [[incendiary bomb]]s was also frequently used during [[World War II]]. [[Molotov cocktail]]s are cheap to construct and are in common use as well. ==Fire and religion== [[Image:Rubens - Vulcano forjando los rayos de Júpiter.jpg\|thumb\|right\|160px\|Vulcan of ancient mythology, using fire for his forge]] Fires and burning have often been used in [[religion\|religious]] rites and symbolism. One reason may be that the [[smoke]] of the fire disperses upwards, into what may be considered into the [[heaven]]s, considered by many religions to be the home of their supernatural deities. Fire is one of the four [[classical element]]s, as well as one of the [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)\|five Chinese elements]]. In [[Hinduism]] fire is one of five sacred elements of which all living creatures are comprised and is considered an eternal witness essential to sacred religious ceremonies. Fire is a symbol of [[Ahura Mazda]], or God, of the [[Zoroastrian]] religion. A Zoroastrian church is known as a [[Agiary\|Fire Temple]]. Fire is also an important part of [[Calcination]], the fire operation in the art of [[alchemy]]. In Roman mythology, [[Vulcan]] is the god of fire. The analogue in Greek mythology is [[Hephaestus]]. In Greek mythology, [[Prometheus]] is the [[Titan (mythology)\|Titan]] chiefly honored for stealing fire from the gods in the stalk of a fennel plant and giving it to mortals for their use. In [[Judaism]] fire also has great significance, candles are lit to usher in holidays and to separate [[Shabbat]] from the rest of the week, as well as to remember the dead; another important fire symbol is the Eternal Flame, which was a fire kept in the [[Temple in Jerusalem\|First]] and [[Second Temple]] was never supposed to go out. In [[Christianity]], fire is a [[symbol]] of the [[Holy Ghost]] and is often used in descriptions of [[Hell]]. ==Fire as a power source== [[Image:ChineseCoalPower.jpg\|thumb\|left\|200px\|A [[coal power plant]] in the [[People's Republic of China]].]] Fire has supplied much of the energy which has helped humans since ancient times. [[Wood]] was a [[prehistory\|prehistoric]] fuel. The use of [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]] and [[coal]] in [[fossil fuel power plant\|power plant]]s supplies the vast majority of the world's electricity today. The [[International Energy Agency]] states it is nearly 80%<ref>[http://www.iea.org/statlist/index.htm "Share of Total Primary Energy Supply", 2002; International Energy Agency]</ref>. Mexico is typical with thermal energy providing 76% of all energy <ref>[http://www.geni.org/globalenergy/library/national_energy_grid/mexico/index.shtml "Mexico Grid Summary", 2000; Global Energy Network Institute]; thermal energy defined as oil, gas and coal</ref>. The burning of wood is often the first association to the word "fire". It is common in a [[developing countries\|developing country]] for wood to be the primary energy source as well. For instance, in [[Africa]], 65% of the energy used comes from the burning of [[biomass]]<ref>[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/archives/africa/chapter3.html "Energy in Africa - Chapter 3"], United States [[Department of Energy]] information administration</ref>. What is less obvious is that wood burning power stations are less environmentally destructive than the fired oil power station in two major respects. [[E.ON\|E.ON UK]] is soon to build a 44 megawatt wood fired power station in the [[United Kingdom]] for these reasons, as reported in the [[The Guardian\|Guardian]] newspaper in October 2005<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/story/0,3605,1592854,00.html "How Can Burning Wood Help Reduce Global Warming"], [[The Guardian]] </ref>: first, wood is a renewable resource, especially if trees are grown in a modern, sustainable way. Second, the [[carbon dioxide]] emissions are negligible because no more carbon dioxide can be produced by burning than would be produced by the natural rotting of wood. Thus, over a 100-year timescale, the effect is carbon-neutral<ref>[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/021122.html The Straight Dope: What exactly is fire?]. Adams, C. (2002). Retrieved [[December 19]], [[2004]].</ref>. It is also claimed that this power station will be more efficient than coal: [[Accelerant\|accelerants]] can be used to spread fire faster or have it burn hotter. The fire in a [[power station]] is used to heat water, creating steam that drives [[Turbine\|turbines]]. The turbines are linked to an [[electrical generator]]. ==Uncontrolled fire== {{splitsection}} [[Image:Forestfire2.jpg\|thumb\|right\|300px\|A forest fire.]] The self-sustaining nature of fire makes it extremely dangerous if uncontrolled. Fire can consume structures and forests and can severely injure or kill living things through [[burn]]s or [[smoke inhalation]]. Structure fires can be started by [[cooking]] accidents, [[electricity\|electrical]] faults, [[fuel]] leaks, the misuse of lighters and/or matches, and accidents involving [[candle]]s and [[cigarette]]s. Fire can propagate rapidly to other structures, especially where proper [[building standards]] are not met. Purposely starting destructive fires constitutes [[arson]] and is a criminal offense in most jurisdictions. The destructive capacity of fire has led most [[municipality\|municipalities]] to offer [[fire fighting]] services to quickly extinguish fires. Trained [[firefighter\|firefighters]] use [[fire truck\|fire trucks]], [[fire hydrant\|fire hydrants]], and an array of other equipment to combat the spread of fires. Municipal buildings such as [[school\|schools]] and government buildings often conduct [[fire drill\|fire drills]] to inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire. Outside of urban settings, [[wildfire]]s can consume large areas of [[forest]] and brush and often damage nearby settlements. There are many different classification systems used for uncontrolled fires; in [[Europe]] and [[Australasia]] six groups are used: [[Image:Dangclass2_1.png\|thumb\|left\|100px\|Flammable gas warning.]] * Class A: Fires that involve flammable [[solid]]s such as [[wood]], [[cloth]], [[rubber]], [[paper]], and some types of [[plastic]]s. * Class B: Fires that involve flammable [[liquid]]s or liquifiable solids such as [[gasoline\|petrol/gasoline]], [[petroleum\|oil]], [[paint]], some [[wax]]es & plastics, but '''not''' cooking fats or oils. * Class C: Fires that involve flammable [[gas]]es, such as [[natural gas]], [[hydrogen]], [[propane]], [[butane]]. * Class D: Fires that involve [[combustion\|combustible]] [[metal]]s, such as [[sodium]], [[magnesium]], and [[potassium]]. * Shock Risk (formerly known as Class E): Fires that involve any of the materials found in Class A and B fires, but with the introduction of an electrical appliances, wiring, or other electrically energized objects in the vicinity of the fire, with a resultant electrical shock risk if a [[electrical conduction\|conductive]] agent is used to control the fire. * Class F: Fires involving cooking fats and oils. The high temperature of the oils when on fire far exceeds that of other flammable liquids making normal extinguishing agents ineffective. [[Image:Wohnhausbrand.JPG\|thumb\|230px\|right\|A [[house]] on fire.]] In the [[United States\|U.S.]], fires are generally classified into four groups: A, B, C, and D. * Class A: Fires that involve wood, cloth, rubber, paper, and some types of plastics. * Class B: Fires that involve gasoline, oil, paint, natural and propane gases, and flammable liquids, gases, and greases. * Class C: Fires that involve any of the materials found in Class A and B fires, but with the introduction of an electrical appliances, wiring, or other electrically energized objects in the vicinity of the fire. * Class D: Fires that involve combustible metals, such as sodium, magnesium, and potassium. A fifth group, Class K, is sometimes added. It refers to fires involving large amounts of grease or oil. Although, by definition, Class K is a subclass of Class B, the special characteristics of these types of fires are considered important enough to recognize. ==Science of fire== [[Image:Blacksmiths fire.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|A [[blacksmith]]'s fire, used primarily for [[forging]] [[iron]].]] A flame is an exothermic, self-sustaining, oxidizing chemical reaction producing energy and glowing gas, of which a very small portion is [[Plasma (physics)\|plasma]]. It consists of reacting gases emitting visible and [[infrared]] light, the [[frequency spectrum]] of which is dependent on the chemical composition of the burning elements and intermediate reaction products. In many cases such as burning [[organic matter]] like wood or incomplete [[combustion]] of gas, incandescent solid particles, [[soot]] produces the familiar red-orange 'fire' color light. This light has a continuous spectrum. Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single wavelength radiations from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame.
of a revolution. [[Image:Monument-to-Alfonso-XII.jpg\|thumb\|left\|300px\|Monument to Alfonso XII in [[Parque del Retiro]], [[Madrid]].]] {{s-start}} {{s-hou\|[[House of Bourbon]]\|[[28 November]]\|1857\|[[25 November]]\|1885}} {{s-non\|reason=[[First Spanish Republic\|First Republic]]<br/>'''''<small>Title last held by<br/>[[Amadeo I of Spain\|Amadeo I]]</small>''}} {{s-ttl\|title=[[List of Spanish monarchs\|King of Spain]]\|years=[[1875]]&ndash;[[1885]]}} {{s-aft\|after=[[Alfonso XIII of Spain\|Alfonso XIII]]}} {{end}} ==References== {{1911}} [[Category:Spanish monarchs]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[Category:1857 births\|Alfonso XII of Spain]] [[Category:1885 deaths\|Alfonso XII of Spain]] [[Category:House of Bourbon]] [[de:Alfons XII. (Spanien)]] [[es:Alfonso XII de España]] [[fr:Alphonse XII d'Espagne]] [[it:Alfonso XII di Spagna]] [[pl:Alfons XII Burbon]] [[pt:Afonso XII de Espanha]] [[sv:Alfons XII av Spanien]] [[zh:阿方索十二世]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alfonso XIII of Spain</title> <id>1677</id> <revision> <id>41642999</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:16:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tail</username> <id>64886</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+lv:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{\|align=right \|[[Image:Alfonso XIII of Spain.jpg\|thumb\|right\|200px\|'''Alfonso XIII'''<br><small>King of Spain</small>]] \|- \|{{House of Bourbon}} \|} '''Alfonso XIII of Spain''' ([[May 17]], [[1886]] &ndash; [[February 28]], [[1941]]), [[List of Spanish monarchs\|King of Spain]], posthumous son of [[Alfonso XII of Spain]], was proclaimed King at his birth. He reigned from 1886-1931. His mother, Queen [[Maria Christina of Austria]], was appointed [[regent]] during his minority. In 1902, on attaining his 16th year, the King assumed control of the government. The growth of the young monarch can be seen in his portraits on Spain's periodically issued [[peseta]] coins. On [[May 31]], [[1906]] he married Scottish-born [[Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg]] (1887-1969), a niece of King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom]] and a granddaughter of Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom]]. A [[Serene Highness]] by birth, Ena, as she was known, was raised to Royal Highness status a month before her wedding to prevent the union from being viewed as unequal. As Alfonso XIII and Queen Ena were returning from the wedding they narrowly escaped the assassination attempted by the [[Anarchism\|anarchist]] [[Mateu Morral]]; instead, the bomb explosion killed or injured many bystanders and members of the royal procession. The royal couple had seven children: [[Infante]] Alfonso Pío Cristino Eduardo, [[Prince of Asturias]] ([[1907]]-[[1938]]), a [[hemophiliac\|hemophiliac]], he renounced his rights to the throne in 1933 to marry a commoner, Edelmira Sampedro Ocejo y Robato, and became Count of [[Covadonga]]. He later remarried to Marta Esther Rocafort y Altazarra, but had no issue by either of them. * Infante [[Infante Jaime of Spain, Duke of Segovia\|Jaime Luitpold Isabelino Enrique]] ([[1908]]-[[1975]]), a [[deaf-mute]] as the result of a childhood operation, he renounced his rights to the throne in 1933 and became Duke of [[Segovia]], and later Duke of Madrid, and who, as a [[legitimist]] [[pretender to the French throne]] from 1941 to 1975, was known as the Duke of [[Anjou]]. * Infanta Beatriz Isabel Federica Alfonsa Eugenia ([[1909]]-[[2002]]), who married [[Don Alessandro Torlonia, 5th Prince di Civitella-Cesi]]. * Infante Fernando, [[stillborn]] (1910) * Infanta [[Maria Cristina Teresa Alejandra]] ([[1911]]-[[1996]]), who married Enrico Eugenio Marone-Cinzano, 1st Conte di Marone. * Infante [[Juan de Borbón, Count of Barcelona\|Juan Carlos Teresa Silvestre Alfonso]] ([[1913]]-[[1993]]), named heir to the throne and Count of Barcelona. * Infante Gonzalo Manuel María Bernardo ([[1914]]-[[1934]]), a hemophiliac.[[Image:Alfonso_XIII_sculpted_by_José_Navas-Parejo.jpg\|thumb\|left\|200px\|Alfonso XIII sculpted by Jose Navas-Parejo]] The king also had three illegitimate children, Roger Leveque de Vilmorin (1905-1980), by French aristocrat Mélanie de Gaufridy de Dortan; Leandro Alfonso Ruíz Moragas (born in [[1929]]), officially recognized by Spanish courts on [[May 21]] [[2003]] as Leandro Alfonso de Borbón Ruíz, son of the King; and his sister, Ana María Teresa Ruíz Moragas. The mother of both siblings was the Spanish actress Carmen Ruíz Moragas. During his reign [[Spain]] lost its last colonies in [[Cuba]], [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Philippines]]; lost several wars in north Africa; saw the start of the [[Spanish Generation of 1927]], and endured the dictatorship of [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]]. He was a promoter of [[tourism in Spain]]. The problems with the lodging of his wedding guests prompted the construction of the luxury [[Hotel Palace]] in Madrid. He also supported the creation of a network of state-run lodges (''[[Parador]]'') in historic buildings of Spain. [[Image:Alfonso xiii illustration.3.jpg\|thumb\|left\|125px]]His fondness for the sport of football led to the patronage of several "royal" clubs like [[Real Sociedad]], [[Real Madrid]], [[Real Betis Balompié]] and [[Real Unión]]. When the [[Second Spanish Republic]] was proclaimed on [[April 14]] [[1931]], he abandoned the country with no formal abdication. When the [[Spanish Civil War]] broke out, Alfonso made it clear he favoured the military uprising against the [[Popular Front (Spain)\|Popular Front]] government, but General [[Francisco Franco]] in September 1936 declared that the Nationalists would never accept Alfonso as king (the supporters of the rival [[Carlist]] made an important part of the Franco army). First he went into exile in [[France]]. Later he moved to [[Fascist Italy]], and died in [[Rome]] in 1941. After leaving his successory rights to his fourth, but second surviving, son [[Juan de Borbon, Count of Barcelona]], the father of the later King [[Juan Carlos of Spain\|Juan Carlos]]. The count of Barcelona renounced his rights to the throne in 1977, in favor of his son, Juan Carlos. {{s-start}} {{s-hou\|[[House of Bourbon]]\|[[17 May]]\|1886\|[[28 February]]\|1941}} {{s-bef\|before=[[Alfonso XII of Spain\|Alfonso XII]]}} {{s-ttl\|title=[[List of Spanish monarchs\|King of Spain]]\|years=[[1886]]&ndash;[[1931]]\|regent1=[[Maria Christina of Austria\|Maria Christina]]\|years1=[[1886]]&ndash;[[1902]]}} {{s-non\|reason=[[Second Spanish Republic\|Second Republic]]<br/>declared}} \|- {{s-non\|reason=[[Second Spanish Republic\|Second Republic]]<br/>declared}} {{s-tul\|title=[[List of Spanish monarchs\|King of Spain]]\|years=[[1931]]&ndash;[[1941]]\|reason=[[Second Spanish Republic\|Second Republic]]<br/>[[Spanish Civil War]]<br/>[[Spanish State]]\|start=1931\|end=1975}} {{s-aft\|after=[[Juan de Borbón, Count of Barcelona\|Juan III]]}} {{end}} {{start box}} {{succession box two to one\| before1=[[Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime\|Alphonse Charles XII]]<br><small>(duke of San Jaime)</small>\| before2=[[Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime\|Alfonso Carlos I]]<br><small>(duke of San Jaime)</small>\| title1=[[Legitimist]] claimants to the throne of France\| years1=\| title2=[[Carlist]] claimants to the throne of Spain\| years2=\| after=[[Infante Jaime of Spain, Duke of Segovia\|Jacques Henri VI / Jaime IV]]<br><small>(duke of Anjou and Segovia)</small> }} {{end box}} [[Category:Spanish monarchs]] [[Category:British Field Marshals]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[Category:1886 births\|Alfonso XIII of Spain]] [[Category:1941 deaths\|Alfonso XIII of Spain]] [[Category:House of Bourbon]] [[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order]] [[Category:Pretenders to the French throne]] [[ca:Alfons XIII d'Espanya]] [[da:Alfons 13. af Spanien]] [[de:Alfons XIII.]] [[es:Alfonso XIII de España]] [[eo:Alfonso la 13-a (Hispanio)]] [[fr:Alphonse XIII d'Espagne]] [[it:Alfonso XIII di Spagna]] [[ka:ალფონსო XIII (ესპანეთი)]] [[lv:Alfonso XIII]] [[nl:Alfons XIII van Spanje]] [[ja:アルフォンソ13世 (スペイン王)]] [[pl:Alfons XIII Burbon]] [[pt:Afonso XIII de Espanha]] [[fi:Alfonso XIII]] [[sv:Alfons XIII av Spanien]] [[uk:Альфонс ХІІІ (король Іспанії)]] [[zh:阿方索十三世]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alphonsus a Sancta Maria</title> <id>1678</id> <revision> <id>28106054</id> <timestamp>2005-11-12T10:45:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluebot</username> <id>527862</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alphonsus a Sancta Maria''', or '''Alphonso de Cartagena''' ([[1396]] - [[July 12]], [[1456]]), [[Spain\|Spanish]] historian, was born at [[Cartagena, Spain\|Cartagena]], and succeeded his father, Paulus, as bishop of [[Burgos]]. In [[1431]] he was deputed by [[John II of Castile\|John II, king of Castile]], to attend the council of [[Basel]], in which he made himself conspicuous by his learning. He was the author of several works, the principal of which is entitled ''Rerum Hispanorum Romanorum imperatorum, summorum pontificum, nec non regum Francorum anacephaleosis''. This is a history of [[Spain]] from the earliest times down to [[1456]], and was printed at [[Granada]] in [[1545]], and also in the ''Rerum Hispanicarum Scriptores aliquot'', by R. Bel (Frankfort, 1579). ==References== {{1911}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alfonso the Battler</title> <id>1679</id> <revision> <id>40347008</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:40:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Srnec</username> <id>494861</id> </contributor> <comment>/ Reign */ finished all his battles of the reconquista</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfonso I''' (c.[[1073]] &a
figure below illustrates the connections in a switch box. [[Image:switch_box.gif\|frame\|center\|Switch box topology]] Modern FPGA families expand upon the above capabilities to include higher level functionality fixed into the silicon. Having these common function embedded into the silicon reduces the area required and gives those functions increased speed compared to building them from primitives. Example of these include multipliers, generic DSP blocks, embedded processors, high speed IO logic and embedded memories. FPGA are also widely used for System Validation Application. These application inculde Pre Silicon validation, Post Silicon validation, firmware development. These application enable chip companies to validate their design before the Chip is out from the foundry, reducing the time to market. == FPGA design and programming == To define the behavior of the FPGA the user provides a [[hardware description language]] (HDL) or a [[schematic]] design. Common HDLs are [[VHDL]] and [[Verilog]]. Then, using an [[electronic design automation]] tool, a technology-mapped [[netlist]] is generated. The netlist can then be fitted to the actual FPGA architecture using a process called [[Place and route\|place-and-route]], usually performed by the FPGA company's proprietary place-and-route software. The user will validate the map, place and route results via [[timing analysis]], [[simulation]], and other [[verification]] methodologies. Once the design and validation process is complete, the binary file generated (also using the FPGA company's proprietary software) is used to (re)configure the FPGA device. In an attempt to reduce the complexity of designing in HDLs, which have been compared to the equivalent of assembly languages, there are moves to raise the abstraction level of the design. Companies such as [[Cadence Design Systems\|Cadence]], [[Synopsys]] and [[Celoxica]] are promoting [[SystemC]] as a way to combine high level languages with concurrency models to allow faster design cycles for FPGAs than is possible using traditional HDLs. Approaches based on standard C or C++ (with libraries or other extensions allowing parallel programming) are found in the Catapult C tools from [[Mentor Graphics]], and in the Impulse C tools from Impulse Accelerated Technologies. Annapolis Micro Systems, Inc.'s CoreFire Design Suite provides a graphical dataflow approach to high-level design entry. Languages such as [[SystemVerilog]], [[SystemVHDL]], and [[Handel-C]] (from [[Celoxica]]) seek to accomplish the same goal, but are aimed at making existing hardware engineers more productive vs making FPGAs more accessible to existing software engineers. To simplify the design of complex systems in FPGAs, there exist libraries of predefined complex functions and circuits that have been tested and optimized to speed up the design process. These predefined circuits are commonly called ''[[intellectual property block]]s'', and are available from FPGA vendors and third-party IP suppliers (rarely free, and typically released under proprietary licenses). Other predefined circuits, which cannot meaningfully be described as "property" are from developer communities such as [http://www.opencores.org/ OpenCores.org] (typically "[[Free_sofware#Usage\|free]]", and released under the [[GPL]], [[Bsd_license\|BSD]] or similar license), and other sources. In a typical design flow, an FPGA application developer will simulate the design at multiple stages throughout the design process. Initially the [[RTL]] description in [[VHDL]] or [[Verilog]] is simulated by creating test benches to stimulate the system and observe results. Then after the synthesis engine has mapped the design to a netlist the netlist is translated to a gate level description where simulation is repeated to confirm the synthesis proceeded without errors. Finally the design is laid out in the FPGA at which point propagation delays can be added and the simulation run again with these values back-annotated onto the netlist. == Basic process technology types == [[Static Random Access Memory\|SRAM]] - based on static memory technology. In-system programmable and re-programmable. Requires external boot devices. Usually [[CMOS]]. [[Antifuse]] - One-time programmable. CMOS. [[EPROM]] - Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory technology. Usually one-time programmable in production because of plastic packaging. Windowed devices can be erased with ultraviolet (UV) light. CMOS. [[EEPROM]] - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory technology. Can be erased, even in plastic packages. Some, but not all, EEPROM devices can be in-system programmed. CMOS. [[Flash memory\|FLASH]] - Flash-erase EPROM technology. Can be erased, even in plastic packages. Some, but not all, FLASH devices can be in-system programmed. Usually, a FLASH cell is smaller than an equivalent EEPROM cell and is therefore less expensive to manufacture. CMOS. [[Fuse (electrical)\|Fuse]] - One-time programmable. Bipolar. == Some FPGA manufacturers and their specialties == As of late 2005, the FPGA market has mostly settled into a state where there are two major "general-purpose" FPGA manufacturers and a number of other players who differentiate themselves by offering unique capabilities. * [[Xilinx]] has traditionally been the FPGA leader. * [[Altera]] is the second FPGA heavyweight. * [[Lattice Semiconductor]] focuses on low-cost, feature-optimized FPGAs and non-volatile, flash-based FPGAs. * [http://www.actel.com/ Actel] has antifuse and reprogrammable flash-based FPGAs. * [http://www.quicklogic.com/ QuickLogic] has antifuse (programmable-only-once) products. * [[Cypress Semiconductor]] * [[Atmel]] is the only manufacturer whose devices are fine-grain reconfigurable (the Xilinx XC62xx were, but they are no longer in production). They focus on providing [[AVR]] Microcontrollers with FPGA fabric on the same die. These factors aside, their devices tend to be smaller and more expensive than other manufacturers'. * [http://www.achronix.com/ Achronix Semiconductor] has very fast FPGAs in development. They plan to ship in early 2007 and claim they can reach speeds of over 1GHZ. == Some FPGA third-party tool suppliers with descriptions == * [http://www.accelchip.com/ Accelchip] provides high-level FPGA design tools based on Matlab and Simulink. * [http://www.aldec.com/ Aldec] provides FPGA design and verification tools, including a popular HDL simulator. * [http://www.altium.com/ Altium] provides FPGA synthesis and simulation tools, as well as IP blocks that include processor cores. * [http://www.annapmicro.com/ Annapolis Micro Systems, Inc.] provides the WILDSTAR family of COTS FPGA-based computing platforms, the CoreFire Design Suite for high-level design entry, and IP blocks for digital signal processing. * [http://www.celoxica.com/ Celoxica] provides SystemC and Handel-C tools for high-level design entry and verification. * [http://www.gedae.com/ Gedae] provides high-level FPGA and DSP programming tools allowing programmers to develop to hetergenous systems and related optimization and verification tools. * [http://www.impulsec.com/ Impulse] provides the Impulse C compiler and related optimization and verification tools. * [http://www.lyrtech.com/ Lyrtech] provides hardware combining FPGA and DSP technologies plus high-level FPGA-DSP design tools based on Matlab, Simulink, Xilinx Sysgen and Texas Instruments CCS. * [http://www.mentor.com/ Mentor] provides the Catapult C high-level design tools, as well as a wide range of HDL synthesis and simulation tools. * [http://www.synopsys.com/ Synopsys] provides HDL synthesis tools, as well as a broad range of verification and high-level design tools. * [http://www.synplicity.com/ Synplicity] provides HDL synthesis, FPGA physical synthesis and verification tools. == FPGA research == * [http://cas.ee.ic.ac.uk Circuits and Systems Group, Imperial College London] * [http://proteas.ee.duth.gr/index.html MEANDER FPGA Design Framework from the Democritus University of Thrace (Greece)] * [http://www.eecg.toronto.edu/EECG/RESEARCH/FPGA.html FPGA Research at the University of Toronto] * [http://www.ece.neu.edu/groups/rcl/index.html FPGA Research at Northeastern University] * [http://www.icmc.usp.br/~lcr/ LCR] * [http://www.emlabs.info/taxonomy/term/36 FPGA Research Groups] - a list of Universities and Research Groups that are engaged in FPGA development. [http://www.da-iict.org Student]Priyanka Kumar == See also == [[CPLD]] * [[Gateware]] == External links == * [http://www.rtcmagazine.com/home/article.php?id=100125 A good FPGA tools overview] * [http://www.dsp-fpga.com/articles/topics/FPGAs/ FPGA Articles] FPGA articles from DSP-FPGA.com * [http://www.opencores.org/ Opencores] A set of [[open source]], [[IP core]]s that can be implemented in FPGAs * [http://www.fpgaworld.com/ FPGAworld] news, jobs, forums, demos etc. * [http://tutor.al-williams.com Tutorial for Xilinx and Altera with schematics or verilog] * [http://www.fpga4fun.com/ fpga4fun.com] various fpga projects * [http://www.fpgajournal.com/ FPGA Journal] * [http://www.synplicity.com/literature/syndicated/ Syndicated] a webzine about FPGA & ASIC * [http://www.the-states-online.com/fpga.html fpga design] * [http://www.retromicro.com/ Retromicro] FPGA experiments * [http://www.fpgarelated.com/ FPGARelated.com] Web access to comp.arch.fpga + books and resources. ---- ''Note: FPGAs should not be confused with [[Flip-chip pin grid array]], a form of integrated circuit packaging.'' [[Category:Digital electronics]] [[Category:Gate arrays]] [[Category:Electronic design automation]] [[de:Field Programmable Gate Array]] [[es:FPGA]] [[fr:Circuit logique programmable]] [[it:FPGA]] [[nl:FPGA]] [[pl:Field Programmable Gate Array]] [[ro:FPGA]] [[sv:FPGA]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Forgetting rate</title> <id>10970</id> <revision> <id>1590875
to the existing two Geneva Conventions were adopted. An additional convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea", named the second Geneva Convention, was added to succeed the 1907 Hague Convention X. The 1929 convention "relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War", while being the second Geneva Convention from a historical point of view, became the third convention in the context of the 1949 revisions. Reacting to the experience of World War II, the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]], a new Convention "relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War," was established. Also, the additional protocols of [[June 8]], [[1977]] were intended to make the conventions apply to internal conflicts such as civil wars. Today, the four conventions and their added protocols contain more than 600 articles, a remarkable expansion when compared to the mere 10 articles in the first 1864 convention. In celebration of its centennial in 1963, the ICRC, together with the League of Red Cross societies, received its third Nobel Peace Prize. Since 1993, non-Swiss individuals have been allowed to serve as Committee delegates abroad, a task which was previously restricted to Swiss citizens. Indeed, since then, the share of staff without Swiss citizenship has increased to about 35%. On [[October 16]], [[1990]], the [[UN General Assembly]] decided to grant the ICRC [[observer status]] for its assembly sessions and sub-committee meetings, the first observer status given to a private organization. The resolution was jointly proposed by 138 member states and introduced by the [[Italy\|Italian]] ambassador, [[Vieri Traxler]], in memory of the organization's origins in the Battle of Solferino. An agreement with the Swiss government signed on [[March 19]], [[1993]], affirmed the already long-standing policy of full independence of the Committee from any possible interference by Switzerland. The agreement protects the full sanctity of all ICRC property in Switzerland including its headquarters and archive, grants members and staff legal immunity, exempts the ICRC from all taxes and fees, guarantees the protected and duty-free transfer of goods, services, and money, provides the ICRC with secure communication privileges at the same level as foreign embassies, and simplifies Committee travel in and out of Switzerland. At the end of the [[Cold War]], the ICRC's work actually became more dangerous. In the [[1990s]], more delegates lost their lives than at any point in its history, especially when working in local and internal armed conflicts. These incidents often demonstrated a lack of respect for the rules of the Geneva Conventions and their protection symbols. Among the slain delegates were: * Frédéric Maurice. He died on [[May 19]], [[1992]] at the age of 39, one day after a Red Cross transport he was escorting was attacked in the former [[Yugoslavia\|Yugoslavian]] city of [[Sarajevo]]. * [[Fernanda Calado]] (Spain), [[Ingeborg Foss]] (Norway), [[Nancy Malloy]] (Canada), [[Gunnhild Myklebust]] (Norway), [[Sheryl Thayer]] ([[New Zealand]]), and [[Hans Elkerbout]] (Netherlands). They were murdered at point-blank range while sleeping in the early hours of [[December 17]], [[1996]] in the ICRC field hospital in the [[Chechnya\|Chechen]] city of [[Nowije Atagi]] near [[Grozny]]. Their murderers have never been caught and there was no apparent motive for the killings. * [[Rita Fox]] (Switzerland), [[Véronique Saro]] ([[Democratic Republic of Congo]], formerly Zaire), [[Julio Delgado]] ([[Colombia]]), [[Unen Ufoirworth]] (DR Congo), [[Aduwe Boboli]] (DR Congo), and [[Jean Molokabonge]] (DR Congo). On [[April 26]], [[2001]], they were en route with two cars on a relief mission in the northeast of the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] when they came under fatal fire from unknown attackers. * [[Ricardo Munguia]] (El Salvador). He was working as a water engineer in Afghanistan and travelling with local colleagues when their car was stopped by unknown armed men. He was killed execution-style at point-blank range while his colleagues were allowed to escape. He died at the age of 39. * [[Vatche Arslanian]] (Canada). Since 2001, he worked as a logistics coordinator for the ICRC mission in Iraq. He died when he was travelling through Baghdad together with members of the Iraqi Red Crescent. Their car accidentally came into the cross fire of fighting in the city. * [[Nadisha Yasassri Ranmuthu]] (Sri Lanka). He was killed by unknown attackers on [[July 22]], [[2003]] when his car was fired upon near the city of [[Hilla]] in the south of [[Baghdad]]. ====Presidents of the ICRC==== Since 2000, the president of the ICRC has been [[Jakob Kellenberger]]. [[Olivier Vodoz]] and [[Jacques Forster]] serve as the vice presidents. The former presidents of the Committee have been: {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * 1863 - 1864: Henri Dufour * 1864 - 1910: Gustave Moynier * 1910 - 1928: Gustave Ador * 1928 - 1944: Max Huber * 1944 - 1948: Carl Jacob Burckhardt * 1948 - 1955: Paul Ruegger {{col-break}} * 1955 - 1964: Leopold Boissier * 1964 - 1969: Samuel Gonard * 1969 - 1973: Marcel Naville * 1973 - 1976: Eric Martin * 1976 - 1987: Alexandre Hay * 1987 - 1999: Cornelio Sommaruga {{col-end}} ===The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies=== ====History==== [[Image:Henry_Davison.jpg\|250px\|thumb\|'''Henry Davison''', Founding father of the League of Red Cross societies<br><small>(Picture from: [http://www.redcross.int www.redcross.int])</small>]] In 1919, representatives from the national Red Cross societies of Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and the US came together in Paris to found the "League of Red Cross Societies". The original idea was [[Henry Davison]]'s, then president of the [[American Red Cross]]. This move, led by the American Red Cross, expanded the international activities of the Red Cross movement beyond the strict mission of the ICRC to include relief assistance in response to emergency situations which were not caused by war (such as man-made or natural disasters). The ARC already had great disaster relief mission experience extending back to its foundation. The formation of the League, as an additional international Red Cross organization alongside the ICRC, was not without controversy for a number of reasons. The ICRC had, to some extent valid, concerns about a possible rivalry between both organizations. The foundation of the League was seen as an attempt to undermine the leadership position of the ICRC within the movement and to gradually transfer most of its tasks and competencies to a multilateral institution. In addition to that, all founding members of the League were national societies from countries of the [[Triple Entente\|Entente]] or from associated partners of the Entente. The original statutes of the League from May 1919 contained further regulations which gave the five founding societies a privileged status and, due to the efforts of Henry P. Davison, the right to permanently exclude the national Red Cross societies from the countries of the [[Central Powers]], namely [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Hungary]], [[Bulgaria]] and [[Turkey]], and in addition to that the national Red Cross society of [[Russia]]. These rules were contrary to the Red Cross principles of universality and equality among all national societies, a situation which furthered the concerns of the ICRC. The first relief assistance mission organized by the League was an aid mission for the victims of a famine and subsequent typhus epidemic in [[Poland]]. Only five years after its foundation, the League had already issued 47 donation appeals for missions in 34 countries, an impressive indication of the need for this type of Red Cross work. The total sum raised by these appeals reached 685 million Swiss Francs, which were used to bring emergency supplies to the victims of famines in [[Russia]], [[Germany]], and [[Albania]]; [[earthquakes]] in [[Chile]], [[Persian Empire\|Persia]], [[Japan]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Costa Rica]], and [[Turkey]]; and refugee flows in [[Greece]] and Turkey. The first large-scale disaster mission of the League came after the 1923 earthquake in Japan which killed about 200,000 people and left countless more wounded and without shelter. Due to the League's coordination, the Red Cross society of Japan received goods from its sister societies reaching a total worth of about $100 million. Another important new field initiated by the League was the creation of youth Red Cross organizations within the national societies. [[Image:Timbre_Turquie_Croissant_rouge_1928.jpg\|250px\|thumb\|left\|A stamp from Turkey to support the Red Crescent, 1928]] A joint mission of the ICRC and the League in the [[Russian Civil War]] from 1917 to 1922 marked the first time the movement was involved in an internal conflict, although still without an explicit mandate from the Geneva Conventions. The League, with support from more than 25 national societies, organized assistance missions and the distribution of food and other aid goods for civil populations affected by hunger and [[disease]]. The ICRC worked with the [[Russian Red Cross]] society and later the society of the [[Soviet Union]], constantly emphasizing the ICRC's neutrality. In 1928, the "International Council" was founded to coordinate cooperation between the ICRC and the League, a task which was later taken over by the "Standing Commission". In the same year, a common statute for the movement was adopted for the first time, defining the respective roles of the ICRC and the League within the movement. During the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War\|Abyssinian war]] between [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italy]] from 1935 to 1936, the League contributed aid supplies worth about 1.7 million Swiss Francs. Because the Italian fascist regime under [[Mussolini
outside Japan by the name "Godzilla" ever after. In 1957, the American version even worked its way back to Japan, where the Godzilla name also took root. == External links == {{imdb title\|id=0047034\|title=Godzilla}} [http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/gojira/ RottenTomatoes.Com] list of ''Gojira'' reviews. [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20040702/REVIEWS/407020315/1023 Roger Ebert] review of ''Gojira''. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A22729-2004May12.html 'Godzilla,' Uncut and Unmatched] by Desson Thomson. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A25867-2004May13.html 'Godzilla': Not Your Daddy's Dinosaur] by Stephen Hunter. [http://www.villagevoice.com/film/0418,hoberman,53154,20.html It's the Bomb: We're off to see the lizard] by J. Hoberman. {{Godzilla}} [[Category:1954 films\|Gojira]] [[Category:Godzilla films\|Gojira]] [[Category:Japanese films\|Gojira]] [[ja:%E3%82%B4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A9_%281954%29]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>The Return of Godzilla</title> <id>12005</id> <revision> <id>41044968</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:20:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eskimbot</username> <id>477460</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Film \|name =The Return of Godzilla / Godzilla 1985 \|image = \|caption = \|director =[[Koji Hashimoto (director)\|Koji Hashimoto]]<br>[[R. J. Kizer]] (USA) \|producer =[[Tomoyuki Tanaka (producer)\|Tomoyuki Tanaka]] \|writer =[[Shuichi Nagahara]] \|starring =[[Ken Tanaka]]<br>[[Yasuko Sawaguchi]]<br>[[Yosuke Natsuki]]<br>[[Keiju Kobayashi]]<br>[[Shin Takuma]]<br>[[Raymond Burr]] (USA) \|music =[[Reijiro Koroku]] \|cinematography =[[Kazutami Hara]] \|editing =[[Yoshitami Kuroiwa]] \|distributor =[[Toho]]<br>[[New World Pictures\|New World]] (USA) \|released =[[December 15]], [[1984]]<br>[[August 23]], [[1985]] (USA) \|runtime =103 min.<br>87 min. (USA) \|language =[[Japanese language\|Japanese]]<br>[[Russian language\|Russian]]<br>[[English language\|English]] \|budget = \|imdb_id = 0087344 \|}} '''''The Return of Godzilla''''' ('''&#12468;&#12472;&#12521; - ''Gojira''''' in Japan) is a [[1984 in film\|1984]] [[daikaiju]] [[eiga]]. The sixteenth in [[Toho\|Toho Studios]]' [[Godzilla]] series, it was produced by [[Tomoyuki Tanaka (producer)\|Tomoyuki Tanaka]] and directed by [[Koji Hashimoto (director)\|Koji Hashimoto]] with special effects by [[Teruyoshi Nakano]]. This was the last Godzilla film made in the [[Shōwa period]] and the first in the "VS Series" of Godzilla films (sometimes called the "[[Heisei era (daikaiju eiga)\|Heisei Series]]" due to the near-coincidence of its beginning with that of the [[Heisei\|Heisei era]] in Japan). It was Tanaka's intent to restore the darker themes and mood of the early films in the series. To this end ''The Return of Godzilla'' disregards all previous Godzilla films except 1954's ''[[Godzilla (1954 film)\|Godzilla]]'', to which it is a direct sequel. It features the lengthiest debate over the use of [[nuclear weapons]] in any Godzilla film (making reference to former [[Eisaku Sato\|Prime Minister Satō]]'s [[Three Non-Nuclear Principles]]) and is only the third to depict innocent people being killed by the monster(s). ==''Godzilla 1985''== In [[1985 in film\|1985]] [[New World Communications\|New World Pictures]] released a [[Dubbing (filmmaking)\|dubbed]] and re-edited version of this film in the U.S. called '''''Godzilla 1985'''''. This [[Americanization\|Americanized]] version included additional scenes with [[Raymond Burr]]—reprising his role as reporter Steve Martin from ''[[Godzilla, King of the Monsters\|Godzilla, King of the Monsters!]]''—in place of several deleted scenes from the original. The added scenes were directed by [[R. J. Kizer]] and also featured [[Warren Kemmerling]]. This re-edit was released in the U.S. at the height of the [[Cold War]], as several deviations from the original film attest: The anti-nuclear theme of the original is toned down significantly, with one full scene, in which the [[Prime Minister of Japan\|Prime Minister]] and his advisors discuss the use of nuclear weapons, removed. More controversially, several [[subtitle\|subtitled]] lines of [[Russian language\|Russian]] dialog were altered to give the impression that a [[Soviet]] officer intentionally launched a nuclear missile at Tokyo, whereas in the original film the officer had only attempted to stop an automated launch. Tagline: ''The Legend Is Reborn.'' ==Trivia== Veteran [[Akihiko Hirata]] (who appeared in several past Godzilla films, the best known of his roles of which is Professor Daisuke Serizawa from ''[[Godzilla (1954 film)\|Godzilla]]'') was slated to play Professor Hayashida, but he had sadly passed away from lung cancer before production began. [[Yosuke Natsuki]], another veteran, took the role instead. Stuntman [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]] (who previously played [[Hedorah]] and [[Gigan]] in ''[[Godzilla vs. Hedorah]]'' and ''[[Godzilla vs. Gigan]]'') plays Godzilla for the first time, as a replacement for another stuntman who backed out at the last minute. Aside from being heavy, the suit was very dangerous (it was not only built from the outside in, but not made to fit him), and Satsuma lost a lot of weight after filming was done. This mildly mirrored what [[Haruo Nakajima]] went through when he played Godzilla in the original 1954 film. Subsequent Godzilla suits worn by Satsuma were much safer and comfortable, as they were custom made to fit him (even though the suits still had some dangers of their own). The lifelike animatronic Godzilla prop used in close-up shots is the 20-foot "Cybot Godzilla." It was heavily touted in the publicity department at the time, even though it was not used in the film as extensively as promoted. == External links == {{imdb title\|id=0087344\|title=The Return of Godzilla}} * [http://www.geocities.com/nmdecke/Godzilla1985.html Godzilla 1985 movie review] *[http://www.tohokingdom.com/web_pages/m_reviews/vega/return_godzilla_us.htm Toho Kingdom]: ''The Return of Godzilla'' (1984) [New World Pictures]. Reviewer: Miles Imhoff. {{Template:Godzilla}} [[Category:1984 films\|Return of Godzilla, The]] [[Category:Japanese films\|Return of Godzilla, The]] [[Category:Godzilla films\|Return of Godzilla, The]] [[fr:Le Retour de Godzilla (film, 1984)]] [[ja:ゴジラ (1984)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Godzilla on Monster Island</title> <id>12006</id> <revision> <id>27134735</id> <timestamp>2005-11-02T04:03:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Apostrophe</username> <id>110322</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Godzilla vs. Gigan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Johann Gottlieb Fichte</title> <id>12007</id> <revision> <id>41971161</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:31:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tonyzhangnan</username> <id>897846</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Johann Gottlieb Fichte.jpg\|thumb\|Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] '''Johann Gottlieb Fichte''' ([[May 19]], [[1762]] - [[January 27]], [[1814]]) was a [[German People\|German]] philosopher, who has significance in the [[history of Western philosophy]] as one of the leading progenitors of [[German people\|German]] [[idealism]], forming a bridge between [[Immanuel Kant]] and the leading figure of German Idealism, G.W.F. Hegel. ==Life and work== Fichte was born in [[Rammenau]], [[Saxony]]. In 1780, he attended the [[University of Jena]] as a student of [[theology]]. Fichte was originally a follower of [[Baruch Spinoza]] but later followed Kant's philosophy. His ''Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation'' was published anonymously in 1792 and scholars mistakenly thought the attempt was written by Kant himself. Kant cleared the confusion and openly praised the work, which greatly improved Fichte's reputation in the philosophical community. Fichte did not endorse Kant's argument for the existence of [[noumenon\|noumena]], of "things in themselves", the super-sensible reality beyond the [[category\|categories]] of human [[reason]]. Fichte saw the rigorous and [[system]]atic separation of "things in themselves" ([[noumenon\|noumena]]) and things "as they appear to us" ([[phenomenon\|phenomena]]) as an invitation to [[skepticism]]. Rather than invite such skepticism, Fichte made the [[radical]] suggestion that we should throw out the notion of a noumenal world and instead accept the fact that [[consciousness]] does not have a grounding in a so-called "real world". In fact, Fichte achieved fame for originating the argument that consciousness is not grounded in ''anything'' outside of itself. This notion eventually became the defining characteristic of [[German Idealism]] and thus an essential underpinning to [[understanding]] the philosophies of [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel \| Hegel]], and of [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], though they both reject Fichte's notion that human consciousness is itself sufficient ground for [[experience]], and therefore postulate another "absolute" consciousness. In his famous work ''Foundations of Natural Right'', Fichte stated that [[self-consciousness]] was a social phenomonon. Namely, he writes that self-consciousness depends upon resistance from objects in the external world. However, the mere perception of these external objects depends on self-consciousness. The solution to this paradox, Fichte thinks, is that a being gains consciousness when 'summoned' to be conscious
olic beverages]]. Hence also [[barrel (unit)\|Barrel]] as one of several units of volume [[measure]] ([[fluid]] for crude oil or beer, and dry for goods like fruits and vegetables). any device made from and/or resembling such a barrel, e.g. * [[barrel pillory]] alias Spanish mantle * [[barrel organ]] (musical instrument) * [[Gun barrel]] as a [[firearm]] component. * [[barrel (horology)\|Barrel]] as a [[watch]] component. * the [[venturi]] of a [[carburetor]] [[barrel distortion]] in [[optics]] ** [[barrelled set]] in [[functional analysis]] * In Harry Turtledove's [[Timeline-191]] alternate history series, 'barrel' refers to a [[tank]]. * see also: [[Heidelberg Castle#Huge Wine Barrel in the Heidelberg Castle\|Huge Wine Barrel]] in the German [[Heidelberg Castle]] {{disambig}} [[da:Tønde]] [[de:Fass]] [[es:Barril]] [[nl:vat]] [[nn:Tønne]] [[sl:Sod]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Binary prefix</title> <id>4077</id> <revision> <id>41797192</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:40:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Johnteslade</username> <id>102856</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">In computing, '''[[Binary numeral system\|binary]] [[prefix]]es''' can be used to quantify large numbers where powers of two are more useful than powers of ten. Each successive prefix is multiplied by 1024 (2<sup>10</sup>) rather than the 1000 (10<sup>3</sup>) used by the [[SI prefix]] system. Despite the ambiguity, binary prefixes are often written and pronounced identically to the SI prefixes, rather than using the system described below. == History == Using the prefixes kilo-, mega-, giga-, etc., and their symbols K, M, G, etc. (see below for the peculiarities of "K"), in the binary sense can cause serious confusion. In January [[1999]], the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] introduced the prefixes ''kibi-'', ''mebi-'', ''gibi-'', etc., and the symbols Ki, Mi, Gi, etc. to specify binary multiples of a quantity. {{ref\|1}} They have since been officially adopted by many other organizations, most notably the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]], see standard [[IEEE 1541]]. However, they have not been widely adopted and many people continue to use the [[SI prefix]]es in a binary sense, despite the lack of support from official bodies. As a result, there is no unambiguous notation for decimal multiples of bits and bytes. The names and values of the [[SI prefixes]] were defined in the 1960 SI standard, with powers-of-1000 values. [[As of 2005]], standard dictionaries do not recognize the binary meanings for these prefixes. == Binary prefixes using SI symbols (Non-standard usage but common) == {\| border="1" align="center" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" \|----- bgcolor=#ccccff !&nbsp;Name&nbsp; ! Symbol ! Value !&nbsp;Base 16&nbsp; !&nbsp; Base 10 &nbsp; \|----- \|<center> [[kilo]] </center>\|\|<center> K </center> \|&nbsp; 2<sup>10</sup> = 1,024 \|&nbsp;= 16<sup>2.5</sup> \|&nbsp; > 10<sup>3</sup> \|----- bgcolor=#ffff99 \|<center> [[mega]] </center>\|\|<center> M </center> \|&nbsp; 2<sup>20</sup> = 1,048,576 \|&nbsp;= 16<sup>5</sup> \|&nbsp; > 10<sup>6</sup> \|----- \|<center> [[giga]] </center>\|\|<center> G </center> \|&nbsp; 2<sup>30</sup> = 1,073,741,824 \|&nbsp;= 16<sup>7.5</sup> \|&nbsp; > 10<sup>9</sup> \|----- bgcolor=#ffff99 \|<center> [[tera]] </center>\|\|<center> T </center> \|&nbsp; 2<sup>40</sup> = 1,099,511,627,776 \|&nbsp;= 16<sup>10</sup> \|&nbsp; > 10<sup>12</sup> \|----- \|<center> [[peta]] </center>\|\|<center> P </center> \|&nbsp; 2<sup>50</sup> = 1,125,899,906,842,624 \|&nbsp;= 16<sup>12.5</sup> \|&nbsp; > 10<sup>15</sup> \|----- bgcolor=#ffff99 \|<center> [[exa]] </center>\|\|<center> E </center> \|&nbsp; 2<sup>60</sup> = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 \|&nbsp;= 16<sup>15</sup> \|&nbsp; > 10<sup>18</sup> \|----- \|<center> [[zetta]] </center>\|\|<center> Z </center> \|&nbsp; 2<sup>70</sup> = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 \|&nbsp;= 16<sup>17.5</sup> \|&nbsp; > 10<sup>21</sup> \|----- bgcolor=#ffff99 \|<center> [[yotta]] </center>\|\|<center> Y </center> \|&nbsp; 2<sup>80</sup> = 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176&nbsp; \|&nbsp;= 16<sup>20</sup> \|&nbsp; > 10<sup>24</sup> \|----- \|} The one-letter abbreviations are identical to SI prefixes, except for "K", which is used interchangeably with "k" (in SI, "K" stands for the [[kelvin]], and ''only'' "k" stands for 1000). Some have suggested that "k" be used for 1000, and "K" for 1024, but this cannot be extended to the higher order prefixes and has never been widely recognised. Notice that as the order of magnitude increases, the percentage difference between the binary and decimal values of a prefix increases, from 2.4% at kilo to over 20% at yotta. === Approximate ratios between binary prefixes and their decimal equivalent === {\| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" \|- bgcolor=#ccccff ! Name ! Bin ÷ Dec ! Dec ÷ Bin ! Example ! Percentage difference \|- \|[[kilobyte]] : [[kibibyte]] \|1.024 \|0.976 \|100 KB = 97.6 KiB \|2.4% \|- \|[[megabyte]] : [[mebibyte]] \|1.049 \|0.954 \|100 MB = 95.4 MiB \|4.9% \|- \|[[gigabyte]] : [[gibibyte]] \|1.074 \|0.931 \|100 GB = 93.1 GiB \|7.4% \|- \|[[terabyte]] : [[tebibyte]] \|1.100 \|0.909 \|100 TB = 90.9 TiB \|10% \|- \|} Informally, the prefixes are often used on their own. Thus one might hear about "a 40K file" (40 ''binary'' kilobytes) or "a 2M Internet connection" (2 ''decimal'' megabits per second). What units are being used, and whether the multipliers are decimal or binary, depends on exactly what is being measured. == IEC standard prefixes == In [[1999]], the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC) published Amendment 2 to "[[IEC 60027]]-2: Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology — Part 2: Telecommunications and electronics". This standard, which was approved in [[1998]], introduced the prefixes ''kibi-'', ''mebi-'', ''gibi-'', ''tebi-'', ''pebi-'', ''exbi-'', to be used in specifying binary multiples of a quantity. The names come from the first two letters of the original SI prefixes followed by ''bi'' which is short for "binary". It also clarifies that, from the point of view of the IEC, the SI prefixes only have their base-10 meaning and never have a base-2 meaning. This amendment was included in the next edition of the standard: "IEC 60027-2 (2000-11) Ed. 2.0" The second edition defined them only up to exbi-, but in [[2005]], the third edition of the standard added prefixes ''zebi-'' and ''yobi-'', thus matching all standard SI prefixes with their binary counterparts. [[As of 2005]] this naming convention has not gained widespread use, but its use is growing. It is strongly supported by many standardization bodies, including [[IEEE]] and [[CIPM]]. In particular on March 19, 2005 the IEEE standard [[IEEE 1541]]-2002 (Prefixes for Binary Multiples) has been elevated to a full-use standard by the IEEE Standards Association after a two-year trial period. {\| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="center" \|- bgcolor=#ccccff ! &nbsp;Name&nbsp; !! &nbsp;Symbol&nbsp; !! Value \|- \| &nbsp; kibi \|\| &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Ki \|\| &nbsp;2<sup>10</sup>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1,024 \|- bgcolor=#ffff99 \| &nbsp; mebi \|\| &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Mi \|\| &nbsp;2<sup>20</sup>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1,048,576 \|- \| &nbsp; gibi \|\| &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Gi \|\| &nbsp;2<sup>30</sup>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1,073,741,824 \|- bgcolor=#ffff99 \| &nbsp; tebi \|\| &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Ti \|\| &nbsp;2<sup>40</sup>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1,099,511,627,776 \|- \| &nbsp; pebi \|\| &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Pi \|\| &nbsp;2<sup>50</sup>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1,125,899,906,842,624 \|- bgcolor=#ffff99 \| &nbsp; exbi \|\| &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Ei \|\| &nbsp;2<sup>60</sup>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1,152,921,504,606,846,976 \|- \| &nbsp; zebi \|\| &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Zi \|\| &nbsp;2<sup>70</sup>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 \|- bgcolor=#ffff99 \| &nbsp; yobi \|\| &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Yi \|\| &nbsp;2<sup>80</sup>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176&nbsp; \|} ''Example :'' 300 GB = 279.5 GiB (= [[hexadecimal\|0x]]117.6592E GiB = 0x45D96.4B8 MiB = 0x1176592E KiB = 0x45D964B800 bytes). == Usage notes == The phrase "decimal unit" will be used to denote "SI designation understood in its standard, decimal, power-of-1000 sense" and "binary unit" will mean "SI designation understood in its traditional computer-industry, binary, power-of-1024 sense." '''B''' will be used as the symbol for byte as per computer-industry standard (despite '''B''' being the symbol for [[decibel\|bel]]). Certain units are always understood as decimal even in computing contexts. For example, [[hertz]] (Hz), which is used to measure '''[[clock rate]]s''' of electronic components, and bit/s, used to measure '''[[bit rate]
eaty of Friendship]] with the [[United Kingdom\|British]] which included a clause stating that he would oppose the passage of foreign troops through his territories. This agreement, the first Afghan pact with a [[European]] power, stipulated joint action in case of [[France\|Franco]]-[[Iran\|Persia]]n aggression against Afghan or British dominions. Only a few weeks after signing the agreement, Shoja was deposed by his predecessor, Mahmud. Much later he was reinstated by the British, ruling during [[1839]]-[[1842]]. Two of his sons also ruled for a short time in 1842). == Second Reign of Mahmud Shah ([[1809]]-[[1818]]) == Mahmud's second reign lasted nine years. Mahmud alienated the [[Muhammadzai]], especially [[Fateh Khan]], the son of [[Painda Khan]], who was eventually seized and blinded. Revenge would later be sought and obtained by Fateh Khan's youngest brother, [[Dost Mahommed Khan]]. == Reign of Sultan Ali Shah ([[1818]]-[[1819]]) == [[Sultan Ali Shah]] was another son of [[Timur Shah]]. == Reign of Ayub Shah ([[1819]]-[[1823]]) == [[Ayub Shah]] was another son of Timur Shah, who deposed Sultan Ali Shah. He was himself deposed and presumably killed in [[1823]]. From 1818 until Dost Mohammad's ascendancy in 1826, chaos reigned in the domains of Ahmad Shah Durrani's empire as various sons of [[Painda Khan]] struggled for supremacy. Afghanistan ceased to exist as a single nation, disintegrating for a brief time into a fragmented collection of small units. [[Category:History of Afghanistan]] [[Category:History of Pakistan]] [[Category:History of India]] [[Category:History of Iran]] [[Category:Empires]] [[Category:History of North-West Frontier Province]] [[no:Durrani-dynastiet]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aimak</title> <id>3071</id> <revision> <id>39528591</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T02:40:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kareeser</username> <id>69961</id> </contributor> <comment>removed merger notice pending discussion (see [[User_talk:Khoikhoi#Merger_of_Chakhar_to_Aimak]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Aimak''' (or ''Eimak'', ''Aimaq'') are [[Persian language\|Persian]]-speaking [[nomad]]ic or semi-nomadic tribes of mixed [[Iranian people\|Iranian]] and [[Mongols\|Mongolian]] stock inhabiting the north and north-west [[Afghanistan\|Afghan]] [[highland]]s immediately to the north of [[Herat]]. They are closely related to the [[Hazara]]. They live in western [[Hazarajat]] in the provinces of [[Ghowr Province\|Ghowr]], [[Farah Province\|Farah]], [[Herat Province\|Herat]], [[Badghis Province\|Badghis]], [[Faryab Province\|Faryab]], [[Jowzjan Province\|Jowzjan]] and [[Sar-e Pol Province\|Sar-e Pol]]. The name is [[Mongolian language\|Mongolian]] for [[clan]], or section of a tribe. They were originally known as ''chahar'' (the four) Eimaks, because there were four principal [[tribe]]s: the [[Taimani]] (the predominating element in the population of [[Ghur]]), the [[Ferozkhoi]], the [[Temuri]], and the [[Jamshidi]]. Estimates of the Aimak population vary between a quarter of a million and 2 million. They are [[Sunni]] [[Muslims]] in distinction from the Hazara who are [[Shiite]]s. They are predominantly of [[Iran]]ian or quasi-Iranian blood, while the Hazara are [[Turanian]]. They are a bold, wild people and renowned fighters. The Aimagh population in [[Afghanistan]] is estimated to be 1-2 million. The calculation is made difficult by the fact that due to centuries of oppression of the [[Hazara]] people, some Aimagh [[Hazara]]s are classified officially as [[Tajiks\|Tajik]], or [[Persians\|Persian]]). Playing on this [[sectarian divide]]s, successive [[Afghanistan\|Afghan]] governments (usually dominated by the ethnic [[Pashtun]]s) divided the Aimaks and the Hazaras politically, listing them as separate nationalities in the list of the ethnic groups of Afghanistan, thereby reducing the Hazara population in the national percentage. They are supposed to be descendants of Turkish-[[Tatars\|Tatar]] tribes which under [[Hulagu Khan]] overthrew the Persian [[Caliphate]] in the middle of the thirteenth century. ==References== * Macgregor, ''Central Asia'', (Calcutta, 1871) ==Sources== *[http://www.language-museum.com/a/aimaq.php Aimaq Sample at Language Museum] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Afghanistan]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Asia]] [[Category:Iranian peoples]] [[Category:Mongol peoples]] [[no:Aimagh]] [[sv:Aimak]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arcturus</title> <id>3072</id> <revision> <id>41727762</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:14:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jyril</username> <id>39573</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[Sun]], not [[Sol]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the star. For a musical ensemble, see [[Arcturus (band)]].'' {{Starbox begin \| name=Arcturus }} {{Starbox image \| image=[[Image:Bootes constellation map.png\|250px]] \| caption=Arcturus in the constellation of Boötes. }} {{Starbox observe \| epoch=J2000 \| constell=[[Boötes]] \| ra=14h 15m 39.7s \| dec=+19° 10' 56" \| appmag_v=&minus;0.05 }} {{Starbox character \| class=K1.5 IIIpe \| b-v=1.22 \| u-b=1.27 \| variable=''Suspected'' }} {{Starbox astrometry \| radial_v=&minus;5.3 \| prop_mo_ra=&minus;1093.45 \| prop_mo_dec=&minus;1999.40 \| parallax=88.78 \| p_error=0.68 \| dist_ly=36.7 \| dist_pc=11.26 \| absmag_v=&minus;0.38 }} {{Starbox detail\| age=> 4.6 × 10<sup>9</sup> \| metal=17&ndash;32% Sun \| mass=1&ndash;1.5 \| radius=24.5 \| rotation= \| luminosity=> 110 \| temperature=4,300 }} {{Starbox catalog \| names=Alramech, Abramech, α Boötis, 16 Boötes, [[Henry Draper catalogue\|HD]] 124897, [[Harvard Revised catalogue\|HR]] 5340, [[Bonner Durchmusterung\|BD]]+19°2777, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes\|GCTP]] 3242.00, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue\|GJ]] 541, [[Luyten Half-Second catalogue\|LHS]] 48, and [[Hipparcos Catalogue\|HIP]] 69673. }} {{Starbox end}} '''Arcturus''' (α Boo / α Boötis / [[alpha (letter)\|Alpha]] Boötis) is the brightest star in the [[constellation]] [[Boötes]], and the [[list of brightest stars\|third brightest star]] in the night sky, with a [[visual magnitude]] of &minus;0.05, after [[Sirius]] and [[Canopus (star)\|Canopus]] (fourth, if the [[Sun]] is included). Because [[Alpha Centauri]] consists of two bright stars which are closer together than the limit of resolution of the human eye, Alpha Centauri actually appears brighter than Arcturus to the naked eye. It is the second brightest star visible from northern latitudes and the brightest star in the northern celestial hemisphere. It is a [[stellar classification\|type]] K1.5 IIIpe [[red giant]] star &mdash; the letters "pe" stand for "peculiar emission," which indicates that the [[electromagnetic spectrum\|spectrum]] of [[light]] given off by the star is unusual and full of [[emission line]]s. This is not too uncommon in red giants, but Arcturus has a particularly strong case of the phenomenon. It is at least 110 times more luminous than the [[Sun]], but this underestimates its strength as much of the "light" it gives off is in the [[infrared]]; total power output is about 180 times that of the Sun. An easy way to find Arcturus is to follow the arc of the handle of the [[Big Dipper]]. By continuing in this path, one can find [[Spica]] (α [[Virgo\|Virginis]]) as well &mdash; leading to the coinage of the popular maxim, "Arc to Arcturus, then speed on to Spica." == Facts == Arcturus is notable for its high proper motion, larger than any first magnitude star other than nearby [[Alpha Centauri\|α Centauri]]. It is now at its closest point to the Sun, and is moving rapidly relative to the solar system. Arcturus is thought to be an old disk star, and appears to be moving with a group of 52 other such stars. Its mass is hard to exactly determine, but may be about the same as the Sun, and is no more than 1.5 solar masses. Arcturus is likely to be considerably older than the Sun, and much like what the Sun will be in its red giant phase. According to the ''[[Hipparcos]]'' satellite, Arcturus is 36.7 [[light year]]s (11.3 [[parsec]]s) (215.5 trillion miles) from [[Earth]], relatively close in astronomical terms. From this satellite's observations, Arcturus is now known to be slightly [[variable star\|variable]], by about 0.04 magnitudes over 8.3 days. It is believed that the surface of the star oscillates slightly, a common feature of red giant stars. In the case of Arcturus, this was an interesting discovery as it is known that the redder (more towards or within the M spectral class) a giant gets, the more variable it will be. Extreme cases like [[Mira]] undergo large swings over hundreds of days; Arcturus is not very red and is a borderline case between variability and stability with its short period and tiny range. ''Hipparcos'' also suggested that Arcturus is a [[binary star]], with the companion about twenty times dimmer than the primary and orbiting close enough to be at the very limits of our current ability to make it out. The most recent studies of the issue are generally coming down on the side of it being a single star, however. ==Alternative and former names== The name of the star derives from ancient [[Greek language\|Greek]] Αρκτούρος ('''Arktouros''') and means "Bear Guard." This is a reference to it being the brightest star in the constellation Boötes the Hunter (of which it forms the left foot), which is next to the Big and Little Bears, [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]]. In [[Arabic language\|Arabic]], it is called '''Haris-el-sema''', "the keeper of heaven." This name has been variously [[Romanization\|romanized]] in the past, leading to obsolete variants su
not denote origin), in order of increasing alcoholic strength. The best absinthes contain 60% to 74% alcohol. It is said to improve materially with storage. In the 19th century, cheap brands of absinthe were occasionally [[adulteration\|adulterated]] by profiteers with [[copper]], [[zinc]], [[indigo plant]], or other [[dye]]s to impart the green color, and with [[antimony]] trichloride to produce the ''louche'' effect; this addition of toxic chemicals may have contributed to absinthe's reputation as an unhealthful beverage. ==Preparation== Traditionally absinthe is poured into a glass over which a specially designed, slotted spoon is placed. A [[sugar]] cube is then deposited in the bowl of the spoon. Ice cold [[water]] is poured or dripped over the sugar until the drink is diluted 3:1 to 5:1. During this process, the components that are not soluble in water come out of solution and cloud the drink; that milky [[opalescence]] is called the ''louche'' (''Fr.'' "opaque" or "shady"). A modern and more dramatic "[[fire]] ritual" was invented by a [[Czech Republic\|Czech]] manufacturer, in which the sugar cube is drenched in [[absinth]] and set on fire. Water is then added to douse the flames and dissolve the caramelized sugar. Generally, less water is added than in the traditional method. ==History== The precise origin of absinthe is unclear. According to popular legend, absinthe began as an all-purpose patent [[remedy]] created by Dr. Pierre Ordinaire, a French doctor living in Couvet, [[Switzerland]], around [[1792]] (the exact date varies by account). Ordinaire's recipe was passed on to the Henriod sisters of Couvet, who sold absinthe as a medicinal [[elixir]]. In fact, by other accounts, the Henriod sisters may have already been making the liqueur before Ordinaire's arrival. In either case, one Major Dubied in turn acquired the formula from the sisters and, in 1797, with his son Marcellin and son-in-law Henry-Louis Pernod, opened the first absinthe distillery, Dubied Père et Fils, in Couvet. In 1805, they built a second distillery in Pontarlier, France, under the new company name, Maison Pernod Fils.<ref>[http://www.absinthebuyersguide.com/history.html "Absinthe History"], from [http://www.absinthebuyersguide.com/ Absinthe Buyers Guide].</ref> [[Image:Degasabsinthe.jpg\|right\|thumbnail\|''[[L'Absinthe]]'', by [[Edgar Degas]].]] Absinthe's popularity grew steadily until the [[1840's]] when absinthe was given to French [[troops]] as a [[fever]] preventative. When the troops returned home they brought their taste for absinthe with them and it became popular at [[bars]] and [[bistro]]s. By the [[1860s]], absinthe had become so popular that in most [[café]]s and [[cabaret]]s 5 p.m. signaled ''l'heure verte'' ("the green hour"). Still, it remained expensive and was favored mainly by the [[bourgeoisie]] and eccentric bohemian artists. By the 1880s, however, the price had dropped significantly, the market expanded, and absinthe soon became the drink of France. By 1910, the French were consuming 36 million [[liters]] of absinthe per year. ===Ban=== Spurred by the [[temperance movement]] and winemakers' associations, absinthe was publicized in connection with several violent crimes supposedly committed under the direct influence of the drink. This, combined with rising hard liquor consumption due to the [[Phylloxera\|wine shortage in France]] during the [[1880s]] and [[1890s]], effectively labelled absinthe as a social menace. Its critics said that ''it makes people crazy and criminal, it turns men into brutes and threatens the future of our times.'' [[Edgar Degas]]'s 1876 painting, ''L'absinthe'' (''The Absinthe Drinkers'') (now at the [[Musée d'Orsay]]) epitomized the popular view of absinthe "addicts" as sodden and benumbed; [[Émile Zola]] described their serious intoxication in his novel ''[[L'Assommoir]]''. The Lanfray murders spelled the last straw for absinthe. In [[1905]] it was reported that Jean Lanfray murdered his family and attempted to kill himself after drinking absinthe. The fact that he was an alcoholic who had drank considerably after the two glasses of absinthe in the morning was forgotten and the murders were blamed solely on absinthe. A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland was quickly signed by over 82,000 people. In [[Switzerland]], the prohibition of absinthe was even written into the constitution in 1907, following a popular initiative. [[The Netherlands]] came next, banning absinthe in 1909. Followed by the United States in [[1912]] and finally [[France]] in [[1915]]. The prohibition of absinthe in France led to the growing popularity of ''[[pastis]]'' and ''[[ouzo]]'', other anise-flavored liqueurs that do not use wormwood. ===Modern revival=== [[Image:Absinthe-bottles.jpg\|thumbnail\|An assortment of modern absinthe.]] [[Image:tryandfly.jpg\|thumbnail\|A modern art absinthe poster of 2005]] In the [[1990s]] an importer, [[BBH Spirits]], realized that there was no [[United Kingdom\|UK]] law prohibiting absinthe sale (it was never banned there)&mdash;other than the standard regulations governing [[alcoholic beverage]]. [[Hill's Liquere]], a [[Czech Republic]] distillery founded in 1920, began manufacturing Hill's Absinth, sparking the modern resurgence in absinthe's popularity. This "[[Bohemian]]"-style absinthe, which lacks anise and other herbs, bears little resemblance to the traditional French drink, apart from the inclusion of wormwood and a high alcohol content. It is, however, what many people know as absinthe in some European markets. Hill's claims its absinth is from its own recipe, made popular in the 1930s; however, there is no documentary evidence to support this story.[http://www.oxygenee.com/absintheFAQ6.html] It had also never been banned in [[Spain]] or [[Portugal]], where it continues to be made. Likewise, the former Spanish and Portuguese New World colonies, especially [[Mexico]], allow the sale of absinthe and it has retained popularity through the years. France never repealed the 1915 law, but in [[1988]], a law was passed to clarify that only beverages that do not comply with [[European Union]] regulations with respect to thujone content, or beverages that call themselves "absinthe" explicitly, fall under that law. This has resulted in the re-emergence of French absinthes, now labelled ''spiritueux à base de plantes d'absinthe'' ("wormwood-based spirits"). Interestingly, as the 1915 law regulates only the sale of absinthe in France but not its production, some of these manufacturers also produce variants destined for exports which are plainly labeled "absinthe." [[La Fée Absinthe]], launched in 2000, was the first brand of absinthe distilled and bottled in France since the 1915 ban, initially mainly for export from France, but now one of over twenty French "spiritueux ... d'absinthe" available in Paris and other French cities. In [[the Netherlands]] this law was successfully challenged by [[Amsterdam]] wineseller [[Menno Boorsma]] in [[July 2004]], making absinthe once more legal. Subsequently, the government in [[May 2005]] repealed this law. In Switzerland the ban on absinthe was repealed in [[2000]] during a general overhaul of the constitution, but the prohibition was written into ordinary law instead. Later that law was also repealed, so from [[March 2]], [[2005]], absinthe is again legal in its country of origin, after nearly a century of prohibition. Evidence suggests absinthe has never stopped being produced in Switzerland and clandestine home distillers had produced it since the ban. Absinthe is once again legal to produce and sell in practically every country where alcohol is legal, the one major exception being the United States. ====Cruise mystery==== In January 2006, a widely published [[Associated Press]] [[wire service]] article echoed the news media's sensationalistic absinthe scare of the early 20th century. It was reported that on the night he disappeared, [[George Allen Smith IV]] (the Greenwich, Connecticut, man who in July 2005 vanished from aboard the [[Royal Caribbean]]'s ''Brilliance of the Seas'' while on his honeymoon cruise) and other passengers drank a bottle of absinthe. The story noted the modern revival and included numerous quotes from various sources, suggesting that absinthe remains a serious and dangerous hallucinogenic drug: :''"In large amounts it would certainly make people see strange things and behave in a strange manner," said Jad Adams, author of the book, "Hideous Absinthe: A History of the Devil in a Bottle." "It gives people different, unusual ideas which they wouldn't have had on their own accord because of its stimulative effect on the mind."'' :''"Absinthe is banned in the United States because of harmful neurological effects caused by a toxic chemical called thujone, said Michael Herndon, spokesman for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.''[http://www.greenwichtime.com/news/scn-sa-ct-cruise.1.23jan23,0,1307244.story] [http://www.boston.com/news/local/connecticut/articles/2006/01/22/banned_liquor_latest_twist_in_cruise_disappearance/] The story also noted: "Defenders of the drink say it is safe and its harmful effects a myth." Jad Adams and Ted Breaux were interviewed on [[MSNBC]] about this issue. Ted Breaux had this to say, :''"one thing we know is that absinthe, old and new, does not contain a lot of thujone. And what we know, from certain scientific studies, which have been published in the past year or so, is that, first of all, thujone is not present in any absinthe in sufficient concentration to cause any type of deleterious effects in humans."''[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11007598/] ==Etymology== The French word ''absinthe'' can refer either to the liquor, or to the actual wormwood plant (''grande absinthe'' be
h the government (broken during the 1967 [[Six-Day War]]), and allegedly also supplying weapons [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/arming_iraq.php]. Starting in 1981, both Iran and Iraq attacked [[oil tanker]]s and merchant ships, including those of neutral nations, in an effort to deprive the opponent of trade. After repeated Iraqi attacks on Iran's main exporting facility on [[Bushehr Province#Kharg Island (Khark Island)\|Khark Island]], Iran attacked a Kuwaiti tanker near [[Bahrain]] on [[May 13]] [[1984]], and a [[Saudi Arabia\|Saudi]] tanker in Saudi waters on [[May 16]]. Attacks on ships of noncombatant nations in the Persian Gulf sharply increased thereafter, and this phase of the war was dubbed the "Tanker War." [[Lloyd's of London]], a British [[insurance]] [[market]], estimated that the Tanker War damaged 546 commercial vessels and killed about 430 civilian mariners. The largest of attacks were directed by Iran against Kuwaiti vessels, and on [[November 1]] [[1986]], Kuwait formally petitioned foreign powers to protect its shipping. The [[Soviet Union]] agreed to charter tankers starting in [[1987]], and the United States offered to provide protection for tankers [[flag of convenience\|flying the U.S. flag]] on [[March 7]] [[1987]] ([[Operation Earnest Will]] and [[Operation Prime Chance]]). Under [[international law]], an attack on such ships would be treated as an attack on the U.S., allowing the U.S. to retaliate militarily. This support would protect ships headed to Iraqi ports, effectively guaranteeing Iraq's revenue stream for the duration of the war. An Iraqi plane accidentally attacked the ''[[USS Stark (FFG-31)\|USS Stark]]'', a [[Oliver Hazard Perry class\|''Perry'' class]] [[frigate]] on [[May 17]], killing 37 and injuring 21. But U.S. attention was on isolating Iran; it criticized Iran's mining of international waters, and sponsored [[Wikisource:UN Security Council Resolution 598\|UN Security Council Resolution 598]], which passed unanimously on [[July 20]], under which it skirmished with Iranian forces. In [[October]] 1987, the U.S. attacked Iranian oil platforms in retaliation for an Iranian attack on the U.S.-flagged tanker ''Sea Isle City''. On [[April 14]] [[1988]], the frigate [[USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58)\|USS ''Samuel B. Roberts'']] was badly damaged by an Iranian mine. U.S. forces responded with [[Operation Praying Mantis]] on [[April 18]], the [[United States Navy]]'s largest engagement of surface warships since [[World War II]]. Two Iranian ships were destroyed, and an American helicopter was shot down, killing the two pilots. In the course of these escorts by the U.S. Navy, the cruiser [[USS Vincennes (CG-49)\|USS ''Vincennes'']] shot down [[Iran Air Flight 655]] with the loss of all 290 passengers and crew on [[July 3]] [[1988]]. The [[Federal Government of the United States\|American government]] claimed that the airliner had been mistaken for an Iranian [[F-14 Tomcat]], and that the Vincennes was operating in international waters at the time and feared that it was under attack. It has since emerged, however, that the Vincennes was in fact in Iranian territorial waters, and that the Iranian passenger jet was turning away and increasing altitude after take-off. The U.S. paid compensation but never apologised. Through all of this members of the [[Reagan Administration]] had, at the same time, also been secretly selling weapons to Iran; first indirectly (possibly through [[Israel]]) and then directly. It claimed that the administration hoped Iran would, in exchange, persuade several radical groups to release Western hostages. (for details see the [[Iran-Contra Affair]]). The money from the sales was channeled to equip the [[Nicaragua]]n ''contrarrevolucionarios'' (''[[Contras]]''), right-wing rebels. =="War of the Cities"== Toward the end of the war, the land conflict regressed into stalemate largely because neither side had enough self-propelled artillery or airpower to support ground advances. The relatively professional Iraqi armed forces could not make headway against the far more numerous Iranian infantry. But the Iranians were overmatched in towed and self-propelled artillery, which left their tanks and troops vulnerable. What followed was a blood bath with the Iranians substituting infantry for artillery. Both sides turned to more brutal weapons and tactics. Iraq's air force soon began strategic bombing against Iranian cities, chiefly Tehran, starting in 1985. In response to these, Iran began launching SS-1 "[[Scud]]" missiles against [[Baghdad]]. Iraq did not respond in kind against Tehran until early 1988, able to deploy only air raids against the Iranian capital up until that point. In October 1986, Iraqi aircraft attacked civilian passenger trains and aircraft, including an [[Iran Air]] Boeing 737 airliner unloading passengers at [[Shiraz International Airport]]. 34 elementary and high schools were attacked by Iraqi warplanes in 1986 alone, killing hundreds of children. ''(source: [[IRNA]] archives)'' In retaliation for the successful Iranian ''Karbala-5'' operation in the fronts, during the course of 42 days, Iraq attacked 65 cities in 226 sorties, bombing civilian neighborhoods. Eight Iranian cities came under the attack of Iraqi missiles. Sixty-five children were killed during bombings in an elementary school in [[Borujerd]] alone. These events became known as "the war of the cities". ''(Source: ibid.)'' The war saw the use of [[chemical weapon]]s, especially [[tabun (nerve gas)\|tabun]], by Iraq. International antipathy to the Tehran regime meant Iraq suffered few repercussions despite these attacks. The UN eventually condemned Iraq for using chemical weapons against Iran, after the war. Chemical weapons had not been used in any major war since World War I. Iraq financed, with foreign assistance, the purchase of more technologically advanced weapons, and built more modern, well-trained armed forces. After setbacks on the battlefield it offered to return to the 1975 border. Iran was internationally isolated and facing rising public discontent. Finally, a cease-fire was agreed to on [[August 20]] [[1988]]. ==Arming the combatants== Iraq's [[military of Iraq\|army]] was primarily armed with weaponry it had purchased from the [[Soviet Union]] and its [[satellite state\|satellites]] in the preceding decade. During the war, it purchased billions of dollars worth of advanced equipment from the Soviets and the [[France\|French]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3324053.stm], as well as from the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Egypt]], [[Germany]], and other sources (including [[Europe]] and facilities for making and/or enhancing chemical weapons). [[Germany]] [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,716376,00.html] along with other Western countries (among them [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Spain]](Explosivos Alaveses), [[Italy]] and the [[United States]]) provided Iraq with [[biological weapon\|biological]] and [[chemical weapon]]s technology and the precursors to nuclear capabilities. Much of Iraq's financial backing came from other [[Arab]] states, notably oil-rich [[Kuwait]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]. The source of Iraqi arms purchases between 1970 and 1990 (10 % of the world market during this period) are estimated to be: <center> {\| border="1" ! Suppliers !! in Billions (1985 $US) !! % of total \|- \|align="center" \|[[Soviet Union]] \|align="center" \|19.2 \|align="center" \|61 \|- \|align="center" \|[[France]] \|align="center" \|5.5 \|align="center" \|18 \|- \|align="center" \|[[People's Republic of China]] \|align="center" \|1.7 \|align="center" \|5 \|- \|align="center" \|[[Brazil]] \|align="center" \|1.1 \|align="center" \|4 \|- \|align="center" \|[[Egypt]] \|align="center" \|1.1 \|align="center" \|4 \|- \|align="center" \|Other countries \|align="center" \|2.9 \|align="center" \|6 \|- \|align="center" \|'''Total''' \|align="center" \|'''31.5''' \|align="center" \|'''100.0''' \|}</center> Iran's foreign supporters included [[Syria]] and [[Libya]], through which it obtained Scuds. It purchased weaponry from [[North Korea]] and the [[People's Republic of China]], notably the [[Silkworm missile\|Silkworm antiship missile]]. Iran acquired weapons and parts for its Shah-era U.S. systems through covert arms transactions from officials in the [[Reagan Administration]], first indirectly through [[Israel]] and then directly. It was hoped Iran would, in exchange, persuade several radical groups to release Western hostages, though this did not result; proceeds from the sale were diverted to the [[Nicaragua]]n [[Contras]] in what became known as the [[Iran-Contra Affair]]. ===Aircraft=== <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:iraqi_airforce1.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Iraqi Aircraft attacking Iranian territory.]] --> During war, Iran operated U.S.-manufactured [[F-4 Phantom II\|F-4 Phantom]] and [[F-5 Freedom Fighter]] fighters, as well as [[AH-1 Cobra]] attack [[helicopter]]s. It also operated a number of [[F-14 Tomcat]] fighters, which, according to a few sources, proved devastating to the Iraqis in the early phases of the war. However, due to the Iranian government's estrangement, spare parts were difficult to obtain. Despite this the Iranians managed to maintain a constant presence with their Tomcats during the entire conflict, mostly due to a combination of spare parts acquired on the black market and parts made in Iran. These were supported by [[KC-135 Stratotanker\|KC-135]]s, a [[aerial refueling\|refueling tanker]] based on the [[Boeing 707]].[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iran/airforce.htm] Iraq's air force used Soviet weapons and reflected Soviet training, although it expanded and upgraded its fleet considerably as t
chnique is ''surface survey''. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanised transport, to search for features or artefacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as [[auger\|augers]], [[corer\|corers]], and [[shovel test]] pits. ''[[Aerial survey]]'' is conducted using [[camera\|cameras]] attached to [[aircraft]], [[balloon\|balloons]], or even [[kite\|kites]]. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. [[Plant\|Plants]] growing above a stone structure, such as a wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as [[midden\|middens]]) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening [[cereal\|grain]], which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial survey also employs [[infrared]], ground-penetrating [[radar]] wavelengths, and [[thermography]]. ''[[Geophysical survey]]'' is the most effective way to see beneath the ground. [[Magnetometer\|Magnetometers]] detect minute deviations in the [[Earth's magnetic field]] caused by [[iron]] artefacts, [[kiln\|kilns]], some types of [[stone structures]], and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the [[electrical resistivity]] of the soil are also widely used. Most soils are [[moisture\|moist]] below the surface, which gives them a relatively low resistivity. Features such as hard-packed floors or concentrations of stone have a higher resistivity. Although some archaeologists consider the use of [[metal detector\|metal detectors]] to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on [[English Civil War]] battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a nineteenth century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to the archaeological record where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the [[Portable Antiquities Scheme]]. Regional survey in maritime archaeology uses [[side-scan sonar]]. ===Excavation=== [[Excavation\|Archaeological excavation]] existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context. Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their [[provenance]] or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see [[Primary Laws of Archaeology]]). Similarly, their [[archaeological association\|association]], or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce what artefacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its [[stratigraphy]]; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct [[culture\|cultures]], artefacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures. Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research. Also, as a destructive process, it carries [[ethics\|ethical]] concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. [[Sampling (statistics)\|Sampling]] is even more important in excavation than in survey. It is common for large mechanical equipment, such as [[backhoe]]s ([[J. C. Bamford\|JCBs]]), to be used in excavation, especially to remove the [[topsoil]] ([[overburden]]), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent. The next task is to form a [[Archaeological plan\|site plan]] and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural [[subsoil]] are normally excavated in portions in order to produce a visible [[archaeological section]] for recording. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the [[context]] of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site. ==Post-excavation analysis== Once artefacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them, to gain as much data as possible. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is normally the most time-consuming part of the archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for the final excavation reports on major sites to take years to be published. At its most basic, the artefacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections, in order to classify them [[typology\|typologically]] and to identify other sites with similar artefact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through [[archaeological science]], meaning that artefacts can be dated and their compositions examined. The bones, plants and pollen collected from a site can all be analysed (using the techniques of [[zooarchaeology]], [[paleoethnobotany]], and [[palynology]]), while any texts can usually be [[Decipherment\|deciphered]]. These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known and therefore contribute greatly to the understanding of a site. ==History of archaeology== ''Main article: [[History of archaeology]]'' The history of archaeology has been one of increasing professionalisation, and the use of an increasing range of techniques, to obtain as much data on the site being examined as possible. Excavations of ancient monuments and the collection of antiquities have been taking place for thousands of years, but these were mostly for the extraction of valuable or aesthetically pleasing artefacts. It was only in the 19th century that the systematic study of the past through its physical remains began to be carried out. Archaeological methods were developed by both interested amateurs and professionals, including [[Augustus Pitt Rivers]] and [[William Flinders Petrie]]. This process was continued in the 20th century by such people as [[Mortimer Wheeler]], whose highly disciplined approach to excavation greatly improved the quality of evidence that could be obtained. During the 20th century, the development of [[urban archaeology]] and then [[rescue archaeology]] have been important factors, as has the development of [[archaeological science]], which has greatly increased the amount of data that it is possible to obtain. ==Archaeological theory== ''Main article: [[Archaeological theory]]'' There is no single theory of archaeology, and even definitions are disputed. Until the mid-20th century and the introduction of technology, there was a general consensus that archaeology was closely related to both history and anthropology. The first major phase in the history of archaeological theory is commonly referred to as '''[[Cultural-history archaeology\|cultural, or culture, history]]''', which was developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1960s, a number of young, primarily American archaeologists, such as [[Lewis Binford]], rebelled against the paradigms of cultural history. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with [[hypothesis]] testing and the [[scientific method]] very important parts of what became known as '''[[processual archaeology]]'''. In the 1980s, a new movement arose led by the British archaeologists [[Michael Shanks (archaeologist)\|Michael Shanks]], [[Christopher Tilley]], [[Daniel Miller]], and [[Ian Hodder]]. It questioned processualism's appeals to science and impartiality and emphasised the importance of relativism, becoming known as '''[[post-processual archaeology]]'''. However, this approach has been criticised by processualists as lacking scientific rigour. The validity of both processualism and post-procuessualism is still under debate. Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including [[evolution\|neo-Darwinian evolutionary thought]], [[phenomenology]], [[postmodernism]], [[Structure and agency\|agency theory]], [[Cognitive archaeology\|cognitive science]], [[Functionalism (sociology)\|Functionalism]], [[Gender archaeology\|gender-based]] and [[Feminist archaeology]], and [[Systems theory in archaeology\|Systems theory]]. ==Public archaeology== Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities. Such pursuits continue to fascinate the public, portrayed in books (such as ''[[King Solomon's Mines]]'') and films (such as ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)\|The Mummy]]'' and ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''). Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as [[Copán]] and the [[Valley of the Kings]], but the stuff of modern archaeology is not so reliably sensational. In addition, archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in modern [[archaeological survey\|survey]], [[excavation]], and [[archaeol
her country in the world," he said, in which "a sixteen-year old kid, broke and unable to speak the language," could reach the astonishing heights of success that he had. Arnaz' warm feelings towards his adopted country most likely influenced the storyline of ''[[I Love Lucy]]'' in certain subtle ways. Over the show's six-year run, the fortunes of the Ricardos closely mirror that of the archetypical 1950s [[American Dream]]: at first, they live in a tiny brownstone apartment; Ricky's fortunes continue to improve, and they move into a slightly larger one with a view. Later, Ricky gets his big break and goes to Hollywood; shortly after returning from New York, all of them have the chance to travel through Europe, an adventure that most Americans back then could never afford. Finally, after Little Ricky is born, Lucy and Ricky echo the ''[[Zeitgeist]]'' of 1950s America and head for the suburbs. Fred Mertz, with his unrelenting stinginess and fears about money, symbolizes the lean years of the Depression, now a fading memory. In addition to ''I Love Lucy'', he produced ''[[December Bride]]'', ''[[The Texan]]'', ''[[Make Room for Daddy]]'', ''[[The Mothers-in-Law]]'', ''[[The Lucy Show]]'', ''[[Those Whiting Girls]]'', ''[[Our Miss Brooks]]'', and the pilot episode of ''[[The Untouchables]]'', all Top Ten shows in their time. He is also credited with the invention of the [[rerun]]. Arnaz's marriage with Ball began to collapse under the strain of his serious problems with alcohol, drugs, and womanizing. According to his memoir, the combined pressures of managing the production company as well as supervising its day-to-day operations had greatly worsened as it grew much larger. Arnaz was also suffering from [[diverticulitis]], probably as a result of alcohol abuse. He and Ball divorced in [[1960]]; she was 49 and he was 43. When Ball returned to weekly television, she and Arnaz worked out an agreement regarding Desilu wherein she bought him out. Three years after the divorce, Arnaz married his second wife, Edith Mack Hirsh, and greatly reduced his show business activities. He served as executive producer of [[The Mothers-in-Law]], and during its two-year run, made a couple of very amusing guest appearances as a Spanish [[matador]]. Actress [[Deborah Walley]], in her 20s when she co-starred in the series, later recalled how Arnaz, then 50, was constantly coming on to her, showing that his old habits were hard to break. In the 70s, he co-hosted a week of shows with daytime TV favorite [[Mike Douglas]]. [[Vivian Vance]] appeared as a guest, and in this brief reunion viewers could see the genuine affection each had for the other. Arnaz also headlined a Kraft Music Hall special on [[NBC]] that featured his two children, with a brief appearance by Vance. To promote his autobiography, cryptically named [[A Book]], Arnaz served as a memorable guest host on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' in [[1976]]. Desi and Edith eventually moved to [[Del Mar, California]], where he lived the rest of his life in semi-retirement. He contributed generously to charitable and non-profit organizations, including [[San Diego State University]]. Arnaz would make a guest appearance on the TV series [[Alice_(television)\|Alice]] starring [[Linda Lavin]]. This would be one of Arnaz's last television appearances remembered by American audiences. Arnaz, a lifelong smoker, died in Del Mar at sixty-nine years of age from [[lung cancer]]. His body was cremated and his ashes scattered. A widely published photograph taken at his memorial service shows an aged Lucille Ball emerging from the church, her face etched with grief. Desi Arnaz has two stars on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]], for contributions to motion pictures at 6327 Hollywood Boulevard, and for television at 6220 Hollywood Boulevard. ==Filmography== ''[[Too Many Girls]]'' (1940) ''[[Father Takes a Wife]]'' (1941) ''[[Four Jacks and a Jill]]'' (1942) ''[[The Navy Comes Through]]'' (1942) ''Bataan'' (1943) ''[[Screen Snapshots: Hollywood in Uniform]]'' (1943) (short subject) ''[[Cuban Pete]]'' (1946) ''[[Desi Arnaz and His Orchestra]]'' (1946) (short subject) ''[[Jitterumba]]'' (1947) (short subject) ''[[Holiday in Havana]]'' (1949) ''[[I Love Lucy]]'' (1953) (unreleased compilation film of episodes from the show). ''[[The Long, Long Trailer]]'' (1954) ''[[Forever, Darling]]'' (1956) ''[[Salsa (film)\|Salsa]]'' (1976) (documentary) ''[[The Escape Artist]]'' (1982) ==External links== {{imdb name\|id=0000789\|name=Desi Arnaz}} *{{ibdb name\|id=70756\|name=Desi Arnaz}} [[Category:1917 births\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:1986 deaths\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:American World War II veterans\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:American bandleaders\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:American comedians\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:American film actors\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:American stage actors\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:American television actors\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:American television producers\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:Cuban-American actors\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:Deaths by lung cancer\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:Entertainers who died in their 60s\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:Cuban-Americans\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:Roman Catholic musicians\|Arnaz, Desi]] [[Category:United States Army soldiers\|Arnaz, Desi]] {{Persondata \|NAME=Arnaz, Desi \|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= \|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American musician \|DATE OF BIRTH=[[March 2]] [[1917]] \|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Santiago de Cuba]] \|DATE OF DEATH=[[December 2]] [[1986]] \|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Del Mar, California]] }} [[de:Desi Arnaz]] [[es:Desi Arnaz]] [[sv:Desi Arnaz]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Doctor of Philosophy</title> <id>8775</id> <revision> <id>41663797</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:43:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Schwnj</username> <id>108312</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Killervenom47\|Killervenom47]] to last version by Kbh3rd</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Doctor of Philosophy''', or '''Ph.D.''' (an abbreviation for the [[Latin]] "''Philosophiæ Doctor''"; or alternatively ''Doctor philosophiæ'', '''D.Phil.'''), was originally a [[academic degree\|degree]] granted by a [[university]] to learned individuals who had achieved the approval of their peers and who had demonstrated a long and productive career in the field of philosophy. The appellation of "Doctor" (from Latin: teacher) was usually awarded only when the individual was in [[middle age]]. It indicated a life dedicated to learning, to knowledge, and to the spread of knowledge. The degree was popularized in the [[19th century]] at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin\|Friedrich Wilhelm University]] in [[Berlin]] as a degree to be granted to someone who had undertaken original research in the [[science]]s or [[humanities]]. From here it spread to the [[United States]], arriving at [[Yale University]] in [[1861]], and then to the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1921]]. This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some Universities; for instance, the '''D.Phil.''' (higher [[doctorate]] in the faculty of philosophy) at the [[University of St Andrews]] was discontinued and replaced with the Ph.D. (research [[doctorate]]). However, some UK universities such as [[University of Oxford\|Oxford]], [[University of York\|York]] and [[University of Sussex\|Sussex]] retain the D.Phil. appellation for their research degrees, as does the [[University of Waikato]] in New Zealand. Some ability to carry out original research must be documented by producing a [[dissertation]] or [[thesis]], often of substantial length. The degree is often a prerequisite for permanent employment as a [[university]] lecturer or as a researcher in some sciences, though this varies on a regional basis. In others such as [[engineering]] or [[geology]], a doctoral degree is considered desirable but not essential for employment. In a small but growing number of fields, the doctorate is felt to injure employment prospects by causing 'overqualification' for the job. ==Time== The successful completion of a doctoral program typically takes 3 to 7.5 years depending upon the specific field of study, prior experience and/or training, and the progress made by the doctoral candidate in his or her studies. In some fields, such as some specific branches of [[physics]], a doctoral degree is practically essential for employment. In some sciences, a newly-graduated doctoral student is unlikely to find work as a [[tenure-track]] professor and must undertake one or a series of [[postdoctorate\|postdoctorate]] positions. In the British-patterned universities, the Ph.D. program is much shorter because the coursework component is assigned to the masters' and bachelors' degrees, and the Ph.D. course is concerned purely with research for a [[dissertation]]. The target time is nominally three years, but some students finish earlier, and many take a few years longer. The actual time depends strongly on the discipline being studied. Because most British-style bachelors' degrees are much more specialized than in the North American liberal arts system, courses in the fourth-year level, and often at the third-year level, are comparable to those required of graduate students in North America. For this reason, the bachelors' degree, if conferred with a high level of 'honours' (i.e. excellent grades), can allow admission to a Ph.D. program without having to first write a masters' thesis. This route is only possible if the university offers an 'honours year' in the field of study, though this is becoming increasingly common due to the greater funding that universities receive for enrolling doctoral students. In the past, it was more usual to register for a
Post]]'', the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', the Brisbane [[Courier Mail]], the ''[[Windsor Star]]'', and ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'', among other publications, run the comic in the business section, separate from other comics, which together have their own section. This is done in much the same manner that [[Doonesbury]] is now often carried only in the editorial section due to its pointed commentary. It is the basis of a popular (though unproven) theory suggesting that the morale at a given workplace is inversely proportional to the number of ''Dilbert'' comic strips taped and posted at various desks and cubicles. A larger number of ''Dilbert'' comic strips reflects general frustration with the bureaucratic administration at the company, whereas a generally satisfied workforce sees less identification with the character of Dilbert, and consequently fewer ''Dilbert'' comic strips are displayed as mementoes. An office with ''no'' Dilbert strips, however, does not necessarily have high morale; rather, it may indicate that a truly authoritarian administration has prohibited employees from displaying them. ===Criticism=== The adoption of Dilbert as an icon for [[corporate America]] has led to Scott Adams being criticized, in some circles, for allowing his creation to be adopted and embraced by the very same corporate world his strip satirizes. ''Dilbert''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s irony admits few serious alternatives to the corporate lifestyle, as if Adams anticipated criticism but planned through irony to disarm the critics. [[Norman Solomon]] believes the strip is insufficiently critical of CEOs and disrespectful of ordinary working people (''The Trouble with Dilbert: How Corporate Culture Gets the Last Laugh'', Common Courage Press, 1997). The idea that white collar people might be in need of more respect contrasts with a common belief that white collar career is a free choice, but [[downsizing]] and some of the pressures on Dilbert have been predicted in the 1970s by [[Harry Braverman]] (''Labor and Monopoly Capital'', Monthly Review Press, 1998 being the most recent re-issue). Dealing with those pressures would require Dilbert to be more blue-collar in terms of strife over his work process, but in Dilbert the boss can be lampooned but has to be obeyed. [[David Noble]] (''Forces of Production'', Oxford 1986) narrated the 1950's cyberstruggle over control of the programming of then-new computerized machine tools with a clear beginning (management introduces tools programmed by back-office Dilberts ignorant of shop floor requirements), middle (union men stand and watch the improperly programmed tools create "scrap at high speed") and end (management agrees that the union guys should do the programming). Solomon seems humor-challenged in his own book, but the irony in Dilbert, he feels, is a good way of avoiding serious confrontation over the best allocation of workplace control. [[Peter Drucker]] and [[C. Wright Mills]] both pointed out the paradox on which the strip is based but does not address: Dilbert, Wally, Alice and the rest of the gang are at one and the same time supposed to compete with each other, and produce a collective product. The strip satirizes the victims of this double bind. Solomon's concern is that it reconciles people to their fate, and doesn't show them a way out. The flaw in some of these criticisms might be the possible assumption on the part of their authors that people would use ''Dilbert'' as a role model, as opposed to merely finding it a one or two minute "funny" on a daily basis. ===Language=== Terms invented by Adams in relation to the strip, and sometimes used by fans in describing their own office environments, include "'''Induhvidual'''". This term is based on an [[American English]] expression "[[duh]]!". The conscious misspelling of ''individual'' as ''induhvidual'' is a pejorative term for people who are not in the '''DNRC''' ([[Dogbert's New Ruling Class]]). Its coining is explained in [http://www.unitedmedia.com/comics/dilbert/dnrc/html/newsletter06.html Dilbert Newsletter #6]. The strip has also popularized the usage of the terms "[[cow-orker]]" and [[Pointy Haired Boss\|PHB]]. The word "frooglepoopillion" is now occasionally used to describe an extremely large number, after a strip which revealed that the company for which Dilbert worked owed so much money that no name existed to describe the number, so the marketing department was promptly set to work on it, coining "frooglepoopillion". Some fans have used "Dilbertian" to analogize situations in real life to those in the comic strip. ===Management=== In 1997 Scott Adams masqueraded as a management consultant to [[Logitech]] executives (as Ray Mebert), with the cooperation of the company's vice-chairman. He acted in much the way he portrays management consultants in the comic strip, with an arrogant manner and bizarre suggestions, such as comparing [[Strategic planning#Mission statements and vision statements\|mission statement]]s to [[broccoli]] [[soup]]. He convinced the executives to replace their existing mission statement for their New Ventures Group, "to provide Logitech with profitable growth and related new business areas", with "to scout profitable growth opportunities in relationships, both internally and externally, in emerging, mission inclusive markets, and explore new paradigms and then filter and communicate and evangelize the findings". In order to demonstrate what can be achieved with the most mundane objects if planned correctly and imaginatively, Adams has worked with companies to develop "dream" products for Dilbert and company. In 2001 he collaborated with [[IDEO]], a design company, to come up with the "perfect cubicle", a fitting creation since many of the Dilbert strips make fun of the standard [[cubicle desk]] and the environment it creates. The result was both whimsical and practical. This project was followed in 2004 with designs for Dilbert's Ultimate House (abbreviated as DUH). An energy-efficient building resulted, designed to prevent many of the little niggles which seem to creep into a normal building. For instance, to spare time from having to buy and decorate a [[Christmas tree]] every year, the house has a large yet inapparent closet adjacent to the living room where the tree can be stored for later holiday seasons. ==Media== ===Comic Strips=== Books in '''bold''' indicate special compilations or original strips. # '''''Build a Better Life By Stealing Office Supplies''''' # '''''[[Dogbert's Clues for the Clueless]]''''' # ''[[Always Postpone Meetings with Time-Wasting Morons]]'' # ''[[Shave the Whales]]'' # ''Bring Me the Head of Willy the Mailboy!'' — [[August 5]], [[1990]] to [[May 18]], [[1991]] # ''It's Obvious You Won't Survive By Your Wits Alone'' — [[May 19]], [[1991]] to [[December 13]], [[1992]] # ''[[Still Pumped from Using the Mouse]]'' # ''[[Fugitive From the Cubicle Police]]'' # ''[[Casual Day Has Gone Too Far]]'' # '''''Seven Years of Highly Defective People''''' — [[1997]]; Strips from 1989 — 1995, with handwritten notes by Scott Adams # ''[[I'm Not Anti-Business, I'm Anti-Idiot]]'' # ''[[Journey to Cubeville]]'' # ''[[Don't Step in the Leadership]]'' # '''''Dilbert Gives You the Business''''' # ''[[Random Acts of Management]]'' # '''''A Treasury of Sunday Strips: Version 00''''' — 1999; Color version of all Sunday strips from 1995–1999 # ''[[Excuse Me While I Wag]]'' # ''[[When Did Ignorance Become A Point Of View?]]'' # ''[[Another Day In Cubicle Paradise]]'' # '''''What Do You Call A Sociopath In A Cubicle? Answer: A Coworker''''' # ''[[When Body Language Goes Bad]]'' # ''[[Words You Don't Want to Hear During Your Annual Performance Review]]'' # ''[[Don't Stand Where the Comet is Assumed to Strike Oil]]'' # '''''It's Not Funny If I Have To Explain It''''' — 2004; strips from 1997–2004, with more of Adams' handwritten notes # ''[[The Fluorescent Light Glistens Off Your Head]]'' # ''[[Thriving on Vague Objectives]]'' ===Business books=== * ''[[The Dilbert Principle]]'' * ''[[Dogbert's Top Secret Management Handbook]]'' * ''[[The Dilbert Future]]'' * ''[[The Joy of Work]]'' * ''[[Dilbert and the Way of the Weasel]]'' ===Other=== ''Telling It Like It Isn't'' &mdash; [[1996]]; ISBN 0-8362-1324-6 ''Work is a Contact Sport'' &mdash; [[1997]]; ISBN 0-8362-2878-2 ''Random Acts of Catness'' &mdash; [[1998]]; ISBN 0-8362-5277-2 ''Work&mdash;The Wally Way'' &mdash; [[1999]]; ISBN 0-8362-7480-6 ''Alice in Blunderland'' &mdash; [[1999]]; ISBN 0-8362-7479-2 ''The Boss: Nameless, Blameless and Shameless'' ''You Don't Need Experience If You've Got Attitude'' ''Access Denied : Dilbert's Quest for Love in the Nineties'' ''Conversations With Dogbert'' ''The Dilbert Bunch'' ===Merchandise=== * ''Corporate Shuffle'' by [[Richard Garfield]] &mdash; [[1997]]; A Dilbert-branded card game similar to Wizard of the Coast's ''The Great Dalmuti'' and the drinking game [[President (game)\|President]] * The [[Dilberito]], a [[burrito]] with 100% Daily Value of 23 vitamins and minerals ===Animated series=== {{seealso\|List of Dilbert animated series episodes}} <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Dilbert.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|Dilbert Title Card]] --> <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Dogbert Swing.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|Title Scene Intro]] --> <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:The Gruntmaster 6000.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|The Gruntmaster 6000]] --> An animated series spinoff was started on [[January 25]], [[1999]]; it lasted two seasons on [[UPN]] before its cancellation. The first season centered around the creation of a new product, the "Gruntmaster 6000": episodes one through three involved the idea process, (''[[The Name (Dilbert episode)\|The Name]]'', ''[[The Prototype (Dilbert episode)\|The Protot
building has 6,500 windows, 73 [[elevator]]s, and 1,860 steps to the top floor. Total floor area: 204,385 m&sup2; (2,200,000 ft&sup2; or 50.5 acres) It is located at 350 [[Fifth Avenue]], [[ZIP Code]] 10118, between 33rd and [[34th Street (Manhattan)\|34th]] Streets, in [[Midtown, Manhattan]], directly across from [[Weehawken Cove]], on the other side of the [[Hudson River]]. Although the lower floors occupy the entire block, there are various "setbacks" in the building's design, as required by the New York City zoning law of 1916, to prevent the building from casting quite such a large shadow on its neighbors. The building stands on a block once occupied by the original [[Waldorf-Astoria Hotel\|Waldorf Hotel]], a haven for [[The Four Hundred]], the social elite of New York in the late 19th Century. Previous to that, the site had first been developed as the John Thomson Farm, in the late 18th century. ===1945 plane crash=== At 9:49 a.m. on Saturday [[July 28]], [[1945]], a [[B-25 Mitchell]] [[bomber]] accidentally crashed into the north side between the 79th and 80th floors, where the offices of the [[National Catholic Welfare Council]] were located. The fire was extinguished in 40 minutes. 14 people were killed in the accident. [http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0112/News/News8-0112.html] During the accident, elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver survived a plunge of 75 stories inside an elevator, and currently holds the [http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=53746 Guinness World Record] for the longest elevator fall recorded. ==Media== [[Image:Empire State Lobby.jpg\|thumb\|right\|150px\|Entrance lobby]] The Empire State Building has been described as "the most valuable building in American broadcasting". New York City is the largest media market in the United States, and since [[September 11, 2001 attacks\|September 11, 2001]], nearly all of New York's commercial broadcast stations (both television and radio) have transmitted from the top of Empire. A few stations are located at the nearby [[Conde Nast Building]], however. Broadcasting began at Empire in the late 1930s, when [[RCA]] leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there for [[Edwin Howard Armstrong]]. When Armstrong and RCA fell out, the 85th floor became the home of RCA's New York television operations, first as an experimental station and eventually as a commercial station WNBT, channel 4 (now [[WNBC-TV]]). Other television broadcasters would join RCA at Empire, on the 83rd, 82nd, and 81st floors, frequently bringing sister FM stations along for the ride. When the [[World Trade Center]] was being constructed, it caused serious problems for the television stations, most of which moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed. This made it possible to renovate the antenna structure and the transmitter facilities for the benefit of the FM stations remaining there, which were soon joined by other FMs and UHF TVs moving in from elsewhere in the metropolitan area. The destruction of the World Trade Center necessitated a great deal of shuffling of antennas and transmitter rooms in order to accommodate the stations moving back uptown. [[As of 2005]], Empire is home to the following stations: * TV: [[WCBS-TV]] 2, [[WNBC-TV]] 4, [[WNYW]] 5, [[WABC-TV]] 7, [[WWOR-TV]] 9 [[Secaucus, New Jersey\|Secaucus]], [[WPIX-TV]] 11, [[WNET]] 13 [[Newark, New Jersey\|Newark]], [[WNYE-TV]] 25, [[WXTV]] 41 [[Paterson, New Jersey\|Paterson]], [[WNJU]] 47 [[Linden, New Jersey\|Linden]], and [[WFUT-TV]] 68 Newark * FM: [[WFNY-FM]] 92.3, [[WPAT-FM]] 93.1 Paterson, [[WNYC-FM]] 93.9, [[WPLJ]] 95.5, [[WQXR-FM]] 96.3, [[WQHT-FM]] 97.1, [[WSKQ-FM]] 97.9, [[WRKS-FM]] 98.7, [[WBAI]] 99.5, [[WHTZ]] 100.3 Newark, [[WCBS-FM]] 101.1, [[WQCD]] 101.9, [[WNEW]] 102.7, [[WKTU]] 103.5 [[Lake Success, New York\|Lake Success]], [[WAXQ]] 104.3, [[WWPR-FM]] 105.1, [[WCAA]] 105.9 Newark, [[WLTW]] 106.7, and [[WBLS]] 107.5. ==In pop culture== [[Image:Skyscrapercompare1.PNG\|thumb\|200px\|The Empire State Building's height compared to other notable skyscrapers.]] [[Image:Empire_State_Building_Night.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|The Empire State Building at night.]] [[Image:Hindenburgiii.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|The mooring mast was used only once, here it is shown in ''Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow''.]] Perhaps the most famous popular culture representation of the building is in the [[1933]] [[film]] ''[[King Kong (1933 film)\|King Kong]]'', in which the title character, a giant ape, climbs to the top to escape his captors, and eventually dies by falling off of it. In [[1983]], for the 50th anniversary of the film, an inflatable King Kong was placed on the real Empire State Building. However, a mouse chewed through it one day, partially deflating the ape. He also needed a constant supply of air, and was never fully inflated. In 2005, [[Peter Jackson]], director of the blockbuster [[Lord of the Rings]] movies, released a new version of [[King Kong (2005 film)\|King Kong]] set in a recreation of 1930's New York City, including a final showdown between Kong and the bi-planes atop a greatly detailed Empire State Building. The observation deck was the designated site for romantic rendezvous in the films ''[[Love Affair]]'', ''[[An Affair to Remember]]'', ''[[Sleepless In Seattle]]'', and a phony [[Martian]] invasion in an episode of ''[[I Love Lucy]]''. The film ''[[Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow]]'' opens with a zeppelin docking at the building's mooring mast. Additionally, the building can be seen with King Kong scaling it in the background of one of the shots. An episode of the [[Supermarionation]] [[science fiction]] series ''[[Thunderbirds (television)\|Thunderbirds]]'' involves an attempt to move the Empire State Building on tracks to a new location, failing with the collapse of the building. In the 300th issue of Superman magazine, the Empire State building is refurbished during the early [[1980]]'s to reclaim the title of world's tallest building; rising 1000 stories. In the movie ''[[Independence Day (movie)\|Independence Day]]'', the building is [[ground zero]] when an alien spaceship destroys New York City. This depiction was a homage to a similar SF invasion movie scene described in the [[science fiction]] short story ''"Publicity Campain"'' by [[Arthur C. Clarke]]. . In ''[[The Chase (Doctor Who)\|The Chase]]'', a 1965 serial from the [[William Hartnell]]-era of ''[[Doctor Who]]'', the [[Doctor (Doctor Who)\|Doctor]], [[Barbara Wright (Doctor Who)\|Barbara Wright]], [[Ian Chesterton]] and [[Vicki]], fleeing through time and space with a group of [[Dalek]]s in hot pursuit, arrive in their [[TARDIS]] time machine on the Observation Deck of the Empire State Building (thus avoiding the long lines). They leave shortly after arriving and shortly before the pursuing Daleks' time machine materializes. The Daleks, ignoring the view, leave almost immediately. The building has a cameo role in the [[1946]] [[cartoon]] ''Baseball Bugs''. Fitting the cartoon's theme, the skyscraper is labeled the "[[Umpire]] State Building". In ''[[Godzilla: Final Wars]]''. the [[pterosaur]] [[Rodan]] perches atop the skyscraper and howls at the moon before continuing his rampage on New York City eventually destroying the [[Statue of Liberty]]. In ''[[Unbuilding]]'', by [[David Macaulay]], the building is bought and dissassembled, to be reassembled halfway across the world as a corporate headquarters. * In the [[2003 in film\|2003]] Christmas-themed film ''[[Elf (film)\|Elf]]'', [[Will Ferrell]]'s father, played by [[James Caan]], works in a publishing company in the building. * In the 2 parter season 4 episodes of [[Star Trek: Enterprise]], [[Storm Front (Enterprise episode) \| Storm Front]], there is an alternate timeline where the eastern side of the [[United States]] is being conquered by the Germans, with the aid of aliens. The opening teaser of part 2, shows a propaganda news reel which shows footage of [[Adolf Hitler]] visiting [[New York]], and the Empire State Building. * In [[Futurama]] episode Anthology of Interest I, huge Bender falls on the Empire State Building. He says before dying: "Oooh... who put this in here?" * In the video game [[Spider-Man 2 (video game)\|Spider-Man 2]], you can explore, wing from and climb the Manhattan skyscrapers, including the ESB. It is common for a player to climb to the top and dive off, seeing how close to the ground he can get before bailing out on a web-line. ==Similar skyscrapers== The [[Torre Latinoamericana]] in Mexico City looks very similar to the Empire State Building. Also from similar design are the [[Seven Sisters (Moscow)\|Seven Sisters]] in Moscow, like the building of the [[Moscow State University]] and the [[Palace of Culture and Science]] in Warsaw, Poland. [[Image:Skyline-New-York-City.jpg\|thumb\|center\|800px\|Panorama of New York City from Empire State Building in the spring of 2005.]] <div style="clear: both"></div> ==See also== [[Buildings and architecture of New York City]] [[50 Tallest buildings in the U.S.]] [[Tallest buildings in New York City]] [[List of skyscrapers]] [[Skyscrapers in film]] ==Further reading== ''The Empire State Building Book'', by Jonathan Goldman, St. Martin's Press, 1980. ''Unbuilding'', by David Macaulay, Houghton Mifflin, 1986. ''The Empire State Building - The making of a landmark'', by John Tauranac, Scribner, 1995. ==External links== [http://www.esbnyc.com/tourism/tourism_history_timeline.cfm ESB History Timeline] [http://www.nyc-architecture.com/MID/MID073.htm New York Architecture Images- The Empire State Building] [http://manhattan.about.com/od/historyandlandmarks/a/empirestate.htm/ Empire State Building Trivia & Fun Facts] [http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=114095 Empire State Building on Emporis] *[http://www.skyscraper-central.com/ESB_drawing_large.htm Skyscraper Central.com -
ish "sack") is pronounced {{IPA\|[z&#805;akx]}} ({{IPA\|[k]}} to {{IPA\|[kx]}}). ==Family tree== Note that divisions between subfamilies of Germanic are rarely precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent [[dialect]]s being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not. In particular, there never has been an original "[[Proto-language\|Proto-High German]]". * [[Central German]] (German: ''Mitteldeutsch'') [[East Central German]] * [[Berlin Brandenburgish]] (mostly in [[Berlin]] and [[Brandenburg]]) * [[Thuringian Upper Saxon]] (mostly in [[Thuringia]], [[Saxony-Anhalt]] and [[Saxony]]) * [[German Lusatian]] (in Saxony and Brandenburg) * [[Lower Silesian German\|Lower Silesian]] (mostly in [[Lower Silesia]], in [[Poland]]) [[Transylvanian Saxon language\|Transylvanian Saxon]] (in [[Transylvania]]) [[West Central German]] * ''Middle Franconian'' **''[[Ripuarian Franconian]]'' [[Moselle Franconian]] * ''[[Rhine Franconian]]'' ** [[Lorrainian German]] (France) [[Pfälzisch language]] [[Hessian dialect]] Transition area between ''Central German'' and ''Upper German'' * [[East Franconian German]] * [[South Franconian German]] ** [[Pennsylvania German language\|Pennsylvania German]] (in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]) * [[Upper German]] (German: ''Oberdeutsch'') [[Alemannic German\|Alemannic]] * [[Swabian German\|Swabian]] * [[Low Alemannic German\|Low Alemannic]] (including [[Swiss German]] dialects) * [[Alsatian language]] * [[High Alemannic German\|High Alemannic]] (including many [[Swiss German]] dialects) * [[Highest Alemannic German\|Highest Alemannic]] (including [[Swiss German]] dialects) [[Austro-Bavarian German\|Austro-Bavarian]] (''On the use of dialects and Standard German in Austria, see [[Austrian language]]'') [[Northern Austro-Bavarian]] (spoken in [[Upper Palatinate]]) [[Central Austro-Bavarian]] (includes the dialects of [[Upper Bavaria]], [[Lower Bavaria]], [[Upper Austria]], [[Lower Austria]] and [[Vienna]] &mdash; ''see'' [[Viennese language]]) [[Southern Austro-Bavarian]] (includes the dialects of [[Tyrol]], [[Carinthia (state)\|Carinthia]] and [[Styria (state)\|Styria]]) [[Cimbrian language\|Cimbrian]] (northeastern [[Italy]]) * [[Mócheno]] ([[Trentino]], in Italy) *** [[Hutterite German]] (in [[Canada]] and the [[United States]]) [[Yiddish language\|Yiddish]] Western Yiddish ([[Germany]], [[France]]) Eastern Yiddish Northeastern Yiddish ([[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], [[Belarus]], [[Russia]], northeastern [[Poland]]) Central Yiddish ([[Poland]], [[Galicia (Central Europe)\|Galicia]]) *Southeastern Yiddish ([[Ukraine]], [[Bessarabia]], [[Romania]]) == External links == [http://members.tripod.com/~radde/Mundarten.html German dialects of today] (in German) [[Category:High Germanic languages\|High Germanic languages]] [[Category:West Germanic languages]] [[bg:&#1043;&#1086;&#1088;&#1085;&#1086;&#1075;&#1077;&#1088;&#1084;&#1072;&#1085;&#1089;&#1082;&#1080; &#1077;&#1079;&#1080;&#1094;&#1080;]] [[de:Hochdeutsch]] [[nl:Hoogduits]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Helen of Troy</title> <id>13556</id> <revision> <id>15911155</id> <timestamp>2004-09-28T05:43:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Montrealais</username> <id>3378</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Helen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hyperreal numbers</title> <id>13558</id> <revision> <id>15911157</id> <timestamp>2002-05-05T15:49:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[Hyperreal number]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Hyperreal number]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hannes Bok</title> <id>13560</id> <revision> <id>36703442</id> <timestamp>2006-01-25T22:27:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pepso</username> <id>266943</id> </contributor> <comment>Pic</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bokfsf.jpg\|right\|thumb\|400px]] '''Hannes Bok''', pseudonym for '''Wayne Woodard''' ([[July 2]], [[1914]]-[[April 11]], [[1964]]), was an American illustrator and writer of fantasy fiction. His illustrations mainly appeared on the covers of [[science fiction]] novels and such magazines as [[If (magazine)\|If]], [[Weird Tales]], [[Other Worlds (magazine)\|Other Worlds]], Fantasy Fiction, Imagination, [[Castle of Frankenstein]], [[Planet Stories]] and [[The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]]. He was born in [[Duluth, Minnesota]] as Wayne Woodard, though occasionally the more common surname name "Woodward" is applied to him. The pseudonym derives from [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] (whose name can be rendered both as "Johann S. Bach" and "Johannes Bach"). His early career was assisted by [[Ray Bradbury]]; he corresponded with [[Maxfield Parrish]]. He is most famously known for his novels ''Sorcerer's Ship'' and ''Beyond the Golden Stair'', both included in the [[Ballantine Adult Fantasy series]]. His striking wraparound cover for the [[November]] [[1963]] issue of [[The_Magazine_of_Fantasy_&_Science_Fiction\|F&SF]], illustrating [[Roger Zelazny\|Roger Zelazny's]] ''[[A Rose For Ecclesiastes]]'', was published in the last months of his life. A member of the [[Futurians]], Bok won the debut [[Hugo Award]] for [[Hugo_Award_for_Best_Professional_Artist\|Best Cover/Professional Artist]] in [[1953]]. His work was collected in ''A Hannes Bok Treasury'' (1993) and ''A Hannes Bok Showcase'' (1995). ==External resources== * {{isfdb name\|id=Hannes_Bok\|name=Hannes Bok}} {{US-writer-stub}} [[Category:1914 births\|Bok, Hannes]] [[Category:1964 deaths\|Bok, Hannes]] [[Category:American illustrators\|Bok, Hannes]] [[Category:American science fiction writers\|Bok, Hannes]] [[Category:Fantasy artists\|Bok, Hannes]] [[Category:Fantasy writers\|Bok, Hannes]] [[Category:Pseudonyms\|Bok, Hannes]] [[Category:Science fiction artists\|Bok, Hannes]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau</title> <id>13561</id> <revision> <id>41759287</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:17:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.104.169.57</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau"''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet\|pronounced]] /{{IPA\|h&#603;:n wla:d vən'ha:daɪ}}/, usually translated as ''The Land of My Fathers'', but literally ''old country of my fathers'') is by tradition the [[national anthem]] of [[Wales]]. The words were written by [[Evan James]] and the tune composed by his son, [[James James]], both residents of [[Pontypridd]], [[Glamorgan]], in January [[1856]]. The earliest written copy survives and is part of the collections of the [[National Library of Wales]]. ==Glan Rhondda== The song &ndash; ''Glan Rhondda'' (Banks of the river Rhondda) as it was known when first composed &ndash; was performed for the first time in the vestry of Capel Tabor chapel, [[Maesteg]], in either January or February 1856, by a singer called Elizabeth John from Pontypridd, and it soon became popular in the locality. ==Popularity== The popularity of the song increased after the [[Llangollen]] [[Eisteddfod]] of 1858. Thomas Llewelyn of [[Aberdare]] won a competition for an unpublished collection of Welsh airs with a collection that included ''Glan Rhondda''. The adjudicator of the competition, Owain Alaw (John Owen, 1821-1883) asked for permission to include ''Glan Rhondda'' in his publication, ''Gems of Welsh melody'' (1860-64). This volume gave ''Glan Rhondda'' its more famous title, ''Hen wlad fy nhadau'', and was sold in large quantities and ensured the popularity of the national anthem across the whole of Wales. At the [[Bangor, Wales\|Bangor]] [[Eisteddfod]] of 1874 ''Hen Wlad fy Nhadau'' gained further popularity when it was sung by [[Robert Rees]] (Eos Morlais), one of the leading Welsh soloists of his day. It was increasingly sung at patriotic gatherings and gradually it developed into a national anthem. ==First recorded Welsh-language song== ''Hen wlad fy nhadau'' was also one of the first [[Welsh language\|Welsh]] songs recorded when Madge Breese sang it on [[11 March]] [[1899]], for the Gramophone Company. This was the first recording in the [[Welsh language]]. ==National anthem== Though it has no official or legal status, ''Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau'' is recognised and used as an anthem at both national and local events in Wales. Usually this will be the only anthem sung, such as at national sporting events, and it will be sung only in Welsh using the first stanza and refrain. But on some official occasions, especially those with royal connections, it is used in conjunction with the state anthem of the [[United Kingdom]], ''[[God Save the Queen]]''. The existence of a separate national anthem for Wales has not always been apparent to those from outside the country. In [[1993]] the newly-appointed [[Secretary of State for Wales]] [[John Redwood]] was embarrassingly videotaped trying to guess the words during a communal singing of the national anthem, clearly unaware of them; the pictures were frequently cited as evidence of his unsuitability for the post. According to [[John Major]]'s autobiography, the first thing his successor [[William Hague]] said, on being appointed, was that he had better find someone to teach him the words. He found [[Ffion Jenkins]], and later married her. Versions of ''Hen Wlad fy Nhadau'' are used as anthems in both [[Cornwall]], as ''[[Bro Goth Agan Tasow]]'', and [[Brittany]], as ''[[Bro Goz ma Zadoù]]'
few earlier tracks like "Changes" and "Width of a Circle", were ultra-theatrical affairs, filled with some rather shocking stage moments, such as Bowie stripping down to a [[sumo\|sumo wrestling]] loincloth or simulating [[fellatio]] with Ronson's guitar. Bowie took the character to extremes, touring and giving [[press conference]]s as Ziggy before a dramatic and abrupt onstage "retirement" at London's Hammersmith Odeon in 1973. His famous announcement -- "Not only is this the last show of the tour, but it's the last show that we'll ever do" -- was preserved as part of a live recording of the show, released as a double album under the title ''[[Ziggy Stardust - The Motion Picture]]''. ''[[Pin Ups]]'', a collection of cover versions of 1960s hits, was released in 1973, spawning a UK #3 hit in "[[Sorrow (song)\|Sorrow]]" and itself peaking at #1, making David Bowie the best-selling act of 1973 in the UK. By that time, the "Spiders from Mars" were long split, and Bowie was trying to escape from his Ziggy persona. Bowie's own back catalogue was now highly sought. ''The Man Who Sold the World'' had been rereleased in 1972 along with the second ''David Bowie'' album (''Space Oddity''), whilst Hunky Dory's "[[Life on Mars?]]" was released as a single in 1973 and made #3 in the UK, the same year Bowie's nonsense record from 1967, "The Laughing Gnome," hit #6, embarassingly for Bowie. The [[androgynous]] public and stage persona Bowie affected during this period sold records, but its popularity in [[gay culture]] and the emerging [[gay rights]] movement created controversy both in the US and in Britain, where [[homosexuality]] had only been legal since 1967. Bowie further stirred up controversy by publicly proclaiming himself [[bisexuality\|bisexual]], a claim he has since retracted and distanced himself from. ===1974 to 1976: Soul, R&B, and The Thin White Duke=== 1974 saw the release of another ambitious album, ''[[Diamond Dogs]]'', with a [[spoken word]] introduction and segued songs ("Sweet Thing/Candidate"). ''Diamond Dogs'' was the product of two distinct ideas — a musical based on a wild future in a post-[[apocalypse\|apocalyptic]] city, and setting [[George Orwell]]'s ''1984'' to music ("1984", "Big Brother", "We Are The Dead"). Bowie had planned on actually writing a musical to ''1984'', but his interest waned after encountering difficulties in licensing the novel, and he used the songs he had written for ''Diamond Dogs''. The album — and an NBC television special, the ''1980 Floor Show'', broadcast at around the same time — demonstrated Bowie headed toward the genre of [[soul (music)\|soul]]/[[disco]] music, the track "1984" being a prime example. The album spawned the hits "[[Rebel Rebel]]" (UK #5) and "[[Diamond Dogs (song)\|Diamond Dogs]]" (UK #21), and itself went to #1 in the UK, making him the best-selling act of that country for the second year in a row. In the US, Bowie achieved his first major success when the album went to #5. To follow on the release of the album, Bowie launched a massive ''Diamond Dogs'' tour of North America, lasting from June to December 1974. Choreographed by [[Toni Basil]], and lavishly produced with theatrical [[special effects]], this high-budget stage production broke with contemporary standard practice for rock concerts by featuring no encores. It was filmed by [[Alan Yentob]] for the documentary ''[[Cracked Actor]]''. Bowie commented that the resulting live album ''[[David_Live(album)\|David Live]]'' ought really to be called "David Bowie Is Alive And Well And Living Only In Theory," presumably referring to his addled psychological state during this frenetic period. Nevertheless the album solidified his status as a superstar, going #2 in the UK and #8 in the US. It also spawned a UK #10 hit in a cover of "Knock On Wood". After the opening leg of the tour, Bowie mostly jettisoned the elaborate sets. Then, when the tour resumed after a summer break in [[Philadelphia]] for recording new material, the ''Diamond Dogs'' sound no longer seemed apt. Bowie cancelled seven dates and made changes to the band, which returned to the road in October as the ''Philly Dogs'' tour. To [[Ziggy Stardust]] fans who had not discerned the soul and funk strains already there in Bowie's recent work, the "new" sound was a sudden and very jolting step. 1975's ''[[Young Americans (album)\|Young Americans]]'' is his definitive exploration of [[Philly soul]]. It contained his first #1 hit in the US, "[[Fame (David Bowie song)\|Fame]]," co-written with [[John Lennon]] (who also contributed backing vocals) and one of Bowie's new band members, guitarist [[Carlos Alomar]]. It was based on a version of [[James Brown (musician)\|James Brown]]'s "Footstompin'," which Bowie's band had taken to playing live during the ''Philly Dogs'' period. One of the backing vocalists on the album is a young [[Luther Vandross]]. ''Young Americans'' was the album which really made Bowie a star in the US; though only peaking there at #9, as opposed to the #5 placing of ''Diamond Dogs'', the album stayed in the charts for almost twice as long. At the same time the album went #1 in the UK, and a re-issue of his old single "Space Oddity" became his first #1 hit in the UK, only a few months after "Fame" had become the same in the US. 1976's ''[[Station to Station]]'' featured a starker version of this soul persona, called [[The Thin White Duke]]. The figure seemed to be an extension of the character '''Thomas Jerome Newton''' in ''[[The Man Who Fell To Earth]]'', whom Bowie played in the film. ''Station to Station'' presented a new direction in Bowie's music, with innovative use of [[synthesizer]] and electronic sounds and a lean towards [[Germany\|German]] pop music. By this time Bowie was heavily dependent on drugs, especially [[cocaine]], and many critics have attributed the chopped rhythms and emotional detachment of the record to the influence of the drug, which Bowie claimed to have been introduced to in America. Nonetheless, there was another large tour in 1976, the '''Station to Station World Tour''', which featured a starkly lit set and highlighted new songs such as the dramatic, lengthy title track, the romantic ballad "Word on a Wing," and the funky "TVC-15" and "Stay." The core band that coalesced around this album and tour — rhythm guitarist Alomar, bassist [[George Murray]], and drummer [[Dennis Davis]] — would remain a stable unit through 1980. With the album at #3 in the US, his greatest success there ever, and the single "Golden Years" becoming a transatlantic top 10 hit, Bowie was at a commercial peak, yet his sanity - by his own admission later - was twisted by cocaine and he overdosed several times during the year. At around this time, Bowie became embroiled in a controversy caused by his comments to ''[[Playboy]]'' magazine apparently praising [[Hitler]], and his statement that "Britain is ready for a [[fascism\|fascist]] leader." He later pointed out that being "ready" for one and "needing" one are two different things. This was accompanied by some theatrics involving an open-top vintage [[Mercedes-Benz\|Mercedes]] and what some claimed was a [[Nazi]] salute staged outside [[Victoria Station (London)\|Victoria Station]]. Bowie would later angrily deny being so "foolish" as to raise a Nazi salute, claiming that the photographer had caught him in mid-wave. This incident, along with similarly controversial [[racism\|racist]] remarks by [[Eric Clapton]] around the same time, were catalysts for the formation of the [[Rock Against Racism]] movement. Later, Bowie retracted his comments, excusing himself by claiming his judgment had been affected by substance abuse. ===1976 to 1980: Brian Eno and the Berlin era=== Bowie's interest in the growing German music scene and his drug addiction prompted him to move to [[Berlin]] to dry out and rejuvenate his career anew. Sharing an apartment in [[Schöneberg]] with his friend [[Iggy Pop]], he produced three more of his own classic albums, as well as aiding Pop in his career. With Bowie as a co-writer and musician, Pop completed his first two solo albums, ''[[The Idiot (album)\|The Idiot]]'' and ''[[Lust for Life (album)\|Lust for Life]]''. More unusually, the star Bowie joined Pop's touring band in the spring, simply playing keyboard and singing backing vocals. The group performed in the UK, Europe, and the US from March to April. [[Image:dbowie4.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|left\|David Bowie, ''Best of 1974/1979'']] As for Bowie's music, the brittle sound of ''Station to Station'' was a precursor to that found on ''[[Low (album)\|Low]]'', the first of three recorded in collaboration with [[Brian Eno]]. Heavily influenced by the [[Krautrock]] sound of [[Kraftwerk]] and others, the new songs were relatively simple, repetitive and stripped, a clear and typically perverse reaction to [[punk rock]], with the second side almost wholly instrumental. (By way of tribute, proto-punk [[Nick Lowe]] recorded an EP entitled "Bowi".) The album provided him with a surprise #3 hit in the UK when the BBC picked up the first single, "[[Sound and Vision]]", as its 'coming attractions' theme music. ''Low'' was renowned for having been far ahead of its time and fascinates to this day, many calling it Bowie's best album. It was produced in 1976 and released in early 1977. The next record, ''[["Heroes"]]'', was similar in sound to ''Low'', though slightly more accessible. The mood of these records fit the [[zeitgeist]] of the [[Cold War]], symbolised by the divided city that provided its inspiration. The title track remains one of Bowie's best known, a classic story about two
and those who profess to know the measurements of the earth. He states that far west of the Ocean there lies a group of islands whose inhabitants are red-skinned and whose hair is like that of the horse. ([[Christopher Columbus]] described the Native Americans similarly.) A fragmentary work of [[Theophrastus]] of [[Lesbos Island\|Lesbos]] tells about the colonies of Atlantis in the sea. [[Hesiod]] wrote that the garden of the [[Hesperides]] was on an island in the sea where the [[sun]] sets. [[Pliny the Elder]] recorded that this land was 12,000 km distant (by modern measurment) from [[Cádiz]], and Uba, a [[Numidian]] talks of an enormous island outside the [[Pillars of Hercules]]. He describes it as having a climate that is very mild; fruits and vegetables grow ripe throughout the year. There are huge mountains covered with large forests, and wide, irrigable plains with navigable rivers. [[Scylax of Caryanda]] gives similar account. Marcellus claims that the survivors of the sinking Atlantis migrated to [[Western Europe]]. [[Timagenes]] tells almost the same, citing the [[Druids]] of [[Gaul]] as his sources. He tries to classify the [[Gallic]] tribes according to their origins and tells of one of these claiming that they were colonists who came there from a remote island. [[Theopompus]] of [[Chios]], a Greek [[historian]] called this land beyond the ocean as "Meropis". The dialogue between King [[Midas]] and the wise Silenus mentions the Meropids, the first men with huge cities of gold and silver. Silenus knows that besides the well-known portions of the world there is another, unknown, of incredible immensity, where immeasurably vast blooming meadows and pastures feed herds of various, huge and mighty beasts. [[Claudius Aelianus]] cites [[Theopompus]], knowing of the existence of the huge island out in the Atlantic as a continuing tradition among the Phoenicians or Carthaginians of Cádiz. Perhaps the [[Byzantine Empire\|Byzantine]] friar [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] understood Plato better than the ancient and modern "Aristotelians", says Merezhkovsky. In his ''[[Topographia Christiana]]'' he included a chart of the (flat) world: it showed an inner continent, a compact mainland surrounded by sea, and this was surrounded by an outer ring-shaped continent, with the inscription, "The earth beyond the Ocean, where men lived before the [[Flood]]." ==Modern interest== [[Image:Atlantis map 1882.jpg\|thumb\|left\|300px\|A map showing a supposed location of Atlantis. From Ignatius Donnelly's ''Atlantis:The Antediluvian World'', [[1882]].]] With rare exceptions, such as [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)\|Francis Bacon]]'s book ''[[The New Atlantis]]'', interest in Atlantis mostly languished, until, some 2,200 years after Plato, the [[1882]] publication of ''[[Atlantis: the Antediluvian World]]'' by [[Ignatius Donnelly]]. Donnelly took Plato's account of Atlantis seriously and attempted to establish that all known [[ancient civilization]]s were descended from its high-[[neolithic]] culture. In middle and late [[19th century]], several serious [[Mesoamerica]]n scholars, starting with [[Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg]], and including [[Edward Herbert Thompson]] and [[Augustus Le Plongeon]] proposed that Atlantis was somehow related to [[Maya]]n and [[Aztec]] culture. However, several of the researchers later rejected those claims. [[Image:Cayce 1910.jpg\|thumb\|right\|American psychic [[Edgar Cayce]], 1910]] Around this same time, the mythical nature of Atlantis was combined with other [[Lost Lands\|lost continent]] myths such as [[Mu (lost continent)\|Mu]] and [[Lemuria (continent)\|Lemuria]] by popular figures in the [[occult]] and the growing [[new age]] phenomenon. [[Helena Petrovna Blavatsky\|Helena Blavatsky]], the "Grandmother of the New Age movement" writes in ''[[The Secret Doctrine]]'' that the Atlanteans were cultural heroes (contrary to Plato who describes them mainly as a military threat), and are the fourth "[[Root Race]]", succeeded by the "[[Aryan race]]". [[Rudolf Steiner]] based much of his writings on occult revelations of Mu or Atlantis. Famed psychic [[Edgar Cayce]] gave its geographical location as the [[Caribbean]], and proposed that [[Edgar Cayce#Major themes\|Atlantis]] was an ancient, now-submerged, highly-evolved civilization which had ships and aircraft powered by a mysterious form of energy crystal. ===Nationalist and Socialist ideas of Atlantis=== The concept of Atlantis also entered [[Nazi Mysticism\|National Socialist Mysticism]] through [[Theosophy]] and [[Anthroposophy]]. In [[1938]], [[Heinrich Himmler]] organized a search in [[Tibet]] to find a remnant of the white Atlanteans. According to [[Julius Evola]] (''[[Revolt Against the Modern World]]'', 1934), the Atlanteans were [[Hyperboreans]] -- Nordic [[Übermensch\|supermen]] who originated on the [[North pole]]. Similarly, [[Alfred Rosenberg]] (''[[The Myth of the Twentieth Century]]'', 1930) spoke of a "nordic-atlantean" or "aryan-nordic" [[master race]]. [[Aleister Crowley]] has also written an esoteric history of Atlantis, although this may be intended more as [[metaphor]] than as fact. ===Recent times=== As [[continental drift]] became better understood and accepted during the 1950s, most "Lost Continent" theories of Atlantis were shown as false. In response, some recent theories propose that elements of Plato's story were derived from earlier myths. ==Location hypotheses== <!-- This intended as a SHORT section on the locations of Atlantis. Do not expand your favorite theory, put information about "exciting" proof that supports your theory. EVERYONE has a theory about Atlantis. Please only put a short sentence, or add as part of your list. You are free to expand in the companion article. --> :''Main article: [[Location hypotheses of Atlantis]]'' [[Image:Santorini Landsat.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Satellite image of the islands of [[Santorini]]. This location is often rumored to have been the location of Atlantis.]] Since Donnelly's day, there have been dozens&mdash;perhaps hundreds&mdash;of locations proposed for Atlantis. Some are more or less serious attempts at legitimate scholarly or archaeological works; others have been made by [[psychic]] or other [[pseudoscience\|pseudoscientific]] means. Many of the proposed sites share some of the characteristics of the Atlantis story (water, catastrophic end, relevant time period), but none have been proven conclusively to be the historical Atlantis. Most of the historical proposed locations are in or nearby the Mediterranean, either islands such as [[Sardinia]], [[Crete]] and [[Santorini]], [[Cyprus]], [[Malta]], and [[Ponza]] or as land based cities or states such as [[Troy]], [[Andalucia]] or Tantalus (in province of [[Manisa]]), [[Turkey]], and the new theory of [[Israel]]-[[Sinai]] or [[Canaan]] as possible locations. The island of [[Santorini]], according to geologists, experienced a massive volcanic eruption about 1640 BC. The eruption caused a massive [[tsunami]] that devastated the [[Minoan civilization]] on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that may have been the catastrophe that inspired the story. ===Outside the Mediterranean=== Locations as far as [[Antarctica]], [[Indonesia]] and the [[Caribbean]] have been proposed as Atlantis' site. The submerged island of [[Spartel]] near the Strait of Gibraltar is a proposed location which would coincide with some elements of Plato's account; location (just outside the [[Pillars of Hercules]]) and date of submersion (9000 years before Plato). In the area of the [[Black Sea]] there are three possible locations: [[Bosporus]], [[Sinop]] and [[Ancomah]], a legendary place near [[Trabzon]]. The nearby [[Sea of Azov]] was proposed as another site in 2003. Various islands or island groups in the Atlantic were also identified as possible locations, notably the [[Azores]] (Mid-Atlantic islands which are a territory of Portugal), and several [[Caribbean]] islands. In Northern Europe, [[Finland]] (by Finnish pseudohistorian [[Ior Bock]]), [[Sweden]] (by [[Olof Rudbeck]] in "Atland", 1672-1702), and the North Sea have been proposed. Areas in the Pacific and Indian Ocean have also been proposed including [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]] and stories of a lost continent off [[India]] named "[[Kumari Kandam]]" have drawn parallels to Atlantis. Even Cuba has been suggested. The [[Canary Islands]] have also been identified as a possible location, west of the Straits of Gibraltar but in close proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Some believe that Atlantis stretched from the tip of Spain to Central America. Finally it has been argued that the story is a mixup, with [[Ireland]] as the last place that has contributed geographical details to it. ==Atlantis in Fiction== :''Main article: [[Atlantis in fiction]]'' The legend of Atlantis is frequently featured in many books, movies, television series, and other creative works. ==See also== * [[List of ancient mysteries]] * [[Lemuria]] * [[Thule]] * [[Bal-Sagoth]] * [[Sea level rise]] ==Source Writings== "''[http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/timaeus.html Timaeus]''" translated by [[Benjamin Jowett]]; [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0180&layout=&loc=Tim.+1a alternative version] with commentary. "''[http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/critias.html Critias]''" translated by [[Benjamin Jowett]]; [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0180&layout=&loc=Criti.+106a alternative version] with commentary. * [[Project Gutenberg]] Presents: "''[http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4032 Atlantis: the Antediluvian World]''" by [[Ignatius Donnelly]] ==External links== * [http://www.activemind.com/Mysterious/Topics/Atlantis/ Active Mind
der to produce a dimensionless number. In many cases these would result in numbers close to 10<sup><small>40</small></sup>, its square, or its cube root. He was convinced that the mass of the [[proton]] and the charge of the [[electron]], were a ''natural and complete specification for constructing a Universe'' and that their values were not accidental. One of the discoverers of quantum mechanics, [[P. A. M. Dirac]], also pursued this line of investigation, which has become known as the [[Dirac large numbers hypothesis]], and some scientists even today believe it has something to it. A particularly damaging statement in his defence of these concepts involved the [[fine structure constant]] α. At the time it was measured to be very close to 1/136, and he argued that the value should in fact be ''exactly'' 1/136 for various reasons. Later measurements placed the value much closer to 1/137, at which point he switched his line of reasoning and claimed that the value should in fact be exactly 1/137, the [[Eddington number]]. At this point most other researchers stopped taking his concepts very seriously. The current measured value is estimated at 1/137.03599911. He did not complete this line of research before his death in 1944, and his book entitled ''Fundamental Theory'' was published posthumously in 1946. Eddington died in [[Cambridge]], [[England]]. It was rather unfortunate that he vehemently opposed the budding Indian scientist [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] about his theory on the maximum mass of stars known as white dwarfs, the mass above which the star collapses and becomes a [[neutron star]], quark star or [[black hole]]. Chandrasekhar was proven to be right, and went on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983. ==Honours== '''Awards''' [[Bruce Medal]] ([[1924]]) [[Henry Draper Medal]] (1924) [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] (1924) [[Royal Medal]] of the [[Royal Society]] ([[1928]]) Knighted ([[1930]]) [[Order of Merit]] ([[1938]]) '''Named after him''' [[Eddington (crater)\|Eddington Crater]] on the [[Moon]] [[Asteroid]] [[2761 Eddington]] [[Royal Astronomical Society]]'s [[Eddington Medal]] ==Writer== Eddington was a superb populariser of science, writing many books aimed at the layman. He is also attributed with introducing the [[Infinite Monkey Theorem]] with the [[1929]] phrase "If an army of monkeys were strumming on typewriters, they might write all the books in the [[British Museum]]". ===Publications=== Eddington, Arthur S., "''[http://www.bibliomania.com/NonFiction/Eddington/Stars/index.html Stars and Atoms]''". British Association, Oxford. August 1926. * Eddington, Arthur S., "''The internal Constitution of Stars''". [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge. 1926. ISBN 0521337089 * Eddington, Arthur S., "''Fundamental Theory''" Cambridge University Press, London. 1928. * Eddington, Arthur S., "''Science and the Unseen World''". New York: Macmillan, 1929. ISBN 0849514266 * Eddington, Arthur S., "''Expanding Universe: Astronomy's 'Great Debate', 1900-1931''". Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521349761 * Eddington, Arthur S., "''The Nature of the Physical World''". The MacMillan Company. November 1928. ISBN 0841438854 * Eddington, Arthur S., "''New Pathways in Science''". Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1935. * Eddington, Arthur S., "''Space, Time and Gravitation: An Outline of the General Relativity Theory''". Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521337097 * Eddington, Arthur S., "''Philosophy of Physical Science''". Textbook Publishers. ISBN 0758120540 * Eddington, Arthur S., "''The Domain of Physical Science''". ==See also== * '''[[Astronomy]]''': [[Eddington limit]], [[Chandrasekhar limit]], [[Gravitational lens]], [[Stellar nucleosynthesis]], [[Timeline of stellar astronomy]], [[List of astronomers\|Astronomers]], [[List of astrophysicists\|Astrophysicists]] * '''[[Science]]''': [[Pathological science]], [[Fundamental physical constant]], [[Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity]], [[General relativity]], [[Special relativity]], [[Luminiferous aether]], [[List of famous experiments\|Experiments]], [[Fundamental theory]], [[Eddington number]]. [[Eddington-Dirac number]] * '''Organizations''': [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], [[Religious Society of Friends]], [[Royal Astronomical Society]] * '''Other''': [[Georges Lemaître]], [[Infinite monkey theorem]], [[One hundred thirty-seven]], [[Numerology]], [[Eddington]] (locations), [[List of English people]], [[List of astronomical topics]] ==External links and references== {{commons\|Arthur Stanley Eddington}} {{wikiquote}} * O'Connor, J. J., and E. F. Robertson, "''[http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Eddington.html Arthur Stanley Eddington]''". School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. ** Eddington [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Quotations/Eddington.html Quotations] * Bennett, Clark, "''[http://www.usd.edu/phys/courses/phys300/gallery/clark/edd.html Sir Arthur Eddington] (1882-1944)''". Founding Fathers of Relativity. * Tenn, Joseph S.,"[http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedalists/eddington/ Arthur Stanley Eddington]". The Bruce Medalists. * Clausen, Ben, "''[http://www.grisda.org/bclausen/papers/co46.htm Men of Science and of Faith in God], Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882&ndash;1944)''". * Russell, Henry Norris, "''[http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1928ApJ....67...83R Review of The Internal Constitution of the Stars] by A.S. Eddington''". Ap.J. 67, 83 (1928). * Durham, Ian T., "''[http://org/abs/physics/0204057 Eddington & Uncertainty]''". Physics in Perspective (Sept. &ndash; Dec.). Arxiv, History of Physics. * [http://ads.nao.ac.jp//full/seri/PASP./0036//0000002.000.html Awarding of Bruce Medal: PASP '''36''' (1924) 2] * [http://ads.nao.ac.jp//full/seri/MNRAS/0084//0000548.000.html Awarding of RAS gold medal: MNRAS '''84''' (1924) 548] * Waller, John, "''Einstein's Luck: The Truth Behind Some of the Greatest Scientific Discoveries''". Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0198607199 * {{MacTutor Biography\|id=Eddington}} ===Obituaries=== * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/ApJ../0101//0000133.000.html ApJ '''101''' (1943-46) 133] * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/JRASC/0039//0000001.000.html JRASC '''39''' (1943-46) 1] * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0105//0000068.000.html MNRAS '''105''' (1943-46) 68] * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0066//0000001.000.html Obs '''66''' (1943-46) 1] [[Category:1882 births\|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]] [[Category:1944 deaths\|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]] [[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge\|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]] [[Category:Astrophysicists\|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]] [[Category:British astronomers\|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]] [[Category:Christians in science\|Edd]] [[Category:Contributors to general relativity\|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society\|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]] [[Category:Quakers\|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]] [[Category:Conscientious objectors\|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]] [[de:Arthur Stanley Eddington]] [[eo:Arthur EDDINGTON]] [[fr:Arthur Eddington]] [[it:Arthur Eddington]] [[nl:Arthur Eddington]] [[ja:アーサー・エディントン]] [[pl:Arthur Stanley Eddington]] [[sl:Arthur Stanley Eddington]] [[sv:Arthur Eddington]] [[zh:亚瑟&#183;埃丁顿]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apple II</title> <id>2275</id> <revision> <id>41734583</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:45:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mirror Vax</username> <id>231030</id> </contributor> <comment>rv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Apple II family]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>American Revolutionary War/Article from the 1911 Encyclopedia</title> <id>2277</id> <revision> <id>15900707</id> <timestamp>2004-02-25T18:34:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dante Alighieri</username> <id>5455</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American Revolutionary War]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anteater</title> <id>2278</id> <revision> <id>41360280</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:16:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eugene van der Pijll</username> <id>22016</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>color taxobox = pink</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox \| color = pink \| name = Anteater \| image = anteater.png \| image_width = 200px \| image_caption = [[Giant Anteater]] \| regnum = [[Animal]]ia \| phylum = [[Chordate\|Chordata]] \| classis = [[Mammal]]ia \| ordo = [[Xenarthra]] \| familia = '''Myrmecophagidae''' \| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray\|Gray]], 1825 \| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus\|Genera]] \| subdivision = [[Myrmecophaga]]<br /> [[Tamandua]]<br /> [[Cyclopes (genus)\|Cyclopes]] }} [[Image:Tamandua_anteater_Costa_Rica.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|A Tamandua anteater in [[Costa Rica]] <br><br>Photograph by Dirk van der Made]] '''Anteaters''' are [[mammal]]s of 4 species of the order [[Xenarthra]] and the [[family (biology)\|family]] '''Myrmecophagidae''', commonly known for eating [[ant]]s and [[termite]]s. ==Physiology== The largest representative of the group is the Giant Anteater or Ant-bear (''Myrmecophaga tridactyla'' or ''jubata''), an animal measuring 4 feet (1.2 m) in length without the tail, and 2 feet (60 cm) in height at the shoulder. It has a long, thin head and a large, bushy tail. Its prevailing color is grey, with a broad black band, bordered with white, starting on the chest, and passing oblique
-[[Differential form\|form]]). Unlike in Riemannian geometry, all symplectic manifolds are locally isomorphic, so the only invariants of a symplectic manifold are global in nature. ==See also== [[List of differential geometry topics]] [[Glossary of differential geometry and topology]] [[List of publications in mathematics#Differential geometry\| Important publications in differential geometry]] [[List of publications in mathematics#Differential topology\| Important publications in differential topology]] ==External links== [http://rsp.math.brandeis.edu/3D-XplorMath/Surface/a/bk/curves_surfaces_palais.pdf A Modern Course on Curves and Surface, Richard S Palais, 2003] [http://rsp.math.brandeis.edu/3D-XplorMath/Surface/gallery.html Richard Palais's 3DXM Surfaces Gallery] [http://www.cs.elte.hu/geometry/csikos/dif/dif.html Balázs Csikós's Notes on Differential Geometry] ==Reference books== 1. ''A Comprehensive Introduction to Differential Geometry (5 Volumes), 3rd Edition'' by Michael Spivak (1999) 2. ''Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces'' by Manfredo Do Carmo (1976). A classical geometric approach to differential geometry without the tensor machinery. 3. ''Riemannian Geometry'' by Manfredo Perdigao do Carmo, Francis Flaherty (1994) 4. ''Geometry from a Differentiable Viewpoint'' by John McCleary (1994) 5. ''A First Course in Geometric Topology and Differential Geometry'' by Ethan D. Bloch (1996) 6. ''Modern Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces with Mathematica'', 2nd ed. by Alfred Gray (1998) [[Category:Differential geometry\| ]] [[Category:Differential topology\| ]] {{Mathematics-footer}} [[de:Differentialgeometrie]] [[es:Geometría diferencial]] [[fr:Géométrie différentielle]] [[ja:微分幾何学]] [[pt: Geometria diferencial]] [[ru:Дифференциальная геометрия и топология]] [[sv:Differentialgeometri]] [[zh:微分拓扑]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dhole</title> <id>8626</id> <revision> <id>41176472</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T15:37:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>UtherSRG</username> <id>33145</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[H. P. Lovecraft]]'s fictional monster [[Dhole (fictional)\|Dhole]]'' :''For the town in France, see [[Cuon, Maine-et-Loire]].'' {{Taxobox \| color = pink \| name = Dhole \| status = {{StatusEndangered}} \| image = asian_red_dog.jpg \| image_width = 250px \| regnum = [[Animal]]ia \| phylum = [[Chordate\|Chordata]] \| classis = [[mammal\|Mammalia]] \| ordo = [[Carnivora]] \| familia = [[Canidae]] \| genus = '''''Cuon''''' \| genus_authority = [[Brian Houghton Hodgson\|Hodgson]], 1838 \| species = '''''C. alpinus''''' \| binomial = ''Cuon alpinus'' \| binomial_authority = ([[Peter Simon Pallas\|Pallas]], [[1811]]) }} The '''Dhole''' (''Cuon alpinus'') is a species of wild [[dog]] of the [[Canidae]] family. It is sometimes called the '''Indian Wild Dog''' where it is seen abundantly. It is also known as the '''Red Dog''', the '''Whistling Hunter''', and the '''Asiatic Dog'''. They are the only [[species]] in the [[genus]] '''''Cuon'''''. == Habitat == Dholes prefer forested areas, which provides better cover for hunting, but also can be found in hilly, grassy meadows and mountainous regions. Dhole range includes south Asia, north into central Asia to the borders of [[Russia]], east to [[Malaysia]] and south to [[Sumatra]] and [[India]] and [[Java (island)]]. == Behaviour == The dhole is a social canid and is generally seen living in packs of ten or more. Dhole interact with other dholes outside of their own pack and may temporally form a pack of up to 40 members. Like [[Gray Wolf\|wolves]], dholes engage in cooperative group hunting and care of pups. Their communication sounds range from screams, mewing, chatters, whistles, chicken-like clucking, and hisses. == Hunting == Sometimes several families unite to attack larger animals. They prey on [[sambar]], [[nilgai]], [[chital]], [[blackbuck]], and [[pig]]s. As a large group they can attack even the [[Gaur\|Indian bison]], [[leopard]] and [[tiger]]s. They are excellent swimmers, sometimes driving their prey into water. Dholes appear in [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s children's story ''Red Dog'' and in ''[[The Second Jungle Book]]'' as a threat to [[Mowgli]]'s wolf pack. ==Subspecies== '''Dhole''' (''Cuon alpinus'') - Eastern Russia ''Cuon alpinus adustus'' - Northern Myanmar & Indo-China ''Cuon alpinus dukhunensis'' - India, south of the Ganges river ''Cuon alpinus fumosus'' - Western Szechuan, China & Mongolia ''Cuon alpinus hesperius'' - Eastern Russia & China ''Cuon alpinus infuscus'' - Southern Myanmar, Malaysia, Thailand & Vietnam. ''Cuon alpinus javanocus'' - Java ''Cuon alpinus laniger'' - Kashmir & Southern Tibet ''Cuon alpinus lepturus'' - China, south of the Yangzhe river ''Cuon alpinus primaevus'' - Himalayan regions of Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. ''Cuon alpinus sumatrensis'' - Sumatra ==External links== [http://www.cuon.net/dholes/ Dhole Home Page] [http://www.canids.org/SPPACCTS/dhole.htm Dhole info] [http://www.lioncrusher.com/animal.asp?animal=14 Dhole facts and pictures] [http://redlist.org/search/details.php?species=5953 ICUN threatened species- Dhole] [http://www.canids.org/PUBLICAT/CNDNEWS1/dhole.htm mapping the dhole in south east asia] [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cuon_alpinus.html animal diversity - dhole] [[Category:Canines]] [[Category:Mammals of India]] [[Category:Wildlife of Asia]] [[bg:Азиатско диво куче]] [[da:Dhole]] [[de:Rothund]] [[es:Cuon alpinus]] [[fi:Vuorisusi]] [[fr:Dhole]] [[he:דהול]] [[id:Ajag]] [[it:Cuon alpinus]] [[ja:ドール]] [[lt:Raudonasis vilkas]] [[ms:Anjing Hutan]] [[nl:Dhole]] [[no:Asiatisk villhund]] [[pl:Cyjon]] [[ru:Красный волк]] [[su:Ajag]] [[zh:豺]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dr. Watson</title> <id>8627</id> <revision> <id>40383550</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T04:41:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.223.162.50</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Notes */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dr. John H. Watson''' is a [[fictional character]], the [[sidekick]] of [[Sherlock Holmes (character)\|Sherlock Holmes]], the fictional [[19th century]] [[Detective fiction\|detective]] created by [[Arthur Conan Doyle]], in the [[Sherlock Holmes\|Sherlock Holmes novels]]. Various (extra-canonical) sources give Watson's birth date as [[August 7]], [[1852]] and his full name as '''Dr. John Hamish Watson'''. ==Background and description== In the debut Holmes story ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]'' (published in [[1887]]), Watson, as the narrator, describes meeting Holmes, their subsequent sharing of rooms at [[221B Baker Street]], his attempts to discover the profession of his taciturn companion, Holmes's eventual taking of Watson into his confidence, and the events surrounding their first case together. Watson describes Holmes and his methods in detail, but in too romantic and sentimental a manner for Holmes' taste. In time, they become close friends. In ''[[The Sign of Four]]'', Watson met [[Mary Morstan]], who became his wife. Mary seemed somewhat less sure of her future husband, however, absent-mindedly calling him "James." Some have speculated that this is a wifely reference to Watson's unknown middle name, which could have been "Hamish" (Scottish for "James"). She repeats the nickname (or Doyle repeats the error) in ''[[The Man with the Twisted Lip]].'' Watson is a physician of some experience (as was Conan Doyle). Watson had served in the [[British Army]] medical corps in [[Afghanistan]], having been discharged following an injury{{ref\|injury}} received in the line of duty, during the [[Battle of Maiwand]]. Watson was almost killed in the long and arduous retreat from the battle, but was saved by his [[orderly]], Murray. ==Personality== Watson is not a stupid man (he is, after all, a medical doctor, and one whose talents Holmes holds in the highest esteem), but he does not have Holmes' insight. He serves as a foil to Holmes: the ordinary man against the brilliant, emotionally-detached analytical machine that Holmes can sometimes be. With the two, Conan created a clever literary pairing: two vivid characters, different in their function and yet each useful for his purposes. Watson is well aware of both the limits of his abilities and Holmes' reliance on him: :"[Holmes] was a man of habits... and I had become one of them... a comrade... upon whose nerve he could place some reliance... a whetstone for his mind. I stimulated him... If I irritated him by a certain methodical slowness in my mentality, that irritation served only to make his own flame-like intuitions and impressions flash up the more vividly and swiftly. Such was my humble role in our alliance." Conan Doyle portrays Watson as a capable and brave individual, whom Holmes does not hesitate to call upon for both moral and physical assistance: "Quickly Watson, get your [[Dr. Watson's revolver\|service revolver]]!" Watson occasionally attempts to solve crimes on his own, using Holmes's methods. For example, in ''[[The Hound of the Baskervilles]]'', Watson efficiently clears up several of the many mysteries confronting the pair, and Holmes praises him warmly for his zeal and intelligence. However, because he is not endowed with Holmes's almost-superhuman ability to focus on the essential details of the case, he meets with limited success in other cases, as Holmes remarks "Quite so... you see, but you do not observe." Watson is too guileless to be a proper detective; he is naturally open and straightforward, while Holmes can be secretive and devious. Watson was something of a ladies' man and fans of the Conan Doyle stories have long speculated as to just how many times he
Divinatione]]'' (''Divination'') * (45 BC) ''[[De Fato]]'' (''The Fate'') * (44 BC) ''[[Cato Maior de Senectute]]'' (''Cato the Elder [[On Old Age]]'') * (44 BC) ''[[Laelius de Amicitia]]'' (''Laelius [[On Friendship]]'') * (44 BC) ''[[De Officiis]]'' (''Duties'') * (?? BC) ''[[Paradoxa Stoicorum]]'' (''Stoic Paradoxes'') * (?? BC) ''[[De Legibus]]'' (''The Laws'') * (?? BC) ''[[De Consulatu Suo]]'' (''His Consulship'') * (?? BC) ''[[De temporibus suis]]'' (''His Life and Times'') * (?? BC) ''[[Commentariolum Petitionis]]'' (''Handbook of Candidacy'') [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0022:text=Pet.:section=1] (attributed to Cicero, but probably written by his brother Quintus) === Letters === More than 800 letters by Cicero to others exist, and over 100 letters from others to him. * ([[68 BC]]-[[43 BC]]) ''[[Epistulae ad Atticum]]'' (''Letters to Atticus'') * ([[59 BC]]-[[54 BC]]) ''[[Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem]]'' (''Letters to his brother Quintus'') * ([[43 BC]]) ''[[Epistulae ad Brutum]]'' (''Letters to Brutus'') * (43 BC) ''[[Epistulae ad Familiares]]'' (''Letters to his friends'') ==See also== [[Marcus Tullius Tiro]] [[Cicero and the Roman Republic]] == References == # {{note\|Everitt}} Everitt pp. 215 ''see sources below'' == Sources == * [[Anthony Everitt]] ([[2001]]), ''Cicero: the life and times of Rome's greatest politician'', [[Random House]], hardback, 359 pages, ISBN 0-375-50746-9 * Taylor, H. (1918). ''Cicero: A sketch of his life and works.'' Chicago: A. C. McClurg &amp; Co. ==Further reading== * [[Francis A. Yates]] ([[1974]]). ''The Art of Memory'', University of Chicago Press, 448 pages, Reprint: ISBN 0226950018 * [[Taylor Caldwell]] ([[1965]]), ''A Pillar of Iron'', Doubleday & Company ==External links== {{Wikisourcelang\|la\|Marcus Tullius Cicero\|Marcus Tullius Cicero}} {{wikiquote}} * General: [http://gracie.smsu.edu/cicero.htm Links to Cicero resources] [http://www.utexas.edu/depts/classics/documents/Cic.html University of Texas Cicero Homepage] *[http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/cicero.htm] Works by Cicero: {{gutenberg author\| id=Marcus+Tullius+Cicero \| name=Cicero}} [[Perseus Project]] (Latin and English): [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cache/perscoll_Greco-Roman.html Classics Collection (see: M. Tullius Cicero)] [[The Latin Library]] (Latin): [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cic.html Works of Cicero] UAH (Latin, with translation notes): [http://www.uah.edu/student_life/organizations/SAL/claslattexts/cicero.html Cicero Page] ** ''[http://www.constitution.org/rom/de_officiis.htm De Officiis]'', translated by Walter Miller * Biographies and descriptions of Cicero's time: At Project Gutenberg * [[Plutarch]]'s biography of Cicero contained in the [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/674 ''Parallel Lives''] * ''Life of Cicero'' by Anthony Trollope, [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/8945 Volume I] - [Volume II] * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11448 ''Cicero'' by Rev. W. Lucas Collins (''Ancient Classics for English Readers'')] * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13481 ''Roman life in the days of Cicero'' by Rev. Alfred J. Church] * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11256 ''Social life at Rome in the Age of Cicero''] by [[W. Warde Fowler]] [http://www.heraklia.fws1.com/contemporaries/cicero At Heraklia website] [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/cicero.html Dryden's translation of ''Cicero'' from Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives''] [http://community.middlebury.edu/~harris/LatinAuthors/Cicero.html At Middlebury College website] [http://freewebs.com/praetorbrutus] ==Notes== <small>1- Official full name of Cicero. The meaning in English is "Marcus Tullius Cicero, son (''filius'') of Marcus, grandson (''nepos'') of Marcus, great-grandson (''pronepos'') of Marcus, of the tribe Cornelia". {{Plutarch's lives}} [[Category:106 BC births]] [[Category:43 BC deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Roman rhetoricians]] [[Category:Roman era philosophers]] [[Category:Latin authors]] [[Category:Natives of the Lazio]] [[Category:Roman jurists]] [[Category:Rhetoric]] [[Category:Rhetoric]] [[Category:Executed writers]] [[Category:Executed Romans]] [[Category:Classical humanists]] [[Category:Rhetoricians]] [[Category:Historical figures portrayed by Shakespeare]] [[bg:Цицерон]] [[cs:Marcus Tullius Cicero]] [[da:Marcus Tullius Cicero]] [[de:Marcus Tullius Cicero]] [[el:Μάρκος Τύλλιος Κικέρωνας]] [[es:Cicerón]] [[eo:Cicerono]] [[eu:Zizeron]] [[fi:Cicero]] [[fr:Cicéron]] [[gl:Marcus Tullius Cicero]] [[he:מרקוס טוליוס קיקרו]] [[hu:Marcus Tullius Cicero]] [[is:Cíceró]] [[it:Marco Tullio Cicerone]] [[ja:マルクス・トゥッリウス・キケロ]] [[ko:키케로]] [[la:M. Tullius Cicero]] [[li:Cicero]] [[nl:Marcus Tullius Cicero]] [[no:Marcus Tullius Cicero]] [[nn:Cicero]] [[pl:Cyceron]] [[pt:Cícero]] [[ro:Marcus Tullius Cicero]] [[ru:Цицерон]] [[sk:Marcus Tullius Cicero]] [[sr:Цицерон]] [[sv:Cicero]] [[tl:Cicero]] [[tr:Marcus Tullius Cicero]] [[uk:Ціцерон]] [[zh:西塞罗]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Consul</title> <id>6047</id> <revision> <id>41727688</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:13:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: da</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For modern, semi-diplomatic or colonial '''consuls''', see [[Consul (representative)]].'' '''Consul''' (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the highest elected office of the [[Roman Republic]] and an appointive office under the [[Roman Empire\|Empire]]. The title was also used in other city states, and revived in modern states, notably [[French Republic\|Republican France]] before Napoleon turned it into an [[First French Empire\|Empire]]. The relating adjective is '''consular''', from the Latin ''consularis'' (which has been used substantivated, as a title in its own right). ==Ancient Rome== {{Roman government}} ===Republic=== After the mythical expulsion of the last Etruscan King [[Tarquinius Superbus]] and the ending of the [[Roman Kingdom]], all the powers and authority of the King were alledgedly given to the newly instituted Consulship. However, it is likely that first the chief magistrates were the [[Praetor]]s. The office of Consul was believed to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in [[509 BC]] but the succession of Consuls is not continuous in the [[5th century BC\|5th century]]. Consuls had extensive competences in peacetime, administrative, legislative and judicial, and in (frequent) war time often held the highest military command(s); additional religious duties included certain rites which, as a sign of their formal impotance, could only be carried out by top level state officials (compare [[Rex sacrorum]]); the reading of the [[augury\|auguries]] was an essential step before leading armies into the field. Under the laws of the Republic, the minimum age of election to consul for [[patrician]]s was 40 years of age, for [[plebeian]]s 42. Two consuls were elected each year, serving together with veto power over each other's actions, a normal principle for magistratures. In [[Latin]], ''consules'' means "those who walk together". If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when consuls were in the forefront of battle), another would be elected, and be known as a '''suffect consul''' (''cos. suff.''). According to tradition, the consulship was initially reserved for patricians and only in [[367 BC]] the plebeians won the right to stand for this supreme office, when the [[lex Licinia Sextia]] provided that at least one consul each year should be plebeian; the first plebeian consul, [[Lucius Sextius]], was thereby elected the following year. Modern historians have questioned the traditional account of plebeian emancipation during the Early Republic (see [[Conflict of the Orders]]), noting for instance that about thirty percent of the consuls prior to Sextius had plebeian, not patrician, names; probably only the chronology has been distorted. During times of war, the primary criterion for consul was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the consulship became the normal endpoint of the ''[[cursus honorum]]'', the sequence of offices pursued by the ambitious Roman. Beginning in the late Republic, after finishing a consular year, a former consul would usually serve a lucrative term as a [[Proconsul]], the [[Roman Governor]] of one of the (senatorial) [[Roman provinces\|provinces]]. ===Empire=== When [[Augustus Caesar\|Augustus]] established the [[Principate]], he changed the political nature of the office, stripping it of most of its powers. While still a great honor -in fact invariably the constitutional head of state, hence eponymous- and a requirement for other offices, many consuls would resign part way through the year to allow other men to finish their term as suffects. Those who held the office on [[January 1]], known as the '''consules ordinarii''', had the honor of associating their names with that year. As a result, about half of the men who held the rank of [[praetor]] could also reach the consulship. Sometimes these suffect consuls would in turn resign, and another suffect would be appointed. This reached its extreme under [[Commodus]], when in [[190\|AD 190]] twenty-five men held the consulship. Emperors frequently appointed themselves, protégés, or relatives consul, even without regard to the age requirements. For example, [[Flavius Augustus Honorius\|Emperor Honorius]] was given the consulship at birth. The most ludicrous excess was when mad emperor [[Caligula]] elevated a horse! Holding the consulship was a great honor and the office the major symbol of the still republican constitution, so probably as part of seaking formal legitimacy, the break-away [[Gallic Empire]] had its own pairs of
decision the Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation case] ([[Portable Document Format\|PDF]]) * [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#107 Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use] &ndash; From the US Copyright Office * [http://www.ipwatchdog.com/fairuse_cases.html Some more key fair use cases] &ndash; From IPWatchdog website * [http://www.copyright.iupui.edu/checklist.pdf Checklist for fair use] ([[Portable Document Format\|PDF]]) &ndash; From Purdue University * [http://www.nolo.com/lawcenter/ency/article.cfm/objectID/C3E49F67-1AA3-4293-9312FE5C119B5806 "When Copying Is Okay: The 'Fair Use' Rule"] &ndash; From Nolo.com/Law for All * [http://www.jamesshuggins.com/h/oth1/parody.htm Parody and Fair Use] With links to several rulings, including the [http://www.benedict.com/Audio/crew/crew.aspx Pretty Woman] parody. * [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/events/SignalNoiseBBFINAL.pdf A Practical Guide to Fair Use Doctrine] ([[Portable Document Format\|PDF]]) &ndash; from [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/sn/ Signal or Noise 2K5] at Harvard University * [http://www.utsystem.edu/ogc/intellectualproperty/copypol2.htm A guide to the circumstances of fair use] * [http://www.publaw.com/work.html How Much of Someone Else's Work May I Use Without Asking Permission?: The Fair Use Doctrine, Part I], ''The Publishing Law Center'' * [http://www.publaw.com/fairuse.html Fair Use: Interpretations and Guidelines - The Fair Use Doctrine Part II], ''The Publishing Law Center'' * [[Wikipedia:Fair use]], [[Wikipedia]]'s guideline on the fair use of copyrighted material on Wikipedia. [[Category:United States intellectual property law]] [[Category:Fair use\|Fair use]] [[Category:Copyright law]] [[Category:Equitable defenses]] [[ca:Fair use]] [[cs:Fair use]] [[da:Fair use]] [[de:Fair Use]] [[es:Fair use]] [[eo:Justa uzo]] [[fr:Fair use]] [[gu:Fair use]] [[he:שימוש הוגן]] [[ko:공정 사용]] [[hr:Pravedna uporaba]] [[id:Fair use]] [[it:Fair use]] [[nl:Fair use]] [[ja:フェアユース]] [[pl:Fair use]] [[pt:Fair use]] [[ru:Добросовестное использование (авторское право)]] [[simple:Fair use]] [[sl:Poštena uporaba]] [[sr:Поштена употреба]] [[sv:Fair use]] [[th:การใช้งานโดยชอบธรรม]] [[zh:合理使用]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Flying car</title> <id>10773</id> <revision> <id>42004413</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:05:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>205.188.116.196</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Vision /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink\|This article is about flying automobiles. For information on the [[2002 in film\|2002]] [[Kevin Smith]] [[film]], see ''[[The Flying Car]]''.}} [[image:Waterman Aerobile.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|The Waterman Aerobile at the Smithsonian. Copyright © 1998-2000 National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.]] A '''flying car''' is an [[automobile]] that is designed to take off, fly, and land like an [[aircraft]]. ==History== ===Vision=== It wasn't long after The Wirght Brothers made their first successful flight that aviation pioneers began to imagine a hybrid aircraft/automobile. A flying car would be a vehicle for the common man. It could be driven from any home to a convenient take-off area where it could be assembled for flight. Some current designs, such as the "Magic Dragon" have built-in automatic conversion. ===Early experiments=== [[Glenn Curtiss]], the Wright's chief rival, was the first to design a flying car. The ''Autoplane'' had three wings and an aluminum body, using the same wings as his Model L Triplane which spanned 40 feet. The assembled length was 20 feet, the body/fuselage using a [[twin boom]] rear section with the engine mounted between the booms. The ''Autoplane'' never flew but was exhibited at the Pan-American Aeronautic Exposition in New York City's Grand Central Palace in February [[1917]]. The first patent awarded for a flying car went to [[F. Longobardi]] in [[1918]] and Curtiss received a patent for the ''Autoplane'' in [[1919]]. The first flying car to actually fly was built by [[Waldo Waterman]]. Waterman became associated with Curtiss while Curtiss was pioneering naval aviation at North Island on [[San Diego Bay]] in the [[1910s]]. However, it wasn't until [[February 21]] [[1937]] that Waterman's [[Waterman Arrowbile\|Arrowbile]] first took to the air. The ''Arrowbile'' was a development of Waterman's tailless airplane, the [[Waterman Whatsit\|Whatsit]]. It had a wingspan of 38 feet and a length of 20 feet 6 inches. On the ground and in the air it was powered by a Studebaker engine. It could fly at 110 MPH and drive at 55 MPH. Five ''Arrowbiles'' were completed and two were flown from [[Santa Monica, California\|Santa Monica]], [[California]] to [[Cleveland, Ohio\|Cleveland]], [[Ohio]] for demonstration flights during air races. Waterman restored ''Arrowbile'' No. 6 (No. 5 was never completed) in the [[1960s]] and donated it to the [[Smithsonian Institution]], where it is in storage. ''Arrowbile'' No. 4 is reported to still exist in non-working condition. ===Post-war development=== In the [[1950s]], the western world was recovering from [[World War II]] and everything seemed possible. The '''flying car''' was a vision of transportation in the [[21st century]], and a common feature of [[science fiction]] futures. Several designs exist (such as Moller's [[skycar]]) and while several (such as the Convair flying car and Molt Taylor's Aircar) have flown, none have enjoyed commercial success and those that have flown are not widely known about by the general public. One notable design, [[Henry Smolinski\|Henry Smolinski's]] ''[[Mizar (flying car)\|Mizar]]'', made by mating the rear end of a [[Cessna Skymaster]] with a [[Ford Motor Company\|Ford]] [[Ford Pinto\|Pinto]], disintegrated during test flights, killing Smolinski and the pilot. Current projects include the [[Milner AirCar]], a two-door, four-seat canard-style aircraft. For ground operations, the 28 ft wingspan folds to a 7 ft wide vehicle. It is expected that using advanced composites, the vehicle will meet FMVSS crash-worthiness requirements. In the [[1950s]], [[Ford Motor Company]] performed a serious feasibility study for a flying car product. They concluded that such a product was technically feasible, economically manufacturable, and had significant realistic markets. The markets explored included ambulance services, police and emergency services, military uses, and initially, luxury transportation. Some of these markets are now served by light [[helicopter\|helicopters]], proving the accuracy of Ford's marketing. However, the flying car explored by Ford would be at least fifty-fold less expensive.<br> When Ford approached the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration about regulatory issues, the critical problem was that the (then) known forms of air traffic control were inadequate for the volume of traffic Ford proposed. At the time, air traffic control consisted of flight numbers, altitudes and headings written on little slips of paper and placed in a case. Quite possibly computerized traffic control, or some form of directional allocation by altitude could resolve the problems. Other problems would also need to be resolved in some ways, however, including intoxicated drivers or motorists that drive without a license. As the successive decades since failed to deliver such a vehicle, the flying car became somewhat of a totem of the failure of [[futurology]] to accurately predict the future development of society and was regularly used to poke fun at futurists. However, the [[Moller Skycar]] passed flight testing in [[2003]] and is awaiting FAA certification. Over 100 have been reserved and production is expected to begin in [[2006]]. [[image:Moller M400 hover test.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|The first practical flying car? The Moller Skycar M400 during a tethered hover test]] ==List of flying cars and roadable aircraft== [[Curtiss Autoplane]] - [[1917]], never flown [[Waterman Arrowbile]] - [[1937]] two examples in museums as of 2004 [[Aerocar Aerocar]] - [[1949]], one example still flying as of 2004 [[Aerauto PL.5C]] - early 1950s [[AVE Mizar]] - [[1973]], Cesna Skymaster/Ford Pinto hybrid. Crashed, killing developer. [[Moller Skycar]] - [[2003]], small [[VTOL]]. [[CarterCopter]] - near VTOL aircraft *[[Cell craft]]- conceptual flying car ===Fictional=== The novels of [[Philip K. Dick]] and the film ''[[Blade Runner]]'' (the latter based on one of Dick's novels), in particular, feature [[VTOL]] flying cars, in the form of "flapples" and "[[spinner (Blade Runner)\|spinner]]s" respectively. Flying cars and other wingless floating vehicles are common in many (if not most) science fiction movies and series that depict a technologically advanced future, including ''[[Star Wars]]'', ''[[The Fifth Element]]'', ''[[Star Trek]]'', and ''[[The Matrix]]''. Usually these vehicles fly without any visible means of staying aloft (perhaps due to [[anti-gravity]] or some other exotic technology). [[The Absent Minded Professor]] used [[flubber]] to convert his own car into a flying model. One of the most iconic flying cars is the [[De Lorean]] from the film ''[[Back to the Future Part II]]'', which underwent "hover conversion" while time-travelling in the future. More recently, flying cars have made the transition from science fiction to fantasy in the [[Harry Potter]] books, in the form of an otherwise-stock (and long since obsolete) [[Ford Anglia]] enchanted to fly. See also [[Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (car)\|Chitty Chitty Bang Bang]]. ==Popular culture== In [[Calvin and Hobbes]] in late 1989, the following discussion may be found (and appears to be the earliest known 'Where are the flying cars?'): "Hobbes: ''"A new decade is coming up."'' Calvin: ''"Yeah, big deal! Hmph. Where are the flying cars? Where are the moon colonies? Where are the personal robots and the zero-gravity boots, hu
of Nations]], there remains a strong influence across the world, such as in [[Anglo-Saxon economy\|economic]] practice, [[trial by jury\|legal]] and [[Westminster system\|government]] systems, the spread of many traditionally British sports (such as [[cricket]] and [[Football (soccer)\|football]]) and also the spread of the [[English language]]. The British Empire was at one time refered to as "[[The empire on which the sun never sets\|the empire on which the sun never sets]]", as due to its vastness, the sun was always shining on one of its [[colonies]]. [[Image:British Empire 1897.jpg\|thumb\|350px\|right\|The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps]] ==Background: The English and Scottish Empires== ===The Anglo-Norman Kingdom=== In 1066, [[William the Conqueror\|William]], Duke of [[Normandy]], conquered [[England]] and asserted his right to be king, giving England its first overseas territory (Normandy). The new rulers had dual roles. First, as [[kings of England]] they were sovereign lords. Second, as [[dukes of Normandy]], they were vassals of the [[kings of France]]. This led to centuries of conflicts which ended with their loss of [[France\|French]] holdings in 1558. In the meantime, the [[annexation]] of [[Ireland]] began in 1172 and [[Wales]] was conquered in 1282. ===Growth of the overseas empire=== [[Image:Johncabotbonavista.jpg\|right\|thumb\|150px\|Statue of [[John Cabot]] in [[Newfoundland]], site of England's first overseas colony.]] The overseas British Empire (in the sense of British oceanic exploration and settlement outside of Europe and the [[British Isles]]) was rooted in the pioneering maritime policies of King [[Henry VII of England\|Henry VII]], who reigned from 1485 to 1509. Building on commercial links in the [[wool trade]] promoted during the reign of his predecessor King [[Richard III of England\|Richard III]], Henry established the modern English [[merchant marine]] system, which greatly expanded English shipbuilding and seafaring. The merchant marine also supplied the basis for the mercantile institutions that would play such a crucial role in later British imperial ventures, such as the [[Massachusetts Bay Company]] and the [[British East India Company]]. Henry's financial reforms made the [[English Exchequer]] solvent, which helped to underwrite the development of the Merchant Marine. Henry also ordered construction of the first English [[dry dock]], at [[Portsmouth]], and made improvements to England's small [[Royal Navy\|navy]]. Additionally, Henry sponsored the voyages of the [[Italy\|Italian]] mariner [[John Cabot]] in 1496 and 1497 that established England's first overseas colony - a fishing settlement - in [[Newfoundland]], which Cabot claimed on behalf of Henry. ===[[Henry VIII of England\|Henry VIII]] and the rise of the [[Royal Navy]]=== The foundations of sea power, having been laid during Henry VII's reign, were gradually expanded to protect English trade and open up new routes. King [[Henry VIII of England\|Henry VIII]] founded the modern [[English navy]] (though the plans to do so were put into motion during his father's reign), more than tripling the number of warships and constructing the first large vessels with heavy, long-range guns. He initiated the Navy's formal, centralised administrative apparatus, built new docks, and constructed the network of [[beacon]]s and [[lighthouse]]s that greatly facilitated coastal [[navigation]] for English and foreign merchant sailors. Henry thus established the [[munitions]]-based [[Royal English Navy]] that was able to hold off the [[Spanish Armada]] in 1588, and his innovations provided the seed for the imperial navy of later centuries. ===The Elizabethan era=== [[Image:Loutherbourg, Spanish Armada.jpg\|300px\|thumb\|right\|''Defeat of the Spanish Armada'', by [[Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg]], painted 1796.]] During the reign of the [[Tudor dynasty\|Tudor]] [[Elizabeth I of England\|Queen Elizabeth I]], Sir [[Francis Drake]] [[circumnavigated the globe]] in the years 1577 to 1580, fleeing from the [[Spanish]], only the second to accomplish this feat after [[Ferdinand Magellan\|Ferdinand Magellan's]] expedition. In 1579, Drake landed somewhere in northern [[History of California\|California]] and claimed for the [[English Crown]] what he named ''[[Nova Albion]]'' ("New Albion", [[Albion]] being an ancient name for England), though the claim was not followed by settlement. Subsequent maps spell out ''Nova Albion'' to the north of all [[New Spain]]. Thereafter, England's interests outside [[Europe]] grew steadily, promoted by [[John Dee]], who coined the phrase "British Empire". An expert in navigation, he was visited by many of the early English explorers before and after their expeditions. He was a [[Wales\|Welsh]]man, and his use of the term ''"[[British]]"'' fitted with the Welsh origins of Elizabeth's [[Tudor]] family, although his conception of empire was derived from [[Dante]]'s book ''[[Monarchia]]''. [[Humphrey Gilbert]] followed on Cabot's original claim when he sailed to Newfoundland in 1583 and declared it an English [[colony]] on [[August 5]] at [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador\|St John's]]. [[Sir Walter Raleigh]] organised the first colony in [[Virginia]] in 1587 at [[Roanoke Island]]. Both Gilbert's Newfoundland settlement and the Roanoke colony were short-lived, however, and had to be abandoned due to food shortages, severe weather, shipwrecks, and hostile encounters with [[indigenous]] tribes on the American continent. The [[Elizabethan era]] built on the past century's imperial foundations by expanding Henry VIII's navy, promoting [[Atlantic Ocean\|Atlantic]] exploration by English sailors, and further encouraging maritime trade especially with the [[Netherlands]] and the [[Hanseatic League]]. The nearly twenty year [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)\|Anglo-Spanish War]] ([[1585]] - [[1604]]), which started well for England with the sack of [[Cadiz]] and the repulse of the [[Spanish Armada]], soon turned Spain's way with a number of serious defeats which sent the Royal English Navy into decline and allowed [[Spain]] to retain effective control of the [[Atlantic]] [[sea lanes]], thwarting English hopes of establishing colonies in [[North America]]. However it did give English sailors and shipbuilders vital experience. ===The Stuart era=== In 1604, King [[James I of England]] negotiated the [[Treaty of London, 1604\|Treaty of London]], ending hostilities with Spain, and the first permanent English settlement followed in 1607 at [[Jamestown, Virginia]]. During the next three centuries, England extended its influence overseas and consolidated its political development at home. In 1707, under the [[Acts of Union 1707\|Acts of Union]], the [[Parliament of England]] and the [[Parliament of Scotland]] were united in [[Westminster]], London, as the [[Parliament of Great Britain]]. ===Scottish Empire=== There were several pre-union attempts at creating a [[Scotland\|Scottish]] Overseas Empire, with various Scottish settlements in North and South America. The most famous of these was the disastrous [[Darién scheme]] which attempted to establish a settlement colony and trading post in [[Panama]] to foster trade between Scotland and the [[Far East]]. After union many Scots, especially in [[Canada]], [[Jamaica]], [[India]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], took up posts as doctors, lawyers and teachers. Progressions in Scotland itself during the [[Scottish enlightenment]] led to advancements throughout the empire. Scots settled across the Empire as it developed and built up their own communities such as [[Dunedin]] in New Zealand. ==Colonization== In 1583 Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]] claimed the island of [[Newfoundland]] as England's for Elizabeth I, reinforcing John Cabot's prior claim to the island in 1497, for Henry VII, as England's first overseas colony. Gilbert's shipwreck prevented ensuing settlement in Newfoundland, other than the seasonal [[cod]] fishermen who had frequented the island since 1497. However, the Jamestown colonists, led by Captain [[John Smith]], overcame the severe privations of the winter in 1607 to found England's first permanent overseas settlement. The empire thus took shape during the early [[17th century]], with the English settlement of the [[13 colonies\|eastern colonies]] of [[North America]], which would later become the original [[United States]] as well as [[Canada]]'s [[Atlantic provinces]], and the colonisation of the smaller islands of the [[Caribbean]] such as [[Jamaica]] and [[Barbados]]. The sugar-producing colonies of the Caribbean, where [[slavery]] became the basis of the economy, were at first England's most important and lucrative colonies. The American colonies providing [[tobacco]], [[cotton]], and [[rice]] in the south and naval [[materiel]]<!-- This is not a misspelling. Follow the link to find out the difference between material and materiel --> and furs in the north were less financially successful, but had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far larger numbers of English emigrants. [[Image:death-wolfe.jpg\|thumb\|right\|300px\|''[[The Death of General Wolfe]]'' by [[Benjamin West]].]] England's American empire was slowly expanded by war and colonisation, England gaining control of [[New Amsterdam]] (later [[New York, New York\|New York]]) via negotiations following the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars\|Second Anglo-Dutch War]]. The growing American colonies pressed ever westward in search of new agricultural lands. During the [[Seven Years War]] the British defeated the French at the [[Plains of Abraham]] and captured all of [[New France]] in 1760, giving Britain control over the greater part of North America. Later, settlement of [[Australia]] (starting with penal colonies from 1788) and [[New Zealand]] (under the crown from 1840) created a major zone of British migration. The e
de:Abandon]] [[it:Abbandono]] [[pl:Abandon]] [[ru:&#1040;&#1073;&#1072;&#1085;&#1076;&#1086;&#1085;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abatement</title> <id>1046</id> <revision> <id>42146295</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:07:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gflores</username> <id>153556</id> </contributor> <comment>rm cleanup</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}} The word '''abatement''' has various meanings, many of them legal. The word came through French ''abattre'' from Latin ''ab'' + Late Latin ''battuere'' = "to beat" (which came from Germanic). It means a beating down or reducing or doing away with something. [[Abatement of a nuisance]], the remedy allowed by law to a person or public authority injured by a public [[nuisance]], letting him destroy or remove it, if doing so causes no breach of the peace. In the case of private nuisances, abatement is also allowed if it causes no breach of the peace and no damage beyond what removing the nuisance requires. Abatement of [[freehold (real property)\|freehold]] happens where, after the person last seised dies, a stranger enters upon lands before the entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the heir or devisee out of possession. [[Intrusion]], an entry by a stranger when a tenant for life dies, to the prejudice of the reversioner or remainder man. [[Disseisin]], the forcible or fraudulent expulsion of a person seised of the freehold. [[Abatement of debts and legacies]], a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately [[Abatement in pleading]], or plea in abatement, was a [[plea]] by the defendant, defeating or quashing a legal action by some matter of fact, such as a defect in form or the personal incompetency of the parties suing. It did not involve the merits of the cause, but left the right of action subsisting. In criminal proceedings, a [[plea]] in abatement was at one time a common practice in answer to an indictment, and was set up to defeat the indictment as framed, by alleging that the defendant was wrongly named ("misnomer") or was otherwise wrongly described. Its effect for this purpose was nullified by the Criminal Law Act 1826, which required the court to amend according to the truth, and the Criminal Procedure Act 1851 (see [[Criminal Procedure]]), which rendered description of the defendant unnecessary. All pleas in abatement are now abolished (R.S.G. Order 21, r. 20). [[Abatement in litigation]], in civil proceedings, no action abates because any of the parties marries or dies or becomes [[bankrupt]], if the cause of the action survives or continues, and does not become defective because any [[estate]] or [[title]] is assigned or created or [[devolution\|devolved]] ''[[pendente lite]]'' (R.S.C. Order 17, r. 1). [[Criminal proceeding]]s do not abate on the death of the prosecutor, being in theory instituted by the crown; but the crown may terminate them without deciding on the merits and without the assent of the prosecutor. Abatement of false lights, by the Merchant Shipping Act 1854, the general lighthouse authority has power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse. Abatement in commerce is a deduction sometimes made at a [[custom-house]] from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods, on account of damage or loss sustained in [[warehouse]]s. The rate and conditions of such deductions are regulated, in England, by the Customs Consolidation Act 1853. (See also drawback and [[rebate (marketing)]].) [[Abatement (heraldry)]] is a badge in coat-armour, indicating some kind of [[degradation]] or dishonour. It is also called rebatement. Though most abatements have existed only in theory, there has been at least one imposition of an abatement in Scotland. {{Wikisource1911Enc\|Abatement}} [[Category:Legal terms]] {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ale</title> <id>1047</id> <revision> <id>41582867</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:00:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NongBot</username> <id>817745</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: th</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} '''Ale''' is an ancient word for a [[fermentation\|fermented]] [[alcoholic beverage]] obtained chiefly from [[malt\|malted]] [[barley]]. Before the introduction of [[hop (plant)\|hops]] into England from the [[Netherlands]] in the [[15th century]] the name "ale" was exclusively applied to unhopped fermented beverages, the term "[[beer]]" being gradually introduced to describe a brew with an infusion of hops. This distinction no longer applies. A modern ale is commonly defined by the strain of yeast used and the fermenting temperature. ''Strain of Yeast'': An ale yeast is normally considered to be a [[top-fermenting]] yeast, though a number of British brewers, such as [[Fullers]] and [[Weltons]], use ale yeast strains that settle at the bottom. Common features of ale yeasts regardless of top or bottom fermentation is that they ferment more quickly than lager yeasts, they convert less of the [[sugar]] into [[alcohol]] (giving a sweeter, fuller body) and they produce more [[esters]] (which give a fruity taste) and [[diacetyl]] (which gives a buttery taste). ''Fermenting Temperature'': Ale is typically fermented at higher temperatures than lager beer (15–23°C, 60–75°F). Ale yeasts at these temperatures produce significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavor and aroma products, and the result is a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling but not limited to apple, pear, pineapple, banana, plum or prune. ''Stylistic Difference to [[Lager]]'': Stylistic differences between some ales and lagers can be difficult to categorize. [[Steam beer]], [[Kölsch]] and some modern British Golden Summer Beers are seen as hybrids, using elements of both lager and ale production, while Baltic Porter and Bière de Garde may be produced by either lager or ale methods or a combination of both. However, lager is commonly perceived to be cleaner tasting, drier and lighter in the mouth than ale. In a number of [[U.S. state]]s, especially in the [[western United States]], "ale" is the term mandated by state law for any beverage fermented from grain with an alcoholic strength above that which can legally be named "beer," without regard to the method of fermentation or the yeast used. This distinction is not obsolete, but it is idiosyncratic. In former times the [[Wales\|Welsh]] and [[Scotland\|Scots]] had two distinct kinds of ale, called ''common'' and ''spiced'' ales, the relative values of which (compared to [[mead]]) were appraised by law in the following terms: :''If a farmer have no mead, he shall pay two casks of spiced ale, or four casks of common ale, for one cask of mead.'' Ales are very common in [[United Kingdom\|Britain]], [[Germany]], the [[United States]], and [[Belgium]]; however, [[Lager]] - but please see the discussion page about the term lager - is the dominant style of beer in almost all countries, worldwide. ==Varieties of ale== ===British / Irish / American ales=== British and Irish ales are, worldwide, the most popular variety of beer fermented with top-fermented yeast. Most beers in this region typically are made with yeast strains that leave some [[ester]]s behind, producing flavors often described as "fruity" or "buttery". "Earthy" English hops are added, adding to the complexity. Within this region, a wide variety of substyles can be found, ranging from roasted malt ales (porter, stout), to highly hopped ales (India pale ale), to malt-balanced ales. Alcohol ranges from the very low (e.g. the English mild beer) to the very high (e.g. the English barley wine). American style ales rose out of the microbrewery / craft brewing revolution that began in the early 1980s. Typically, these ales are very similar to their British counterparts, but have cleaner yeast strains, and often have higher hop rates dominated by American varieties (such as the citrusy Cascade hop.) Any of these styles, when cask conditioned, can be termed [[cask ale]], and when unfiltered in the bottle can be termed [[bottle conditioned]]. [[CAMRA]] is a British organization that promotes [[real ale]]. [[Amber ale\|Amber/Red ale]] [[Barleywine]] [[Bitter (beer)\|Bitter]] [[Pale ale]] [[India pale ale]] or Imperial pale ale or Strong pale ale [[Light ale]] [[Summer ale]] [[Blonde ale\|Blonde/Golden ale]] [[Brown ale]] [[Cream ale]] [[Mild ale]] (or just "mild") [[Old ale]] [[Irish red ale]] [[Scotch ale]] [[porter (beer)\|Porter]] Robust Porter Brown Porter [[Stout]] [[Irish stout]] or Dry stout [[Imperial stout]] [[Milk stout]] or Sweet stout [[Oatmeal stout]] [[Chocolate stout]] [[Oyster stout]] **[[Coffee stout]] ===Belgian ales=== [[Belgium]] produces a wide variety of specialty ales that elude easy classification. In addition to making a variety of [[blonde ale]], common classifications for these specialty beers may be [[dubbel]] (malty-complex with a red hue) and [[tripel]] (a high-alcohol, lightly-gold colored beer). Some specialty beers are based on monastic brewing recipes. The best known among them are the [[Trappist_beer\|Trappist]] beers, which are brewed under direct control of the monks themselves. Only six Trappist monasteries in [[Belgium]] and one in the [[Netherlands]] brew this beer. Similar styled ales, brewed by commercial breweries (sometimes under licence of an actual monastery) are called [[Abbey beer]]. ===German barley ales=== These are o
in his pocket while another thug arrives to tell The Duke that Plissken is awake. Plissken is taken to the main subway terminal, now a makeshift gladiatorial arena surrounded by shouting inmates. Snake is thrown into a boxing ring and faces off with a brute twice his size as the Duke watches from a balcony. The Duke announces that everyone will get to watch the famous Snake Plissken die, and he will walk them to freedom with the President leading the way. The inmates cheer and the fight begins. Outside, one of the patrol helicopters lands in Central Park after being waved down by a group of inmates. They find the prisoners have left the President's briefcase on a rock and armed soldiers run to retrieve it. Inside the case is a note from The Duke explaining he will use the President to lead the inmates to freedom across the 69th Street Bridge. Any attempt to stop them and the President dies. Hauk is informed of the find and can only hope that Plissken is still alive somewhere to finish the job. Back in the arena, the fight continues. Snake is thrown nearly out of the ring and he finds a thug near him is wearing his personal locator. He reaches down and rips the locator off the prisoner's arm and manages to activate it. Back on Ellis Island, Snake's locator shows up on the monitor. With time running out, and no contact for hours, Hauk was wondering if Snake was even alive. A technician says he believes that anyone could have activated the locator, but Hauk won't underestimate Plissken's resolve. He orders his men to prepare to extract Plissken and the President. Back in the city, Plissken is still battling in the arena. Elsewhere, Maggie and Brain decide to rescue the President and bribe the guards to let them past. Brain pretends to search the President for [[cyanide]] capsule that he might take instead of allowing the prisoners escape. A guard doesn't believe Brain's story and tells him to leave, but then Brain drives a knife into him. The guard falls while Maggie knocks out the other. Brain frees the President and just before heading out, he reacquires the cassette tape from the dead guard who originally took it. Back in the arena, Snake finishes off his opponent by driving a spiked baseball bat into the man's head and instantly killing him. A storm of cheers and shouts erupts from the crowd as it chants, "Snake!" On the balcony, a guard tells The Duke that the President is gone, and Brain has taken him. Furious, The Duke leads his men to find them allowing Snake to slip away in the confusion. Snake manages to catch up with Brain, Maggie and the President, at the WTC. They are on the roof fighting off a band of inmates. During the fight, an inmate chops the cable holding the Gulfstream glider, and the plane tumbles off the roof of the building. They need now to figure out a new escape plan since he cannot contact Hauk for extraction by helicopter. Brain decides their only hope of escape is the 59th Street Bridge, after all, he knows where the land mines are. The group runs down to the ground floor only to find The Duke and his men waiting for them. Suddenly, Cabbie's taxi arrives on the scene and the group piles in while Snake blows up a steam engine to cover their escape. Snake drives, pushing Cabbie aside, while the other three squeeze in the back. Snake demands that Brain hand over the President's summit tape. It is discovered that Cabbie actually has it. He had traded it from the thug for a music tape. Snake checks to make sure it's the right tape by playing it in Cabbie's tape deck. He now has the original and decides to hold onto it despite the President's demand of it. Soon they come to the land mine bridge. The Duke is in hot pursuit, and they can see he is nearly upon them. Snake checks his life clock. He has only a few minutes left to get across the bridge before he dies. He decides to drive across despite Brain's objections and orders him to shut up and just tell him where the mines are. Cabbie's taxi is battered by near misses with some of the bombs. Now halfway across, Snake takes a wrong turn and hits a mine. The taxi explodes and tears in half. Snake climbs out of the wreckage finding Cabbie has been killed in the blast. The others, including the President, have miraculously survived. Back on Ellis Island, Hauk gets word that several people are on foot across the bridge and a spotter believes the President is with them. Hauk orders his men to the bridge and follows behind them. On the bridge, The Duke is gaining. He drives his car through the blasts and road debris like they weren't even there. Running for their lives, it is Brain who takes the next wrong turn and steps on a land mine. He is killed instantly. Maggie stops and runs to her lover's side, but Snake tells her there is no time. Maggie refuses to continue on and instead takes Snake's gun and covers his escape by shooting at The Duke as he approaches. Maggie manages to damage his car and the Duke crashes into her. She is also killed. The Duke gets out and chases after Snake and The President on foot. Plissken and the President reach the containment wall where Hauk and his men lower a rope. They drag the president up first, and when Snake is about to be saved, he is jumped from behind by The Duke. The Duke knocks Plissken down and grabs the rope. Snake manages to get up and pulls The Duke down. The rope begins to lift but suddenly stops and Plissken dangles helplessly. Suddenly machine gun fire erupts and The Duke is gunned down by vengeful President who shouts "Hey DUKE!!! You're the Duke!!! You're 'A" Number One!!!" as he fills him with bullets. With The Duke dead, Plissken is raised to safety. He immediately demands to have the explosives neutralized, but Hauk has Snake hand over the summit tape first. With seconds remaining on the timer, Snake hands Hauk the tape and the medic runs up to apply the X-Ray charge. Snake checks his life clock which has run to zero. He is still alive. The President is rushed for medical treatment. They bandage up his finger and prepare him for an immediate news broadcast. Before going on the camera, The President thanks Plissken for his help, but Snake would like to know how he feels about the others who were killed getting him out. The President simply says he would like to thank them too, they sacrificed themselves for the good of the country. Snake walks away, passing Hauk, who asks if he'd like to kill him now. Snake replies "I'm too tired." Hauk offers him a job, saying, "We'd make a hell of a team, Snake!" To which Snake sneers, "The name's Plissken." The President takes his position behind a podium ready to give his speech. The camera broadcasts to the world and the President apologizes for not being able to make the historic meeting in person. However, he has something to share with everyone, in hopes that the great nations of the world can work together toward peace. He turns on the tape; which now plays Cabbie's bandstand music. As Snake walks out of Ellis Island gates, he destroys the President's summit tape. ==Trivia== * Certain [[Matte (filmmaking)\|matte painting]]s were rendered by [[James Cameron]], who was at that time a special effects artist with [[Roger Corman]]'s [[New World Communications\|New World Pictures]]. When Snake is piloting the glider into the city, there are three screens on the control panel displaying wireframe animations of the landing target on the WTC and surrounding buildings. What appears on those screens was not done on computer. Carpenter wanted "high-tech" looking computer graphics, which were very expensive at the time (even for such a simple animation). To get the animation he wanted, the effects crew filmed the miniature model set of New York City they used for other scenes under blacklight with reflective tape placed along every edge of the model buildings. Only the tape shows up and appears to be a 3D wireframe animation. Most of the movie was filmed in the summer of [[1976]] & [[1977]] in [[East St. Louis, Illinois]]. The area (essentially a large ghetto across the river from the decidedly more wealthy St. Louis proper) had been burned out in 1976 during a massive urban fire. Carpenter saw this disaster as a perfect setting for his apocalyptic vision of Manhattan Island Maximum Security Prison in the story. * Avco-Embassy Pictures, the studio behind the film, preferred either [[Charles Bronson]] or [[Tommy Lee Jones]] to play the role of "Snake" Plissken to director/co-writer John Carpenter's choice of Kurt Russell, who at the time was trying to overcome his "lightweight" screen image gained through his appearance in several [[Walt Disney Pictures\|Disney]] comedies. * While many sources write that the film's production budget was $7 million, John Carpenter himself says the budget was more around $5.5 million. * The film grossed $25.2 million in American theaters in the summer of 1981, with same amount grossed in foreign markets, making an over $50 million mega box-office hit in ratio to John Carpenter's production budget of $5.5-7 million. * After the smash success of ''[[Halloween (movie)\|Halloween]]'', the small studio of Avco-Embassy signed filmmaker John Carpenter and producer Debra Hill to a two-picture deal. The first film from this contract was 1980s ''[[The Fog]]'' and this film finished out the contract. * Initially, the second film that Carpenter was going to make to finish the contract out was ''[[The Philadelphia Experiment (movie)\|The Philadelphia Experiment]]'' but because of script-writing problems, Carpenter junked it for this project, which its initial script-draft he had penned back in the 1970s, and the studio greenlighted it. * The final scenes were filmed at the [[Sepulveda Dam]], in [[Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles, California]]. * The Duke's [[Cadillac Fleetwood]] with the fender-mounted chandeliers is a direct influence i
rrorist base. The Counter-Terrorists' objective is to escort the hostages to a hostage rescue point on the map. If all the members of a team have been eliminated, the prevailing team wins. If all the surviving hostages have been rescued, and that number is at least half of the initial hostage count, then the Counter-Terrorists win, and each Counter-Terrorist is awarded $2400. When round time expires, Terrorists win. Therefore, the game may effectively become a 'Terrorist hunt' game if enough hostages are killed, although server settings may be such that players are disconnected (kicked) from the server after killing a certain number of hostages (5 is default). When a Counter-Terrorist 'uses' a hostage (i.e. begins to rescue them), the Counter-Terrorist is awarded $150. Upon successfully escorting a hostage to a rescue point, $1000 is awarded. Killing a hostage incurs a penalty of $2250. There is also a penalty associated with injuring a hostage by gun fire or grenade shrapnel (hostages do not take damage for falling). Maps of this type are prefixed with ''cs_'' (e.g. [[cs_office]]). ===Assassination=== In this mission, one Counter-Terrorist member chooses to become a VIP, a player with 200 units of Kevlar and nothing more than the Counter-Terrorist standard-issue USP pistol with one extra magazine. The VIP may not pick up dropped weapons other than the VIP's own pistol. The VIP's objective is to reach an extraction zone (1, normally), in which case the Counter-Terrorists win. If the VIP dies, the Terrorists win. As usual, if all Terrorists die, the Counter-Terrorists win. When time expires, Terrorists win. The lack of ammunition for the pistol means that a VIP should not expect to escape without the team's assistance; however, the pistol in conjunction with the special armour provides adequate protection. Maps of this type are prefixed with ''as_''. Assassination maps are the least played of the three types of ''Counter-Strike'' gameplay and they were not ported to ''Counter-Strike: Source'', although a ''[http://vipmod.punkassfraggers.com/ VIP mod]'' is being produced by the community for ''Counter-Strike Source'' and surprisingly for some, is being greatly anticipated. Members of the community who dislike the scenario argue that the Terrorists would just [[Camping (computer gaming)\|camp]] at the VIP's escape destination, shooting the VIP dead as he attempted the run to the exit. ===Escape=== Discontinued in the late-beta releases of ''Counter-Strike'', this gameplay style put Terrorists against Counter-Terrorists in an escape-before-the-clock-expired mission. The Terrorists started in a position relatively far away from the Counter-Terrorists, armed with only knives and Glocks and unable to purchase additional weaponry/equipment. Weapons, armour, and grenades were placed in hidden locations near or around the spawn point of the Terrorists; the objective was for the Terrorists to secure weapons at the hidden location and then have all living members of the team reach an escape point before the clock ran out; eliminating all Counter-Terrorists would not complete the mission by itself. The Counter-Terrorists' objective was to prevent the escape of the Terrorists. Escape was discontinued because such maps gave an edge towards Counter-Terrorists. Maps of this type are prefixed with ''es_''. While not included in the current ''Counter-Strike'' distribution, this mode can still be played. The most popular maps of this type are es_jail, es_riverside, es_frantic, and es_trinity. This mode is not found in ''Counter-Strike: Source.'' == History == <div class="toccolours" style="width:256px; float:right; margin-left: 1em;"> <p align="center">'''Version history'''</p> Beta 1.0 - [[19 June]] [[1999]] Beta 1.1 - [[27 June]] [[1999]] Beta 1.2 - [[20 July]] [[1999]] Beta 2.0 - [[13 August]] [[1999]] Beta 2.1 - [[17 August]] [[1999]] Beta 3.0 - [[14 September]] [[1999]] Beta 3.1 - [[16 September]] [[1999]] Beta 4.0 - [[5 November]] [[1999]] Beta 4.1 - [[1 December]] [[1999]] Beta 5.0 - [[23 December]] [[1999]] Beta 5.2 - [[10 January]] [[2000]] Beta 6.0 - [[10 March]] [[2000]] Beta 6.1 and 6.2 were "Server Only" updates, not for client/user machines Beta 6.5 - [[5 June]] [[2000]] Beta 6.6 - [[22 June]] [[2000]] Beta 7.0 - [[26 August]] [[2000]] Beta 7.1 - [[13 September]] [[2000]] Version 1.0 - [[8 November]] [[2000]] Version 1.1 - [[10 March]] [[2001]] Version 1.3 - [[19 September]] [[2001]] Version 1.4 - [[24 April]] [[2002]] Version 1.5 - [[12 June]] [[2002]] Version 1.6 - [[15 September]] [[2003]] ''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero\|CS: Condition Zero]]'' - [[23 March]] [[2004]] *''[[Counter-Strike: Source\|CS: Source]]'' - [[7 October]] [[2004]] </div> The ''Counter-Strike'' team was formed by [[Minh Le]] ("Gooseman") and [[Jess Cliffe]] ("Cliffe") in [[1999]]. Prior to CS "Goose" had gained a lot of experience with modelling and textures while working on the 1997 Quake1 mod [http://www.planetgargoyle.com/lost/quake.htm Navy Seals] the earliest precursor to CS, it featured modern day weapons, body-armour and tactical gameplay. When QuakeII was released he worked on another highly successful mod called [http://action.telefragged.com/ Action Quake2], again with modern weapons and tactical gameplay, this time set in a world of SWAT vs. gangsters, possibly inspired by the movie [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0105236/ Reservoir Dogs] However, the time wasn't right for global internet gaming just yet, the online community was still relatively small. No cost-effective broadband and in most countries paying for access by the minute limited the audience somewhat. With the massive global success of Half-Life, the premature death of the large [[Quakeworld]] and Quakeworld [[Team Fortress]] scenes and the widespread adoption of "unmetered" internet access ''Counter-Strike'''s timing was perfect. Beta 1.0 was released in June 1999, followed by a relatively quick succession of the beta releases (by the end of 1999, beta 5.0 had been released). CS gained in popularity just as rapidly. The ''Counter-Strike'' team was acquired by Valve to turn the fan-created mod into an official mod for ''Half-Life''. In November [[2000]], ''Counter-Strike'' 1.0 &mdash; the first non-beta, official retail version of the game &mdash; was released. The retail version was a standalone alternative that does not include or require ''Half-Life''; alternatively, existing ''Half-Life'' owners can download the ''Counter-Strike'' mod free. Later, ''Counter-Strike'' was bundled with ''Half-Life'' and several other expansions in the Platinum Pack. The newest version of CS was labeled Source, released in November 2004 through Valve's new distribution platform called [[Steam (content delivery)\|Steam]]. Counter Strike:Source was developed using the new Half Life 2 enhanced graphics and physics engine (Source). Valve has also been attempting to cash in on the game's popularity by producing more ''Counter-Strike'' games. Valve released a version [[porting\|ported]] to the [[Xbox]] [[game console]] in November 2003. It features basic single-player gameplay against [[Computer_game_bot\|bots]], but it focuses on multiplayer online play like the original. However, the Xbox version of the game (playable on Microsoft's [[Xbox Live]] online game service) has proved less successful than its PC counterpart for obvious reasons; the online ''Counter-Strike'' audience for Xbox is well outnumbered by the existing ''Counter-Strike'' PC community, a subscription cost required to pay online on Live (playing the PC version online is free), and mediocre graphics (only texture upgrades to original CS models) which are below what is expected for the Xbox. For similar reasons, Valve may have made no attempt to have ''Counter-Strike'' ported to the [[PlayStation 2]]. ===''Counter-Strike: Condition Zero''=== {{main\|Counter-Strike: Condition Zero}} A long-awaited single-player version of the game called ''Counter-Strike: Condition Zero'' was released on [[March 23]], [[2004]]. It had been plagued by numerous delays, most notably when Valve dropped [[Gearbox Software]] (who had developed the highly acclaimed ''[[Half-Life: Opposing Force]]'') as developer in favor of [[Ritual Entertainment]], and when Ritual Entertainment in turn lost the project to [[Turtle Rock Studios]] partway through development. Though still very similar to CS 1.6, ''Condition Zero'' contains several graphical, sound, model and map changes, as well as including [[computer game bot\|bots]]. However, the game was criticized for not being up to the standards of graphical quality expected of current commercial releases, due to the limitations of [[1998]]'s [[GoldSrc]] ''Half-Life'' engine. It sold poorly compared to the original. ===Counter-Strike: Source (CS:S)=== {{main\|Counter-Strike: Source}} In 2004, original ''Counter-Strike'' developers Minh Le and Jess Cliffe, along with members of Valve and the ''Day of Defeat'' team, brought ''Counter-Strike'' into the [[Source engine]] as an obvious choice for the multiplayer component of ''Half-Life 2''. Following a period when the game was available to select 'beta' testers, the alpha version of the game was released on October 7th 2004. ''Counter-Strike: Source'' (CS:S) was released to [[ATI Technologies\|ATI Radeon]] Voucher holders, in ''Half-Life 2'' bundles available on ''Steam'', and with the boxed retail version of the game. Changes include the improvements inherent to the Source engine (such as better graphics and physics) as well as updated models, animations, maps, sounds, and some small gameplay changes. It is available today for download over ''Steam'', bundled with ''Half-Life 2'', or purchased in a stand-alone retail box along with ''[[Day of Defeat: Source]]'', another game converted to the new graphical engine. ==Map t
phy. It was launched in a ceremony in [[Truro Cathedral]] attended by the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. The [[Celtic Congress]] and [[Celtic League (political organisation)\|Celtic League]] is a group that advocates cooperation amongst the Celtic Nations in order to protect and promote Celtic languages and cultures, thus working in the interests of the Cornish language. ===European recognition=== On [[November 5]], [[2002]] in answer to a Parliamentary Question, Local Government and Regions Minister [[Nick Raynsford]] said: <blockquote>"After careful consideration and with the help of the results of an independent academic study on the language commissioned by the government, we have decided to recognise Cornish as falling under Part II of the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]. The government will be registering this decision with the [[Council of Europe]].</blockquote> <blockquote>"The purpose of the Charter is to protect and promote the historical regional or minority languages of Europe. It recognises that some of these languages are in danger of extinction and that protection and encouragement of them contributes to Europe's cultural diversity and historical traditions.</blockquote> <blockquote>"This is a positive step in acknowledging the symbolic importance the language has for Cornish identity and heritage.</blockquote> <blockquote>"Cornish will join Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Irish, Scots and Ulster Scots as protected and promoted languages under the Charter, which commits the government to recognise and respect those languages."</blockquote> Officials will be starting discussions with [[Cornwall County Council]] and Cornish language organisations to ensure the views of Cornish speakers and people wanting to learn Cornish are taken into account in implementing the Charter. ==Sounds== The pronunciation of traditional Cornish is a matter of conjecture, but varieties of Revived Cornish are more or less agreed about the phonology they use. ===The consonants of Revived Cornish === This is a table of the phonology of Revived Cornish as recommended for the pronunciation of Unified Cornish Revised (UCR) orthography, using symbols from the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA). {\|class="wikitable" ! &nbsp; ![[bilabial consonant\|bilabial]] ![[labiodental consonant\|labio-<br />dental]] ![[interdental consonant\|dental]] ![[alveolar consonant\|alveolar]] ![[palato-alveolar consonant\|post-<br />alveolar]] ![[palatal consonant\|palatal]] ![[labio-velar consonant\|labio-velar]] ![[velar consonant\|velar]] ![[glottal consonant\|glottal]] \|- \|'''[[plosive consonant\|plosive]]''' \| style="text-align:center;"\|{{IPA\|p&nbsp;&nbsp;b}} \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| style="text-align:center;" \|{{IPA\|t&nbsp;&nbsp;d}} \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| style="text-align:center;"\|{{IPA\|k&nbsp;&nbsp;g}} \| &nbsp; \|- \|'''[[nasal consonant\|nasal]]''' \| style="text-align:center;"\|{{IPA\|m}} \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| style="text-align:center;" \|{{IPA\|n}} \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| style="text-align:center;"\|{{IPA\|ŋ}} \| &nbsp; \|- \|'''[[fricative consonant\|fricative]]''' \| &nbsp; \| style="text-align:center;"\|{{IPA\|f&nbsp;&nbsp;v}} \| style="text-align:center;"\|{{IPA\|θ&nbsp;&nbsp;ð}} \| style="text-align:center;"\|{{IPA\|s&nbsp;&nbsp;z}} \| style="text-align:center;"\|{{IPA\|ʃ&nbsp;&nbsp;ʒ}} \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| style="text-align:center;"\|{{IPA\|x}} \| style="text-align:center;"\|{{IPA\|h}} \|- \|'''[[approximant]]''' \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| style="text-align:center;" \|{{IPA\|ɹ}} \| &nbsp; \| style="text-align:center;"\|{{IPA\|j}} \| style="text-align:center;"\|{{IPA\|ʍ&nbsp;&nbsp;w}} \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \|- \|'''[[lateral consonant\|lateral approximant]]''' \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| style="text-align:center;" \|{{IPA\|l}} \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \|} ===The vowels of Revived Cornish === These are tables of the phonology of Revived Cornish as recommended for the pronunciation of Unified Cornish Revised (UCR) orthography, using symbols from the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA). {\|class="wikitable" \|+'''Short vowels''' ! &nbsp; ! [[Front vowel]]s ! [[Central vowel]]s ! [[Back vowel]]s \|- ! [[Close vowel\|Close]] \| align=center \| {{IPA\|y}} \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \|- ! [[Near-close vowel\|Near-close]] \| align=center \| {{IPA\|ɪ}} \| &nbsp; \| align=center \| {{IPA\|ʊ}} \|- ! [[Close-mid vowel\|Close-mid]] \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \|- ! [[Mid vowel\|Mid]] \| &nbsp; \| align=center \| {{IPA\|ə}} \| &nbsp; \|- ! [[Open-mid vowel\|Open-mid]] \| align=center \| {{IPA\|ɛ}} {{IPA\|œ}} \| &nbsp; \| align=center \| {{IPA\|ɔ}} \|- ! [[Near-open vowel\|Near-open]] \| align=center \| {{IPA\|æ}} \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \|- ! [[Open vowel\|Open]] \| align=center \| {{IPA\|a}} \| &nbsp; \| align=center \| {{IPA\|ɒ}} \|} {\|class="wikitable" \|+'''Long vowels''' ! &nbsp; ! [[Front vowel]]s ! [[Central vowel]]s ! [[Back vowel]]s \|- ! [[Close vowel\|Close]] \| align=center \| {{IPA\|iː}} {{IPA\|yː}} \| &nbsp; \| align=center \| {{IPA\|uː}} \|- ! [[Near-close vowel\|Near-close]] \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \|- ! [[Close-mid vowel\|Close-mid]] \| align=center \| {{IPA\|eː}} {{IPA\|øː}} \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \|- ! [[Mid vowel\|Mid]] \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \|- ! [[Open-mid vowel\|Open-mid]] \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| align=center \| {{IPA\|ɔː}} \|- ! [[Near-open vowel\|Near-open]] \| align=center \| {{IPA\|æː}} \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \|- ! [[Open vowel\|Open]] \| &nbsp; \| &nbsp; \| align=center \| {{IPA\|ɒː}} \|} ==Grammar== Cornish is a member of the [[Celtic languages\|Celtic]] branch of the [[Indo-European]] family of languages, and shares many of the characteristics of the other Insular Celtic languages. These include: ''Initial [[consonant mutation]]''. The first sound of a Cornish word may change according to grammatical context. There are four types of mutation in Cornish (compared to three in [[Welsh language\|Welsh]] and two in [[Irish language\|Irish]]). These are known as ''soft'' (''b'' -> ''v'', etc.), ''hard'' (''b'' -> ''p''), ''aspirate'' (''b'' unchanged, ''t'' -> ''th'') and ''mixed'' (''b'' -> ''f''). <center> {\| class="wikitable" \|+'''Consonant Mutation in Cornish''' <br>(spelled as in Kernwek Kemmyn) !Unmutated<br>consonant!! Soft <br>mutation !! Aspirate <br>mutation !! Hard <br>mutation !! Mixed <br>mutation \|- align="center" \|p\|\|b\|\|f\|\|\|\| \|- align="center" \|t\|\|d\|\|th\|\|\|\| \|- align="center" \|k\|\|g\|\|h\|\|\|\| \|- align="center" \|b\|\|v\|\|\|\|p\|\|f \|- align="center" \|d\|\|dh\|\|\|\|t\|\|t \|- align="center" \|g<sup>1</sup>\|\|''disappears''\|\|\|\|k\|\|h \|- align="center" \|g<sup>2</sup>\|\|w\|\|\|\|k\|\|hw \|- align="center" \|gw\|\|w\|\|\|\|kw\|\|hw \|- align="center" \|m\|\|v\|\|\|\|\|\|f \|- align="center" \|ch\|\|j\|\|\|\|\|\| \|} <sup>1</sup> Before unrounded vowels, l, and r (provided it is followed by an unrounded vowel).<br> <sup>2</sup> Before rounded vowels, and r (provided it is followed by a rounded vowel). </center> ''[[inflected language\|inflected]] (or [[grammatical conjugation\|conjugated]]) [[preposition\|prepositions]].'' A preposition combines with a personal pronoun to give a separate word form. For example, ''gans'' (with, by) + ''my'' (me) -> ''genef''; ''gans'' + ''ef'' (him) -> ''ganso''. ''No indefinite [[article (grammar)\|article]].'' ''Cath'' means "a cat" (there is, however a definite article: ''an gath'' means "the cat"). ''For other grammatical characteristics of Cornish, see the section on grammar in the [[Welsh language]] article, until this section is finished.'' ==Dialects== There are, essentially, four 'dialects' of Cornish. They are not dialects in the normal sense (though regional variations exist to some degree), but rather differences in the manner of revival. See: [[Cornish language#Revival\|Revival]] It is also possible that a variety of Cornish was spoken in [[Devon]] as late as the [[14th century]]: Then President of the Devonshire Association, Sir Henry Duke, said in 1922 that "various writers have made (assertions) of the continuance of British occupancy and of the British tongue in South and West Devon to a time well within the reigns of the Plantagenets. Risdon, for example, says that the Celtic tongue was spoken throughout the South Hams in Edward the First's time". ==Examples== This table compares some Cornish words (written using UCR and Kernewek Kemmyn orthographies) with equivalents from its sister Brythonic languages of Welsh and Breton. {\| border="1" cellspacing="0" padding="5" !Cornish (UCR) \|\| Cornish (KK) \|\| Welsh \|\| Breton \|\| English \|-- \| Kernowek \|\| Kernewek \|\| Cernyweg\|\| Kerneveureg \|\| Cornish \|-- \| gwenenen \|\| gwenenenn \|\| gwenynen \|\| gwenanenn \|\| bee \|-- \| chayr, cadar \|\| kador \|\| cadair \|\| kador \|\| chair \|-- \| cues \|\| keus \|\| caws \|\| keuz \|\| cheese \|-- \| mesporth \|\| yn-mes \|\| y ffordd allan \|\| er-maez \|\| exit \|-- \| codha \|\| koedha \|\| cwympo \|\| kouezhañ \|\| (to) fall \|-- \| gavar \|\| gaver \|\| gafr \|\| gavr \|\| goat \|-- \| chy \|\| chi \|\| tŷ \|\| ti \|\| house \|-- \| gweus \|\| gweus \|\| gwefus \|\| gweuz \|\| lip \|-- \| aber \|\| aber \|\| aber, genau \|\| aber \|\| mouth (river) \|-- \| nyver \|\| niver \|\| rhif, nifer \|\| niver
ese methods of [[herding]] are still utilized today. Historically, goathide has been used for [[water]] and [[wine]] bottles in both traveling and transporting wine for sale. It has also been used to produce [[parchment]], which was the most common material used for [[writing]] in [[Europe]] until the invention of the [[printing press]]. ==Goat Products== A goat is said to be truly useful both when alive and dead, providing meat and milk while the skin provides hide. In fact, a [[charity]] is involved in providing goats to [[poverty\|impoverished]] people in [[Africa]]. The main reason cited was that goats are easier to manage than [[cattle]] and have multiple uses. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,1-8243-1402375,00.html] ===Meat=== [[Image:Goats in mountains.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|Goats in the mountains - the farmer uses this herd for meat]] The taste of goat meat, called ''chevon'', is said to be similar to [[veal]] or [[venison]], depending on the age of the goat. It can be prepared in a variety of ways including [[stewed]], [[baked]], [[grilled]], [[barbecue]]d, [[minced]], [[canning\|canned]], or made into [[sausage]]. It is also healthier than [[mutton]] as it is lower in fat and [[cholesterol]] and comparable to [[chicken]]. It is quite popular in the [[Middle East]], [[South Asia]] and in [[Africa]], though less so in the [[United States]]. Other parts of the goat including organs are also equally edible. Special delicacies include the [[brain]] and [[liver]]. The head and legs of the goat are also [[smoked]] and used to prepare unique spicy dishes. Note that in [[India]], it is usually goat meat or chevon which is commonly called [[mutton]], and not [[domestic sheep\|sheep]] meat. Also, goat [[mutton]] (sic) is usually the one which is preferred to be eaten by [[Hindu]]s (provided they are non-vegetarian) and most [[Muslim]]s rather than sheep. The various [[mutton]] [[curry]] dishes of the Indian cuisine, typically when cooked at home, are actually ''chevon'' dishes. ===Milk and Cheese=== Goat [[milk]] is more easily digested than [[cow]]s' milk and is recommended for infants and people who have difficulty with cow's milk. The curd is much smaller and more digestable. Moreover it is naturally homogenized since it lacks the [[protein]] [[agglutinin]]. Contrary to popular opinion, goats milk is not naturally bad tasting. When handled properly, from clean and healthy goats, in a sanitary manner, and cooled quickly, the flavor is unremarkable and inoffensive. Also, it is necessary to separate the strong smelling buck from the dairy does, as his scent will rub off on them and will taint the milk. Goats milk is also used to make popular [[cheese]]s such as [[Rocamadour (cheese)\|Rocamadour]] and [[Feta (cheese)\|Feta]]. ===Skin=== Goat skin is still used today to make [[glove]]s, [[boot]]s, and other products that require a soft hide. ''Kid gloves'', popular in [[Victorian times]], are still made today. ===Fiber=== Cashmere goats produce a fiber, [[Cashmere wool]], which is one of the best in the world. Cashmere fiber is very fine and soft, and grows beneath the guard hairs. Ideally there is a proportionally smaller amount of guard hair (which is undesirable and cannot be spun or dyed) to the cashmere fiber. Most goats produce cashmere fiber to some degree, however the Cashmere goat has been specially bred to produce a much higher amount of it with fewer guard hairs. The [[Angora]] breed produces long, curling, lustrous locks of [[mohair]]. The entire body of the goat is covered with mohair and there are no guard hairs. The locks can be six inches or more in length. Goats do not have to be [[slaughter]]ed to harvest the wool, which is instead sheared (cut from the body) in the case of Angora goats, or combed, in the case of Cashmere goats. The fiber is made into products such as [[sweater]]s. Both cashmere and mohair are warmer per ounce than [[wool]] and are not scratchy or itchy or as allergenic as wool sometimes is. Both fibers command a higher price than wool, compensating for the fact that there is less fiber per goat than there would be wool per sheep. In [[South Asia]], Cashmere is called ''pashmina'' ([[Persian language\|Persian]] ''pashmina'' = fine wool) and these goats are called ''pashmina'' goats (often mistaken as sheep). Since these goats actually belong to the upper [[Kashmir]] and [[Laddakh]] region, their wool came to be known as cashmere in the West. The ''pashmina'' [[shawl]]s of Kashmir with their intricate embriodery are very famous. ==Feeding Goats== Goats are reputed to be willing to eat almost anything. Contrary to this reputation, they are quite fastidious in their habits, preferring to browse on the tips of woody shrubs and trees, as well as the occasional broad leaved plant. It can fairly be said that goats will eat almost anything in the botanical world. Their plant diet is extremely varied and includes some species which are toxic or detrimental to cattle and sheep. This makes them valuable for controlling [[noxious weeds]] and clearing brush and undergrowth. They will seldom eat soiled food or water unless facing [[starvation]]. They certainly do not consume [[waste\|garbage]], [[tin can]]s, or [[clothing]], but they will occasionally consume items made primarily of plant material, which can include wood. Their reputation for doing so is most likely due to their intensely inquisitive and intelligent nature: they will explore anything new or unfamiliar in their surroundings. They do so primarily with their [[prehensile]] upper lip and tongue. This is why they investigate clothes by nibbling at them. ==Reproduction== [[Image:Baby goats.jpg\|thumb\|right\|250px\|Baby goats, called ''kids'']] In some climates goats are, like humans, able to [[breeding\|breed]] at any time of the year. In northern climates and among the Swiss breeds, the breeding season commences as the day length shortens, and ends in early spring. Does of any breed come into heat every 21 days for from 2-48 hours. A doe in heat typically flags her tail often, stays near the buck if one is present, becomes more vocal, and may also show a decrease in appetite and milk production for the duration of the heat. Bucks (intact males) of Swiss and northern breeds come into rut in the fall as with the doe's heat cycles. Rut is characterized by a decrease in appetite, [[obsessive]] interest in the does, fighting between bucks, display behavior, and, most notably, a strong, [[musk]]y odor. This odor is singular to bucks in rut--the does do not have it unless the buck has rubbed his scent onto them or the doe is in actuality a [[hermaphrodite]]--and is instrumental in bringing the does into a strong heat. [[Image:Mother eating placenta.jpg\|thumb\|Mother goat eating placenta]] In addition to live breeding, [[artificial insemination]] has gained popularity among goat [[breeder]]s, as it allows for rapid improvement because of breeder access to a wide variety of [[bloodline]]s. [[Gestation]] length is approximately 150 days. [[Twins]] are the usual result, with single and [[triplet]] births also common. Less frequent are litters of [[quadruplet]], [[quintuplet]], and even [[sextuplet]] kids. Birthing, known as ''kidding'', generally occurs uneventfully with few complications. The mother often eats the [[placenta]], which gives her much needed nutrients, helps staunch her bleeding, and reduces the lure of the birth scent to predators. After kidding, the kids conceal themselves in small places and lay immobile for hours at a time while their dam feeds. Upon her return, she calls for them and they come out to nurse and play. ''Freshening'' (coming into [[milk]] production) occurs at kidding. Milk production varies with the breed, age, quality, and diet of the doe; dairy goats generally produce between 660 to 1,800 L (1,500 and 4,000 lb) of milk per 305 day [[lactation]]. On average, a good quality dairy doe will give at least 6 lbs of milk per day while she is in milk, although a first time milker may produce less, or as much as 16 lbs or more of milk in exceptional cases. Meat, fiber, and [[pet]] breeds are not usually milked and simply produce enough for the kids until [[weaning]]. ==Goat breeds== Goat breeds fall into four categories, though there is some overlap between them; meaning that some are dual purpose. ===Dairy=== * [[Alpine (goat)\|Alpine]]:[[French Alpine]],[[British Alpine]],[[American Alpine]] * [[Golden Guernsey]] * [[La Mancha (goat)\|La Mancha]] * [[Nigerian Dwarf (goat)\|Nigerian Dwarf]] * [[Nubian (goat)\|Nubian]] * [[Oberhasli (goat)\|Oberhasli]] * [[Rove]] * [[Saanen goat\|Saanen]] * [[Sable Saanen]] * [[Toggenburg (goat)\|Toggenburg]] * [[Kinder (goat)\|Kinder]] ===Fibre=== * [[Angora goat\|Angora]] * [[Cashmere wool\|Cashmere]] * [[Pygora]] ===Meat=== * [[Boer goat\|Boer]] * [[Kiko goat\|Kiko]] * [[Rove goat\|Rove]] * [[Spanish goat\|Spanish]] * [[Fainting goat\|Fainting]] ===Pet=== * [[Pygmy goat\|Pygmy]] * [[Nigerian Dwarf (goat)\|Nigerian Dwarf]] ===Wild=== [[Himalayan tahr\|Tahr]] [[Kri-kri\|Cretan kri-kri]] (''Capra aegagrus creticus'') *[[Ibex]], including the [[Alpine Ibex]] ==Showing== Goat [[breeder]]s' clubs frequently hold [[show]]s, where goats are judged on traits relating to [[conformation]], [[udder]] quality, evidence of high production and longevity. People who show their goats usually keep registered stock and the offspring of award winning animals command a higher price. Registered stock in general is usually higher priced if for no other reason than that records have been kept proving its ancestry and the production and other data of its sire, dam, and other ancestors. A registered dairy doe is usually less of a gamble than buying any dairy doe at random (as at an auction or sale barn) because of these records and the reputation of the breeder. Children's clubs such as [[4-H]] also allow goats to be shown. Children's shows often include a [[showmanship]] class, where t
[[Image:Autobahn 1-999.png\|thumb\|250px\|Map of the German autobahn network]] ===Highways=== * Total: 656,140 km * Paved: 650,891 km (including 11,400 km of expressways ([[autobahn]]s)) * Unpaved: 5,249 km (all-weather) (1998 est.) ===Automobiles=== Total number of cars: 53,600,000 Cars per 1,000 capita: 658 ===Automobile Companies=== [[Volkswagen]] [[Audi]] [[Bentley]] [[Bugatti]] [[Lamborghini]] [[Skoda]] [[Seat]] [[Volkswagen]] [[Daimler-Chrysler]] [[Mercedes Benz]] [[Maybach]] [[Chrysler]] [[Dodge]] [[Jeep]] [[Smart (automobile)\|Smart]] Bayerische Motorenwerke (BMW) [[BMW]] [[Rolls Royce]] *[[BMW MINI\|MINI]] [[Porsche]] ===See also=== [[List of motorways in Germany]] ==[[Rail transport]]== [[Image:DeutscheBahn_gobeirne.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|[[InterCity Express]] train, [[Stuttgart]].]] '''Railways''': total: 40,826 km, including * at least 14,253 km electrified and * 14,768 km double- or multiple-tracked (1998) [[Deutsche Bahn]] (DB) is the major German railway company. Though Deutsche Bahn is a private company, the government still holds all shares and therefore Deutsche Bahn can still be called a state-owned company. Since its privatisation in 1994, Deutsche Bahn AG (DB AG) no longer publishes details of the tracks it owns; in addition to the DB AG system there are about 280 privately or locally owned railway companies which own an approximate 3,000 km to 4,000 km of the total tracks and use DB tracks in ''open access''. There are significant differences between the financing of long-distance and short-distance (or local) trains in Germany. While long-distance trains can be run by any railway company, the companies also receive no subsidies from the government; instead, the long-distance trains must be self-supporting. Local trains however are subsidized by the German states ''(Länder)'' which pay the operating companies to running these trains. This resulted in many private companies offering to run local train services as they can provide cheaper service than the state-owned Deutsche Bahn. Long-distance trains on the other side are primarily operated by Deutsche Bahn as the initial investment in rolling stock is a lot higher and not subsidized by the state. === Rail links in adjacent countries === * [[Transportation in Denmark\|Denmark]] - same gauge - voltage change [[15kVAC]]/[[25kVAC]] * [[Transportation in Poland\|Poland]] - same gauge - voltage change [[15kVAC]]/[[3000VDC]] * [[Transportation in the Czech Republic\|Czech Republic]] - same gauge - voltage change [[15kVAC]]/[[3000VDC]] * [[Transportation in Austria\|Austria]] - same gauge - same voltage * [[Transportation in Switzerland\|Switzerland]] - same gauge - same voltage * [[Transportation in France\|France]] - same gauge - voltage change [[15kVAC]]/([[25kVAC]] or [[1500VDC]]). * [[Transportation in Luxembourg\|Luxembourg]] - same gauge * The [[Transportation in the Netherlands\|Netherlands]] - same gauge - voltage change [[15kVAC]]/[[1500VDC]] * [[Transportation in Belgium\|Belgium]] - same gauge - voltage change [[15kVAC]]/[[3000VDC]] === International passenger trains === Amsterdam Centraal - [[Berlin]] Ostbahnhof: Amsterdam Centraal, [[North Holland]], [[Netherlands]] [[Amersfoort]], [[Utrecht (province)]], Netherlands [[Deventer]], [[Overijssel]], Netherlands [[Hengelo]], [[Overijssel]], Netherlands [[Bad Bentheim]], [[Bentheim]], [[Weser-Ems]], [[Lower Saxony]], [[Germany]] [[Rheine]], [[Steinfurt (district)\|Steinfurt]], [[Münster (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany [[Osnabrück]] Hbf, [[Weser-Ems]], [[Lower Saxony]], Germany [[Bünde]], [[Herford (district)]], [[Detmold (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany [[Bad Oeynhausen]], [[Minden-Lübbecke]], [[Detmold (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany [[Minden]], [[Minden-Lübbecke]], [[Detmold (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany [[Hanover]] Hbf, [[Hanover (region)]], [[Lower Saxony]], Germany [[Wolfsburg]], [[Braunschweig (region)\|Braunschweig]], [[Lower Saxony]], Germany [[Stendal]], [[Magdeburg (region)]], [[Saxony-Anhalt]], Germany Berlin [[Spandau]] Berlin [[zoo\|Zoologischer Garten]] Berlin Ostbahnhof Amsterdam Centraal - [[Vienna]] [[Vienna West Station\|Westbf]]: (see also [[Transportation in the Netherlands]]) [[Emmerich]], [[Cleves (district)\|Cleves]], [[Düsseldorf (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany [[Wesel]] [[Oberhausen]] Hbf, [[Düsseldorf (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany [[Duisburg]] Hbf, [[Düsseldorf (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany [[Düsseldorf]] Hbf, [[Düsseldorf (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany [[Cologne]] Hbf, [[Cologne (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany [[Nuremberg]] Hbf [[Regensburg]] Hbf [[Straubing]] [[Plattling]] [[Passau]] Hbf *(see also [[Transportation in Austria]]) Copenhagen Hovedbanegarden - [[Hamburg]] Hauptbahnhof: Copenhagen, [[Denmark]] [[Roskilde]], Denmark [[Ringsted]], Denmark [[Naestved]], Denmark [[Nykobing]], Denmark [[Rodby]], Denmark [[Puttgarden]], [[Ostholstein]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Germany]] [[Oldenburg]], [[Ostholstein]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], Germany [[Neustadt]], [[Ostholstein]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], Germany [[Lübeck]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], Germany *[[Hamburg]] Hbf, Germany [[Novosibirsk]]/[[Astana]]/[[Moscow]]/[[Saint Petersburg\|St. Petersburg]]/[[Kharkiv]] - [[Berlin]] Lichtenberg (not all stations in Russia, Kazakhstan, Belarus and Ukraine listed): Astana, [[Kazakhstan]] [[Saratov]], [[Russia]] [[Minsk]], [[Belarus]] [[Moscow]] Belorusskaya, [[Russia]] [[Minsk]], [[Belarus]] [[Brest, Belarus]] [[Warsaw]] Wschodnia, [[Poland]] [[Kharkiv]], [[Ukraine]] [[Kyiv]], [[Ukraine]] [[Yahodyn]], [[Ukraine]] [[Warsaw]] Wschodnia, Poland [[Warsaw]] Centralna, Poland [[Warsaw]] Zachodnia, Poland [[Kutno]], [[Poland]] [[Konin, Poland\|Konin]], Poland [[Poznan\|Poznań]], Poland [[Swiebodzin\|Świebodzin]], Poland [[Frankfurt (Oder)]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Germany]] *[[Berlin]] Lichtenberg, [[Germany]] [[Berlin]] - [[Prague]] Holesovice: [[Berlin]] Ostbahnhof, [[Germany]] [[Elsterwerda]], [[Brandenburg]], Germany [[Dresden]] Neustadt, [[Saxony]], Germany [[Dresden]] Hauptbahnhof, [[Saxony]], Germany [[Bad Schandau]], [[Saxony]], Germany [[Děčín]], [[Czech Republic]] [[Usti nad Labem\|Ústí nad Labem]], Czech Republic [[Prague]] Holesovice, Czech Republic [[Frankfurt am Main]] - [[Strasbourg]]/[[Basel]]: Frankfurt am Main Hauptbahnhof, [[Hesse]], [[Germany]] [[Mannheim]] Hbf, [[Baden-Württemberg]], Germany [[Karlsruhe]] Hbf, [[Baden-Württemberg]], Germany [[Kehl]], [[Baden-Württemberg]], Germany [[Strasbourg]], [[France]] [[Freiburg]], [[Baden-Württemberg]], Germany [[Basel]] Badischer Bahnhof, [[Switzerland]] [[Munich]] - [[Verona, Italy\|Verona]]: [[Munich]] Hauptbahnhof, [[Bavaria]], Germany [[Munich]] Ostbahnhof, [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]] [[Rosenheim]], [[Bavaria]], Germany [[Kufstein]], [[Tyrol]], Austria [[Innsbruck]] Hauptbahnhof, [[Tyrol]], Austria [[Brenner Pass]], Austria - [[Italy]] ([[South Tyrol]]) [[Bozen-Bolzano\|Bozen]], [[South Tyrol]] [[Trento]], [[Italy]] *[[Verona, Italy\|Verona]] Porta Nuova, [[Italy]] === International freight trains === While Germany and most of [[contiguous]] [[Standard Gauge in Europe\|Europe]] use [[Standard gauge]] (1435mm), differences in Signaling, Rules and Regulations, Electrification voltages, etc. tend to hamstrung freight operations across borders. === Metros === [[Image:S-Bahn Berlin Baureihe 481.jpg\|thumb\|Train of the [[Berlin S-Bahn\|S-Bahn Berlin]]]] Cities with [[metro]] or light rail ("Stadtbahn") systems: [[Berlin]] ([[Berlin S-Bahn\|S-Bahn]], and [[Berlin U-Bahn\|U-Bahn]],) * [[Bielefeld]] (Stadtbahn) * [[Bonn]] (Stadtbahn) * [[Bremen (city)\|Bremen]] (Stadtbahn) * [[Brunswick]] (Stadtbahn) * [[Cologne]] (Stadtbahn) * [[Düsseldorf]] (Stadtbahn) * [[Frankfurt am Main]] (S-Bahn and Stadtbahn) * [[Freiburg im Breisgau]] (Stadtbahn) * [[Hamburg]] ([[Hamburg S-Bahn\|S-Bahn]], and [[Hamburg U-Bahn\|U-Bahn]], ) * [[Hanover]] (S-Bahn and Stadtbahn) * [[Heidelberg]] (Stadtbahn) * [[Karlsruhe]] (Stadtbahn) * [[Mannheim]] (Stadtbahn) * [[Munich]] ([[Munich S-Bahn\|S-Bahn]], and [[Munich U-Bahn\|U-Bahn]], ) * [[Nuremberg]] (S-Bahn and U-Bahn) * [[Ruhr Area]] (Stadtbahn) * [[Stuttgart]] (S-Bahn and Stadtbahn) ===See also=== [[List of motorways in Germany]] [[Bundesstrasse 8]] ==Water transport== [[Image:Two Ships-Hamburg.jpg\|right\|thumb\|Hamburg Harbour]] '''Waterways:''' 7,500 km (1999); major rivers include the [[Rhine]] and [[Elbe]]; [[Kiel Canal]] is an important connection between the [[Baltic Sea]] and [[North Sea]] '''Pipelines:''' crude oil 2,500 km (1998) '''Ports and harbours:''' [[Berlin]], [[Bonn]], [[Brake, Germany\|Brake]], [[Bremen (city)\|Bremen]], [[Bremerhaven]], [[Cologne]], [[Dortmund]], [[Dresden]], [[Duisburg]], [[Emden]], [[Hamburg]], [[Karlsruhe]], [[Kiel]], [[Lübeck]], [[Magdeburg]], [[Mannheim]], [[Oldenburg]], [[Rostock]], [[Stuttgart]] The [[Hamburg Harbour\|port of Hamburg]] is the largest sea-harbour in Germany and ranks #2 in Europe, #7 world-wide (2004) '''Merchant marine:''' <br>total: 475 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,395,990 GRT/8,014,132 DWT <br>'''ships by type:''' bulk 2, cargo 181, chemical tanker 12, container 239, liquified gas 2, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger 2, petroleum tanker 8, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 7 (1999 est.) ==Air transport== [[Image:AirportFrankfurt terminal1.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|Frankfurt Airport Terminal 1]] '''Airports:''' 615 (1999 est.) '''Airports - with paved runways:''' * total: 320 over 3,047 m: 14 2,438 to 3,047 m: 61 1,524 to 2,437 m: 67 914 to 1,523 m: 56 ** under 914 m: 122 (1999 est.) '''Airport
], a proposed [[North America\|North American]] currency union. [[Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark]] ==References== Baldwin, Richard and Charles Wyplosz, ''The Economics of European Integration'', New York: McGraw Hill, 2004. European Commission, ''High Level Task Force on Skills and Mobility - Final Report'', [[14 december]] [[2001]]. ==External links== {{commons\|euro}} [http://www.ecb.int/ European Central Bank] [http://www.fbe.be/ European Banking Federation] [http://europa.eu.int/euro/entry.html The Euro: Our Currency (Official EU Site)] [http://www.dollar-euro-chart.de Dollar/Euro-Chart] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4408066.stm EU warning for Euro hopefuls] [http://www.eurobilltracker.com Page to track Euro bills] ===Articles=== [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_1638_281/ai_90469048 A critical view on "The euro and Great Britain"] [http://www.mises.org/fullarticle.asp?record=124&month=4 A critical view on "inflationary euro"] [http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~nroubini/Emu/Emu.htm European Monetary Union and the euro] [http://go.to/infoeuro EU and EMU information including coin and banknote images] [http://www.ex.ac.uk/~RDavies/arian/emu.html Britain and European Monetary Union] [http://www.evertype.com/standards/euro/index.html The euro and standardization] ([[Michael Everson]]; including "The plural of euro is euros!" as well as a discussion on what the words for "euro" and "cent" should be in [[Irish language\|Irish]]) [http://www.robertmundell.net/Menu/Main.asp?Type=5&Cat=08&ThemeName=Euro A brief commentary by one of the economists instrumental in creating the euro] [http://www.myeuro.info/en An experiment that tries to track the way of euro notes across Europe] [http://www.eurobilltracker.com Similar experiment: eurobilltracker] [http://www.eurotracer.net Eurotracer, another experiment that also studies the meaning of the serial numbers and the spreading of coins] [http://wiki.usenet.eu.org/FAQ_of_europa.union.euro Euro FAQ Wiki] [http://www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/display.cfm?id=348930 The Euro page from the Economist (many articles require a subscription)] ===Books=== [http://college.hmco.com/cgi-bin/SaCGI.cgi/CatalogStub.class/com.hmco.college.catalog.CatalogController?cmd=Portal&subcmd=display&ProductID=3014 Jay H. Levin, A Guide to the Euro (Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002)] {{PreEuroCurrencies}} {{EuropeanCurrencies}} [[Category:Currencies of Europe]] [[Category:Economy of the European Union]] [[Category:Monetary unions]] <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> [[af:Euro]] [[ar:يورو]] [[an:Euro]] [[ast:Euro]] [[bg:Евро]] [[zh-min-nan:Euro]] [[bs:Euro]] [[ca:Euro]] [[cs:Euro]] [[cy:Euro]] [[da:Euro]] [[de:Euro]] [[et:Euro]] [[el:Ευρώ]] [[es:Euro]] [[eo:Eŭro]] [[eu:Euro]] [[fr:Euro]] [[fur:Euro]] [[ga:Euro]] [[gd:Euro]] [[gl:Euro]] [[ko:유로]] [[hi:यूरो]] [[hr:Euro]] [[id:Euro]] [[ia:Euro]] [[is:Evra]] [[it:Euro]] [[he:אירו]] [[kw:Euro]] [[la:Euro]] [[lv:EUR]] [[lt:Euras]] [[lb:Euro]] [[li:Euro]] [[hu:Euró]] [[mt:Ewro]] [[ms:Euro]] [[nl:Euro]] [[nds:Euro]] [[ja:ユーロ]] [[no:Euro]] [[nn:Euro]] [[oc:Euro]] [[pl:Euro]] [[pt:Euro]] [[ro:Euro]] [[ru:Евро]] [[sq:Euro]] [[scn:Euru]] [[simple:Euro]] [[sk:Euro]] [[sl:Evro]] [[sr:Евро]] [[fi:Euro]] [[sv:Euro]] [[ta:ஐரோ]] [[th:ยูโร]] [[vi:Euro]] [[tr:Avro]] [[uk:Євро]] [[zh:欧元]] [[fiu-vro:Õuro]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Extreme programming</title> <id>9473</id> <revision> <id>15907362</id> <timestamp>2002-03-02T12:05:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zundark</username> <id>70</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Extreme_Programming]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>European Central Bank</title> <id>9474</id> <revision> <id>41958466</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:59:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.234.114.160</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Inflation targets */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eurotower in Frankfurt.jpg\|thumb\|right\|215px\|The ECB building in [[Frankfurt]]]] {{Politics of the European Union}} The '''European Central Bank (ECB)''' ([[French language\|French]]: '''Banque Centrale Europeénne''', [[German language\|German]]: '''Europäische Zentralbank''') The ECB is one of the world's largest [[central bank]]s, being in charge of [[fiscal policy\|fiscal]] and [[monetary policy]] for the [[European Union]]'s offical currency, the [[euro]], which is - to date - used by over 300 million Europeans in 12 [[EU]] countries. The ECB was established on [[June 1]], [[1998]]. The headquarters are located in [[Frankfurt am Main]], [[Germany]]. ==Structure & Organisation== The organisation of the ECB is modelled on that of the [[Germany\|German]] [[Bundesbank]] and [[Landesbank]]en. The ECB is governed by a board of directors, headed by a President, and a board of governors, consisting of the members of the board of directors and representatives of the local central banks within the ESCB. === Tasks === === European System of Central Banks === The [[European System of Central Banks]] (ESCB) is comprised of the European Central Bank (ECB), and the local [[central bank]]s of the 25 member-states of the [[European Union]]. Only governors from national banks inside the eurozone take part and are responsible for the decision process. ===Executive Board of Directors === The Executive Board consists of six members which are elaborating the strategies for the bank's policy. Four of these six seats are reserved for the Eurozone's four big central banks of France, Germany, Italy and Spain. === President of the European Central Bank === ''Main Article: [[List of Presidents of the European Central Bank]]'' In [[1999]] [[Wim Duisenberg]], the former president of [[De Nederlandsche Bank]], and former finance minister of the Netherlands became the first president of the ECB. In November [[2003]] [[Jean-Claude Trichet]] followed and is still president today. ==Goals and Instruments== The ECB hold reserves of over € 4.0 billion of which just over 30% are gold reserves of the [[Bundesbank]] and ca 20% from the [[Banque de France]]. ==Economic Culture== [[Image:La2-euro.jpg\|thumb\|150px\|left\|Night view of the [[Euro]] sculpture.]] There are two main lines of criticism within the ECB. ===Independence=== Critics focus on the independence of the institution. The ECB was established as a [[central bank]] designed to operate independently of political intervention. Its objectives and powers were politically established, but the decisions as to how those powers should best be used to achieve the objectives was left in the hands of the ECB itself. However, as many national banks in the EU are outside the eurozone and independent (the [[Danmarks Nationalbank]] or the [[Bank of England]] for instance), this argument could also apply to them. Some see this independence as undemocratic and therefore criticise the decision making process and objectives of the ECB, asserting that the economic goals of the ECB are ''hard-wired'' to be secretive and independent from most citizens of the European Union, and to be isolated from [[feedback]] mechanisms regarding the influence of the money economy on [[human rights violation]]s or the natural [[natural environment\|environment]]. The ECB does not publish or invite comments on its proposed decisions. After publication of its actions and decisions, ECB web pages do not solicit direct comments by citizens. It is thought that details of internal meetings are not made public in order not to reveal internal splits in the board of governors. European citizens may influence the policy decisions of the ECB very indirectly via the formal, national [[democracy\|democratic]] electoral process. However, even if changes in economic assumptions are expressed via formal [[democracy\|democratic]] means, elected politicians have very little power to transmit these changes to the ECB. Still, the ECB is accountable to the [[European Parliament]] and the council of ministers. It appoints the ECB president and vice-president and other members of the ECB's executive board. The nominees must be approved by Parliament first, and then by the council of ministers before they can assume their roles in the institution. Also, it is required by law for the ECB president to present an annual report to the plenary sitting of Parliament. Furthermore, the ECB president and other members of the executive board are present in the Parliament's monetary affairs committee who meet regularly. These meetings take place four times a year, but can be more frequent if any side would want to. It is important to add that it is generally accepted by economists that the independence of the Central Bank is the best way to avoid selfish manipulation of the macroecomy for political purposes. ===Inflation targets=== Some critics feel that the objectives given to the ECB are inappropriate. The ECB sets interest rates in order to control inflation, but does not take into account objectives such as employment and [[exchange rate]] stability. Some feel this as a too narrow set of objectives, leading to decisions on interest rate that are inappropriate given the wider needs of the economy. Many British economists have stated that the ECB should adopt a symmetrical target rate, much like the one that the [[Bank of England]] follows. The unusually low interest rates set by the ECB have been criticized as being inappropriate for regions of Europe with property bubbles. These low interest rates are a factor of the [[Irish Property Bubble]]. Although it must be said that it has an economic reason, to avoid [[recession]] in many important countries of the eurozone ([[Fra
emples, [[basilica]]e, [[theatre]]s, porticoes, [[Roman Forum\|fora]], walls of towns, [[Aqueduct (Roman)\|aqueducts]], harbours, bridges, cloacae, roads, etc. These works were either performed by them jointly, or they divided between them the money, which had been granted to them by the senate (Liv. xl.51, xliv.16). They were let out to contractors, like the other works mentioned above, and when they were completed, the censors had to see that the work was performed in accordance with the contract: this was called ''opus probare'' or ''in acceptum referre'' (Cicero ''Verr.'' i.57; Livy iv.22, xlv.15; Lex Puteol. p73, Spang.). The [[aedile]]s had likewise a superintendence over the public buildings, and it is not easy to define with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles, but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors had reference to all financial matters. ===Lustrum=== After the censors had performed their various duties and taken the five-yearly census, the ''[[lustrum]]'', a solemn purification of the people, followed. When the censors entered upon their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this purification (''lustrum facere'' or ''condere'', Varr. L.L. vi.86; Livy xxix.37, xxxv.9, xxxviii.36, xlii.10); but both censors were of course obliged to be present at the ceremony. Long after the Roman census was no longer taken, the Latin word ''lustrum'' has survived, and been adopted in some modern languages, in the derived sense of a period of five years, i.e. half a decennium. == See also == * [[Cursus honorum]] * [[List of Ancient Rome-related topics]] * [[List of censors]] * [[Political institutions of Rome]] * [[Roman Republic]] ==Sources and References== [[Pauly-Wissowa]] {{Smith}} [[Category:Roman censors\|]] [[Category:Ancient Roman titles]] [[Category:Government occupations]] [[de:Censur]] [[es:Censor romano]] [[fr:Censeur romain]] [[it:Censore (storia romana)]] [[he:קנסור]] [[hu:Censor]] [[nl:Censor]] [[no:Censor]] [[pl:Cenzor rzymski]] [[pt:Censor romano]] [[ro:Cenzor]] [[ru:Цензор (Древний Рим)]] [[fi:Censori]] [[sv:Censor]] [[zh:監察官]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Convex set</title> <id>6292</id> <revision> <id>39062943</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T13:10:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cbuckley</username> <id>901382</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}} :''For other uses of convex, see [[convex function]] and [[convexity]].'' In [[Euclidean space]], an object is '''convex''' if for any pair of points within the object, any point on the [[straight line]] segment that joins them is also within the object. For example, a solid [[cube (geometry)\|cube]] is convex, but anything that is hollow or has a dent in it is not convex. == Convex sets == [[Image:Convex polygon illustration1.png\|right\|thumb\|A convex set.]] [[Image:Convex polygon illustration2.png\|right\|thumb\|A non-convex (concave) set.]] Let ''C'' be a set in a [[real number\|real]] or [[complex number\|complex]] [[vector space]]. ''C'' is said to be '''convex''' if, for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''C'' and all ''t'' in the [[interval (mathematics)\|interval]] [0,1], the point :(1 &minus; ''t'') ''x'' + ''t y'' is in ''C''. In other words, every point on the [[line segment]] connecting ''x'' and ''y'' is in ''C''. This implies that a convex set is [[connected space\|connected]]. A set ''C'' is called '''absolutely convex''' if it is convex and [[balanced set\|balanced]]. The convex [[subset]]s of '''R''' (the set of real numbers) are simply the intervals of '''R'''. Some examples of convex subsets of [[Euclidean space\|Euclidean 2-space]] are [[regular polygon]]s and [[curve of constant width\|bodies of constant width]]. Some examples of convex subsets of [[Euclidean space\|Euclidean 3-space]] are the [[Archimedean solid\|Archimedean solids]] and the [[Platonic solid\|Platonic solids]]. The [[Kepler-Poinsot solid]]s are examples of non-convex sets. === Properties of convex sets === If <math>S</math> is a convex set, for any <math>u_1,u_2,\ldots,u_r</math> in <math>S</math>, and any non [[negative number]]s <math>\lambda_1,\lambda_2,\ldots,\lambda_r</math> such that <math>\lambda_1+\lambda_2+\cdots+\lambda_r=1</math>, then the vector <math>\sum_{k=1}^r\lambda_k u_k</math> is in <math>S</math>. The intersection of any collection of convex sets is itself convex, so the convex subsets of a (real or complex) vector space form a complete [[lattice (order)\|lattice]]. This also means that any subset ''A'' of the vector space is contained within a smallest convex set (called the [[convex hull]] of ''A''), namely the intersection of all convex sets containing ''A''. [[closed set\|Closed]] convex sets can be characterised as the intersections of ''closed [[half-space]]s'' (sets of point in space that lie on and to one side of a [[hyperplane]]). From what has just been said, it is clear that such intersections are convex, and they will also be closed sets. To prove the converse, i.e., every convex set may be represented as such intersection, one needs the ''supporting hyperplane theorem'' in the form that for a given closed convex set ''C'' and point ''P'' outside it, there is a closed half-space ''H'' that contains ''C'' and not ''P''. The supporting hyperplane theorem is a special case of the [[Hahn-Banach theorem]] of [[functional analysis]]. ==Star-convex sets== Let ''C'' be a set in a real or complex vector space. ''C'' is '''star convex''' if there exists an <math>x_0</math> in ''C'' such that the line segment from <math>x_0</math> to any point ''y'' in ''C'' is contained in ''C''. Hence a convex set is always star convex but a star-convex object is not always convex. ==Non-Euclidean geometry== The definition of a convex set and a convex hull extends naturally to [[non-Euclidean geometry]] by defining a convex set to contain the [[geodesic]]s joining any two points in the set. ==Generalized convexity== The notion of convexity in the Euclidean space may be generalized by modifying the definition in some or other aspects. The common name "generalized convexity" is used, because the resulting objects retain certain properties of convex sets. ===Orthogonal convexity=== An example of generalized convexity is '''orthogonal convexity'''. A set ''S'' in the Euclidean space is called '''orthogonally convex''' or '''orthoconvex''', if any segment parallel to any of the coordinate axes connecting two points of ''S'' lies totally within ''S''. It is easy to prove that an intersection of any collection of orthoconvex sets is orthoconvex. Some other properties of convex sets are valid as well. ==Abstract (axiomatic) convexity== The notion of [[convexity]] may be generalised to other objects, if certain properties of convexity are selected as [[axiom]]s. Given a set ''X'', the '''convexity''' over ''X'' is a subset <math> \mathbb{C}</math> of [[powerset]] of ''X'' that satisfies the following axioms. #The empty set and ''X'' are in <math> \mathbb{C}</math> #The intersection of any collection from <math> \mathbb{C}</math> is in <math> \mathbb{C}</math>. #The union of a [[Total order\|chain]] (with respect to the [[inclusion relation]]) of elements of <math> \mathbb{C}</math> is in <math> \mathbb{C}</math>. The elements of <math> \mathbb{C}</math> are called convex sets and the pair (''X'', <math> \mathbb{C}</math>)) is called the '''convexity space'''. For the ordinary convexity, the first two axioms hold, and the third one is trivial. == See also == * [[pseudoconvexity]] ==References== Rawlins G.J.E. and Wood D, "Ortho-convexity and its generalizations", in: ''Computational Morphology'', 137-152. [[Elsevier]], [[1988]]. Soltan, Valeriu, ''Introduction to the Axiomatic Theory of Convexity'', Stiintsa, [[Chisinau]], [[1984]] (in Russian). [[Category:Convex geometry]] [[Category:Mathematical analysis]] [[de:Konvexe Menge]] [[es:Convexidad]] [[fr:Convexe]] [[he:קבוצה קמורה]] [[it:Insieme convesso]] [[nl:Convex]] [[pl:Zbiór wypukły]] [[ru:Выпуклое множество]] [[fi:Konveksi joukko]] [[sv:Konvex]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cairo</title> <id>6293</id> <revision> <id>42161871</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:47:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.104.211.5</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}} '''Cairo''' ([[Arabic language\|Arabic]]: '''&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1607;&#1585;&#1577;'''; [[Arabic transliteration\|transliterated]]: '''al-Q&#x101;hirah''') is the [[capital]] [[city]] of [[Egypt]] (and previously the [[United Arab Republic]]) and has a [[metropolitan area]] [[population]] of approximately 15.2 million people, the largest in Africa. Cairo is the [[List of metropolitan areas by population\|sixteenth most populous metropolitan area]] in the world (the 10th according to 2004). Cairo is located at 30&deg;2' North, 31&deg;13' East (30.03333, 31.21667). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html] While al-Q&#x101;hirah is the official name of the city, in local speech it is typically called simply by the name of the country, ''Mi&#351;r'' (Arabic, &#1605;&#1589;&#1585;) pronounced ''Ma&#351;r'' in the local dialect. The name Al-Qahirah literally means "The Subduer," though it is often translated as "'''The Victorious'''." The origin of the name is said to come from the appearance of the planet Mars during the foundation of the city. The planet Mars, associated with destruction was called "Al Naj
ctron\| ]] [[bug:Elektron]] [[af:Elektron]] [[ar:إلكترون]] [[ast:Electrón]] [[bg:Електрон]] [[bs:Elektron]] [[br:Elektron]] [[ca:Electró]] [[cs:Elektron]] [[da:Elektron]] [[de:Elektron]] [[et:Elektron]] [[es:Electrón]] [[eo:Elektrono]] [[fa:الکترون]] [[fr:Électron]] [[ga:Leictreon]] [[gl:Electrón]] [[ko:전자]] [[hr:Elektron]] [[io:Elektrono]] [[id:Elektron]] [[ia:Electron]] [[is:Rafeind]] [[it:Elettrone]] [[he:אלקטרון]] [[la:Electron]] [[lv:Elektrons]] [[lt:Elektronas]] [[hu:Elektron]] [[mk:Електрон]] [[nl:Elektron]] [[nds:Elektron]] [[ja:電子]] [[no:Elektron]] [[nn:Elektron]] [[pl:Elektron]] [[pt:Elétron]] [[ro:Electron]] [[ru:Электрон]] [[simple:Electron]] [[sk:Elektrón]] [[sl:Elektron]] [[sr:Електрон]] [[su:Éléktron]] [[fi:Elektroni]] [[sv:Elektron]] [[th:อิเล็กตรอน]] [[vi:Điện tử]] [[tr:Elektron]] [[zh:电子]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Europium</title> <id>9477</id> <revision> <id>40990184</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T09:03:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stone</username> <id>13976</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Applications / link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header \| number=63 \| symbol=Eu \| name=europium \| left=[[samarium]] \| right=[[gadolinium]] \| above=- \| below=[[americium\|Am]] \| color1=#ffbfff \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series \| [[lanthanide]]s }} {{Elementbox_periodblock \| period=6 \| block=f }} {{Elementbox_appearance_img \| Eu,63\| silvery white }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm \| [[1 E-25 kg\|151.964]][[List of elements by atomic mass\|(1)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig \| &#91;[[xenon\|Xe]]&#93; 4f<sup>7</sup> 6s<sup>2</sup> }} {{Elementbox_epershell \| 2, 8, 18, 25, 8, 2 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop \| color1=#ffbfff \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase \| [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt \| 5.244 }} {{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp \| 5.13 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint \| k=1099 \| c=826 \| f=1519 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint \| k=1802 \| c=1529 \| f=2784 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol \| 9.21 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol \| 176 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 \| 27.66 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa \| 863 \| 957 \| 1072 \| 1234 \| 1452 \| 1796 \| comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop \| color1=#ffbfff \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct \| cubic body centered }} {{Elementbox_oxistates \| 3<br />(mildly [[base (chemistry)\|basic]] oxide) }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling \| ? 1.2 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 \| 547.1 \| 1085 \| 2404 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm \| [[1 E-10 m\|185]] }} {{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm \| [[1 E-10 m\|231]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous \| color1=#ffbfff \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_magnetic \| no data }} {{Elementbox_eresist_ohmm \| ([[room temperature\|r.t.]]) (poly) 0.900 µ}} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k \| est. 13.9 }} {{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmk \| ([[room temperature\|r.t.]]) (poly)<br />35.0 }} {{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa \| 18.2 }} {{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa \| 7.9 }} {{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa \| 8.3 }} {{Elementbox_poissonratio \| 0.152 }} {{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa \| 167 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number \| 7440-53-1 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin \| isotopesof=europium \| color1=#ffbfff \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay \| mn=150 \| sym=Eu \| na=[[synthetic radioisotope\|syn]] \| hl=[[1 E s\|36.9 y]] \| dm=[[electron capture\|&epsilon;]] \| de=2.261 \| pn=150 \| ps=[[samarium\|Sm]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable \| mn=151 \| sym=Eu \| na=47.8% \| n=88 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 \| mn=152 \| sym=Eu \| na=[[synthetic radioisotope\|syn]] \| hl=[[1 E s\|13.516 y]] \| dm1=&epsilon; \| de1=1.874 \| pn1=152 \| ps1=[[samarium\|Sm]] \| dm2=[[Beta minus decay\|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] \| de2=1.819 \| pn2=152 \| ps2=[[gadolinium\|Gd]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable \| mn=153 \| sym=Eu \| na=52.2% \| n=90 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer \| color1=#ffbfff \| color2=black }} '''Europium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Eu''' and [[atomic number]] 63. It was named after the continent [[Europe]]. == Notable characteristics == Europium is the most reactive of the [[rare earth element]]s; it quickly oxidizes in air, and resembles [[calcium]] in its reaction with water. Like other rare earths (with the exception of [[lanthanum]]), europium ignites in air at about 150 °C to 180 °C. It is about as hard as lead and quite ductile. == Applications == There are no commercial applications for europium metal, although it has been used to dope some types of plastics to make [[laser]]s. Due to its ability to absorb neutrons, it is also being studied for use in nuclear reactors. Europium oxide (Eu<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) is widely used as a red [[phosphor]] in [[Cathode_ray_tube\|television sets]], and as an activator for [[yttrium]]-based phosphors. It is also being used as an agent for the manufacture of fluorescent glass. A salt of Europium is a component of the newer phosphorescent powders and paints, some of which will glow for days after a few minutes of exposure to light. == History == Europium was first found by [[Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]] in [[1890]], who obtained basic fraction from [[samarium]]-[[gadolinium]] concentrates which had spectral lines not accounted for by [[samarium]] or [[gadolinium]]; however, the discovery of europium is generally credited to [[France\|French]] [[chemist]] [[Eugène-Antole Demarçay]], who suspected samples of the recently discovered element [[samarium]] were contaminated with an unknown element in [[1896]] and who was able to isolate europium in [[1901]]. == Occurrence == Europium is never found in nature as the free element; however, there are many minerals containing europium, with the most important sources being [[bastnasite]] and [[monazite]]. Europium has also been identified in the spectra of the sun and certain stars. == Compounds == Europium compounds include: [[Fluoride]]s [[europium(II) fluoride\|EuF<sub>2</sub>]] [[europium(III) fluoride\|EuF<sub>3</sub>]] * [[Chloride]]s [[europium(II) chloride\|EuCl<sub>2</sub>]] [[europium(III) chloride\|EuCl<sub>3</sub>]] * [[Bromide]]s [[europium(II) bromide\|EuBr<sub>2</sub>]] [[europium(III) bromide\|EuBr<sub>3</sub>]] * [[Iodide]]s [[europium(II) iodide\|EuI<sub>2</sub>]] [[europium(III) iodide\|EuI<sub>3</sub>]] * [[Oxide]]s [[europium(III) oxide\|Eu<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>]] [[europium(II) oxide\|Eu<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>]] * [[Sulfide]]s ** [[europium(II) sulphide\|EuS]] * [[Selenide]]s ** [[europium(II) selenide\|EuSe]] * [[Telluride]]s ** [[europium(II) telluride\|EuTe]] * [[Nitride]]s ** [[europium(III) nitride\|EuN]] == Isotopes == Naturally occurring europium is composed of 2 stable [[isotope]]s, 151-Eu and 153-Eu, with 153-Eu being the most abundant (52.2% [[natural abundance]]). 35 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized, with the most stable being 150-Eu with a [[half-life]] of 36.9 years, 152-Eu with a half-life of 13.516 years, and 154-Eu with a half-life of 8.593 years. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 4.7612 years, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 12.2 seconds. This element also has 8 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being 150m-Eu (t<sub>½</sub> 12.8 hours), 152m1-Eu (t<sub>½</sub> 9.3116 hours) and 152m2-Eu (t<sub>½</sub> 96 minutes). The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, 153-Eu, is [[electron capture]], and the primary mode after is [[beta minus decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before 153-Eu are element Sm ([[samarium]]) isotopes and the primary products after are element Gd ([[gadolinium]]) isotopes. == Precautions == The toxicity of europium compounds has not been fully investigated, but there are no clear indications that europium is highly toxic compared to other heavy metals. The metal dust presents a fire and explosion hazard. Europium has no known biological role. == References == [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/63.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Europium] == External links == {{Commons\|Europium}} [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Eu/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Europium] * [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele063.html It's Elemental &ndash; Europium] [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Lanthanides]] [[ca:Europi]] [[cs:Europium]] [[da:Europium]] [[de:Europium]] [[et:Euroopium]] [[es:Europio]] [[eo:Eŭropio]] [[fr:Europium]] [[ko:유로퓸]] [[io:Europio]] [[it:Europio]] [[he:אירופיום]] [[lt:Europis]] [[hu:Európium]] [[nl:Europium]] [[ja:ユウロピウム]] [[nn:Europium]] [[pl:Europ]] [[pt:Európio]] [[ru:Европий]] [[sl:Evropij]] [[sr:Еуропијум]] [[fi:Europium]] [[sv:Europium]] [[th:ยูโรเพียม]] [[uk:Європій]] [[zh:铕]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Erbium</title> <id>9478</id> <revision> <id>35498116</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T04:15:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Archimerged</username> <id>757977</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header \| number=68 \| symbol=Er \| name=erbium \| left=[[holmium]] \| right=[[thulium]] \| above=- \| below=[[fermium\|Fm]] \| color1=#ffbfff \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series \| [[lanthanide]]s }} {{Elementbox_periodblock \| period=6 \| block=f }} {{Elementbox_appearance_img \| Er,68\| silvery white }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm \| [[1 E-25 kg\|167.259]][[List of elements by atomic mass\|(3)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig \| &#91;[[xenon\|Xe]]&#93; 4f<sup>12</sup> 6s<sup>2</sup> }} {{Elementbox_epershell \| 2, 8, 18,
rt a relevant diagram for the categorical product here! --> ==See also== [[Direct sum]] [[Cartesian product]] [[Coproduct]] [[Free product]] == References == Lang, S. ''Algebra''. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2002. [[Category:Abstract algebra]] [[de:Direktes Produkt]] [[fr:Produit direct]] [[it:prodotto diretto]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Déjà vu</title> <id>8888</id> <revision> <id>42096810</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:29:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.151.71.19</ip> </contributor> <comment>/ Parapsychology /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}} The term '''déjà vu''' ([[French language\|French]]: "already seen", also called '''paramnesia''') describes the experience of feeling that one has witnessed or experienced a new situation previously. The term was created by a [[France\|French]] [[psychic]] researcher, [[Emile Boirac]] ([[1851]]&ndash;[[1917]]) in his book ''L'Avenir des sciences psychiques'' (''The Future of Psychic Sciences''), which expanded upon an essay he wrote while an undergraduate French concentrator at the [[University of Chicago]]. The experience of déjà vu is usually accompanied by a compelling sense of familiarity, and also a sense of "eerieness" or "strangeness" or "weirdness". The "previous" experience is most frequently attributed to a dream, although in some cases there is a firm sense that the experience "genuinely happened" in the past. The experience of déjà vu seems to be very common; in formal studies 70% or more of the population report having experienced it at least once. References to the experience of déjà vu are also found in literature of the past, indicating it is not a new phenomenon. However, in laboratory settings, it is extremely difficult to invoke the déjà vu experience, making it a subject with few empirical studies. ==Types of déjà vu== According to Arthur Funkhouser there are three types of déjà vu: ===Déjà vécu=== Usually translated 'already experienced' or 'already lived through,' déjà vécu is described in a quotation from David Copperfield by Charles Dickens: <blockquote>We have all some experience of a feeling, that comes over us occasionally, of what we are saying and doing having been said and done before, in a remote time - of our having been surrounded, dim ages ago, by the same faces, objects, and circumstances - of our knowing perfectly what will be said next, as if we suddenly remember it!{{ref\|dickens}}</blockquote> When most people speak of déjà vu, they are actually experiencing déjà vécu. Surveys have revealed that about one third of the population have had these experiences, more often (and perhaps more intense) in people between the ages of 15 and 25. The experience is usually related to a very banal event, but is so striking that it is remembered for years afterwards. Déjà vécu refers to an experience involving more than just sight, which is why labeling such "déjà vu" is usually inaccurate. The sense involves a great amount of detail, sensing that everything is just as it was before. Because of this, theories that the situation was just read about earlier or experienced in a previous life are invalid, as those experiences could not recreate the exact situation due to a lack of sense involvement or the presence of modern surroundings. ===Déjà senti=== Dr. John Hughlings Jackson recorded the words of one of his patients who suffered from temporal lobe or psychomotor epilepsy in an 1889 paper: <blockquote>What is occupying the attention is what has occupied it before, and indeed has been familiar, but has been for a time forgotten, and now is recovered with a slight sense of satisfaction as if it had been sought for. ... At the same time, or ... more accurately in immediate sequence, I am dimly aware that the recollection is fictitious and my state abnormal. The recollection is always started by another person's voice, or by my own verbalized thought, or by what I am reading and mentally verbalize; and I think that during the abnormal state I generally verbalize some such phrase of simple recognition as 'Oh yes - I see', 'Of course - I remember', &c., but a minute or two later I can recollect neither the words nor the verbalized thought which gave rise to the recollection. I only find strongly that they resemble what I have felt before under similar abnormal conditions.</blockquote> This phenomenon specifies something 'already felt.' Unlike the implied precognition of déjà vécu, déjà senti is primarily or even exclusively a mental happening, has no precognitive aspects, and seldom or never remains in the afflicted person's memory afterwards. As with Dr. Jackson's patient, some temporal-lobe epileptics may experience this phenomenon. ===Déjà visité=== This experience is less common and involves an uncanny knowledge of a new place. Here one may know his or her way around in a new town or landscape while at the same time knowing that this should not be possible. Dreams, [[reincarnation]] and also out-of-the-body travel have been evoked to explain this phenomenon. Additionally, some suggest that reading a detailed account of a place can result in this feeling when the local is later visited. Two famous examples of such a situation were described by [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] in his book ''Our Old Home'' and [[Sir Walter Scott]] in ''Guy Mannering''. Hawthorne recognized the ruins of a castle in England and later was able to trace it to a piece written two hundred years earlier by [[Alexander Pope]] about it. [[C. G. Jung]] published an account of déjà visité in his 1966 paper ''[[On synchronicity]]''. In order to distinguish déjà visité from déjà vécu, it is important to identify the source of the feeling. Déjà vécu is in reference to the [[temporal occurrence]]s and processes, while déjà visité has more to do with [[geography]] and [[spatial dimension]]s. ==Scientific research== In recent years, déjà vu has been subjected to serious psychological and neurophysiological research. The most likely candidate for explanation, according to scientists in these fields, is that déjà vu is not an act of "precognition" or "prophecy" but is actually an anomaly of memory; it is the impression that an experience is "being recalled" which is false. This is substantiated to an extent by the fact that in most cases the sense of "recollection" at the time is strong, but any circumstances of the "previous" experience (when, where and how the earlier experience occurred) are quite uncertain. Likewise, as time passes, subjects can exhibit a strong recollection of having the "unsettling" experience of déjà vu itself, but little to no recollection of the specifics of the event(s) or circumstances they were "remembering" when they had the déjà vu experience, and in particular, this may result from an overlap between the neurological systems responsible for [[short-term memory]] (events which are perceived as being in the present) and those responsible for [[long-term memory]] (events which are perceived as being in the past). ===Links with disorders=== A clinical correlation has been found between the experience of déjà vu and disorders such as [[schizophrenia]] and [[anxiety]], and the likelihood of the experience increases considerably with subjects having these conditions. However, the strongest pathological association of déjà vu is with temporal lobe [[epilepsy]]. This correlation has led some researchers to speculate that the experience of déjà vu is possibly a [[neurology\|neurological]] anomaly related to improper electrical discharge in the brain. As most people suffer a mild (ie. non-pathological) epileptic episode regularly (eg. the sudden "jolt", a [[hypnic jerk\|hypnagogic jerk]], that frequently occurs just prior to falling asleep), it is conjectured that a similar (mild) neurological aberration occurs in the experience of déjà vu, resulting in an erroneous "memory". ===Parapsychology=== Déjà vu is associated with [[precognition]], [[clairvoyance]] or [[extra-sensory perception]]s, and it is frequently cited as evidence for "[[parapsychology\|psychic]]" abilities in the general population. Non-scientific explanations attribute the experience to [[prophecy]], visions (such as received in dreams) or past-life memories. None of the above abilities have been reproduced in any scientific setting. ===Dreams=== Some believe déjà vu is the memory of dreams. The reasoning goes like this: though the majority of dreams are never remembered, a dreaming person ''can'' display activity in the areas of the brain that process long-term memory. Perhaps a dream can read directly into long-term memory, bypassing short-term memory entirely. In this case, déjà vu might be a memory of a forgotten dream with elements in common with the current "awake" experience. This may be similar to another phenomenon known as deja rêvé, or "already dreamed." ==Related phenomena== ''Jamais vu'': From the [[French language\|French]], meaning "never seen," the expression means explicitly ''not'' remembering having seen something before. The person knows it has happened before, but the experience feels unfamiliar. Often described as the opposite of [[déjà vu]], jamais vu involves a sense of eeriness and the observer's impression of seeing the situation for the first time, despite rationally knowing that he or she has been in the situation before. Jamais vu is sometimes associated with certain types of [[amnesia]] and [[epilepsy]]. An old internet joke referred to this feeling as "vujà dé." * ''Presque vu'': From the French language, meaning "almost seen," the expression means almost, but not quite, remember
ication. BCI received a licence and copyright through legal agreements with Charles K. Bliss in 1975 and 1982. Limiting the count of Bliss-characters (there are currently about 900) is very useful to help the user community. It also helps when implementing Blissymbolics using technology such as computers. An example of Blissymbolics is: [[Image:Bliss_cinema.png\|blissymbols]] ''I want to go to the cinema'' == History == Blissymbolics was first used in 1971 helping children at the Ontario Crippled Children&#8217;s Centre (OCCC, now the Bloorview-MacMillan Children&#8217;s Centre) in Toronto, Canada. Since it was important that the children see consistent pictures, OCCC had a draftsman named Jim Grice draw the symbols. Both Charles K. Bliss and Margrit Beesley at the OCCC worked with Jim ensuring consistency. In 1975, a new organization named Blissymbolics Communication Foundation directed by Shirley McNaughton led this effort. Over the years, this organization changed their name to Blissymbolics Communication Institute, Easter Seal Communication Institute, and ultimately being named Blissymbolics Communication International. ==External links== * [http://www.blissymbolics.org/ Blissymbolics Communication International] * [http://www.blissymbols.co.uk/ Blissymbol Communication UK] * [http://www.blissymbolics.us/resources/ Blissymbolics Resources] * [http://www.crockford.com/blissym/lesson1.pdf An Introduction to Blissymbols] [[Category:Constructed languages]] [[Category:Artificial scripts]] [[de:Bliss-Symbole]] [[eo:Blissymbolics]] [[fr:Bliss]] [[io:Bliss]] [[sl:Bliss]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bessel function</title> <id>4700</id> <revision> <id>37930143</id> <timestamp>2006-02-03T01:07:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stevenj</username> <id>7918</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Properties / slight rearrangement</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''Bessel functions''', first defined by the [[Switzerland\|Swiss]] [[mathematician]] [[Daniel Bernoulli]] and named after [[Friedrich Bessel]], are canonical solutions ''y''(''x'') of Bessel's [[differential equation]]: :<math>x^2 \frac{d^2 y}{dx^2} + x \frac{dy}{dx} + (x^2 - \alpha^2)y = 0</math> for an arbitrary real number &alpha; (the ''order''). The most common and important special case is where &alpha; is an [[integer]], ''n''. Although &alpha; and &minus;&alpha; produce the same differential equation, it is conventional to define different Bessel functions for these two orders (e.g., so that the Bessel functions are mostly smooth functions of &alpha;). ==Applications== Bessel's equation arises when finding separable solutions to [[Laplace's equation]] and the [[Helmholtz equation]] in [[cylindrical coordinates\|cylindrical]] or [[spherical coordinates\|spherical]] coordinates, and Bessel functions are therefore especially important for many problems of [[wave propagation]], static potentials, and so on. (For cylindrical problems, one obtains Bessel functions of integer order &alpha; = ''n''; for spherical problems, one obtains half integer orders &alpha; = ''n''+&frac12;.) For example: [[electromagnetic waves]] in a cylindrical [[waveguide]] * [[Law of heat conduction\|heat conduction]] in a cylindrical object. * modes of vibration of a thin circular (or annular) [[membrane]]. Bessel functions also have useful properties for other problems, such as signal processing (e.g., see [[FM synthesis]] or [[Kaiser window]]). ==Definitions== Since this is a second-order differential equation, there must be two [[linearly independent]] solutions. Depending upon the circumstances, however, various formulations of these solutions are convenient, and the different variations are described below. === Bessel functions of the first kind=== Bessel functions of the first kind, denoted with ''J''<sub>&alpha;</sub>(''x''), are solutions of Bessel's differential equation which are finite at ''x'' = 0 for &alpha; an integer or &alpha; non-negative. The specific choice and normalization of ''J''<sub>&alpha;</sub> are defined by its [[Bessel function#Properties\|properties]] below; another possibility is to define it by its [[Taylor series]] expansion around ''x'' = 0 (or a more general [[power series]] for non-integer &alpha;): :<math> J_\alpha(x) = \sum_{m=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^m}{m! \Gamma(m+\alpha+1)} {\left({\frac{x}{2}}\right)}^{2m+\alpha} </math> Here, <math>\Gamma(z)</math> is the [[gamma function]], a generalization of the [[factorial]] to non-integer values. The graphs of Bessel functions look roughly like oscillating sine or cosine functions that decay proportionally to 1/&radic;''x'' (see also their asymptotic forms, below), although their roots are not generally periodic except asymptotically for large ''x''. Here is the plot of <math>J_\alpha (x)</math> for <math>\alpha = 0, 1, 2</math>: [[image:BesselJ_plot.svg\|center\|Plot of Bessel J]] If &alpha; is not an integer, the functions <math>J_\alpha (x)</math> and <math>J_{-\alpha} (x)</math> are linearly independent and are therefore the two solutions of the differential equation. On the other hand, if the order <math>\alpha</math> is an integer, then the following relationship is valid: :<math>J_{-\alpha}(x) = (-1)^{\alpha} J_{\alpha}(x)\,</math> This means that they are no longer linearly independent. The second linearly independent solution is then found to be the Bessel function of the second kind, as discussed below. ==== Bessel's integrals==== Another definition of the Bessel function is possible using an integral equation: :<math>J_\alpha (x) = \frac{1}{2 \pi} \int_{0}^{2 \pi} \cos (\alpha \tau - x \sin \tau) d\tau.</math> This is the approach that Bessel used, and from this definition he derived several properties of the function. Another integral representation is: :<math>J_\alpha (x) = \frac{1}{2 \pi} \int_{-\pi}^{\pi} e^{i(\alpha \tau - x \sin \tau)} d\tau</math> ====Relation to hypergeometric series==== The Bessel functions can be expressed in terms of the [[hypergeometric series]] as :<math>J_\alpha(z)=\frac{(z/2)^\alpha}{\Gamma(\alpha+1)} \;_0F_1 (\alpha+1; -z^2/4).</math> === Bessel functions of the second kind === These are perhaps the most commonly used forms of the Bessel functions. The Bessel functions of the second kind, denoted by ''Y''<sub>&alpha;</sub>(''x''), are solutions of the Bessel differential equation. They are singular ([[infinite]]) at ''x'' = 0. ''Y''<sub>&alpha;</sub>(''x'') is sometimes also called the '''Neumann function''', and is occasionally denoted instead by ''N''<sub>&alpha;</sub>(''x''). It is related to ''J''<sub>&alpha;</sub>(''x'') by: :<math>Y_\alpha(x) = \frac{J_\alpha(x) \cos(\alpha\pi) - J_{-\alpha}(x)}{\sin(\alpha\pi)},</math> where the case of integer &alpha; is handled by taking the limit. When &alpha; is not an integer, the definition of ''Y''<sub>&alpha;</sub> is redundant (as is clear from its definition above). On the other hand, when &alpha; is an integer, ''Y''<sub>''&alpha;''</sub> is the second linearly independent solution of Bessel's equation; moreover, as was similarly the case for the functions of the first kind, the following relationship is valid: :<math>Y_{-n}(x) = (-1)^n Y_n(x)\,</math> Both ''J''<sub>&alpha;</sub>(''x'') and ''Y''<sub>&alpha;</sub>(''x'') are [[holomorphic function]]s of ''x'' on the [[complex plane]] cut along the negative real axis. When &alpha; is an integer, there is no [[branch point]], and the Bessel functions are [[entire function]]s of ''x''. If ''x'' is held fixed, then the Bessel functions are entire functions of &alpha;. Here is the plot of <math>Y_\alpha (x)</math> for <math>\alpha = 0, 1, 2</math>: [[image:BesselY_plot.svg\|center\|Plot of Bessel Y]] === Hankel functions === Another important formulation of the two linearly independent solutions to Bessel's equation are the '''Hankel functions''' ''H''<sub>&alpha;</sub><sup>(1)</sup>(''x'') and ''H''<sub>&alpha;</sub><sup>(2)</sup>(''x''), defined by: :<math>H_\alpha^{(1)}(x) = J_\alpha(x) + i Y_\alpha(x)</math> :<math>H_\alpha^{(2)}(x) = J_\alpha(x) - i Y_\alpha(x)</math> where ''i'' is the [[imaginary unit]]. These linear combinations are also known as Bessel functions of the third kind; they are two linearly independent solutions of Bessel's differential equation. The Hankel functions express inward- and outward-propagating cylindrical wave solutions of the cylindrical wave equation. They are named for [[Hermann Hankel]]. Using the previous relationships they can be expressed as: :<math>H_{\alpha}^{(1)} (x) = \frac{J_{-\alpha} (x) - e^{-\alpha \pi i} J_\alpha (x)}{i \sin (\alpha \pi)}</math> :<math>H_{\alpha}^{(2)} (x) = \frac{J_{-\alpha} (x) - e^{\alpha \pi i} J_\alpha (x)}{- i \sin (\alpha \pi)}</math> if &alpha; is an integer, the limit has to be calculated. The following relationships are valid, whether &alpha; is an integer or not: :<math>H_{-\alpha}^{(1)} (x)= e^{\alpha \pi i} H_{\alpha}^{(1)} (x) </math> :<math>H_{-\alpha}^{(2)} (x)= e^{-\alpha \pi i} H_{\alpha}^{(2)} (x) </math> === Modified Bessel functions === The Bessel functions are valid even for [[complex number\|complex]] arguments ''x'', and an important special case is that of a purely imaginary argument. In this case, the solutions to the Bessel equation are called the '''
Irishman, performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube, which was sealed on one end. [[Mercury (element)\|Mercury]] was added to the tube, trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short, sealed end of the tube. Then the volume of gas was carefully measured as additional mercury was added to the tube. The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end. Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the gas volume varied inversely with the pressure. In mathematical form, this can be stated as: :''PV'' = constant <!--this V doesn't have to be molar volume--> The above relationship has also been attributed to [[Edme Mariotte]] and is sometimes referred to as '''Mariotte's law'''. However, Mariotte's work was not published until [[1676]]. === Charles's law or [[Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac]] ([[1787]]) === In 1787 the French physicist [[Jacques Charles]] found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air expand to the same extent over the same 80 kelvin interval. Later, in [[1802]], [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] published results of similar experiments, indicating a linear relationship between volume and temperature: :''V''<sub>1</sub>/''T''<sub>1</sub> = ''V''<sub>2</sub>/''T''<sub>2</sub> === [[Dalton's law]] of partial pressures (1801) === === The [[ideal gas law]] ([[1834]]) === In 1834 [[Émile Clapeyron]] combined Boyle's Law and Charles' law into the first statement of the ''ideal gas law''. Initially the law was formulated as ''PV<sub>m</sub>''=''R''(''T<sub>C</sub>''+267) (with temperature expressed in degrees Celsius). However, later work revealed that the number should actually be 273.2, and then the Celsius scale was defined with 0 °C = 273.15 K, giving: :''PV<sub>m</sub>''=''R''(''T<sub>C</sub>''+273.15) === [[Amagat's law]] ([[1880]]) === [[Category:Thermodynamics]] [[Category:Fluid mechanics]] [[Category:Equations]] [[de:Zustandsgleichung]] [[es:Ecuación de estado]] [[ja:状態方程式]] [[pl:Równania stanu]] [[pt:Equação de estado]] [[ru:Уравнение состояния]] [[sl:Enačba stanja]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ecclesiastes</title> <id>9910</id> <revision> <id>41365514</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:57:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nicholasink</username> <id>259150</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>changes Wikisource link to English</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}} {{Books of Ketuvim}} '''Ecclesiastes''', '''''Kohelet''''' in [[Hebrew language\|Hebrew]], is a book of the [[Hebrew Bible]]. The title derives from the [[Greek language\|Greek]] translation of the [[Hebrew language\|Hebrew]] title: &#1511;&#1492;&#1500;&#1514; (variously transliterated as ''Qoheleth'', ''Qohelethh'', ''Kohelet'', ''Koheleth'', or even ''Coheleth''). The author represents himself as the son of [[David]], and king over Israel in [[Jerusalem]] (1:1, 12, 16; 2:7, 9). The work consists of personal or autobiographic matter, largely expressed in aphorisms and maxims illuminated in terse paragraphs with reflections on the meaning of life and the best way of life. There is a long discourse on death. =="Kohelet" and "Ecclesiastes"== The [[Hebrew language\|Hebrew]] &#1511;&#1492;&#1500;&#1514; is related to the root &#1511;&#1492;&#1500; meaning "to gather." Thus the nominal form &#1511;&#1492;&#1500; means "gathering, congregation." The Hebrew &#1511;&#1492;&#1500;&#1514; is probably a title (rather than a name) referring to one who gathers something. That something, given the context, is probably either [[aphorism]]s or a group of people for the purposes of instruction in wisdom. The [[English language\|English]] title of the book, ''Ecclesiastes,'' comes from the [[Septuagint]] translation of ''Qoholet,'' &#917;&#954;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#962;. It has its origins in the [[Greek language\|Greek]] word &#917;&#954;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#943;&#945; (originally a secular gathering, although later used primarily of religious gatherings, hence its New Testament translation as ''church''). The word Qoheleth has found several translations into English, including "the [[Preacher]]" (translating [[Jerome]]'s ''ecclesiastes'' and [[Luther]]'s ''der Prediger''). Since ''preacher'' implies a religious function, and the contents of the book do not reflect such a function, this translation has largely been rejected by modern translations and scholars. A better alternative is ''teacher'', although this also fails to capture the fundamental idea behind the [[Hebrew language\|Hebrew]]. [[Image:Ecclesiastes.png\|thumb\|165px\|left\|Ecclesiastes]] ==Author== In the two opening chapters the author describes himself as the son of David, and king over Israel in Jerusalem, presenting himself as a philosopher at the center of a brilliant court. This could apply only to king [[Solomon]], for his successors in Jerusalem were kings over Judah only. Consequently, the traditional Rabbinic and early Christian view attributed ''Ecclesiastes'' to king [[Solomon]]. This view has been abandoned by many modern critical scholars, who now assume that Qoheleth is a work in the [[pseudepigraphy\|pseudepigraphical]] tradition that borrowed weight for a new work by putting it in the mouth of a well-known sage. The modern critical view is that ''Ecclesiastes'' was written around [[250 BC]] by a non-[[Hellenized]] intellectual in the milieu of the [[Second Temple\|Temple in Jerusalem]]. The latest possible date for it is set by the fact that [[Ben Sirach]] (written cca [[180 BC]]) repeatedly quotes or paraphrases it, as from a canonic rather than a contemporary writing. Yet many modern conservative scholars today also recognize that [[Solomon]] is an unlikely author. Since this work is found within the [[Ketuvim]], there must be some room for poetical treatment. There are two voices in the book, the frame-narrator (1.1-11; 12.8-14) and Qoheleth (1.12-12.8). Though this is not considered to be indicative of two authors, it does encourage the reader to place himself within the frame and see the pursuit of Wisdom from the perspective of [[Solomon]]. Thus, the author is probably a Hebrew poet who is using the life of [[Solomon]] as a vista for the Hebrews' pursuit of Wisdom (Ecc 1.13, 7.25 8.16; Job 28.12). This would place the book in the latter days of the canonical writings (see [[Josephus]]' claim for a closed cannon in the early post exilic age Against Apion 1.38-42) when wisdom seemed out of reach to the Hebrews (Ecc 1.17, 7.23; Pro 30.1-3) ==Language== The Hebrew of Ecclesiastes was not common in the era of Solomon’s reign, and the book contains words borrowed from other languages. For example, the book contains several Aramaic and Persian words. The influence of these two languages is characteristic of late Hebrew, and is thought to have occurred after Jerusalem was taken captive by Babylonian forces in 587 BC. However, the use of these languages could also be a reference by the author to the language skills Solomon would have accumulated through his development of international trade and industry, as well as from traveling dignitaries and other contacts with the outside world (1 Kings 4:30, 34; 9:26-28; 10:1, 23, 24). ==Dating ''Ecclesiastes''<!--this material needs to be worked into a coherent statement-->== Dominic Rudman, ''Determinism in the Book of Ecclesiastes'' (JSOTSup. 316; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001, p. 13) cites the modern commentaries supporting this dating. * Dominic Rudman. "A Note on Dating of Ecclesiastes". ''Catholic Biblical Quarterly'' vol. 61 no. 1 (1999) pp. 47-53 contains a discussion with C. L. Seow, "Linguistic Evidence and the Dating of Qohelet." in ''JBL'' vol. 115 (1996), pp. 653-54 - Seow supports a 4th century dating. "Most current commentators e.g., R. N. Whybray, Ecclesiastes [NCB Commentary; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1989] 4-12) argue for a mid-to-late-third-century date. Others, among them N. Lohfink (Kohelet [NEchtB; Wurzburg: Echter Verlag, 1980] 7) and C. E Whitley (Koheleth: His Language and Thought [BZAW 148; Berlin/ New York: de Gruyter, 1979] 132-46), have suggested an early- or mid-second-century background." ==Placement in canon== The book of Ecclesiastes uses the expression ''haelohim'', "the God", 32 times. Clarke’s <I>Commentary</I>, Volume III, page 799, states: ''The book, entitled Koheleth, or Ecclesiastes, has ever been received, both by the Jewish and Christian Church, as written under the inspiration of the Almighty; and was held to be properly a part of the sacred canon.'' Ecclesiastes also appears in harmony with other Scriptures where they treat the same subjects. It agrees with Genesis on man’s being made up of a body composed of the dust of the ground and having the ''spirit'' (or life-force) from God and the breath that sustains it (Ecclesiastes 3:20, 21; 12:7; Genesis 2:7; 7:22; Isaiah 42:5). Ecclesiastes also affirms the Bible teaching that man was created perfect and upright but willfully chose to disobey God (Ecclesiastes 7:29; Genesis 1:31; 3:17; Deuteronomy 32:4, 5). Ecclesiastes also acknowledges God as the Creator (Ecclesiastes 12:1; Genesis 1:1). Also, Ecclesiastes concurs with the rest of the Hebrew Bible as to the state of the dead (Ecclesiastes 9:5, 10; Genesis 3:19; Psalms 6:5; 115:17). =="Vanity"== Qoheleth's stated aim is to find out how to ensure one benefits in life, an
"Prince's Town") at Sagres, Henry gathered around him a school of navigators and map-makers and became the patron of the Portuguese [[Portugal in the Age of Discovery\|voyages of discovery]], which commenced soon after the capture of Ceuta. Henry's court rapidly grew into the technological base for exploration, with a naval arsenal, an observatory, and a school for the study of geography and navigation added over time. [[Jehuda Cresques]], a noted [[cartographer]], received an invitation to come to Sagres and compile geographic knowledge for Henry, a position he accepted. The nearby port of [[Lagos, Portugal\|Lagos]] provided a convenient harbor, and became a center for ship-building. The development of the [[caravel]], a light and maneuverable vessel that combined square-rigging with the [[lateen sail]] of the [[Arabs]], made possible the complicated upwind return voyages of Portuguese expeditions &mdash; without it, the brothers Ugolino and Guido [[Ugolino de Vivaldo\|Vivaldo]] would have sailed into oblivion. ===Early results of Henry's explorers=== Until Henry's coastal explorations, [[Cape Bojador]] remained the most southerly point known to Europeans on the unpromising desert coast of Africa, although the ''[[Periplus]]'' of the Carthaginian [[Hanno the Navigator]] described a journey further south about 2,000 years earlier. As a first fruit of this work [[João Gonçalves Zarco]] and [[Tristão Vaz Teixeira]] rediscovered the [[Madeira Islands]] in 1420, and at Henry's instigation Portuguese settlers colonized the islands. In 1427, one of Henry's navigators discovered the [[Azores]] &mdash; possibly [[Gonçalo Velho]]. Portuguese soon colonized these islands too, in 1430. [[Gil Eanes]], the commander of one of Henry's expeditions, became the first European known to pass Cape Bojador in 1434. Henry also continued his involvement in events closer to home. He functioned as a primary organizer of the Portuguese expedition to [[Tangier]] in 1437. This proved a disastrous failure: the [[Moroccan]]s captured Henry's younger brother [[Fernando, the Saint Prince\|Fernando]] and held him captive until his death eleven years later. Henry's military reputation suffered as a result, and for most of his last twenty-three years he concentrated on his exploration activities, or on Portuguese court politics. Using the new ship type, the expeditions then pushed onwards. [[Nuno Tristão]] and [[Antão Gonçalves]] reached [[Nouadhibou\|Cape Blanco]] in 1441. The Portuguese sighted the [[Bay of Arguin]] in 1443 and built an important fort there about 1448. [[Dinis Dias]] soon came across the [[Senegal River]] and rounded the peninsula of [[Cap-Vert]] (in modern-day [[Senegal]]) in 1444. By this stage the explorers had passed the southern boundary of the desert, and from then on Henry had one of his wishes fulfilled: the Portuguese had circumvented the Muslim land-based trade routes across the western [[Sahara Desert]], and slaves and gold began pouring into Portugal. By 1452, the influx of gold sufficed for the minting of the first gold ''[[cruzado]]'' ("crusade") coins. From 1444 to 1446 as many as forty vessels sailed from [[Lagos]] on Henry's behalf, and the first private [[mercantile]] expeditions began. At some time in the 1450s mariners discovered the [[Cape Verde Islands]] ([[António Noli]] claimed the credit). By 1460 the Portuguese had explored the coast of Africa as far as present-day [[Sierra Leone]]. ==Prince Henry the Navigator Park== [[Image:Prince henry new bedford 1.jpg\|left\|thumb\|200px\|Prince Henry the Navigator Park in New Bedford.]] A park on Pope's Island in [[New Bedford, Massachusetts]] is dedicated to the explorer, and was created in [[1994]]; a gift to the city from the [[Prince Henry Society of New Bedford]] and the Portuguese government. The park sits between New Bedford and [[Fairhaven, Massachusetts\|Fairhaven]], between the fishing docks of both cities, looking out toward the hurricane barrier in the New Bedford Harbor and [[Buzzards Bay (bay)\|Buzzards Bay]] beyond. The park consists of the main statue, a stone plaque and walkway, and a parking/viewing area from which tourists can view the harbor. ==Publications== * Major, ''Life of Prince Henry of Portugal'' (London,1868) * Major, ''Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator'' (London, 1877) * Beazley, ''Prince Henry the Navigator'' (London, 1895) * J. P. Oliveira Martins, ''The Golden Age of Prince Henry the Navigator, (New York, 1914) ==Reference== [[Fernand Braudel\|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World,'' ISBN 0060912960, 1985 ==External links== [http://www.rixsan.com/nbvisit/attract/prhenry.htm Prince Henry the Navigator Park] [[Category:1394 births\|Henrique the Navigator]] [[Category:1460 deaths\|Henrique the Navigator]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[Category:Portuguese explorers]] [[Category: Princes]] [[ar:إنريكه الملاح]] [[bg:Енрике Мореплавателя]] [[ca:Enric el Navegant]] [[da:Henrik Søfareren]] [[de:Heinrich der Seefahrer]] [[es:Enrique el Navegante]] [[fr:Henri le Navigateur]] [[hu:Tengerész Henrik]] [[nl:Hendrik de Zeevaarder]] [[ja:エンリケ航海王子]] [[pl:Henryk Żeglarz]] [[pt:Infante D. Henrique]] [[simple:Henry the Navigator]] [[sv:Henrik Sjöfararen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Human cloning</title> <id>14094</id> <revision> <id>41617137</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:24:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.110.222.231</ip> </contributor> <comment>rv - this is boring</comment> <text xml:space="preserve"><!--*********************************************************************** ----This is a controversial topic, which may be disputed.-----------------* ----Please read this article's TALK PAGE discussion before making---------* ----substantial changes.--------------------------------------------------* *************************************************************************** --> '''Human cloning''' is the creation of a [[genetics\|genetically]] identical copy of an existing, or previously existing [[human]] or growing [[cloning\|clone]]d [[biological tissue\|tissue]] from that individual. The term is generally used to refer to ''artificial'' human cloning; human clones in the form of [[identical twin]]s are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of reproduction. ==Understanding cloning== Although genes are recognized as influencing [[behavior]] and [[cognition]], "genetically identical" does ''not'' mean altogether identical; almost no one would deny that identical [[twin]]s, despite being natural human clones with identical [[DNA]], are separate people, with separate experiences and not altogether overlapping personalities. However undramatic it may sound, the relationship between an "original" and a clone is rather like that between identical twins raised apart; they share all the same [[DNA]], but little of the same environment. Ultimately, the question of how similar an original and a clone would be boils down to how much of personality is determined by genetics, an area still under active scientific investigation. (See [[nature versus nurture]] and [[cloning]].) ==Techniques== Currently the most successful cloning technique is the same process which allowed [[Dolly the sheep]] to be cloned - [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]]. It is also the technique used by ACT, the first company to successfully clone a human embryo (see research section below). An [[egg cell]] taken from a donor has its [[cell nucleus\|nucleus]] removed. Another cell with the genetic material to be cloned is fused with the original cell. Another way of cloning is by [[parthenogenesis]], where an unfertilized egg cell is induced to divide and grow as if it were fertilized. This technique only works on females. In '''[[reproductive cloning]]''', the cloned embryo is implanted in a woman's uterus. This should develop into a normal baby, its only distinction being that it would be almost genetically identical to the DNA donor. Scientific knowledge of normal and abnormal development could also be found. '''[[Therapeutic cloning]]''' could be used to provide replacement organs or tissue for people who have had theirs damaged. The cloned embryo would contain DNA taken from the transplant patient. After nuclear transfer, the cell would divide to form an embryo and [[stem cell]]s would be removed. Stem cells could develop into any tissue or organ. These cloned organs would be compatible with the person's immune system, so no [[immunosuppressant]] drugs would have to be taken after the operation. However, no therapies have been developed yet from this procedure. The third type of cloning is called Recombinant DNA technology. This is when parts of or a whole DNA molecule is created with the purpose of eliminating genetic faults in a human. ==Limits of cloning== First, none of these techniques provide ''exact'' clones -- they would be 99.7% identical to the DNA donor, because some important genes are present outside the nucleus, in [[mitochondrion\|mitochondria]] for example. Some of the DNA of the DNA donor would be missing for the clone to be an ''exact'' copy, and some of the resulting clone DNA would come from the donor egg-cell. How much change this would lead to in the clone is being investigated. Consider that the chimpanzee genome is more than 98% identical to the human genome, only a 2% difference. A 0.3% difference could potentially lead to much more divergence from the DNA donor's genotype than one may at first believe. It could also spell problems for therapeutic cloning, where compatibility is essential because of the risk of rejection. Second, difficulties with cloning organisms from their [[somatic]] (non [[germline]]) cells tend to lead to (what seems to be) premature aging in [[higher animals]]. If a new brain is generated in that body, there is
ages]], which do make distinctions in voice and [[aspiration (phonetics)\|aspiration]], the words are often mispronounced by monolingual Dravidian speakers. For instance, Tamil, like [[Finnish language\|Finnish]], does not distinguish between voiced and unvoiced stops. In fact, the [[Tamil alphabet]] lacks symbols for voiced and aspirated stops. Dravidian languages are also characterized by a three-way distinction between [[dental]], [[Alveolar consonant\|alveolar]], and [[retroflex]] places of articulation as well as large numbers of [[Liquid consonant\|liquids]]. ===Reversal property=== Words in Dravidian languages have the property that, by reversing the consonants and applying a well defined set of transformations of the vowels, another word with a similar meaning is obtained. Over time, one form may represent the general case and the other end up representing a special case. For example: Erasu (gather) and sEru (join) kaNu (look) and iNuku (peep) atta (attic) reverses to itself. ===Words starting with vowels=== A substantial number of words also begin and end with vowels, which helps the languages' agglutinative property. aLu (cry), elumbu (bone), adu (that), alli (there), idu (this), illai (no, absent) adu-idil-illai (that-this-in-absent = that is absent in this) ===Numbers=== The numbers from 1 to 10 in various Dravidian languages. {\| style="border-collapse:collapse" border="1" cellpadding="3" \|- ! Number ! [[Telugu language\|Telugu]] ! [[Tamil language\|Tamil]] ! [[Kannada language\|Kannada]] ! [[Malayalam language\|Malayalam]] ! [[Kurukh language\|Kurukh]] ! [[Kolami language\|Kolami]] ! [[Brahui language\|Brahui]] ! Proto-Dravidian \|- \| 1 \| okaTi \| onRu \| ondu \| onnu \| onta \| okkod \| asit \| oru \|- \| 2 \| reNDu \| irandu \| yeradu \| randu \| emr \| iral \| irut \| iru \|- \| 3 \| muuDu \| moondRu \| mooru \| moonu \| mund \| muyal \| musit \| muC \|- \| 4 \| naalugu \| naangu \| naalku \| naalu \| nakh \| nallav \| char [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| na:l \|- \| 5 \| aidu \| aindhu \| aidu \| anju \| pance [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| seyyav \| panch [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| cayN \|- \| 6 \| aaRu \| aaRu \| aaru \| aaru \| soyye [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| saa [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| shash [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| caru \|- \| 7 \| YEDu \| Ezhu \| yElu \| Ezhu \| satte [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| sat [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| haft [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| eru \|- \| 8 \| enimidi \| ettu \| yentu \| ettu \| atthe [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| at [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| hasht [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| ettu \|- \| 9 \| tommidi \| onbadhu \| ombathu \| onpathu \| naimye [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| nov [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| no [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| tol \|- \| 10 \| padi \| patthu \| hathu \| pathhu \| dasse [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| daa [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| dah [[Indo-European\|(IE)]] \| pat(tu) \|} Reference: http://www.zompist.com/euro.htm === Sanskrit influence === [[Kannada language\|Kannada]], [[Malayalam language\|Malayalam]] and [[Telugu language\|Telugu]] have been relatively more influenced by the [[Indo-European languages\|Indo-European]] language [[Sanskrit]] and have borrowed the aspirated consonants. Sanskrit words and derivatives are common in Kannada, Malayalam and Telugu. [[Tamil language\|Tamil]] is the least influenced and retains the closest form of the Proto-Dravidian language. ==References== ''The Dravidian Languages'' / by Bhadriraju Krishnamurti / Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521771110 * ''A comparative grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian family of languages'' / by Robert Caldwell. 3rd ed. rev. and edited / by J.L. Wyatt, T. Ramakrishna Pillai. New Delhi : Asian Educational Services, 1998. ISBN 8120601173 * ''A grammar of the Teloogoo language, commonly termed the Gentoo, peculiar to the Hindoos inhabiting the northeastern provinces of the Indian peninsula'' / by A.D. Campbell. 3d ed. Madras, Printed at the Hindu Press, 1849 ==External links== * [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/burrow/index.html Dravidian Etymological Dictionary]. The complete dravidian etymological dictionary in a searchable online form. * [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90422 Dravidian languages page in SIL Ethnologue]. * [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/4737/dravid1.html Dravidian vs. Finnish] A tract which claims to draw a relation between Dravidian and [[Finno-Ugric languages]]. * [http://www.datanumeric.com/dravidian/ Discovery of Dravidian as the source of Indo-European Languages]. A paper claiming that Proto-Dravidian is the common ancestor of Indo-European languages. * [http://www.verbix.com/documents/etruscan-dravidian.htm Dravidian from Etruscan] Paper claiming a relationship between Dravidian and Etruscan. * [http://www.atlan.org/articles/dravida/ Dravidian origin of the Guanches]. A paper claiming a Dravidian origin for the language of the Guanches. * [http://arutkural.tripod.com/tolcampus/jap-tamil.htm Tamil and Japanese] * http://www.brahui.tk A site by Shafique-Ur-Rehman, Its all about Brahui People live mostly in Balochistan, Pakistan. [[Category:Agglutinative languages]] [[Category:Dravidian languages\|]] [[Category:Languages of Asia]] [[ast:Llinguas dravídicas]] [[da:Dravidiske sprog]] [[de:Dravidische Sprachen]] [[es:Lenguas drávidas]] [[eo:Dravida lingvaro]] [[fr:Langue dravidienne]] [[id:Bahasa Dravida]] [[kn:ದ್ರಾವಿಡ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು]] [[lt:Dravidų kalbos]] [[hu:Dravida nyelvcsalád]] [[nl:Dravidische talen]] [[nds:Dravidsche Spraken]] [[ja:ドラヴィダ語族]] [[nn:Dravidiske språk]] [[no:Dravidiske språk]] [[pl:Języki drawidyjskie]] [[pt:Línguas dravídicas]] [[ru:Дравидийские языки]] [[sk:Drávidské jazyky]] [[fi:Dravidakielet]] [[sv:Dravidiska språk]] [[ta:திராவிட மொழிக்குடும்பம்]] [[zh:德拉维达语系]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dracula</title> <id>7923</id> <revision> <id>42159805</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:25:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>172.144.93.220</ip> </contributor> <comment>/ Popular culture */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the historical figure, see [[Vlad III Dracula]]. For the orchid, see [[Dracula (orchid)]].'' [[Image:Dracula Stamp.jpg\|thumb\|[[Bela Lugosi]] as Dracula; U.S. postage stamp first issued in 1997 as part of a series celebrating "Famous Movie Monsters"]] '''''Dracula''''' (1897) is a novel by [[Ireland\|Irish]] author [[Bram Stoker]], and the name of the world's most famous [[vampire]] character. ''Dracula'' has been attributed to many [[literary genre]]s including [[horror fiction]], the [[gothic novel]] and [[invasion literature]]. Structurally it is an [[epistolary novel]], that is, told as a series of [[diary]] entries and letters. [[Literary criticism\|Literary critics]] have examined many themes in the novel, such as the role of women in Victorian culture, sexuality, immigration and folklore. Although Stoker did not invent the vampire, the novel's influence on the popularity of vampires has been singularly responsible for scores of theatrical and movie interpretations throughout the 20th century. ==Novel background== Between 1878 and 1898 Stoker managed the world-famous London [[Lyceum Theatre]], where he supplemented his income by writing a large number of sensational novels, his most famous being the vampire tale ''[[Dracula]]'' published in [[1897]]. Parts of it are set around the town of [[Whitby]], where he was living at the time. While ''Dracula'' is famous today (due in large part to its 20th century life on film), it was not an important or famous work for Victorian readers, being just another pot-boiler adventure among many. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s authors such as [[H. Rider Haggard]], [[Rudyard Kipling]], [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] and [[H.G. Wells]] wrote many tales in which fantastic creatures threaten the British Empire. [[Invasion literature]] was at a peak, and Stoker's formula of an invasion of England by continental European influences was by 1897 very familiar to readers of fantastic adventure stories. [[Image:Henry Irving portrait.jpg\|thumb\|right\|250px\|Shakespearian actor and friend of Stoker's, [[Henry Irving]] was a real-life inspiration for the character of Dracula, tailor-made to his dramatic presence, gentlemanly mannerisms and specialty playing villain roles. Irving however never agreed to play the part on stage.]] Before writing ''Dracula'', Stoker spent seven years researching European folklore and stories of vampires, being most influenced by [[Emily Gerard]]'s 1885 essay "Transylvania Superstitions". Though it is the most famous vampire novel ever, ''Dracula'' was not the first. It was preceded and partially inspired by [[J. Sheridan Le Fanu\|Sheridan Le Fanu]]'s 1871 ''[[Carmilla]]'', about a [[lesbian vampire]] who preys upon a lonely young woman. The image of a vampire portrayed as an aristocratic man, like the character of Dracula, was created by [[John Polidori]] in [[The Vampyre]] (1819), during the summer spent with [[Frankenstein]] creator [[Mary Shelley]] and other friends in [[1816]]. Polidori is many times credited as the creator of the vampire genre in fiction, but his vampire story was inspired by elements of [[Lord Byron]]'s vampire poem, [[The Giaour]] (1813). The Lyceum Theatre where Stoker worked between 1878 and 1898 was headed by the tyrannical actor-manager [[Henry Irving]], who was Stoker's real-life inspiration for the mannerisms of Dracula, and who Stoker hoped would play Dracula in a stage version. Although Irving never did agree to do a stage version, Dracula's dramatic sweeping gestures and gentlemanly mannerisms drew their living embodiment from Irving. ''The Dead Un-Dead'' was one of Stoker's original titles for ''Dracula'', and up until a few weeks before publication, the manuscript was titled simply ''The Un-Dead''. The name of Stoker's count was originally going to be Count Vampyre, but while doing research Stoker ran across an intriguing word in the Romanian language: "Dracul&quo
movement include statements that the animal rights movement is actually anti-human. Each crticism is detailed below. ===Rights requires moral judgements=== Critics such as Carl Cohen, professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan and the University of Michigan Medical School, oppose the granting of "personhood" to animals. Cohen wrote in the New England Journal of Medicine in October, 1986: [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html] <blockquote>The holders of rights must have the capacity to comprehend rules of duty governing all, including themselves. In applying such rules, the holders of rights must recognize possible conflicts between what is in their own interest and what is just. Only in a community of beings capable of self-restricting moral judgments can the concept of a right be correctly invoked." </blockquote> Cohen rejects Peter Singer's argument that since a brain-damaged human could not exhibit the ability to make moral judgements, that moral judgements cannot be used as the distinguishing characteristic for determining who is awarded rights. Cohen states that the test for moral judgement "is not a test to be administered to humans one by one." [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html] The Foundation for Animal Use and Education states: [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html] <blockquote>Our recognition of the rights of others stems from our unique human character as moral agents--that is, beings capable of making moral judgments and comprehending moral duty. Only human beings are capable of exercising moral judgment and recognizing the rights of one another. </blockquote> <blockquote>Animals do not exercise responsibility as moral agents. They do not recognize the rights of other animals. They kill and eat one another instinctively, as a matter of survival. They act from a combination of conditioning, fear, instinct and intelligence, but they do not exercise moral judgment in the process.</blockquote> ===Animal rights can be anti-human=== Some critics of "animal rights" say that it may turn humans into "second-class citizens". [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html] Robert Bidinotto, nationally recognized writer on environmental issues, said in a 1992 speech to the Northeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies: [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html] <blockquote>Strict observance of animal rights forbids even direct protection of people and their values against nature's many predators. Losses to people are acceptable...losses to animals are not. Logically then, beavers may change the flow of streams, but Man must not. Locusts may denude hundreds of miles of plant life...but Man must not. Cougars may eat sheep and chickens, but Man must not.</blockquote> Chris DeRose, Director of Last Chance for Animals, stated "If the death of one rat cured all disease, it wouldn't make any difference to me." [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html] When given the choice between rescuing a human baby or a dog after a lifeboat capsized, Susan Rich, PeTA Outreach Coordinator, answered, "I wouldn't know for sure... I might choose the human baby or I might choose the dog." [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html] Tom Regan, animal rights philosopher, answered "If it were a retarded baby and a bright dog, I'd save the dog." [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html] Critics opposed to animal rights generally support [[animal welfare]]. [http://www.animaluse.org/html/animal_welfare.html] ===Animal welfare as a responsiblity=== The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) has defined animal welfare as human responsibility that encompasses all aspects of animal well-being, including proper housing, management, nutrition, disease prevention and treatment, responsible care, human handling, and, when necessary, humane euthanasia. [http://www.animaluse.org/html/animal_welfare.html] The ''Foundation for Animal Use Education'' supports [[animal welfare]] as opposed to animal rights, arguing that: "Even if we believe that animals cannot have rights, it does not mean we can treat animals any way we please. As moral agents, we recognize our own obligation to treat animals humanely &mdash; not because it is their right, but because it is our responsibility." [http://www.animaluse.org/html/animal_welfare.html] ===Analogies to the Nazis=== Critics of animal rights have pointed to the support for animal rights by the [[Nazi]] regime in [[Germany]], and its anti-vivisection legislation. In [[1933]], a proclamation was issued by the [[NSDAP]] in Germany: <blockquote>The Prussian minister-president Goering has released a statement stating that starting [[16 August]] [[1933]] vivisection of animals of all kinds is forbidden in Prussia. He has requested that the concerned ministries draft a law after which vivisection will be punished with a high penalty. Until the law goes into effect, persons who, despite this prohibition, order, participate or perform vivisections on animals of any kind will be deported to concentration camps.</blockquote> <blockquote>Among all civilized nations, Germany is thus the first to put an end to the cultural shame of vivisection! The New Germany not only frees man from the curse of materialism, sadism, and cultural Bolshevism, but gives the cruelly persecuted, tortured, and until now, wholly defenseless animals their rights. Animal friends and anti-vivisectionists of all states will joyfully welcome this action of the National Socialist government of the New Germany![http://www.hitler.org/links/NAP_5.html]</blockquote> An article in that same year appeared in the government-controlled publication, ''Die Weiße Fahne'', alleging that "...most Germans have been raised with the attitude that animals are created by God for the use and benefit of man. The church gets this idea from the Jewish tradition."[http://www.hitler.org/links/NAP_5.html] The argument made by critics of animal rights is that a focus on the rights of animals is consistent with a disregard for the rights of humans, because the idea of [[human rights]] is premised to a certain extent on the concept of the uniqueness of human beings. [[Gary Francione]] has produced a response to one such argument: <blockquote>During the 1930s, the Nazis certainly did show some interest in protecting animals. It is, of course, rather difficult to argue that a military force that was destroying half of Europe, including its animal population, really cared about animals, but I do not dispute that Nazis did pass fairly progressive measures against vivisection. At the same time that they were legislating to help animals, however, the Nazis were engineering the killing of millions of humans. The argument goes: there is something pathological about a society that cares about animals but not about humans, and even seeks to impose enormous suffering on at least some humans. Therefore, concern about animals must be judged against the prevailing treatment of humans, and if the latter is lesser by comparison, any concern for animal suffering is pathological.</blockquote> <blockquote>Again, this argument does not work. The fact that some people may favor nonhumans greater than they do some group of human beings is not peculiar to Nazi Germany. During the 18th century, many American states passed all sorts of anticruelty laws involving animals while at the same time human slavery was legal. It is simply too easy to regard the pathology of Nazi Germany as unique in this respect. Moreover, in 1996, some people think that even more tax breaks for the rich should get greater priority than providing the minimal requirements for a decent and dignified life to disempowered and dispossessed humans. The sad fact is that humans often favor some other group of humans or animals more than they do some other human beings. But that says absolutely nothing about whether animals should have rights; it does say a lot about some people, however. [http://www.animal-law.org/commentaries/fe29.htm]</blockquote> ===Other criticisms=== British physicist [[Stephen Hawking]] has criticized activists for failing to concentrate on what he sees as more worthwhile causes: "I suspect that extremists turn to animal rights from a lack of the more worthwhile causes of the past, like nuclear disarmament.” [http://www.simr.org.uk/pages/celebrity_support/professor_stephen_hawking.html] Some critics, such as Alan Herscovici, of the Fur Council of Canada, claim that "Virtually none of the money they collect is used to fund humane shelters, develop better animal husbandry methods, or find cures for diseases. Instead, donations pay the salaries of professional organizers, subsidize more fund-raising, and fuel sensationalist campaigns against animal-use industries." [http://www.maninnature.com/Management/ARights/Rights1a.html] The animal-rights position is also criticized by some who favour animal liberation. Although he is often called the father of the modern animal-rights movement, Peter Singer actually rejects the notion of moral rights. As a utilitarian, he prefers to talk in terms of the equal consideration of interests. [http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/philosophy/animals/singer-text.html] Some criticisms of the animal rights movement take the form of [[parody]], positing a "vegetable rights" movement. [http://www.peva.org/] [[Fruitarianism]] has adopted part of this philosophy. ==Quotes== * "A man can live and be healthy without killing animals for food; therefore, if he eats meat, he participates in taking animal life merely for the sake of his appetite. And to act so is immoral." &mdash; [[Leo Tolstoy]] (''On Civil Disobedience'') * "It is my view
ries by [[John Norman]], the Jandar of Callisto series and the Green Star series by [[Lin Carter]], ''Goddess of Ganymede'' and ''Pursuit of Mars'' by [[Mike Resnick]], and the Dray Prescot series by [[Kenneth Bulmer\|Alan Burt Akers (Kenneth Bulmer)]]. In addition, [[Leigh Brackett]], [[Andre Norton]], [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]], and [[Alan Dean Foster]] show signs of Burroughs' influence in their development of alien cultures and worlds. The John Carter books enjoyed another wave of popularity in the [[1970s]], with [[Vietnam War]] veterans who said they could identify with Carter, fighting in a war on another planet. ==Copyright== The American [[copyright]] of the five earliest novels has expired in the United States, and they appear on a number of free e-text sites. However, because they were separately copyrighted in Great Britain, these works remain protected under the Berne Copyright Convention in the U.K. and throughout much of the world. The Australian copyright of the remainder, not including John Carter of Mars (1964), has also expired and they too appear online. ==External links== * [http://www.Tarzan.com/ Official Edgar Rice Burroughs Web Site] * [http://www.Tarzan.org/ Worlds of Edgar Rice Burroughs] * [http://www.ERBzine.com/ Edgar Rice Burroughs Tribute and Weekly Webzine Site] * [http://www.erbzine.com/mag13/1351.html A Guide to the Mars Novels of Edgar Rice Burroughs] * [http://www.erblist.com/abg/ A Barsoom Glossary] {{isfdb series\|id=Barsoom\|title=Barsoom}} {{gutenberg\|no=62\|name=A Princess of Mars}} {{gutenberg\|no=64\|name=The Gods of Mars}} {{gutenberg\|no=68\|name=Warlord of Mars}} {{gutenberg\|no=72\|name=Thuvia, Maid of Mars}} {{gutenberg\|no=1153\|name=The Chessmen of Mars}} * The Master Mind of Mars (1927) [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100201.zip Zip file] [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100201.txt Text file] at [[Project Gutenberg Australia]] * A Fighting Man of Mars (1930) [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100211.zip Zip file] [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100211.txt Text file] at [[Project Gutenberg Australia]] * Swords of Mars (1934) [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100221.zip Zip file] [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100221.txt Text file] at [[Project Gutenberg Australia]] * Synthetic Men of Mars (1940) [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100231.zip Zip file] [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100231.txt Text file] at [[Project Gutenberg Australia]] * Llana of Gathol (1948) [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100241.zip Zip file] [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100241.txt Text file] at [[Project Gutenberg Australia]] There is a board for the Paramount endeavor at the [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0401729/ Internet Movie Database] as well as an [http://www.johncartermovie.com unofficial fan site]. <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> [[Category:1920 books]] [[Category:Edgar Rice Burroughs]] [[Category:Fantasy novels]] [[Category:Fantasy series]] [[Category:Fictional planets]] [[Category:Fictional universes]] [[Category:Mars in fiction]] [[Category:Science fiction series]] [[Category:Space opera]] [[de:John Carter vom Mars]] [[it:John Carter di Marte]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Binary Synchronous Transmission</title> <id>4412</id> <revision> <id>23826275</id> <timestamp>2005-09-23T12:07:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Luc4</username> <id>325303</id> </contributor> <comment>Added framing description for the protocol</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Binary Synchronous Transmission''' ('''Bisync''') is an [[International Business Machines\|IBM]] [[link protocol]], developed in the [[1960]] and popular in the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. Binary Synchronous Transmission has been largely replaced in IBM environments with [[SDLC]]. Bisync was developed for batch communications between a [[System 360]] [[mainframe]] and the [[IBM 2780]] and [[IBM 3780]] [[Remote Job Entry]] (RJE) terminals. It supports RJE and on-line terminals in the <nowiki>CICS/VSE</nowiki> environment. It operates with [[EBCDIC]] or [[ASCII]] [[character set\|character sets]]. It requires that every message be acknowledged (ACK) or negatively acknowledged (NACK) so it has high transmission overhead. It is typically character oriented and [[duplex (telecommunications)\|half-duplex]], although some of the bisync protocol flavours or dialects support binary transmission and [[duplex (telecommunications)\|full-duplex]] operation. == Framing == Bisync uses a framing approach [[Byte oriented]]. The beginning of a [[frame]] is signalled by spacial character SYN (synchronization). The body of the frame is wrapped between two special sentinel characters: STX (start of text) and ETX (End of text). The beginning of the header is signalled by the special sentinel SOH (Start of header). It is possible that the body contains the special character ETX. In that case it would be a problem to transmit the correct frame. The solution is known as [[character stuffing]]. Another special sentinel DLE (Data link escape) is transmitted before every occurrence of ETX. This way ETX is transmitted as being part of the message to be sent. With the same behaviour the protocol can transmit DLE characters in the body of the frame. == References == {{FOLDOC}} [[Category:Link protocols]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Black box (systems)</title> <id>4413</id> <revision> <id>41829563</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:40:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Treesmill</username> <id>428736</id> </contributor> <comment>link adjusted</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of '''Black Box''', see [[Black box]].'' [[Image:Black_box.jpg\|thumb]] '''Black box''' is technical [[jargon]] for a device or system or object when it is viewed primarily in terms of its input and output characteristics. Almost anything might occasionally be referred to as a black box, e.g., a [[transistor]], the [[Internet]]. Some other common uses are: * In [[electronics]], a sealed piece of replaceable equipment&mdash;see '''[[line-replaceable unit]]'''. * In [[computer programming]] and [[software engineering]], '''[[black box testing]]''' is used to check that the output of a program is as expected given certain inputs. The term ''black box'' is used because the actual program being executed is not examined. * In [[computing]] in general, a "black box program" is one where the user cannot see its inner workings (i.e.: is a [[closed source]] program) * In [[physics]], a "black box" is a system whose internal structure is unknown, or need not be considered for a particular purpose. Sometimes "black box" is used as a synonym for [[black body]]. * In [[copyright law]], a single-purpose device which decrypts [[satellite television]] signals without authorization, which removes [[Macrovision]] coding, or which otherwise serves to defeat a broadcaster's or copyright holder's policy is sometimes known as a "black box"; the purpose of the [[anticircumvention]] provisions of the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] was sometimes characterized as removing these "black boxes" from the market. * A limiting case in [[mathematical model]]ling. * In [[philosophy]] and [[psychology]], the [[behaviorism]] sees the human mind as a black box, see [[black box theory]]. The opposite of a ''black box'' -- a system where the innards are available for inspection (e.g. a [[free software]]/[[open-source software\|open source]] program) is sometimes known as a [[White box (software engineering)\|white box]], a glass box, or a clear box. [[Category:Terms]] [[ar:صندوق أسود (علم السيبرنيتيك)]] [[de:Black Box (Kybernetik)]] [[sl:Črna škatla]] [[sv:Svart låda]] [[ta:கறுப்புப் பெட்டி]] [[zh:黑箱]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belly Dance</title> <id>4414</id> <revision> <id>15902684</id> <timestamp>2002-04-24T19:49:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username> <id>43</id> </contributor> <comment></comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Belly dance]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Basque Fatherland and Liberty</title> <id>4415</id> <revision> <id>15902685</id> <timestamp>2002-06-04T03:58:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeronimo</username> <id>108</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to ETA - it is commonly known as such, even the article says</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ETA]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Benz</title> <id>4417</id> <revision> <id>39069819</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T14:28:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MarkGallagher</username> <id>128976</id> </contributor> <comment>rm link to deleted article</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Benz''' can refer to: [[Karl Benz]], a German automobile [[engineer]] [[Mercedes-Benz]], a brand of [[automobiles]] and trucks [[Spragga Benz]], a [[reggae]] artist {{disambig}} [[de:Benz]] [[ja:&#12505;&#12531;&#12484;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Breast reconstruction</title> <id>4419</id> <revision> <id>38667510</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T21:31:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>WhyBeNormal</username> <id>256949</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Breast reconstruction''' is the rebuilding of a [[breast]], usually in [[woman\|women]]. It involves using existing flesh or [[prosthesis\|prosthetic]] material to construct a natural-looking breast. Often this even includes the reformati
illness. ==Some extant works== * statue of Great Elector, [[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg\|Frederick Wilhelm I]] on horse, [[Charlottenburg]], [[Berlin]], 1689-1703 [http://gallery.euroweb.hu/html/s/schluter/] * [[Epitaph]] of [[Adam Zygmunt Konarski]], St. Mary's Cathedral of the Assumption, [[Frombork]] (Frauenburg) in Polish [[Royal Prussia]], after 1683 * Sculptures on [[Facade (Architecture)\|facade]] of Krasiński Palace, [[Warsaw]], Poland, 1682-3, 1689-93 [[Category:1660 births\|Schlüter, Andreas]] [[Category:1714 deaths\|Schlüter, Andreas]] [[Category:Polish sculptors\|Schlüter, Andreas]] [[Category:Polish architects\|Schlüter, Andreas]] [[Category:German sculptors\|Schlüter, Andreas]] [[Category:German architects\|Schlüter, Andreas]] [[Category:Baroque sculptors\|Schlüter, Andreas]] [[Category:Baroque architects\|Schlüter, Andreas]] [[de:Andreas Schlüter (Architekt)]] [[pl:Andreas Schlüter]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Axiomatic Set Theory</title> <id>2821</id> <revision> <id>15901207</id> <timestamp>2002-11-10T01:20:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>192.150.186.102</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>point this at what it was meant to point at</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Axiomatic set theory]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ash</title> <id>2822</id> <revision> <id>41593843</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:37:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nightstallion</username> <id>149211</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar\|ash}} '''Ash''' may mean: * Ash, the unburnable solid remains of a [[fire]] * [[Fly ash]], a coal combustion product * [[Ash (analytical chemistry)]], one of the components in the proximate analysis of biological materials, consisting mainly of carbonates and bicarbonates of metals * [[Ash (band)]], an Irish rock band * [[Ash (metal band)]], an American [[black metal]] band * [[Ash (god)]], a hawk-god of the Sahara Desert in Egyptian mythology * [[Ash tree]], any tree of the genus ''Fraxinus'' * [[Mountain Ash]], any of various trees not in the ''Fraxinus'' genus * [[Aishwarya Rai]], actress from India popular by the nickname of Ash * [[Volcanic ash]], rocky powder material ejected from a volcano * [[Ash (video game)]], a forthcoming video game for the Nintendo DS, by [[Square Enix]] * [[Ash (comic)]], created by [[Joe Quesada]] and [[Jimmy Palmiotti]], published by Event Comics * [[Æ]], a letter from Old English commonly called "ash" * [[near-open front unrounded vowel]], the sound that æ (lowercase ash) corresponds to in the International Phonetic Alphabet * A Jewish family name related to [[Eisenstadt]] As an acronym, '''ASH''' may be: * [[Almquist shell]], a command-line interface for computers running some variants of the Unix operating system * [[alt.suicide.holiday]], a Usenet newsgroup * [[Action on Smoking and Health]], an anti-smoking charitable organisation * [[American Society of Hematology]] [http://www.hematology.org] The [[National Rail]] code for [[Ash railway station]] near [[Guildford]], [[United Kingdom]]. External links: {{Sildb prim\|ASH\|station information}}; {{Mmukpcloc\|GU12\|6AZ}}; {{Brldb prim\|ASH\|live departures and arrivals}}. The NATO reporting name of the [[Bisnovat R-4]] air-to-air missile * The airport code for Boire Field in Nashua, New Hampshire, USA '''Ash''' is also the name of: '''Places in the United Kingdom''': * [[Ash-cum-Ridley]], near Sevenoaks, Kent, England * [[Ash (near Sandwich)]], Kent, England * [[Ash, Derbyshire]], England * [[Ash (near Taunton)]], Somerset, England * [[Ash (near Yeovil)]], Somerset, England * [[Ash, Surrey]], England '''Places in the United States''': * [[Ash, Texas]] in [[Houston County, Texas]] * [[Ash, Missouri]] in [[Monroe County, Missouri]] * [[Ash, North Carolina]] in [[Brunswick County, North Carolina]] * [[Ash, Ohio]] in [[Licking County, Ohio]] * [[Ash, Washington]] in [[Walla Walla County, Washington]] * [[Ash, Oregon]] in [[Douglas County, Oregon]] * [[Ash, West Virginia]] in [[Mason County, West Virginia]] * [[Ash, Georgia]] in [[Paulding County, Georgia]] '''Fictional characters''': * [[Ash Williams]], the anti-hero of the Evil Dead trilogy * [[Ash Ketchum]], the protagonist in the Pokémon series * Ash, the phantom guardian of Marona in [[Phantom Brave]] * [[Science Officer Ash]], the science officer of the ''Nostromo'' in the 1979 film ''Alien'' * [[Ash Crimson]], the latest main character in the King of Fighters game series. * [[List of Final Fantasy XII characters#Ashe\|Ashe]], a character in ''[[Final Fantasy XII]]''. * Ash, the protagonist of [[Avalon (Japanese film)\|Avalon]] ==See also== * [[Ashes]] for related meanings. * [[Ashley]]; Ash is a nickname for that name. {{disambig}} [[da:Aske]] [[de:Asche]] [[es:Ceniza]] [[fr:Ash]] [[it:Cenere]] [[nl:As (verbranding)]] [[ja:灰]] [[pl:Popiół]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Antiderivative</title> <id>2823</id> <revision> <id>39900454</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T18:05:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dullfig</username> <id>234882</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[calculus]], an '''antiderivative''' or '''primitive function''' of a given [[real number\|real valued]] [[function (mathematics)\|function]] ''f'' is a function ''F'' whose [[derivative]] is equal to ''f'', i.e., ''F''&prime; = ''f''. The process of solving for antiderivatives is '''antidifferentiation''' (or '''indefinite integration'''). Finding an expression for an antiderivative is harder than calculating a derivative, and may not always be possible. Antiderivatives are related to [[integral]]s through the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]], and provide a convenient means for calculating the integrals of many functions. ==Example== The function ''F''(''x'') = ''x''<sup>3</sup>/3 is an antiderivative of ''f''(''x'') = ''x''<sup>2</sup>. As the derivative of a [[constant]] is [[0 (number)\|zero]], ''x''<sup>2</sup> will have an [[infinity\|infinite]] number of antiderivatives; such as (''x''<sup>3</sup>/3) + 0, (''x''<sup>3</sup> / 3) + 7, (''x''<sup>3</sup> / 3) &minus; 36, etc. Thus, the antiderivative [[family (mathematics)\|family]] of ''x''<sup>2</sup> is collectively referred to by ''F''(''x'') = (''x''<sup>3</sup> / 3) + ''C''; where ''C'' is any constant. Essentially, the [[graph of a function\|graphs]] of antiderivatives of a given function are [[vertical translation]]s of each other; each graph's location depending upon the [[Value (mathematics)\|value]] of ''C''. ==Uses and properties== Antiderivatives are important because they can be used to compute [[integral#integral calculus\|integrals]], using the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]]: if ''F'' is an antiderivative of the integrable function ''f'', then: :<math>\int\limits_a^b f(x)\, dx = F(b) - F(a).</math> Because of this, the [[set]] of all antiderivatives of a given function ''f'' is sometimes called the '''general integral''' or '''indefinite integral''' of ''f'' and is written using the integral symbol with no bounds: :<math>\int f(x)\, dx.</math> It is critical to remember that an integral is not the same, in general, as the means for evaluating it; and the function that an integral implies stands apart from that means - in the case of single-variable integrals, from antiderivatives. If ''F'' is an antiderivative of ''f'', and the function ''f'' is defined on some [[interval (mathematics)\|interval]], then every other antiderivative ''G'' of ''f'' differs from ''F'' by a constant: there exists a number ''C'' such that ''G''(''x'') = ''F''(''x'') + ''C'' for all ''x''. ''C'' is called the [[arbitrary constant of integration]]. If the domain of ''F'' is a [[disjoint union]] of two or more intervals, then a different constant of integration may be chosen for each of the intervals. For instance :<math>F(x)=\begin{cases}-\frac{1}{x}+C_1\quad x<0\\-\frac{1}{x}+C_2\quad x>0\end{cases}</math> is the most general antiderivative of <math>f(x)=1/x^2</math> on its natural domain <math>(-\infty,0)\cup(0,\infty).</math> Every [[continuous function]] ''f'' has an antiderivative, and one antiderivative ''F'' is given by the integral of ''f'' with variable upper boundary: :<math>F(x) = \int\limits_a^x f(t)\,dt.</math> Varying the lower boundary produces other antiderivatives (but not necessarily all possible antiderivatives). This is another formulation of the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]]. There are many functions whose antiderivatives, even though they exist, cannot be expressed in terms of [[elementary function]]s (like [[polynomial]]s, [[exponential function]]s, [[logarithm]]s, [[trigonometric function]]s, [[inverse trigonometric function]]s and their combinations). Examples of these are :<math>\int e^{-x^2}\,dx,\qquad \int \frac{\sin(x)}{x}\,dx,\qquad \int\frac{1}{\ln x}\,dx.</math> See also [[differential Galois theory]] for a more detailed discussion. == Techniques of integration == Finding antiderivatives is considerably harder than finding derivatives. We have various methods at our disposal: * the [[linearity of integration]] allows us to break complicated integrals into simpler ones * [[integration by substitution]], often combined with [[trigonometric identity\|trigonometric identities]] or the [[natural logarithm]] * [[integration by parts]] to integrate products of functions * the [[inverse chain rule method]], a special case of integration by substitution * the method of [[partial fractions in integration]] allows us to integrate all [[rational function]]s (fractions of two polynomials) * the [
Want Your Love'' * [[Nina Bena]] - ''Sweetheart'' * [[Planet Soul]] - ''Set You Free'' * [[Rochelle]] - ''Praying For An Angel'' * [[Rockell]] - ''In A Dream'' * [[Rockell]] & [[Collage (singer)\|Collage]] - ''Can't We Try'' * [[Samantha]] - ''Be Sure'' * [[Spanish Fly]] - "Treasure Of My Heart" * [[Timmy T]] - "Time After Time" * [[Two In A Room]] - ''El Trago'' \|} ==The "freestyle" name== Why freestyle is actually called freestyle is subject to speculation. Some feel the term ''freestyle'' may refer to the difference between the mixing techniques used by DJs spinning this form of music (at least in its pre-house incarnations) and those who were spinning disco, the only other widely played dance music that incorporated sung vocals. Disco, with its relatively predictable beat structure, could be mixed with smooth, slow, and consistent techniques, but freestyle's syncopated beat structures demanded that DJs get creative, incorporating aspects of both disco and [[hip hop]] techniques; they often had to (or had more freedom to) mix more quickly and more responsively to the individual pieces of music. Others believe it refers to the vocal technique: singing melodic pop vocals over the kind of beats that were previously used only with rap and semi-chanted electro-funk vocal styles was a form of "freestyling" —getting creative by mixing up the styles— somewhat akin to the use of the term in reference to competitive, "[[freestyle rap]]." Another explanation is that the dancing associated with this music allows for a great degree of freedom of expression than the other music that was prevalent at the time. Each individual dancer is "free" to create his or her own "style." Many have despised the term, saying that there is nothing "free" about music that is little more than "Planet Rock"-style beats underpinning ballads, mostly sung by females, about love, romance, and having a good time. ==References== * [http://www.jam2dis.com/j2dfmhist1.htm Joey Gardner's Homepage] (respected authority on Freestyle House) * [http://www.digitaldreamdoor.com/pages/best_dance-free.html 100 Greatest Freestyle Songs] * [http://www.digitaldreamdoor.com/pages/best_dance-elec.html 100 Greatest Electro Songs] * [http://www.alishafans.com/alishafans.com] {{hiphop}} {{House_music-footer}} [[Category:House music genres]] [[hu:Freestyle house]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Rap</title> <id>10809</id> <revision> <id>15908603</id> <timestamp>2003-01-19T09:32:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lorenzarius</username> <id>4308</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixed double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[French hip hop]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fantasy (psychology)</title> <id>10810</id> <revision> <id>38320666</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T15:53:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eskimbot</username> <id>477460</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: de, nl</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[fantasy]] for an account of the literary genre involving the development of common or popular fantasies.'' ---- A '''fantasy''' is a situation imagined by an individual or group, which does not correspond with [[reality]] but expresses certain [[desire]]s or aims of its creator. Fantasies typically involve situations which are [[impossible]] (such as the existence of magic powers) or highly un[[likely]] (such as world peace). Fantasies can also be [[sexual fantasy\|sexual]] in nature. An adult who constantly seems to be living in a fantasy world may be considered a [[Walter Mitty]] character. ==See also== * [[Hallucination]] * [[Phantasy]] [[Category:Psychology]] {{Psych-stub}} [[da:Fantasi]] [[de:Phantasie]] [[eo:Fantazio]] [[fr:Fantasme]] [[nl:Fantasie en dagdromen]] [[sv:Fantasi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel</title> <id>10811</id> <revision> <id>15908605</id> <timestamp>2002-07-24T02:04:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>193.189.177.177</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Friedrich Bessel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fantasy/authors</title> <id>10812</id> <revision> <id>15908606</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T19:09:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Camembert</username> <id>3113</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fantasy author]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Family name</title> <id>10814</id> <revision> <id>42110594</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:11:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rodasmith</username> <id>291611</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Pakistan / paragraph break</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''family name''', or '''surname''', is the part of a person's [[name]] that indicates to what [[family]] he or she belongs. The use of family names is not universal throughout history. In many parts of the world, they did not appear in common use until the [[17th century\|17th]] to [[19th century\|19th centuries]], and in some cultures they are not used today. In many cultures of Asia, the family name is typically spoken or written first when referring to an individual, while in most Western cultures, the family name is last, giving rise to the term '''last name''' for family name. {{TOCleft}} The word ''surname'' is "[[name]]" [[prefix]]ed by the French word ''sur'' (meaning "on"), which derives from [[Latin]] ''super'' ("over"). In the past it was sometimes spelled ''sirname'' or ''sirename'' (suggesting that it meant "man's name" or "father's name") due to [[fake etymology]]. In [[English language\|English]]-, [[Dutch language\|Dutch]]-, [[German language\|German]]- and [[French language\|French]]-speaking countries, people often have two or more [[given name]]s (first and [[Middle name\|middle]]), and the family name goes at the end. (Occasionally a surname is called the "second name", which can be confused with the middle name.) In [[Spanish language\|Spanish]], people have one or more given names and two family names, one from the father and one from the mother. In [[Italy]], people may have one or more given name, no middle name, and a family name, which is listed first in most documents, e.g. '''''Rossi''' Mario'' or '''''Neri''' Elisabetta''. The use of family names varies among cultures. In particular, [[Iceland]]ers, [[Tibetan people\|Tibetan]]s, [[Burmese]], and [[Javanese]] often do not use a family name &mdash; well-known people lacking a family name include [[U Thant]] (Burmese), [[Suharto]] and [[Sukarno]] (see [[Indonesian names]]). Also, many [[royal family\|royal families]] do not use family names. In many cultures, few non-aristocratic families had surnames prior to the period 15th-19th century. A woman's family name traditionally changes upon marriage in some cultures, although few countries mandate such a change. Other modern options include combining both family names, changing neither name, or creating a new name, e.g. combining letters of previous surnames or creating a [[pseudonym]] unrelated to the previous surnames. In the 19th century, [[Francis Galton]] published a statistical study of the extinction of family names. (''See [[Galton-Watson process]] for an account of some of the mathematics.'') ==English-speaking countries== Most surnames of English origin fall into six types: Occupations (e.g. ''[[Smith (surname)\|Smith]]'', ''Baker'', ''Archer'') * Personal characteristics (e.g. ''Short'', ''Brown'', ''Whitehead'') * Geographical features (e.g. ''Scott'', ''Hill'', ''Rivers'', ''[[Windsor, Berkshire\|Windsor]]'') * Place names (e.g. Jack from London might be called Jack ''London''). * For those descended from [[peers]], the name of their holdings or estate. * Ancestry, often from a male's given name (e.g. ''Richardson'', ''James'') or from a clan name (for those of Scottish origin, e.g. ''Macdonald'', ''Forbes''). The original meaning of the name may no longer be obvious in modern English (e.g. the surname ''Cooper'' meant ''barrel maker''). A much smaller sixth category of names relates to religion, though some of this category are also occupations. The names ''Bishop'', ''Priest'', or ''Abbot'', for example, usually indicate that an ancestor worked for a bishop, a priest or an abbot. In the Americas, the family names of many African-Americans have their origins in [[slavery]]. Many of them were given the surnames of their owners. Many freed slaves created family names themselves, or adopted the name of their former master. Others, such as [[Muhammad Ali]] and [[Malcolm X]], changed their name rather than live with one given to their ancestors by a slave owner. It has long been the custom for women to change their surname upon marriage from their ''birth name'' (or ''[[maiden name]]'') to their husband's last name. From the late 1960s through the early 1990s, a small but increasing percentage of women chose to keep their birth name, or a hyphenated form of it, when they married. This trend has since reversed itself, particularly in the United States, where fewer and fewer women are now keeping their maiden name upon marriage. Even in families where the wife has kept her birth name, parents often choose to give their children their father's family name. In English-speaking countries, married women traditionally were called ''Mrs. [Husband's full name]'', though recently they are more often called ''Mrs. [Wife's first name] [Husb
o few in number or (b) threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters that it is at risk of becoming [[extinct]]. Many countries have [[law]]s offering special protection to these species or their [[Habitat (ecology)\|habitats]]: for example, forbidding [[hunting]], restricting land development or creating preserves. Only a few of the many endangered species actually make it to the lists and obtain [[law\|legal]] protection. Many more species become extinct, or potentially will become extinct, without gaining public notice. The greatest factor of concern is the rate at which species are becoming extinct within the last 150 years. While species have evolved and become [[extinct]] on a regular basis for the last several hundred million years, the number of species becoming extinct since the [[Industrial Revolution]] has no precedent in biological history. If this rate of extinction continues, or accelerates as now seems to be the case, the number of [[species]] becoming extinct in the next century could number in the tens of thousands. While most people readily relate to endangerment of large [[mammal]]s or [[bird]]life, some of the greatest [[ecological]] issues are the threats to stability of whole [[ecosystems]] if key species vanish at any level of the [[food chain]]. ==Issues of extinction== Species extinction is the obvious ultimate concern, but there are four different reasons to have for concern with this outcome: (a) Loss of a species as a biological entity, (b) Destabilization of an ecosystem, (c) Endangerment of other species and (d) Loss of irreplacable genetic material and associated biochemicals. The loss of a species in and of itself is an important factor, both as diminution of the enjoyment of nature and as a moral issue for those who believe humans are stewards of the natural environment. Destabilization is a well understood outcome, when an element of food or predation is removed from an ecosystem. Examples abound that other species are in turn affected, such that population increases or declines are forthcoming in these secondary species. Drastic change or an unstable spiral can ensue, until other species are lost and the ecosystem structure is changed markedly and irreversibly. The fourth outcome is more subtle, but perhaps the most important point for mankind to grasp. Each species carries unique genetic material in its [[DNA]] and in its chemical factory responding to these genetic instructions. For example, in the valleys of central China, a [[fern]]like [[weed]] called sweet [[wormwood]] grows, that is the only source of [[artemisinin]], a drug that is nearly 100 percent effective against [[malaria]](Jonietz, 2006). If this plant were lost to extinction, then the ability to control malaria, even today a potent killer, would diminish. there are countless other examples of chemicals unique to a certain species, whose only source is the species, whose genetic factory makes that given substance. How many further chemicals have not yet been discovered and could vanish from the planet when further species become extinct? ==Conservation status== The '''[[conservation status]]''' of a [[species]] is an indicator of the likelihood of that endangered species continuing to survive. Many factors are taken into account when assessing the conservation status of a species; not simply the number remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, known threats, and so on. The best-known worldwide conservation status listing is the [[IUCN Red List]], but many more specialized lists exist. The following conservation status categories are used in articles in this encyclopedia. They are loosely based on the IUCN categories. * '''Extinct''': the last remaining member of the species had died, or is presumed to have died beyond reasonable doubt. Examples: [[Thylacine]], [[Dodo]]. * '''Extinct in the wild''': captive individuals survive, but there is no free-living, natural population. Examples: [[Dromedary]], [[Przewalski's Horse]]. * '''Critical''' or ''critically endangered'': faces an extremely high risk of [[extinction]] in the immediate future. Examples: [[Ivory-billed Woodpecker]], [[Arakan Forest Turtle]] * '''Endangered''': faces a very high risk of extinction in the near future. Examples: Blue whale, [[Kings holly]], [[Pink fairy armadillo]] * '''Vulnerable''': faces a high risk of extinction in the medium-term. Examples: [[Cheetah]], [[Bactrian Camel]] * '''Secure''' or ''lower risk'': no immediate threat to the survival of the species. Examples: [[Nootka Cypress]], [[Llama]] The following lists are examples of endangered species. Note that because of varying standards for regarding a species as endangered, and the very large number of endangered species, '''these lists should not be regarded as comprehensive'''. ==Endangered [[mammal]]s== <!-- ### PLEASE ADD IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER ### --> [[Image:Urocyon littoralis full figure.jpg\|thumb\|right\|400px\|The endandered Island Fox]] * [[Asian Elephant]] (''Elephas maximus'') * [[Aye-aye]] (''Daubentonia madagascariensis'') * [[Banteng]] (''Bos javanicus'') * [[Bighorn Sheep]] (''Ovis canadensis'') * [[Black Rhinoceros]] (''Diceros bicornis'') * [[Black-footed Ferret]] (''Mustela nigripes'') * [[Blue Whale]] (''Balaenoptera musculus'') * [[Bonobo]] (''Pan paniscus'') * [[Potoridae\|Burrowing Bettong]] (''Bettongia lesueur nova'') * [[Common Chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes'') * [[Chinese River Dolphin]] (''Lipotes vexillifer'') and other [[river dolphin]]s * [[Gorilla\|Eastern Gorilla]] (''Gorilla beringei'') * [[Fin Whale]] (''Balaenoptera physalus'') * [[Forest Elephant]] (''Loxodonta cyclotis'') * [[Gelada]] (''Theropithecus gelada'') * [[Giant golden-crowned flying fox]] (''Acerodon jubatus'') * [[Giant Panda]] (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'') * [[Pangolin\|Giant Pangolin]] (''Manis gigantea'') * [[Golden Lion Tamarin]] (''Leontopithecus rosalia'') [[Image:Humpback_Whale_underwater_shot.jpg\|thumb\|right\|240px\|Humpback Whale]] * [[Gray bat]] (''Myotis grisescens'') * [[Hawaiian Monk Seal]] (''Monachus schauinslandi'') * [[Humpback Whale]] (''Megaptera novaeangliae'') * [[Indian Pangolin]] (''Manis crassicaudata'') * [[Indri]] (''Indri indri'') * [[Island Fox]] (''Urocyon littoralis'') * [[Javan Rhinoceros]] (''Rhinoceros sondaicus'') * [[Key Deer]] (''Odocoileus virginianus clavium'') * [[Kouprey]] (''Bos sauveli'') * [[Leopard]] (''Panthera pardus'') * [[wombat\|Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat]] (''Lasiorhinus krefftii'') * [[Numbat]] (''Myrmecobius fasciatus'') * [[Orangutan]] (''Pongo pygmaeus'' and ''Pongo abelii'') [[Image:Bison skull pile, ca1870.png\|thumb\|right\|300px\|[[American bison]] skull heap. There were as few as 750 bison in [[1890]] from overhunting.]] * [[Père David's Deer]] (''Elaphurus davidianus'') * [[Proboscis Monkey]] (''Nasalis larvatus'') * [[Red Panda]] (''Ailurus fulgens'') * [[Red Wolf]] (''Canis rufus'') * [[Savannah Elephant]] (''Loxodonta africana'') * [[Sea Otter]] (''Enhydra lutris'') * [[Sei Whale]] (''Balaenoptera borealis'') * [[Snow Leopard]] (''Uncia uncia'') * [[Steller's Sea Lion]] (''Eumetopias jubatus'') * [[Sumatran Rhinoceros]] (''Dicerorhinus sumatrensis'') * [[Temminck's Pangolin]] (''Manis temminckii'') * [[Tibetan Antelope]] (''Pantholops hodgsonii'') * [[Tiger]] (''Panthera tigris'') * [[Vaquita]] (''Phocoena sinus'') * [[Gorilla\|Western Gorilla]] (''Gorilla gorilla'') * [[Manatee\|West Indian Manatee]] (''Trichechus manatus'') ==Endangered [[bird]]s== [[Image:California-condor.jpg\|thumb\|right\|400px\|Immature [[California Condor]]]] * [[Alaotra Grebe]] (''Tachybaptus rufolavatus'') * [[Amami Thrush]] (''Zoothera major'') * [[Amsterdam Albatross]] (''Diomedea amsterdamensis'') * [[Attwater's prairie-chicken]] (''Tympanuchus cupido attwateri'') * [[Bali Starling]] (''Leucospar rothschildi'') * [[Brazilian Merganser]] (''Mergus octosetaceus'') * [[California Clapper Rail]] (''Rallus longirostris obsoletus'') * [[California Condor]] (''Gymnogyps californianus'') * [[Chatham Albatross]] (''Thalassarche eremita'') * [[Chinese Crested Tern]] (''Sterna bernsteinii'') * [[Christmas Island Frigatebird]] (''Fregata andrewsi'') * [[Cozumel Thrasher]] (''Toxostoma guttatum'') * [[Eskimo Curlew]] (''Numenius borealis'') * [[Giant Ibis]] (''Thaumatibis gigantea'') * [[Glaucous Macaw]] (''Anodorhynchus glaucus'') * [[Guam Rail]] (''Gallirallus owstoni'') * [[Gurney's Pitta]] (''Pitta gurneyi'') * [[Hawaiian Crow]] (''Corvus hawaiiensis'') * [[Hawaiian Goose]] or '''Néné''' (''Branta sandvicensis'') * [[Imperial Woodpecker]] (''Campephilus imperialis'') * [[Indian White-rumped Vulture]] (''Gyps bengalensis'') * [[Ivory-billed Woodpecker]] (''Campephilus principalis'') * [[Jerdon's Courser]] (''Rhinoptilus bitorquatus'') * [[Junin Flightless Grebe]] (''Podiceps taczanowskii'') * [[Kakapo]] (''Strigops habroptilus'') * [[Kittlitz's Murrelet]] (''Brachyramphus brevirostris'') * [[Kiwi]] (''Apteryx australis'', ''A. hastii'', ''A. owenii'') * [[Laysan Duck]] (''Anas laysanensis'') * [[Lear's Macaw]] (''Anodorhynchus leari'') * [[Lesser Sulphur-crested Cockatoo]] (''Cacatua sulphurea'') * [[Long-billed Vulture]], (''Gyps indicus'') * [[Magdalena Tinamou]] (''Crypturellus saltuarius'') * [[Magenta Petrel]] (''Pterodroma magentae'') * [[Mauritius Fody]] (''Foudia rubra'') * [[Mauritius Parakeet]] (''Psittacula eques'') * [[Mindoro Bleeding-heart]] (''Gallicolumba platenae'') * [[New Zealand Storm-petrel]] (''Oceanites maorianus'') * [[Night Parrot]] (''Geopsittacus occidentalis'') * [[Northern Bald Ibis]] (''Geronticus eremita'') * [[Okinawa Woodpecker]] (''Sapheopipo noguchii'') * [[Orange-bellied Parrot]] (''Neophema chrysogaster'') * [[Philippine Eagle]] (''Pithecophaga jefferyi'') * [[Po'ouli]] (''Melamprosops phaeosoma'') * [[Puerto Rican Parrot]] (''Amazona vittata'') * [[Raso Skylark]] (''Alauda razae'') * [[Red-cockaded Woodpecker]
ng over the assembly and council meetings). It has been calculated that one quarter of all citizens must at one time in their lives have held the post. This head of state position could be held once only in a lifetime. ===Assembly=== As usual in ancient democracies, one had to physically attend a gathering in order to vote. Military service or simple distance prevented the exercise of citizenship. Voting was usually by show of hands (cheirotonia, "arm stretching") with officials 'judging' the outcome by sight. With thousands of people attending, counting was impossible. For a small category of votes a quorum of 6000 was required, principally grants of citizenship, and here coloured balls were used, white for yes and black for no. Probably at the end of the session, each voter tossed one of these into a large clay jar which was afterwards cracked open for the counting of the ballots. ([[Ostracism]] required to voters to scratch names onto pieces of broken pottery, though this did not occur within the assembly as such.) In the 5th century BC, there were 10 fixed assembly meetings per year, one in each of the ten [[Attic calendar#State calendar\|state months]], with other meetings called as needed. In the following century the meetings were set to forty a year, with four in each state month. (One of these was now as the main meeting, ''kuria ekklesia''.) Additional meetings might still be called, especially as up until 355 BC there were still political trials that were conducted in the assembly rather than in court. The assembly meetings did not occur at fixed intervals, as they had to dodge the annual festivals that were differently placed in each of the twelve lunar months. There was also a tendency for the four meetings to bunch up toward the end of each state month. Attendance at the assembly was voluntary. In the 5th century public slaves forming a cordon with a red-stained rope herded citizens from the [[agora]] into the assembly meeting place (''[[pnyx]]''), with a fine for those who got the red on their clothes. This, however, cannot compare with the compulsory voting schemes of some modern democracies. It was rather an immediate measure to get enough people rapidly in place, like an aggressive form of ushering. After the restoration of the democracy in 403 BC, pay for assembly attendance was introduced for the first time. At this there was a new enthusiasm for assembly meetings. Only the first 6000 to arrive were admitted and paid, with the red rope now used to keep latecomers at bay. These two uses of the red rope are known from [[Aristophanes]]'s comedy ''Acharnians'' 17-22, the forcing in, and his ''Ekklesiazousai'' 378-9 for the keeping out. ===Athenian Courts=== Athens had an elaborate legal system centred on the '''''dikasteria''''' or jury courts: the word is derived from '''''dikastes''''', 'judge/juror.' These [[Athenian law court (classical period)\|jury courts]] were manned by large panels selected by lot from an annual pool of 6,000 citizens. To be eligible to serve as juror, a citizen had to be over 30 years of age and in possession of full citizen rights (see [[atimia (loss of citizen rights)\|atimia]]). The age limit, the same as that for office holders but ten years older than that required for participation in the assembly, gave the courts a certain standing in relation to the assembly: for the Athenians older was wiser. Added to this was the fact that jurors were under oath, which was not a feature of attendance at the assembly. However, the authority exercised by the courts had the same basis as that of the assembly: both were regarded as expressing the direct will of the people. Unlike office holders (magistrates) who could be impeached and prosecuted for misconduct, the jurors could not be censured, for they, in effect, were the people and no authority could be higher than that. A corollary of this was that, at least in words spoken before the jurors, if a court had made an unjust decision, it must have been because it had been misled by a litigant Essentially there were two grades of suit, a smaller kind known as ''dike'' or private suit, and a larger kind known as ''graphe'' or public suit. For private suits the minimum jury size was 201 (increased to 401 if a sum of over 1000 drachmas was at issue), for public suits 501. For particularly important public suits the jury could be increased by adding in extra allotments of 500. One thousand and 1500 are regularly encountered as jury sizes and on at least one occasion, the first time a new kind of case was brought to court (see [[graphe paranomon]]), all 6,000 members of the juror pool were put onto the one case. In public suits the litgants each had something like three hours to speak, less in private suits. The cases were put by the litigants themselves in the form of an exchange of single speeches timed by water clock, first prosecutor then defendant. In a public suit the litigants each had three hours to speak, much less in private suits (though here it was in proportion to the amount of money at stake). Decisions were made by voting without any time set aside for deliberation. Nothing, however, stopped jurors from talking informally amongst themselves during the voting procedure and juries could be rowdy shouting out their disapproval or disbelief of things said by the litigants. This may have had some role in building a consensus. The jury could only cast a 'yes' or 'no' vote as to the guilt and sentence of the defendant. For private suits only the victims or their families could prosecute, while for public suits anyone (''ho boulomenos'', 'whoever wants to' i.e. any citizen with full citizen rights) could bring a case since the issues in these major suits were regarded as affecting the community as a whole. Justice was rapid: no case could last no longer than one day. Some convictions triggered an automatic penalty, but where this was not the case the two litgants each proposed a penalty for the convicted defendant and the jury chose between them in a further vote. No appeal was possible. There was however a mechanism for prosecuting the witnesses of a successful prosecutor, which it appears could lead to the undoing of the earlier verdict. Payment for jurors was introduced around 462 BC and is ascribed to [[Pericles]], a feature described by Aristotle as fundamental to radical democracy (''Politics'' 1294a37). Pay was raised from 2 to 3 [[obol]]s by [[Cleon]] early in the Peloponnesian war and there it stayed; the original amount is not known. Notably this was introduced more than fifty years before payment for attendance at assembly meetings. Running the courts was one of the major expenses of the Athenian state and there were moments of financial crisis in the 4th century when the courts, at least for private suits, had to be suspended. The system shows a marked anti-professionalism. No judges presided over the courts nor was there anyone to give legal direction to the jurors, as the magistrates in charge of the courts had only an administrative function and were themselves in any case amateurs (most of the annual magistracies at Athens could only be held once in a lifetime). There were no lawyers as such, but the litigants acted solely in their capacity as citizens. Whatever professionalism there was tended to disguise itself: it was possible to pay for the services of a speechwriter (''logographos'') but this was not advertised in court (except as something your opponent in court has had to resort to), and even politically prominent litigants made some show of disowning special expertise. ==Officeholders== Citizens active as office holders served in a quite different capacity from when they voted in the assembly or served as jurors. The assembly and the courts were regarded as the instantiation of the people of Athens: they were the people, no power was above them and they could not be reviewed, impeached or punished. However, when an Athenian took up an office, he was regarded as 'serving' the people. As such, he could be regarded as failing in his duty and be punished for it. There were two methods of selecting people as officeholders, lottery or election. Something like 1100 citizens (including the memebrs of the council of 500) held office each year and about a 100 of these were elected. ===Selection by lot (Allotment)=== Selection by lottery was the standard means as it was regarded as the more democratic: elections will favour those who are rich, noble, eloquent and well-known, while [[sortition\|allotment]] spreads the work of administration throughout the whole citizen body, engaging them in the crucial democratic experience of, to use Aristotle's words (Politics 1317b28-30), "ruling and being ruled in turn." The allotment of an individual was based on citizenship rather than merit or any form of personal popularity which could be bought. Allotment therefore was seen as a means to prevent the corrupt purchase of votes and it gave citizens a unique form of political equality as all had an equal chance of obtaining government office. Individuals who were interested in holding office had to nominate themselves as available for selection the year before. Officeholders were paid a stipend, but it was intended as a small sum to cover loss of income fixed at the lowest end of the scale. That is, virtually anyone able to work could earn more elsewhere. Payment is confirmed for the 5th century; was cancelled under the oligarchs in 404; may or may not have been restored after democracy was reinstituted. The random assignment of responsibility to individuals who may or may not be competent has obvious risks, but the system included features meant to obviate possible problems. Athenians selected for office served as teams (boards, panels). In a group someone will know the right way to do things and those that do not may learn from those that do. During the period of holding a particular offic
iscussed. The machine has gained notoriety because [[Allied]] [[cryptologist]]s were able to [[cryptanalysis\|decrypt]] a large number of messages that had been [[encipher]]ed on the machine. The [[Military espionage\|intelligence]] gained through this source &mdash; codenamed [[ULTRA]] &mdash; was a significant aid to the Allied war effort. The exact influence of ULTRA is debated, but a typical assessment is that the [[Victory in Europe Day\|end of the European war]] was hastened by two years because of the decryption of German ciphers. Although the Enigma cipher has cryptographic weaknesses, it was, in practice, only their combination with other significant factors which allowed codebreakers to read messages: mistakes by operators, procedural flaws, and the occasional captured machine or [[codebook]]. This article discusses the Enigma machine itself: its components and its procedures. For the history and techniques of how Enigma was broken, see '''[[Cryptanalysis of the Enigma]]'''. For a discussion of how Enigma-derived intelligence was put to use, see '''[[ULTRA]]'''. __TOC__ <br clear="all" /> ==Description== [[Image:Enigma wiring kleur.png\|thumb\|left\|250px\|Enigma wiring diagram showing the current flow when pressing the 'A' key is encoded to the 'D' lamp, also D yields A, but A never A]] Like other rotor machines, the Enigma machine is a combination of mechanical and electrical systems. The mechanical mechanism consists of a [[alphanumeric keyboard\|keyboard]]; a set of rotating disks called ''rotor''s arranged adjacently along a [[spindle]]; and a stepping mechanism to turn one or more of the rotors with each key press. The exact mechanism varies, but the most common form is for the right-hand rotor to step once with every key stroke, and occasionally the motion of neighbouring rotors is triggered. The continual movement of the rotors results in a different cryptographic transformation after each key press. The mechanical parts act in such a way as to form a varying [[electrical circuit]] &mdash; the actual encipherment of a letter is performed electrically. When a key is pressed, the circuit is completed; current flows through the various components and ultimately lights one of many [[lamp]]s, indicating the output letter. For example, when encrypting a message starting <tt>ANX...</tt>, the operator would first press the <tt>A</tt> key, and the <tt>Z</tt> lamp might light; <tt>Z</tt> would be the first letter of the ciphertext. The operator would then proceed to encipher <tt>N</tt> in the same fashion, and so on. [[Image:Enigma-action.png\|right\|thumbnail\|200px\|The scrambling action of the Enigma rotors shown for two consecutive letters &mdash; current is passed into set of rotors, around the reflector, and back out through the rotors again. Note: The greyed-out lines represent other possible circuits within each rotor, which are hard-wired to contacts on each rotor. Letter <tt>A</tt> encrypts differently with consecutive key presses, first to <tt>G</tt>, and then to <tt>C</tt>. This is because the right hand rotor has stepped, sending the signal on a completely different route.]] To explain the Enigma, we use the wiring diagram on the left. To simplify the example, only four components of each are shown. In reality, there are 26 lamps, keys, plugs and wirings inside the rotors. The current flows from the battery (1) through the depressed bi-directional letter-switch (2) to the plugboard (3). The plugboard allows rewiring the connections between keyboard (2) and fixed entry wheel (4). Next, the current proceeds through the - unused, so closed - plug (3) via the entry wheel (4) through the wirings of the three (Wehrmacht Enigma) or four (Kriegsmarine M4) rotors (5) and enters the reflector (6). The reflector returns the current, via a different path, back through the rotors (5) and entry wheel (4), and proceeds through plug 'S' connected with a cable (8) to plug 'D', and another bi-directional switch (9) to light-up the lamp.<br clear="all" /> ===Rotors=== :''For details on the rotor wiring, ring settings and effect on the encryption, see [[Enigma rotor details]].'' {\| style="float:right; clear:right; margin:0 0 .2em 1em;" \|- style="vertical-align:top" \| [[Image:Enigma-rotor-flat-contacts.jpg\|thumb\|none\|<!-- Attempt give both boxes the same height. --><div style="height:6em;float:right;clear:right;font-size:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;margin:0;"><!-- --></div>The left side of an Enigma rotor, showing the flat electrical contacts. A single turnover notch is visible on the left edge of the rotor.]] \| [[Image:Enigma-rotor-pin-contacts.jpg\|thumb\|none\|<!-- Attempt give both boxes the same height. --><div style="height:6em;float:right;clear:right;font-size:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;margin:0;"><!-- --></div>The right side of a rotor, showing the pin electrical contacts. The roman numeral V identifies the wiring of the rotor.]] \|} The rotors (alternatively ''wheels'' or ''drums'' &mdash; ''Walzen'' in German) form the heart of an Enigma machine. Approximately 10&nbsp;cm in diameter, each rotor is a [[disk (mathematics)\|disk]] made of hard [[rubber]] or [[bakelite]] with a series of [[brass]] spring-loaded pins on one face arranged in a circle; on the other side are a corresponding number of circular electrical contacts. The pins and contacts represent the [[alphabet]] &mdash; typically the 26 letters A&ndash;Z (this will be assumed for the rest of the description). When placed side-by-side, the pins of one rotor rest against the contacts of the neighbouring rotor, forming an electrical connection. Inside the body of the rotor, a set of 26 wires connects each pin on one side to a contact on the other in a complex pattern. The wiring differs for every rotor. [[Image:enigma-rotors.jpg\|220px\|thumb\|left\|Three Enigma rotors and the shaft on which they are placed when in use.]] By itself, a rotor performs only a very simple type of [[encryption]] &mdash; a simple [[substitution cipher]]. For example, the pin corresponding to the letter <tt>E</tt> might be wired to the contact for letter <tt>T</tt> on the opposite face. The complexity comes from the use of several rotors in series &mdash; usually three or four &mdash; and the regular movement of the rotors; this provides a much stronger type of encryption. When placed in the machine, a rotor can be set to one of 26 positions. It can be turned by hand using a grooved finger-wheel which protrudes from the internal cover when closed, as shown in [[#Procedures for using the Enigma\|Figure 2]]. So that the operator knows the position, each rotor has an ''alphabet tyre'' (or letter ring) attached around the outside of the disk, with 26 letters or numbers; one of these can be seen through a window, indicating the position of the rotor to the operator. In early Enigma models, the alphabet ring is fixed; a complication introduced in later versions is the facility to adjust the alphabet ring relative to the core wiring. The position of the ring is known as the ''Ringstellung'' ("ring settings"). The rotors each contain a notch (sometimes multiple notches), used to control the stepping of the rotors. In the military versions, the notches are located on the alphabet ring. {\| class="toccolours" style="background:white; margin:1em auto; clear:both; font-size:94%;" ! style="background:#ddddff; padding:.3em" colspan="2" \| Exploded view of an Enigma rotor \| rowspan="2" \| &nbsp; ! style="background:#ddddff; padding:.3em" \| Three rotors in sequence \|- \| [[Image:Enigma rotor exploded view.png\|220px]] \| # notched ring # marking dot for "A" contact # alphabet tyre # plate contacts # wire connections # pin contacts # spring-loaded ring adjusting lever # hub # finger wheel # ratchet wheel \| [[Image:Enigma rotor set.png\|240px]] \|} The Army and Air Force Enigmas came equipped with several rotors; when first issued there was a total of three. On [[15 December]] [[1938]], this changed to five, from which three were chosen for insertion in the machine. These were marked with [[Roman numeral]]s to distinguish them: I, II, III, IV and V, all with single notches. The Naval version of the [[Wehrmacht]] Enigma had always been issued with more rotors than the other services: at first, five, then seven and finally eight. The additional rotors were named VI, VII and VIII, all with different wiring, and had two notches cut into them, resulting in a more frequent turnover. The four-rotor Naval Enigma (M4) accommodated an extra rotor in the same space as the three-rotor version. This was accomplished by replacing the original reflector with a thinner reflector and adding a special fourth rotor. The fourth rotor can be one of two types: ''Beta'' or ''Gamma''. This 4th rotor never steps, but can be manually placed in any of the 26 positions. ===Stepping motion=== [[Image:Enigma ratchet.png\|right\|thumb\|220px\|Stepping motion of the Enigma. All three ratchet pawls (green) push in unison. In the first rotor (1), the ratchet (red) is always engaged, and steps with each keypress. Here, the second rotor (2) is engaged because the notch in the first rotor is aligned with the pawl; it will step with the next keypress. The third rotor (3) is not engaged, because the notch in the second rotor is not aligned; the pawl will simply slide over the curved ring.]] To avoid merely implementing a simple substitution cipher, some rotors turn with consecutive presses of a key. This ensures that the cryptographic transformation is different at each position, producing a formidable [[polyalphabetic substitution]] ci
ojection Forces and Regional Defense; [[Strategic Forces and Nuclear Deterrence]]); [[U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation\|Commerce, Science and Transportation]] (Communications; Consumer; Science, Technology and Space- chairman 1992; [[Surface Transportatio]]n; [[National Ocean Policy]] Study); [[U.S. Congress Joint Committee on Printing\|Joint Committee on Printing]]; [[U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee\|Joint Economic Committee]]; [[U.S. Senate Committee on Rules and Administration\|Rules and Administration]]. ==Vice Presidency== [[Image:ClintonGore2.jpg\|thumb\|350px\|right\|Vice President talking with President Clinton as the two pass through the Colonnade at the White House.]] [[Bill Clinton]] chose Gore to be his running mate on [[July 9]], [[1992]], to the surprise of many as the two were both young and were from the same region of the nation. After winning the [[U.S. presidential election, 1992\|1992 election]], Al Gore was inaugurated as the 45th Vice President of the United States on [[January 20]], [[1993]]. Clinton and Gore were re-elected to a second term in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1996\|1996 election]]. During his time as Vice President, Al Gore was mostly a behind the scenes player. However, many experts consider him to be one of the most active and influential Vice Presidents in U.S. history. This was evident as Gore had weekly lunches with Clinton to keep each other abreast of current developments, although he later said that it was he who insisted on having those weekly lunches in the first place. ===Debate with Perot=== In 1993 Gore debated [[Ross Perot]] on [[CNN]]'s [[Larry King Live]] on the issue of [[free trade]]. Public opinion polls taken after the debate showed that a majority of Americans agreed with his point of view and supported [[NAFTA]]. Some claim that this performance may have been responsible for the passing of NAFTA in the [[United States House of Representatives\|House of Representatives]], where it passed 234-200. [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/reinventing_government.html] ===Initatives=== One of Gore's major accomplishments as Vice President was the ''National Performance Review'', which pointed out waste, fraud, and other abuse in the federal government and stressed the need for cutting the size of the [[bureaucracy]] and the number of regulations. His book later helped guide President Clinton when he down sized the [[federal government]]. [http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/speeches/interego.html] ====Internet Education==== As Vice President, Gore instituted a federal program calling for all schools and libraries to be wired to the [[Internet]]. This was a culmination of work that he had started several years before. While serving in the Senate, Gore had introduced legislation which called for the creation of a new federal research center for educational computing to support an "information systems highway". [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/technology.html] ====Environment==== During Gore's tenure as Vice President, he was a strong proponent for environmental protection. While a senator working on his book ''Earth in the Balance'', Gore had traveled around the world on numerous fact-finding missions. On [[Earth Day]] 1994, Gore launched the worldwide [[GLOBE program]], an innovative hands-on, school-based education and science activity that made extensive use of the Internet to increase student awareness of their environment and contribute research data for scientists. The opinions he developed on issues such as global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer, and the destruction of rain forests is said to have played a major role in policy making for the Clinton administration. In the late nineties, Gore strongly pushed for the passage of the [[Kyoto Treaty]], which called for reduction in green house emissions. [http://web.archive.org/web/20001207090900/www.algore.com/speeches/speeches_kyoto_120897.html], [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/environment.html] ====Foreign Policy==== Because of President Clinton's inexperience and Gore's service in Vietnam and in the Senate, Clinton would often look to Gore for advice in the area of foreign policy. Gore was one of the first to call for action to remove Yugoslav President [[Slobodan Milošević]] from power in 1998. Gore also supported [[Operation Desert Fox]], a three day bombing campaign against Iraq that attempted to "degrade Saddam Hussein's ability to make and to use weapons of mass destruction." [http://www.defenselink.mil/specials/desert_fox/], [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/foreign_policy.html] [[Image:Algoreyasser.jpg\|right\|thumb\|200px\|Vice President Al Gore works along side President Clinton in trying to negotiate a Middle East peace plan with Palestinian leader [[Yasser Arafat]].]] ====Other==== During the Clinton/Gore administration, Americans enjoyed eight years of relative peace along with the longest economic expansion in history. Democrats attributed this prosperity to the policies of the Clinton/Gore administration, and especially to the passage of the [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993]], for which Gore cast the [[U.S. Vice President's tie-breaking votes\|tie-breaking vote]]. During his 2000 campaign for the presidency, Gore attributed several positive economic results to his and Clinton's policies [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/economy.html] more than 22 million new jobs, highest homeownership in American history, Lowest unemployment in 30 years, Paid off $360 billion of the national debt, lowest poverty rate in 20 years, higher incomes at all levels, converted the largest budget deficit, up to that time, in American history to the largest surplus, lowest government spending in three decades, lowest federal income tax burden in 35 years, and more families own stock than ever before. However Gore later placed a large share of the blame for his election loss on the economic downturn and NASDAQ crash of March 2000 in an interview with [[National Public Radio]]'s [[Bob Edwards]]. [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=848572] ==2000 presidential election== {{main articles\|[[Al Gore presidential campaign, 2000]] and [[U.S. presidential election, 2000]]}} [[Image:Goreconvention.jpg\|thumb\|right\|200px\|Al Gore and running-mate Joe Lieberman at the [[2000 Democratic National Convention]].]] After two terms as Vice President, Gore ran for [[President of the United States\|President]]. In the Democratic primaries, Gore faced an early challenge from [[Bill Bradley]]. Gore's nomination was never really in doubt and Bradley withdrew from the race in early March 2000 after failing to win any state primary or caucus. In August 2000, Gore surprised many when he selected United States Senator [[Joe Lieberman]] to be his vice-presidential running mate. Lieberman, who is a more conservative Democrat than Gore, had publicly blasted President Clinton for the [[Monica Lewinsky]] affair. Many pundits saw Gore's choice of Lieberman as another way of trying to distance himself from the scandal-prone Clinton White House. Lieberman was also the first Jewish nominee on a major party's national ticket. During the entire campaign, Gore was neck-and-neck in the polls with [[United States Republican Party\|Republican]] [[Governor of Texas]] [[George W. Bush]]. On Election Day, the results were so close that the outcome of the race took over a month to resolve, highlighted by the premature declaration of a winner on election night, and an extremely close result in the state of [[Florida]]. On election night, news networks first called Florida for Gore, then Fox News decided to call it for Bush and all of the other news stations followed their decision. The race was ultimately decided by a razor thin margin of only 537 popular votes in Florida, a state favored to have gone to Bush (as his brother served as Governor). The 537 number was an astonishingly close margin out of some 105 million votes cast nationwide. Florida's 25 electoral votes were awarded to George W. Bush only after numerous court challenges. Al Gore publicly conceded the election after the [[Supreme Court of the United States\|Supreme Court]] in ''[[Bush v. Gore]]'' voted 7 to 2 to declare the ongoing recount procedure unconstitutional because it feared that different standards would be used in different parts of the state, and 5 to 4 to ban recounts using other procedures. [[Image:Gore_Debate.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|Al Gore makes a point during a [[U.S. presidential debate\|presidential debate]] during the 2000 election as George W. Bush looks on.]] Gore strongly disagreed with the Court's decision, but decided "for the sake of our unity of the people and the strength of our democracy, I offer my concession." He had previously made a concession phone call to Bush the night of the election, but quickly retracted it after learning just how close the election was. Following the election, a subsequent recount conducted by various U.S. news media organizations indicated that Mr. Bush would have won using the partial recount method of 4 strongly Democratic areas advocated by Mr. Gore, but that Mr. Gore would have won given a full recount of the state. [http://www.bushwatch.com/gorebush.htm][http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/florida.ballots/stories/main.html]. The states that ultimately voted for Gore over Bush in the 2000 elections were New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Vermont, Massachusetts, Washington, D.C., Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, New Mexico, California, Oregon, Washington, Illinois, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota and Hawaii giving Gore 267 electoral votes to Bush's 271. One of Gore's electors cast a blank ballot, to protest what she called DC's "colonial status", thus the candidate's final number of electoral votes was 266. The Florida elec
easy creation of [[Patch (computing)\|patches]]. * [[Doctor (band)\|Doctor]] is a Canadian rock band. * In the United Kingdom, Ireland, and parts of the Commonwealth, some medical doctors are called "Mister". This exception only applies to surgeons, who drop the title of "doctor" once they pass their final examinations, an homage to their predecessors, the [[barber surgeons]]. Unlike apothecaries and alchemists &mdash; precursors of modern physicians &mdash; barber surgeons were not learned "teachers" but rather tradesmen. When some medically-qualified people, who wish to train to become surgeons, pass the (notoriously difficult) examinations to enable them to become a member of one or more of the [[Royal Surgical Colleges of Great Britain and Ireland\|Royal Colleges of Surgeons]] and become "[[MRCS]]", it is customary for them to drop the "doctor" prefix and take up "mister". This rule applies to any doctor of any grade who has passed the appropriate exams, and is not the exclusive province of consultant-level surgeons. In recent times, other surgically-orientated specialists, such as [[gynaecologist\|gynaecologists]], have also adopted the "mister" prefix. [[Physician\|Physicians]], on the other hand, when they pass their "[[MRCP]]" examinations, which enable them to become members of the [[Royal College of Physicians]], do not drop the "doctor" prefix and remain doctor, even when they are consultants. In the United Kingdom the status and rank of consultant surgeons with the MRCS, titled "mister", and consultant physicians with the MRCP, titled "doctor", is identical. Surgeons in the USA and elsewhere remain steadfastly "doctor". [[Category:Titles]] [[Category:Physicians\|]] [[Category:Professional titles]] [[de:Doktor]] [[he:דוקטור]] [[it:Dottore]] [[ja:博士]] [[ms:Doktor]] [[pl:Doktor]] [[tr:Doktor]] [[zh:博士]] [[ru:Доктор]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Donald I of Scotland</title> <id>8882</id> <revision> <id>39192487</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T10:27:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.197.16.192</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Donald I''' ('''Domnall mac Ailpín''') (c. [[812]]&ndash;[[863]]) was [[King of Scots]] from [[858]] to [[862]]. He was the younger son of [[Alpin II of Dalriada]] and succeeded his brother, King [[Kenneth I of Scotland]], to the throne upon his death. Described before as ''the wanton son of the foreign woman'', Donald I had a short term as King. He established an ancient corpus of laws and rights (known as the [[laws of Aed]], or Aedh) that apparently included the custom of [[tanistry]]. According to this custom, the [[succession\|successor]] of a King was elected during his lifetime from the eldest and worthiest of his kin, often a collateral (brother or cousin) in preference to a descendant. During Donald I's reign, his nephew, [[Constantine I of Scotland]], was chosen to succeed him following his death. The custom of tanistry lasted until the reign of [[Malcolm II of Scotland]] (1005&ndash;34). Uncertainty exists about the circumstances of his death in [[862]]. He either died at a battle in [[Scone, Perth and Kinross\|Scone]] or peacefully in his palace at [[Kinn Belachoir]]. He died unmarried and childless. It is not known where he was buried. == See also == [[Kingdom of Scotland]] [[Alba]] {{start box}} {{succession box \| title=[[King of Scots]] \| before=[[Kenneth I of Scotland\|Kenneth I]] \| after=[[Constantine I of Scotland\|Constantine I]] \| years=858&ndash;862 }} {{end box}} [[Category:812 births]] [[Category:863 deaths]] [[Category:Scottish monarchs]] [[Category:Medieval_Gaels]] {{Scotland-bio-stub}} {{UK-royal-stub}} [[de:Donald I. (Schottland)]] [[fr:Donald Ier d'Écosse]] [[no:Donald I av Skottland]] [[pl:Donald I]] [[sv:Donald I av Skottland]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Danse Macabre</title> <id>8884</id> <revision> <id>41760679</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:29:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stbalbach</username> <id>87883</id> </contributor> <comment>fringe theory that needs more detail to be included here</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about La Dance Macabre, the late-medieval allegory. For other meanings of ''Dance Macabre'' or ''Dance of Death'', see [[Danse Macabre (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Holbein-death.png\|right\|framed\|From The Dance of Death by Hans Holbein]] '''''La Danse Macabre''''', also called ''Dance of death, La Danza Macabra,'' or ''Totentanz'', is a [[Middle Ages\| late-medieval]] [[allegory]] on the universality of [[death]]: no matter one's station in life, the dance of death united all. ''La Danse Macabre'' consists of the [[personified death]] leading a row of dancing figures from all walks of life to the [[grave]]&mdash;typically with an [[emperor]], [[monarch\|king]], [[pope]], [[monk]], youngster, beautiful girl, all in [[skeleton]]-state. They were produced under the impact of the [[Black Death]], reminding people of how fragile their lives were and how vain the glories of [[personal life\|earthly life]] were. Its origins are postulated from illustrated sermon texts, the earliest artistic examples are in a cemetery in Paris from 1424. ==Paintings== The earliest artistic example is from the [[fresco]]ed cemetery of the [[Church of the Holy Innocents]] in Paris (1424). There are also works by [[Konrad Witz]] in [[Basel]] (1440), [[Bernt Notke]] in [[Lübeck]] (1463) and woodcuts by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] (1538). [[Image:Thetriumphofdeath.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|right\|''The Triumph of Death'']] A famous ''[[The Triumph of Death]]'' painting (c.1562) in the [[Museo del Prado]], [[Madrid]], is by [[Pieter Brueghel the Elder]] who was strongly influenced by the style of [[Hieronymus Bosch]]. ==Musical Settings== Musical examples include the [[Danse Macabre (Saint-Saëns)\|Danse Macabre]] by [[Camille Saint-Saëns]] (1874) and the [[Totentanz (Liszt)\|Totentanz]] by [[Franz Liszt]] (1849), a set of variations based on the [[plainchant]] melody ''[[Dies Irae]]''. ==Films== A particularly sarcastic ''Danse Macabre'' fashion show appears in [[Roma (Fellini)\|Roma]] by [[Federico Fellini]]. The final shots of the film ''[[The Seventh Seal]]'' by [[Ingmar Bergman]] depict a kind of ''Danse Macabre''. ==See also== [[Ars moriendi]] * [[Memento mori]] * [[Vanitas]] * [[Macabre]] ==References== * James M. Clark. ''The Dance of Death in the Middle Ages and Renaissance'', 1950. * Israil Bercovici. ''O sut&#259; de ani de teatru evriesc în România'' ("One hundred years of Yiddish/Jewish theater in Romania"), 2nd Romanian-language edition, revised and augmented by Constantin M&#259;ciuc&#259;. Editura Integral (an imprint of Editurile Universala), Bucharest (1998). ISBN 9739827225. * André Corvisier. ''Les danses macabres'', Presses Universitaires de France, 1998. ISBN 2130494951. ==External links== * [http://fantastic.library.cornell.edu/dance.php A collection of historical images of the Danse Macabre] at Cornell's ''The Fantastic in Art and Fiction'' [[Category:Art genres]] [[Category:Dance in arts]] [[Category:Death customs]] [[Category:Caricature\|Dance of Death]] [[da:Døden fra Lübeck]] [[de:Totentanz]] [[fr:Danse macabre (christianisme)]] [[it:Danza macabra]] [[nl:Dodendans]] [[ja:死の舞踏 (美術)]] [[pl:Taniec śmierci]] [[pt:Danse Macabre]] [[fi:Kuolemantanssi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>David Abercromby</title> <id>8885</id> <revision> <id>21014897</id> <timestamp>2005-08-14T20:11:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mddake</username> <id>341616</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>removed Jesuits category --he was not a Jesuit</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''David Abercromby''' was an obscure 17th-century [[Scotland\|Scottish]] physician and writer. His medical reputation was based on his ''Tuta ac efficax luis venereae saepe absque mercurio ac semper absque salivatione mercuriali curando methodus'' ([[1684]]) which was translated into [[French language\|French]], [[Dutch language\|Dutch]] and [[German language\|German]]. Two other works by him were ''De Pulsus Variatione'' ([[1685]]), and ''Ars explorandi medicas facultates plantarum ex solo sapore'' ([[1688]]); His ''Opuscula'' were collected in [[1687]]. These professional writings gave him a place and memorial in A. von Haller's ''Bibliotheca Medicinae Pract.'' ([[1779]]). He also wrote some books in [[theology]] and [[philosophy]], controversial in their time but little remembered today. Brought up at [[Douai]] as a [[Roman Catholic Church\|Roman Catholic]] by [[Society of Jesus\|Jesuit]] priests, he was converted to [[Protestantism]] in 1682 and came to abjure [[popery]], and published ''Protestancy proved Safer than Popery'' ([[1686]]). But the most noticeable of his productions is ''A Discourse of Wit'' ([[1685]]), which contains some of the most characteristic metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy of common sense. It was followed by ''Academia Scientiarum'' ([[1687]]), and by ''A Moral Discourse of the Power of Interest'' ([[1690]]), dedicated to [[Robert Boyle]], Abercromby's patron in the 1680s. He later wrote ''Reasons Why A Protestant Should not Turn Papist'' ([[1687]]), which has often wrongly been attributed to Boyle. ''A Short Account of Scots Divines'', by him, was printed at [[Edinburgh]] in [[1833]], edited by James Maidment. The exact date of his death is unknown, but according to Haller he was alive early in the [[18th century]], possibly dying in 1702. {{Wikisource1911Enc\|Abercromby, David}} == Further reading == *Edward Davis, "The Anonymous Works of Robert Boyl
t; (BL). An example of this style is ''[[Gravitation (manga)\|Gravitation]]''. Some anime titles are written for a very specific audience, even narrower than those described above. For example, ''[[Initial D]]'' and ''[[EX-Driver\|éX-Driver]]'' concern [[street racing]] and car tuning. ''[[Ashita No Joe]]'' is about [[boxing]]. ''[[Hanaukyo Maid Team]]'' is based on the [[French maid]] fantasy. Recently, the ''National Child Exploitation Coordination Centre of Canada'' has incorrectly classified all anime as [[hentai]], giving an improper impression of the content of most anime and manga series. This occurred despite having linked to this Wikipedia page in order to establish a definition of terms. The site can be viewed at the following link: [http://ncecc.ca/fact_sheets/anime_e.htm]. Complaints about the article's content and improper citations caused the NCECC to revise the citations but not the content. ===Music=== Much like western live-action cinema, anime uses music as an important artistic tool. Anime soundtracks are big business in Japan, and are often times met with similar demand as [[chart-topper\|chart topping]] pop albums. It is for this reason that anime music is often composed and performed by 'A-list' musicians, stars, and composers. Skilled BGM composers are highly respected in the anime fan community. Anime series with opening credits use the opening theme song as a quick introduction to the show. The most frequent use of music in Anime is ''background music'' or ''BGM''. BGM is used to set the tone of a given scene, for example ''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]'' 's "Decisive Battle" is played when the characters are making battle preparations and it features heavy drum beats and a militaristic style which highlights the tension of the scene and hints at the action to follow. The theme song (also referred to as the Opening song or abbreviated as OP) usually matches the overall tone of the show, and serves to get the viewer excited about the upcoming program. Insert songs and ending songs (abbr. ED) often make commentary about the plot or the program as a whole, and are often times used to highlight a particularly important scene. Opening and ending themes, as well as insert songs, are frequently performed by popular musicians or Japanese [[japanese idol\|idols]], so in this way, songs become a very important component of an anime program. In addition to the themes, the seiyū for a specific anime also frequently releases CD for their character, called Image Albums. Despite the word "image" in the CD's name, it only contains music and/or "voice messages" (where the seiyū talks with the audience or about herself), making the listener think that the character him/herself is singing. Another type of Anime CDs release are Drama CD, featuring songs and tracks which makes use of the seiyū to tell a story, often not included in the main anime. ==Animation style== [[Image:Lum-Uresei-Yatsura.png\|thumb\|250px\|right\|Lum from ''[[Urusei Yatsura]]'', an iconic anime character.]] The drawing style used in anime is counter productive to the animation process, having far too many details and subsequently making it difficult to keep the number of drawings comparable to other cartoons with design ethics that stress simplicity. This may be due to a philosophy of applying more effort into each of a few drawings than less effort into one of many. [[Osamu Tezuka]] adapted and simplified many [[Walt Disney Pictures\|Disney]] animation precepts to reduce the budget costs and number of frames in the production, though it should be noted that Disney films made in the west are not anime. This was intended to be a temporary measure to allow him to produce one episode every week with an inexperienced animation staff. Anime studios have since perfected techniques to draw as little new animation as possible, using scrolling or repeating backgrounds, still shots of characters sliding across the screen, and dialogue which involves only animating mouths while the rest of the screen remains absolutely still, a technique not wholly unfamiliar to Western animation. The overall effect of these techniques, such as reduced [[frame rate]], several still shots and scrolling backgrounds, has led some critics to accuse anime of choppiness or poor quality in general. ''(See also [[limited animation]].)'' There are often scenes where the frame rate of the animation far exceeds the quality of the rest of the production. These are commonly referred to as "money shots" outside of Japan, where more effort is put into the animation of one scene to give it emphasis over the rest of the work. Animator [[Yasuo Otsuka]] was the pioneer of this technique. Exceptions to these rules are early classic films, such as those produced by [[Toei Animation]] up until the mid 1960s, and recent big budget films, such as those produced by the enormously successful [[Studio Ghibli]]. These movies have much higher production values, due to their anticipated success at the box office. Some animators in Japan overcome production values by utilizing different techniques than the Disney or the old Tezuka/Otsuka methods of animating anime. Directors such as [[Hiroyuki Imaishi]] (''[[Cutey Honey]]'', ''[[Dead Leaves]]'') simplify backgrounds so that more attention can be paid to character animation. Other animators like Tatsuyuki Tanaka (in [[Koji Minamoto]]'s ''Eternal Family'' in particular) use [[squash and stretch]], an animation technique not often used by Japanese animators; Tanaka makes other shortcuts to compensate for this. Some higher-budgeted television and OVA ([[Original Video Animation]]) series also forego the shortcuts found in most other anime. While different titles and different artists have their own unique artistic styles, many stylistic elements have become extremely common. Some examples have become so common that they are often described as being definitive of anime in general, and have been given names of their own. The most common is the large eyes style drawn on many anime characters, common mainly due to the influence of [[Osamu Tezuka]], who was inspired by the exaggerated features of Western cartoon characters such as [[Betty Boop]] and [[Mickey Mouse]] and from Disney's ''[[Bambi]]''. Tezuka found that large eyes allowed his characters to better express their emotions. Some Western audiences have interpreted such stylized eyes as more Caucasian. Cultural anthropologist [[Matt Thorn]] argues that Japanese animators and audiences do not perceive them as inherently more or less foreign. {{ref\|refbot.15}} When Tezuka began drawing ''[[Princess Knight\|Ribbon no Kishi]]'', the first manga specifically targeted at young girls, Tezuka further exaggerated the size of the characters' eyes. Indeed, through ''Ribbon no Kishi'', Tezuka set a stylistic template that later ''shōjo'' artists tended to follow. Another variation of this style is "[[chibi]]" or "[[super deformed]]"; which usually feature huge eyes, an enlarged head, and small body. Other stylistic elements are common as well; often in comedic anime, characters that are shocked or surprised will perform a "face fault", in which they display an extremely exaggerated expression. Angry characters may exhibit a "vein" or "stressmark" effect, where lines representing bulging veins will appear on their forehead. Angry women will sometimes summon a mallet from nowhere and strike someone with it, leading to the concept of [[Hammerspace]]. Male characters will develop a [[bloody nose]] around their female love interests (typically to indicate arousal) -- this is supposedly due to blood rushing to the face in an exaggerated blush. Embarrassed characters will invariably produce a massive [[sweat-drop]], which has become something of a stereotype of anime. The degree of stylization varies from title to title. Some titles make extensive use of common stylization: ''[[FLCL]]'', for example, is known for its wild, exaggerated, stylization. In contrast, titles such as ''[[Only Yesterday]]'', a film by [[Isao Takahata]], take a much more realistic approach, and feature no stylistic exaggerations. Another unique aspect of anime not found in other commercial animation markets is the lack of a directoral system. In most animation produced around the world animators are all forced to conform to a set style by the director or animation director. In Japan starting with the animation director [[Yoshinori Kanada]] (as a means to save time and money) each animator brings his/her own style to the work. The most extreme examples of this can be found in ''[[Mindgame]]'' or ''[[The Hakkenden]]''. ''The Hakkenden'' is particularly extreme, showing constantly shifting styles of animation based upon the key animator that worked on that particular episode. This approach combined with Otsuka's "money shots" make key animators important individuals in the style and production of an anime film. Many non-Japanese cartoons are starting to incorporate mainstream anime shortcuts and symbols to appeal to anime's tremendously growing fanbase and cut costs. ==Production types of anime== Most anime can be categorized as one of three types: *'''Films''', which are generally released in theaters, represent the highest budgets and generally the highest video quality. Popular anime movies include ''[[Akira (film)\|Akira]],'' ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'', and ''[[Spirited Away]]''. Some anime [[film]]s are only released at film or animation festivals and are shorter and sometimes lower in production values. Some examples of these are ''[[Winter Days]]'', and [[Osamu Tezuka]]'s ''[[Legend of the Forest]]''. Other types of films include [[compilation movie]]s, which are television episodes edited together and presented in theaters for various reasons, and are hence a concentrated form of a television [[serial]]. These may, however
[[Americas]]. == Manufacturing == Hash is made from [[tetrahydrocannabinol]]-rich glandular hairs known as trichomes, as well as varying amounts of ''Cannabis'' flower and leaf fragments. The resin reservoirs of the trichomes (erroneously known as "pollen") are separated from the plant via various [[sieving]] methods, [[cold-water separation]]s, or [[chemical extraction]]. The resulting concentrate is compressed into blocks of hashish, which are easily stored and transported without degrading the THC content due to oxidation. Pieces are then broken off, warmed up and smoked in [[bong\|bongs]], pipes, or mixed with tobacco to make joints and smoked in [[hookah]]s or Sibsi (Sebse) pipes. As [[tetrahydrocannabinol\|THC]] is fat-soluble, it is also possible to dissolve hashish in butter and use it for cooking (see [[Hash cookie]]s and [[Alice B. Toklas brownie]]s). [[North Africa]], in particular Morocco, and Central Asia ([[Afghanistan]]) are the primary sources of hashish, although the science of hash extraction and the rapid dissemination of this knowledge means that more people are making hashish for personal use, using readily available materials or custom-built devices such as Lungs. In Morocco, approximately 800,000 of the country's 32 million people are involved in [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation\|cannabis cultivation]]. Its market is comprised almost entirely of Europe, [[Algeria]] and [[Tunisia]], with only a small fraction seeming to reach the [[U.S.]]. {{ref\|Morocco}} About 80% of the hashish seized in France every year comes from Morocco. [[Charas]], a substance which is hand-rubbed directly from the ''Cannabis'' plant, is generally produced in [[Nepal]] and [[India]]. Users report that charas generally produces a more trippy, "up" high due to the plants being mostly ''sativa''. Blonde hash or "gardah," often from Morocco, Afghanistan, Pakistan and the Netherlands, tends to produce both cerebral and narcotic highs, depending on the strain grown. There is also hashish of greenish or reddish hue. A green tinge may indicate that the hashish is a [[soap bar]], which has been cut with low-quality leaf or contains high quantities of chlorophyll, which create a harsher smoke. High-quality hashish is often sifted through a fine screen, allowing the trichomes to separate. In Morocco, Afghanistan and the [[NWFP]] area of Pakistan, most hash is sifted, but in Afghanistan there is a method of making hash which resembles charas. First, ''Cannabis'' resin is placed on a large heated mortar, then the resin is threshed with a heavy object. The result is a very gooey, sticky black hash. This method is mostly used in villages around the Hindu Kush mountain region. == Availability and quality == [[Image:Hashish-shop-Kathmandu-1973.jpg\|thumb\|Then still-legal hashish shop in [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]] in [[1973]].]] Hashish is widely available in [[Europe]], as opposed to marijuana which is on the whole more sparsely available, although recent reports suggest a rapidly expanding 'home-grown' supply chain. Reasons for this include the fact that hashish is much more compact and thus easier to smuggle than marijuana, and also that countries exporting to Europe have a long tradition of making hashish for storage, quality and export. The market expansion for marijuana in Europe is also happening because dealers in certain countries offer extremely adulterated hash (or soap bars) almost exclusively. Marijuana is more difficult to adulterate, although some dealers attempt to modify it as well, usually with less success than with the soap bar. In a worst-case scenario, some young European consumers have become so accustomed to soap bar hashish that they erroneously believe it is the only quality available. Hash is widely available in central and southern Asia. As in Europe, marijuana use is sparse in these regions. The primary hash-producing countries are Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal and India. Charas and gardah are the primary products. Much of the hash available is high quality, although some adulterated product is available, easily identifiable by its extremely low prices. In Afghanistan and Pakistan one can get 15 grams of gardah (sifted, pressed resin) for around $10. In India and Nepal one can get 15 grams of hash (mainly charas) for around $20. Blocks of 100, 125, 200 and 250 [[gram]]s of hash are common. Unscrupulous hashish dealers sometimes repowder the hashish, mix it with foreign materials such as soap or boot wax, and re-press the mixture into a hashish block, which is sold as if it were the pure product. This is sometimes known as [[soap bar]], due to the fact that it is packaged in 250-gram blocks that resemble the shape of a bar of soap. It is not only an act of consumer fraud, but also endangers the user's health when plastic or other doubtful agents are used. Sometimes low-quality marijuana leaf is used to dilute the hashish in a more natural way in the countries of origin, producing a low-quality hash that is still natural and does not contain any chemicals. Other suspected dilutants include [[camel]] [[dung]] and [[sand]]. Rumors of hashish being mixed or laced with potent and dangerous intoxicants such as [[opiates]] and [[Phencyclidine\|PCP]] are quite common, but cannot be verified. Opiates and PCP are generally more expensive than the hashish with which they are supposedly mixed. Pure, properly stored hashish of premium quality is soft and can be molded by the heat of the fingers alone. Old, improperly stored hashish of poor quality is rock-hard and brittle, and has to be heated substantially before it is soft enough for use (although some hashish of considerable potency, usually Moroccan, may also be found in hard form). Most hashish falls in between these two extremes, and the tactile qualities also vary according to the methods used in extraction and pressing. The only reliable methods of testing the quality of hashish are through [[Chemistry\|chemical]] testing or consumption. Hashish use is experiencing a resurgence in parts of [[North America]] (especially the [[Pacific Northwest]]) with the rise in popularity of a particularly pure and potent variety of hashish known as [[bubble hash]]. ==Preparation & Methods of Ingestion== ==='Hard' Hash=== This hash is usually between dark and light brown in colour, often crumbled into tiny pieces to obtain maximum surface area when burning. Once crumbled, it is often mixed with tobacco (although a tobacco alternative such as certain types of herbs may also be used). This mix can be rolled up into a cigarette with rolling papers (what is known as a 'joint' or 'spliff') and smoked like a normal cigarette. In Europe and North Africa many users break off a 1-2 cm piece of cigarette and use this as a 'filter'. In France and the French-speaking parts of Switzerland, this is known as rolling 'Maroc' ('Maroc' meaning 'Morocco' in French). In [[Spain]] it is called a 'Mora.' In the United Kingdom, it is variously known as 'draw,' 'hash,' 'rezzin' and 'block.' If the hash is not crumbled fine enough or is of a low quality, small still-burning chunks of hashish may fall out of the lit end of the cigarette as it is being smoked. These can suddenly fall onto clothing, carpets, etc., immediately burning a hole. These are known sometimes as 'hot rocks,' 'hash rocks' or 'meteorites.' This is especially true of the hard, low-quality hash known as 'soap bar' which does not burn as easily or consistently, and is often prone to fall out of the end of the cigarette while still burning rather than simply burning along with the tobacco. ==='Soft' Hash=== This is usually very dark brown to black in colour and goes under the name ''black'' in France, ''squidey black'' (named due to the colour and properties of the hash) in the UK, or ''pakis'' in Spain (meaning it originates from Pakistan). As this hash is softer, it can be rolled out into a long, thin ''spaghetti'' less than 1mm thick in diameter, with the heat of the fingers sufficient to soften the hash up enough to make it more pliable. This long, especially thin column of hash can be rolled up in a joint placed on a bed of tobacco or cannabis, burning along with the tobacco as the user inhales. The hash must be very thin to expose a maximum surface area, if not the tobacco will burn faster and the column of hash will remain sticking out the end of your joint, as the centre is left unburnt. Alternatively, a North African technique called ''darbouz'' in Arabic can be used to ingest the ''spaghetti'' without having to roll it in a joint. One places a drinking cup on the table, sticks the prepared ''spaghetti'' of hash perpendicular into the side of a cigarette (not-burning), and jams the cigarette horizontally into the cup so that the hash hangs down inside the cup without touching the bottom or sides. The hash is then lit up and allowed to slowly burn almost like an incense stick whilst the top of the cup is covered with a piece of card, a CD cover or the like to trap the smoke. As the hash burns it slowly fills the cup with smoke which the user can then inhale by moving the cardboard cover slightly to make a little gap for their mouth. This method completely does away with any need for smoking any tobacco or rolling papers, which have no beneficial effect on the hashish and, just the opposite, add carcinogens, additives, flavourings to the smoke. Another method of smoking hashish, found in Canada and also in Russia, is in the form of ''bottle tokes''. In Canada, this process is often referred to as ''Brewing Hash.'' The user warms the hash in their hands or with a lighter and break small chunks off of the main piece. These smaller pieces are then picked up using the lit end of a cigarette and placed inside of a bottle with a small hole in the side of it. This effectively creates a mini grill in which the ''toke'' is roasted. The higher quality of the hash you are smoking means th
f the German bureaucracy with little or no involvement on the part of Hitler. Functionalists stress that the Nazi anti-Semitic policy was constantly evolving in ever more radical directions and the end product was the Holocaust. Intentionalists like [[Lucy Dawidowicz]] argue that the Holocaust was planned by Hitler from the very beginning of his political career, at very least from 1919 on, if not earlier. Later Dawidowicz was to date the decision for genocide back to [[November 11]], [[1918]]. Other Intentionalists like [[Andreas Hillgruber]], [[Karl Dietrich Bracher]] and [[Klaus Hildebrand]] suggested that Hitler had decided upon the Holocaust sometime in the early 1920s. More recent intentionalist historians like [[Eberhard Jäckel]] continue to emphasize the relative earliness of the decision to kill the Jews, although they are not willing to claim that Hitler planned the Holocaust from the beginning. Yet another group of intentionalist historians such as the American [[Arno J. Mayer]] claimed Hitler only ordered the Holocaust in December 1941. Functionalists like [[Hans Mommsen]], [[Martin Broszat]], [[Götz Aly]], [[Raul Hilberg]] and [[Christopher Browning]] hold that the Holocaust was started in 1941-1942 as a result of the failure of the Nazi deportation policy and the impending military losses in [[Russia]]. They claim that what some see as extermination fantasies outlined in Hitler's ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' and other Nazi literature were mere [[propaganda]] and did not constitute concrete plans. In ''Mein Kampf'' Hitler repeatly states his inexorable hatred of the Jewish people, but no-where does he proclaim his intention to exterminate the Jewish people. Furthermore, Functionalists point to the fact that in the 1930s, Nazi policy aimed at trying to make life so unpleasant for German Jews that they would leave Germany. [[Adolf Eichmann]] was in charge of faciliating Jewish emigration by whatever means possible from 1937 on, until October 3, 1941 were German Jews forbidden to leave, when [[Reinhard Heydrich]] issued a order to that effect. Functionalists point to the [[SS]]'s support for a time in the late 1930s for [[Zionism\|Zionist]] groups as the preferred solution to the "Jewish Question" as another sign that there was no masterplan for genocide. The SS only ceased their support for German Zionist groups in May 1939 when [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] informed Hitler of this, and Hitler ordered Himmler to cease and desist as the creation of Israel was not a goal Hitler thought worthy of German foreign policy. In particular, Functionalists have noted that in German documents from 1939 to 1941, the term "Final Solution to the Jewish Question" was clearly meant to be a "territorial solution", that is the entire Jewish population was to be expelled somewhere far from Germany and not allowed to come back. At first, the SS planned to create a gigantic "Jewish Reservation" in the [[Lublin]], [[Poland]] area, but the so-called "Lublin Plan" was vetoed by [[Hans Frank]], the Governor-General of Poland who refused to allow the SS to ship any more Jews to the Lublin area after November, 1939. The reason why Frank vetoed the "Lublin Plan" was not due to any humane motives, but rather because he was opposed to the SS "dumping" Jews into the Government-General. In 1940, the SS and the German Foreign Office had the so-called "[[Madagascar Plan]]" to deport the entire Jewish population of Europe to a "reservation" on [[Madagascar]]. The "Madagascar Plan" was cancelled because Germany could not defeat Britain and until the British [[blockade]] was broken, the "Madagascar Plan" could not be put into effect. Finally, Functionalist historians have made much of a memorandum written by Himmler in May, 1940 explicitly rejecting extermination of the entire Jewish people as "un-German" and going on to recommend to Hitler the "Madagascar Plan" as the preferred "territorial solution" to the "Jewish Question". Not until July 1941 did the term "Final Solution to the Jewish Question" come to mean extermination. Recently, a synthesis of the two schools has emerged that has been championed by such diverse historians such as the Canadian historian [[Michael Marrus]], the Israeli historian [[Yehuda Bauer]] and the British historian [[Ian Kershaw]] that contends that Hitler was the driving force behind the Holocaust, but that he did not have a long-term plan and that much of the initiative for the Holocaust came from below in an effort to meet Hitler's perceived wishes. Another controversy was started by the sociologist [[Daniel Goldhagen]], who argues that ordinary Germans were knowing and willing participants in the Holocaust, which he claims had its roots in a deep eliminationist German [[anti-Semitism]]. Most other historians have disagreed with Goldhagen's thesis, arguing that while anti-Semitism undeniably existed in Germany, Goldhagen's idea of a uniquely German "eliminationist" anti-Semitism is untenable, and that the extermination was unknown to many and had to be enforced by the dictatorial Nazi apparatus. === Revisionists and deniers === {{main\|Holocaust denial}} [[Holocaust denial]], also called ''Holocaust revisionism'', is the belief that the Holocaust did not occur, or, more specifically: that far fewer than around six million Jews were killed by the Nazis (numbers below one million, most often around 300,000 are typically cited); that there never was a centrally-planned Nazi attempt to exterminate the Jews; and/or that there were not mass killings at the extermination camps. Those who hold this position often further claim that Jews and/or [[Zionist]]s know that the Holocaust never occurred, yet that they are engaged in a massive conspiracy to maintain the illusion of a Holocaust to further their political agenda. As the Holocaust is generally considered by historians to be one of the best documented events in recent history, these views are not accepted as credible by scholars, with organizations such as the [[American Historical Association]], the largest society of historians in the United States, stating that Holocaust denial is "at best, a form of academic fraud."{{ref\|documented}}. Holocaust ''deniers'' almost always prefer to be called Holocaust ''revisionists''. Most scholars contend that the latter term is misleading. [[Historical revisionism]] is a well-accepted and mainstream part of the study of [[history]]; it is the reexamination of accepted history, with an eye towards updating it with newly discovered, more accurate, and/or less biased information, or viewing known information from a new perspective. In contrast, Holocaust deniers typically willfully misuse or ignore historical records in order to attempt to prove their conclusions, as [[Gordon McFee]] writes: :'' 'Revisionists' depart from the conclusion that the Holocaust did not occur and work backwards through the facts to adapt them to that preordained conclusion. Put another way, they reverse the proper methodology [...], thus turning the proper historical method of investigation and analysis on its head.'' {{ref\|Gord}} [[Public Opinion Quarterly]] summarized that: "No reputable historian questions the reality of the Holocaust, and those promoting Holocaust denial are overwhelmingly anti-Semites and/or neo-Nazis,". Holocaust denial has also become popular in recent years among [[Islamic fundamentalists]]: in late 2005 [[Iranian]] president [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] denounced the Holocaust of European Jewry as a "myth". [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4527142.stm]{{ref\|Public}} Public espousal of Holocaust denial is a crime in ten European countries (including [[France]], [[Poland]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], [[Belgium]], [[Romania]], and [[Germany]]). == Aftermath == {{main\|Sh'erit ha-Pletah}} ===Displaced Persons and the State of Israel=== The Holocaust and its aftermath left millions of refugees, including many Jews who had lost most or all of their family members and possessions, and often faced persistent anti-Semitism in their home countries. The original plan of the Allies was to repatriate these "Displaced Persons" to their country of origin, but many refused to return, or were unable to as their homes or communities had been destroyed. As a result, more than 250,000 languished in [[DP Camp\|DP camps]] for years after the war ended. [[Image:Brihah.gif\|right\|thumb\|250px\|Jews were smuggled into Palestine by [[Berihah]] using a number of routes.]] While [[Zionism]] had been prominent before the Holocaust, afterwards it became almost universally accepted among Jews. Many Zionists, pointing to the fact that Jewish refugees from Germany and Nazi-occupied lands had been turned away by other countries, argued that if a Jewish state had existed at the time, the Holocaust could not have occurred on the scale it did. With the rise of Zionism, [[British Mandate of Palestine\|Palestine]] became the destination of choice for Jewish refugees, but local Arabs opposed the immigration, Britain refused to allow Jewish refugees into the Mandate, and many countries in the Soviet Bloc made any emigration illegal. Former Jewish partisans in Europe, along with the [[Haganah]] in Palestine, organized a massive effort to smuggle Jews into Palestine, called [[Berihah]], which eventually transported 250,000 Jews (both DPs and those who hid during the war) to the Mandate. By 1952, the Displaced Persons camps were closed, with over 80,000 Jewish DPs in the United States, about 136,000 in Israel, and another 20,000 in other nations, including Canada and South Africa. ===Legal proceedings against Nazis=== [[Image:NurembergTrials.jpg\|left\|thumbnail\|150px\|Defendants at the [[Nuremberg Trials]] - Front row: Göring, Heß, von Ribbentrop, and K
sia''' (from [[Ancient Greek\|Greek]]: ''ευθανασία'' - ''ευ'' "good", ''θανατος'' "[[death]]") refers to assisted dying. The assistance ends the life of a person or an animal in a painless or minimally painful way. Euthanasia is most often performed in a merciful way, in order to end suffering. For non-human mercy killings see [[animal euthanasia]]. == The terminology and its implications == Euthanasia as a topic is often highly-charged&mdash;emotionally, politically, and morally. Terminology and laws shift over time, geographically and globally, causing a great deal of confusion. In politically and emotionally loaded terms, this is frequently and incorrectly referred to as physician-assisted [[suicide]]. There is some debate as to whether euthanasia refers to "letting die" or "allowing to die." In the United States and the Netherlands, "letting die" or "allowing to die" refer to areas which the state consider ethically and legally acceptable and permissible. This includes the withholding and withdrawing of medical treatment such as dialysis, feeding tubes or hydration and nutrition when they no longer prolong the life of the dying person. Sometimes, as a body's major organ systems shut down, a dying person may feel most comfortable without any fluids or food. To provide fluids and nutrition in this situation is like "force feeding" a body that does not "want" or need to be fed or hydrated, and doing so may actually cause physical discomfort and suffering. This is a different situation than when the person is not dying, and whose body can absorb nutrition and fluids. In most other countries removing or denying treatment is usually seen as murder. In a growing number of law cases over the last 20 years, the jury has usually sided with the defendant. Following are several summary statements defining what euthanasia can include. These are followed by expanded definitions of each. Euthanasia (assisted dying) may employ methods that are either indirect or direct. Indirect methods of euthanasia are defined by an individual him or herself taking the final step inducing death. Direct methods are defined by the involvement of others (clinicians) who take the final step inducing death. Direct euthanasia can either be voluntary, nonvoluntary or involuntary. (See [[Karl Binding]] and [[Alfred Hoche]] for one of the first uses of the three types of euthanasia.) '''Indirect''' euthanasia means the involvement of a clinician (e.g. physician, clinical nurse practitioner, pharmacist) as an agent who participates only by providing treatment for symptoms (for example pain) with a known side effect being an early death. This is different from physician assisted suicide whereas a doctor purposefully provides the means to a patient in the form of drugs and delivery mechanisms to kill him/herself. This could mean writing or filling a prescription for medications in a quantity large enough to cause death when taken by the patient. This kind of assistance is currently legal in the [[United States\|American state]] of [[Oregon]]. It became legal in 1998 as a result of the "Death with Dignity Act" which was passed in the state in 1994. '''Direct''' euthanasia means the involvement of a clinician as agent in inducing a patient’s death. (e.g. administering a lethal drug by injection.) Direct euthanasia is not currently legal anywhere in the US, but both direct and indirect euthanasia are legal in Belgium and the Netherlands. This may be due to the patient being incapable of committing suicide without help, possibly due to their illness. '''Voluntary''' euthanasia occurs ''with'' the fully-informed request of a decisionally-competent adult patient or that of their surrogate (proxy). (Example: Thomas Youk, with [[ALS]] was assisted by [[Jack Kevorkian]].) '''Nonvoluntary''' euthanasia occurs ''without'' the fully-informed consent and fully-informed request of a decisionally-competent adult patient or that of their surrogate (proxy). An example of this might be if a patient has decisional capacity but is not told they will be euthanized; or, if a patient is not conscious or lacks decisional-capacity and their surrogate is not told the patient will be euthanized. '''Involuntary''' euthanasia occurs ''over the objection'' of a patient or their surrogate (proxy). An example of this might be if a patient with decisional capacity (or their surrogate) is told what will happen. The patient (or surrogate) refuses yet the patient is euthanized anyway. [[Terminal sedation]] is a combination of medically inducing a deep sleep and stopping other treatment, with the exception of medication for symptom control (such as [[analgesia]]). It is considered to be euthanasia by some, but under current law and medical practice it is considered a form of [[palliative care]]. In [[Nazi Germany]] the term "euthanasia" (''[[:de:Euthanasie\|Euthanasie]]'') referred to the systematic killing of disabled children and adults under the [[T-4 Euthanasia Program]]. This program was cancelled (at least officially) after public disapproval was expressed. This has tainted the word especially in [[German language\|German-speaking]] countries; especially as one of the main advocates of euthanasia in Germany after World War II, was [[Werner Catel]], a leading Nazi doctor directly involved in T4. The alternate term is the older [[Sterbehilfe]], which means "help the dying to die smoothly". This meaning of the term "Sterbehilfe" is used within today's discussions in German newspapers and in other public forums like the TV, radio and the Internet. ===Oregon (United States) === Oregon Law, passed by voters in 1994 and reaffirmed by voters in 1997, states an individual must meet the following criteria: 1) 18 years of age or older, unless consent is given by a parent for children under the age of 18 2) a resident of Oregon, 3) informed consent must be given; the patient must be mentally capable of making the consent 4) diagnosed with a terminal illness that will lead to death within six months and is not basing his or her decision to die on depression or another mental disorder. Two physicians assist in verification. Also, it is required by law that this must be verified by two physicians, as well as by two witnesses. ====Statistics and methods==== In [[2003]], in Oregon 42 cases of physician assisted dying were reported (0.14% of all deaths), all by drinking a strong [[barbiturate]] [[potion]], usually 9g of [[Pentobarbital]]. The doctor is not required to be present; in 12 cases he/she was. Since 1998, 171 Oregonians have relied on the "Death with Dignity" law. There were three cases of [[regurgitation]]. In each case at least one third of the potion was retained, which caused death anyway, though in one case only after 48 hours. The time from ingestion to unconsciousness was 1 to 20 minutes ([[average]] 4 minutes), the time from ingestion to death 5 minutes to 48 hours (average 20 minutes). == Attitudes on Euthanasia in the United States == In the last 20 years, some states have faced voter ballot initiatives and legislation bills attempting to legalize euthanasia and assisted suicide. Some examples include: Washington voters saw Ballot Initiative 119 in 1991, California placed Proposition 161 on the ballot in 1992, and Michigan included Proposal B in their ballot in 1998. Public opinion concerning this issue has become an increasingly important because widespread support could very well facilitate the legalization of these policies in other states, such as in Oregon. While many people are aware of the ongoing debates concerning the issue of euthanasia and assisted suicide, it has been unclear where the public opinion stands in the United States. A recent Gallup Poll survey did show that 75% of Americans supported euthanasia, however further research has shown that there are significant differences in levels of support for euthanasia across distinct social groups. Recently, these attitudes have been receiving more attention since they not only could influence the legislation on this topic, but how patients are cared for in the future. === Religion === Some of the differences in public attitudes towards the right to die debate stem from the diversity of religion in this country. The United States contains a wide array of religious views, and these views seem to correlate with whether euthanasia was supported. Using the results from past General Social Surveys performed, some patterns can be found. Respondents that did not affiliate with a religion were found to support euthanasia more than those who did. Of the religious groups that were studied, which were mostly Christian in this particular study, conservative [[Protestants]] (including [[Southern Baptists]], [[Pentecostals]], and [[Evangelicals]]) were more opposed to euthanasia than non-affiliates and the other religious groups. Moderate Protestants (including [[Lutherans]] and [[Methodists]]) and Catholics showed mixed views concerning end of life decisions in general. Both of these groups showed less support than non-affiliates, but were less opposed to it than conservative Protestants. Moderate Protestants are less likely to take a literal interpretation to Bible than their conservative counterparts, and some leaderships tend to take a less oppositional view on the issue. Despite the fact that the Catholic Church has come out in firm opposition to physician-assisted suicide, they share the nearly same level of support as moderate Protestants. The liberal Protestants (including some [[Presbyterians]] and [[Episcopalians]]) were the most supportive of the groups. In general, they had looser affiliations with religious institutions and their views were similar to those of non-affiliates. Within all these groups, religiosity (identifie
tement throughout the North was caused by the killing ([[May 24]], [[1861]]) of Colonel [[Elmer E. Ellsworth]] (1837-1861) by Captain James W. Jackson, a [[hotel]] proprietor, from whose building Ellsworth had removed a [[Confederate flag]]. After the establishment of the state of [[West Virginia]] in [[1863]], and until the close of the war, Alexandria was the seat of what was known as the "Alexandria Government." ==Geography== Alexandria is bounded on the east by the Potomac River, on the north and northwest by Arlington County, and on the south by [[Fairfax County, Virginia\|Fairfax County]]. The western portions of the city were annexed from those two entities beginning in the [[1930s]]. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 39.9 [[square kilometre\|km&sup2;]] (15.4 [[square mile\|mi&sup2;]]). 39.3 km&sup2; (15.2 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 0.6 km&sup2; (0.2 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 1.49% water. ===Areas in Alexandria=== ====Old Town==== [[Image:Old Town Alexandria.jpg\|thumb\|275px\|right\|Old Town Alexandria, viewed from the west, as seen from the observation deck of the [[George Washington Masonic National Memorial]]. [[King Street (Washington Metro)\|King Street Station]] is in the foreground, the [[Potomac River]] is in the background]] Old Town, in the eastern and southeastern areas of Alexandria and on the Potomac River, is the oldest section of the city, originally laid out in [[1749]], and is an historic district. Old Town is chiefly known for its historic (and expensive) town houses, its art galleries and antique shops, and its restaurants and nightlife, although it is in reality a diverse area that includes substantial public housing. Old Town is laid out on a [[grid plan]] of substantially square [[city block\|blocks]]. ====Del Ray==== The area to the northwest of Old Town, formerly in the separate town of [[Potomac, Virginia\|Potomac]], is popularly known as Del Ray, although that name properly belongs to one of many communities (including Hume, Mount Ida, and Saint Elmo) in that area. The housing stock is a mix of single-family houses, duplexes, townhouses, and apartment buildings. The community has a more [[hipster]] and [[Bohemianism\|boho]] flair than Old Town. While diverse, it has experienced substantial [[gentrification]] since redevelopment began in [[Potomac Yard]] in the mid-[[1990s]]. Del Ray is laid out in a grid plan independent of that of Old Town, with long, narrow blocks. ====West End==== Alexandria's West End includes areas annexed in the [[1950s]]. It is the most typically suburban part of Alexandria, with a [[street hierarchy]] of winding roads and [[cul-de-sac\|culs-de-sac]]. The section of [[Virginia State Highway 236\|Duke Street]] in the West End is known for a high-density residential area known to locals as the "Condo Canyon" and for its concentration of both strip and enclosed [[shopping mall]]s. ===Addresses=== The [[address (geography)\|addressing system]] in Alexandria is not uniform and reflects the consolidation of several originally separate communities into a single city. In Old Town Alexandria, building numbers are assigned north and south from [[King Street, Alexandria, Virginia\|King Street]] and west (only) from the Potomac River. In the areas formerly in the Town of [[Potomac, Virginia\|Potomac]], such as Del Ray and St. Elmo, building numbers are assigned east and west from Commonwealth Avenue and north (only) from King Street. In the western parts of the city, building numbers are assigned north and south from [[Virginia State Highway 236\|Duke Street]]. The [[ZIP code]] prefix 223 uniquely identifies the Alexandria postal area. However, the Alexandria postal area extends well into [[Fairfax County, Virginia\|Fairfax County]] and includes more addresses outside of the city than inside of it. Delivery areas have ZIP codes 22301 through 22312, 22314, and 22315, with other ZIP codes in use for [[post office box]]es and large mailers. ZIP codes are not assigned in any particular geographic order. ==Demographics== The [[Census Bureau]] designates Alexandria as part of the [[Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area\|Washington-Baltimore, DC-MD-VA-WV Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (CMSA)]]. As of the [[census]]{{GR\|2}} of [[2000]], there are 128,283 people, 61,889 households, and 27,726 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 3,262.9/km&sup2; (8,452.0/mi&sup2;). There are 64,251 housing units at an average density of 1,634.2/km&sup2; (4,233.2/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 59.79% [[White (U.S. Census)\|White]], 22.54% [[African American]], 0.28% [[Native American (U.S. Census)\|Native American]], 5.65% [[Asian (U.S. Census)\|Asian]], 0.09% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\|Pacific Islander]], 7.38% from [[Race (U.S. Census)\|other races]], and 4.27% from two or more races. 14.72% of the population are [[Hispanic American\|Hispanic]] or [[Latino]] of any race. There are 61,889 households out of which 18.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.2% are [[Marriage\|married couples]] living together, 9.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 55.2% are non-families. 43.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 6.8% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.04 and the average family size is 2.87. In the city the population is spread out with 16.8% under the age of 18, 9.2% from 18 to 24, 43.5% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 9.0% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 34 years. For every 100 females there are 93.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 91.7 males. The median income for a household in the city is $56,054, and the median income for a family is $67,023. Males have a median income of $47,514 versus $41,254 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $37,645. 8.9% of the population and 6.8% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 13.9% of those under the age of 18 and 9.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. ==Notable people from Alexandria== [[Douglas Hyde]] Famous opera singer. ==Transportation== ===Roads=== Alexandria is bisected north and south by [[Virginia State Highway 7]], known in most of the city as the major thoroughfare of [[King Street, Alexandria, Virginia\|King Street]], and in its western portions as [[Leesburg Pike]]. [[Interstate Highway]] 95/495 (the [[Capital Beltway]]), including the [[Woodrow Wilson Bridge]] over the Potomac, approximately parallels the city's southern boundary with Fairfax County. [[Interstate 395 (District of Columbia-Virginia)\|Interstate 395]] crosses through the western part of the city. Other major routes include [[U.S. Highway 1]], named [[Jefferson Davis Highway]] and Patrick and Henry Streets (after [[Patrick Henry]]), the [[George Washington Memorial Parkway]], and Duke Street ([[Virginia State Highway 236]]). ===Airports=== Alexandria is located just south of [[Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport]] in [[Arlington County, Virginia\|Arlington County]]. As with other Washington suburbs, Alexandria is also served by [[Washington Dulles International Airport]] in [[Chantilly, Virginia]], and by [[Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport]] near [[Baltimore, Maryland\|Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]. ===Rail=== [[Union Station (Alexandria)\|Alexandria Union Station]], the city's historic [[train station]], is served by both [[Amtrak]] intercity and [[Virginia Railway Express]] [[regional rail]] service. The station is directly adjacent to the [[King Street (Washington Metro)\|King Street]] [[Washington Metro\|Metrorail]] station, at the convergence of the [[Blue Line (Washington Metro)\|Blue]] and [[Yellow Line (Washington Metro)\|Yellow Lines]]. Three other Metrorail stations lie within the city limits: [[Braddock Road (Washington Metro)\|Braddock Road]], [[Van Dorn Street (Washington Metro)\|Van Dorn Street]], and [[Eisenhower Avenue (Washington Metro)\|Eisenhower Avenue]]. The traditional boundary between Old Town and the latterly annexed sections of the city followed the [[railroad\|railway]] now owned by [[CSX Transportation]]. ===Buses=== The city government operates its own [[mass transit]] system, the DASH bus, connecting points of interest with local transit hubs. [[Metrobus (Washington, D.C.)\|Metrobus]] also serves Alexandria. ==Twinning== Alexandria maintains cultural, economic and educational ties with [[Dundee]], [[Scotland]]. ==Recreation== The city has a distributed [[park]] system with approximately 950 acres spread across 70 major parks and 30 [[recreation centers\|recreation center]] of which [[Chinquapin]] is one the largest, offering facilities for swimming, tennis, [[racquetball]] and other sports. The city also organizes several sports leagues throughout the year including volleyball, softball and basketball. Alexandria is also unusual in that [[Cameron Run Regional Park]] includes a water park with a [[wave pool]] and [[water slide\|water slides]], as well as a [[miniature golf]] course and [[batting cages\|batting cage]] -- facilities usually operated by private companies. A portion of the [[Mount Vernon Trail]], a popular bike path, runs through Old Town near the Potomac River. ==Education== The city is served by the [[Alexandria City Public Schools]] system and by the Alexandria campus of [[Northern Virginia Community College]]. [[Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University\|Virginia Tech]]'s Alexandria Architecture Center is located on Prince Street in Old Town, offering graduate programs in Urban Affairs and Planning, Public and International Affairs, as well as Architecture. ==References== {{1911}} ==External links== [http://ci.alexandria.va.us/ City of Alexandria] [http://www.funside
not optimal, insofar as the last time a program uses an object could be long before that object falls out of the environment scope. A distinction is sometimes drawn between ''syntactic garbage'', those objects the program cannot possibly reach, and ''semantic garbage'' , those objects the program will in fact never again use. The problem of precisely identifying semantic garbage can easily be shown to be [[Decision problem\|undecidable]]: a program that allocates an object ''X'', runs an arbitrary input program ''P'', and uses ''X'' if and only if ''P'' finishes would require a semantic garbage collector to solve the [[halting problem]]. Although conservative heuristic methods for semantic garbage detection remain an active research area, essentially all practical garbage collectors focus on syntactic garbage as described here. ===Basic algorithm=== Tracing garbage collectors use an [[algorithm]] in which they perform garbage collection cycles. A cycle is started when the collector decides (or is notified) that it needs to reclaim storage, which in particular happens when the system is low on memory. All tracing garbage collectors implement some variant of the ''tri-colour marking'' [[Abstraction (computer science)\|abstraction]], but simple collectors (such as the ''mark-and-sweep'' collector) often do not make this abstraction explicit. Tri-colour marking works as follows: # Create initial white, grey, and black sets; these sets will be used to maintain progress during the cycle. Initially the white set or ''condemned set'' is the set of objects that are candidates for having their memory recycled. The black set is the set of objects that cheaply can be proven to have no references to objects in the white set; in many implementations the black set starts off empty. The grey set is all the remaining objects that may or may not have references to objects in the white set (and elsewhere). These sets [[Partition#Computer_science\|partition]] memory; every object in the system, including the root set, is in precisely one set. # (This step is repeated until the grey set is empty.) Pick an object from the grey set. ''Blacken'' this object (move it to the black set), by ''greying'' all the white objects it references directly. # When there are no more objects in the grey set, then all the objects remaining in the white set are provably not reachable and the storage occupied by them can be reclaimed. The tri-colour marking algorithm preserves an important invariant: :No black object points directly to a white object. This ensures that the white objects can be safely destroyed once the grey set is empty. Some variations on the algorithm do not preserve the tricolour invariant but they use a modified form for which all the important properties hold. ===Implementation strategies=== In order to implement the basic tri-color algorithm, several important design decisions must be made, which can significantly affect the performance characteristics of the garbage collector. ====Moving vs. non-moving==== Once the unreachable set has been determined, the garbage collector may simply release the [[unreachable object]]s and leave everything else as it is, or it may copy some or all of the reachable objects into a new area of memory, updating all references to those objects as needed. These are called "non-moving" and "moving" garbage collectors, respectively. At first, a moving GC strategy may seem inefficient and costly compared to the non-moving approach, since much more work would appear to be required on each cycle. In fact, however, the moving GC strategy leads to several performance advantages, both during the garbage collection cycle itself and during actual program execution: * No additional work is required to reclaim the space freed by dead objects; the entire region of memory from which reachable objects were moved can be considered free space. In contrast, a non-moving GC must visit each unreachable object and somehow record that the memory it alone occupied is available. * Similarly, new objects can be allocated very quickly. Since large contiguous regions of memory are usually made available by the moving GC strategy, new objects can be allocated by simply incrementing a 'free memory' pointer. A non-moving strategy may, after some time, lead to a heavily fragmented heap, requiring expensive consultation of "free lists" of small available blocks of memory in order to allocate new objects. * If an appropriate traversal order is used, objects that refer to each other frequently can be moved very close to each other in memory, increasing the likelihood that they will be located in the same cache line or virtual memory page. This can significantly speed up access to these objects through these references. ====Copying vs. mark-and-sweep==== To further refine the distinction, tracing collectors can also be divided by considering how the three sets of objects (white, grey, and black) are maintained during a collection cycle. The most straightforward approach is the semi-space collector, which dates to 1969. In this moving GC scheme, memory is partitioned into a "from space" and "to space". Initially, objects are allocated into "to space", until it becomes full and a collection is triggered. At the start of a collection, the "to space" becomes the "from space", and vice versa. The objects reachable from the root set are copied from the "from space" to the "to space". These objects are scanned in turn, and all objects that they point to are copied to "to space", until all reachable objects have been copied to "to space". Once the program continues execution, new objects are once again allocated from the "to space" until it is once again full and the process is repeated. This approach has the advantage of conceptual simplicity (the three object color sets are implicitly constructed during the copying process), but the disadvantage that a (possibly) very large contiguous region of free memory is necessarily required on every collection cycle. A "mark and sweep" garbage collector maintains a bit (or two) with each object to record whether it is white or black; the grey set is either maintained as a separate list or using another bit. As the reference tree is traversed during a collection cycle, these bits are manipulated by the collector to reflect the current state. The mark and sweep strategy has the advantage that, once the unreachable set is determined, either a moving or non-moving collection strategy can be pursued; this choice of strategy can even be made at runtime, as available memory permits. It has the disadvantage of "bloating" objects by a small amount. ====Generational GC (aka Ephemeral GC)==== It has been empirically observed that, in many programs, the most recently created objects are also those most likely to quickly become unreachable (known as ''infant mortality'' or the ''generational hypothesis''). <!-- the following sentence is embarassing without a reference, someone please find one Experimental evidence shows that around 90% of objects die before their first garbage collection. --> A generational GC divides objects into generations and, on most cycles, will place only the objects of a subset of generations into the initial white (condemned) set. Furthermore, the runtime system maintains knowledge of when references cross generations by observing the creation and overwriting of references. When the garbage collector runs, it may be able to use this knowledge to prove that some objects in the initial white set are unreachable without having to traverse the entire reference tree. If the generational hypothesis holds, this results in much faster collection cycles while still reclaiming most unreachable objects. In order to implement this concept, many generational garbage collectors use separate memory regions for different ages of objects. When a region becomes full, those few objects that are referenced from older memory regions are promoted (copied) up to the next highest region, and the entire region can then be overwritten with fresh objects. This technique permits very fast incremental garbage collection, since the garbage collection of only one region at a time is all that is typically required. Generational garbage collection is a [[Heuristic (computer science)\|heuristic]] approach, and some unreachable objects may not be reclaimed on each cycle. It may therefore occasionally be necessary to perform a full mark and sweep or copying garbage collection to reclaim all available space. In fact, runtime systems for modern programming languages (such as [[Java programming language\|Java]] and the [[.NET Framework]]) usually use some hybrid of the various strategies that have been described thusfar; for example, most collection cycles might look only at a few generations, while occasionally a mark-and-sweep is performed, and even more rarely a full copying is performed to combat fragmentation. The terms "minor cycle" and "major cycle" are sometimes used to describe these different levels of collector aggressiveness. ====Stop-the-world vs. incremental vs. concurrent==== Simple ''stop-the-world'' garbage collectors completely halt execution of the program to run a collection cycle, thus guaranteeing that new objects are not allocated and objects do not suddenly become unreachable while the collector is running. This has the obvious disadvantage that the program can perform no useful work while a collection cycle is running (sometimes called the "embarrassing pause"). ''Incremental'' garbage collectors are designed to reduce this disruption by interleaving their work with activity from the main program. Careful design is necessary to ensure that the main program does not interfere with the garbage coll
to the matchlock, predated the flintlock. Despite its many faults, the wheellock was a significant improvement over the matchlock in terms of both convenience and safety, since it eliminated the need to keep a smoldering match in close proximity to loose gunpowder. It operated using a small wheel much like that on [[cigarette lighters]] which was wound up with a key before use and which, when the trigger was pulled, spun against a flint, creating the shower of sparks that ignited the powder in the touch hole. Supposedly invented by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], the [[Italy\|Italian]] [[Renaissance man]], the wheel lock action was an innovation that was not widely adopted. ====Flintlock==== The [[flintlock]] action was a major innovation in small arms design. The spark used to ignite the gunpowder in the touch hole was supplied by a sharpened piece of flint clamped in the jaws of a "cock" which, when released by the trigger, struck a piece of steel called the "frizzen" to create the necessary sparks. (The spring loaded arm that holds a piece of flint or pyrite is refered to as a cock because of its resemblance to a rooster.) The cock had to be manually reset after each firing, and the flint had to be replaced periodically due to wear from striking the frizzen. (See also [[flintlock mechanism]], [[snaphance]], [[miquelet]]) The flintlock was widely used during the 18th and 19th centuries in both muskets and rifles. ====Percussion cap==== [[Percussion cap]]s ([[caplock mechanism]]s), coming into wide service in the 19th century, were a dramatic improvement over flintlocks. With the percussion cap mechanism, the small primer charge of gunpowder used in all preceding small arms was replaced by a completely self-contained explosive charge contained in a small brass "cap". The cap was fastened to the touch hole of the gun (extended to form a "nipple") and ignited by the impact of the gun's "hammer". (The hammer is roughly the same as the cock found on flintlocks except that it doesn't clamp onto anything.) In the case of percussion caps the hammer was hollow on the end to fit around the cap in order to keep the cap from fragmenting and injuring the shooter. Once struck, the flame from the cap in turn ignited the main charge of gunpowder, as with the flintlock, but there was no longer any need to charge the touch hole with gunpowder, and even better, the touch hole was no longer exposed to the elements. As a result, the percussion cap mechanism was considerably safer, far more weatherproof, and vastly more reliable (cloth-bound cartridges containing a premeasured charge of gunpowder and a ball had been in regular military service for many years, but the exposed gunpowder in the entry to the touch hole had long been a source of misfires). All muzzleloaders manufactured since the second half of the 19th century use percussion caps except those built as replicas of the flintlock or earlier small arms. ===Cartridges=== A major innovation in small arms (and light artillery) came in the second half of the 19th century when ammunition, previously delivered as separate bullets and powder, was combined in a single metallic (almost always brass) cartridge containing a percussion cap, powder, and a bullet in one weatherproof package. Before this, a "cartridge" was simply a premeasured quantity of gunpowder together with a ball in a small cloth bag, which also acted as wadding for the charge and ball. This early form of cartridge had to be rammed into the muzzleloader's barrel, and either a small charge of gunpowder in the touch hole or an external percussion cap mounted on the touch hole ignited the gunpowder in the cartridge. [[Cartridge (weaponry)\|Cartridges]] with built-in percussion caps (called "primers") continue to this day to be the standard in firearms. In cartridge-firing firearms, a hammer (or a firing pin struck by the hammer) strikes the cartridge primer, which then ignites the gunpowder within. The primer charge is at the base of the cartridge, either within the rim (a "rimfire" cartridge) or in a small percussion cap embedded in the center of the base (a "centerfire" cartridge). As a rule, centerfire cartridges are more powerful than rimfire cartridges, containing more gunpowder and (usually) larger diameter bullets. Caseless cartridges are now being explored: instead of using brass as the cartridge case, these would hold the cartridge together with paper or some other substance that is destroyed when the gun is fired, eliminating the problem of brass casings ejecting and littering the ground. Caseless cartridges and the guns that would use them are still prototypes, although the idea of caseless cartridges can be traced to the musket "cartridges" widely used by the 18th-century military. Nearly all contemporary firearms load cartridges directly into their breech. Some additionally or exclusively load from a [[magazine (firearm)\|magazine]] that holds multiple cartridges. A magazine is a box or cylinder that is designed to be reusable and is detachable from the gun. Some magazines, such as those of the [[M1 Garand\|Garand]] are loaded by using a [[clip]], which is a device that looks like a rail holding the ammunition by the case base. In most cases, a [[magazine (firearm)\|magazine]] and a [[clip]] are different in that the former's function is to feed ammunition into the firearm's [[breech]], while the latter's is only to "charge" a [[magazine (firearm)\|magazine]] with fresh ammunition. ==Repeating, semiautomatic, and automatic weapons== Many small arms are "single shot" firearms: i.e., each time a cartridge is fired, the operator must manually re-cock the firearm and load another cartridge. The classic double-barreled shotgun is a good example. A firearm that can load multiple cartridges as the weapon is re-cocked is considered a '''repeating weapon''' or simply a "repeater". The lever-action rifle of Old West fame, a pheasant-hunter's pump shotgun, and a police sniper's bolt-action rifle are good examples of repeating firearms. A firearm that automatically re-cocks and reloads the next round with each trigger pull is considered a '''semiautomatic''' weapon. An automatic (or "fully automatic") weapon is one that automatically re-cocks, reloads, and fires as long as the trigger is depressed. Many modern military firearms have a "selective-fire" option, which is a mechanical switch that allows the weapon be fired either in the semiautomatic or fully automatic mode. In the current M16A2 and M16A4 variants of the U.S.-made [[M16 (rifle)\|M16]], continuous full-automatic fire is not possible, having been replaced by an automatic burst of three cartridges that makes full-automatic fire considerably more accurate. It is sometimes debated which is the "best" military small arm, the former Soviet Union's 7.62x39mm- Kalashnikov [[AK-47]] or the [[U.S.]]-manufactured .223-caliber [[M16 (rifle)\|M16]]: the highly reliable and inexpensive but heavy and bulky AK-47 has been widely adopted by many small countries, including many current and former [[Communist]] nations. The much lighter and far more accurate M16 (and its .223 cartridge in particular) has found wide adoption among NATO members and military allies of the United States (see also [[AK-47 vs. M16]]). The first "rapid firing" weapons were usually similar to the 19th-century [[Gatling gun]], which would fire cartridges from a magazine as fast as and as long as the operator turned a crank. Eventually, the "rapid" firing mechanism was perfected and miniaturized to the extent that either the recoil of the firearm or the gas pressure from firing could be used to operate it (which made the firing mechanisms truly "automatic"). Automatic rifles such as the [[Browning Automatic Rifle]] (the "BAR") were in common use by the military during the early part of the 20th century, and automatic rifles that fired [[handgun]] rounds, known as [[submachine gun]]s, also appeared in this time. Submachine guns (such as the well-known Thompson gun) were originally about the size of carbines. Because they fire pistol ammunition, they have limited long-range use, but in close combat can spray bullets in a deadly and controllable manner due to the light recoil of the pistol ammunition. They are also extremely inexpensive and simple to build in time of war, enabling a nation to quickly arm its military. In the latter half of the 20th century, submachine guns were being miniaturized to the point of being only slightly larger than some large handguns. The most widely used submachine gun at the end of the 20th century was the [[Heckler & Koch MP5]]. The MP5 is actually designated as a "machine pistol" by Heckler & Koch (MP5 stands for Machine Pistol 5), although some reserve this designation for even smaller submachine guns such as the [[MAC-10]], which are about the size and shape of pistols. Nazi Germany brought the world's attention to what eventually became the class of firearm most widely adopted by the military: the so-called [[assault rifle]] (see [[Sturmgewehr_44]]). An assault rifle is usually slightly smaller than a military rifle such as the [[M1 Garand]], the [[M14 (rifle)\|M14]] or the [[K98k]]. Generally, assault rifles have mechanisms that allow the user to select between single shots, bursts of shots, or automatic fire. Moreover, assault rifles tend to incorporate military characteristics that make them look menacing: bayonet lugs, flash suppressors, and large capacity ammunition magazines. Generally, these design features are trivial in nature, and the modern military assault rifle differs very little in function from a civilian hunting rifle. Universally, civilian assault rifle variants are strictly semiautomatic. The cartridge fired by these
[[1999]] ''(PS, Japan)'' <br> [[June 29]], [[2001]] ''(PS, N. America) — as''<br>''Final Fantasy Chronicles</span> \|genre = [[Computer role-playing game\|Role-playing game]] \|modes = [[Single player]] \|ratings = ''(PlayStation version only)''<br />[[Entertainment Software Rating Board\|ESRB]]: [[Image:ESRB_T.png\|12px\|T]] Teen \|platforms = [[Super Famicom]]; [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System\|Super NES]]; [[PlayStation]] \|media = 32[[megabit\|Mb]] (4[[MB]]) [[SNES]] [[cartridge (electronics)\|cartridge]]; [[PlayStation]] [[CD-ROM]] \|requirements = \|input = SNES or Playstation controller \|SRAM Size = 64[[kbit\|Kb]] (8[[KB]]) \|type = 02 \|speed = 31/FastROM \|ROM Map = HiROM \|kart contents = ROM+RAM+BAT \|actual Checksum = 788C \|header Checksum = 788C }} '''''Chrono Trigger''''' (クロノ・トリガー) is a [[computer role-playing game\|role-playing game]] that was released in [[Japan]] on [[March 11]], [[1995]] for the [[Super Famicom]] and in [[North America]] on [[August 22]], 1995 for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]] (SNES). The game was re-released in [[1999]] for the [[Sony Computer Entertainment\|Sony]] [[PlayStation]] (PS) in Japan and in [[2001]] as a part of the ''[[Final Fantasy Chronicles]]'' package in North America, alongside ''[[Final Fantasy IV]]''. The game has never been released in [[PAL_Region\|PAL]] territories. ''Chrono Trigger'' was supervised by a group referred to as "The Dream Team", consisting of [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]] (producer of the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series), [[Yuji Horii]] (director of the ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' games), character designer [[Akira Toriyama]] (of ''[[Dragon Ball]]'' and ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' fame), venerable producer [[Kazuhiko Aoki]], and [[Nobuo Uematsu]] (of ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' fame). Other noteworthy people involved in the game development were the music composer [[Yasunori Mitsuda]], who composed over 80% of the score, and scenarist [[Masato Kato]], both unknown at that time but later famous for ''[[Xenogears]]'' and ''[[Xenosaga]]''. At the time of its release the ideas behind the game were seen as revolutionary, involving multiple endings, a dramatic story with multiple character-enhancing side-stories, a novel battle system, and detailed and beautiful graphics. It also makes many references to names and events in mythology, legends and history. It is still hailed by fans as one of the greatest games of all time, despite the "primitive" graphics by today's standards. ''Chrono Trigger'' placed highly in all three versions of [[IGN]]'s top 100 games of all time. The first version in [[2002]] listed it as the fourth greatest, the second in early [[2005]] as the sixth, and the third in late 2005 as the thirteenth. ==Plot== {{spoiler}} [[Image:Chrono Trigger Title Screen.png\|thumb\|256px\|left\|The title screen of the North American version]] ''Chrono Trigger'' is about a group of adventurers who [[time travel\|travel across time]] to save the planet's future. Along the way they recruit allies from other time periods in to defeat the [[extraterrestrial\|alien]] [[parasite]] [[Lavos]] that is slowly destroying their world. The player eventually may recruit up to seven playable characters: [[Crono]], the main hero, [[Marle (Chrono Trigger)\|Marle]], the rebellious princess, [[Lucca (Chrono Trigger)\|Lucca]], the genius inventor, [[Robo (Chrono Trigger)\|Robo]], the robot outcast, [[Frog (Chrono Trigger)\|Frog]], the amphibious knight, [[Ayla (Chrono Trigger)\|Ayla]], the wild cave-woman, and, optionally, the dark wizard [[Magus (Chrono Trigger)\|Magus]]. The group travels via time gates and the flying time machine [[Epoch (Chrono Trigger)\|Epoch]] to seven different time periods: the [[prehistory\|Prehistoric]] era ([[65,000,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)\|65,000,000 B.C.]]), the Dark Ages ([[12,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)\|12,000 B.C.]]), the [[Middle Ages]] ([[600 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)\|A.D. 600]]), the [[present (time)\|Present]] time ([[1000 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)\|A.D. 1000]]), the [[Apocalypse]] ([[1999 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)\|A.D. 1999]]), the post-apocalyptic [[Future]] ([[2300 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)\|A.D. 2300]]), and the very [[End of Time (Chrono Trigger)\|End of Time]] itself. ===The Chrono Trigger=== [[Image:Chrono Trigger logo.gif\|thumb\|right\|The ''Chrono Trigger'' logo]] The titular Chrono Trigger (also known as the ''Time Egg'') is a small device that manipulates the flow of [[causality]]. As [[Gaspar (Chrono Trigger)\|Gaspar]] explains, the Chrono Trigger will have an effect equal to the effort one puts into its use; no more, no less. Crono, who perishes at the hands of Lavos in 12,000 B.C., is critical to the [[spacetime\|space-time continuum]] and his friends spare no expense in their efforts to revive him (or more correctly, prevent him from ever dying). The Chrono Trigger, receiving both these sentiments, hatches and thus revives Crono to life. It should be noted, however, that this event is entirely optional and prompts different endings depending on the player's choice. ''Chrono Trigger's'' sequel, ''[[Chrono Cross]]'', later explained that the phrase "Chrono Trigger" is a reference to anything that has the power to affect its will and change history. ==Gameplay characteristics== While all of the other characters have many lines of dialogue, [[Crono]] (the main character) is a [[silent protagonist]], who is never given voiced dialogue (except briefly in the "A Slide Show" ending), although characters do react to him when the player makes a plot-point decision. Although this quirk was very common in RPGs of the time, such as ''[[Breath of Fire]]'' or ''[[Suikoden]]'', Crono and ''Chrono Trigger'' have become almost universally identified as originating the archetypal silent protagonist. [[Image:ChronoTriggerInside.PNG\|thumb\|256px\|Battle in the North American version of ''Chrono Trigger'']] [[Image:Chrono Trigger JAP Battle Screenshot.png\|thumb\|256px\|Battle at the End of Time in the Japanese version of ''Chrono Trigger'']] ''Chrono Trigger'' uses an [[Active Time Battle]] (ATB) system. Each character in the player's three-member party can take action after a certain period of time has passed, which is dependent on the character's Speed stat. Characters can attack with an equipped weapon, use items, or invoke "Techs". The game also features no battles on the overworld map that were commonplace in many other RPGs of its time. Instead, monsters only appear in the game's dungeons, where they can be seen wandering about onscreen and possibly avoided, if the player so desires. Should the encounter happen, however, the enemies will jump into combat directly on the map, instead of the game moving to a removed and generic battle screen, which was unique and is still one of the most identifiable aspects of this game, because it is seldom seen, if at all. In battle, all the [[player character]]s can use unique skills called Techs. Techs are special attacks or support abilities that, when used, deplete a character's [[Magic point\|Magic Points]] (MP). The stronger the Tech, the more MP it requires. Each character has eight different Techs, many of which can be combined with another character's Techs to create Double and Triple Techs (assuming that all participants are free to act). For instance, Crono's "Cyclone" Tech (a [[Link (Legend of Zelda)\|Link]]-style sword spin) can be combined with Lucca's "Fire Toss" to create "Fire Whirl." The positions of the player's characters, relative to enemy monsters, are important for many techs. For example, Crono's "Slash" will only hit enemies who are aligned in a straight line. Other Techs hit only enemies within a certain radius, only those near the character who uses them, or simply all enemies on the screen. A feature of the ''Chrono Trigger'' [[game engine\|engine]] is its event tracking system, which is used to update the save screen's "chapter title", change certain characters' dialogue, and alter the maps to conform to the current position in the story. It is also used for bug and consistency checking. If events happen out of order (such things can happen if the cartridge's save RAM (SRAM) is corrupt, or if the player uses a [[Game Genie]] code to walk through walls and skip over certain events), the [[Nu (Chrono Trigger)\|Nu]] will appear in front of the doorway to Epoch's construction bay in 2300 A.D. and proclaim: "The Time Axis is out of alignment." Aside from this warning, the game will continue normally, which can allow for such things as already having the character Magus in one's party during a scripted battle against this character. Some players consider one of the main problems with the game to be its short play time. It takes approximately 20 to 25 hours to complete the game, which is a very short timespan for an SFC/SNES [[computer role-playing game\|RPG]] (''[[Dragon Quest VI]]'', for instance, takes about 100 hours), although it does take about 60-70 hours to max out everyone's stats. To mitigate the problem of length, the developers of the game created multiple endings that the player could earn, including several secret endings, combined with the "New Game+" feature. Once the game is beaten, the player may choose to start a new game using data from the previous session, such as character levels, techniques learned, and equipment and items gathered. Money and a few special items important to the storyline are not kept, however. New Game+ allows the player to confront the final boss at almost any point in the game. The player's progress through the storyline ''prior'' to the confrontation determines which of the thirteen endings[http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/w/r/wrp103/wrp/ct_end.html] (some with minute variations depending on game choices) the player will see. Only a few of the endings are possible during the first time playing the game because of the low levels
created on the basis of 24 (''Hora'') divisions of the day and heliocentric order of the planets. In Hindu system of astrology, a weekday starts from local Sunrise & ends at the following Sunrise, which is distinct from the Georgian calendar in which a weekday along with date starts at expiry of 1200 a.m. of the Zonal Standard Time. Julian day begins at noon, whereas the Julian calendar begins at preceding midnight. Georgian calendar is worldwide used for civil purpose. A day is divided in 24 divisions called “''Hora''” in Hindu system. The order of Hora is based on heliocentric order of the planets which is; Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, (Earth), Venus, Mercury, & Moon. It is said that the world started on Sunday. And the first Hora of the Sunday is ruled by the Sun. Second Hora of Sunday is ruled by Venus, followed by Mercury, Moon, Saturn, Jupiter & Mars. Thus Sunday has three cycles of the above Horas & its 25th Hora is of Moon. Thus at the next Sunrise time Hora of Moon shall prevail. Therefore, the following day is ruled by the Moon. Similarly 25th Hora of Monday shall be of Mars, & the day shall be ruled by Mars. In the same way following days shall be ruled by Mercury, Jupiter, Venus & Saturn. Thus order of the weekdays are ruled by Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus & Saturn. This logic has already been mentioned in Hindu astrology treatises. In Hindu system the Sun is called ''Ravi''; The Moon – ''Soma''; Mars – ''Mangal''; Mercury- ''Budh''; Jupiter – ''Brishapati''; Venus – ''Shukar''; & Saturn –'' Shani''. The day is called “Vaar”. Thus weekdays in order have been named as ''Ravi Vaar, Soma Vaar, Mangal Vaar, Budh Vaar, Brihaspati Vaar, Shukar Vaar, and Shani Vaar.'' In Latin the Sun is called Solis; & the Moon – Lunae; Mars- Martis; Mercury – Mercurri; Jupiter – Jovis; Venus- Veneris; Saturn – Saturni. Thus names of the weekday are derived from the planetary names. In electional astrology, weekday & Hora of the specific planet has special significance. Hora is also used in calculation of planetary strength in a nativity. In general, a work which fructifies in a particular weekday, also can be performed during Hora of the weekday lord falling in another weekday. For example, it is recommended to solemnize marriage on Thursday, also can be done during Hora of Jupiter falling in Friday (a weekday ruled by a benefic planet). This usage of Hora in electional astrology is also applied by western astrologers. More information about planetary [[linguistics]] can be found on [http://www.nineplanets.org/days.html this site]. ==See also== {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} '''[[List of astrologers]]''' [[Accidental dignity]] [[Age of Aquarius]] [[Ascendant]] (AC, ASC) [[Ascending planet]] [[Astrolabe]] [[Astrological age]] [[Astrological symbol]] [[Astrology and astronomy]] [[Astrology and computers]] [[Birthday]] [[Celestial mechanics]] [[Cosmobiology]] [[Cycle studies]] [[Descendant]] (DC) [[Forer effect]] [[Gnostic circle]] [[Hamburg School of Astrology]] [[Harmonic Charts]] [[House (astrology)]] [[Imum Coeli]] (IC) [[Jewish views of astrology]]&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Katarche]] [[List of cycles]] [[Lunation]] [[Lunar node]] [[Lunar phase]] The [[Mars effect]] [[Medical astrology]] {{col-2}} [[Medium Coeli]]/[[Midheaven]] (MC) [[Monen]] [[Music of the spheres]] [[New age]] [[Nadi astrology]] [[Occult]] [[Orbital period]] [[Planets in astrology]] [[Predictions for the forthcoming year]] [[Ptolemy]] [[Ray of Creation]] [[Rosicrucian#Rose_Cross:_Alchemy_and_Divine_Sciences_of_Healing_.26_of_the_Stars\|Rose Cross and Astrology]] [[Ruling planet]] [[Saturn return\|Saturn Return]] [[Sidereal astrology]] [[Skepticism]] [[Solar deity]] [[Solar symbol]] [[Solar system]] [[Synchronicity]] [[Syncretism]] [[The Combination of Stellar Influences]] [[Three Wise Men]] [[Tropical year]] [[Twelve Holy Days]] [[Uranian astrology]] [[Vertex]] [[Western mystery tradition]] {{col-end}} ==Notes and references== # {{note\|Pingree}}See David Pingree - ''From Astral Omens to Astrology from Babylon to Bikaner'', Roma: Istituto Italiano per L'Africa e L'Oriente, 1997. Pg. 26. # http://www.astrodatabank.com # {{note\|Maggie}}Maggie Hyde, Jung and Astrology. The Aquarian Press (London, 1992) p. 24-26. # {{note\|TMoA_op}}Geoffrey Cornelius, The Moment of Astrology. The Wessex Astrologer (Bournemouth, 2003.) # {{note\|Bok_op}}Bart Bok, Paul Kurtz and Lawrence Jerome, "Objections to Astrology: A Statement by 186 Leading Scientists" in ''The Humanist," September/October, 1975. http://psychicinvestigator.com/demo/AstroSkc2.htm # http://www.chartplanet.com/html/shakespeare.html ==Further reading== Robert Hand, ''Horoscope Symbols''. Schiffer Publications (Altgen, PA; March 1987) ISBN 0914918168. One of the most thoughtful and authoritative books on astrological technique. * Garry Phillipson, ''Astrology in the Year Zero''. Flare Publications (London, 2000) ISBN 0953026191. A balanced overview of thirty opinions on the validity of astrology, including skeptics. ==External links== <div style="font-size: 85%"> ;General [http://search.dmoz.org/cgi-bin/search?search=astrology Over a thousand astrology sites listed at the Open Directory project] ;History [http://www.skyscript.co.uk/ Skyscript &mdash; Classical Astrology] - A modern yet faithful look at Classical astrology. [http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeIV/astrology.htm Astrology: Between Religion and the Empirical] - A serious academic treatise on astrology by Dr. Gustav-Adolf Schoener and translated by Shane Denson. [http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/astr-hel.htm Hellenistic Astrology] - An Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry outlining the development of Hellenistic astrology and its interaction with philosophical schools. [http://www.world-of-dawkins.com/Dawkins/Work/Articles/1995-12romance_in_stars.htm The real romance in the stars] - A critical view of astrology by [[Richard Dawkins]]. [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA/Astrologia.html Astrologia] - Article in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities [http://www.mountainman.com.au/astrology_01.htm The Scientific Basis of Astrology, Dr Percy Seymour] - Book Review. [http://www.templeofsolomon.org/pageone.htg/pageone.htm The Astrological Star Of Bethlehem] - How the Magi (astrologers) knew of the birth of Christ [http://the_mystic_light.tripod.com/mph_astrology.htm The Devolution and Evolution of Astrology] - Article by American mystic [[Manly Palmer Hall]] ;Schools [http://www.kepler.edu Kepler College of Astrological Arts and Sciences] - Based in Seattle, USA, Kepler College is the only college in the western hemisphere authorized to issue A.A., B.A., and M.A degrees in Astrological Studies. [http://www.bathspa.ac.uk/sophia/ The Sophia Centre] Based near Bath, England, the Centre is a department of School of Historical and Cultural Studies at Bath Spa University College. Funded by the Sophia Trust, the Centre teaches an innovative MA in Cultural Astronomy and Astrology and supervises postgraduate research. [http://www.astrology.org.uk/ Faculty of Astrological Studies] - Founded on 7th June 1948 in London, England at 19.50 BST; its Diploma, the D.F.Astrol.S., is among the most highly valued and recognised international qualifications. ;Validity [http://www.astrofaces.com Astrofaces Research Project] The Astrofaces project seeks to verify astrology with photographs grouped by the sun, moon and ascendant signs. Do people who share the three most prominent factors in the chart resemble each other? [http://www.astrology-and-science.com/ Astrology and Science] - A series of articles in which believers and skeptics debate the merits of astrology. [http://www.skepsis.nl/astrot.html The Astrotest] - An account of a test of the [[predictive power]] of astrology, with references to some other experiments. [http://www.discord.org/~lippard/kammann.html The True Disbelievers] by Richard Kamann and Marcello Truzzi is a report of alleged internal events at CSICOP regarding their own claimed confirmation of M. Gauquelin's 'Mars Effect' [http://skepdic.com/astrolgy.html The ''Skeptic's Dictionary'' on astrology] and [http://skepdic.com/mars.html the Mars effect] [http://www.lightlink.com/vic/astrol.html An Astrophysicist's Sympathetic and Critical View of Astrology] - by Victor Mansfield. [http://www.butterfliesandwheels.com/articleprint.php?num=59 Proof of Astrology?] - A critical look at Percy Seymour's books. [http://cura.free.fr/decem/09seym.html The Magus of Magnetism: How Planetary Motion Orchestrates Solar Activity and Geomagnetism] - An interview with Percy Seymour by Bronwyn Elko. [http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/astrology.html The Humanist] - 1975 astrology article. ;Comparision with other thought systems [http://www.spirithome.com/parastro.html Astrology, the Zodiac, Horoscopes and Planetary Alignment]. [http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/skepticism/blfaq_astro_sci_pseudo.htm Is Astrology A Pseudoscience?] [http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Dean.pdf Academic Journal of Consciousness Studies: ''Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi?''] [http://www.astro.utoronto.ca/~bclarke/AST199M/Astrology.htm The Historical Foundations of Astrology] [http://www.khaldea.com/rudhyar/index.shtml Dane Rudhyar Archival Project -- Wholeness, Music, Astrology, Theosophy, Art, etc.] [http://www.robertezoller.com/ Robert Zoller -- Medieval Astrology] [http://www.noeltyl.com/menu.shtml Noel Tyl -- Contemporary Astrology] [http://www2.bitstream.net/~bunlion/bpi/AstrRoot.html Current Trends in Astrology] [http://finblake.home.mindspring.com/UranBeacon.htm A Comprehensive Uranian Astrology Website] [http://www.sabian.org/ssorigin.htm Sabian Symbols (originated by Marc Edmund Jones and Elsie Wheeler)] *[http://www.isidore
ais du Pacifique franc]] (CFPF) = 100 centimes '''Exchange rates:''' Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique francs (CFPF) per US$1 - 117.67 (January 2000), 111.93 (1999), 107.25 (1998), 106.11 (1997), 93.00 (1996), 90.75 (1995); note - linked at the exact official rate of 0.055 French francs to one Pacifique franc. Now that France has switched its currency to the Euro, this static link remains true, at the rate of about 119.26 Pacifique franc to one Euro (1 Euro being exactly 6.55957 French francs). '''[[Fiscal year]]:''' [[calendar year]] :''See also :'' [[French Polynesia]] [[Category:French Polynesia]] [[Category:Economies by country\|French Polynesia]] [[fr:Économie de la Polynésie française]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in French Polynesia</title> <id>10743</id> <revision> <id>15908539</id> <timestamp>2004-10-30T10:30:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.127.153.111</ip> </contributor> <comment>+ link fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 32,000 (1995) '''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 4,000 (1995) '''Telephone system:''' <br>''domestic:'' NA <br>''international:'' [[satellite]] [[earth]] station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Pacific Ocean]]) '''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting\|broadcast]] stations:''' AM 2, FM 14, shortwave 2 (1998) '''Radios:''' 128,000 (1997) '''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 7 (plus 17 low-power repeaters) (1997) '''Televisions:''' 40,000 (1997) '''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' NA '''[[Country code]] (Top level domain):''' PF :''See also :'' [[French Polynesia]] [[Category:Communications by country\|French Polynesia]] [[Category:French Polynesia]] [[fr:Communications en Polynésie française]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transport in French Polynesia</title> <id>10744</id> <revision> <id>40212400</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T00:12:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FRED</username> <id>250005</id> </contributor> <comment>fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} '''[[Railway]]s:''' 0 km '''[[Highway]]s:''' <br>''total:'' 2590 km <br>''paved:'' 1735 km <br>''unpaved:'' 855 km (1999) '''Ports and [[harbour]]s:''' [[Mataura, French Polynesia\|Mataura]], [[Papeete]], [[Rikitea]], [[Uturoa]] '''[[Merchant marine]]:''' <br>''total:'' 10 ships (1,000 [[GRT]] or over) totaling 17,537 GRT/15,150 [[DWT]] <br>''ships by type:'' cargo 3, passenger 2, passenger/cargo 3, refrigerated cargo 1, roll on/roll off 1 (2003 est.) '''[[Airport]]s:''' 49 (2003 est.) '''Airports - with paved runways:''' <br>''total:'' 37 <br>''over 3,047 m:'' 2 <br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 5 <br>''914 to 1,523 m:'' 23 <br>''under 914 m:'' 3 (2004 est.) '''Airports - with unpaved runways:''' <br>''total:'' 13 <br>''914 to 1,523 m:'' 5 <br>''under 914 m:'' 8 (2004 est.) '''[[Heliport]]s''' 1 (2003 est.) :''See also :'' [[French Polynesia]] {{Oceania in topic\|Transport in}} [[Category:French Polynesia]] [[Category:Transportation by country\|French Polynesia]] {{CIA WFB 2004}} [[fr:Transports en Polynésie française]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Polynesia/Military</title> <id>10745</id> <revision> <id>15908541</id> <timestamp>2002-07-27T08:41:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[French Polynesia]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[French Polynesia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Polynesia/Transnational issues</title> <id>10746</id> <revision> <id>15908542</id> <timestamp>2002-07-27T08:41:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[French Polynesia]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[French Polynesia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Southern Territories</title> <id>10747</id> <revision> <id>40622550</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:13:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Palica</username> <id>188933</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: sk</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{\| class="toccolours" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="float: right; width: 300px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;" \|+ <big>'''Terres australes et antarctiques françaises (TAAF)'''</big> \|- \| colspan="2" style="background: white; text-align: center;" \| {\| \| [[Image:Flag of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.svg\|150px\|Flag of TAAF]] \| [[Image:TAAF-coat_of-arms.png\|150px\|Coat of Arms of TAAF]] \|} <!-- \|- \| colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray;" \| ''National [[motto]]: [[Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité]]<br>(Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood)'' --> \|- ! [[Official language]] \| [[French language\|French]] \|- ! Prefect \| [[Michel Champon]] \|- ! [[Top-level domain\|Internet TLD]] \| [[.tf]] \|} The '''French Southern Territories''' (long name: ''Territory of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands'', [[French language\|French]]: ''Territoire des Terres australes et antarctiques françaises'' or ''Terres australes et antarctiques françaises'' or ''T.A.A.F.'' or ''TAAF'') are [[antarctic]], [[volcano\|volcanic]] [[island]]s in the southern [[Indian Ocean]], south of [[Africa]] and about equidistant between Africa, [[Antarctica]], and [[Australia]]. [[Image:TAAF-CIA WFB Map.png\|frame\|right\|Map of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands]] ==Administration== The French Southern Territories form an overseas territory of [[France]] ([[French language\|French]]: ''[[territoire d'outre-mer]]''). It has been an overseas territory of [[France]] since [[1955]]. It was formerly administered from [[Paris]] by an ''administrateur supérieur'', assisted by a secretary-general; however, since December 2004, it is administered by a ''[[préfet]]'' (currently, [[Michel Champon]]), headquartered in [[Saint-Pierre]] on [[Réunion Island]]. The "capital" (main base) of the territory is [[Martin-de-Viviès]] on [[Île Amsterdam]]. The territory is divided into four districts: Amsterdam and Saint Paul (''Îles Saint Paul et Amsterdam''), composed of [[Île Amsterdam]] and [[Île Saint-Paul]], area 61 km&sup2;, main base [[Martin-de-Viviès]] [[Îles Crozet\|Crozet Archipelago]] (''Îles Crozet'' or officially ''Archipel Crozet''), area 505 km&sup2;, main base [[Alfred-Faure]] [[Îles Kerguelen\|Kerguelen]] (''Îles Kerguelen'' or officially ''Archipel (des) Kerguelen''), area 7,215 km&sup2;, main base [[Port-aux-Français]] [[Adélie Land]] (''Terre Adélie''), area 432,000 km&sup2;, main base [[Dumont d'Urville Station\|Dumont d'Urville]] Each district is headed by a district chief, which has powers similar to those of a French mayor (including recording births and deaths and being a [[Police in France\|officer of judicial police]]). Because there is no permanent population, there is no elected assembly, nor does the territory send representatives to the national parliament. Several countries do not recognize the French claim to "[[Adélie Land]]", and France's territorial claim is suspended in accordance with the provisions of the [[Antarctic Treaty]]. [[As of 2005]], the inclusion of the [[Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean\|Scattered Islands]] into the TAAF is being considered by the French government. The prefect of the TAAF has already been put in charge of those islands. ==Geography== The territory includes [[Île Amsterdam]], [[Île Saint-Paul]], [[Îles Crozet]], and [[Îles Kerguelen]] in the southern Indian Ocean near 43°S, 67°E, along with the French-claimed [[sector]] of Antarctica, [[Adélie Land]], named by French [[exploration\|explorer]] [[Jules Dumont d'Urville]] after his wife. The "Adélie Land" of about 432,000 km&sup2; and the islands, totaling 7781 km², have no indigenous inhabitants, though in 1997 there were about 100 researchers whose numbers varied from winter (July) to summer (January). Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul are extinct [[volcano]]es; the highest point in the territory is Mont Ross on Îles Kerguelen at 1850 meters. There are no airstrips on the islands and the 1232 kilometers of coastline have no ports or harbors, only offshore anchorages. The islands in the Indian Ocean are supplied by the special ship ''[[Marion Dufresne (ship)\|Marion Dufresne]]'' sailing out of [[Le Port (Réunion)\|Le Port]] in [[Réunion Island]]. Terre Adélie is supplied by ''[[Astrolabe (ship)\|Astrolabe]]'' sailing out of [[Hobart]] in [[Tasmania]]. However, the territory has a [[merchant marine]] fleet totaling (in [[1999]]) 2,892,911 [[GRT]] / 5,165,713 [[DWT]], including seven bulk carriers, five cargo ships, ten chemical tankers, nine container ships, six liquified gas carriers, 24 petroleum tankers, one refrigerated cargo ship, and ten roll-on/roll-off ([[RORO]]) carriers. This fleet is maintained as a subset of the French register that allowing French-owned ships to operate under more liberal taxation and manning regulations than permissible under the main French register. This register, however, is now becoming largely extinct. <!-- because of the creation of the RIF (Registre International Français), but I don't understand how it works --> ==Economy== The territory's natural resources are limited to fish and [[crayfish]]; economic activity is limited to servicing meteorological and geophysical research stations and French and other fishing fleets. The main fish resources are [[Patagoni
a corporation) would not generate the feudal fees that a lord could claim upon a landholder's death. In this regard, see [[Statute of Mortmain]]. It is important to note that the "perpetual lifetime" feature is an indication of the unbounded potential duration of the corporation's existence, and its accumulation of wealth and thus power. (In theory, a corporation can have its charter revoked at any time, putting an end to its existence as a legal entity. However, in practice, dissolution only occurs for corporations that request it or fail to meet annual filing requirements.) ===Ownership and control=== Humans and other legal entities composed of humans (such as [[trust]]s and other corporations) can be members of corporations. In the case of for-profit corporations, these members hold [[share (finance) \|shares]] and are thus called [[shareholder]]s. When no members or shareholders exist, a corporation may exist as a "memberless corporation" or similar &#8212; this second type of corporation counts as a [[not-for-profit corporation]]. In either category, the corporation comprises a [[collectivism \| collective]] of individuals with a distinct legal status and with special privileges not provided to ordinary unincorporated businesses, to [[voluntary association]]s, or to groups of individuals. Typically, a [[board of directors]] governs a corporation on the behalf of the members. The corporate members elect the directors, and the board has a [[fiduciary duty]] to look after the interests of the corporation. The corporate officers such as the [[CEO]], [[president]], [[treasurer]], and other titled officers are usually chosen by the board to [[management\|manage]] the affairs of the corporation. Corporations can also be controlled (in part) by creditors such as [[bank]]s. In return for lending money to the corporation, creditors can demand a control interest analogous to that of a shareholder, including one or more seats on the board of directors. Creditors are not said to "own" the corporation as shareholders do, but can outweigh the shareholders in practice, especially if the corporation is experiencing financial difficulties and cannot survive without credit. Members of a corporation are said to have a "residual interest." Should the corporation end its existence, the members are the last to receive its assets, following creditors and others with interests in the corporation. This can make investment in a corporation risky; however, the risk is outweighed by the corporation's limited liability, which ensures that the member will only be liable for the amount they contributed. ===Formation=== Historically, corporations were created by special [[charter]] of governments. Today, corporations are usually registered with the state, province, or federal government and become regulated by the laws enacted by that government. Registration is the main prerequisite to the corporation's assumption of limited liability. As part of this registration, it must designate the principal address of the corporation (where to contact it in the event of legal process), and often an [[agent]] or other legal representative of the corporation. Generally, a corporation files [[articles of incorporation]] with the government, laying out the general nature of the corporation, the amount of stock it is authorized to issue, and the names and addresses of directors. Once the articles are approved, the corporation's directors meet to create [[bylaws]] that govern the internal functions of the corporation, such as meeting procedures and officer positions. The law of the jurisdiction in which a corporation operates will regulate most of its internal activities, as well as its finances. If a corporation operates outside its home state, it is often required to register with other governments as a [[foreign corporation]], and is almost always subject to laws of its host state pertaining to employment, crimes, contracts, civil actions, and the like. ===Naming=== Corporations generally have a distinct name. Historically, corporations were named after their membership: for instance, "The President and Fellows of Harvard College." Nowadays, corporations in most jurisdictions have a distinct name that does not need to make reference to their membership. In Canada, this possibility is taken to its logical extreme: many smaller Canadian corporations have no names at all, merely numbers (e.g., "Ontario 123-4567 Limited"). (See the section [[Corporation#Pre-modern corporations\|Pre-modern corporations]] below for more examples of historical names.) In most countries, corporate names include the term "Corporation", or an abbreviation that denotes the corporate status of the entity. See [[Types of corporations]] for a full list. These terms, known as ''words of limitation'', obviously vary by jurisdiction and language. Their use puts all persons on [[constructive notice]] that they have to deal with an entity whose [[liability]] remains limited, in the sense that it does not reach back to the persons who constitute the entity; one can only collect from whatever assets the entity still controls at the time one obtains a judgment against it. Certain jurisdictions do not allow the use of the word "'''company'''" alone to denote corporate status, since the word "company" may refer to a [[partnership]] or to a [[sole proprietorship]], or even, archaically, to a group of not necessarily related people (for example, those staying in a tavern). ===Unresolved issues=== The nature of the corporation continues to evolve, both through existing corporations pushing new ideas and structures, courts responding, and governments regulating in response to new situations. A question of long standing is that of diffused responsibility: for example, if the corporation is found liable for a death, then how should the blame and punishment for this be allocated across the shareholders, directors, management and staff of the corporation, and the corporation itself? See [[corporate manslaughter]] specifically, and [[corporate liability]] generally. The present law differs among jurisdictions, and is in a state of flux. Some argue that the owners of the business - the shareholders - should be ultimately responsible for such circumstances, but the modern corporation may have many millions of small-scale shareholders who know nothing about its business activities. In addition, [[traders]] - especially [[hedge funds]] - may rapidly turn over their partial ownership of a corporation many times a day. One position is that the directors should be passed the burden of moral and legal responsibility as part of their job of representing the shareholders. Another position is that the artificial entity of the corporation itself should be held liable, in accordance with the model of a corporation as a natural person. In some jurisdictions, both directors and the corporation are liable for certain offences (see, for example, the Canadian province of Ontario's Environmental Protection Act). The issue of corporate repeat offenders (see H.Glasbeak, "Wealth by Stealth: Corporate Crime, Corporate Law, and the Perversion of Democracy" (Between the lines press: Toronto 2002) raises the question of the so-called "death penalty for corporations." [http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=1810] ==Origins== ===Etymology=== The word "corporation" derives from the [[Latin]] ''Corpus'' (body), representing a "body of people"; that is, a ''group of people authorized to act as an individual'' ([[Oxford English Dictionary]]). The word ''universitas'' also used to refer to a group of people but now refers specifically to a group of scholars (see [[University]]). In the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Republic of Ireland]], the term ''corporation'' was also used for the local government body in charge of a [[borough]]. This style was replaced in most cases with the term [[council]] in the United Kingdom in 1973, and in the Republic of Ireland in 2001. The sole exception is the [[Corporation of London]] which retains the title. ===Pre-modern corporations=== Corporations have been present in some forms as far back as Ancient Rome. Although devoid of some of the core characteristics by which corporations are known today, they nonetheless were enterprises, sanctioned by the state, with a form of shareholders who invested money for a specific purpose. With the collapse of the [[Roman Empire]], the rise of [[Christianity]] and the influx of Germanic tribes, the Roman conception of the corporation merged with other views. Germanic tribes, for example, maintained that a group entity in and of itself could have a separate identity from that of its members. These influences came together in the body of canon law built around the conception of the church as corporate structure in the Middle Ages. Different theories of the church as corporate body were favored by different individuals but all agreed on one key component: that the church was more than just its members and could maintain an existence perpetually, regardless of the death of any individual member. This, together with discussion as to the relationship between the head of a corporation (such as the Pope) and its members, contributed not only to the development of modern corporations and [[corporate theory]] but also set the stage for many ideas that would come to fruition during the enlightenment. [[Kenneth Pomeranz]], an economic historian, argues that the need to perform pseudo-governmental operations (such as the waging of [[war]]) accounts for the development of this economic structure in [[Europe]] but not in [[China]] or in the [[Middle East]]. Older corporate entities gained incorporation as "the person/people of xx". This reflected the people who made up the "body" and a
t works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted, comparing two items at a time, swapping these two items if they are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which means the list is sorted. The algorithm gets its name from the way smaller elements "bubble" to the top (i.e. head) of the list via the swaps. Because it only uses comparisons to read elements, it is a [[comparison sort]]. In more detail, the bubble sort algorithm works as follows: #Compare adjacent elements. If the first is greater than the second, swap them. #Do this for each pair of adjacent elements, starting with the first two and ending with the last two. At this point the last element should be the greatest. #Repeat the steps for all elements except the last one. #Keep repeating for one fewer element each time, until you have no more pairs to compare. (Alternatively, keep repeating until no swaps are needed.) '''function''' bubblesort (A : ''list''[1..n]) { '''var''' ''int'' i, j; '''for''' i '''from''' n '''downto''' 1 { '''for''' j '''from''' 1 '''to''' i-1 { '''if''' (A[j] > A[j+1]) swap(A[j], A[j+1]) } } } ==Implementation== For implementations in real programming languages, see [[wikisource:Bubble sort\|Bubble sort at Wikisource]]. == Performance == Bubble sort needs [[big O notation\|O]](n<sup>2</sup>) comparisons to sort <math>n</math> items and can sort [[in-place algorithm\|in-place]]. Although the algorithm is one of the simplest sorting algorithms to understand and implement, it is too inefficient for use on lists having more than a few elements. Even among simple O(n<sup>2</sup>) sorting algorithms, algorithms like [[insertion sort]] are considerably more efficient. Due to its simplicity, the bubble sort is often used to introduce the concept of an algorithm to introductory programming students. However, some researchers such as Owen Astrachan have gone to great lengths to disparage bubble sort and its continued popularity in computer science education, recommending that it no longer even be taught.[http://www.cs.duke.edu/~ola/papers/bubble.pdf] The Jargon file, which famously calls [[bogosort]] "[t]he archetypical perversely awful algorithm", also calls bubble sort "the generic ''bad'' algorithm".[http://www.jargon.net/jargonfile/b/bogo-sort.html] Don Knuth, in his famous ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', concluded that "the bubble sort seems to have nothing to recommend it, except a catchy name and the fact that it leads to some interesting theoretical problems", some of which he discusses therein. Bubble sort is [[Asymptotic notation\|asymptotically]] equivalent in running time to [[insertion sort]] in the worst case, but the two algorithms differ greatly in the number of swaps necessary. Insertion sort needs only <math>O(n)</math> operations if the list is already sorted, whereas naïve implementations of bubble sort (like the pseudocode above) require <math>O(n^2)</math> operations. (This can be reduced to <math>O(n)</math> if code is added to stop the outer loop when the inner loop performs no swaps.) Experimental results such as those of Astrachan have also shown that insertion sort performs considerably better even on random lists. For these reasons many modern algorithm textbooks avoid using the bubble sort algorithm in favor of insertion sort. Bubble sort also interacts poorly with modern CPU hardware. It requires at least twice as many writes as insertion sort, twice as many cache misses, and asymptotically more [[branch prediction\|branch mispredictions]] (O(''n''log ''n'') rather than insertion sort's O(''n'')). Experiments by Astrachan sorting strings in Java show bubble sort to be roughly 5 times slower than insertion sort and 40% slower than [[selection sort]]. Reversing the order in which the list is traversed for each pass improves the efficiency somewhat. This is sometimes called [[shuttle sort]] since the algorithm shuttles from one end of the list to the other. == References == * [[Donald Knuth\|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 106&ndash;110 of section 5.2.2: Sorting by Exchanging. * [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Problem 2-2, pg.38. == External Links== * [http://www.ee.unb.ca/brp/lib/java/bubblesort/ Bubble Sort Applet] * [http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/instruct/juell/vp/cs1and2/sortdemo/BubbleSortDemo_ny.html Bubble Sort Demo] * [http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~minoura/cs261/javaProgs/sort/BubbleSort.html Bubble Sort Demonstration] * [http://lecture.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~ueda/JavaApplet/BubbleSort.html Lafore's Bubble Sort] * [http://www.cs.pitt.edu/~kirk/cs1501/animations/Sort3.html Sorting Applets in C++] [[Category:Sort algorithms]] [[ar:ترتيب الفقاعات]] [[de:Bubblesort]] [[es:Ordenamiento de burbuja]] [[fr:Tri à bulles]] [[is:Bóluröðun]] [[it:Bubble sort]] [[he:מיון בועות]] [[lt:Burbulo rūšiavimo algoritmas]] [[nl:Bubblesort]] [[ja:バブルソート]] [[pl:Sortowanie bąbelkowe]] [[pt:Bubble sort]] [[ru:Сортировка пузырьком]] [[fi:Kuplalajittelu]] [[sv:Bubble sort]] [[uk:Сортування стандартним обміном]] [[zh:冒泡排序]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bavarii</title> <id>4256</id> <revision> <id>40361223</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:32:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Bavarii''' were a large and powerful [[tribe]] which emerged late in [[Germanic tribes\|Teutonic]] tribal times, in what is now the [[Czech Republic]] ([[Bohemia]]). They replaced, or perhaps are simply another phase of, the previous inhabitants - the [[Rugians]]. They swiftly expanded their influence southward, and occupied [[Austria]] and the area which still bears their name: [[Bavaria]]. There is some argument as to the origins of the Bavarii. Until recently, modern day Bavarians were thought to be descendants of the Bavarii, who themselves were direct descendants of the (most probably) [[Celt\|Celtic]] [[Boii]], who settled in what is now Bavaria perhaps as much as two centuries before the birth of Christ. The Boii may in turn have also lent their name to Bohemia, an area that has at times been part of Bavaria proper. Over the last half of the 20th century, historical and archaeological research has increasingly supported the theory that the remnants of the Celtic Boii were absorbed into the Roman Empire and later intermingled with other Germanic peoples who chose to stay (or were stationed by the Romans) in the area. By the 6th c. AD we see evidence of the foundation of a Bavarian Stem-duchy whose leading men were related to the ruling [[Franks\|Frankish]] (and possibly [[Alemanni\|Alemannic]]/[[Swabian]]) houses. However, there is no longer real evidence that the rulers in Bavaria belonged to a people called the Bavarii. It is in fact likely that, after the name of the region became known by the name of the early inhabitants, later inhabitants became known by the accepted geographical name. ==External links== *This article incorporates some information taken from http://www.hostkingdom.net/ with permission. [[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]] [[de:Bajuwaren]] [[la:Bavarii]] [[nl:Bajuwaren]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burgundians</title> <id>4257</id> <revision> <id>40606922</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T20:06:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rklawton</username> <id>754622</id> </contributor> <comment>rv: no citation listed</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Burgundians''' or '''Burgundes''' were an [[East Germanic language\|East Germanic]] [[Germanic tribes\|tribe]] which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of [[Bornholm]], whose old form in [[Old Norse]] still was ''Burgundarholmr'' (the Island of the Burgundians), and from here to mainland Europe. In the ''[[Thorsteins saga Víkingssonar]]'', Veseti settled in an island or holm, which was called Borgund's holm, i.e. Bornholm. [[Alfred the Great]]'s translation of ''[[Orosius]]'' uses the name ''Burgenda land''. The poet and early mythologist [[Viktor Rydberg]] ([[1828]]&ndash;[[1895]]), (''Our Fathers' Godsaga'') asserted from an early medieval source, ''[[Sigismund of Burgundy\|Vita Sigismundi]],'' that the Burgundians themselves retained oral traditions about their Scandinavian origin. ==Early History== ===Tribal Origins=== The Burgundians' tradition of Scandinavian origin finds support in place-name evidence and archaeological evidence (Stjerna) and many consider their tradition to be correct (e.g. Musset, p. 62). Possibly because Scandinavia was beyond the horizon of the earliest Roman sources, including [[Tacitus]] (who only mentions one Scandinavian tribe, the [[Suiones]]), they don't tell from where the Burgundians came, and the first Roman references place them east of the [[Rhine]] (''inter alia'', [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], XVIII, 2, 15). Early Roman sources thought they were simply another East Germanic tribe. Ca [[300]], the population of [[Bornholm]] (the island of the Burgundians) largely disappeared from the island. Most gravefields ceased to be used, and those that were still used had few burials (Stjerna, in Nerman 1925:176). In the year [[369]], the Emperor [[Valentinian I]] enlisted their aid in his war against another Germanic tribe, the
)\!\,</math> &#8776; 2/3) ::: <math>m_{Moon} = 0.25 + 2.5 \log_{10}{(\frac{3}{2} 0.00257^2)} = -12.26\!\,</math> ::: (Actual -12.7) A full Moon reflects 30% more light at full phase than a perfect diffuse reflector predicts. :: Quarter Moon: <math>\chi\!\,</math> = 90°, <math>p(\chi) \approx \frac{2}{3\pi}\!\,</math> (if diffuse reflector) ::: <math>m_{Moon} = 0.25 + 2.5 \log_{10}{(\frac{3\pi}{2} 0.00257^2)} = -11.02\!\,</math> ::: (Actual approximately &minus;11.0) The diffuse reflector formula does better for smaller phases. == See also == * [[H-R diagram\|Hertzsprung-Russell diagram]] - Relates absolute magnitude or [[luminosity]] versus spectral color or surface [[temperature]]. * [[Jansky]] radio astronomer's prefered unit - linear in power/unit area ==External links== * [http://www.astronomynotes.com/starprop/s4.htm The Magnitude system] * [http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/stars/magnitudes.html About stellar magnitudes] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-fid.pl Obtain the magnitude of any star from SIMBAD] * [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/cfa/ps/lists/Sizes.htm Converting magnitude of minor planets to diameter] Absolute Magnitude may also refer to a science fiction magazine of that name. * [http://www.dnapublications.com/absmag/ DNA Publications website] [[Category:Observational astronomy]] [[bg:Абсолютна величина]] [[ca:Magnitud absoluta]] [[cs:Absolutní hvězdná velikost]] [[da:Absolut størrelsesklasse]] [[de:Absolute Helligkeit]] [[es:Magnitud absoluta]] [[fr:Magnitude absolue]] [[ko:절대 등급]] [[hr:Apsolutna magnituda]] [[id:Magnitudo multak]] [[it:Magnitudine assoluta]] [[hu:Abszolút magnitúdó]] [[nl:Lichtkracht]] [[pl:Absolutna wielkość gwiazdowa]] [[pt:Magnitude absoluta]] [[ru:Абсолютная звёздная величина]] [[sk:Absolútna hviezdna veľkosť]] [[sl:Absolutni izsev]] [[sv:Absolut magnitud]] [[th:โชติมาตรสัมบูรณ์]] [[zh:絕對星等]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apollo 1</title> <id>1965</id> <revision> <id>40858377</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:40:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[Insulation]] to [[thermal insulation]] - ([[WP:DPL\|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{\| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right;margin-left:1em;width:250px;" \|+<big>'''Apollo 1'''</big> \|- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"\|Mission Insignia \|- \|colspan="2" align="center"\|[[Image:Apollo_1_patch.jpg\|200px\|Apollo 1 insignia]] \|- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"\|Planned Mission \|- \|'''Mission Name:'''\|\|Apollo 1 (AS-204) \|- \|'''Call Sign:'''\|\|Command module:<br />''Apollo 1'' \|- \|'''Number of<br />Crew:'''\|\|3 \|- \|''' Planned<br />Launch:'''\|\|[[February 21]] [[1967]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 34 \|- \|'''Planned<br />Apogee:'''\|\|~300 km \|- \|'''Planned<br />Perigee:'''\|\|~230 km \|- \|'''Planned<br />Period:'''\|\|~89.7 m \|- \|'''Planned<br />Inclination:'''\|\|~31° \|- \|'''Planned<br />Landing:'''\|\|[[March 7]] [[1967]]<br />Atlantic Ocean<br />N of Puerto Rico<br />planned carrier<br />[[USS Essex (CV-9)]] \|- \|'''Planned<br />Duration:'''\|\|14 days \|- \|'''Planned<br />Number of<br />Orbits:'''\|\|~200 \|- \|'''Mass:'''\|\|CSM 20,412 kg \|- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"\|Crew Picture \|- \|colspan="2" align="center"\|[[Image:GPN-2000-000618.jpg\|250px\|Apollo 1 crew portrait (L-R: Grissom, White and Chaffee)]] <br/>Apollo 1 crew portrait<br/>(L-R: Grissom, White and Chaffee) \|- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"\|Apollo 1 Crew \|} '''Apollo One''' is the official name given retroactively to the '''Apollo/Saturn 204''' ('''AS-204''') spacecraft, destroyed by [[fire]] during a training exercise on [[January 27]] [[1967]], at Pad 34 (Launch Complex 34 at [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station\|Cape Canaveral]]) atop a [[Saturn IB]] rocket. Its crew were the astronauts selected for the initial [[Project Apollo\|Apollo program]] mission and all three died in the accident: Command Pilot [[Gus Grissom\|Virgil I. Grissom]], Senior Pilot [[Edward Higgins White\|Ed White]], and Pilot [[Roger B. Chaffee]]. <br style="clear: left"/> ==Crew== [[Gus Grissom\|Virgil Grissom]] (flew on ''[[Mercury 4]]'' & ''[[Gemini 3]]''), Command Pilot [[Edward Higgins White\|Ed White]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 4]]''), Senior Pilot [[Roger B. Chaffee]] (never flew in space), Pilot ===Backup crew=== April - December [[1966]] [[James McDivitt]], Command Pilot [[David Scott]], Senior Pilot *[[Rusty Schweickart]], Pilot This crew became the crew of ''[[Apollo 9]]''. December [[1966]] - January [[1967]] [[Walter Schirra]], Command Pilot [[Donn Eisele]], Senior Pilot **[[Walter Cunningham]], Pilot This crew became the crew of ''[[Apollo 7]]''. ==The accident== [[Image:Apollo 1 fire.jpg\|thumb\|left\|The charred remains of Apollo 1]] The Apollo 1 Command Module was a "Block I" design, built for spaceflight but never intended for a trip to the moon, as it lacked the necessary docking equipment. Immediately prior to the accident, the crew members were reclining in their horizontal couches, running through a checklist of things they would do in space while a communication system problem was being fixed. Suddenly, a voice (now believed to be Chaffee's, as his was the only clear channel) was heard over the COM link, "We've got fire in the cockpit." A few seconds later the transmissions ended with a cry of pain. On the television monitors, Ed White was seen to be attempting to open the hatch. However, the two-piece hatch was of a design which required that the crew undo several bolts in order to remove the inner section, and was impossible to open quickly. Furthermore, the inner portion of hatch opened inwards, an intentional design feature intended to exploit the cabin's air pressure in order to further tighten the hatch seal during spaceflight. The hot gasses produced by the fire held the hatch shut, and within a few seconds the air pressure had risen enough to prevent the crew from escaping (and in fact the air pressure rose so high as to rupture the capsule). ===Cause=== The fire is believed to have been caused by a spark somewhere in the capsule's 30 miles (50 km) of wiring. Due to the pure oxygen inside the capsule (which was at a pressure of 15 [[Pound-force per square inch\|psi]] or 100 [[kilopascal\|kPa]]) the fire was quickly out of control. The Apollo 204 Review Board determined that a [[silver]]-[[Plating\|plated]] [[copper]] [[wire]] running through an environmental control unit near the [[Apollo Command/Service Module\|command module]] pilot's couch had become stripped of its insulation and abraded by repeated opening and closing of an associated access door. This weak point in the wiring also happened to pass near a junction in a [[ethylene glycol]] / water cooling line, which had developed a leak. The [[electrolysis]] of ethylene glycol solution with the [[anode]] made of silver resulted in a violent [[exothermic reaction]] that ignited the ethylene glycol mixture, which in turn was able to burn in the atmosphere of pure pressurized oxygen.[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/v4p2b.htm] A similar March [[1961]] incident had previously claimed the life of Soviet [[cosmonaut]] trainee [[Valentin Bondarenko]] when the pure oxygen atmosphere in the isolation chamber he had been occupying had caught fire, a calamity the [[Soviet Union\|USSR]] had, for years, concealed from the public. ===The fire=== The fire spread quickly and within seconds was an inferno. The ground crew needed five minutes to open the hatch and suppress the flames. The fire had melted the astronauts' space suits and the air lines which connected them to the capsule's life support systems. Grissom's and White's suits were found to have fused together. It was evident from how the corpses lay that they had tried to get out, but they never had a chance. Ed White, who was supposed to open the hatch, was partway out of his harness and had apparently made an effort to escape. The procedure would have had Grissom lower White's headrest, and White proceed to unlatch over 12 bolts to release the hatch. Indeed, even if he were to accomplish that, the internal pressure had risen so high that the inward-opening hatch could not have been opened. Chaffee's job was to begin shutting down the spacecraft and maintain communications with ground control, and was found dead still strapped into his right hand seat. Only 17 seconds from the first call of "Fire!", all three were dead. It was later confirmed that the crew had actually died of smoke inhalation rather than burns. According to the Report of the Apollo 204 Review Board — Appendix D Panel 11, (link provided below), Grissom suffered third degree burns on 36% of his body (1st, 2nd and 3rd degree burns covered 60% of his body) and his spacesuit was 70% destroyed. White suffered third degree burns on 40% of his body (1st, 2nd and 3rd degree burns covered 48% of his body) and his spacesuit was 25% destroyed. Chaffee suffered third degree burns on 23% of his body (1st, 2nd and 3rd degree burns covered 29% of his body) and his spacesuit was 15% destroyed. The company that produced the command module, [[North American Aviation]], had originally suggested that the hatch open outward and be able to open with [[explosive bolt]]s in case of emergency. Th
ic to Spain. This move was widely rejected and on [[August 16]], [[1863]], a national war of "restoration" began. In [[1865]], independence was restored. Economic difficulties, the threat of European intervention, and ongoing internal disorders led to a U.S. occupation in [[1916]] and the establishment of a military government in the Dominican Republic. The occupation ended in [[1924]], with a democratically elected Dominican government. ==1930 to 1980== In [[1930]], [[Rafael Trujillo]], a prominent army commander, established absolute political control. Trujillo promoted economic development--from which mainly he and his supporters benefitted--and severe repression of domestic human rights. Mismanagement and corruption resulted in major economic problems.During the European [[the Holocaust\|Holocaust]] in the [[World War II\|Second World War]], the Dominican Republic took in many Jews fleeing Hitler. In August [[1960]], the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) imposed diplomatic sanctions against the Dominican Republic as a result of Trujillo's complicity in an attempt to assassinate President [[Rómulo Betancourt]] of [[Venezuela]]. These sanctions remained in force after Trujillo's assassination in May [[1961]]. In November 1961, the Trujillo family was forced into exile, fleeing to France. In January [[1962]], a council of state with legislative and executive powers was formed; it included moderate members of the opposition. OAS sanctions were lifted January 4, and, after the resignation of President [[Joaquín Balaguer]] on January 16, the council under President [[Rafael Bonnelly]] headed the Dominican government. In [[1963]], [[Juan Bosch]] was inaugurated President. Bosch was overthrown in a military coup in September 1963. After Bosch's overthrow a "Triumvirate" established a de facto dictatorship until April 24 [[1965]], when another military coup led to violence between military elements favoring the return to government by Bosch and those who proposed a military junta committed to early general elections. On April 28, after being requested by the anti Bosch army elements, U.S. military forces landed, officially to protect U.S. citizens and to evacuate U.S. and other foreign nationals. Additional U.S. forces subsequently established order. In June [[1966]], President Balaguer, leader of the Reformist Party (now called the [[Social Christian Reformist Party]]--PRSC), was elected and then re-elected to office in May [[1970]] and May [[1974]], both times after the major opposition parties withdrew late in the campaign because of the high degree of violence by pro government groups. In the May [[1978]] election, Balaguer was defeated in his bid for a fourth successive term by [[Antonio Guzmán]] of the PRD. Guzmán's inauguration on August 16 marked the country's first peaceful transfer of power from one freely elected president to another. ==1980 - Present== The PRD's presidential candidate, [[Salvador Jorge Blanco]], won the [[1982]] elections, and the PRD gained a majority in both houses of Congress. In an attempt to cure the ailing economy, the Jorge administration began to implement economic adjustment and recovery policies, including an austerity program in cooperation with the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF). In April [[1984]], rising prices of basic foodstuffs and uncertainty about austerity measures led to riots. Balaguer was returned to the presidency with electoral victories in [[1986]] and [[1990]]. Upon taking office in 1986, Balaguer tried to reactivate the economy through a public works construction program. Nonetheless, by [[1988]], the country slid into a 2-year economic depression, characterized by high inflation and currency devaluation. Economic difficulties, coupled with problems in the delivery of basic services--including electricity, water, and transportation--generated popular discontent that resulted in frequent protests, occasionally violent, including a paralyzing nationwide strike in June [[1989]]. In 1990, Balaguer instituted a second set of economic reforms. After concluding an IMF agreement, balancing the budget, and curtailing inflation, the Dominican Republic is experiencing a period of economic growth marked by moderate inflation, a balance in external accounts, and a steadily increasing GDP. [[Image:Leonel Fernández Reyna.jpg\|frame\|Leonel Fernández Reyna]] The voting process in 1986 and 1990 was generally seen as fair, but allegations of electoral board fraud tainted both victories. The elections of [[1994]] were again marred by charges of fraud. Following a compromise calling for constitutional and electoral reform, President Balaguer assumed office for an abbreviated term. In June [[1996]], [[Leonel Fernández Reyna]] was elected to a 4-year term as president. In May [[2000]] [[Hipólito Mejía]] was elected to a 4-year term as president. In May [[2004]], [[Leonel Fernández Reyna]] was again elected to a 4-year term as president and inaugurated as such on August 16th, [[2004]]. The Dominican Republic was involved in the US led coalition in Iraq, but in ''[[2004]]'', the nation pulled its troops out of Iraq. On Apr 27, 2005, education secretary, Alejandrina German, announced the republic's new plan to institute mandatory English classes beginning in September. In addition, one school from each district will be selected to participate in a pilot program for bilingual education. The program involves teaching mathematics, sciences, the arts, and physical education in English in the first nine grades. [[Category:History of the Dominican Republic\| ]] [[de:Geschichte der Dominikanischen Republik]] [[es:Historia de la República Dominicana]] [[fr:Histoire de la République dominicaine]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of the Dominican Republic</title> <id>8064</id> <revision> <id>36811401</id> <timestamp>2006-01-26T17:13:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kelisi</username> <id>173996</id> </contributor> <comment>Reverting mindless bot's vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BeachBarahona2001 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg\|thumb\|right\|400px\|a beach in the Barahona province]] This article details the '''[[geography]] of the [[Dominican Republic]]'''. == Country Map == [[Image:Domrepmap.gif\|thumb\|Map of the Dominican Republic]] ; Location: : [[Caribbean]], it occupies two-thirds of the island of [[Hispaniola]], between the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], east of [[Haiti]] ; [[Geographic coordinates]]: : {{coor dm\|19\|00\|N\|70\|40\|W\|type:country}} ; Map references: : Central America and the Caribbean ; Area: :* Total: 48,730 km&sup2; :* Land: 48,380 km&sup2; :* Water: 350 km&sup2; ; Area - comparative: : Slightly more than twice the size of [[New Hampshire]] ; Land boundaries: :* Total: 275 km :* Border countries: Haiti 275 km ; Coastline: : 1,288 km ; Maritime claims: :* Contiguous zone: 24 nm :* Continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin :* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm :* Territorial sea: 6 nm ; Climate: : Tropical maritime; little seasonal temperature variation; seasonal variation in rainfall ; Rivers: : Significant rivers include the [[Jimani River]], [[Río Yaque del Norte]], [[Río Jamao del Norte]], [[Río Isabela]] and the [[Ozama River]] [[Image:hispaniola_lrg.jpg\|thumb\|350px\|Topography map of Hispaniola]] ; Terrain: : Rugged highlands and mountains with fertile valleys interspersed ; Elevation extremes: :* Lowest point: [[Lago Enriquillo]] -46 m :* Highest point: [[Pico Duarte]] 3,098 m ; Natural resources: : [[Nickel]], [[bauxite]], [[gold]], [[silver]] ; Land use: :* Arable land: 21% :* Permanent crops: 9% :* Permanent pastures: 43% :* Forests and woodland: 12% :* Other: 15% (1993 est.) ; Irrigated land: : 2,300 km&sup2; (1993 est.) ; Natural hazards: : Lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding; periodic droughts ; Environment - current issues: : Water shortages; soil eroding into the sea damages coral reefs; deforestation; Hurricane Georges damage ; Environment - international agreements: :* Party to: [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change\|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Marine Life Conservation]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Ship Pollution]] :* Signed, but not ratified: [[Law of the Sea]] ; Geography - note: : Shares island of Hispaniola with Haiti (eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic, western one-third is Haiti) ==See also== [[Dominican Republic]] [[Category:Geography of the Dominican Republic\|]] [[Category:Geography by country\|Dominican Republic]] [[es:Geografía de la República Dominicana]] [[fr:Géographie de la République dominicaine]] [[pt:Geografia da República Dominicana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of the Dominican Republic</title> <id>8065</id> <revision> <id>42045865</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:36:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KnightRider</username> <id>430793</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>warnfile Modifying: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">About half of [[Dominican Republic\|Dominicans]] live in rural areas; many are small landholders. Spanish is the dominant language among the majority population. [[Haiti]]ans form the largest minority group, some 500 000 (or 6% of the population) according to [[Human Rights Watch]].<sup>[http://www.hrw.org/americas/dom_rep/p_essay.html]</sup> Many Haitians in the Dominican Republic are illegal immigrants; others are Dominican-born citizens, and some are legal immigrants. All religions are tolerated; the state religion is [[Roman Catholicism]]. '''Population:''' 9,049,595 (July 200
itism was bound up with the concept, and gentlemen were expected to act as moral guides to the rest of society. They were to: * cultivate themselves morally; * participate in the correct performance of ritual; * show filial piety and loyalty where these are due; and * cultivate humaneness. The great example of the perfect gentleman is Confucius himself. Perhaps the greatest tragedy of his life was that he was never awarded the high official position which he desired, from which he wished to demonstrate the general well-being that would ensue if humane persons ruled and administered the state. The opposite of the ''J&#363;nz&#464;'' was the ''Xi&#462;orén'' (&#23567;&#20154;), literally "small person" or "petty person." Like English "small", the word in this context in Chinese can mean petty in mind and heart, narrowly self-interested, greedy, superficial, and materialistic. ===Governing=== <blockquote> "To govern by virtue, let us compare it to the North Star: it stays in its place, while the myriad stars wait upon it." (''Analects'' II, 1) </blockquote> Another key Confucian concept is that in order to govern others one must first govern oneself. When developed sufficiently, the king's personal virtue spreads beneficent influence throughout the kingdom. This idea is developed further in the [[Great Learning]] and is tightly linked with the [[Taoism\|Taoist]] concept of [[wu wei]]: the less the king does, the more that is done. By being the "calm centre" around which the kingdom turns, the king allows everything to function smoothly and avoids having to tamper with the individual parts of the whole. This idea may be traced back to early shamanistic beliefs, such as that of the king (''wang'', &#29579;) being the axle between the sky, human beings and the Earth. (The character itself shows the three levels of the universe, united by a single line.) <!-- Sitting at the right place on the throne, facing south, and once a year at the right time, promulgating the new calendar, was, in short, the way to shine forth its might all over the world.--> Another complementary view is that this idea may have been used by ministers and counsellors to deter aristocratic whims that would otherwise be to the detriment of the population. === Meritocracy === <blockquote> "In teaching, there should be no distinction of classes."</br> (''Analects'' XV, 39) </blockquote> Although Confucius claimed that he never invented anything but was only transmitting ancient knowledge (see ''Analects'' VII, 1), he did produce a number of new ideas. Many [[Western world\|western]] admirers such as [[Voltaire]] and [[H.G. Creel]] point to the (then) revolutionary idea of replacing the nobility of blood with one of virtue. J&#363;nz&#464; (&#21531;&#23376;), which had meant "noble man" before Confucius' work, slowly assumed a new connotation in the course of his writings, rather as "[[gentleman]]" did in [[English language\|English]]. A virtuous plebeian who cultivates his qualities can be a "gentleman", while a shameless son of the king is only a "small man". That he allowed students of different classes to be his disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures in Chinese society. Another new idea, that of [[meritocracy]], led to the introduction of the [[Imperial examination]] system in China. This system allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring wealth and honour to the whole family. Though the European enthusiasm toward China died away after [[1789]], China gave Europe one very important practical legacy: the modern civil service. The Chinese examination system seems to have been started in [[165 BC]], when certain candidates for public office were called to the Chinese capital for examination of their moral excellence by the emperor. Over the following centuries the system grew until finally almost anyone who wished to become an official had to prove his worth by passing written government examinations.<!--Is there a source for this claim? It is noticeable that the Western university system, which is now copied in China, was partly built with regard to China's system of governmental election.--> Confucius praised those kings <!-- check which ones --> who left their kingdoms to those apparently most qualified rather than to their elder sons. His achievement was the setting up of a school that produced statemen with a strong sense of state and duty, known as Rujia 儒家, the 'School of the Literati'. During the [[Warring States Period]] and the early [[Han dynasty]] China grew greatly and the need for a solid and centralized corporation of government officers able to read and write administrative papers arose. As a result Confucianism was promoted and the corporation of men it produced became an effective counter to the remaining landowner aristocrats otherwise threatening the unity of the state. Since then Confucianism has been used as a kind of "state religion", with authoritarianism, legitimism<!--Is this a word? Answer: Yes it is a word. Definition of legitamist: "One that believes in or advocates rule by hereditary right."-->, paternalism and submission to authority used as political tools to rule China. In fact most emperors used a mix of legalism and Confucianism as their ruling doctrine, often with the latter embellishing the former. They also often used different varieties of Taoism or Buddhism as their personal philosophy or religion. As with many revered men, Confucius himself would probably have disapproved of much that has been done in his name: the use of ritual is only part of his teachings. ==Debates== ===Does Confucianism promote corruption?=== Different from many other political philosophies, Confucianism is reluctant to employ laws. In a society where relationships are considered more important than the laws themselves, if no other power forces government officers to take the common interest into consideration, [[political corruption\|corruption]] and [[nepotism]] will arise. As government officers' salary was often far lower than the minimum required to raise a family, Chinese society has frequently been affected by those problems, and still is. Even if some means to control and reduce corruption and nepotism have been successfully used in China, Confucianism is criticized for not providing such a means itself. One major argument against this criticism is that the so-called Confucian East Asian societies such as [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]], [[Japan]], [[Singapore]], [[South Korea]], and China have exhibited the most extraordinary growth rates in economic history. Singapore has also consistently been noted as one of the most corruption-free states on earth. If Confucianism promotes corruption, how can such rapid growth be possible? Critics point to continuing problems with nepotism and corruption in those countries and slowing economic growth in the past decade, not only in Japan, but also, to a lesser extent, in the others. Furthermore, Singapore may be classed as an example of a Western, [[Kant\|Kantian]] system of rule by law, or perhaps a [[Legalism\|Legalist]] system, rather than Confucian. ===Was there a Confucianism?=== One of the many problems in discussing the history of Confucianism is the question of what Confucianism is. In this article, Confucianism can be understood roughly as largely "the stream of individuals, claiming Master Kong to be the Greatest Master" while it also means "the social group following moral, political, and philosophical doctrine of what was considered, at a given time, as the orthodox understanding of Confucius". In this meaning, this "group" can be identified, during periods of discussions with others doctrines, like [[Han dynasty\|Han]] and [[Tang dynasty]], with a kind of political party. During periods of Confucian hegemony, such as during the [[Song dynasty\|Song]], [[Ming dynasty\|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty\|Qing]] dynasties, it can be identified roughly with the social class of government officials. But the reality of such a grouping is debated. In his book, ''Manufacturing Confucianism'', Lionel Jensen claims that our modern image of Confucius and Confucianism, which is that of a wise symbol of learning and a state-sponsored quasi-religion, did not exist in China from time immemorial, but was manufactured by European Jesuits, as a "translation" of the ancient indigenous traditions, known as "Ru Jia", in order to portray Chinese society to Europeans. The notion of Confucianism was then borrowed back by the Chinese, who used it for their own purposes. <!-- which ones ? --> Therefore, we could define Confucianism as "any system of thinking that has, at its foundations, the works that are regarded as the '[[Chinese classic texts\|Confucian classics]]', which was the corpus used in the Imperial examination system". Even this definition runs into problems because this corpus was subject to changes and additions. Neo-Confucianism, for instance, valorized the [[Great Learning]] and the [[Zhong Yong]] in this corpus, because their themes are close to those of [[Taoism]] and [[Buddhism]]. ===The Script controversy=== The origin of this problem lies with the attempt of the First Emperor, [[Qin Shi Huang]], to burn all of the books. After the [[Qin dynasty]] was overthrown by the [[Han Dynasty\|Han]], there was the monumental task of recreating all of the knowledge that was destroyed. The method undertaken was to find all of the remaining scholars and have them reconstruct, from memory, the texts that were lost. This produced the "New Script" texts. Afterwards, people began finding fragments of books that had
[[Lutheranism\|Lutheran]] &ndash; 6% [[Church of Christ]] &ndash; 5% [[Pentecostalism\|Pentecostal]] &ndash; 3% [[Mennonite]]/Pietist &ndash; 1% Other Protestant &ndash; 23% [[Roman Catholicism in the United States\|Roman Catholic]] &ndash; 19% Other Christian &ndash; 1% Other Religions &ndash; 1% Non-Religious &ndash; 17% ==Counties and townships== [[List of Indiana counties]] and their [[List of Indiana county name etymologies\|etymologies]] [[List of townships in Indiana]] == Important cities and towns == {\| \|- \|valign=top\| ===Population > 1,000,000 (urbanized area)=== [[Indianapolis, Indiana\|Indianapolis]], capital city, near center of state ===Population > 100,000 (urbanized area)=== [[Fort Wayne, Indiana\|Fort Wayne]], in the northeast [[Evansville, Indiana\|Evansville]], in the southwest, on the Ohio River, home of [[University of Evansville]] and [[University of Southern Indiana]] [[South Bend, Indiana\|South Bend]], near [[Michigan]] border, home of [[University of Notre Dame]] [[Gary, Indiana\|Gary]], in the northwest, home of the [[Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore]] ===Population > 10,000 (urbanized area)=== [[Anderson, Indiana\|Anderson]] [[Bloomington, Indiana\|Bloomington]], home of [[Indiana University Bloomington\|Indiana University]] (main campus) [[Muncie, Indiana\|Muncie]], home of [[Ball State University]] [[Terre Haute, Indiana\|Terre Haute]], home of [[Indiana State University]] and [[Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology]] [[Elkhart, Indiana\|Elkhart]] [[Lafayette, Indiana\|Lafayette]] [[West Lafayette, Indiana\|West Lafayette]], home of the main campus of [[Purdue University]] [[Michigan City, Indiana\|Michigan City]] [[Kokomo, Indiana\|Kokomo]] [[Columbus, Indiana\|Columbus]] [[Marion, Indiana\|Marion]], birthplace of actor [[James Dean]] and cartoonist [[Jim Davis (cartoonist)\|Jim Davis]]. [[Richmond, Indiana\|Richmond]] [[Perrysville, Indiana\|Perrysville]] [[Warsaw, Indiana\|Warsaw]] [[Logansport, Indiana\|Logansport]] [[New Castle, Indiana\|New Castle]] [[Vincennes, Indiana\|Vincennes]] [[Auburn, Indiana\|Auburn]], home of Auburn-Cord-Duesenberg Museum. [[Seymour, Indiana\|Seymour]] [[Shelbyville, Indiana\|Shelbyville]] [[Huntington, Indiana\|Huntington]], home of [[Huntington University]] [[Frankfort, Indiana\|Frankfort]] [[Connersville, Indiana\|Connersville]] [[Crawfordsville, Indiana\|Crawfordsville]] [[Greenfield, Indiana\|Greenfield]] [[Peru, Indiana\|Peru]] [[Bedford, Indiana\|Bedford]] [[Lebanon, Indiana\|Lebanon]] [[Madison, Indiana\|Madison]] [[Jasper, Indiana\|Jasper]] [[Lawrenceburg, Indiana\|Lawrenceburg]] [[Martinsville, Indiana\|Martinsville]] [[Washington, Indiana\|Washington]] [[Plymouth, Indiana\|Plymouth]] [[Wabash, Indiana\|Wabash]] [[North Vernon, Indiana\|North Vernon]] [[Scottsburg, Indiana\|Scottsburg]] [[Angola, Indiana\|Angola]] [[Elwood, Indiana\|Elwood]] [[Kendallville, Indiana\|Kendallville]] [[Greensburg, Indiana\|Greensburg]] [[Decatur, Indiana\|Decatur]] [[Valparaiso, Indiana\|Valparaiso]], home of Valparaiso University [[Brazil, Indiana\|Brazil]] [[Jeffersonville, Indiana\|Jeffersonville]] \|valign=top\| \|valign=top\| \|valign=top\| ===Important suburbs of [[Indianapolis]]=== [[Avon, Indiana\|Avon]] [[Beech Grove, Indiana\|Beech Grove]] [[Brownsburg, Indiana\|Brownsburg]] [[Carmel, Indiana\|Carmel]] [[Fishers, Indiana\|Fishers]] [[Franklin, Indiana\|Franklin]] [[Greenwood, Indiana\|Greenwood]] [[Lawrence, Indiana\|Lawrence]] [[Noblesville, Indiana\|Noblesville]] [[Plainfield, Indiana\|Plainfield]] [[Southport, Indiana\|Southport]] [[Speedway, Indiana\|Speedway]], home of the [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]] [[Zionsville, Indiana\|Zionsville]] ===Important suburbs of [[Chicago]]=== [[Crown Point, Indiana\|Crown Point]] [[East Chicago, Indiana\|East Chicago]] [[Gary, Indiana\|Gary]] [[Griffith, Indiana\|Griffith]] [[Hammond, Indiana\|Hammond]] [[Highland, Lake County, Indiana\|Highland, Lake County]] [[Hobart, Indiana\|Hobart]] [[Merrillville, Indiana\|Merrillville]] [[Munster, Indiana\|Munster]] [[Portage, Indiana\|Portage]] ===Important suburbs of [[Louisville]]=== [[Clarksville, Indiana\|Clarksville]] [[Jeffersonville, Indiana\|Jeffersonville]] [[New Albany, Indiana\|New Albany]], home of Supreme Court Justice Sherman Minton ===Important suburbs of [[Fort Wayne, Indiana\|Fort Wayne]]=== [[Huntertown, Indiana\|Huntertown]] [[Leo-Cedarville, Indiana\|Leo-Cedarville]] [[New Haven, Indiana\|New Haven]] ===Important suburbs of [[Evansville, Indiana\|Evansville]]=== [[Henderson, Kentucky\|Henderson]] [[Princeton, Indiana\|Princeton]] [[Newburgh, Indiana\|Newburgh]] [[Mt. Vernon, Indiana\|Mt. Vernon]] ===Important suburbs of [[South Bend, Indiana\|South Bend]]=== [[Granger, Indiana\|Granger]] [[Mishawaka, Indiana\|Mishawaka]] \|} == Education == === Colleges and universities === {\| \|- \|valign=top\|<small> ====State-supported==== [[Ball State University]] [[Indiana State University]] [[Indiana University System]] [[Indiana University at Bloomington]] [[Indiana University East]] (Richmond) [[Indiana University at Kokomo]] [[Indiana University Northwest]] [[Indiana University South Bend]] [[Indiana University Southeast]] [[Indiana University Purdue University at Columbus]] [[IPFW\|Indiana University Purdue University at Fort Wayne]] [[IUPUI\|Indiana University Purdue University at Indianapolis]] [[Ivy Tech State College]] [[Purdue University System]] [[Purdue University]] [[Purdue University Calumet]] [[Purdue University North Central]] [[Indiana University Purdue University at Columbus]] [[IPFW\|Indiana University Purdue University at Fort Wayne]] [[IUPUI\|Indiana University Purdue University at Indianapolis]] [[Purdue University School of Technology]] [[Purdue University School of Technology at Anderson\|Anderson]] [[Purdue University School of Technology at Columbus\|Columbus]] [[Purdue University School of Technology at Indianapolis\|Indianapolis]] [[Purdue University School of Technology at Kokomo\|Kokomo]] [[Purdue University School of Technology at Muncie\|Muncie]] [[Purdue University School of Technology at New Albany\|New Albany]] [[Purdue University School of Technology at Richmond\|Richmond]] [[Indiana University South Bend\|Indiana University South Bend]] *[[Purdue University School of Technology at Versailles\|Versailles]] [[University of Southern Indiana]] [[Vincennes University]] \|valign=top\| \|valign=top\| \|valign=top\| ====Private==== [[Ancilla College]] [[Anderson University]] [[Bethel College (Indiana)\|Bethel College]] [[Butler University]] [[Calumet College of St. Joseph]] [[Christian Theological Seminary]] [[Concordia Theological Seminary]] ([[Fort Wayne, Indiana\|Fort Wayne]] campus) [[DePauw University]] [[DeVry University]] [[Earlham College]] [[Franklin College]] [[Goshen College]] [[Grace College]] [[Hanover College]] [[Holy Cross College (Indiana)\|Holy Cross College]] [[Huntington University]] [[Hyles-Anderson College]] [[Indiana Institute of Technology]] [[Indiana Wesleyan University]] [[Manchester College]] [[Marian College]] [[Martin University]] [[Oakland City University]] [[Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology]] [[Saint Joseph's College, Indiana\|Saint Joseph's College]] [[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College]] [[Saint Mary's College (Indiana)\|Saint Mary's College]] [[Taylor University]] [[Tri-State University]] [[University of Evansville]] [[University of Indianapolis]] [[University of Notre Dame]] [[University of Saint Francis (Indiana)\|University of Saint Francis]] [[Valparaiso University]] [[Wabash College]] </small> \|} == Professional sports teams == {\| \|- \|valign=top\| [[Indianapolis Colts]], [[National Football League]] [[Indiana Pacers]], [[National Basketball Association]] [[Indiana Fever]], [[Women's National Basketball Association]] [[FC Indiana]], [[Women's Premier Soccer League]] [[Fort Wayne Komets]], [[United Hockey League]] [[Indiana Ice]], [[United States Hockey League]] \|valign=top\| \|valign=top\| \|valign=top\| [[minor league baseball\|Minor League baseball teams]] [[Gary SouthShore Railcats]] [[Indianapolis Indians]] [[South Bend Silver Hawks]] [[Fort Wayne Wizards]] *[[Evansville Otters]] \|} ==Time zones== [[Image:National-atlas-us-time-zones.png\|thumb\|right\|250px\|Map of U.S. time zones, with Indiana shaded out.]] Most of Indiana has historically exempted itself from the observation of [[daylight saving time]] (DST). Some counties within this area, particularly [[Floyd County, Indiana\|Floyd]], [[Clark County, Indiana\|Clark]], and [[Harrison County, Indiana\|Harrison]] counties near [[Louisville, Kentucky]], and [[Ohio County, Indiana\|Ohio]] and [[Dearborn County, Indiana\|Dearborn]] counties near [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], observe daylight saving time unofficially and illegally by local custom. In addition, [[Lake County, Indiana\|Lake]], [[Porter County, Indiana\|Porter]], [[LaPorte County, Indiana\|LaPorte]], [[Newton County, Indiana\|Newton]], and [[Jasper County, Indiana\|Jasper]] counties in the northwest and [[Gibson County, Indiana\|Gibson]], [[Posey County, Indiana\|Posey]], [[Vanderburgh County, Indiana\|Vanderburgh]], [[Warrick County, Indiana\|Warrick]], and [[Spencer County, Indiana\|Spencer]] counties in the southwest are in the [[Central time zone]] and remain subject to daylight saving time. The history of this unique arrangement is fairly convoluted. From 1918 until 1961, at which time authority under the various Standard Time Acts was in the Interstate Commerce Commission, the dividing line between Eastern and Central Standard Time was approximately the eastern boundary line of the State of Indiana. In 1961 after hearings, the Interstate Commerce Commission adjusted the boundary line between Eastern and [[Time zone#UTC-6 (CST - Central Standard Time)\|Central]] so that the line essentially split Indiana down the middle. In 1967, the
==Decoration and ornaments== [[Tinsel]] and several types of [[garland (decoration)\|garland]] or [[ribbon]] are commonly used to decorate a Christmas tree. Delicate mould-blown and painted coloured glass [[Christmas ornament]]s were a specialty of [[Czech lands\|Czech]] glass factories from the late 19th century, and have since become a large industry, complete with famous-name designers. Lighting with [[candle]]s or electric lights ([[fairy lights]]) is commonly done, and a [[tree topper]] completes the ensemble. Strands of [[tinsel]] may be hung in groups from longer branches to simulate [[icicle]]s, though this [[trend]] has gradually fallen off since the late 1970s. Baubles are another extremely common decoration, and usually consist of a fairly small hollow glass or plastic sphere coated with a thin metallic layer to make them reflective, and then with a further coating of a thin pigmented polymer in order to provide colouration. Individuals' decorations vary wildly, typically being an eclectic mix of family traditions and personal tastes; even a small unattractive ornament, if passed down from a parent or grandparent, may come to carry considerable emotional value and be given pride of place on the tree. Conversely, trees decorated by professional designers for [[department store]]s and other institutions will usually have a "theme"; a set of predominant colours, multiple instances of each type of ornament, and larger decorations that may be more complicated to set up correctly. Many people also decorate outdoor trees with food that [[bird]]s and other [[wildlife]] will enjoy, such as garlands made from unsalted [[popcorn]] or [[cranberry\|cranberries]], [[orange (fruit)\|orange]] halves, and seed-covered [[suet]] cakes. ===Tree mats and skirts=== Since [[candle]]s were used to light trees until electric bulbs came about, a [[mat]] (UK) or "[[skirt]]" (US) was often placed on the floor below the tree to protect it by catching the dripping candle [[wax]], and also to collect any needles that fall. Even when dripless candles, electric lights and artificial trees have been used, a skirt is still usually used as a decorative feature: among other things, it hides the tree [[stand]], which may be unsightly but which is an important [http://www.safety.com/articles/keeping-your-christmas-tree-safe.html safety feature] of home trees. What began as ordinary [[cloth]] has now often become much more ornate, some having [[embroidery]] or being put together like a [[quilt]]. A [[nativity scene]], [[model train]], or [[Christmas village]] may be placed on the mat or skirt. As Christmas presents arrive, they are generally placed underneath the tree on the tree skirt (depending on tradition, all Christmas gifts, or those too large to be hung on the tree, as in "presents on the tree" of the song "[[White Christmas (song)\|White Christmas]]"). Generally, the difference between a mat and skirt is simply that a mat is placed ''under'' the tree stand, while a skirt is placed ''over'' it, having a hole in the middle for the trunk, with a slot cut to the outside edge so that it can be placed around the tree (beneath the branches) easily. A plain mat of fabric or plastic may also be placed under the stand and skirt to protect the floor from scratches or water. ===Flocking=== In the 1980s some trees were sprayed with fluffy white [[Flocking (texture)\|flocking]] to simulate snow. Typically it would be sprayed all over the tree from the sides, which produced a look different from real snow, which settles in clumps atop branches. Flocking can be done with a professional sprayer at a tree lot (or the manufacturer if it is artificial), or at home from a spray can, and either can be rather messy. This tradition seems to be limited mostly to the United States. ==Care and disposal of natural trees== These tips will ensure the tree will stay fresh for several weeks. # When transporting the tree, protect it from wind and road salts by covering it with plastic. # If decoration is not planned immediately, store the tree in a cool environment protected from the sun and wind. If possible, the night before decorating, bring the tree into a partially heated area to allow it to adjust gradually to temperature changes. # Before taking your tree inside, gently bang the tree on its stump several times to dislodge any loose needles. Just before placing it in the stand, cut 2-3 centimeters off the trunk. This allows the tree to continue taking up water, by removing the [[resin]]-soaked wood at the original cut. # Make sure your tree has a sturdy Christmas tree stand that holds 4-6 litres of water. Check it daily. Only use plain water; research shows that additives such as sugar, cola and aspirin do more harm than good. # Place your tree away from heat sources, including radiators and windows that get a lot of direct sunlight. After the holidays, dead trees can be put to other uses: * Use your tree as a [[bird feeder]], hanging [[suet]] balls or other food from the branches. * Use needles in a [[sachet]]. * Use the tree as a [[bean]] or [[pea]] support pole. * Trees can be cut into small pieces and use for [[mulch]] or [[compost]]ed; some cities offer this service to their residents. * In [[coast]]al areas, trees can be used to protect [[sand dune]]s from erosion. ==History== [[Image:Dionysus.jpg\|left\|thumb\|[[Dionysus]] in his Triumphant Return; behind the god, [[Victoria (mythology)\|Victoria]] holds an evergreen.]] The Christmas tree is often explained as a [[Christianization]] of the ancient [[Paganism\|pagan]] idea that the [[evergreen]] tree represents a celebration of the renewal of life. In [[Ancient Rome\|Roman]] [[mosaic]]s from what is today [[Tunisia]], showing the mythic triumphant return from [[India]] of the [[Greek mythology\|Greek]] god of [[wine]] and male [[fertility]], [[Dionysus]] (dubbed by some modern scholars as a [[life-death-rebirth deity]]), the god carries a tapering coniferous tree. [[Medieval]] legends, nevertheless, tended to concentrate more on the miraculous "flowering" of trees at Christmas time. A branch of flowering [[Glastonbury thorn]] is still sent annually for the Queen's Christmas table in the [[United Kingdom]]. [[Image:taiwan_christmas_tree_bunun.jpg\|right\|thumb\|[[Taiwanese_aborigine\|Taiwanese aboriginals]], tutored by Christian missionaries, celebrate with trees ([[Cunninghamia\|''Cunninghamia lanceolata'']]) outside their homes.]] Patron trees (for example, the [[Irminsul]], [[Thor's Oak]] and the figurative [[Yggdrasil]]) held special significance for the ancient [[Germanic peoples\|Germanic tribes]], appearing throughout historic accounts as sacred symbols and objects. Among early Germanic tribes the [[Yule]] tradition was celebrated by sacrificing male animals and [[slavery\|slaves]] by suspending them on the branches of trees. According to [[Adam of Bremen]], in [[Scandinavia]] the pagan kings sacrificed nine males of each species at the [[Sacred grove\|sacred groves]] every ninth year. According to one legend, [[Saint Boniface]] attempted to introduce the idea of [[trinity]] to the pagan tribes using the cone-shaped evergreen trees because of their triangular appearance. The modern custom, however, although likely related, cannot be proven to be directly descended from pagan tradition. It can be traced to 16th century [[Germany]]; [[Ingeborg Weber-Keller]] ([[Marburg]] professor of European [[ethnology]]) identified as the earliest reference a [[Bremen (city)\|Bremen]] [[guild]] [[chronicle]] of 1570 which reports how a small fir was decorated with apples, nuts, dates, pretzels and paper flowers, and erected in the guild-house, for the benefit of the guild members' children, who collected the dainties on Christmas day. Another early reference is from [[Basel]], where the taylor apprentices carried around town a tree decorated with apples and cheese in 1597. The city of [[Riga, Latvia]] claims to be home of the first holiday tree, an octagonal plaque in the town square reads "The First New Years Tree in Riga in 1510", in eight different languages. During the 17th century, the custom entered family homes. One [[Strasbourg]] priest, Johann Konrad Dannerhauer, complains about the custom as distracting from the word of God. By the early 18th century, the custom had become common in towns of the upper [[Rhineland]], but it had not yet spread to rural areas. Wax candles are attested from the late 18th century. The Christmas tree remained confined to the upper Rhineland for a relatively long time. It was regarded as a Protestant custom by the Catholic majority along the lower Rhine, and was spread there only by [[Kingdom of Prussia\|Prussian]] officials who were moved there in the wake of the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815. In the early 19th century, the custom became popular among the nobility and spread to royal courts as far as Russia. Princess [[Henrietta von Nassau-Weilburg]] introduced the Christmas tree to [[Vienna]] in 1816, and the custom spread across Austria in the following years. In [[France]], the first Christmas tree was introduced in 1840 by the duchess of Orleans. [[Image:Godey'streeDec1850.GIF\|thumb\|left\|200px\|The Queen's Christmas tree at [[Osborne House]]. The engraving republished in ''[[Godey's Lady's Book]]'', Philadelphia, December 1850]] In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced by King George III's German Queen [[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]], but did not spread much beyond the royal family. Queen Victoria as a child was familiar with the custom, in her journal for Christmas Eve 1832, the delighted 13-year-old Princess wrote: "After dinner...we then went into the drawing-room near the dining-room...There were two large round tables on which were placed two trees hung with lights and sugar ornaments. All the presents being placed round the trees...". After her marriage to her German cousin, [
emove Schwarzenegger's name from the stadium. Schwarzenegger responded, saying that "to spare the responsible politicians of the city of Graz further concern, I withdraw from them as of this day the right to use my name in association with the Liebenauer Stadium". Graz officials removed Schwarzenegger's name from the stadium in December 2005 (see [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4560182.stm]). * In a satirical tribute to Schwarzenegger in 2002, Forum Stadtpark, a local cultural association, proposed plans to build a 25-metre (82 foot) tall ''Terminator'' statue in a park in central Graz. Schwarzenegger reportedly said he was flattered, but thought the money would be better spent on social projects and the [[Special Olympics]] (see [http://www.killoggs.com/news/?news=609]). * In 2005 [[Peter Pilz]] from the [[Austrian Green Party]] in parliament demanded to revoke Schwarzenegger's Austrian citizenship. This demand was based on article 33 of the Austrian citizenship act that states: '''A citizen, who is in the public service of a foreign country, shall be deprived of his citizenship, if he heavily damages the reputation or the interests of the Austrian Republic''' (see [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4198633.stm]). Pilz claimed that Schwarzenegger's actions in support of the death penalty (prohibited in Austria under Protocol 13 of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]) had indeed done heavy damage to Austria's reputation. Schwarzenegger justified his actions by referring to the fact that his only duty as Governor of California was to prevent an error in the judicial system. "Schwarzenegger has a lot of muscles, but apparently not much heart," said Julien Dray, spokesman for the Socialist Party in France, where the death penalty was abolished in 1981. * Schwarzenegger as president of the U.S. was jokingly referenced in the 1993 [[Sylvester Stallone]] film, ''[[Demolition Man (film)\|Demolition Man]],'' where a future America passed a constitutional amendment to allow [[naturalization\| naturalized]] Americans like Schwarzenegger to become [[President of the United States]], and that film has reference to a "Schwarzenegger Presidential Library". * Because Schwarzenegger opted in 1997 for a replacement heart valve made of his own transplanted tissue, medical experts predict he will require repeated heart valve replacement surgery in the next two to eight years (as his current valve degrades). Schwarzenegger apparently opted against a mechanical valve, the only permanent solution available at the time of his surgery, because it would have sharply limited his physical activity and capacity to exercise. * He bought the first [[Hummer]] manufactured for [[civilian]] use in 1992, a model so large, 6,300 lb (2900 kg) and 7 feet (2.1 m) wide that it is classified as a large truck and U.S. fuel economy regulations do not apply to it. During the Gubernatorial Recall campaign he announced that he would convert one of his Hummers to burn hydrogen (see [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3180817/]). The conversion was reported to have cost about $21,000 (USD). After the election, he signed an executive order to jumpstart the building of hydrogen refueling plants called the "California Hydrogen Highway Network", and gained a [[United States Department of Energy\|DOE]] grant to help pay for its projected $91,000,000 (USD) cost (see [http://www.bmwworld.com/hydrogen/schwarzenegger.htm]). California took delivery of the first H2H (Hydrogen Hummer) in October 2004 (see [http://trucks.about.com/od/hybridcar/a/hummer_h2h.htm]). * His fellow bodybuilder and actor, [[Sven-Ole Thorsen]], has collaborated with him in 15 movies so far. * He has appeared alongside his fellow actor from [[Around the World in 80 Days (2004 film)\|Around the World in 80 Days]], [[Jackie Chan]], in a government advert to combat piracy, (see [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6443035544827856436&q=Jackie+Chan&pr=goog-sl]). * Schwarzenegger's official height has usually been reported as 6'2", though some observers debit him two or three inches. While campaigning for [[George W. Bush]] in Ohio in 2004, he appeared only about an inch taller than the 5'11" President. Schwarzenegger's weight while competing was in the 245 pound range; currently, he carries about 210 pounds. * In 1983 Arnold Schwarzenegger starred in the promotional video "Carnival in Rio", which ''could'' be seen as advertising [[sex tourism]] in [[Brazil]] (see [http://www.devilducky.com/media/38195/]). ==Net worth== According to ([http://www.arnoldexposed.com/]), Schwarzenegger's net worth has been estimated conservatively at $100,000,000 (USD), and over the years, he invested his bodybuilding and movie earnings in an array of stocks, bonds, privately controlled companies and real estate holdings in the US and worldwide. ==See also== * [[Spy Magazine]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{commons\|Arnold Schwarzenegger}} ===Official=== [http://www.governor.ca.gov/ State of California - Office of Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger] [http://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/index.asp Arnold Schwarzenegger's Official Website] (Non-Political) [http://www.joinarnold.com/ Arnold Schwarzenegger's Official Political Website] [http://www.citizenstosaveca.org/ Citizens to Save California, a broad-based committee supporting the reform agendas of Governor Schwarzenegger and others ] ===Unofficial=== [http://ezinearticles.com/?id=105280 Arnold's Office Refuses to Comment] [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000216/ Arnold Schwarzenegger] at [[The Internet Movie Database]] * [http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/arnold_schwarzenegger.html Arnold Schwarzenegger] - Timeline of his life [http://www.askmen.com/men/mar00/15_arnold_schwarzenegger.html Arnold Schwarzenegger on AskMen.com] [http://www.commandofans.com CommandoFans.com] A website and message board dedicated to the Schwarzenegger film ''Commando''. * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/3131155.stm Arnold and the American dream] (BBC News) * Greg Palast [http://www.gregpalast.com/detail.cfm?artid=283&row=1 Arnold Unplugged] (exposé on the Schwarzenegger-Enron connection) * [http://www.schwarzenegger.ca Schwarzenegger.ca] A bodybuilding forum, complete with a dedicated Arnold section * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/media/video/39425000/rm/_39425228_arnie_speech_vi.ram Video: Arnold's victory speech] (BBC News) * [http://www.languagemonitor.com/uploads/pjjp_au_interview.mp3 ArnoldSPEAK: The Governator's Impact on Language] * [http://100towatch.com/2008/arnold-schwarzenegger.html Arnold Schwarzenegger news and related links] * [http://www.mediaman.com.au/profiles/schwarzenegger.html Arnold Schwarzenegger: King of bodybuilding, movies, politics and media] * [http://www.globalarnold.com/ globalarnold.com] (Global Arnold Schwarzenegger fan community) * [http://www.schwarzeneggergovernor.com/ Arnold Schwarzenegger Governor] * [http://usliberals.about.com/b/a/235539.htm About.com's Arnold Schwarzenegger, California's Newest Democrat ] * [http://www.arnoldexposed.com/ Anti-Schwarzenegger web site.] * [http://www.arnoldcalls.com/ Site dedicated to Arnold Schwarzenegger prank calls.] * [http://www.mashhur.com/item/commando Schwarzenegger's popularity in Pakistan] * [http://arnoldaloisschwarzenegger.com/ Arnold Schwarzenegger] Unofficial Blog for Arnold Schwarzenegger * [http://arnoldexposed.com/ Arnold Exposed] An unofficial website claiming to have evidence of Schwarzenegger's misconduct ==References== * Arnold Schwarzenegger, ''Arnold: Developing a Mr Universe Physique'', 1977 * ---- [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/arnoldinter1.html Interview in ''Oui'' magazine, August 1977 ] * ---- [http://www.time.com/time/nation/printout/0,8816,483264,00.html Excerpts from ''Time Out'' (London) interview, 1977] * ---- ''Arnold: The Education of a Bodybuilder'', 1983, Simon & Schuster, Reprint edition, 1993, ISBN 06717974841983. autobiography * ---- ''Arnold's Body Building for Men'', Simon & Schuster, Reprint edition, 1984, ISBN 0671531638 * ---- ''The New Encyclopedia of Modern Bodybuilding : The Bible of Bodybuilding'', 1985, Fully Updated and Revised, Simon & Schuster, 1999, ISBN 0684857219 * Nigel Andrews, ''True Myths of Arnold Schwarzenegger : The Life and Times of Arnold Schwarzenegger, from Pumping Iron to Governor of California'', Bloomsbury USA, Revised edition, 2004, ISBN 1582344655 * Michael Blitz, ''Why Arnold Matters: The Rise of a Cultural Icon'' Karen Brandon, ''Arnold Schwarzenegger''. Colleen A. Sexton, ''Arnold Schwarzenegger (A&E Biography)'', Lerner Publications, 2004, ISBN 0822522233 * Susan Zannos, ''Arnold Schwarzenegger (Real-Life Reader Biography)'' * Andy Borowitz, ''Governor Arnold : A Photodiary of His First 100 Days in Office'', Simon & Schuster, 2004, ISBN 0743262662 * "Arnold Schwarzenegger - Hollywood Hero" DVD ~ Todd Baker * "Pumping Iron" (25th Anniversary Special Edition) DVD ~ George Butler * {{imdb name\|id=0000216\|name=Arnold Schwarzenegger}} *[http://www.cinemovie.info/ArnoldSchwarzenegger_scheda.html Cinemovie.Info: Arnold Schwarzenegger] {{start box}} {{incumbent succession box\| title=[[List of Governors of California\|Governor of California]]\| before=[[Gray Davis]]\| start=2003\| }} {{end box}} {{CAGovernors}} {{Template:Current U.S. governors}} [[Category:1947 births\|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Roman Catholic politicians\|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Roman Catholics\|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Actor-politicians\|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:American bodybuilders\|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:American entrepreneurs\|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Austrian actors\|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Austrian-Americans\|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Batman actors\|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Film actors\|Schwarzene
referred to the line determined by the 1900 Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua likely would be required; maritime boundary dispute with Nicaragua in the [[Caribbean Sea]]. == Illicit drugs: == Honduras is a transshipment point for [[illegal drug trade\|drugs]] and [[narcotics]]; illicit producer of [[cannabis]], cultivated on small plots and used principally for local consumption; [[political corruption\|corruption]] is a major problem. ''Parts of this article are based on text from the [[CIA World Factbook]].'' [[Category:Foreign relations of Honduras\| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hong Kong</title> <id>13404</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42102546</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:15:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.72.195.11</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}} <!-- NOTE: Commonwealth spelling is used in this article --> {{Hong Kong infobox}} The '''Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China''' ([[Traditional Chinese character\|Traditional Chinese]]: 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區; [[Simplified Chinese character\|Simplified Chinese]]: 中华人民共和国香港特别行政区 <small>[[Pronunciation of Hong Kong\|pronunciation]]</small>), is located on the southeastern coast of China. '''Hong Kong''' (香港, in [[Yale_romanization#Cantonese\|Cantonese Yale]], ''Hèung Góng'', also known as Hongkong, which was common in older English-language texts, or ''Xiānggǎng'', in [[Pinyin]]) has one of the world's most [[laissez-faire\|liberal economies]] and is a major international centre of [[finance]] and [[trade]]. A former [[British overseas territory\|British colony]] now administered by the PRC under the "[[one country, two systems]]" policy, Hong Kong is [[Hong Kong Basic Law\|constitutionally entitled]] to a relatively high degree of [[autonomy]]; for example, it retains its own [[legal system]], [[currency]], [[Customs (tax)\|customs]], treaty negotiating rights, such as air traffic and aircraft landing rights, and [[immigration]] laws. Hong Kong even maintains its own [[Rules of the road\|road rules]], with [[traffic]] continuing to drive on the left. Only [[national defense\|national defence]]<!-- NOTE: "Defence" is commonwealth spelling. --> and [[diplomatic relations]] are responsibilities of the [[central People's Government\|central government]] in [[Beijing]]. Despite Hong Kong's reversion from British to Chinese rule, the region's English name remains "Hong Kong" (which sounds closer to the pronunciation in the local [[Cantonese (linguistics)\|Cantonese]] language), and not, as some sources suggest, Xiānggǎng (the [[Standard Mandarin\|Mandarin]] equivalent).[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation_of_Hong_Kong] ==History== {{main\|History of Hong Kong}} Though Hong Kong has been inhabited since the [[Palaeolithic Age]], the area now known as Hong Kong was an important trading region, and also a significant strategic location for the Chinese mainland during the [[Tang Dynasty\|Tang]] and [[Song Dynasty\|Song]] [[Chinese dynasties\|dynasties]] and the subsequent [[Mongol]] invasion. After that, the prominence of Hong Kong fell, and only began to attract the attention of China again and the rest of the world in the 19th century when it was ceded to [[United Kingdom\|Britain]] after the [[Opium Wars]]. Hong Kong was first visited by a European in 1513, the [[Portugal\|Portuguese]] [[mariner]] [[Jorge Álvares]]. Álvares began trading with the Chinese, and the Portuguese continued to make periodic trade stops at various locations up and down the coast. [[Tea]], [[silk]], and other Asian [[luxury good]]s were introduced in Europe by the Portuguese, and by the mid-18th century, these items were in high demand, particularly tea. The British, challenging China's near monopoly on the tea industry, invaded China, winning the [[First Opium War]] in 1841. During the war, [[Hong Kong Island]] was first occupied by the British, and was formally ceded by the [[Qing Dynasty]] of China in 1842 under the [[Treaty of Nanking]]. Hong Kong became a [[crown colony]] in 1843. [[Kowloon Peninsula]] south of [[Boundary Street]] and [[Stonecutter's Island]] were ceded to the British in 1860 under the [[Convention of Peking]] after the [[Second Opium War]]. Various adjacent lands, known as the [[New Territories]] (including [[New Kowloon]] and [[Lantau Island]]), were then [[leasing\|leased]] by Britain for 99 years, beginning on [[1 July]] [[1898]] and ending on [[30 June]] [[1997]]. For the first twenty years there was little contact between the European and Chinese communities. The first specially recruited Hong Kong civil servants to be taught [[Cantonese language\|Cantonese]] were recruited in 1862, markedly improving relations. [[Image:1945 liberation of Hong Kong at Cenotaph.jpg\|left\|thumb\|250px\|The liberation of Hong Kong in 1945 was celebrated at the [[Cenotaph]] in [[Victoria City\|Victoria]] with the raising of the [[Union Jack\|Union Flag]] and the [[Flag of the Republic of China]].]] Hong Kong entered a dark age during the [[Japanese Occupation of Hong Kong\|Japanese Occupation]] of [[World War II]], which lasted for three years and eight months. Many Hong Kong people were executed by the Japanese army during the war. The Japanese subsequently surrendered on [[15 August]] [[1945]]. The port was quickly re-opened and welcomed a mass migration of Chinese [[refugee]]s in 1949 from the [[Chinese Civil War\|civil war]] and the new [[Communism\|Communist]] government in China. Hong Kong had been a trade port ever since the British occupation, but its position as an [[entrepot]] declined greatly after the [[United Nations]] ordered a trade embargo against the People's Republic of China as a result of the [[Korean War]]. In response, a [[textile]] industry was established, taking advantage of the new pool of workers from China who were willing to work for almost any wage. During this period, the economy grew extremely rapidly. Towards the 1970s, Hong Kong began to move away from the textile industry and develop its financial and banking economy. This led to even greater growth, and Hong Kong quickly became one of the wealthiest territories in the world. Its position as an entrepot was restrengthened since the [[Open Door Policy]] was adopted in the PRC in the late 1970s under [[Deng Xiaoping]]. In the 1980s, with the lease on the New Territories running out, the British government of [[Margaret Thatcher]] decided to negotiate the [[Transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong\|question of the sovereignty of Hong Kong]]. Although the British would have been legally required to transfer only the New Territories to the PRC, Whitehall decided that maintaining a rump colony would not be worthwhile - the majority of Hong Kong's land was in the New Territories, and failure to return the entire colony would doubtless have generated political friction between the UK and PRC. [[Image:Flag of Hong Kong 1959.svg\|thumb\|200px\|Flag of colonial Hong Kong, a [[Blue Ensign]] with the colony's coat of arms.]] Pursuant to an agreement known as the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]], signed by the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[United Kingdom]] on [[19 December]] [[1984]], the whole territory of Hong Kong under British [[colonial]] rule became the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the PRC on [[1 July]] [[1997]]. In the Joint Declaration, the PRC promised that under the "[[One Country, Two Systems]]" policy proposed by [[Deng Xiaoping]], the [[socialism\|socialist]] [[economy of the People's Republic of China\|economic system in mainland China]] would not be practised in Hong Kong, and Hong Kong's previous [[capitalism\|capitalist system]] and life-style would remain unchanged for 50 years, or until 2047. Hong Kong would enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters except diplomatic affairs and national defence<!--defence is commonwealth spelling-->. Hong Kong was transferred to the PRC at the stroke of midnight on [[1 July]] [[1997]], with the last governor, [[Chris Patten]] leaving on the [[HMY Britannia\|royal yacht]]. Soon after the handover in July, land values in Hong Kong collapsed substantially and expedited the burst of the [[bubble economy]], as part of the [[Asian financial crisis]]. This was exacerbated by [[Tung Chee Hwa]]'s unsubstantiated pledge to supply 85,000 new flats annually[http://www.tdctrade.com/econforum/sc/sc000701.htm]; which essentially manipulated the region's real estate prices. In some areas, land values fell by over half; and the [[Hang Seng Index]] fell by over 1,500 points on [[28 October]], losing 22.8% of its value in a week. Exacerbating the region's economic problems, Hong Kong was hit badly by the [[SARS]] virus beginning in mid-March through the summer of 2003, especially in the effect that it had on travel to and from Hong Kong. On [[1 July]] the same year, half a million people marched in the largest protest rally ever aimed at the government of Hong Kong, voicing concerns about a proposed anti-subversion bill that would have eroded freedom of the press, of religion and of association arising from [[Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23\|Article 23]] of the Hong Kong Basic Law, as well as dissatisfaction with the poor state of the economy. [[Regina Ip]], then [[Secretary for Security]], and [[Antony Leung]], then [[Financial Secretary (Hong Kong)\|Financial Secretary]], were forced to leave office in 2003 under public pressure (though Antony Leung left office for reason unrelated to the SARS and Article 23 crisis). On [[10 March]] [[2005]], Tung Chee Hwa submitted his [[Tung Chee Hwa's resignation\|resignation]] as chief executive of Hong Kong. [[Donald Tsang]], the [[Chief Secretary for Administration of Hong Kong]], ser
erm is ''[[genius loci]]'', the spirit of a specific locale. In contrast, the internal driving force within all living things is the ''[[animus]]''. A specific [[spirit]], or ''[[daemon (mythology)\|daemon]]'', may inhabit an image or [[icon]], giving it supernatural powers. A comparable term from [[Arab]]ic lore is a [[djinn]], often Anglicized as "genie". Note, however, that this term is a [[false friend]], not a [[cognate]]. ==Gifted== Geniuses come gifted with phenomenal brilliance, and are often as insensitive to the limitations of mediocrity as they may be very sensitive emotionally themselves, sometimes both. The term prodigy simply denotes the presence of exceptional talent or genius in early childhood. The terms prodigy and [[child prodigy]] are synonymous, the latter being a [[pleonasm]]. Artistic genius may show itself in early childhood (prodigy) or later in life; either way, geniuses eventually differentiate themselves from the rest through great originality. Intellectual geniuses usually have crisp, clear-eyed visions of given situations, in which interpretation is unnecessary—the facts just hit them, and they build or act on the basis of those facts, usually with tremendous energy. Here too, accomplished geniuses in intellectual fields start out in many cases as prodigies, gifted with superior memory, [[pattern recognition]] or just understanding. The classical skill of the musical genius is the capability of holding many different melodies in one's head at once and knowing how they interact together. In the classical greats ([[Johann Sebastian Bach\|Bach]], [[Mozart]], etc) you can hear and read about them holding 5, 6 and even 7 different melodies in their head at once. They could just write music, all of it, at once without having to hear it played. In comparison, the average person can hold 1 melody in memory. A theory put forth by Harvard professor [[Howard Gardner]] in his 1983 book ''Frames of Mind'' states there are seven kinds of intelligences, each with its own type of genius. See [[theory of multiple intelligences]] for more on this view. Intelligence is exceptionally difficult to quantify. The standard measurement in the United States is by the [[I.Q.]] test. This is [[IQ test controversy\|criticized]] by many as it only measures some aspects (some argue an [[ethnocentric]] and academic aspect) of intelligence. ==Limitations== It has often been noted that geniuses are accused of a lack of common sense. Stories of a genius in a given field being incapable of grasping so-called "everyday" concepts are abundant. [[Albert Einstein\|Einstein]] reportedly sawed the rudder off his sailboat while at sea. One must remember that a genius is often driven to focus intensely on a given subject. Such focus might present itself as being [[obsessive]]/[[compulsive]] in nature, but it might also simply have been a choice made by the individual. If one is engaged in groundbreaking work in one's field, maintaining other elements of life might logically be relegated to insignificance. While the [[absent-minded professor]] notion is not without merit, one must remember that a genius is just as likely to encounter emotional problems as might be anyone else. Note the peculiarities of figures like [[Glenn Gould]] and [[Bobby Fischer]]. Such examples, however, must be recognized as products of mental or emotional instability rather than byproducts of genius ''per se'', though there is a researched correlation between I.Q. and being maladjusted. Socio-emotional problems are more prevalent in geniuses with an IQ of greater than 145. There are a variety of reasons why scientists believe this. Asynchronous development and obtuse relationships of children is one notable reason explaining such maladjustedness. The single greatest adjustment problem faced by the gifted is the tendency to become isolated from the rest of humanity. As these children do not share other children's interests, their vocabulary, or their desire to organize activities, the genius child will withdraw. The gifted are not likely to fall victims to positive [[suggestion]] but many of them develop [[negativism]] to a conspicuous degree. Some research shows that companionship is difficult to find for geniuses not just due to being maladjusted. As intelligence of a person goes up, what they consider as their peers constitutes a shrinking number of people. For example, at an IQ of 135 only every hundredth person would be of equal or greater IQ. This number shrinks significantly as IQ goes up. [[Leta Hollingworth]] implied the idea of a "communication range" for geniuses. Observation shows that there is a direct ratio between the intelligence of the leader and that of the led. To be a leader of his contemporaries a child must be more intelligent but not too much more intelligent than those to be led. This implies that geniuses make better leaders and that they could have disdain for authority. The theory goes on to state that children and adults become intellectually isolated from their contemporaries when an IQ difference of 30 points exists. [http://www.prometheussociety.org/articles/Outsiders.html] It is important to note that some social and economic factors can prevent genius from being expressed. Such factors include and have included societal expectations on women and repression of minorities. For this reason, apparent male-bias and European-bias among the past and current geniuses of the world may not be indicative of an actual difference in the incidence of biological geniuses from other groups. ==In philosophy== In the [[philosophy]] of [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], a ''genius'' is a person in whom intellect predominates over [[will (philosophy)\|will]] much more than for the average person. In [[Schopenhauer's aesthetics]], this predominance of intellect over will allows the genius to create artistic or academic works that are objects of pure, disinterested contemplation, the chief criterion of the aesthetic experience for Schopenhauer. Their remoteness from mundane concerns means that Schopenhauer's geniuses often display [[maladaptive]] traits in more mundane concerns; in Schopenhauer's words, they fall into the mire while gazing at the stars. In the philosophy of [[Immanuel Kant]], ''genius'' is the ability to independently arrive at and understand concepts that would normally have to be taught by another person. In the Kant Dictionary (ISBN 0-631-17535-0), Howard Caygill talks of the essential character of "genius" for Kant being originality. This genius is a talent for producing ideas which can be described as non-imitative. Kant's discussion of the characteristics of genius is largely contained within the ''[[Critique of Judgement]]'' and was well received by the [[romantics]] of the early 19th century. ==Pluralization== In this context, the plural of "genius" is "geniuses." The form, "Genii," while intuitive given words such as "cactus" (pluralized as "cacti"), is the plural of a different kind of genius: the aforementioned guardian spirit of Roman mythology. ==See also== [[List of polymaths]] [[Nobel Prize]] [[Triple Nine Society]] [[International Society for Philosophical Enquiry]] [[Stupidity]] [[Child prodigy]] [[Flynn Effect]] ==References== {{cite book \| author = [[Harold Bloom]] \| title = Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds \| publisher = Warner Books \| year = November 2002 \| id = ISBN 0446527173 }} * {{cite book \| author = [[James Gleick]] \| title = Genius: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman \| publisher = Pantheon \| year = [[September 29]], [[1992]] \| id = ISBN 0679408363 }} * {{cite book \| author = [[Clifford A. Pickover]] \| title = Strange Brains and Genius: The Secret Lives of Eccentric Scientists and Madmen \| publisher = Plenum Publishing Corporation \| year = [[May 1]], [[1998]] \| id = ISBN 0306457849 }} * {{cite book \| author = [[Stephen Jay Gould]] \| title = The Mismeasure of Man, revised and expanded \| publisher = W. W. Norton \| year = [[1991]] \| id = ISBN 039303972 }} ==External links== * [http://hem.bredband.net/b153434/Index.htm Estimated IQs of the greatest geniuses] * [http://www.prometheussociety.org/articles/Outsiders.html The Outsiders (A look at the genius condition)] [[Category:Giftedness]] [[cs:Génius]] [[da:Geni]] [[de:Genie]] [[es:Geni]] [[fi:Nerous]] [[fr:Génius]] [[he:גאון]] [[id:Jenius]] [[ja:天才]] [[lt:Genijus]] [[nl:Genie (persoon)]] [[sr:Геније]] [[sv:Geni]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Grain</title> <id>12434</id> <revision> <id>40376208</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T03:35:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>R'son-W</username> <id>316079</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Others /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''grain''' has several meanings, most being descriptive of a small piece or [[particle]]. ===Particle-related=== The primary definition is the agricultural one, with the others derived from it. In '''[[agriculture]]''', a grain is the [[seed]] of a [[Poaceae\|grass]], a simple dry [[fruit]] technically called a [[caryopsis]]. Such crops are often called [[cereal]]s. Grain can also refer to other types of small seeds, though this is technically less correct. * In '''[[unit of measurement\|units of measurement]]''', the [[grain (measure)\|grain]] is a unit of [[mass]] equal to 64.79891 milligrams. It was originally based on the weight of one grain of [[barley]]. It was used in the past for older [[medication\|drugs]] such as [[aspirin]], for [[bullet]]s, and for [[precious metal]]s. * In '''[[geology]]''', a grain is a single particle of rock or other material, such as [[sand]] or [[salt]]; see [[grain size]]. * In '''[[materials science]]''' (especially [[metallurgy]]), a grain is a single crystal inside solid-state matter, also referred to
ersion 2.0]] * [[Public Domain]] * [[Python Software Foundation License]] * [[Q Public License]], version 1.0 * [[Standard ML of New Jersey Copyright License]] * [[Sun Industry Standards Source License]], version 1.0 * [[Sun Public License]] * [[The Condor Public License]] * The license of [[Ruby (programming language)\|Ruby]][http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/LICENSE.txt] * [[Vita Nuova Liberal Source License]] * [[W3C Software Notice and License]] * [[X11 License]] * [[XFree86 1.1 License]] * [[Zend License]], version 2.0 * [[Zope Public License version 2.0]] * [[Zope Public License]], version 1 only {{col-end}} == BSD philosophy == Many users and developers of [[BSD]]-based operating systems have a different position on licensing. The main difference is the belief that the [[copyleft]] licenses, particularly the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL), are too complicated and have restrictions which are unacceptable; some also object to the "viral" effect of the copyleft licenses. All of the open source BSDs tend to avoid including software licensed under the GPL in the core operating system (usually known as the ''base system'') except as a last resort, when alternatives are non-existent or vastly less capable, such as with the [[GNU Compiler Collection]]. The most extreme is probably the [[OpenBSD]] project, which in recent years has taken active steps to remove GPL-licensed tools in favour of BSD-licensed alternatives, some newly written and some adapted from older code. Part of OpenBSD's reason for avoiding the GPL is a push to get good, secure code used as widely as possible, without restriction; this has been a great success in the case of child project [[OpenSSH]], which has widely replaced insecure alternatives such as [[telnet]] and [[rlogin]]. New software written by BSD developers is often distributed under the [[modified BSD license]], which the [[Free Software Foundation\|FSF]] brand a non-copyleft, or "permissive" license. == Debian == The [[Debian]] project uses the criteria laid out in it's [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]]. The only notable cases where Debian and Free Software Foundation disagree are over the [[Artistic License]] and the [[GNU Free Documentation License]]. Debian accept the original Artistic License as being a free software license, but FSF disagree. This has very little impact however since the Artistic License is almost always used in a [[dual-license]] setup, along with the [[GNU General Public License]]. About the GNU Free Documentation License, Debian and FSF disagree over whether it is a software license at all, and therefore whether any defintion of free software should be applied to it. Debian argue that documentation is software, and so documentation licenses must be examined against free software guidelines. FSF say that documentation is different to software and is subject to different requirements. == See also == * [[Free software movement]] == External links == * [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html The Free Software Definition] (Free Software Foundation). * [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/license-list.html The Free Software Foundation's list of free and unfree licenses] * [http://www.debian.org/legal/licenses/ Debian's license information page] * [http://www.opensource.org/licenses/ Open Source Initiative's list of license] [[Category:Free software licenses]] [[Category:Software licenses]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FSF</title> <id>10865</id> <revision> <id>39245261</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T20:38:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.112.232.43</ip> </contributor> <comment>incorrect priorities</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''FSF''' can stand for: * [[Free Software Foundation]] * [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] * The Band [[Further Seems Forever]] * [[Football Supporters' Federation]] {{TLAdisambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Francisco Goya</title> <id>10868</id> <revision> <id>42161743</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:46:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Antandrus</username> <id>57658</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.37.63.162\|66.37.63.162]] ([[User talk:66.37.63.162\|talk]]) to last version by Vary</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about '''Francisco Goya''', a Spanish painter. For other uses of the name Goya, see [[Goya (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Goya selfportrait.jpg\|thumb\|right\|170px\|Goya self-portrait.]] '''Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes''' ([[March 30]], [[1746]] &ndash; [[April 16]], [[1828]]) was a [[Spain\|Spanish]] [[painter]] and [[Engraving\|engraver]]. Goya was a portraitist of royalty and chronicler of history who produced painting and prints. His later influence is significant since his art was both deeply subversive and subjective, at a time when such attitudes were not predominant. His emphasis on the foreground and faded background portends the work of [[Édouard Manet\|Manet]]. Many of Goya's works are on display at the [[Museo del Prado]]. ==Biography== Goya was born in Fuendetodos, in the province of Saragossa on the [[30 March]] [[1746]] to Joseph Goya and Gracia Lucientes. His childhood was spent in Fuendetodos where his family lived in the family house which bore the family crest of his mother, and which was surrounded by the dry lands where his father practiced the trade of gilder. About 1749 the family bought a house in the city of Saragossa and some years later moved into it. [[Image:Goya3.jpg\|thumb\|right\|275px\|[[Francisco Goya]]. ''The Third of May 1808: The Execution of the Defenders of Madrid''. 1814. Oil on canvas. 345 x 266 cm. Madrid: [[Museo del Prado]].]] Goya attended school at Escuelas Pias where he formed a close friendship with Martin Zapater, and their correspondence over the years became valuable material for biographies of Goya. At 14 he entered apprenticeship with the painter [[Jose Lujan]]. He later moved to Madrid where he studied with [[Anton Raphael Mengs]], a painter who was popular with Spanish royalty. He clashed with his master, and his examinations were unsatisfactory. Goya submitted entries for the Spanish Royal Academy in 1763, and 1766, and both times he was denied entrance. He then journeyed to Rome where in 1771 he won second prize in a painting competition organized by the City of Parma. [[Image:Francisco de Goya y Lucientes 054.jpg\|thumb\|right\|275px\|''Charles IV of Spain and his family.'']] He returned to Saragossa in 1771 and painted a part of the cupola of the Basilica of the Pillar, frescoes of the oratory of the cloisters of Aula Dei, and the frescoes of the Sobradiel Palace. He studied with [[Francisco Bayeu y Subías]] and his painting began to show signs of the delicate tonalities for which he became known. Goya and Bayeu's sister, [[Josefa Bayeu\|Josefa]], married in 1774. His marriage to Josefa (Pepa he called her) gained him work with the Royal Tapestry Workshop where over five years he designed some 42 patterns. He also gained access to the royal court, painted a canvas for the altar of the Church of San Francisco El Grande, and was appointed a member of the Academy of San Fernando. In 1783, the Count of Floridablanca, favourite of King Carlos III, commissioned him to paint his portrait. He also became friends with Crown Prince Don Luis, and lived in his house. His circle of patrons grew to include the Duke and Duchess of Osuna, whom he painted, the King and other notable people of the kingdom. After the death of Carlos III in 1788 and revolution in France in 1789, during the reign of Carlos IV, Goya reached his peak of popularity with royalty. After an illness in 1792 Goya was left deaf and he became withdrawn and introspective. In 1799 he was appointed the Spanish royal painter with a salary of 50,000 reales and 500 ducats for a coach. He worked on the cupola of the Hermitage of San Antonio de la Florida; he painted the King and the Queen, Royal family pictures, portraits of Princess de la Paz and many other nobles. He became embittered, which shows in ''[[Los Caprichos]]''. [[Image:Goya - Saturno devorando a su hijo.jpg\|thumb\|160px\|left\|''Saturn Devouring His Son'' (1819).]] As French forces invaded Spain during the [[Peninsular War]] (1808–1814), the new Spanish court of Jose I received him as had its predecessors. When Pepa died in 1812 Goya was painting ''The Charge of the Mamelukes'' and ''[[The Third of May 1808]]'', and preparing the series of prints known as ''The Disasters of War''. Ferdinand VII came back to Spain but relations with Goya were not cordial. In 1814 Goya lived with his cousin Rosario Weiss, and her daughter, Dona Leocadia, who he loved madly. He continued to work incessantly on portraits, pictures of Santa Justa and Santa Rufina, lithographs, pictures of tauromachy, and more With the idea of isolating himself, he bought a house near Manzanares, which became known as the "House of the Deaf". There, more enclosed within himself he made the ''[[Black Paintings]]''. Unsettled and discontented he left Spain in May 1824 for Bordeaux and Paris. He settled in Bordeaux He returned to Spain in 1826 after another period of ill health, but despite a warm welcome he returned to Bordeaux where he died on [[April 16]] [[1828]]. == Works == Goya painted the Spanish royal family, including [[Charles IV of Spain]] and [[Ferdinand VII of Spain\|Ferdinand VII]]. His themes range from merry festivals for [[tapestry]], draft cartoons, to scenes of [[war]], fighting and corpses. This evolution reflects the darkening of his temper. Modern physicians suspect that the [[lead]] in his pigments poisoned him and caused his [[post-lingual hearing impairment\|deafness]] since [[1792]]. Near the end of his life, he became reclusive and produced frightening and obscure paint
[molecular orbital]]s (MO). In many theories, these are divided in [[bonding (orbital)\|bonding]], [[antibonding\|anti-bonding]], and [[nonbonding\|non-bonding]] orbitals. They are further divided according the types of atomic orbitals hybridizing to form a bond. These orbitals are results of electron-[[Atomic nucleus\|nucleus]] interactions that are caused by the [[fundamental interaction\|fundamental]] force of [[electromagnetism]]. Chemical substances will form a bond if their orbitals become lower in energy when they interact with each other. Different chemical bonds are distinguished that differ by [[electron configuration\|electron cloud shape]] and by [[energy level]]s. == Bonds in chemical formulas == The 3-dimensionality of atoms and molecules makes it hard to use a single technique for indicating orbitals and bonds. In '''[[molecular formula]]s''' the chemical bonds (binding orbitals) between atoms are indicated by various different methods according to the type of discussion. Sometimes, they are completely neglected. For example, in [[organic chemistry]] chemists are sometimes concerned only with the [[functional group]]s of the molecule. Thus, the molecular formula of ethanol (a compound in [[alcoholic beverage]]s) may be written in a paper in [[conformational isomerism\|conformational]], 3-dimensional, full 2-dimensional (indicating every bond with no 3-dimensional directions), compressed 2-dimensional (CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-OH), separating the functional group from another part of the molecule (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH), or by its atomic constituents (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O), according to what is discussed. Sometimes, even the non-bonding valence shell electrons ( with the 2-dimensionalized approximate directions) are marked, f.e. for elemental carbon <sub>.</sub><sup>'</sup>C<sub>.</sub><sup>'</sup> Some chemists may also mark the respective orbitals, f.e. the hypothetical ethene<sup>-4</sup> anion (<sub>\</sub><sup>/</sup>C=C<sub>/</sub><sup>\</sup> <sup>-4</sup>) indicating the possibility of bond formation. ==Strong chemical bonds== These chemical bonds are ''intramolecular'' forces, which keep atoms held together in [[molecules]] and in [[solid]]s. As a rule, all these bonds will be single, double or triple in strength, that is, the number of electrons participating in a bond (or located in a bonding orbital) is two, four, or six, respectively. Substantially more advanced bonding theories have shown that [[bond strength]] may not always be a whole number, depending on the distribution of electrons to each atom involved in a bond. Quadruple bonds are not unheard of, but they are extremely rare. The type of strong bond depends on the difference in [[electronegativity]] and the distribution of the electron path to the atoms that are bonded. The larger the electronegativity, the more an electron is attracted to a particular atom involved in the bond and the more ionic properties the bond has. The smaller the electronegativity, the more covalent properties the bond has. ===Covalent bond=== {{Main\|Covalent bond}} Covalent bonding is a common type of bonding, in which the electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms is small or non-existent. In the latter case, the bond is sometimes referred to as ''purely covalent''. See [[sigma bond]]s and [[pi bond]]s for current LCAO-explanation of non-polar bonds. ===Polar covalent bond=== {{Main\|Polar covalent bond}} Polar covalent bonding is by nature an intermediate type of bond, between a covalent bond and an ionic bond. In more advanced theories of bonding, all bonds may be considered somewhat polar. ===Ionic bond=== {{main\|Ionic bond}} Ionic bonding is type of electrostatic bond between atoms which have an electronegativity difference of over 1.6 (this limit is a convention). These form in a solution between two [[ions]] after the excess of the solvent is removed. ==Other strong bonds== ===Coordinate covalent bond=== {{Main\|Coordinate covalent bond}} Coordinate covalent bonding is a special type of bonding, in which the bonding electrons originate solely from another atom. This is different from an ionic bond in that the electronegativity difference is small. ===Polyatomic ions=== A different type of bond between two atoms occurs commonly in ions. The bond is located in the midst of three (or more) atoms. This happens usually in polyatomic ions such as methanoate (or formate) (HCOO<sup>-</sup>) anion, in which the 0,5 order bond carries the [[partial charge\|effective charge]] of -1. ===Banana bond=== The [[Banana bond]] is a kind of bonding in which the bond bends due to other bonds. These bonds are likely to be more susceptible to reactions than ordinary bonds. ==Chemical bonds involving more than two atoms== ===Aromatic bond=== {{Main\|Aromaticity}} Orbitals are not stiff in shape, and in many cases the locations of electrons cannot be expressed as lines (place for two electrons) or dots (a single elctron). This is the case in aromatic bonds. In benzene, 18 electrons bind 6 carbon atoms together to form a ring structure. The bond order between the different carbons may be said to be 18/6/2=1.5, but there is no way of telling which bonds attach to which carbons, which is of no importance from the chemical point of view. In the case of [[heterocyclic]] aromatics and substituted [[benzene]]s, the electronegativity differences between different parts of the ring become dominant in the chemical behaviour of such bonds. ===Metallic bond=== {{Main\|Metallic bond}} A metallic bond, as an ionic bond (strictly), exists only in a solid (or liquid) state. In a metallic bond, there are delocalized electrons in a lattice of atoms. By contrast, in ionic compounds, the locations of the binding electrons and their charges are quite static. ==Intermolecular bonding== There are four basic types of bonds that two or more (otherwise none-associated) molecules, ions or atoms can form between themselves. ===Ionic bonding=== {{main\|Ionic bond}} The strongest form of intermolecular bond, between two [[ion]]s of opposite [[electrical charge\|charge]]s. Charges are commonly between -3[[elementary charge\|e]] to +7[[elementary charge\|e]] ===Permanent dipole to permanent dipole=== {{main\|Dipole-dipole attraction}} A large [[electronegativity]] difference between two strongly bonded atoms within a molecule causes a [[dipole]] to form (a dipole is a pair of permanent partial charges). Dipoles will attract or repel each other. ===Instantaneous dipole to induced dipole=== {{main\|Van der Waals force}} Instantaneous dipole to induced dipole, or Van der Waals forces, are the weakest, but also the most prolific - occurring between '''all''' chemical substances. Imagine a [[helium]] atom: At any one point in time, the [[electron cloud]] around the - otherwise-neutral - atom can be thought to be slightly imbalanced, with momentarily more negitive charge on one side. This is referred to as an instantaneous dipole. This dipole, with its slight charge imbalance, may attract or repel the electrons within a neighbouring helium atom, setting up another dipole. The two atoms will be attracted for an instant, before the charge rebalances and the atoms move on. == Electrons in chemical bonds == Many simple compounds involve covalent bonds. These molecules have structures that can be predicted using '''[[valence bond theory]]''', and the properties of atoms involved can be understood using concepts such as [[oxidation number]]. Other compounds that involve ionic structures can be understood using theories from [[classical physics]]. In the case of [[ionic bond]]ing, electrons are mainly localized on the individual atoms, and electrons do not travel between the atoms very much. Each atom is assigned an overall electric charge to help conceptualize the molecular orbital's distribution. The forces between atoms (or ions) are largely characterized by [[isotropic]] continuum electrostatic potentials. By contrast, in [[covalent bond]]ing, the electron density within a bond is not assigned to individual atoms, but is instead delocalized in the MOs between atoms. The widely-accepted theory of the [[Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method\|linear combination of atomic orbitals]] (LCAO) helps describe the molecular orbital structures and energies based on the atomic orbitals of the atoms they came from. Unlike pure ionic bonds, covalent bonds may have directed [[anisotropic]] properties. These may have their own names, too, such as [[Sigma bond\|Sigma]] and [[Pi bond]] Atoms can also form bonds that are intermediates between ionic and covalent. This is because these definitions are based on the extent of electron delocalization. Electrons can be partially delocalized between atoms, but spend more time around one atom than another. This type of bond is often called [[polar covalent bond\|polar covalent]]. See [[electronegativity]]. Thus, the electrons in a [[molecular orbital]] (or 'in a polar covalent, or in a covalent bond') can be said to be either ''localized'' on certain atom(s) or ''delocalized'' between two or more atoms. The type of bond between two atoms is defined by how much the [[electron density]] is localized or delocalized among the atoms of the substance. == Limitations of valence bond theory== However, more complicated compounds such as [[complex (chemistry)\|metal complexes]], or [[electron deficient]] compounds, cannot be described by valence bond theory alone, and [[quantum chemistry]] (based on [[quantum mechanics]]) has to be used. [[Linus Pauling]]'s book ''The Nature of the Chemical Bond'' has influenced the development of chemistry concerning bond formation as the increasingly complex theories are required. == Determination o
turkish fortress [[Izmail]]. [[1807]] - The [[Embargo Act]], forbidding trade with all foreign countries, is passed by the [[Congress of the United States\|U.S. Congress]], at the urging of [[President of the United States\|President]] [[Thomas Jefferson]]. [[1809]] - The [[Non-Intercourse Act]], lifting the [[Embargo Act]] except for the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]], passes the [[Congress of the United States\|U.S. Congress]]. [[1849]] - The execution of [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] is canceled at the last second. [[1851]] - The first [[freight train]] is operated in [[Roorkee]] in [[India]]. [[1864]] - [[Savannah, Georgia]] falls to General [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], concluding his "[[Sherman's March to the Sea\|March to the Sea]]". [[1885]] - [[Ito Hirobumi]], a [[samurai]], became the first [[Prime Minister of Japan]]. [[1894]] - The [[Dreyfus affair]] begins, in [[France]], when [[Alfred Dreyfus]] is wrongly convicted of [[treason]], on [[antisemitic]] grounds. [[1920]] - Opening of 8-th All-Russia congress of Advice in [[Moscow]] (on December, 29th). The statement of the [[GOELRO plan]]. [[1937]] - The [[Lincoln Tunnel]] opens to traffic in [[New York City]]. [[1944]] - [[Germany\|German]] troops demand the surrender of [[United States]] troops at [[Bastogne]], [[Belgium]]. See [[Battle of the Bulge]]. 1944 - [[People's Army of Vietnam\|Vietnam People's Army]] is formed to resist [[Japan]]ese occupation of [[Vietnam]]. [[1963]] - [[Cruise ship]] ''[[Johan van Oldenbarnevelt (ship)\|Lakonia]]'' burns 180 miles north of [[Madeira]] with the loss of 128 lives. [[1964]] - [[Comedian]] [[Lenny Bruce]] is convicted of [[obscenity]]. [[1965]] - In the [[United Kingdom]], a 70mph [[speed limit]] is applied to all rural roads including [[motorway]]s for the first time. Previously, there had been no speed limit. [[1974]] - [[Grande Comore]], [[Anjouan]] and [[Mohéli]] vote to become the independent nation of [[Comoros]]. [[Mayotte]] remains under [[France\|French]] administration. [[1984]] - Subway vigilante [[Bernhard Hugo Goetz]] shoots four [[African-American]] men on an express train in [[The Bronx]] borough of [[New York City]]. [[1988]] - [[Chico Mendes]], a [[Brazil]]ian [[rubber tapper]], [[unionist]] and [[environmental activist]], is [[assassin]]ated. [[1989]] - After a week of bloody demonstrations, [[Ion Iliescu]] takes over as president of [[Romania]], ending [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]]'s [[Communism\|Communist]] dictatorship. 1989 - [[Berlin]]'s [[Brandenburg Gate]] re-opens after nearly 30 years, effectively ending the division of [[East Germany\|East]] and [[West Germany]]. 1989 - Two tourist coaches collide on the [[Pacific Highway]] north of [[Kempsey NSW]] ([[Kempsey Bus Crash]]). [[1990]] - [[Lech Wałęsa]] is sworn in as [[President of Poland]]. [[1997]] - [[Acteal massacre]]: Attendees at a prayer meeting of [[Roman Catholic]] activists for [[indigenous]] causes in the small village of [[Acteal]] in the [[Mexico\|Mexican]] state of [[Chiapas]] are [[massacre]]d by [[paramilitary]] forces. [[1999]] - The [[Spain\|Spanish]] [[Spanish Civil Guard\|Civil Guard]] finds near [[Calatayud]] ([[Zaragoza]]) another van loaded by [[ETA]] with 750 kg of [[explosives]] (see related event on [[December 21]] [[1999]]). 1999 - [[Tandja Mamadou]] becomes [[List of Presidents of Niger\|President]] of [[Niger]]. [[2001]] - [[Burhanuddin Rabbani]], political leader of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], hands over power in [[Afghanistan]] to the interim government headed by President [[Hamid Karzai]]. 2001 - [[Richard Reid (terrorist)\|Richard Reid]] attempts to destroy a passenger airliner by igniting explosives hidden in his shoes aboard [[American Airlines Flight 63]]. 2001 - [[Cc the cat]], the first [[Cloning\|cloned]] [[pet]], is born. ==Births== [[1178]] - [[Emperor Antoku]] of Japan (d. [[1185]]) [[1639]] - [[Jean Racine]], French dramatist (d. [[1699]]) [[1666]] - [[Guru Gobind Singh]], (d. [[1708]]) [[1694]] - [[Hermann Samuel Reimarus]], German philosopher and writer (b. [[1768]]) [[1696]] - [[James Oglethorpe]], English general and founder of the state of Georgia (d. [[1785]]) [[1723]] - [[Karl Friedrich Abel]], German composer (d. [[1787]]) [[1805]] - [[John Obadiah Westwood]], British entomologist (d. [[1893]]) [[1807]] - [[Johann Sebastian Welhaven]], Norwegian poet (d. [[1873]]) [[1819]] - [[Franz Wilhelm Abt]], German composer (d. [[1870]]) [[1853]] - [[Teresa Carreño]], Venezuelan pianist (d. [[1917]]) [[1856]] - [[Frank B. Kellogg]], [[U.S. Secretary of State]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1937]]) [[1858]] - [[Giacomo Puccini]], Italian composer (d. [[1924]]) [[1860]] - [[Austin Norman Palmer]], American penmanship innovator (d. [[1927]]) [[1862]] - [[Connie Mack (baseball)\|Connie Mack]], baseball executive and manager (d. [[1956]]) [[1869]] - [[Edwin Arlington Robinson]], American poet (d. [[1935]]) [[1872]] - [[Camille Guérin]], French veterinarian and bacteriologist (d. [[1961]]) [[1874]] - [[Franz Schmidt]], Austrian composer (d. [[1939]]) [[1876]] - [[Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]], Italian poet and editor (d. [[1944]]) [[1883]] - [[Edgard Varèse]] French-born composer (d. [[1965]]) [[1887]] - [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]], Indian mathematician (d. [[1920]]) [[1888]] - [[J. Arthur Rank]], American producer (d. [[1972]]) [[1898]] - [[Vladimir Aleksandrovich Fock]], Russian physicist (d. [[1974]]) [[1899]] - [[Gustav Gründgens]], German actor and director (d. [[1963]]) [[1903]] - [[Haldan Keffer Hartline]], American physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine\|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1983]]) [[1905]] - [[Kenneth Rexroth]], American poet (d. [[1982]]) [[1907]] - Dame [[Peggy Ashcroft]], English actress (d. [[1991]]) [[1909]] - [[Patricia Hayes]], actress on 'Carry On' series, Mama The Turk in "Superbitch"(1973) (d. [[1998]]) [[1912]] - [[Lady Bird Johnson]], [[First Lady of the United States]] [[1917]] - [[Gene Rayburn]], American game show host (d. [[1999]]) [[1922]] - [[Barbara Billingsley]], American actress 1922 - [[Jack Brooks (politician)\|Jack Brooks]], American politician 1922 - [[Ruth Roman]], American actress (d. [[1999]]) [[1937]] - [[Eduard Uspensky]], Russian writer [[1939]] - [[James Gurley]], American musician [[1943]] - [[Paul Wolfowitz]], American politician [[1944]] - [[Steve Carlton]], baseball player [[1945]] - [[Diane Sawyer]], American journalist [[1946]] - [[Rick Nielsen]], American musician ([[Cheap Trick]]) [[1948]] - [[Lynne Thigpen]], American actress (d. [[2003]]) [[1948]] - [[Noel Edmonds]], UK game show host [[1949]] - [[Maurice Gibb]], Australian musician ([[The Bee Gees]]) (d. [[2003]]) 1949 - [[Robin Gibb]], Australian musician ([[The Bee Gees]]) [[1951]] - [[Gerald Cavendish Grosvenor]], Duke of Westminster [[1953]] - [[Ian Turnbull (hockey)\|Ian Turnbull]], Canadian ice hockey player [[1957]] - [[Carole James]], Canadian politician [[1958]] - [[Frank Gambale]], Australian guitarist 1958 - [[Mikael Nordfors]], Swedish physician and author [[1962]] - [[Ralph Fiennes]], English actor [[1967]] - [[Dan Petrescu]], Romanian footballer 1967 - [[Richey James Edwards]], Manic Street Preachers songwriter/guitarist (d. [[1995]]) [[1969]] - [[Myriam Bédard]], Canadian athlete [[1975]] - [[Stanislav Neckář]], Czech ice hockey player [[1977]] - [[Steve Kariya]], Canadian ice hockey player [[1983]] - [[Jennifer Hawkins]], Miss Universe 2004 ==Deaths== [[1100]] - Duke [[Bretislaus II of Bohemia]] [[1603]] - [[Mehmed III]], [[Ottoman Emperor]] (b. [[1566]]) [[1646]] - [[Peter Mogila]], Orthodox Metropolitan of Kiev and Galicia (b. [[1596]]) [[1660]] - [[André Tacquet]], Belgian mathematician (b. [[1612]]) [[1681]] - [[Richard Alleine]], English Puritan clergyman (b. [[1611]]) [[1708]] - [[Hedwig Sophia, duchess of Holstein-Gottorp]], Swedish writer (b. [[1681]]) [[1738]] - [[Constantia Jones]], British prostitute (executed) [[1767]] - [[John Newbery]], English publisher (b. [[1713]]) [[1788]] - [[Percivall Pott]], English physician and surgeon (b. [[1714]]) [[1806]] - [[William Vernon]], American merchant (b. [[1719]]) [[1870]] - [[Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer]], Spanish poet and writer (b. [[1836]]) [[1828]] - [[William Hyde Wollaston]], English chemist (b. [[1766]]) [[1880]] - [[George Eliot]], English writer (b. [[1819]]) [[1899]] - [[Dwight L. Moody]], American evangelist (b. [[1837]]) [[1902]] - [[Richard von Krafft-Ebing]], German psychiatrist (b. [[1840]]) [[1936]] - [[Dragutin Gorjanovic-Kramberger]], Croatian paleontologist (b. [[1856]]) [[1939]] - [[Ma Rainey]], American singer (b. [[1886]]) [[1940]] - [[Nathanael West]], American writer (b. [[1903]]) [[1942]] - [[Franz Boas]], German anthropologist (b. [[1858]]) [[1943]] - [[Beatrix Potter]], English writer (b. [[1866]]) [[1947]] - [[Hans Aumeier]], German Nazi official and concentration camp commandant (b. [[1906]]) [[1959]] - [[Gilda Gray]], Polish-born American dancer and actress (b. [[1901]]) [[1965]] - [[Richard Dimbleby]], English journalist and broadcaster (b. [[1913]]) [[1979]] - [[Darryl F. Zanuck]], American producer (b. [[1902]]) [[1980]] - [[Karl Dönitz]], German politician and U-boat commander (b. [[1891]]) [[1985]] - [[D. Boon]], American singer and guitarist ([[The Minutemen (band)\|The Minutemen]]) (b. [[1958]]) [[1988]] - [[Chico Mendes]], Brazilian rubber tapper, unionist, and environmental activist (assassinated) (b. [[1944]]) [[1989]] - [[Samuel Beckett]], Irish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature\|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1906]]) [[1995]] - [[Butterfly McQueen]], American actress (b. [[1911]]) 1995 - [[James Meade]], English economists, [[Nobel Prize in Economics\|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1907]]) [[2002]] - [[Desmond Hoyte]], [[President of Guyana]] (b. [[1929]]) 2002 - [[Joe Strummer]], British musician ([[The Clash]]) (b. [[1952]]) [[2003]] - [[Dave Du
44 — From the presidency of [[Israel Alexander Smith\|Israel A. Smith]] (1946–1958) Sections 145–152 — From the presidency of [[W. Wallace Smith]] (1958–1978) Sections 153–160 — From the presidency of [[Wallace B. Smith]] (1978–1996) Sections 161–162 — From the presidency of [[W. Grant McMurray]] (1996–2004) ===Portions removed from the Community of Christ edition=== A General Conference of the church removed the "Doctrine" portion of the work in 1897. A "[[General Conference (Mormonism)\|World Conference]]" (as "General Conferences" are now known) concluded that several sections that had been added between the 1835 and 1844 editions had been included without proper approval of a church conference. The World Conference removed Sections 107, 109, 110, 113 and 123 to an "appendix." A World Conference in 1990 subsequently removed the appendix from the ''Doctrine and Covenants''. ==Editions used by other denominations== The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)]] uses the 1846 [[Nauvoo, Illinois]] edition which is virtually identical to the 1844 edition. Most recently a facsimile reprint was produced for the church at [[Voree, Wisconsin]] by Richard Drew in 1993. The [[Church of Christ (Temple Lot)]] contends that the thousands of changes made to the original revelations as published in ''The [[Book of Commandments]]'', published in the 1835 and later editions of the ''Doctrine and Covenants'' (including the change of the church's name) are undoctrinal and result from Joseph Smith's fall from his original calling. As a result, the Church of Christ prefers to use reprints of ''The Book of Commandments'' text. ==External links== [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/contents LDS Edition of the D & C] [http://www.centerplace.org/hs/dc/default.htm Community of Christ Edition] [http://www.saintswithouthalos.com/s/_d&c.phtml SaintsWithoutHalos.com: Doctrine and Covenants] - Mormon historical revisionist site with thoroughly annotated ''D&C'' showing changes from various editions. ==References== ''The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Containing Revelations Given to Joseph Smith, the Prophet, with Some Additions by his Successors in the Presidency of the Church'', Intellectual Reserve: Salt Lake City, UT, 2000. ''Book of Doctrine and Covenants: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God and Given in the Order of their Dates'', Herald Publishing House: Independence, MO, 2000. Joseph Smith, ''The Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God'', photo enlarged and reprinted from the 1846 Nauvoo edition by Richard Drew, Burlington (Voree), Wisconsin, 1993, for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite). [[Category:Latter Day Saint texts]] [[Category:Religious texts]] [[de:Lehre und Bündnisse]] [[es:Libro de Doctrina y Convenios (mormonismo)]] [[eo:Doktrino kaj Interligoj]] [[no:Lære og pakter]] [[pl:Nauki i Przymierza]] [[pt:Doutrina e Convênios]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Death</title> <id>8221</id> <revision> <id>42117262</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:00:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bobbaxter</username> <id>903277</id> </contributor> <comment>/ Personification of death */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:<span class="dablink">''For other uses, see [[Death (disambiguation)]] or [[Dead (disambiguation)]].''</span> '''Death''' is the cessation of physical [[life]] in a living [[organism]], or the state of the organism after that event. == Defining the moment of human death == There is an asymmetry between [[life]] and death. While cells and organisms may die, they have never been observed to arise from non-living material ([[abiogenesis\|spontaneous generation]]), as found by [[Louis Pasteur]] in the late [[19th century]]. In human affairs, we are normally concerned with the life and death of a person, not the death of his or her components. Identifying the exact moment of death is important for a number of reasons. From a legal standpoint, it allows for the establishment of a consensus time of death, and thus helps ensure that a person's [[Will (law)\|legal Will]] is executed only after he or she is truly deceased. Identifying the moment of death is even more important in cases of [[organ transplant\|transplantation]], as organs for transplant (which, of course, exclude the brain) must be harvested as quickly as possible after the death of the body. Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of death have been problematic. Death was once defined as the cessation of [[heart]]beat ([[cardiac arrest]]) and of [[breath]]ing, but the development of [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation\|CPR]] and prompt [[defibrillation]] posed a challenge. The previous definition was inadequate. This earlier definition of death is now called "[[cardiac arrest\|clinical death]]", and even after it occurs, breathing and heartbeat may be restarted in some cases. Events which were causally linked to irreversible mortality in the past are now prevented from having an effect; even without a functioning heart and lungs, a person can be sustained with [[life support\|life-support]] devices. In addition to such extremes, there are a growing number of people who would quickly die if their organ transplants or [[cardiac pacemaker]]s failed. Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to "[[brain death]]" or "biological death": people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases (cf. [[persistent vegetative state]]). It is presumed that a stoppage of electrical activity indicates the end of [[consciousness]]. However, suspension of consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as occurs during [[sleep]], and especially [[coma]]. In the case of sleep, EEGs can easily tell the difference. Brain activity is a necessary condition to legal personhood. "''It appears that once brain death has been determined &#8230; no criminal or civil liability will result from disconnecting the life-support devices.''" Dority v. Superior Court of San Bernardino County, 193 Cal.Rptr. 288, 291 (1983) However, those maintaining that only the [[neo-cortex]] of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity there should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is likely that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of [[cognition\|cognitive]] function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and [[personality psychology\|personality]] is then gone. However, at present, in most places the more conservative definition of death — cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex — has been adopted (for example the [[Uniform Determination Of Death Act]] in the [[United States]]). In 2005, the case of [[Terri Schiavo]] brought the question of brain death and artificial sustainment to the front of American politics. Generally, in such contested cases the cause of death is [[anoxia]]. [[Oxygen]] deprivation for about seven minutes is sufficient to kill the cerebral cortex. Even in these cases, the determination of death can be difficult. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses when none exists, while there have been cases in which electrical activity in a living brain has been too low for EEGs to detect. Because of this, hospitals often have elaborate protocols for determining death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals. There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then coming back to life, sometimes days later in their own coffin, or when [[embalming]] procedures are just about to begin. Stories of people actually being buried alive (which must assume no embalming) led one inventor in the early [[20th century]] to design an alarm system, with a bell and a cord that could be pulled from inside the coffin. Because of the difficulties in determining death, under most emergency protocols, a [[first responder]] is not authorized to pronounce a patient dead; some EMT training manuals, for example, specifically state that a person is not to be assumed dead unless there are clear and obvious indications that death has occurred, such as mortal [[decapitation]], [[rigor mortis]] (rigidity of the body), [[livor mortis]] (blood pooling in the part of the body at lowest elevation), decomposition, or incineration, or other bodily damage clearly inconsistent with life. If there is any possibility of life and in the absence of a [[do not resuscitate]] (DNR) order, emergency workers are instructed to begin rescue and not end it until a patient has been brought to a hospital to be examined by a physician. This frequently leads to situation of a patient being pronounced [[dead on arrival]] (DOA). In cases of [[electrocution]], CPR for an hour or longer can allow stunned [[nerve]]s to recover, allowing an apparently-dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their [[face]]s are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room. This "diving response", in which [[metabolism\|metabolic activity]] and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something we share with [[cetacea]]ns. == The process of dying == === Cell death === A. Normal cellular function :# Production of [[free energy]] required for vital cellular [[metabolism]] :# Production of enzymatic and structural protein :# Maintenance of chemical and [[osmosis\|osmotic]] [[homeostasis]] of cell :# [[Cell reproduction]] B. Needs of cell :# [[Oxygen]], [[phosphate]], [[calcium]]… (C, H, N, O, P, S; pronounced "schna
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Hound of Heaven''''' is a 182 line religious [[poem]] by [[Francis Thompson]], and the source of much of his posthumous reputation. It was included in the [[Oxford Book of English Mystical Verse]] (1917). It was also an influence on [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], who read it a few years before that. The name is strange. It startles one at first. It is so bold, so new, so fearless. It does not attract, rather the reverse. But when one reads the poem this strangeness disappears. The meaning is understood. As the hound follows the hare, never ceasing in its running, ever drawing nearer in the chase, with unhurrying and impertubed pace, so does God follow the fleeing soul by His Divine grace. And though in sin or in human love, away from God it seeks to hide itself, Divine grace follows after, unwearyingly follows ever after, till the soul feels its pressure forcing it to turn to Him alone in that never ending pursuit. The Neuman Press "Book of Verse", 1988. ==External links== * [http://poetry.elcore.net/TheHoundOfHeaven.html A thorough resource] [[Category:British poems]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hilberts first problem</title> <id>13691</id> <revision> <id>15911284</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Continuum hypothesis]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of the Internet</title> <id>13692</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42110924</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:13:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Yeltensic42</username> <id>365773</id> </contributor> <comment>/* X.25 and public access */ link to article instead of disambig page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''history of the Internet''' dates back to the early development of [[communication network]]s. The idea of a [[computer network]] intended to allow general communication between users of various [[computer]]s has developed through a large number of stages. The melting pot of developments brought together the ''network of networks''{{ref\|InternationalOriginsandCollaborativeVision}} that we know as the ''[[Internet]]''. This included both technological developments, as well as the merging together of existing network [[infrastructure]] and [[telecommunication]] systems. The earliest versions of these ideas appeared in the late 1950s. Practical implementations of the concepts began during the late 1960s and 1970s. By the 1980s, technologies we would now recognize as the basis of the modern Internet began to spread over the globe. In the 1990s the introduction of the [[World Wide Web]] saw its use become commonplace. The infrastructure of the Internet would spread across the globe, to create the modern world wide network of computers we know today. It spread throughout the western nations, and then begged a penetration into the developing countries, thus creating both unprecedented worldwide access to information and communications and a [[digital divide]] in access to this new infrastructure. The Internet would also go on to fundamentally alter and affect the economy of the world, including the economic implications of the [[dot-com]] bubble. {{History of computing}} ==Before the Internet== ===A lack of inter-networking=== Prior to the widespread inter-networking that led to the Internet, most [[communication network]]s were limited by their nature to only allow communications between the stations on the network. Some networks would have [[gateway]]s or [[bridge]]s between them, but these bridges were often limited or built specifically for a single use. One prevalent computer networking method was based on the central [[mainframe]] method, simply allowing its terminals to be connected via long [[leased line]]s. This method was used in the 1950s by [[Project RAND]] to support researchers such as [[Herbert Simon]], in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], when collaborating across the continent with researchers in [[Santa Monica, California]], on [[automated theorem proving]] and [[artificial intelligence]]. ===Three terminals and an ARPA=== A fundamental pioneer in the call for a global network, [[J.C.R. Licklider]], grasped the need for a global network in his January 1960 paper, [[Man-Computer Symbiosis]]. :''<nowiki>"a network of such [computers], connected to one another by wide-band communication lines" which provided "the functions of present-day libraries together with anticipated advances in information storage and retrieval and [other] symbiotic functions. "</nowiki>'' -- J.C.R Licklider {{ref\|Man-ComputerSymbiosis}} In October 1962, Licklider was appointed head of [[DARPA]] information processing office, and started to form an informal group within the [[United States Department of Defense]]'s DARPA to further computer research. As part of the information processing offices role, three network terminals had been installed. One for [[System Development Corporation]] in [[Santa Monica, California\|Santa Monica]], one for [[Project Genie]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] and one for the [[Multics]] project at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. Licklider's need for inter-networking would be made evident by the problems this caused. :''"For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C. and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley or M.I.T. about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them.'' :''I said, oh, man, it's obvious what to do: If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go where you have interactive computing. That idea is the ARPAnet."'' -- [[Robert Taylor (computer scientist)\|Robert W. Taylor]], co-writer with Licklider of "The Computer as a Communications Device", in an interview with the [[New York Times]] {{ref\|InternetPioneer}} ===Switched packets=== {{main\|Packet switching}} At the core of the inter-networking problem lay the issue of connecting separate physical networks so they formed one logical network. During the 1960s, several groups worked on, and produced the concept of [[Packet Switching]]. [[Donald Davies]] ([[National Physical Laboratory\|NPL]]), [[Paul Baran]] ([[Rand Corporation]]) and [[Leonard Kleinrock]] ([[Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|MIT]]) are normally credited with the simultaneous invention. The common myth that the Internet was developed to survive nuclear attack has its roots in the early theories developed by RAND. Baran's research had approached packet switching from study of decentralisation to avoid combat damage risking the entire network. {{ref\|PB-RAND}} ==The networks that would lead to the Internet== ===ARPANET=== {{main\|ARPANET}} [[Image:Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png\|thumb\|300px\|Leonard Kleinrock and the first IMP. ''source:'' http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/personal_history.html]] Promoted to the head of the information processing office at [[ARPA]], [[Robert Taylor]] intended to realize Licklider's ideas of an interconnected networking system. Bringing in [[Larry Roberts]] from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|M.I.T]], he initiated a project to start such a [[computer network\|network]]. The first ARPANET link was established on 21 November 1969, between the [[University of California, Los Angeles]] and The [[Stanford Research Institute]]. By 5 December 1969, a 4-node network was connected, adding the [[University of Utah]] and the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]]. Building on ideas developed in [[ALOHAnet]], the ARPANET started in 1972 and was growing rapidly by 1981. The number of hosts had grown to 213, with a new host being added approximately every twenty days. {{ref\|WhereWizardsStayUpLate}} {{ref\|FromtheARPANETtotheInternet}} [[ARPANET]] became the technical core of what would become the Internet, and a primary tool in developing the technologies used. [[ARPANET]] development was centered around the [[Request for Comments\|RFC]] process, still used today for proposing and distributing Internet Protocols and Systems. RFC 1, entitled "Host Software", was written by [[Steve Crocker]] from the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and published on [[April 7]], [[1969]]. International collaborations on ARPANET were sparse; for various political reasons European developers were concerned with developing the [[X.25]] networks, with the notable exception of the Norwegian Seismic Array in 1972 followed in 1973 by satellite links to the [[Tanum]] Earth Station in Sweden and [[University College London]]. {{ref\|InternationalOriginsandCollaborativeVision}} ===X.25 and public access=== :''See main articles at [[X.25]], [[Bulletin board system]] and [[Fidonet]].'' Following on from DARPA's research, packet switching networks were developed by the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) in the form of [[X.25]] networks. X.25 formed the basis for the network between British academic and research sites, [[SERCnet]], in 1974, which would later become [[JANET]]. The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976. The [[General Post Office (United Kingdom)\|British Post Office]], [[Western Union\|Western Union International]] and [[Tymnet]] collaborated to create the first international packet switched network, referred to as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. This network would grow from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981, by the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure. {{ref\|BritishT
\|30]]</small> \|- \| [[December]]&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; \| <small>[[December 1\|1]] [[December 2\|2]] [[December 3\|3]] [[December 4\|4]] [[December 5\|5]] [[December 6\|6]] [[December 7\|7]] [[December 8\|8]] [[December 9\|9]] [[December 10\|10]] [[December 11\|11]] [[December 12\|12]] [[December 13\|13]] [[December 14\|14]] [[December 15\|15]] [[December 16\|16]] [[December 17\|17]] [[December 18\|18]] [[December 19\|19]] [[December 20\|20]] [[December 21\|21]] [[December 22\|22]] [[December 23\|23]] [[December 24\|24]] [[December 25\|25]] [[December 26\|26]] [[December 27\|27]] [[December 28\|28]] [[December 29\|29]] [[December 30\|30]] [[December 31\|31]]</small> \|} {{Calendar}} ==External links and resources== [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/_/archive.htm Daily Content Archive] [http://www.badley.info/history/daily.events.html World History Database] [http://www.tnl.net/when/today Today in History] [http://www.todayinsci.com/ Today in Science History] [[History Channel\|The 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&#1075;&#1086;&#1076;&#1080;&#1096;&#1085;&#1080;&#1085;&#1080;]] [[be:&#1057;&#1100;&#1087;&#1110;&#1089; &#1087;&#1072;&#1084;&#1103;&#1090;&#1085;&#1099;&#1093; &#1076;&#1072;&#1090;]] [[bs:Kalendar]] [[ca:Calendari d'esdeveniments]] [[csb:Kalãdarium]] [[cs:Seznam historick&#253;ch v&#253;ro&#269;&#237;]] [[cy:Rhestr cylchwyliau hanesyddol]] [[da:Historiske begivenheder]] [[de:Historische Jahrestage]] [[el:&#922;&#945;&#964;&#940;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#962; &#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#974;&#957; &#949;&#960;&#949;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#969;&#957;]] [[es:Calendario de aniversarios]] [[eo:Tagoj]] [[et:Aasta päevad]] [[eu:Urteko egutegi]] [[fa:فهرست روزهای سال میلادی]] [[fi:Kalenteri]] [[fo:Søguligar hendingar]] [[fur:Calendari dai acjadiments]] [[fr:Liste des anniversaires historiques]] [[fy:Deiskema]] [[gl:366 días do ano]] [[ko:366&#51068;]] [[he:לוח אירועים שנתי]] [[hr:Kalendar]] [[hu:Történelmi évfordulók listája]] [[ia:Anniversarios historic]] [[id:Kalender Peristiwa]] [[is:Allir dagar ársins]] [[it:Anniversari storici]] [[ja:365&#26085;]] [[ko:366일]] [[ku:Rojên salê]] [[la:Index dierum]] [[ml:&#3354;&#3376;&#3391;&#3364;&#3405;&#3376;&#3364;&#3405;&#3364;&#3391;&#3378;&#3405;&#8205; &#3335;&#3368;&#3405;&#3368;&#3405;&#8204;]] [[mr:&#2327;&#2381;&#2352;&#2375;&#2327;&#2352;&#2368; &#2342;&#2367;&#2344;&#2342;&#2352;&#2381;&#2358;&#2367;&#2325;&#2366;]] [[nl:365-dagenschema]] [[no:Historiske datoer]] [[oc:Calendièr d'eveniments]] [[pl:Kalendarium dzie&#324; po dniu]] [[pt:Lista de dias do ano]] [[ru:&#1052;&#1077;&#1089;&#1103;&#1094;&#1077;&#1089;&#1083;&#1086;&#1074;]] [[sk:Zoznam historick&#253;ch v&#253;ro&#269;&#237;]] [[sl:Seznam zgodovinskih obletnic]] [[sr:&#1044;&#1085;&#1077;&#1074;&#1085;&#1080; &#1082;&#1072;&#1083;&#1077;&#1085;&#1076;&#1072;&#1088;]] [[sv:Lista över datum]] [[tl:Kalendaryo]] [[tr:Takvim]] [[tt:Tar&#237;x&#237; waq&#237;&#287;alar]] [[uk:&#1057;&#1087;&#1080;&#1089;&#1086;&#1082; &#1074;&#1089;&#1110;&#1093; &#1076;&#1085;&#1110;&#1074;]] [[ur:&#1570;&#1580; &#1705;&#1575; &#1583;&#1606;]] [[wa:366 djoûs]] [[zh:&#21382;&#21490;&#19978;&#30340;&#20170;&#22825;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/November 11</title> <id>13342</id> <revision> <id>15910957</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:25:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[November 11]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/January 1</title> <id>13343</id> <revision> <id>15910958</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:21:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[January 1]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/January 26</title> <id>13344</id> <revision> <id>15910959</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:28:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[January 26]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/August 27</title> <id>13345</id> <revision> <id>15910960</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:28:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[August 27]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/April 15</title> <id>13346</id> <revision> <id>15910961</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:22:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[April 15]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/April 6</title> <id>13347</id> <revision> <id>15910962</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:31:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[April 6]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/September 1</title> <id>13348</id> <revision> <id>15910963</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:32:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[September 1]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/May 25</title> <id>13349</id> <revision> <id>15910964</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:32:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[May 25]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/January 28</title> <id>13350</id> <revision> <id>15910965</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:32:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[January 28]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/September 28</title> <id>13351</id> <revision> <id>15910966</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:33:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[September 28]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/March 28</title> <id>13352</id> <revision> <id>15910967</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:33:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[March 28]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/September 21</title> <id>13353</id> <revision> <id>15910968</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:34:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[September 21]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/May 29</title> <id>13354</id> <revision> <id>15910969</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:30:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[May 29]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historical anniversaries/July 20</title> <id>13355</id> <revision> <id>15910970</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:34:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIREC
gt; post-consonatic ''x'' is fricative {{IPA\|/ʃ/}}. Between vowels or final preceded of ''i'' is also {{IPA\|/ʃ/}}. <!-- this next phrase is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --> 1st person of Indicative's present desinence is -o, -i or ø. <!-- this next word is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --> Inchoative in -eix, -eixen, -eixi. The -n- of medieval nasal plural falls in <!-- this next word is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --> proparoxiton words: homes, joves. Specific Vocabulary: mirall, noi, escombra, llombrígol... In addition, neither [[dialect]] is completely homogeneous: any dialect can be subdivided into several sub dialects. Catalan can be subdivided in two major dialectal blocks and those blocks into individual dialects: [[Image:Mapa dialectal del català-valencià.png\|thumb\|250px\|Varieties of Catalan]] {\| border=0 cellspacing=10 cellpadding=10 \| width="50%" valign=top bgcolor="#E7E7FF" \| '''[[Western Catalan]]''' * ''[[North-Western Catalan]]'' (colour: light blue) ''[[Ribagorçà]]'' (from [[Ribagorça]], a region of Catalonia) ''Pallarès'' (from [[Pallars]]) ** ''Lleidatà'' (from [[Lleida (province)\|Lleida province]]) * ''Southern Catalan'' or ''Northern Valencian' (colour: blue)' ''Tortosí'' (from [[Tortosa]]) Catalan from [[Matarranya]] ''Vinarossenc'' (from [[Vinaròs]]) Valencian from [[Maestrat]] (a region of Valencia) * ''[[Valencian]]'' (colour: dark blue) ''Castellonenc'' (from region of [[Castelló de la Plana\|Plana]]) ''Apitxat'', or Central Valencian Southern Valencian Majorcan from Tàrbena and la Vall de Gallinera Valencian municipalities \| width="50%" valign=top bgcolor="#E7E7FF" \| '''[[Eastern Catalan]]''' * ''Northern Catalan, or ''rossellonès'' (from [[Roussillon]])'' (colour: pink) * ''[[Central Catalan]]'' (colour: light red) ''Salat'' (from the [[Costa Brava]]) ''Barcelonès'' (from [[Barcelona]]) ''Tarragonès'' (from [[Tarragona]]) ''Xipella'' * ''[[Balearic]]'' (colour: dark red) ''Mallorquí'' (from [[Majorca]]) ''Menorquí'' (from [[Minorca]]) ** ''Eivissenc'' (from [[Eivissa]]) * ''[[Alguerese]]'' (from the Italian city of [[Alghero]]) \|} See [[Catalan dialect examples]] for examples of each dialect. == The status of Valencian == {{Main\|Valencian}} [[image:Valenciamaydayposter.jpg\|300px\|right\|thumb\|A poster in [[Catalan]] from the Spanish trade union federation displayed in [[Valencia]].]] The official language academy of the [[Land of Valencia]] (the [[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]) considers ''Catalan'' and ''Valencian'' simply to be two names for the same language. There is a roughly continuous set of [[idiolect]]s covering the various regional forms of Catalan/ Valencian, with no break at the border between Catalonia and Valencia (i.e. villages contiguous to both sides of the border speak exactly the same), and the various forms of Catalan and Valencian are mutually intelligible. All universities teaching Romance languages, and virtually all linguists, consider these all to be linguistic variants of the same language (similar to [[Canadian French]] versus Metropolitan French). Nevertheless, differences do exist: the accent of a Valencian is recognisable, there are differences in subjunctive terminations, and there are a large number of words unique to Valencian; but those differences are not any wider than among North-Western Catalan and Eastern Catalan. In fact, Northern Valencian (spoken in the Castelló province and Matarranya valley, a strip of [[Aragon]]) is more similar to the Catalan of the lower [[Ebro]] [[basin]] (spoken in southern half of [[Tarragona province]] and another strip of Aragon) than to ''apitxat'' Valencian (spoken in the area of [[L'Horta]], in the province of Valencia). The [[Valencian\|Valencian language]] has often been seen as a dialect of Catalan due to their mutual intelligibility. However, the issue of ''language'' versus ''dialect'' is as much a matter of politics as of linguistics. By the criterion of mutual intelligibility, Valencian and other varieties of Catalan are dialects of a single language; but according to this criterion, [[Galician language\|Galician]] and [[Portuguese language\|Portuguese]] are also dialects of a single language, as are [[Norwegian language\|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language\|Swedish]], a contentious conclusion in either case. A language is defined by several factors, [[Language-dialect aphorism\|political ones among others]]. What gets called a ''language'' is defined in part by mutual comprehensibility, but also by political and cultural factors. Historically, the perceived status of Valencian as a "dialect of Catalan" has had important political implications including [[Catalan nationalism]] and the idea of the ''Països catalans'' or "[[Catalan countries]]." Conversely, some Valencians who advocate distinguishing the languages do so to resist a perceived Catalan nationalist agenda aimed at absorbing Valencian language and identity, and incorporating Valencians into a constructed nationality centered on Catalonia. However, this idea is mostly supported by extreme right-wing organisations who usually don't support actual use of Valencian, but rather fear a possible union between Catalonia and Valencia towards their independence. It should be noted as well that it is common consensus amongst linguists to consider Valencian and Catalan to be the same language. Similarly to [[Serbian language\|Serbian]] and [[Croatian language\|Croatian]], the issue of whether Catalan and Valencian constitute different languages or merely dialects has been the subject of political agitation several times since the end of the Franco era. The latest political controversy regarding Valencian occurred on the occasion of the drafting of the [[European Constitution]] in 2004. The Spanish government supplied the [[European Union\|EU]] with translations of the text into [[Basque language\|Basque]], Galician, Catalan, and Valencian, but the Catalan and Valencian versions were identical. While professing the unity of the Catalan language, the Spanish government claimed to be constitutionally bound to produce distinct Catalan and Valencian versions because the Statute of the Autonomous Land of Valencia refers to the language as ''Valencian''. In practice, the Catalan, Valencian, and Balearic versions of the EU constitution are identical, although some compromises over spelling may have been involved in making them so. Most current (21st century) Valencian speakers and writers use spelling conventions (Normes de Castelló, 1932) that allow for several diverse idiosyncrasies of Valencian, Balearic, North-Western Catalan, and Eastern Catalan. ==Sounds and writing system== {{main\|Catalan phonology and orthography}} ==Grammar== {{main\|Catalan grammar}} An interesting feature of Catalan, as compared to most other modern Romance languages, is its complex and extremely conservative system of pronoun [[clitic]]s. ==History== Catalan developed by the [[9th century\|9th century]] from [[Vulgar Latin]] on both sides of the eastern part of [[Pyrenees]] mountains (counties of [[Roussillon]], [[Empuries]], [[Besalú]], [[Cerdagne]], [[Urgell]], [[Pallars]] and [[Ribagorça]]). It shares features with Gallo-romance and Ibero-romance, and it could be said to be in its beginnings no more than an eccentric dialect of [[Occitan language\|Occitan]] (or of Western Romance). The language was spread to the south by the ''[[Reconquista]]'' in several phases: Barcelona and Tarragona, Lleida and Tortosa, the ancient Kingdom of Valencia, and transplanted to the Balearic Islands and l'Alguer ([[Alghero]]). Catalan was exported in the thirteenth century to the Balearic Islands and the newly created Valencian Kingdom by the Catalan and Aragonese invaders (note that the area of Catalan language still extends to part of what is now the region of Aragon). During this period, almost all of the Muslim population of the Balearic Islands were expelled, but many Muslim peasants remained in many rural areas of the Valencian Kingdom, as had happened before in the lower [[Ebro]] basin (or Catalunya Nova). During the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Catalan language was important in the [[Mediterranean]] region. Barcelona was the pre-eminent city and port of the so-called [[Aragonese Empire]], a confederation nominally ruled by the King of Aragon (Aragon, Catalonia, Roussillon, Valencia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, and &mdash; later &mdash; Sardinia and Naples). All prose writers of this era used the name 'Catalan' for their common language (e.g. the Catalan [[Ramon Muntaner]], the Majorcan [[Ramon Llull]], etc.) The matter is more complicated among the poets, as they wrote in a sort of artificial [[Occitan\|Langue d'Oc]] in the tradition of the [[troubador]]s. Italian resentment of this Catalan dominance appears to have been one of the wellsprings of the so-called "[[Black Legend]]". [[Image:Tirant.jpg\|right\|thumb\|One of the first few pages of ''[[Tirant lo Blanc\|Tirant&nbsp;lo&nbsp;Blanch]]'', by [[Joanot Martorell\|Joanot&nbsp;Martorell]].]] During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the city of Valencia gains pre-eminence in the confederation, due to several factors, including demographic changes and the fact that the royal court moved there. Presumably as a result of this shift in the balance of power within the confederation, in the fifteenth century the name 'Valencian' starts to be used by writers from Valencia to refer to their language. In the sixteenth century the name 'Llemosí' (that is to say, "the Occitan dialect of [[
al relationship. In addition, the vassal sometimes had to fulfill other obligations to the lord. One of those obligations was to provide the lord with "counsel", so that if the lord faced a major decision, such as whether or not to go to war, he would summon all his vassals and hold a council. The vassal may have been required to provide a certain amount of his farm's yield to his lord. The vassal was also sometimes required to grind his wheat and bake his bread in the ovens owned and taxed by his lord. The land-holding relationships of feudalism revolved around the fief. Depending on the power of the granting lord, grants could range in size from a small farm to a much larger area of land. The size of fiefs was described in irregular terms quite different from modern area terms; see [[medieval land terms]]. The lord-vassal relationship was not restricted to members of the laity; [[bishops]] and [[abbot]]s, for example, were also capable of acting as lords. There were thus different 'levels' of lordship and vassaldom. The King was a lord who loaned fiefs to aristocrats, who were his vassals. Meanwhile the aristocrats were in turn lords to their own vassals, the peasants who worked on their land. ===Examples of feudalism=== :''Main article: [[Feudalism (examples)\|Feudalism examples]]'' Examples of feudalism are helpful to understand feudal society because feudalism was practiced in many different ways, depending on location and time period. A high-level encompassing conceptual definition will not always provide the reader with the more practical understanding available from historical examples. ==History of the term "feudalism"== In order to better understand what the term feudalism means, it is helpful to see how it was defined and how it has been used since its seventeenth century creation. ===Invention of the concept of feudalism=== The word ''feudalism'' was not a medieval term. It was invented by French and English lawyers in the [[17th century]] to describe certain traditional obligations between members of the warrior aristocracy. The term first reached a popular and wide audience in [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu\|Montesquieu]]'s ''De L'Esprit des Lois'' (''[[The Spirit of the Laws]]'') in [[1748]]. Since then it has been redefined and used by many different people in different ways. ===The concept of feudalism in history=== The term feudalism has been used by different political philosophers and thinkers throughout history. ====Enlightenment thinkers on feudalism==== Starting in the late [[18th century]] during the [[French revolution]], radicals wrote about feudalism in order to denigrate the antiquated system of the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'', or French monarchy. This was [[the Age of Enlightenment]] when reason was king and radicals were painting the [[Middle Ages]] as the "[[Dark Ages]]". Enlightenment authors generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the "Dark Ages" including Feudalism, projecting its negative characteristics on the current French monarchy as a means of political gain. ====Karl Marx on feudalism==== Like the French revolutionaries, [[Karl Marx]] also used the term feudalism for political ends. In the nineteenth century, Marx described feudalism as the economic situation coming before the inevitable rise of [[capitalism]]. For Marx, what defined feudalism was that the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy) rested on their control of the farmable lands, leading to a [[class society]] based upon the exploitation of the peasants who farm these lands, typically under [[serfdom]]. “The hand-mill gives you society with the feudal lord; the steam-mill society with the industrial capitalist.” ([[The Poverty of Philosophy]] ([[1847]]), chapter 2). Marx thus considered feudalism with a purely economic model. ===Historians on feudalism=== The term feudalism is, among medieval historians, one of the most widely debated concepts. There exist many definitions of feudalism and indeed some have revolted against it, saying the term should not be used at all. ====Debating the origins of English feudalism==== In the late [[19th century \| nineteenth]] and early [[twentieth century]] historians [[John Horace Round]] and [[Frederic William Maitland]], who focused on medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions as to the character of [[England\|English]] society prior to the start of [[Normans\|Norman]] rule in 1066. Round argued for a Norman import of feudalism, while Maitland contended that the fundamentals were already in place in Britain. The debate continues to this day. ====Ganshof and the classic view of feudalism==== A historian whose concept of feudalism remains highly influential in the [[20th century]] is [[Francois-Lois Ganshof\|François-Louis Ganshof]], who belongs to a pre-[[Second World War]] generation. Ganshof defines feudalism from a narrow legal and military perspective, arguing that feudal relationships existed only within the medieval nobility itself. Ganshof articulted this concept in ''Feudalism'' (1964). His classic definition of feudalism is the most widely known today and also the easiest to understand: simply put, when a lord granted a fief to a vassal, the vassal provided military service in return. ====Marc Bloch and sociological views of feudalism==== One of Ganshof's contemporaries, a French historian named [[Marc Bloch]], is arguably the most influential medieval historian of the twentieth century. Bloch approached feudalism not so much from a legal and military point of view but from a sociological one. He developed his ideas in ''Feudal Society'' (1961). Bloch conceived of feudalism as a type of society that was not limited solely to the nobility. Like Ganshof, he recognized that there was a hierarchal relationship between lords and vassals, but saw as well a similar relationship obtaining between lords and [[peasants]]. It is this radical notion that peasants were part of the feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his peers. While the vassal performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasant performed physical labour in return for protection. Both are a form of feudal relationship. According to Bloch, other elements of society can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects of life were centered on "lordship", and so we can speak usefully of a feudal church structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly) literature, a feudal economy. (See [[Feudal society]].) ====Revolt against the term feudalism==== In [[1974]], U.S. historian [[Elizabeth A.R. Brown]], in "The Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of Medieval Europe" (''American Historical Review'' 79), rejecting the label of feudalism as an anachronistic construct that imparts a false sense of uniformity to the concept. She noted the many different, contradictory definitions of feudalism in circulation and argued that, in the absence of any accepted definition, feudalism is a construct with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern historians read back "tyrannically" into the historical record. Supporters of Brown have gone so far as to suggest that the term should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures on medieval history entirely. In ''Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted'' (1994), Susan Reynolds expanded upon Brown's original thesis. Although some of her contemporaries questioned Reynolds' methodology, her thesis has received support from other historians. Note that Reynolds does not object to the Marxist use of 'feudalism'. ==History of feudalism== ===Early forms of feudalism in Europe=== Vassalage agreements similar to what would later develop into legalized medieval feudalism originated from the blending of ancient Roman and Germanic traditions. The Romans had a custom of [[patronage]] whereby a stronger patron would provide protection to a weaker client in exchange for gifts, political support and prestige. In the countryside of the later Empire, the reforms of [[Diocletian]] and his successors attempted to put certain jobs, notably farming, on an hereditary basis. As governmental authority declined and rural lawlessness (such as that of the [[Bagaudae]]) increased, these farmers were increasingly forced to rely upon the protection of the local landowner, and a nexus of interdependency was created: the landowners depended upon the peasants for labour, and the peasants upon the landowners for protection. Ancient Germans had a custom of equality among warriors, an elected leader who kept the majority of the wealth (land) and who distributed it to members of the group in return for loyalty. ===Decline of feudalism=== Feudalism had begun as a contract, the exchange of land tenure for military service. Over time, as lords could no longer provide new lands to their vassals, nor enforce their right to reassign lands which had become ''de facto'' hereditary property, feudalism became less tenable as a working relationship. By the [[thirteenth century]], Europe's economy was involved in a transformation from a mostly [[agrarian]] system to one that was increasingly money-based and mixed. Land ownership was still an important source of income, and still defined social status, but even wealthy nobles wanted more liquid assets, whether for luxury goods or to provide for wars. This corruption of the form is often referred to as "[[bastard feudalism]]". A noble vassal was expected to deal with most local issues and could not always expect help from a distant king. The nobles were independent and often unwilling to cooperate for a greater cause (military service). By the end of the Middle Ages, the kings were seeking a way to become independent of willful nobles, especially for military support. The kings first hired mercenaries and later created standing national armies. Historian J. J. Bagley notes that the [[fourteenth century
rew on board, had left hours earlier from [[Santa Maria]], [[Azores]], one of numerous scheduled fuel stopovers from [[London]], [[England]] to [[Havana, Cuba\|Havana]], [[Cuba]]. While approaching Bermuda, McMillan made the expected contact with [[Kindley Field]], the next stopover, requesting a radio bearing to calibrate his navigation and ensure he remained on course. With the response indicating that the plane was slightly off course, its position was corrected after Bermuda relayed a first-class bearing of 72 degrees from the island. At this point, with ''Star Tiger'' less than two hours flight away, McMillan gave confirmation of an [[estimated time of arrival\|ETA]] of 05:00 hours, an hour late due to strong headwinds; no further transmission from the aircraft was ever received. With the plane's last known position report precise, placing the disappearance within a confined flight range of the position northeast, rescue operations were launched after the plane went overdue for arrival; in spite of the aid, no trace was ever found, and the search eventually discontinued with negative results. In the report issued soon thereafter by the [[Civil Air Ministry]], numerous hypotheses as to what might have occurred during the flight's final two hours are given, before each being subsequently rejected: ''"There would accordingly be no grounds for supposing that ''Star Tiger'' fell into the sea in consequence of having been deprived of her radio, having failed to find her destination, and having exhausted her fuel." "There is good reason to suppose that no distress message was transmitted from the aircraft, for there were many radio receiving stations listening on the aircraft's frequencies, and none reported such a message." "...The weather was stable, there were no atmospheric disturbances of a serious kind which might cause structural damage to the aircraft, and there were no electrical storms."'' The aircraft was ruled unable to have gone off course, as the broadcast bearing from Bermuda, with winds pervailing, would have brought it within thirty miles of the island: ''"The aircraft could hardly have failed to find the island in a short time, in the conditions of visibility which prevailed."'' Engine difficulty was ruled out as likely cause, since at such late stage in the flight, without the added weight of extra fuel aboard, the aircraft might have been flown safely on three, or even two, engines instead of the four it had. The probability of the aircraft entirely losing three engines in the course of under two hours was considered absurd. Faced with the accumulation of evidence, or perhaps lack thereof, the board of investigation addressed the loss of the ''Star Tiger'' with remarked eloquence: ''"In closing this report it may truly be said that no more baffling problem has ever been presented for investigation. In the complete absence of any reliable evidence as to either the nature or the cause of the accident of ''Star Tiger'' the Court has not been able to do more than suggest possibilities, none of which reaches the level even of probability. Into all activities which involve the co-operation of man and machine two elements enter of a very diverse chaarcter [sic?]. There is an the incalculable element of the human equation dependent upon imperfectly known factors; and there is the mechanical element subject to quite different laws. A breakdown may occur in either separately or in both in conjunction. Or some external cause may overwhelm both man and machine. What happened in this case will never be known and the fate of ''Star Tiger'' must remain an unsolved mystery."'' ==Cinematic depicitions== * An episode of [[Walt Disney Company\|Disney]]'s ''[[DuckTales]]'' (episode #28: "Bermuda Triangle Tangle") left [[Scrooge]] a [[prisoner]] in the mysterious [[Sargasso Sea]] after a search for his missing ships. * One episode of ''[[Rocko's Modern Life]]'' featured the main characters going on a [[cruise]] which ended up in the Bermuda Triangle. Chaos ensues as the young become old, old become young, and a strange airplane-like alien appears. * A season-6 ''[[The X-Files]]'' episode, aptly named "Triangle", featured a Bermuda Triangle storyline about a [[1939]] luxury liner that appeared in the present day. * On [[December 5]], [[2005]], the [[Sci Fi Channel]] began broadcasting its three-part series called ''[[The Triangle (miniseries)\|The Triangle]]''. This series features a theory on electromagnetic disruptions and space-time holes. * In an episode of Nickolodeon's ''[[The Fairly Odd Parents]]'', Timmy's most dangerous wishes are transported to an island in the Bermuda Triangle. Jorgan Von Strangle gives the reasoning that it is so dangerous, nobody would be crazy enough to go there. * In a 1978 episode of ''[[Scooby-Doo (1976-1979 television series)\|Scooby-Doo]]'' titled ""A Creepy Tangle in the Bermuda Triangle", the gang enters the Triangle on a ship helmed by an evil captain and becomes involved in many mysterious incidents. * The 2001 film ''Lost Voyage'' is about a ship which was lost in Bermuda Triangle and returns after 30 years. * In the 1977 television series ''[[The Fantastic Journey]]'', the main characters traveled through different places and times trying to escape the Bermuda Triangle. In an episode of Jimmy Neutron, Jimmy and his friends go to the "bahama Quadrangle". ==Cultural references== [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Tempest (play)\|The Tempest]]'' is placed after a shipwreck near the ''turbulent Bermoothes''. [[Barry Manilow]] sang a UK no. 15 hit in 1981 titled "Bermuda Triangle". It tells the story of a fictional holiday to the area where the singer's girlfriend elopes with a local, but he finds a more than adequate replacement, leading to the uplifting final refrain: {{quotation\|Bermuda Triangle, it makes people disappear<br />Bermuda Triangle, don't go too near<br />But look at it from my angle<br />And you'll see why I'm so glad<br />Now Bermuda Triangle not so bad!\|Barry Manilow\|Bermuda Triangle (1981)}} DC Comics' Paradise Island city-state, controlled by Amazons and the home of [[Wonder Woman]], is located there. The [[Marvel Comics]] series ''[[Skul the Slayer]]'' was set in a world inhabited by people who had been swallowed by the Triangle, which was actually a trap created by aliens. [[Milton Bradley]] released a board game named [[Bermuda Triangle]] in [[1975]]. [[Buckethead]] released an album named ''[[Bermuda Triangle]]'' in [[2002]]. ''[[Starlord]]'', a British comic book, ran a story called "Planet of the Damned", which portrays the triangle as a vortex in space and time leading to a hostile planet where survivors struggle against the alien environment. The story relies on a number of documented disaperances for its background. The story began [[13 May]] [[1978]]. [[Jaws]] author [[Peter Benchley]] wrote a novel called ''The Island'' in which a journalist investigates the Triangle and discovers the disappearances are the work of pirates — specifically the descendants of buccaneers who live isolated from civilisation and raid shipping to survive. In 1980 the book was made into a film directed by [[Michael Ritchie]] and starring [[Michael Caine]]. The narrator of [[Chuck Palahniuk]]'s novel ''[[Diary (novel)\|Diary]]'' often refers to any item which has disappeared as having been "Bermuda triangulated". ==See also== [[List of Bermuda Triangle incidents]] [[Chuck Wakely Incident]] ==External links== [http://skepdic.com/bermuda.html Skeptic's Dictionary on the Bermuda Triangle] [http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/bermudat.htm World Atlas Bermuda Triangle Map] Map and information. [http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/hydrates/bermuda.html Opinion] of a Geologist from the U.S. Geological Survey regarding the gas hydrate theory [http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/hydrates/index.html USGS Gas Hydrate Title Page] [http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-1.htm Navy Historical Center FAQ] [http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq15-1.htm The loss of Flight 19 FAQ] [http://www.unmuseum.org/triangle.htm Bermuda triangle "unmuseum"] [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/methane_hydrates.html Bermuda Triangle.org] Critical of Methane Hydrates [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/debunkery.html "Debunking Debunkery" - Severe criticism of Larry Kusche's ''The Bermuda Triangle Mystery -- Solved''] [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/lost_ships.html "Lost Ships"] (including the 2000 ''Tropic Bird'' case, in which entry in the ship's log was interrupted in mid-sentence) [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/lost_aircraft.html "Lost Aircraft"] [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/recent_statistics.html Recent (1999-2001) Statistics on Coast Guard-Designated "Overdue" yachting vessels] ==Further reading== ''The Bermuda Triangle'', Charles Berlitz (ISBN 0385041144): appears to be currently out of print; however, there are many other books available covering the same material, frequently the same stories. ''The Bermuda Triangle Mystery Solved'' (1975). Lawrence David Kusche (ISBN 0879759712) ''Into the Bermuda Triangle: Pursuing the Truth Behind the World's Greatest Mystery'' (2004). Gian J. Quasar (ISBN 0-07-142640-X) ''Limbo Of The Lost'', John Wallace Spencer (ISBN 0-68-610658-X) [[Category:Bermuda]] [[Category:New Age]] [[Category:Nautical lore\|Bermuda Triangle]] [[Category:Paranormal places]] [[ar:مثلث برمودا]] [[ca:Triangle de les Bermudes]] [[da:Bermudatrekanten]] [[de:Bermudadreieck]] [[et:Bermuda kolmnurk]] [[es:Triángulo de las Bermudas]] [[eo:Bermuda triangulo]] [[fr:Triangle des Bermudes]] [[id:Segitiga Bermuda]] [[he:משולש ברמודה]] [[nl:Bermudadriehoek]] [[ja:バミューダトライアングル]] [[no:Bermudatriangelet]] [[pl:Trójkąt Bermu

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