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<title>Ibn Battuta</title>
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<comment>/* To Iran and the Silk Road */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IbnBattuta.jpg|thumb|Ibn Battuta (1304&ndash;1377).]]
'''Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battuta''' ([[Arabic]]: '''أبو عبد الله محمد ابن بطوطة''') (born [[February 24]], [[1304]]; year of death uncertain, possibly [[1368]] or [[1377]]) was born in [[Tangier]], [[Morocco]] during the time of [[Merinid dynasty|Merinid Sultanate]] rule in the [[Islamic calendar]] year 703, into a [[Berber]] family. He was a [[Sunni Islam]]ic scholar and [[Jurisprudence|jurisprudent]] from the [[Maliki]] [[Madhhab]] (a school of [[Fiqh]], or Sunni Islamic law), and at times a [[Qadi]] or judge. However, he is best known as an extensive traveller or [[exploration|explorer]], whose account documents his travels and side-excursions over a period of almost thirty years, covering some 73,000 miles (117,000 km). This journeying covered almost the entirety of the known Islamic world, extending also to present-day [[India]], the [[Maldives]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Southeast Asia]] and [[China]], a distance readily surpassing that of his prior, near-contemporary and traveller [[Marco Polo]].
At the instigation of the Sultan of Morocco, [[Abu Inan Faris]], several years after his return Ibn Battuta dictated an account of his journeys to a scholar named [[Ibn Juzayy]], whom he had met while in [[Granada]]. This account, recorded by Ibn Juzayy and interspersed with the latter's own comments is the primary source of information for his adventures. The title of this initial manuscript may be translated as ''A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling'', but is often simply referred to as the ''Rihla'', or "Journey". Whilst apparently fictional in places, the ''Rihla'' still gives as complete an account as exists of some parts of the world in the [[14th century]].
Almost all that is known about Ibn Battuta's life comes from one source &ndash; Ibn Battuta himself (via Ibn Juzayy). In places the things he claims he saw or did are probably fanciful, but in many others there is no way to know whether he is reporting or story-telling. The following account assumes the latter where it is not obviously the former.
==The Hajj (with detours)==
Born in [[Tangier]], [[Morocco]] some time between [[1304]] and [[1307]], at the age of (approximately) twenty Ibn Battuta went on a ''[[hajj]]'' &ndash; a pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]. Once done, however, he continued travelling, eventually covering about 75,000 miles over the length and breadth of the Muslim world, and beyond (about 44 modern countries). Batutta started his journeys in [[1325]].
His journey to Mecca was by land, and followed the North African coast of the [[Maghreb]] region quite closely until he reached [[Cairo]]. At this point he was within [[Mameluk]] territory, which was relatively safe, and he embarked on the first of his detours. Three commonly used routes existed to Mecca, and Ibn Battuta chose the least-travelled: a journey up the Nile, then east by land to the Red Sea port of [[Aydhad|'Aydhad]]. However, upon approaching that city he was forced to turn back due to a local rebellion.
Returning to Cairo he took a second side trip, to [[Damascus]] (then also controlled by the Mameluks), having encountered a holy man during his first trip who prophesied that Ibn Battuta would only reach Mecca after a journey through [[Syria]]. An additional advantage to the side journey was that other holy places were along the route &ndash; [[Hebron]], [[Jerusalem]], and [[Bethlehem]], for example &ndash; and the Mameluke authorities put special effort into keeping the journey safe for pilgrims.
After spending [[Ramadan]] in Damascus, Ibn Battuta joined up with a caravan travelling the 800 miles from Damascus to [[Medina]], burial place of [[Muhammad]]. After four days, he then journeyed on to Mecca. There he completed the usual rituals of a Muslim pilgrim, and having graduated to the status of ''[[al-Hajji]]'' as a result, now faced his return home. Upon reflection, he decided to continue journeying instead. His next destination was the [[Il-Khanate]] in modern-day [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]].
==To Iran and the Silk Roads==
Once again hooking up with a caravan he crossed the border into [[Mesopotamia]] and visited [[al-Najaf]], the burial place of the fourth Caliph [[Ali ibn Abi Talib|Ali]]. From there he journeyed to [[Basra]], then [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], which was only a few decades away from being nearly destroyed by [[Timur]]. Next were [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]] and [[Baghdad]], the latter of which was in bad shape after [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|being sacked]] by [[Hulagu Khan]].
There he met [[Abu Said|Abu Sa'id]], the last ruler of the unified Il-Khanate. Ibn Battuta travelled with the royal caravan for a while, then turned north to [[Tabriz]] on the [[Silk Road]]. The first major city in the region to open its gates to the [[Mongols]], it had become an important trading centre after most of its nearby rivals were razed.
==Second Hajj and East Africa==
After this trip, Ibn Battuta returned to Mecca for a second ''[[hajj]]'', and lived there for a year before embarking on a second great trek, this time down the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Eastern African]] coast. His first major stop was [[Aden]], where his intention was to make his fortune as a trader of the goods that flowed into the Arabian Peninsula from around the [[Indian Ocean]]. Before doing so, however, he determined to have one last adventure, and signed on for a trip down the coast of [[Africa]].
Spending about a week in each of his destinations, he visited [[Ethiopia]], [[Mogadishu, Somalia|Mogadishu]], [[Mombasa]], [[Zanzibar]], and [[Kilwa]], among others. With the change of the monsoon, he and the ship he was aboard then returned to south Arabia. Having completed his final adventure before settling down, he then immediately decided to go visit [[Oman]] and the [[Straits of Hormuz]]. This done, he journeyed to Mecca again.
==Turkey and India==
Spending another year there, he then resolved to seek employment with the Muslim [[Sultanate of Delhi|Sultan of]] [[Delhi]]. Needing a guide and translator if he was to travel there, he went to [[Anatolia]], then under the control of the [[Seljuk Turks]], to join up with one of the caravans that went from there to [[India]]. A sea voyage from Damascus on a Genoese ship landed him in [[Alanya]] on the southern coast of modern-day [[Turkey]]. From there he travelled by land to [[Konya]] and then [[Sinope]] on the [[Black Sea]] coast.
Crossing the Black Sea, Ibn Battuta landed in Caffa (now [[Theodosia]]), in the Crimea, and entered the lands of the [[Golden Horde]]. There he bought a wagon and fortuitously joined the caravan of [[Ozbeg]], the Golden Horde's Khan, on a journey as far as [[Astrakhan]] on the [[Volga River]].
Upon reaching Astrakhan, the Khan allowed one of his pregnant wives to go give birth back in her home city &ndash; [[Constantinople]]. It is perhaps of no surprise to the reader that Ibn Battuta talked his way into this expedition, his first beyond the boundaries of the Islamic world.
Arriving there towards the end of [[1332]], he met the emperor [[Andronicus III]] and saw the outside of [[Hagia Sophia]]. After a month in the city, he retraced his route to Astrakhan, then carried on past the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Aral Sea]]s to [[Bokhara]] and [[Samarkand]]. From there he journeyed south to [[Afghanistan]], the mountain passes of which he used to cross into India.
The [[Delhi Sultanate|Sultanate of Delhi]] was a relatively new addition to ''[[Dar al-Islam]]'', and Sultan [[Muhammed Tughlaq]] had resolved to import as many Muslim scholars and other functionaries as possible to consolidate his rule. On the strength of his years of studies while in Mecca, Ibn Battuta was employed as a ''[[qadi]]'' ("judge") by the sultan.
Tughlaq was erratic even by the standards of the time, and Ibn Battuta veered between living the high life of a trusted subordinate, and being under suspicion for a variety of reasons. Eventually he resolved to leave on the pretext of taking another ''hajj'', but the Sultan offered the alternative of being ambassador to [[China]]. Given the opportunity to both get away from the Sultan and visit new lands, Ibn Battuta took it.
==Southeast Asia and China==
En route to the coast, he and his party were attacked by [[Hindus]], and separated from the others he was robbed and nearly lost his life. Nevertheless, he managed to catch up with his group within two days, and continued the journey to [[Cambay]]. From there they sailed to [[Calicut]]. While Ibn Battuta visited a mosque on shore, however, a storm blew up and two of the ships of his expedition were sunk. The third then sailed away without him, and ended up seized by a local king in a Kingdom of ''Samudra'', [[Aceh]] province of [[Sumatra]] a few months later, local myth says he was the one who always referred to the kingdom of ''Samudra'' but pronounced in a way that sounded more like the modern day [[Sumatra] |
the 1970s, South Africa’s local Race Classification Boards reflected local public opinion and often found it helpful to cooperate with those wanting to upgrade from Black to Coloured or from Coloured to White. School principals of schools for children of the White endogamous group could keep up enrollments (and funding) by getting some Coloured children reclassified as White members. But if they pushed too hard, they risked having the whole school reclassified as a school for members of the Coloured endogamous group. Today, after the ending of apartheid, South Africa’s three endogamous groups, whose segregation was formerly enforced by criminal law, have become three separate appearance-based political blocs whose segregation is enforced by social custom. Due to current Black political supremacy, their society may now be in transition from seeing Coloured citizens as intermediate in social rank (as in [[Haiti]]), to relegating them to inferior status (as in [[Uganda]]). A Coloured South African recently complained to a newspaper reporter, “In the old system, we weren’t White enough; now we aren’t Black enough.” [See Lydia Polgreen, “For Mixed-Race South Africans, Equity is Elusive,” ''The New York Times International'', July 27 2003, 3.]
===Who self-identifies as Black in an ethno-political (but not ancestral) sense?===
Some groups have also embraced a "Black" self-designation despite their lack of African ancestry (that is, despite having no more detectable sub-Saharan African genetic admixture than, say, Spaniards, Portuguese, Sicilians, Italians, or Greeks). Due to the perceived success of the [[U.S. civil rights movement]] of 1955-1975 some oppressed and marginalized populations around the world, even without African ancestry, have adopted the rhetoric of the U.S. Black movement, including that of labeling themselves "Black." This self-identity has been encouraged and even funded by [[American liberalism|liberal]] U.S. organizations who believe that the first step in achieving social justice outside the United States is to impose a U.S.-like endogamous barrier between "oppressed" and "oppressor", so that no individual can claim to belong to both sides.
'''Dalits''' &mdash; In [[India]], the group that has suffered the most oppression has been the [[Dalit]] "untouchable" caste, and many have looked to the American civil-rights movement for inspiration. Some Afrocentrists have been very pro-active in creating a mutual bond with these populations, considering them Blacks as well. [[Runoko Rashidi]], who has been to India three times, [http://www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/afrodalit.htm] was contrite about the way he represented Dalits in the U.S. "I feel bad about it. I oversimplified to make it palatable to a Black constituency. I've given the impression that Dalits are Black people. Dalits, I now find, are a social and economic group, more than a racial group." Nevertheless, Rashidi holds that "large sections of the Dalits would be seen as Black people if they lived anywhere else" and that the connections between Africans and Dalits "go beyond phenotype." Many have adopted the Afrocentric beliefs that they are African, and have formed organizations like the [[Dalit Panthers]] emulating the [[Black Panther Party]] of the USA.
'''Aeta''' &mdash; The ''[[Aeta]]'' from the [[Philippines]] are, more or less, known as black in the Anglicized Philippines. Like the term Negrito, the term "Aeta" [http://www.alibata.org/tribes/tribes.html] was an imposed term by later migrations. Two major branches apparently made their appearance in the archipelago 30,000 to 20,000 years ago: one traveling up the eastern flank of the islands to end up on the Pacific side of the [[Sierra Madre]] and comprising the Alta, Arta and Agta groups; the second branch appears to have moved up the western side, with some groups similarly ending up in northern [[Luzon]]; this branch includes the Pinatubo Negrito, Dumagat, Ata, Ati, Atta, Sinauna and Batak. At least 25 groups are known, many sharing the same name (Ita, Aeta, Ata, Atta, Agta, etc. are thought to come from the general filipino word "Itom," meaning "black"). Many find this term to be offensive because it ignores their own tribal identification.
'''Australian Aborigines''' &mdash; '''[[Indigenous Australians]]''' are the first inhabitants of the [[Australia]]n continent and its nearby islands, continuing their presence during [[Europe]]an settlement. The term includes the various [[indigenous peoples]] commonly known as '''Aborigines''', whose traditional lands extend throughout mainland Australia, [[Tasmania]] and numerous offshore islands, and also the '''[[Torres Strait Islander]]s''' whose lands are centred on the [[Torres Strait Islands]] which run between northernmost Australia and the island of [[New Guinea]]. Since colonialism, the English have referred to them as Black (not related to African 'Blacks') due to their darker complexion, and they have adopted the name as an ethnic term, much like Afro-Americans:
* Wimbledon champion [[Evonne Goolagong]], of the Wiradjuri people of New South Wales, is described as "the first black woman sporting hero in Australian folklore"[http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/07/18/1058035195680.html] and included in lists of "black" athletes, as in the book "Black Gold."[http://www.abc.net.au/message/blackarts/review/s215630.htm]
* [[Anthony Mundine]] has been nicknamed "the black superman." [http://www.theblacksuperman.com/]
* [[Oodgeroo Noonuccal]]/Kath Walker [http://www.bushpoetry.com.au/Portals/18/Oodgeroo_Noonuccal.jpg], of the Noonuccal people of Moreton Bay, east of Brisbane, referred to herself and other aboriginals as "black."[http://www.library.uq.edu.au/fryer/worth_fighting/2.html] She quoted her father as calling her "black."[http://www.blackbook.afc.gov.au/inspiration_detail.asp?id=2]
* Half-aboriginal [[Charles Perkins]] was subjected to discrimination against black aboriginals and subsequently has involved himself in black politics.[http://www.eniar.org/news/perkins1.html].
* [[Aden Ridgeway]], of the Gumbaynggir people of New South Wales is described as "a black politician."[http://www.abc.net.au/message/radio/speaking/stories/s1403771.htm]
The converse is also true. Some peoples today who are clearly genetic descendants of the African slave Diaspora do not see themselves as "Black" in any ethno-political sense, and instead adopt self-identities aligned with religion or language. Among these are the people of the Mascarene Islands in the Indian Ocean and the inhabitants of highland [[Madagascar]]. (See Pier M. Larson, [http://backintyme.com/rawdata/larson01.pdf Reconsidering Trauma, Identity, and the African Diaspora: Enslavement and Historical Memory in Nineteenth-Century Highland Madagascar], William and Mary Quarterly 56, no. 2 (1999): 335-62].)
==Who looks Black?<sup>[[#2|2]]</sup>==
Probably the most controversial answer to the question "who is Black?" is "whoever looks Black." This is because, although most who use the label rationalize it in terms of physical appearance, there is little objective consistency in this regard. That different cultures can assign the same individual to opposite "races" may be hard to grasp. And yet North Americans, Haitians, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, Barbadians, Jamaicans, and Trinidadians all have different subconscious and automatic perceptions of just what features define who belongs to which "racial" label.
According to [[Harry Hoetink]], one can predict where each New World culture draws the color-line based upon its own colonial history. He suggests that three similar socioeconomic classes formed in most settlements during the New World colonial period. Once the importation of African labor became widespread, Western Hemisphere colonies that lacked significant numbers of Native Americans tended to fall into a three-tiered social structure. The top layer comprised a small number of European land-owning planters who produced agricultural products for export using large numbers of African slaves. The slaves themselves made up the bottom layer. Finally, in most European colonies (Barbados being the exception), an intermediate group arose, composed of free subsistence farmers, who were allowed to opt out of the plantation economy in return for serving as militia in the event of slave insurrection. In each colony, the color line came to be defined by the appearance of typical members of the intermediate class. Anyone more European-looking was seen as White; anyone darker was considered Black. Historical contingency decreed that this intermediate group would have a large admixture of African appearance in [[Santo Domingo]], less so in [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Brazil]], even less in [[Jamaica]] and [[Trinidad]], and be completely European-looking in [[Virginia]] and [[South Carolina]]. Hoetink demonstrated that, "One and the same person may be considered white in the [[Dominican Republic]] or Puerto Rico, and 'coloured' in Jamaica, [[Martinique]], or [[Curaçao]]; this difference must be explained in terms of socially determined somatic norms. The same person may be called a 'Negro' in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]; this must be explained by the historical evolution of social structure in the [[Southern United States]]."
In addition, researchers in the cognitive sciences have shown that cultures do not ostracize out-groups because they look different; they look different because they are out-groups. Children of each culture can "correctly" (for their own society) categorize strangers by age three. They can reliably match each "racial" category with its social term or word by about age five. Most |
incorporated cities and towns across the state. Most cities are coterminous with their namesake towns and have a merged city-town government. The two exception are the [[Groton (city), Connecticut| City of Groton]], which is a subsection of the [[Groton (town), Connecticut| Town of Groton]] and the [[Milford (town), Connecticut|City of Milford]], which is most, but not all, of the [[Milford, Connecticut|Town of Milford]]. There are also nine incorporated [[borough]]s, eight of which provide additional services to a section of town. One, [[Naugatuck]], is a consolidated town and borough.
The two U.S. senators representing Connecticut are [[Christopher J. Dodd]] (Democrat) and [[Joseph I. Lieberman]] (Democrat). Connecticut currently has five [[U.S. Congressional Delegations from Connecticut|representatives in the U.S. House]].
Once considered one of the most [[American conservatism|conservative]] states in the Northeast, the state now tends to vote Democratic for presidential and congressional elections. Connecticut has given its electoral votes to Democratic presidential candidates in the past four presidential elections. In [[U.S. presidential election, 2004|2004 election]], [[John Kerry]] had a comfortable margin of 10 percentage points with 54.3% of Connecticut's [[popular vote]]. George W. Bush had only won [[Litchfield County]] at a small margin. Connecticut Republicans tend to be more [[American liberalism|liberal]] than their counterparts in many other states. The majority of Republican senators voted in favor of the [[civil unions]] bill, which passed the General Assembly, and was signed into law in 2005. [[Christopher Shays]], a Republican representing Connecticut in the [[U.S. House of Representatives]], has sided with the Democrats on a range of issues including gun control, abortion, and the environment. [[Governor]] Jodi Rell and former governors [[John Rowland]] and [[Lowell Weicker]] have all been considered more liberal than most Republicans. Conversely, some state Democrats tend to be conservative or moderate, Senators [[Joe Lieberman]] and [[Christopher Dodd]] being the most notable cases.
The supreme executive power is vested in the Governor, who heads the executive branch. The current [[List of Governors of Connecticut|Governor of Connecticut]] is [[Excellency|Her Excellency]], [[M. Jodi Rell]] (Republican). There are several executive departments responsible for administering the laws of Connecticut, they are: Administrative Services, Agriculture, Children and Families, Correction, Education, Environmental Protection, Higher Education, Information Technology, Insurance, Labor, Military, Motor Vehicles, Public Health, Public Utility, Revenue Services, Social Services, Transportation, Veterans Affairs. In addition to these departments, there are many other independent bureaus, offices and commissions [http://www.ct.gov/ctportal/cwp/view.asp?a=843&q=246450]. Historically, from 1639 until the adoption of the 1818 constitution, the Governor presided over the General Assembly.
The [[legislature]], referred to as the General Assembly, is a [[bicameral]] body consisting of an upper body, the Senate (36 senators); and a lower body, the House of Representatives (151 representatives). Before a bill can be signed into law, it must be passed by a vote of at least two thirds of each house. The Governor can veto the bill, but this veto can be overridden by a two-thirds majority in each house. Senators and Representatives, all of whom must be at least eighteen years of age, are elected to two-year terms in November on even-numbered years. The [[List of Lieutenant Governors of Connecticut|Lieutenant Governor]] presides over the senate, except when absent from the chamber, when the [[List of Presidents Pro Tempore of Connecticut|President Pro Tempore]] presides. The [[List of Speakers of the House of Connecticut|Speaker of the House]] presides over the House; [[James A. Amann]] is the current Speaker of the House of Connecticut. The [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] currently hold the majority in both houses of the General Assembly.
The highest [[court]] of Connecticut's judicial branch is the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of Connecticut. The Supreme Court is responsible for deciding on the constitutionality of the law or cases as they relate to the law. Its proceedings are similar to that of the United States Supreme Court, i.e., no testimony can be given by witnesses, and the lawyers of the two sides each present an oral argument no longer than thirty minutes. Following a court proceeding, the court may take several months to arrive at a judgment. The current [[List of Chief Justices of Connecticut|Chief Justice]] is William J. Sullivan. Historically, the highest court in Connecticut was the General Assembly, and later, the Upper House, with the Governor having the title "Chief Judge". In 1818, the court became a separate entity, independent of the legislative and executive branches. Below the Supreme Court, are the Appellate Court, and the Superior Courts.
==Politics==
Connecticut is a solid blue-state, alloting its electoral votes (8 in 1992, 1996, and 2000; 7 in 2004) to Democratic candidates in the past four Presidential elections. While Connecticut is the wealthiest state in America per capita, its less affluent urban areas account for the majority of its registered voters; this along with its proximity to [[New York City]] and its typically socially-liberal suburban voters have made Connecticut a Democratic bastion.
Republicans are the minority in the state legislature, but oddly enough they currently hold three of the five congressional seats. As of [[2006]], the two Senate seats from Connecticut are held by Democratic icons, [[Christopher Dodd]] and [[Joseph Lieberman]]. Connecticut's last [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] to serve in the US Senate was [[Lowell P. Weicker Jr]], who was a Senator from 1971-1989 when he was defeated by [[Joe Lieberman]]. Weicker was known as a liberal Republican, who served as Governor of Connecticut from 1991-1995 as a member of the independent [[A Connecticut Party]]. Weicker later supported [[Howard Dean]] in 2004 Presidential Election. Before Weicker, the last [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] to represent Connecticut in the Senate was [[Prescott Bush]] from 1953-1963. Bush is the father of former president [[George H.W. Bush]] and thus the grandfather of President [[George W. Bush]].
The state's only Republican stronghold is rural [[Litchfield County]] as well as some wealthy towns in [[Fairfield County]] near the [[New York State]] border. While [[Litchfield County]] supported [[George W. Bush]] in the [[2004 Presidential Election]], all other counties in Connecticut, including [[Fairfield County]](often referred to as the [[Gold Coast]]) voted for his opponent, Senator [[John Kerry]]. The suburban towns of [[New Canaan, Connecticut|New Canaan]] and [[Darien, Connecticut|Darien]] in [[Fairfield County]] are considered the most Republican areas in the state, and perhaps one of the most reliably conservative areas in [[New England]], the former being the hometown of conservative activist [[Ann Coulter]]. On the contrary, [[Westport]], a wealthy town on the same tier as New Canaan and Darien, is widely known as a liberal place, and one of the most loyally-Democratic towns in Fairfield County. Former first selectwoman of Westport, [[Diane Farrell]], a Democrat, ran for [[Christopher Shays]]' (a longtime incumbent Republican) congressional seat, and lost by only two percentage points in 2004. She is already campaigning to face him again in the next congressional election.
Democrats are the majority almost everywhere else, especially in the cities of [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] (the state [[capital]]), [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] and [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]], the largest cities in the state. The once Republican strongholds of [[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]] and [[Waterbury, Connecticut|Waterbury]] have become predominantly Democratic over the years, increasing their mandate in the state.
President [[George W. Bush]] was actually born in [[New Haven, Connecticut]] and lived there for a short time before moving to [[Texas]].
{{further|[[U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Connecticut]]}}
== Geography ==
Connecticut is bordered on the south by [[Long Island Sound]], on the west by [[New York State]], on the north by [[Massachusetts]], and on the east by [[Rhode Island]]. The state capital is [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]], and the other major cities include [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]], [[New London, Connecticut|New London]], [[Norwich, Connecticut|Norwich]], [[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]], [[Waterbury, Connecticut|Waterbury]], [[Torrington, Connecticut|Torrington]] and [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]]. In all, there are a total of 169 [[incorporated town]]s in Connecticut. There is an ongoing civic pride and economic competition between Hartford and New Haven, which stems back to the days when the two cities shared the state's capital, and even back to when New Haven and Hartford were two separate colonies.
[[image:Approaching Summit Again.JPG|left|thumb|100px|Bear Mountain, highest peak in Connecticut]]
[[image:Highest Point here.JPG|right|thumb|100px|Highest point in Connecticut on slope of Mount Frissell, as seen from Bear Mountain]]
The highest peak in Connecticut is [[Bear Mountain]] in [[Salisbury, Connecticut|Salisbury]] in the northwest corner of the state. Once the location of a stone tower, currently a stone plaque alongside the [[Appalachian Trail]] identifies the point as "the highest ground in Connecticut, 2354 feet above the sea"; however, this is wrong on both counts. The current estimate of the height of the summit is only 2,316 feet; and although it '''is''' the highest '''peak''' in Connecticut, it is |
[[Leiden]] (in [[Italian Language|Italian]], ''Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno á due nuoue scienze'' Leida, Appresso gli Elsevirii 1638)
* ''[[Letters on Sunspots]]''
* ''[[The Assayer]]'' (In Italian, ''Il Saggiatore'')
* ''[[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems]]'' 1632 (in Italian, ''Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del mondo'')
* ''[[Sidereus Nuncius|The Starry Messenger]]'' 1610 [[Venice]] (in [[Latin]], ''[[Sidereus Nuncius]]'')
* ''[[Letter to Grand Duchess Christina]]''
==Writings on Galileo==
* ''[[Galileo Galilei (opera)|Galileo Galilei]]'', an opera by [[Philip Glass]]
* ''[[Galileo (play)|Galileo]]'' a play by [[Bertolt Brecht]]
* ''[[Galileo (play)|Lamp at Midnight]]'' a play by [[Barrie Stavis]]
Galileo's Daughter, a Memoir by Dava Sobel
==References==
* Drake, Stillman (1953). ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems''. Berkeley: University of California Press.
* Drake, Stillman (1957). ''Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo''. New York: Doubleday & Company. ISBN 0-385-09239-3
* Drake, Stillman (1973). "Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Free Fall". ''Scientific American'' v. 228, #5, pp. 84-92.
* Drake, Stillman (1978). ''Galileo At Work''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16226-5
* Einstein, Albert (1952). Foreword to (Drake, 1953)
* Fantoli, Annibale (2003). ''Galileo &mdash; For Copernicanism and the Church'', third English edition. Vatican Observatory Publications. ISBN 88-209-7427-4
* Fillmore, Charles (1931, 17th printing July 2004). ''Metaphysical Bible Dictionary''. Unity Village, Missouri: Unity House. ISBN 0-871-59067-0
* Hellman, Hal (1988). ''Great Feuds in Science. Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever''. New York: Wiley.
* Lessl, Thomas, "[http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0138.html The Galileo Legend]". ''New Oxford Review'', 27-33 (June 2000).
* Newall, Paula (2004). [http://www.galilean-library.org/hps.html "The Galileo Affair."]
* Settle, Thomas B. (1961). "An Experiment in the History of Science". ''Science'', 133:19-23.
* Sobel, Dava. (1999). ''Galileo's Daughter''. ISBN: 0-140-28055-3
* White, Andrew Dickson (1898). ''[http://www.santafe.edu/~shalizi/White/ A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom]''. New York 1898.
==Named after Galileo==
* The [[Galileo probe|Galileo mission]] to [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]
* The [[Galilean moons]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]
* [[Galileo Regio]] on [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]]
* [[Galilaei (lunar crater)|Galilaei crater]] on [[the Moon]]
* [[Galilaei (crater)|Galilaei crater]] on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]
* [[Asteroid]] [[697 Galilea]] (named on the occasion of the 300th anniversary of the discovery of the Galilean moons)
* [[Gal (unit)|Galileo (unit of acceleration)]]
* [[Galileo positioning system]]
* [[Galileo stadium]] in [[Miami, Florida]]
==See also==
*[[Eppur si muove]]
*[[Galilean transformation]]
*[[Galilean invariance]]
*[[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
*[[Lorentz transformation equations]]
*[[Medici]]
*[[Renaissance]]
*[[Vincenzo Galilei]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Galileo Galilei}}
* [http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/genscheda.asp?appl=SIM&xsl=biografia&lingua=ENG&chiave=300251 Biography of Galileo Galilei] with links to related objects conserved in the Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy
* [http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/genindice.asp?appl=SIM&indice=55&xsl=listaperctem&lingua=ENG&chiave=800008 Galileo theme-based virtual visit to the Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy] including videos
* [http://www.imss.fi.it/ms72/index.html Galileo's "Notes on Motion"] - online digital edition with transcriptions
* [http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/compasso/ Galileo's compass] an educational interactive application to explore online the history and uses of Galileo's compass
* [http://moro.imss.fi.it:9000/struts-aig/primoIngresso.do Galileo//Thek@] - an online digital archive of Galilean resources (including bibliographies, biographies, digital books, itineraries, manuscripts, experiments, documents, iconography, and more
* [http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Issues/GalileoAffair.html Galileo Affair catholic.net]
* [http://www.galilean-library.org/hps.html The Galileo Affair] by Paula Newall.
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/andrew_white/Chapter3.html The Warfare of Science With Theology]
* [http://galileo.rice.edu/ The Galileo Project] at [[Rice University]]
* [http://www.pacifier.com/~tpope CCD Images through a Galilean Telescope] Modern recreation of what Galileo might have seen; includes directions for using Galileo//Thek@ website
* [http://wspace.danask.com/g/galileo_galilei.html about Galileo Galilei] at [[danask.com]]
* [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Galileo_Prototype/MAIN.HTM Electronic representation of Galilei's notes on motion (MS. 72)]
* [http://www.firstthings.com/ftissues/ft0401/reviews/barr.html From Myth to History and Back] -- Reviews of two books on Galileo
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/ PBS Nova Online: ''Galileo's Battle for the Heavens'']
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/galileo/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://www.galilean-library.org The Galilean Library], an educational site dedicated to Galileo
* [http://www.liberliber.it/biblioteca/g/galilei/ Galileo's writings in Italian language], an Italian site dedicated to free e-texts
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06342b.htm Galileo Galilei, in the Catholic Encyclopedia] found online on New Advent, an orthodox Catholic website
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Galileo}}
<!-- FA links -->
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<!-- Categorization -->
[[Category:1564 births|Galilei]]
[[Category:1642 deaths|Galilei]]
[[Category:Astrologers]]
[[Category:Heretics|Galilei]]
[[Category:Italian astronomers|Galilei]]
[[Category:Italian physicists|Galilei]]
[[Category:Natives of Pisa|Galilei]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Galilei]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
[[Category:History of astronomy]]
<!-- Localization -->
{{featured article}}
[[als:Galileo Galilei]]
[[ar:غاليليو غاليلي]]
[[bg:Галилео Галилей]]
[[bn:গ্যালিলিও গ্যালিলি]]
[[ca:Galileo Galilei]]
[[cs:Galileo Galilei]]
[[da:Galileo Galilei]]
[[de:Galileo Galilei]]
[[et:Galileo Galilei]]
[[el:Γαλιλαίος Γαλιλέι]]
[[es:Galileo Galilei]]
[[eo:Galilejo]]
[[eu:Galileo Galilei]]
[[fr:Galileo Galilei]]
[[gl:Galileo Galilei]]
[[ko:갈릴레오 갈릴레이]]
[[hr:Galileo Galilej]]
[[io:Galileo Galilei]]
[[id:Galileo Galilei]]
[[is:Galileo Galilei]]
[[it:Galileo Galilei]]
[[he:גלילאו גליליי]]
[[la:Galilaeus Galilaei]]
[[lv:Galileo Galilejs]]
[[lt:Galilėjas Galilėjus]]
[[hu:Galileo Galilei]]
[[mk:Галилеј]]
[[nl:Galileo Galilei]]
[[nds:Galileo Galilei]]
[[ja:ガリレオ・ガリレイ]]
[[no:Galileo Galilei]]
[[nn:Galileo Galilei]]
[[pl:Galileusz]]
[[pt:Galileu Galilei]]
[[ro:Galileo Galilei]]
[[ru:Галилей, Галилео]]
[[sco:Galileo Galilei]]
[[scn:Galileu Galilei]]
[[simple:Galileo Galilei]]
[[sk:Galileo Galilei]]
[[sl:Galileo Galilei]]
[[sr:Галилео Галилеј]]
[[fi:Galileo Galilei]]
[[sv:Galileo Galilei]]
[[th:กาลิเลโอ กาลิเลอี]]
[[vi:Galileo Galilei]]
[[tr:Galileo Galilei]]
[[uk:Галілей Галілео]]
[[zh:伽利略·伽利莱]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Good argument</title>
<id>11947</id>
<revision>
<id>15909657</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-22T10:15:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect - not enough here to stand alone</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cogency]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gnu</title>
<id>11950</id>
<revision>
<id>15909659</id>
<timestamp>2003-12-06T19:32:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AlexPlank</username>
<id>25253</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect:[[wildebeest]] not GNU</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect:[[wildebeest]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gnu/Linux</title>
<id>11952</id>
<revision>
<id>15909661</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-04T01:18:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kate</username>
<id>74348</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to [[Linux]] - see [[Talk:Linux]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Linux]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geometry</title>
<id>11953</id>
<revision>
<id>41725313</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:38:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>131.211.36.14</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Early geometry */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Geometry''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''γεωμετρία''; geo = earth, metria = measure) arose as the field of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships. It was one of the two fields of pre-modern mathematics, the other being the study of numbers. In modern times, geometric concepts have been generalized to a high level of abstraction and complexity, and have been subjected to the methods of calculus and abstract algebra, so that many modern branches of the field are barely recognizable as the descendants of early geometry. (See [[areas of mathematics]] and [[algebraic geometry]].)
==Early geometry==
The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to [[ancient Egypt]] (see [[Egyptian mathematics#Geometry|geometry in Egypt]]), the [[Indus Valley Civilization|ancient Indus Valley]] (see [[Indian mathematics#Harappan Mathematics .283300 BC - 1500 BC.29|Harappan Mathematics]]), and ancient [[Babylonia]] (see [[Babylonian mathematics]]) from around [[3000 BC]]. Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered principles concerning lengths, angles, areas, and volumes, which were d |
perhaps once every two weeks), and may have many (usually hidden) places used as toilets.
Another important component of a hamster's home is a hiding place where the animal can rest during the day. Not all commercially available houses are adequate. The houses should be of sufficient size and be closed on at least two sides. The same building materials are appropriate for these as for the larger cages, although even a small cardboard box will work (and which will have to be regularly replaced). Some houses add features such as a removable roof that helps to take away collected food (especially perishable items).
Syrian hamsters are solitary animals and have to be kept alone once they are mature (around 4 weeks and above). Dwarf hamsters are more likely to accept another house mate. While sometimes two or more animals can live peacefully within one home, there can be bloody fights, so separate them as soon as they fight. In their natural habitat, there is substantially more empty space so that each hamster can have its own large territory. If more than one hamster is to live in a cage, then the cage must be larger (at least 40cm x 40cm per hamster) and there must be separate hiding houses for each animal. In any case, even after a long period of peaceful coexistence or even mating, there can be violent biting. In this situation, the hamsters should be separated immediately. Note also that, if a male and female hamster live together without fighting, then they will usually reproduce rapidly, thereby causing more space problems.
===Gnawing===
Despite their cuddly appearance, hamsters have long, thin, sharp teeth that can pierce a finger that is mistaken for a carrot or for a predator. When they are accustomed to being handled and are not startled, however, they are not inclined to bite and can be placed in the custody of responsible school-age children. Like many rodents, their teeth grow continuously and they must have appropriate things to chew on to relieve their instinctive gnawing and to help keep the teeth at a healthy length. They will gnaw on whatever is available, so they must be kept in enclosures that they cannot chew through. When the hamster is kept in or near a bedroom, their nocturnal nature combined with their gnawing habit can become distracting.
===Exercise and Entertainment===
[[Image:000_0580.JPG|thumb|A hamster ball]]
Like all pets, hamsters need exercise and entertainment to maintain their physical and mental health. An exercise wheel allows hamsters to run full speed to their hearts' content, and is a must. As more elaborate enclosures including additional toys such as plastic or wooden tubes that somewhat mimic the burrows that they might have in the wild and allow their owners to enjoy their activities. Most commercial exercise wheels marketed for hamsters have rungs which are not suitable for hamsters due to the fact that a hamster could get injured in one.
Clear plastic hamster balls or cars are available, into which the hamster is placed and then, by its own action, explores an entire house or yard. Use these toys ''only'' under supervision and use common sense. Unsupervised hamsters in these toys can become trapped against furniture and panic or they can roll down stairs, injuring themselves. Do not leave them in these toys for extended periods, especially on warm days, and make sure to remove them frequently and allow them access to water or fresh fruits or vegetables. Toys should always ''invite'' the hamster to explore and use them at its own will, without forcing or violence. They should only be left in a hamster ball for 10-15 minutes at the most or they can dehydrate.
If they are handled frequently, hamsters enjoy being out of their enclosures and having the opportunity to explore. They can also become very tame if handled frequently. Syrian hamsters will be tame for life once they are tamed, but if neglected, dwarf hamsters will become mean and will bite. However, they must be kept away from holes in the wall or in large pieces of furniture, because they will seek out the dark and burrow-like confines of those areas and it can be difficult or impossible to convince them to come out again.
===Food===
Pet stores can provide basic food for hamsters that provides their nutritional needs, but they also enjoy fresh [[vegetable]]s and [[fruit]]s, bird seed, and even living [[insect]]s, which make up an important part of their natural diet. However, not all foods are suitable for hamsters and some , such as sweets made for humans or poisonous plants like the ''leaves'' of the [[tomato]], may be most dangerous for the hamster's health. Almonds and citrus fruits are also toxic to all hamsters. Dwarf hamsters are susceptible to diabetes, and should not have high sugar foods, such as fruits and corn. Like with most other animals (and humans), it is not true that hamsters can decide which food is good for them and they will usually eat anything that is offered.
Hamsters should also always have fresh water available. Appropriate drinking devices can be found in stores. Being small animals that are adapted to the life in arid environments, hamsters can also ingest all necessary liquid via sufficient amounts of watery vegetables, such as cucumber, without any negative effects. However, providing water is usually more convenient and can be an easy way to add medication or [[vitamin]]s to the hamsters diet. Both water and vegetables must be fresh and have to be exchanged frequently, usually once a day. Water must not be given in open jars, since it is likely to be polluted and because wetness is generally very unhealthy for hamsters (that clean themselves very carefully without the need of additional water).
In detail, the solid food components can be divided into three categories: dry, fresh, and animal food. Dry food makes up the bulk of a hamster's diet. Besides the standard rodent food sold in pet stores, most other kinds of [[seed]]s, kernels, and [[nut (fruit)|nuts]] can be given. Care should be taken to limit the amount of fat contained within the diet. Especially [[sunflower]] seeds, nuts, and [[sesame]] are the most nutritious and are to be considered as a treat rather than as basic food. All kinds of [[cereal|grain]], [[rice]], [[noodle]]s (dry), dry [[pea]]s and [[lentil]]s on the other hand can be provided more readily: about 120&nbsp;g for a medium hamster and, depending on size, about half the amount for a dwarf hamster is sufficient. [[Bread]] and similar bakery products contain many ingredients (e.g. [[yeast]]) that can trouble the hamster's digestion system. They should be given in small amounts for gnawing or be replaced by special wafers as found in pet stores. All dry food should be appropriate in size. Especially small hamsters often cannot cope well with large seeds, even if they are sold under the label "hamster food". Bird food like [[millet]] is a noteworthy alternative for small hamsters.
[[Hay]], although also belonging to the dry food category, can be provided in large amounts at any time. It does not contain notable amounts of fat, still is liked by most hamsters, supports the hamster's digestion system, serves as a hiding place, and is often used for nest building. In addition it is cheap and can even be produced in your own garden easily.
Fresh food is also an important part of the hamster's diet. As mentioned above, cucumber is a good supplement of water. Fresh [[grass]], [[carrot]], any kind of [[lettuce]] except iceberg, leaves and even branches of (non-poisonous) plants are also no problem in general. However, no [[conifer]] wood must be fed since [[resin]] is poisonous for hamsters. In smaller amounts, grown hamsters also appreciate [[apple]], [[pear]], sweet [[paprika]], [[banana]], [[mango]], and [[strawberry]]. Too many sweet fruits on the other hand are not healthy. All kinds of [[cabbage]] should be avoided, since they may cause [[flatulence]], which is quite dangerous for the hamster's sensitive digestion system. It is also dangerous to feed your hamster citrus fruit of any kind.
All hamsters should be given a more conservative diet. If accepted, [[herb]]s can also help to strengthen the hamster's health, though they cannot replace a [[veterinarian]] in case of a disease. [[Daisy|Daisies]] (the flowers, not the stems or leaves) and [[dandelion]]s are likewise appreciated. Plants used for hamster foods should never be placed near open windows because hamsters are more sensitive to chemical pollutions, due to their small body weight.
Finally animal food is a major component of some hamsters' natural food. As pets, a large part of this can be replaced by dry food. Still, hamsters need some animal proteins for their health. While some people like to provide living insects from pet stores to their hamsters, others will prefer to give them dry dog biscuits. Some hamsters are known to accept [[Yogurt|yoghurt]] (natural, without sweet ingredients) or soft [[cheese]] (low fat, not too salty), and in any case egg noodles are usually taken gratefully. If (dry or soft) dog or cat food is given, then the fat content has to be checked carefully. Furthermore, it must not contain [[molasses]], which would harm the hamster.
In addition, a special salt stone (available in pet stores) belongs in every hamster cage. Although this huge amount of mineral salt is hardly used up by generations of hamsters, it is necessary for their life. Vitamin additives for rodents are not required and usually fresh vegetables are to be preferred. If the hamster is diseased or ill-nourished, vitamins or medications may be needed.
It might be noted that many hamsters tend to carry away food from their food source (by carrying it in their cheek pouches) and hoard it away in a cache hidden somewhere inside their container. These caches, when combined with hamster urine or a leaky water source and poor airflow, can grow mold or start to rot, creating |
h) and [[Ingrian Finnish]]
**** [[Izhorian language|Izhorian]] (Ingrian) - Nearly extinct
**** [[Karelian language|Karelian]]
***** [[Karelian language|Karelian]] proper
***** [[Ludic language|Lude]] (Ludic, Ludian)
***** [[Olonets Karelian]] (Livvi, Aunus, Aunus Karelian, Olonetsian)
**** [[Livonian language|Livonian]] (Liv) — Nearly extinct
**** [[Veps language|Veps]] (Vepsian)
**** [[Votic language|Votic]] (Votian, Vod) — Nearly extinct
**** [[Võro language|Võro]] and [[Seto language|Seto]] (sometimes considered dialects of [[Estonian language|Estonian]])
===Disputes===
The classification of Finno-Ugric within Uralic, and of Finnic and Ugric within Finno-Ugric, is accepted by practically all scholars. Dispute is at present largely confined to the Finno-Permic family, surrounding different proposals for the arrangement of the its subgroups and regarding the validity of the ''Volgaic'' group.
The term Volgaic denoted a branch believed to include Mari and Mordvinic languages, but it has now become obsolete: research has shown that it was a geographic classification rather than a linguistic one. The Mordvinic languages are more closely related to the Finno-Lappic languages than they are to the Mari languages.
Another dispute surrounds the affinity of the [[Yukaghir languages]], which is traditionally regarded as a [[language isolate]], with some scholars proposing a strong affinity to Uralic (Collinder, 1965).
The relation of the Finno-Permic and the Ugric groups is remote by some standards. With a time depth of only 3 or 4 thousand years, it is far younger than many major families such as [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] or [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], and about the same age as, for instance, the [[Eastern Nilotic languages|Eastern]] subfamily of [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]]. But the grouping is still far from transparent &mdash; the absence of early records constitutes an obstacle to exact reconstruction not found in, for example, Indo-European or Semitic. While much has been speculatively deduced about the Finno-Ugric [[Urheimat]], little is certain, and, of course, the relatedness of the languages does not necessarily imply any racial or cultural unity of the peoples speaking them.
Linguists criticizing the Finno-Ugric group (e.g. Angela Marcantonio, see [[Finno-Ugric languages#References|References]]) believe that Ugric and Finnic are more distantly related than proponents advertise, and possibly are no closer than the Turkic and Ugric groups. These linguists propose an [[Ural-Altaic hypothesis|Ural-Altaic]] supergroup. Such proposals do not contest the ultimate relatedness of Finno-Ugric, but rather try to include more languages (on even more tenuous grounds) into the family. Other supergroups have been advanced (Uralo-Dravidian, Finno-Basque, Hungaro-Sumerian) but are almost universally regarded as spurious.
==Common vocabulary==
This is a small sample of [[cognate]]s in basic vocabulary across Uralic, illustrating the sound laws (based on the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' and Hakkinen 1979). Note that in general two cognates don't have the same meaning; they merely have the same origin. Thus, the English word in each row should be regarded as an approximation of the original meaning, not a translation of the other words.
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse" cellpadding="3"
|-
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[English language|English]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Finnish language|Finnish]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Northern Sami|North Sami]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Inari Sami]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Mari language|Mari]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Komi language|Komi]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Khanty language|Khanty]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Finno-Ugric reconstruction
|-
| heart
| sydän, ''sydäm''-
| süda, ''südam''-
| čotta, čoddaga
| -
| šüm
| śələm
| səm
| szív
| *śiδä(-mɜ) / *śüδä(-mɜ)
|-
| lap
| syli
| süli
| salla, sala
| solla
| šəl
| syl
| jöl
| öl
| *süle / *sile
|-
| vein
| suoni
| soon
| suotna, suona
| suona
| šön
| sən
| jan
| ín 'sinew, tendon'
| *sōne / *se̮ne
|-
| go
| mennä, ''men''-
| minna, ''min''-
| mannat
| moonnađ
| mije-
| mun-
| mən-
| menni, megy
| *mene-
|-
| fish
| kala
| kala
| guolli, guoli
| kyeli
| kol
| -
| kul
| hal
| *kala
|-
| hand
| käsi, ''käte''-<br>gen. käden, part. kättä
| käsi, ''kät''-<br>gen. käe, part. kätt
| giehta, gieđa
| kieta
| kit
| ki
| köt
| kéz
| *käte
|-
| eye
| silmä
| silm
| čalbmi, čalmmi
| čalme, šalme
| šinča
| śin
| sem
| szem
| *śilmä
|-
| one
| yksi, ''yhte''-<br>gen. yhden, part. yhtä
| üks, ''üht''-<br>gen. ühe, part. üht(e)
| okta, ovtta
| ohta
| ikte
| ət'ik
| ĭt
| egy
| *ykte
|-
| two
| kaksi, ''kahte''-<br>gen. kahden, part. kahta
| kaks, ''kaht''-<br>gen. kahe, part. kaht(e)
| guokte
| kyeh´ti
| kokət
| kyk
| kät
| kettő/két
| *kakta / *käktä
|-
| three
| kolme
| kolm
| golbma
| kulma
| kumət
| kujim
| koləm
| három
| *kolme / *kulme
|-
| ice
| jää
| jää
| jiekŋa, jieŋa
| jiena
| ij
| ji
| jöŋk
| jég
| *jäŋe
|-
| louse
| täi
| täi
| dihkki
| tikke
| tij
| toj
| tögtəm
| tetű
| ?
|}
(Orthographical notes: The hacek (š) denotes postalveolar articulation, while the accent (ś) denotes a secondary palatal articulation. The Finnish letter 'y' [y] represents the same phoneme (a rounded or centralized [i]) as the letter 'ü' in other languages. The voiced dental spirant [ð] is the origin of the standard Finnish 'd', which is realized differently in each dialect today. The same sound is marked with the letter đ in the Sami languages. The Sami 'č' is a voiceless postalveolar affricate [&#679;]. Hungarian 'gy' is the palatalized [d&#690;], not a 'g'.)
===Numbers===
The numbers from 1 to 10 in Finnish, Estonian, Võro, North Sami, Erzya, Meadow Mari, Mansi, Hungarian, and Proto-Finno-Ugric.
{| style="border-collapse:collapse" border="1" cellpadding="3"
|-
! Number
! Finnish
! Estonian
! Võro
! North Sami
! Inari Sami
! Erzya
! Meadow Mari
! Mansi
! Hungarian
! Proto-F-U
|-
| 1
| yksi
| üks
| ütś
| okta
| ohta
| vejke
| ikte
| akva
| egy
| *ykte
|-
| 2
| kaksi
| kaks
| katś
| guokte
| kyeh´ti
| kavto
| kokət
| kityg
| kettő
| *kakte
|-
| 3
| kolme
| kolm
| kolm
| golbma
| kulma
| kolmo
| kumət
| hurum
| három
| *kolm-
|-
| 4
| neljä
| neli
| nelli
| njeallje
| nelji
| ńiľe
| nələt
| nila
| négy
| *neljä-
|-
| 5
| viisi
| viis
| viiś
| vihtta
| vitta
| veƭe
| wizət
| at
| öt
| *vit(t)e
|-
| 6
| kuusi
| kuus
| kuuś
| guhtta
| kutta
| koto
| kuδət
| hot
| hat
| *kut(t)e
|-
| 7
| seitsemän
| seitse
| säidse
| čieža
| čiččam
| śiśem
| šəmət
| sat
| hét
| n/a
|-
| 8
| kahdeksan
| kaheksa
| katõsa
| gávcci
| käävci
| kavkso
| kandaš(e)
| ńololov
| nyolc
| n/a
|-
| 9
| yhdeksän
| üheksa
| ütesä
| ovcci
| oovce
| vejkse
| indeš(e)
| ontolov
| kilenc
| n/a
|-
| 10
| kymmenen
| kümme
| kümme
| logi
| love
| kemeń
| lu
| lov
| tíz
| n/a
|}
One reconstruction for numbers 8 and 9 is *''kak+teksa'' '10&ndash;2' and *''yk+teksa'' '10&ndash;1', where *''teksa'' cf. ''deka'' is a Indo-European loan; notice that the difference between /t/ and /d/ is not phonemic, unlike in Indo-European.
===Finno-Ugric [[Swadesh list]]s===
100-word Swadesh lists for certain Finno-Ugric languages can be compared and contrasted at the [[Rosetta Project]] website:
[http://64.81.54.21:8080/live/search/contribute/swadesh/view?ethnocode=FIN Finnish], [http://64.81.54.21:8080/live/search/contribute/swadesh/view?ethnocode=EST Estonian], [http://64.81.54.21:8080/live/search/contribute/swadesh/view?ethnocode=HNG Hungarian], [http://64.81.54.21:8080/live/search/contribute/swadesh/view?ethnocode=MYV Erzya].
Notice that particularly the Finnish list is unreliable, because it contains several neologisms or formal words, e.g. ''henkilö'' (from ''henki'' life + place suffix) instead of the more commonly used ''ihminen'', which is a Baltic Finnic word. The Finnish list has also spelling errors suggesting it was compiled by a person who does not know Finnish.
==See also==
* [[Uralic languages]]
* [[Uralo-Siberian languages]]
==External links==
* [http://www.helsinki.fi/~jolaakso/fgrlinks.html Some Finno-Ugrian links] A more comprehensive link collection
* [http://www.helsinki.fi/~jolaakso/fufaq.html FAQ about Finno-Ugrian Languages]
<!--* [http://users.cwnet.com/millennia/UAETY.html Ural-Altaic-Sumerian Etymological Dictionary] the subpages do not seem to work-->
* [http://homepage.univie.ac.at/Johanna.Laakso/am_rev.html Linguistic Shadow-Boxing] Johanna Laakso's book review of Angela Marcantonio's "The Uralic language family. Facts, myths and statistics"
*[http://www.geocities.com/isolintu/voodoo.html Uralic Linguistics Vs. Voodoo Science!] A collection of links about the "new paradigm" debate by Merlijn de Smit
*[http://www.zompist.com/asia.htm Numbers in Asian languages] Counting to ten in a variety of languages
*[http://ugri.info/ Ugri.info Finno-Ugric peoples infobase]
*Finno-Ugric Electronic Library by the Finno-Ugric Information Center in [[Syktyvkar]], [[Komi Republic]] (interface in Russian and English, texts in [[Mari language|Mari]], [[Komi language|Komi]], [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]], [[Erzya language|Erzya]] and [[Moksha language|Moksha]] languages): http://library.finugor.ru/
*[http://www.economist.com/World/europe/displayStory.cfm?story_id=5323735 The Finno-Ugrics:The dying fish swims in water] [[The Economist]], Dec 20th 2005
==References==
* Benkő, Loránd: Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Ungarischen ([[Etymological Dictionary]] of Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémia |
="left" valign="top"|Main Partners
|colspan="2" valign="top"| [[United States|U.S.]] 32.3%, [[Italy]] 15.5%, [[Turkey]] 5.5%, [[UK]] 4.6%, [[Russia]] 4.4%, [[Italy]] 6.4% (2004)
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|Public finances [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/er.html#Econ]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Public debt
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$311 million (31.2% of GDP)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|External debt
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$635 million (2004 est.)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Revenues
|colspan="2" valign="top"|235.5 million (2004 est.)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Expenses
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$373.2million inclufing [[capital expenditure]] (2004 est.)
|-
|}
== Effects of conflict with Ethiopia ==
The border conflict with [[Ethiopia]], which lasted from 1998 to 2000 drained away substantial resources vital to Eritrea's economic development and severely damaged Eritrea's economy. GDP growth fell to zero in 1999 and to -1% in 2000. The Ethiopian offensive in May, 2000 into northern Eritrea caused approximately $600 million in property damage and loss, including losses of up to $225 million in livestock and 55,000 homes. The attack prevented planting of crops in Eritrea's most productive region, causing food production to drop by 62%.
Despite the war, Eritrea developed its transportation infrastructure, asphalting new roads, improving its ports, and repairing war damaged roads and bridges. Since the war ended, the government has maintained a firm grip on the economy, expanding the use of the military and party-owned businesses to complete Eritrea's development agenda.
== The present==
The Government of Eritrea states that it is committed to a [[market economy]] and [[privatization]], and it has made development and economic recovery its priorities. Government revenues come primarily from [[custom duties]] and [[tax|taxes]] on income and sales.
Much of the transportation and communications infrastructure that was not destroyed by the war is outmoded and deteriorating. As a result, the government has sought international assistance for a variety of development projects and has mobilized young Eritreans serving in the National Youth Service to repair crumbling roads and dams.
The economy is largely based on [[subsistence agriculture]], which employs 80% of the population but currently may contribute as little as 22% to GDP. Export crops include [[coffee]], [[cotton]], [[fruit]], [[hides]], and [[meat]], but [[farmers]] are largely dependent on rain-fed agriculture, and growth in this and other sectors is hampered by lack of [[rain]] and inadequate [[Water resources|water storage]]. Erratic rainfall and the delayed demobilization of agriculturalists from the military kept [[cereal]] production well below normal, holding down growth in 2002-2004.
Small businesses, such as restaurants, bars, stores, auto repair, and crafts continue to thrive in the [[Asmara]] area. A brewery, cigarette factory, small glass and plastics factories, several companies involved in making leather goods, and textile and sweater factories also operate in Asmara. The textile and leather industries have made a particularly robust recovery since independence.
The Port of [[Massawa]], destroyed by the Ethiopian Army during the final year of the war, is on its way to complete rehabilitation. With political stability and a liberal investment climate, Eritrea has begun to attract international businesses. Various U.S. and other Western concerns are planning to invest in [[tourism]], [[mining]], and offshore [[oil exploration]]
In the long term, Eritrea's economic future depends on its ability to master fundamental social and economic problems. These include reducing illiteracy, promoting job creation, expanding technical training, attracting foreign investment, and streamlining the bureaucracy.
==See also==
*[[Eritrea]]
==External links==
#[http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pn/2005/pn0518.htm IMF Executive Board Concludes Consultation with Eritrea February 2005]
#[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/er.html#Econ CIA World Factbook]
#[http://www.eiu.com/ The Economist Intelligence Unit.]
[[Category:Economies by country|Eritrea]]
[[Category:Eritrea]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Eritrea]]
[[es:Economía de Eritrea]]
<!-- These entries are currently unavailable:
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br />''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br />''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Labour force:'''
NA
'''Oil - exports:'''
NA (2001)
'''Oil - imports:'''
NA (2001)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
NA%
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%
--></text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Eritrea</title>
<id>9382</id>
<revision>
<id>30009589</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-03T12:10:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lt-wiki-bot</username>
<id>367880</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: lt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
23,578 (2000)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
Available since March 2004
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''domestic:''
very inadequate; most telephones are in [[Asmara]]; government is seeking international tenders to improve the system
<br>''international:''
NA
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM broadcasting|AM]] 2, [[FM]] 1, [[shortwave]] 2 (2000)
'''Radios:'''
345,000 (1997)
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
1 (2000)
'''Televisions:'''
1,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
1 (1999): 4 (2005) - Eritel, CTS, TFANUS, Ewan
'''[[Country code]]:''' ER
:''See also :'' [[Eritrea]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Eritrea]]
[[Category:Eritrea]]
[[lt:Eritrėjos ryšiai]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Eritrea</title>
<id>9383</id>
<revision>
<id>37832549</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T11:53:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Transportation in Eritrea]] to [[Transport in Eritrea]]: part of a series</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This article summarizes characteristics of a number of forms of transportation in the coastal African nation of [[Eritrea]].
== [[Railway]]s ==
<br />''total:''
317 km
<br />''narrow gauge:''
317 km 0.950-m gauge (1999)
<br />''note:''
links [[Ak'ordat]] and [[Asmara]] with the port of [[Massawa]]; nonoperational since [[1978]] except for about a 5 km stretch that was reopened in Massawa in [[1994]]; rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock is under way... in 2003 the line from Massawa all the way through to Asmara has been restored.
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Djibouti|Djibouti]] - no
* [[Transportation in Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] - no
* [[Transportation in Sudan|Sudan]] - no
== [[Highway]]s ==
<br />''total:''
4,010 km
<br />''paved:''
874 km
<br />''unpaved:''
3,136 km (1996 est.)
== [[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s ==
[[Assab]] (Aseb), [[Massawa]] (Mits'iwa)
== [[Merchant marine]] ==
<br />''total:''
5 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 16,069 GRT/19,549 DWT
<br />''ships by type:''
bulk 1, cargo 1, liquified gas 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off 1 (1999 est.)
== [[Airport]]s ==
21 (1999 est.)
== Airports - with paved runways ==
<br />''total:''
3
<br />''over 3,047 m:''
2
<br />''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
== Airports - with unpaved runways ==
<br />''total:''
18
<br />''over 3,047 m:''
2
<br />''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
<br />''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
6
<br />''914 to 1,523 m:''
6
<br />''under 914 m:''
2 (1999 est.)
==See also==
* [[Eritrea]]
* [[Eritrean_Railway]]
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:Eritrea]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Eritrea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Eritrea</title>
<id>9384</id>
<revision>
<id>35732960</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-18T22:19:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gyrofrog</username>
<id>52387</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/192.28.2.17|192.28.2.17]] ([[User talk:192.28.2.17|talk]]) to last version by 67.167.27.49</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cleanup-context}}
During the war, the EPLF fighting force grew to almost 110,000 [[soldier]]s, almost 3% of the total population of [[Eritrea]]. The fragile peace-time economy could not sustain such a large [[army]], and in [[1993]], Eritrea embarked on a phased program to demobilize 50%-60% of the army, which had by then shrunk to about 95,000. During the first phase of demobilization in 1993, some 26,000 soldiers--most of whom enlisted after [[1990]]--were demobilized. They received cash bonuses and six-month food rations, and many also took advantage of government loans, grants of farm land in western Eritrea, and vocational training courses. The second phase of demobilization, which occurred the following year, demobilized more than 17,000 soldiers who had joined the EPLF before 1990 and in many cases had seen considerable [[combat]] experience. Many of these fighters had spent their entire adult lives in the EPLF and so lacked the social, personal, and vocational skills required to become competitive in the workplace. As a result, they received higher compensation, more intensive training, and more psychological [[counseling]] than the first group. Sp |
y and executed. Of the other persons implicated in the rebellion only three were excepted from the general amnesty. But by order in Council they were pardoned, and the judges responsible for the sentence on Christian were punished. His next act was to dispute the permanency of the tenants' holdings, which they had not at first regarded as being affected by the acceptance of leases, a proceeding which led to an almost open rebellion against his authority and to the neglect of agriculture. In lieu of it the people devoted themselves to the fisheries and to contraband trade.
The agrarian question subsided only in 1704, when James, Charles's brother and successor, largely through the influence of Bishop Wilson, entered into a compact with his tenants, which became embodied in an act, called the [[Act of Settlement 1703|Act of Settlement]]. Their compact secured the tenants in the possession of their estates in perpetuity on condition of a fixed rent, and a small fine on succession or alienation. From the great importance of this act to the Manx people it has been called their ''Magna Carta''. As time went on, and the value of the estates increased, the rent payable to the lord became so small in proportion as to be almost nominal.
James died in 1736, and the sovereignty of the isle passed to James Murray, 2nd duke of Atholl. In 1764 there succeeded him his only surviving child Charlotte, Baroness Strange, and her husband, John Murray, who (in right of his wife) became Lord of Man. About [[1720]] the contraband trade greatly increased. In 1726 parliament checked it somewhat for a time, but during the last ten years of the Atholl régime ([[1756]] - [[1765]]) it assumed such proportions that, in the interests of the imperial revenue, it became necessary to suppress it. With a view to so doing, Parliament in 1765 passed the Revesting Act, under which it purchased the sovereign rights of the Atholls and the customs revenues of the island for the sum of 70,000 [[GB pound|pound]]s, and granted an [[annuity]] to the duke and duchess. The Atholls still retained their [[Manorialism|manor]]ial rights, the patronage of the See, and certain other perquisites, until they sold them for the excessive sum of 417,144 pounds in [[1828]].
Up to the time of the Revestment, the Tynwald Court passed laws concerning the government of the island in all respects and had control over its finances, subject to the approval of the lord. After the Revestment, or rather after the passage of the Mischief Act in the same year, the British Parliament legislated with respect to customs, harbours and merchant shipping, and, in measures of a general character, it occasionally inserted clauses permitting the enforcement in the island of penalties in contravention of the acts of which they formed part. It also assumed the control of the insular customs duties. Such changes, rather than the transference of the sovereignty from the lord to the king of Great Britain and Ireland, modified the Constitution of the Isle of Man. Its ancient laws and tenures remained untouched, but in many ways the Revestment affected it adversely. The hereditary lords seldom if ever functioned as model rulers, but most of them had taken some personal share in its government, and had interested themselves in the well-being of its inhabitants. But now the whole direction of its affairs became the work of officials who regarded the island as a pestilent nest of smugglers, from which it seemed their duty to extract as much revenue as possible.
Some alleviation of this state of things happened between [[1793]] and [[1826]] when [[John Murray, 4th Duke of Atholl]] served as governor, since, though he quarrelled with the [[House of Keys]] and unduly cared for his own pecuniary interests, he did occasionally exert himself to promote the welfare of the island. After his departure the English officials resumed their sway. But they showed more consideration than before. Moreover, since smuggling, which the Revesting Act had only checked -- not suppressed -- had by that time almost disappeared, and since the Manx revenue had started to produce a large and increasing surplus, the authorities looked more favourably on the Isle of Man, and, thanks to this fact and to the representations of the Manx people to English ministers in 1837, 1844 and 1853, it obtained a somewhat less stringent customs [[tariff]] and an occasional dole towards erecting its much neglected public works.
==Modern Period==
After [[1866]], when the Isle of Man obtained a measure of at least nominal [[home rule | Home Rule]], the Manx people have made remarkable progress, and at the present day form a prosperous community, with [[tax haven]] status and a thriving [[tourism | tourist]] industry.
The early twentieth century saw a revival of music, dance, and the [[Manx_language|Manx]] language, but this proved only partially successful, as the last native speaker of Manx died in the 1970s. In the middle part of the twentieth century, the [[Taoiseach]] [[Eamon de Valera]] visited, and became so distressed at the lack of support for Manx that he immediately had two recording vans sent over. As the century progressed, the Manx tourist economy declined greatly, as the English and Irish started flying to Spain for package holidays. The Manx government responded to this situation by making the island a [[tax haven]]. While this has had beneficial effects on the Manx economy, it has had its detractors, who have pointed to corruption in the finance industry and [[money laundering]]. This has given the biggest impetus to Manx nationalism in recent years, spawning the parties [[Mec Vannin]] and the [[Manx National Party|MNP]], as well as the now defunct ''Fo Halloo'' (literally "Underground"), which mounted a direct-action campaign of spray-painting and attempted house-burning.
The 1990s and early twenty first century have seen a greater recognition of indigenous Manx culture, such as the first Manx language primary school, as well as a general re-evaluation of the island's economy.
==See also==
* [[List of Kings of the Isle of Man and the Isles]] (1079 - 1164)
* [[List of Kings of the Isle of Man]] (1164 - 1504)
* [[List of Lords of the Isle of Man]] (1504 - 1765)
* [[Act of Settlement 1703|Act of Settlement]].
* [[List of Governors of the Isle of Man]] (1696 - 1828)
* [[List of Lieutenant Governors of the Isle of Man]] (1773 - present)
* [[Wimund (bishop)]] - 12th century, first Bishop of the Isle of Man, war-lord.
== References ==
* {{1911}}
[[Category:History of the Isle of Man| ]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Man]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of the Isle of Man</title>
<id>14764</id>
<revision>
<id>42006836</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:29:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Psb777</username>
<id>37293</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Climate */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IsleofManmap.png|thumb|Map of the Isle of Man]]
The '''[[Isle of Man]]''' is an [[island]] in the [[Irish Sea]], between [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]] in [[Western Europe]], with a population of over 75 000. It has a small islet, the [[Calf of Man]], to its south. It is located at {{coor dm|54|15|N|4|30|W|type:country}}.
==Dimensions==
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
572 km²
<br>''land:''
572 km²
<br>''water:''
0 km²
This makes it:
*slightly more than three times the size of [[Washington, DC]]
*slightly more than one third the size of [[Hertfordshire]]
*slightly smaller than [[Saint Lucia]].
==Coast==
The Isle of Man has a coastline of 160 km, and claims 12 [[Nautical mile|nm]] of exclusive fishing zone and of territorial waters.
==Climate==
The Isle of Man enjoys a [[temperate]] climate, with cool summers and mild winters. Average rainfall is high compared to the majority of the [[British Isles]], due to its location to the western side of [[Great Britain]] and sufficient distance from [[Ireland]] for moisture to be accumulated by the prevailing south-westerly winds. Average rainfall is highest at [[Snaefell]], where it is around 1900 mm a year. At lower levels it can fall to around 800 mm a year.
Temperatures remain fairly cool, with the recorded maximum being 28.9 C at [[Ronaldsway]]. The Isle of Man is known for its [[overcast]] skies and low levels of sunshine.
==Terrain==
The island's highest point is Snaefell, which reaches 621m. It has no land below [[sea level]]. To its north there is a flat plain, consisting of glacial [[till]]s and marine sediments. To the south the island is more hilly, with distinct vallies crossing the island.
==Land Use==
*''arable land:''
9%
*''permanent crops:''
0%
*''permanent pastures:''
46%
*''forests and woodland:''
6%
*''other:''
39% (includes 25% mountain and heathland)
==Natural hazards and environmental issues==
There are few severe natural hazards, with high winds and [[thunderstorms]] the most common. Air pollution and waste disposal are both issues on this small island.
==Geology==
{{expandsect}}
==Demographics==
The island has an estimate population of 75 049, as of July 2005. This is down on the government's last [[census]] in 2001, which recorded 76 315 people, itself a rise of 9.1% on the previous 1991 census.
The island's largest town and administrative centre is [[Douglas]], whose population is 23 000, over a third of the entire island's. [[Onchan]] and [[Ramsey]] in the north, [[Peel]] in the west and the three southern ports of [[Castletown]], [[Port Erin]] and [[Port St Mary]] are the island's other main settlements. Almost all its population lives on or very near to the coast.
==See also==
* [[Towns in the Isle of Man]]
==References==
*[http://www.gov.im/isleofman/geography.xml Isle of Man Government]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/im.html CIA World Factbook]
[[Category:Isle of Man]]
[[Category:G |
i]]
[[cs:Andrej Tarkovskij]]
[[da:Andrei Tarkovsky]]
[[de:Andrei Arsenjewitsch Tarkowski]]
[[et:Andrei Tarkovski]]
[[es:Andrei Tarkovsky]]
[[fa:آندری تارکوفسکی]]
[[fr:Andreï Tarkovski]]
[[it:Andrej Tarkovskij]]
[[he:אנדריי טרקובסקי]]
[[hu:Andrej Tarkovszkij]]
[[nl:Andrej Tarkovski]]
[[ja:アンドレイ・タルコフスキー]]
[[no:Andrej Tarkovskij]]
[[pl:Andriej Tarkowski]]
[[pt:Andrei Tarkovski]]
[[ro:Andrei Tarkovski]]
[[ru:Тарковский, Андрей Арсеньевич]]
[[fi:Andrei Tarkovski]]
[[sv:Andrej Tarkovskij]]
[[tr:Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ambiguity</title>
<id>677</id>
<revision>
<id>40840484</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T09:53:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.164.205.69</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>transition</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|ambiguity}}
"This word has many meanings..." Dónal Troddyn, A Treatise on Language Vol. 2, 2004
A word, phrase, sentence, or other communication is called '''ambiguous''' if it can be interpreted in more than one way. Ambiguity is distinct from ''[[vagueness]]'', which arises when the boundaries of meaning are indistinct.
'''Lexical ambiguity''' arises when context is insufficient to determine the sense of a single word that has more than one meaning. For example, the word "bank" has several meanings, including "financial institution" and "edge of a river", but if someone says "I deposited $100 in the bank", the intended meaning is clear. More problematic are words whose senses express closely related concepts. "Good", for example, can mean "useful" or "functional" (''That's a good hammer''), "exemplary" (''She's a good student''), "pleasing" (''This is good soup''), "moral" (''He is a good person''), and probably other similar things. "I have a good daughter" isn't clear about which sense is intended.
'''[[Syntactic ambiguity]]''' arises when a sentence can be [[parsing|parsed]] in more than one way. "He ate the cookies on the couch", for example, could mean that he ate those cookies which were on the couch (as opposed to those that were on the table), or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies. Spoken language can also contain lexical ambiguities, where there is more than one way to break up a set of sounds into words, for example "ice cream" and "I scream". This is rarely a problem due to the use of context.
[[Philosopher]]s (and other users of [[logic]]) spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing ambiguity in arguments, because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments. For example, a politician might say "I oppose taxes which hinder economic growth". Some will think he opposes taxes in general because they hinder economic growth; others will think he opposes only those taxes that he believes will hinder economic growth (although in writing, the correct insertion or omission of a [[comma (punctuation)|comma]] after "taxes" removes ambiguity here). The politician hopes that each will interpret the statement in the way he wants, and both will think the politician is on his side. The logical fallacies of [[amphiboly]] and [[equivocation]] also rely on the use of ambiguous words and phrases.
In [[literature]] and [[rhetoric]], on the other hand, ambiguity can be a useful tool. [[Groucho Marx]]'s classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its [[humor]], for example: ''Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas. What he was doing in my pajamas I'll never know.'' Songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect, as in the song title "Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue" (where "blue" can refer to the color, or to sadness).
In narrative, ambiguty can be introduced in several ways: motive, plot, character. [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel [[The Great Gatsby]].
In [[music]] pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some [[polytonality]], [[polymeter]], other ambiguous [[metre|meters]] or [[rhythm]]s, and ambiguous [[phrase (music)|phrasing]], or (Stein 2005, p.79) any [[aspect of music]]. The [[music of Africa]] is often purposely ambiguous. To quote Sir [[Donald Francis Tovey]] (1935, p.195), "Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value."
Some languages have been created with the intention of avoiding ambiguity, especially syntactic ambiguity. [[Lojban]] and [[Loglan]] are two nearly identical languages which have been created with the intention of being clear and impossible to misunderstand. The languages can be both spoken and written. Their unambiguity makes them better suited than natural languages for use in communication between humans and computers.
==See also==
* [[double entendre]]
* [[imprecise language]]
* [[logical fallacy]]
* [[semantics]]
==External links==
* [http://www.gray-area.org/Research/Ambig/ Collection of Ambiguous or Inconsistent/Incomplete Statements]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[de:Mehrdeutigkeit]]
[[nl:Ambiguïteit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abel</title>
<id>678</id>
<revision>
<id>30571937</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-08T08:08:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FDuffy</username>
<id>380940</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Merged to [[Cain and Abel]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cain and Abel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Animal (disambiguation)</title>
<id>679</id>
<revision>
<id>41857935</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:40:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ohnoitsjamie</username>
<id>507787</id>
</contributor>
<comment>that is not what disambiguation is for</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''animal''' when used alone has several possible meanings in the [[English language]]. It could refer to:
* A [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] member of the Kingdom [[wikispecies:animalia|Animalia]], an [[animal]].
* A [[British rock]] [[rock band|band]] called [[The Animals]].
* An album released by [[United Kingdom|British]] rock band [[Pink Floyd]] called ''[[Animals (album)|Animals]]''.
* A 2001 film starring [[Rob Schneider]] called ''[[The Animal]]''.
* A genre of [[anime]].
* A [[Muppet Show]] character: see [[Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem]].
* A [[professional wrestling|professional wrestler]]: see [[Joseph Laurinaitis]].
* A [[video game]] by [[Microtime]] called [[Animal (video game)|Animal]].
* [[Animal (song)|Animal]] is the name of several songs.
* For all English languange meanings, see the [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/animal Wiktionary definition of animal].
{{disambig}}
[[de:Animals]]
[[hu:Animals]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aardvark</title>
<id>680</id>
<revision>
<id>41872223</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:12:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.10.96.43</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>edible? this is not fact or useful</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Aardvark
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| image = Erdferkel-drawing.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = '''Tubulidentata'''
| ordo_authority = [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley]], 1872
| familia = '''Orycteropodidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| genus = '''''Orycteropus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], 1796
| species = '''''O. afer'''''
| binomial = ''Orycteropus afer''
| binomial_authority = [[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], [[1766]]
}}
The '''Aardvark''' (''Orycteropus afer'') is a medium-sized [[mammal]] native to [[Africa]]. The name comes from the [[Afrikaans]]/[[Dutch language|Dutch]] for "earth pig" (''aarde'' earth, ''varken'' pig), because early settlers from [[Europe]] thought it resembled a [[pig]] (although Aardvarks are not closely related to pigs).
The Aardvark is the only surviving member of the [[Family (biology)|family]] '''Orycteropodidae''' and of the [[Order (biology)|order]] '''Tubulidentata'''. The Aardvark was originally placed in the same [[genus]] as the [[anteater|South American anteater]]s because of superficial similarities which, it is now known, are the result of [[convergent evolution]], not common ancestry. (For the same reason, Aardvarks bear a striking first-glance resemblance to the [[marsupial]] [[Bilby|bilbies]] and [[Bandicoot|bandicoots]] of [[Australasia]], which are not [[Eutheria|placental mammals]] at all.)
The oldest known Tubulidentata fossils have been found in [[Kenya]] and date to the early [[Miocene]]. Although the relationships of Tubulidentata are unknown, they are probably [[Ungulates]]. They spread to Europe and [[southern Asia]] during the later Miocene and early [[Pliocene]] periods. Three genera of the family Orycteropodidae are known: ''Leptorycteropus'', ''Myorycteropus'', and ''Orycteropus'', the surviving Aardvark. A genus from Madagascar may be related to them, called ''Plesiorycteropus''.
The most distinctive characteristic of the Tubulidentata is (as the name implies) their teeth which, instead of having a pulp cavity, have lots of thin tubes of dentine, each containing pulp and held together by cementum. The teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. Aardvarks are born with conventional incisors and canines at the front of the jaw, bu |
d of the Treasury]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]]
*[[Robert Monsey Rolfe Cranworth, Baron|Lord Cranworth]] - [[Lord Chancellor]]
*[[Granville George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville|Lord Granville]] - [[Lord President of the Council]]
*The [[George Douglas Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll|Duke of Arygll]] - [[Lord Privy Seal]]
*[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] - [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
*[[Lord John Russell]] - [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]
*The [[Henry Pelham-Clinton, 5th Duke of Newcastle|Duke of Newcastle]] - [[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]]
*Sir [[James Robert George Graham|James Graham]] - [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]
*[[William Ewart Gladstone]] - [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
*Sir [[Charles Wood, 1st Viscount Halifax|Charles Wood]] - [[President of the Board of Control]]
*Sir [[William Molesworth]] - [[First Commissioner of Works]]
*[[Sidney Herbert]] - [[Secretary at War]]
*[[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne|Lord Lansdowne]] - Minister without Portfolio
'''Changes'''
*February, 1853 - Lord John Russell becomes Minister without Portfolio, remaining Leader of the Commons. Lord Clarendon succeeds him as Foreign Secretary.
*June, 1854 - Lord Granville becomes [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]. Lord John Russell succeeds him as Lord President, remaining also Leader of the Commons. The Secretaryship of State for War and the Colonies is split up. The Duke of Newcastle stays on as [[Secretary of State for War]], while [[Sir George Grey, 2nd Baronet|Sir George Grey]] becomes [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]].
==Succession==
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]] | before=[[Nicholas Vansittart, 1st Baron Bexley|The Lord Bexley]] | after=[[Charles Arbuthnot]] | years=1828}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | before=[[John William Ward, 1st Earl of Dudley|The Earl of Dudley]] | after=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]] | years=1828&ndash;1830}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]] | before=[[Thomas Spring Rice, 1st Baron Monteagle|Thomas Spring Rice]] | after=[[Charles Grant, 1st Baron Glenelg|The Lord Glenelg]] | years=1834&ndash;1835}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | before=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]] | after=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]] | years=1841&ndash;1846}}
{{succession box one to two| title1=[[Leader of the House of Lords]] | title2=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]]| before=[[Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|The Earl of Derby]] | after1=[[Granville George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville|The Earl Granville]] | after2=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]] | years1=1852&ndash;1855| years2=1852&ndash;1855}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box two to one | title1=[[Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Earl of Aberdeen]] | title2=[[Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Viscount Gordon]] | before1=[[George Gordon, 3rd Earl of Aberdeen|George Gordon]] | before2=New Creation | after=[[George Hamilton-Gordon, 5th Earl of Aberdeen|George Hamilton-Gordon]] | years1=1801&ndash;1860 | years2=1814&ndash;1860}}
{{end box}}
==Reference==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, 4th Earl of}}
{{1911}}
{{UKPrimeMinisters}}
[[Category:1784 births|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:1860 deaths|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Edinburghers|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Alumni of St. John's College, Cambridge|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Anglo-Scots|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:British Secretaries of State|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of Scotland|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Edinburghers|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Knights of the Thistle|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Scottish representative peers|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[de:George Hamilton-Gordon, 4. Earl of Aberdeen]]
[[fr:George Hamilton-Gordon]]
[[it:George Hamilton Gordon]]
[[pl:George Hamilton-Gordon]]
[[ru:Эбердин, Джордж Гамильтон Гордон]]
[[sv:George Hamilton-Gordon Aberdeen]]
[[uk:Абердін Джордж Гамільтон Гордон]]
[[zh:乔治·汉密尔顿·戈登 (阿伯丁伯爵)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GnuCash</title>
<id>12880</id>
<revision>
<id>38997370</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T00:52:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Scollk</username>
<id>106329</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Software |
name = GnuCash |
screenshot = [[Image:GnuCash.gif|250px]] |
caption = GnuCash under GNU/Linux |
developer = GnuCash development team |
latest_release_version = 1.9.0 |
latest_release_date = [[February 09]], [[2006]] |
operating_system = [[Cross-platform]] |
genre = [[Accounting]] |
license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] |
website = [http://www.gnucash.org/ www.gnucash.org] |
}}
'''GnuCash''' is a [[Free Software]] [[double-entry book-keeping]] [[personal finance]] system. It was initially aimed at developing capabilities similar to [[Intuit, Inc.|Intuit's]] [[Quicken]] application, but also has features for [[small business]] accounting. Recent development has been focused on adapting to modern desktop support-library requirements.
GnuCash is part of the [[GNOME]] desktop environment, and runs on [[GNU/Linux]], [[FreeBSD]], [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]], [[Mac OS X]] and other [[Unix-like]] platforms.
On [[February 9]] [[2006]], the GnuCash Development Team released GnuCash 1.9.0, the first of several unstable 1.9.x releases which will eventually lead to the stable version 2.0.0. A notable change is the highly anticipated conversion to [[GTK2]].
==Features==
*Double-Entry bookkeeping
*Scheduled Transactions
*Mortgage & Loan Repayment Druid
*Small Business Accounting Features
*[[OFX]], [[QIF]] Import
*[[HBCI]] Support
*Transaction-Import Matching Support
*(Limited) Multi-User [[SQL]] Support
*Multi-Currency Transaction Handling
*Stock/Mutual Fund Portfolios
*Online Stock & Mutual Fund Quotes
==See also==
*[[Accounting software]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.gnucash.org/ GnuCash homepage]
* [http://wiki.gnucash.org/wiki/ GnuCash Wiki]
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/gnucash/ SourceForge project page]
* [http://www.gnucash.org/docs/C/gnucash-guide/ GnuCash Tutorial and Concepts Guide]
{{linux-stub}}
[[Category:Accounting software]]
[[Category:GNOME]]
[[Category:SourceForge projects]]
[[de:GnuCash]]
[[es:GnuCash]]
[[eo:GnuCash]]
[[it:GnuCash]]
[[pl:GnuCash]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Robert Aberigh-Mackay</title>
<id>12881</id>
<revision>
<id>40364165</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''George Robert Aberigh-Mackay''' ([[July 25]], [[1848]]-[[1881]]), [[Anglo-Indian]] [[writer]], son of a Bengal [[chaplain]], was educated at [[Magdalen College School, Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]]. Entering the Indian education department in [[1870]], he became professor of English literature in Delhi College in [[1873]], tutor to the [[Raja of Rutlam]] in [[1876]], and principal of the [[Rajkumar College]] at Indore in [[1877]].
He is best known for his book ''[[Twenty-one Days in India]]'' ([[1878]]-[[1879]]), a satire upon [[Anglo-Indian]] society and modes of thought. This book gave promise of a successful literary career, but the author died at the age of thirty-three.
==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberigh-Makay, George Robert}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=George_Robert_Aberigh-Mackay|name=George Robert Aberigh-Mackay}}
{{1911}}
{{India-bio-stub}}
[[Category:1848 births|Aberigh-Mackay, George Robert]]
[[Category:1881 deaths|Aberigh-Mackay, George Robert]]
[[Category:Indian writers|Aberigh-Mackay, George Robert]]
[[es: George Robert Aberigh-Mackay]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gallon</title>
<id>12882</id>
<revision>
<id>41734434</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:43:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tlusťa</username>
<id>649807</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+[[cs:Galon]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''gallon''' (abbr. ''gal'') is an [[English unit]] of volume used for measuring liquids (as well as dry matter), with varying definitions between [[1 E-3 m³|3½ and 4¾ litre]]s ([[litre|L]]). The word has also been used as translation for several foreign units of the same magnitude.
== Today ==
* An '''[[Imperial unit|Imperial gallon]]''' is exactly 4.54609 [[litre]]s.
* A '''[[U.S. customary units|US (liquid) gallon]]''' is exactly 231 [[cubic inch|in³]] (3.785411784 L).
The ratio between them is approximately 6:5.
Both these gallons in current use—differentiated if necessary by a prefix “US” or “Imp.”—are subdivided into eight [[pint]]s, but the US pint is |
e Day]]
*[[Separatism]]
==External links==
*[http://www.socialstudieshelp.com/Lesson_9_Notes.htm Current Validity of the US Declaration of Independence]
*[http://www.logos.com/products/details/2488 The US Declaration of Independence] in electronic form, featured in the American History Collection
==References==
{{unreferenced}}
[[Category:International law]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[da:USAs Uafhængighedserklæring]]
[[de:Unabhängigkeitserklärung]]
[[es:Declaración de Independencia]]
[[he:&amp;#1492;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1506;&amp;#1510;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;]]
[[it:Dichiarazione di indipendenza]]
[[ja:&amp;#29420;&amp;#31435;&amp;#23459;&amp;#35328;]]
[[pl:Deklaracja niepodległości]]
[[pt:Declaração da Independência]]
[[ru:Декларация независимости]]
[[vi:Tuyên ngôn &amp;#273;&amp;#7897;c l&amp;#7853;p]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drag racing</title>
<id>8373</id>
<revision>
<id>41934585</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:59:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Willirennen</username>
<id>378782</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Racing organization */ rearranged links, only require 1 link each</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:top_fuel_eg.jpg|thumb|right|350px|A Top Fuel dragster, the ultimate in drag racing. Get too close without ear protection and it will cause deafness.]]
[[image:DadWheelsUp.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Front engine dragsters are what they raced in the 1960s. These cars are still in competition today and they attract big crowds. This car would've been a Jr. Fueler in the 1960s.]]
'''Drag racing''' is a form of [[auto racing]] in which [[automobile|cars]] or [[motorcycles]] attempt to complete a fairly short, straight and level course in the shortest amount of time, starting from a dead stop. Drag racing originated in the [[United States]] and is still the most popular there. The most common distance is one quarter of a mile (1320 ft / 402 m), although one-eighth of a mile (201 m) tracks are also popular. The dragstrip extends well beyond the finish line to allow cars to slow down and return to the pit area.
While usually thought of as an American and Canadian pastime, drag racing is also very popular in [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Japan]], the [[Caribbean]], [[England]], [[Mexico]], [[Greece]], [[Malta]], [[South Africa]] and most [[European]] and [[Scandinavia]]n countries. At any given time there are over 325 [[drag strip]]s operating world-wide.
==History==
The origins of the sport lie in illegal [[street racing]] in the United States. The format of the sport shows these origins: two cars line up next to each other, and await a green light as the signal to start, just as if they were sitting next to each other at a [[stoplight]]. The straight course mimics the straight streets of most American cities. By the [[1930s]], hot-rodders had begun to race away from the roads, on [[Southern California]]'s dry lake beds, and by the late [[1940s]], attempts to codify the sport were underway. The first [[drag strip]] opened on a [[Santa Ana, California]] airfield in [[1950]].
Southern California was the hot bed for development of the sport in the [[1950s]] as various clubs organized races. ''[[Hot Rod]]'' magazine and its editor, [[Wally Parks]] began to promote racing safety and standardization. The magazine sponsored national "Safety Safari" tours to spread drag racing to other parts of the country. The [[NHRA]] was founded as a national sanctioning body and Parks eventually left the magazine to head the organization.
Initially contests were between modified street vehicles, but over time racers got more innovative and classes proliferated to reflect the different approaches.
[http://www.wediditforlove.com Dragster History from 1950 to 1979. 45,000+ photos]
==Racing organization==
Most (although not all) drag racing involves two cars racing each other to the end of the measured distance. The elapsed time from the light turning green to the car's front end passing through the "traps" at the other end ("far end") of the track determines the winner; this is the "E.T." or "time". In practice, it is necessary for the driver to "jump the gun" by a fraction of a second, starting the car during the split-second interval between when the yellow light goes out and the green light goes on. However, if the car crosses the electric eye ("the beam") in front of it before the green light comes on, the driver has "red-lighted" and is disqualified. (If both cars "red-light", only the first car to cross is disqualified.) A driver who gets a substantial lead at the start is said to have gotten a "holeshot". The driver's reaction time and the car's top speed are also recorded, in addition to the e.t., on the "timeslip". The car that crosses the finish line first wins. A car can actually blow an engine part way down the strip and coast to the end of the track at a (relatively) lower top speed than the competitor, and still win with a lower elapsed time. This is called "heads-up racing", and is used in all professional ("pro") classes.
In the common Eliminator racing format, the losing car and driver are removed from the contest, while the winner goes on to race other winners, until only one is left. There are some instances where there are 3 cars remaining, and in this case one car, either chosen at random or the car with the fastest elapsed time thus far, gets a "bye run" where his or her car goes down the track by itself (in order to at least partially eliminate the advantage that would otherwise come from the engine having one less run on it), and then awaits the winner of the other two for the title. However, in most Eliminator formats, the bye runs take place only in the first round. Drivers are about equally divided between making a nice easy pass on the bye run so as not to stress the car unduly, or making a real effort for the benefit of the spectators.
The [[NHRA|National Hot Rod Association]] (NHRA) oversees the majority of drag racing events in [[North America]]. The next largest organization, the [[International Hot Rod Association]], (IHRA), is about one-third the size of NHRA. Nearly all drag strips will select one or the other of these sanctioning bodies to be associated with. The NHRA is more popular with large, 1/4 mile nationally-recognized tracks, while the IHRA is a favorite of smaller 1/8th mile local tracks. One reason for this (among others) is the IHRA is less restrictive in its rules and less expensive to be associated with.
There are literally hundreds of different classes in drag racing, each with different requirements and restrictions on things such as weight, engine size, body style, modifications, and many others. The NHRA and IHRA share some of these classes, but many are solely used by one sanctioning body or the other. The NHRA boasts over 200 classes, while the IHRA has fewer. There is even a class for aspiring youngsters - Junior Dragster.
In 1997, the [[FIA]] began sanctioning drag racing in Europe with a fully established European Drag Racing Championship, in cooperation with the NHRA with rules established from the NHRA. The major European drag strips include Santa Pod Raceway in Podington, England and the Hockenheimring in Germany.
However, there are only 5 pro classes (4 NHRA, 4 IHRA), which are:
* [[Top Fuel]] Dragster (TF/D) The rail dragsters, or "diggers", the fastest class. (NHRA and IHRA both). There are also a Top Alcohol and Top Gas Dragster.
* Top Fuel [[Funny Car]] (TF/FC) Nearly as fast as the rails, the "floppers" (marginally) resemble actual cars. IHRA will be bringing back Top Fuel Funny Car in 2006, and Alcohol Funny Car is already a pro category in IHRA. (NHRA and IHRA both)
* [[Pro Modified]] (Pro Mod) Some engine restrictions, very high power. Cars can run superchargers or nitrous oxide. Cars running blowers are limited to 527 cubic inches (8.6 L) while cars with nitrous oxide can run up to 740 cubic inches (12.1 L).
* [[Pro Stock]] Must maintain stock appearance. NHRA cars can run no more than 500 cubic inches (8.2 L) while IHRA cars can run a maximum of 820 cubic inches (13.1 L) ("Mountain Motors"). (NHRA and IHRA both)
* [[Pro Stock Bikes|Pro Stock Bike]] Heavily modified motorcycles. (NHRA only)
In addition to the above professional classes, these are some other popular classes:
* [[Top Alcohol Dragster]]
* [[Top Alcohol Funny Car]]
* [[Super Comp/Quick Rod]]
* [[Super Gas/Super Rod]]
* [[Super Street/Hot Rod]]
* [[Super Stock]]
* [[Stock]]
* [[Sport Compact]] (Smaller cars, with smaller engines)
* Top Sportsman (IHRA only, but at NHRA Divisional Races)
* Top Dragster (IHRA only)
A complete listing of all classes can be found on the respective NHRA and IHRA official websites (see external links).
To allow different cars to compete against each other, some competitions are raced on a handicap basis, with faster cars delayed on the start line enough to theoretically even things up with the slower car. This may be based on rule differences between the cars in stock, super stock, and modified classes, or on a competitor's chosen "dial-in" in [[E.T. bracket race|bracket racing]].
A "dial-in" is a time the driver estimates it will take his or her car to cross the finish line, and is generally displayed on one or more windows so the starter can adjust the starting lights on the "Christmas tree" (commonly just "tree") accordingly. The slower car will then get a head start equal to the difference in the two dial-ins, so that if both cars perform perfectly, they would |
he Halbinsel]]
[[es:Península Ibérica]]
[[eo:Iberio]]
[[eu:Iberiar penintsula]]
[[fr:Péninsule Ibérique]]
[[gl:Península Ibérica]]
[[ko:이베리아 반도]]
[[io:Iberia]]
[[ia:Peninsula iberic]]
[[is:Íberíuskaginn]]
[[it:Penisola iberica]]
[[he:חצי האי האיברי]]
[[la:Iberia]]
[[nl:Iberisch Schiereiland]]
[[ja:イベリア半島]]
[[no:Den iberiske halvøy]]
[[pl:Półwysep Iberyjski]]
[[pt:Península Ibérica]]
[[ru:Пиренейский полуостров]]
[[sl:Iberski polotok]]
[[sv:Iberiska halvön]]
[[vi:Bán đảo Iberia]]
[[zh:伊比利亚半岛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intermediate value theorem</title>
<id>14884</id>
<revision>
<id>41645094</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:34:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Heron</username>
<id>2954</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Lilchicklet007|Lilchicklet007]] ([[User talk:Lilchicklet007|talk]]) to last version by 213.10.11.73</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[analysis]], the '''intermediate value theorem''' is either of two theorems of which an account is given below.
==Intermediate value theorem==
[[Image:Intermediatevaluetheorem.png|thumb|327px|Intermediate Value Theorem]]
The '''intermediate value theorem''' states the following: Suppose that ''I'' is an [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] [a, b] in the [[real number|real numbers]] '''R''' and that ''f'' : ''I'' → '''R''' is a [[continuous function|continuous]] [[function (mathematics)|function]]. Then the image set ''f'' ( ''I'' ) is also an interval, and either it contains [''f''(''a''), ''f''(''b'')], or it contains [''f''(''b''), ''f''(''a'')]. I.e.
* ''f'' ( ''I'' ) ⊇ [''f'' (''a''), ''f'' (''b'')],
or
* ''f'' ( ''I'' ) ⊇ [''f'' (''b''), ''f'' (''a'')].
It is frequently stated in the following equivalent form: Suppose that ''f'' : [''a'', ''b''] → '''R''' is continuous and that ''u'' is a real number satisfying ''f'' (''a'') < ''u'' < ''f'' (''b'') or ''f'' (''a'') > ''u'' > ''f'' (''b''). Then for some ''c'' in (''a'', ''b''), ''f''(''c'') = ''u''.
This captures an intuitive property of continuous functions: given ''f'' continuous on [1, 2], if ''f'' (1) = 3 and ''f'' (2) = 5 then ''f'' must be equal to 4 somewhere between 1 and 2. It represents the idea that the graph of a continuous function can be drawn without lifting your pencil from the paper.
The theorem depends on the completeness of the [[real number]]s. It is false for the [[rational number]]s '''Q'''. For example, the function ''f'' (''x'') = ''x''<sup>2</sup>-2 from '''Q''' to '''Q''' satisfies ''f'' (0) = -2, ''f'' (2) = 2. However there is no rational number ''x'' such that ''f'' (''x'') = 0.
=== Proof ===
We shall prove the first case ''f'' (''a'') < ''u'' < ''f'' (''b''); the second is similar.
Let ''S'' = {''x'' in [a, b] : ''f''(''x'') ≤ ''u''}. Then ''S'' is non-empty (as ''a'' is in ''S'') and bounded above by ''b''. Hence by the [[completeness]] property of the real numbers, the [[supremum]] ''c'' = sup ''S'' exists. We claim that ''f'' (''c'') = ''u''.
Suppose first that ''f'' (''c'') > ''u''. Then ''f'' (''c'') - ''u'' > 0, so there is a δ > 0 such that | ''f'' (''x'') - ''f'' (''c'') | < ''f'' (''c'') - ''u'' whenever | ''x'' - ''c'' | < δ, since ''f'' is continuous. But then ''f'' (''x'') > ''f'' (''c'') - ( ''f'' (''c'') - ''u'' ) = ''u'' whenever | ''x'' - ''c'' | < δ and then ''f'' (''x'') > ''u'' for ''x'' in ( ''c'' - δ, ''c'' + δ) and thus ''c'' - δ is an upper bound for ''S'' which is smaller than ''c'', a contradiction.
Suppose next that ''f'' (''c'') < ''u''. Again, by continuity, there is a δ > 0 such that | ''f'' (''x'') - ''f'' (''c'') | < ''u'' - ''f'' (''c'') whenever | ''x'' - ''c'' | < δ. Then ''f'' (''x'') < ''f'' (''c'') + ( ''u'' - ''f'' (''c'') ) = ''u'' for ''x'' in ( ''c'' - δ, ''c'' + δ) and there are numbers ''x'' greater than ''c'' for which ''f'' (''x'') < ''u'', again a contradiction to the definition of ''c''.
We deduce that ''f'' (''c'') = ''u'' as stated.
=== History ===
For ''u''=0 above, the statement is also known as ''Bolzano's theorem''; this theorem was first stated by [[Bernard Bolzano]], together with a proof which used techniques which were especially rigorous for their time but which are now regarded as non-rigorous.
===Generalization===
The intermediate value theorem can be seen as a consequence of the following two statements from [[topology]]:
* If ''X'' and ''Y'' are [[topological space]]s, ''f'' : ''X'' → ''Y'' is continuous, and ''X'' is [[connectedness|connected]], then ''f''(''X'') is connected.
* A subset of '''R''' is connected if and only if it is an interval.
===Example of Use in Proof===
The theorem is rarely applied with concrete values; instead, it gives some characterization of continuous functions. For example, let <math>g(x) = f(x) - x</math> for ''f'' continuous over the reals. Also, let ''f'' be bounded (above and below). Then we can say ''g'' equals 0 at least once. To see this, consider the following:
Since ''f'' is bounded, we can pick a > sup{f(x)} and b < inf{f(x)}. Clearly g(a) < 0 and g(b) > 0. If ''f'' is continuous, then ''g'' is also continuous. Since ''g'' is continuous, we can apply the intermediate value theorem and state that ''g'' must take on the value of 0 somewhere between a and b. This result proves that any continuous bounded function must cross the function, ''x''.
===Converse is false===
Suppose ''f'' is a real-valued function defined on some interval ''I'', and for every two elements ''a'' and ''b'' in ''I'' and for every ''u'' between ''f''(''a'') and ''f''(''b'') there exists a ''c'' between ''a'' and ''b'' such that ''f''(''c'') = ''u''. Does have ''f'' have to be continuous? The answer is no; the converse of the intermediate value theorem fails. As an example, take the function ''f''(''x'') = sin(1/''x'') for ''x'' non-zero, and ''f''(0) = 0. This function is not continuous as the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] for ''x'' → 0 does not exist; yet the function has the above intermediate value property.
Historically, this intermediate value property has been suggested as a ''definition'' for continuity of real-valued functions; this definition was not adopted.
[[Darboux's theorem (analysis)|Darboux's theorem]] states that all functions that result from the [[derivative|differentiation]] of some other function on some interval have the intermediate value property (even though they need not be continuous).
==Intermediate value theorem of integration==
The intermediate value theorem of [[integration]] is derived from the [[mean value theorem]] and states:
If <math>f</math> is a [[continuous function|continuous]] [[function (mathematics)|function]] on some interval <math>[a,b]</math>, then the signed [[area (geometry)|area]] under the function on that interval is equal to the length of the interval <math>b-a</math> multiplied by some function value <math>f(c)</math> such that <math>a < c < b</math>. I.e.,
:<math>\int_a^b f(x) \, dx = f(c)(b-a).</math>
==External links==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Generalization/ivt.shtml Intermediate value Theorem - Bolzano Theorem] at [[cut-the-knot]]
[[Category:Calculus]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]
[[de:Zwischenwertsatz]]
[[fr:Théorème des valeurs intermédiaires]]
[[he:משפט ערך הביניים]]
[[ko:중간값 정리]]
[[nl:middelwaardestelling]]
[[pl:Twierdzenie Darboux]]
[[fi:Jatkuvien funktioiden väliarvolause]]
[[vi:Định lý Bolzano]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Insane Clown Posse</title>
<id>14885</id>
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<id>42089161</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:28:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.254.140.177</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Insane Clown Posse''' ('''ICP''') are a two-piece [[horrorcore]] [[Rap music|rap]] / [[rapcore]] group originally from [[Wayne, Michigan]], consisting of Violent J ([[Joseph Bruce]]) and Shaggy 2 Dope ([[Joseph Utsler]]). They almost always professionally display themselves in full black and white "[[evil clown]]" makeup that could be compared to the [[corpse paint]] of [[black metal]] musicians or the [[makeup]] of the rock group [[KISS (band)|KISS]]. Violent J's makeup is usually drawn as a smiling face, while Shaggy's is an angry face. The group is also well known for on-stage antics such as dousing the audience with [[Faygo]]&ndash;brand [[cola|soda]] at its shows and lighting fires.
== Early history ==
The first incarnation of the group was in [[1988]] as The JJ Boys, a trio that Violent J, Shaggy, and John Utsler (a.k.a. John Kickchazz) had formed while still in their early teens. This later became "Inner City Posse", and consisted of three members: J, Shaggy, and Kickchazz (Shaggy's brother) (who performed on Inner City Posse [[album (music)|album]]s ''Bassment Cuts'' and ''[[Dog Beats]]''). Kickchazz left the group before ''[[Carnival of Carnage]]'' was released. J and Shaggy still wanted ICP to be a trio, and so brought in a local rapper called Greez-E, who appeared on ''[[Beverly Kills 50187]]''. He subsequently left as well, and ICP have been a duo ever since, forming [[Psychopathic Records]] with manager [[Alex Abbiss]] in [[1991]].
== The six Joker's Cards ==
In [[1992]], ICP released ''Carnival of Carnage'', which they designated as "The First Joker's Card". The group hinted at the next five major-release albums being numbered in this fashion. They also stated that "the end of time will consume us all" once the Sixth Joker's Card was revealed, and that their fans would know all there is to know about [[The Dark Carnival]] (alternatively referred-to as "The Dead Carnival" on ''[[The Riddlebox]]'')&mdash; something the |
omment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SidonieGabrielleColette.jpg|thumb|Colette]]{{French literature (small)}}
'''Colette''' was the pen name of the [[France|French]] [[novelist]] '''Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette''' ([[January 28]], [[1873]] &ndash; [[August 3]], [[1954]]).
She was born in [[Saint-Sauveur-en-Puisaye]], [[Yonne]], in the [[Burgundy]] Region of [[France]], the daughter of Jules-Joseph Colette and Adele Eugenie Sidonie Landoy ('Sido'). In 1893 she married Henri Gauthier-Villars, who was 15 years her senior. Her first books, the ''[[Claudine]]'' series, were published under the pen name of her husband, 'Willy', writer, music critic, "literary charlatan and degenerate",[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/colette.htm] who locked Colette in her room until she wrote the required number of pages. ''Claudine'' still has the power to charm; in ''belle epoque'' France it was downright shocking, much to Willy's satisfaction and profit.
She divorced the unfaithful Gauthier-Villars in 1906 and took up work in the [[music hall]]s of [[Paris]], under the wing of the Marquise de Belboeuf, known as Missy, with whom Colette was also romantically involved. (She wore a black velvet collar inscribed: "I Belong to Missy"). Among Colette's other friends and lovers were the famous American lesbian [[Natalie Barney]], and the Italian writer [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]. On stage she caused a sensation, miming copulation on one occasion (which caused a riot at the Moulin Rouge), and baring a breast on another.
In 1912 Colette married [[Henri de Jouvenel]], the editor of the newspaper ''[[Le Matin]]''. The couple had one daughter, [[Colette de Jouvenel]], known to the family as Bel-Gazou. Colette de Jouvenel later stated that her mother did not want a child and left her daughter in the care of an English nanny, only rarely coming to visit her. In 1914, during [[World War I]], Colette was approached to write a ballet for the Opéra de Paris which she outlined under the title "Divertissements pour ma fille". After Colette herself chose [[Maurice Ravel]] to write the music, he reimagined the work as an opera, to which Colette agreed. Ravel received the libretto to ''[[L'Enfant et les sortilèges]]'' in [[1918]], and it was first performed [[March 21]], [[1925]]. [http://www.laphil.org/resources/piece_detail.cfm?id=93] During the war she converted her husband's St. Malo estate into a hospital for the wounded, and was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour (1920). She divorced Henri de Jouvenel in 1924 after a much talked about affair with her stepson, [[Bertrand de Jouvenel]], and married [[Maurice Goudeket]] in 1935, making her full name Sidonie Gabrielle Claudine Colette Gauthier-Villars de Jouvenel Goudeket.
Post-war, her writing career bloomed following the publication of ''[[Chéri (novel)|Chéri]]'' (1920). Chéri tells a story of the end of a six-year affair between an aging retired [[courtesan]], Léa, and a pampered young man, Chéri. Turning stereotypes upside-down, it is Chéri who wears silk pyjamas and Léa's pearls, and who is the object of gaze. And in the end Léa demonstrates all the survival skills which Colette associates with feminity. (The story continued in ''The Last of Chéri'' (1951), which contrasts Léa's strength and Chéri's fragility, culminating in his suicide). After ''Cherie'' Colette entered the world of modern poetry and paintings centered around [[Jean Cocteau]], who was later her neighbor in [[Palais Royale]]. The relationship and life is vividly depicted in their books. By 1927 she was frequently acclaimed as France's greatest woman writer. "It ... has no plot, and yet tells of three lives af three lives all that should be known," wrote [[Jannet Flanner]] of ''Sido'' on its publication in 1930. "Once again, and at greater length length than usual, she has been hailed for her genius, hunmanities and perfect prose by those literary journals which years ago ... lifted nothing at all in her direction except the finger of scorn." She published around fifty [[novel]]s in total, many with autobiographical elements. Her themes can be roughly divided into idyllic natural tales or dark struggles in relationships and love. All her novels were marked by clever observation and dialogue with an intimate, explicit style. Her most popular novel, ''[[Gigi]]'', was made into a [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] play as well as a highly successful [[Hollywood]] [[motion picture]] with the title ''[[Gigi (1958 film)|Gigi]]'' starring [[Maurice Chevalier]], [[Louis Jourdan]], and [[Leslie Caron]].
A controversial figure throughout her life, Colette flaunted her lesbian affairs, and collaborated with the [[Vichy France|Vichy regime]] during [[World War II]] - while at the same time aiding her Jewish friends. She was a member of the [[Belgian Royal Academy]] (1935), president of the [[Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de Goncourt|Académie Goncourt]] (1945) (and the first woman to be admitted into it), and a Chevalier (1920) and a Grand Officier (1953) of the [[Légion d'honneur]]. When she died in [[Paris]] on [[August 3]], [[1954]], she was given a state funeral, although she was refused [[Roman Catholic]] rites because of her divorce. Colette is interred in [[Le Père Lachaise Cemetery]] in Paris.
[[Image:perelachaise-Colette-p1000342.jpg|thumb|Colette's tomb in [[Le Père Lachaise Cemetery]].]]
'''Her works include:'''
* ''[[Claudine à l'école]]'' (1900)
* ''[[Claudine à Paris]]'' (1901)
* ''[[Claudine en ménage]]'' (1902)
* ''[[Claudine s'en va]]'' (1903)
* ''[[Dialogues de Bêtes]]'' (1904)
* ''[[La Vagabonde]]'' (1910)
* ''[[L'Envers du music hall]]'' (1913)
* ''[[La Paix Chez les Bêtes]]'' (1916)
* ''[[L'Enfant et les sortilèges]]'' (1917, [[Maurice Ravel|Ravel]] opera [[libretto]])
* ''[[Mitsou]]'' (1919)
* ''[[Chéri (novel)|Chéri]]'' (1920)
* ''[[La Maison de Claudine]]'' (1922)
* ''[[Le Blé en Herbe]]'' (1923)
* ''[[La Fin de Chéri]]'' (1926)
* ''[[La Naissance du Jour]]'' (1928)
* ''Sido'' (1929)
* ''[[Le Pur et L'Impur]]'' (1932)
* ''[[La Chatte]]'' (1933)
* ''[[Duo]]'' (1934)
* ''[[Le Képi]]'' (1943)
* ''[[Gigi]]'' (1945)
* ''[[L'Étoile Vesper]]'' (1947)
* ''[[Le Fanal Bleu]]'' (1949)
==External links==
*[http://www.centre-colette.com Centre d'&eacute;tudes Colette]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Colette_Sidonie_Gabrielle|name=Colette}}
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/1/7/3/11737/11737-h/11737-h.htm ''Barks and Purrs''] ([[Child]]ren's book) at [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://www.colette.org/ Colette webpage (in French)]
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/colette.htm Source for some material used in this article]
[[Category:1873 births|Colette]]
[[Category:1954 deaths|Colette]]
[[Category:French novelists|Colette]]
[[Category:Bisexual writers]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Colette]]
[[Category:Modernist women writers|Colette]]
[[Category:Opera librettists]]
[[Category:Natives of Bourgogne]]
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<page>
<title>Celts and human sacrifice</title>
<id>6930</id>
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<id>39385762</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T20:51:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mairi</username>
<id>95631</id>
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<comment>categories</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Celts]] practised human sacrifice on a limited scale as part of their religious [[ritual]]s. Animal sacrifice was more commonplace along with ritual deposition of tools, weapons and jewelry. The evidence for human sacrifices comes from:
* Writings by Romans and Greeks often at second hand or hearsay
* Irish medieval texts
* Archaeological data
All these sources are, however, open to interpretation and subject to bias.
[[Julius Caesar]] wrote in his ''[[Gallic Wars]]'':
:''[The Gauls] believe that unless a man's life is paid for by another man's, the majesty of the immortal gods cannot be appeased. They use [[Wicker man|figures of immense size]], whose limbs, woven out of twigs, they fill them with living men and set on fire, and the men perish in a sheet of flame. They believe that the execution of those who have been caught in the act of theft or robbery is more pleasing to the immortal gods; but when the supply of victims fails they resort to the execution even of the innocent''
Ritualised decapitation survives in the archaeological record such as the example of 12 headless corpses at the French late Iron Age sanctuary of [[Gournay-sur-Aronde]].
[[Lindow man]] may be an example of a human sacrifice from the [[1st century|1st]] or [[2nd century]] AD, preserved in a [[peat bog]] in near perfect condition. The case for his sacrifice hinges on the three separate injuries he suffered. He was throttled, clubbed around the head and had his throat slit. This dovetails with the three-fold death detailed in medieval texts. [[Tollund Man]] has also been suggested as a bog sacrifice although both men may also have been executed criminals.
Iron Age societies may have developed highly ritualised judicial killings in order to both satisfy their gods and punish wrongdoers at the same time.
The [[Burning Man]] phenomenon of the Twentieth century recalls the wicker man described by Caesar.
==See also==
*[[Celtic mythology]]
*[[Wicker man]]
==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/prehistory/human_sacrifice_02.shtml Bodies for the Gods: The Practice of Human Sacrifice]
[[Category:Celts]]
[[Category:Religious behaviour and experience]]
[[Category:Death]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Chichester</title>
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<id>41667100</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:09:09Z</timestamp>
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<ip>71.247.74.230</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city in England. For the town i |
r. Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change.
* [[Three-tier (computing)|3-tier architecture]] &mdash; Three tier systems move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that stateless clients can be used. This simplifies application deployment. Most web applications are 3-Tier.
* [[Multitier architecture|N-tier architecture]] &mdash; N-Tier refers typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services. This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of [[application server]]s.
* [[Computer cluster|Tightly coupled]] (clustered) &mdash; refers typically to a set of highly integrated machines that run the same process in [[parallel]], subdividing the task in parts that are made individually by each one, and then put back together to make the final result.
* [[Peer-to-peer]] &mdash; an architecture where there is no special machine or machines that provide a service or manage the network resources. Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers.
*[[Service-Oriented Architecture | Service oriented]] &mdash; Where system is organized as a set of highly reusable services that could be offered through a standardized interfaces.
*[[Mobile code]] &mdash; Based on the architecture principle of moving processing closest to source of data
*[[Replicated repository]] &mdash; Where repository is replicated among distributed system to support online / offline processing provided this lag in data update is acceptable.
== Concurrency ==
Distributed computing implements a kind of [[concurrency (computer science)|concurrency]].
=== Computing taxonomies ===
The types of distributed computers are based on [[Flynn's taxonomy]] of systems; [[SISD|single instruction, single data]] (SISD),
[[MISD|multiple instruction, single data]] (MISD), [[SIMD|single instruction, multiple data]] (SIMD) and [[MIMD|multiple instruction, multiple data]] (MIMD). Other taxonomies and architectures available at [[Computer architecture]] and in [[:Category:Computer architecture]].
=== Computer clusters ===
{{main|Cluster computing}}
A cluster is multiple stand-alone machines acting in parallel across a local high speed network. Distributed computing differs from [[cluster computing]] in that computers in a distributed computing environment are typically not exclusively running "group" tasks, whereas clustered computers are usually much more tightly coupled. The difference makes distributed computing attractive because, when properly configured, it can use computational resources that would otherwise be unused. It can also make available computing resources which would otherwise be impossible.
The [[Second Life]] grid is a heterogeneous multicomputer and so are most [[Beowulf (computing) |Beowulf]] clusters.
=== Grid computing ===
{{main|Grid computing}}
A grid <!-- rest of this sentence is taken from the mail Grid computing article, so if it is wrong, that is too!-->uses the resources of many separate computers connected by a network (usually the internet) to solve large-scale computation problems. Most use idle time on many thousands of computers throughout the world. Such arrangements permit handling of data that would otherwise require the power of expensive [[supercomputer]]s or would have been impossible to analyze otherwise.
Distributed computing projects also often involve competition with other distributed systems. This competition may be for prestige, or it may be a means of enticing users to donate processing power to a specific project. For example, stat races are a measure of what the most distributed work a project has been able to compute over the past day or week. This has been found to be so important in practice that virtually all distributed computing projects offer online statistical analyses of their performances, updated at least daily if not in real-time.
See [[List of distributed computing projects]] for more information on specific projects.
=== See also ===
* [[Sequential consistency]]
* Memory models
** [[Shared memory]]
** [[Distributed memory]]
** [[Distributed shared memory]]
** [[Message Passing Interface]]
* [[Render farm]]s &mdash; The [[render]]ing of [[3D computer graphics|3D computer images]] and movies is often spread between several computers to speed up the process.
*[[Application server]]
*[[:Category:Distributed_computing | Distributed computing category]]
*[[b:ComputerScience:Distributed_Systems|Distributed Systems wikibook]]
*[[Distributed computing environment]]
*[[Distributed memory]]
*[[Fallacies of Distributed Computing]]
*[[Flash mob computing]]
* [[:Category:History of computing | History of computing category]]
** [[History of computing]]
* [[Supercomputer]]
*[[List of publications in computer science#Distributed computing|List of distributed computing publications]]
*[[List of distributed computing projects]]
*[[Logical clocks]]
*[[Network of Workstations]]
*[[Parallel computing]]
*[[Peer to peer]]
*[[Snapshot algorithm]]
*[[Software componentry]]
*[[Synchronizer (algorithm)]]
==References==
* [[Antony Davies]]: ''Computational Intermediation and the Evolution of Computation as a Commodity'', <u>Applied Economics</u>, June 2004, [http://www.business.duq.edu/faculty/davies/research/EconomicsOfComputation.pdf Online version]
*William Kornfeld and Carl Hewitt. [https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/5693 ''The Scientific Community Metaphor''] MIT AI Memo 641. January 1981.
*Carl Hewitt and Peter de Jong. ''Analyzing the Roles of Descriptions and Actions in Open Systems'' Proceedings of the National Conference on Artificial Intelligence. August 1983.
*Carl Hewitt. ''The Challenge of Open Systems'' Byte Magazine. April 1985.
*Carl Hewitt. ''Towards Open Information Systems Semantics'' Proceedings of 10th International Workshop on Distributed Artificial Intelligence. October 23-27, 1990. Bandera, Texas.
*Carl Hewitt. ''Open Information Systems Semantics'' Journal of Artificial Intelligence. January 1991.
=== Distributed computing infrastructure ===
* [http://www.clusterresources.com/products/moabgridsuite.shtml Moab Grid Suite] &mdash; Cluster workload management, reporting tools, and end user submission portal
* [[Remote procedure call]] &mdash; This high-level communication mechanism allows processes on different machines to communicate using procedure calls even though they don't share the same address space.
* [[Distributed object]]s &mdash; Systems like [[CORBA]], Microsoft [[DCOM |D/COM]], [[Java RMI]], ReplicaNet [http://www.replicanet.com/], and others that try to map [[object oriented]] design onto the network.
*[[Simple Object Access Protocol|SOAP]]
*[[XML-RPC]]
*[[GLOBE]] [http://www.cs.vu.nl/~steen/globe/] &mdash; Maintained by Andrew S. Tanenbaum and others.
*[[Group Communication]]
*[[Acute]] [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/pes20/acute/] &mdash; Distributed functional programming with migration based on [[OCaml]].
*[http://pyro.sourceforge.net/ PYRO] &mdash; [[Python programming language|Python]] Remote Objects - [[Free Software]] Distributed Object Technology
*[http://www.mathworks.com/products/distribtb/ Distributed Computing Toolbox] for [[MATLAB]] &mdash; enables distributing [[MATLAB]] applications using technologies like [[Message Passing Interface|MPI]] or [[Load Sharing Facility|LSF]]
*[[BOINC]] &mdash; Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing
*[http://www.globus.org/ GLOBUS] &mdash; Home of the Globus Toolkit, an open source software toolkit used for building Grid systems and applications
*[[Beowulf cluster]]s [http://www.beowulf.org/] &mdash; [[Linux]] based parallel computing using commodity hardware.
=== Distributed computing conferences and journals ===
* [http://www.dsn.org/ The International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks]
* [http://www.podc.org ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing]
* [http://www.academicpress.com/jpdc Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing]
* [http://www.computer.org/tpds/about.htm IEEE transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems]
* [http://www.springeronline.com Distributed Computing]
* [http://www.dcoss.org ACM/IEEE Distributed Computing on Sensor Systems]
=== Proprietary infrastructure ===
* [[Cluster Resources, Inc.]] [http://www.clusterresources.com] &mdash; Software workload and resource management tools
* [[DataSynapse]] [http://www.datasynapse.com]
* [[Digipede]] [http://www.digipede.net] &mdash; Has a commercial, all .NET distributed computing solution for Windows.
* [[Entropia]] [http://www.entropia.com] &mdash; (Defunct) Vendor of distributed computing software technologies.
* [[Internet Communications Engine|ICE]]
* [[OfficeGRID]] [http://www.officegrid.net] &mdash; A grid solution from [http://www.meshtechnologies.com MESH-Technologies A/S].
* [[Parabon Computation]] [http://www.parabon.com] &mdash; One of the largest commercial distributed computing networks.
* [[Popular Power]] [http://www.popularpower.com] &mdash; (Defunct) building a platform for Internet-wide distributed computing.
* [[United Devices]] [http://www.ud.com] &mdash; One of the largest commercial distributed computing networks.
* [[Xgrid]] &mdash; Software developed by Apple's [[Advanced Computation Group]].
== People who have contributed to the distributed computing research ==
{{dynamic_list}}
=== Foundations and Principles ===
Gul Agha, [[Henry Baker (computer scientist) | Henry Baker]], [[James Aspnes]], [[Hagit Attiya]], [[Will Clinger]], [[Danny Dolev]], [[Shlomi Dolev]], [[Michael J. Fischer]], [[Vassos Hadzilacos]], [[Carl Hewitt]], [[Leslie Lamport]], [[Nancy Lynch]], [[Michael Merritt]], [[Paul Spirakis]], [[Sam Toueg]], [[Aki Yonezawa]]
=== Systems ===
[[Ken Birman]], [[Frans Kaashoek]], [[Barbara Liskov]], [[Andrew Tan |
reference to the details of any particular genes and their products. Researchers compare traits such as [[karyotype|chromosome number]], [[genome size]], [[gene]] order, [[codon usage bias]], and [[GC-content]] to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown [[2002]]; Saccone and Pesole [[2003]]; Benfey and Protopapas [[2004]]; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory [[2005]]).
[[gene duplication|Duplications]] play a major role in shaping the genome. Duplications may range from extension of [[short tandem repeats]], to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way to duplications of entire chromosomes or even [[polyploidy|entire genomes]]. Such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty.
[[Horizontal gene transfer]] is invoked to explain how there is often extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related. Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many [[microbe]]s. Also, eukaryotic cells seem to have experienced a transfer of some genetic material from their [[chloroplast]] and [[mitochondria]]l genomes to their nuclear chromosomes.
== Other Omics & Ome pages ==
* [[Genome]], [[Proteome]], [[Expressome]], [[Metabolome]], [[Regulome]], [[Functome]], [[Phenome]], [[Textome]]
* [[Mitochondriomics]], [[Golgiome]], [[Ligandomics]], [[Eukaryome]], [[Bacteriome]], [[Archaeome]]
== Subfields of Genome ==
* [[Human genome]], [[Mitochondriome]], [[Eukaryome]]
==References==
Benfey, P and Protopapas, AD (2004). Essentials of Genomics. Prentice Hall.
Brown, TA (2002). Genomes 2. Bios Scientific Publishers.
Gibson, G and Muse, SV (2004). A Primer of Genome Science (Second Edition). Sinauer Assoc.
Gregory, TR (ed) (2005). [[The Evolution of the Genome]]. Elsevier.
Reece, RJ (2004). Analysis of Genes and Genomes. John Wiley & Sons.
Saccone, C and Pesole, G (2003). Handbook of Comparative Genomics. John Wiley & Sons.
==See also==
*[[Developmental biology]], [[evolution]], [[molecular systematics]], [[molecular evolution]], [[gene family]], [[gene]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.genomesize.com/ Animal genome size database]
*[http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/cval/homepage.html Plant genome size database]
*[http://www.genomesonline.org/ Genomes OnLine Database]
*[http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/ The Genome News Network]
[[Category:Genetics]]
[[ca:Genoma]]
[[cs:Genom]]
[[da:Arvemasse]]
[[de:Genom]]
[[et:Genoom]]
[[es:Genoma]]
[[fr:Génome]]
[[ko:게놈]]
[[ia:Genoma]]
[[it:Genoma]]
[[he:גנום]]
[[hu:Genom]]
[[nl:Genoom]]
[[no:Genom]]
[[ja:ゲノム]]
[[pl:Genom]]
[[pt:Genoma]]
[[ru:Геном]]
[[sv:Genom]]
[[tr:Genom]]
[[zh:基因組]]
[[sr:геном]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Game Theory</title>
<id>12390</id>
<revision>
<id>15910079</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-22T18:42:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brion VIBBER</username>
<id>51</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Removed extraneous text</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Game theory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guillermo Del Toro</title>
<id>12391</id>
<revision>
<id>15910080</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-01T14:18:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Xezbeth</username>
<id>86247</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guillermo del Toro]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grizzly Bear</title>
<id>12392</id>
<revision>
<id>40215969</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T00:41:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kungfuadam</username>
<id>404042</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] bad link repair. [[Wikipedia:Bad links|You can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Grizzly Bear
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Grizzlybears ChrisServheenUSFWS.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Two Grizzly Bears in a meadow
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Ursidae]]
| genus = ''[[Ursus (biology)|Ursus]]''
| species = ''[[Brown Bear|U. arctos]]''
| subspecies = '''''U. a. horribilis'''''
| trinomial = ''Ursus arctos horribilis''
| trinomial_authority = ([[George Ord|Ord]], [[1815]])
}}
The '''Grizzly Bear''', sometimes called the '''Silvertip Bear''', has traditionally been treated as a [[subspecies]], ''Ursus arctos horribilis'', of the [[brown bear]] living in [[North America]]. However, DNA analysis has recently revealed that the subspecies of brown bears, both Eurasian and North American, are genetically quite homogeneous, and that their genetic [[phylogeography]] does not correspond to their traditional [[taxonomy]]. Therefore, the common name Grizzly Bear can be appropriately used to refer to interior North American Brown Bears, whereas the coastal bears of North America are referred to as Kodiak Bears or Kodiak Brown Bears, and those of Europe, the European Brown Bear.
[[Image:Grizzly Bear Yellowstone.jpg|left|thumb|Female Grizzly Bear in Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A.]]
Grizzly Bears reach weights of 180-680 kg (400-1500 lbs); the male is on average 1.8 times as heavy as the female, an example of [[sexual dimorphism]]. Their coloring ranges widely across geographic areas, from blond to deep brown or black. These differences, once attributed to subspeciation, are now thought to be primarily due to the different environments these bears inhabit, particularly with regard to diet and temperature.
The Grizzly has a large hump over the shoulders which is a muscle mass used to power the forelimbs in digging. The head is large and round with a concave facial profile. In spite of their massive size, these bears can run at speeds of up to 55 km/h (35 mph).
Normally a solitary, nocturnally active animal, in coastal areas the Grizzly congregates alongside streams and rivers during the salmon spawn. Every other year females (sows) produce 1-4 young (most commonly 2) which are small and weigh only about 500 g (1 pound). Sows are very protective of their offspring.
The current range of the Grizzly Bear extends from [[Alaska]], down through much of Western [[Canada]], and into the upper Northwestern United States including [[Idaho]], [[Montana]] and [[Wyoming]].
[[Image:Grizzly map.gif|right|thumb|Current and historical range of the Grizzly Bear in North America]]
==Diet==
Being omnivores, grizzlies feed on a variety of plants and berries including roots or sprouts and fungi, as well as fish, insects and small mammals. The larger bears have been known to prey on large mammals such as moose, sheep and caribou. Bears with access to a protein-rich diet, such as the coastal bears which feed on salmon, can grow much larger than their herbivorous cousins.
In preparation for winter, bears will gain hundreds of kilograms of fat before going into a state of [[hibernation|false hibernation]]. There is some debate amongst professionals as to whether or not Grizzly Bears technically hibernate. Much of this debate revolves around body temperature and the ability for the bears to move around during hibernation on occasion. One interesting adaptation is that Grizzly Bears have the ability to ''partially'' recycle their body wastes during this period. In some areas where food is plentiful all year round, Grizzly Bears will forgo hibernation altogether.
==Legal status==
The Grizzly Bear is listed as threatened in the [[Continental United States|contiguous United States]], and endangered in parts of [[Canada]]. It is currently slowly repopulating areas where it was previously extirpated. On January 9, 2006, the US Fish and Wildlife service [http://news.fws.gov/NewsReleases/showNews.cfm?newsId=781C3C9B-65BF-03E7-2866F7DC447822A1 proposed] to remove Yellowstone grizzlies from the list of threatened and protected species.
Some biologists have argued that the word ''horribilis'' should be removed from the bear's taxonomic name, as its negative connotations may hinder conservation efforts. This change would not be permitted by the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]].
==In case of bear attack==
The best way to avoid injury from a bear attack is to avoid being attacked. If you see a bear, leave it alone and leave the area. Do not disturb or approach it.
However, if the bear advances upon you, it can be difficult to evade. Bears can run much faster than humans, and they are better tree climbers as well. Some travelers in bear country carry [[pepper spray]] or large caliber [[firearm]]s to repel or kill an attacking bear.
A frequent reason for a sow to attack a human is that the sow thinks the human is threatening its cubs. In this case, the sow will attack to disable the threat and then typically leave. Laying very still and feigning death has preserved the lives of people caught in such a situation. Hungry or ill bears may attack humans for other reasons and should be expected to behave differently.
==Trivia==
[[Werner Herzog]]'s 2005 film ''[[Grizzly Man]]'' deals with the story of [[Timothy Treadwell]], a man who lived for over 13 years with Kodiak brown bears in Alaska.
==References==
#[http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/virtual_sara/files/cosewic/sr_grizzly_bear_e.pdf Committee On The Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) Assessment and Update Status Report on the Grizzly Bear ('''Ursus arctos''') in Canada, 2002] 2.1 MB PDF file.
#Cronin, M.A., Amstrup, S.C., Garner, G.W., and Vyse, E.R., 1991. Interspecific and specific mitochondrial DNA variation in North American bears (''Ursus''). ''Canadian Journal of Zoology'' 69: 2985-2992.
#Waits, L.P., Talbot, S.L., Ward, R.H., and Shie |
eak, loosen||[[lysis]], [[electrolysis]], [[analysis]], [[Lysistrata]] [[linux]]
|}
===Μ===
'''''m'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|μακρός}}||makros||{{polytonic|μακρο}}-||makro-||long||[[macron]], [[macrobiotic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|μέγας}}||megas||{{polytonic|μεγ}}-||mega-||big, large||Mega- (prefix), as in [[megabyte]], [[megafauna]], [[megaphone]]
|-
| {{polytonic|μέλας}}||melas||{{polytonic|μελαν}}-||melan-||pigmented, black, ink||[[Melanesia]], [[melanocyte]], [[melancholy]]
|-
| {{polytonic|μέταλλον}}||metallon||{{polytonic|μεταλλ}}-||metal-||metal||[[medal]], [[metalloid]]
|-
| {{polytonic|μικρός}}||mikros||{{polytonic|μικρο}}-||mikro-||small|| [[microscope]]
|-
| {{polytonic|μνῆστις}}||mnēstis||{{polytonic|μνη}}-||mne-||memory||[[amnesia]], [[amnesty]], [[mnemonic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|μόνος}}||monos||{{polytonic|μονο}}-||mono-||alone, solitary, forsaken||[[monotony]], [[monologue]], [[monogamy]], [[monocle]], [[monolith]], [[monotheist]], [[monopsony]], [[monopoly]]
|-
| {{polytonic|Μοῦσα}}||Mousa||{{polytonic|μουσ}}-||mous-||a patron goddess of the arts||[[music]], [[museum]]
|}
===Ν===
'''''n'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|ναυτικός}}||nautikos||{{polytonic|ναυτ-}}||naut-||sailor, ship||[[nautical]], [[astronaut]]
|-
| {{polytonic|νέος}}||neos||{{polytonic|νεο}}-||neo-||new, young||[[neon]], [[neologism]]'''
|-
|}
===Ξ===
'''''x'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|ξένος}}||xenos||{{polytonic|ξενο}}-||xeno-||strange, stranger, guest||[[xenophobia]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ξύλον}}||xulon||{{polytonic|ξυλ}}-||xul-||wood||[[xylophone]], [[xylem]]'''
|-
|}
===Ο===
'''''(h)o'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|ὀδούς}} ||odous||{{polytonic|ὀδοντ}}-||odont-||tooth||[[orthodontia]]
|-
| {{polytonic|οῒνος}} ||oinos||{{polytonic|οἰνο-}}||oino-||wine||[[oenomel]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ὀλίγος}}||oligos||{{polytonic|ὀλιγο}}-||oligo-||few, little||[[oligarchy]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ὅμοιος}}||homoios||{{polytonic|ὁμοιο}}-||homoio-||similar||[[homeopathy]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ὀξύς}}||oxus||{{polytonic|ὀξυ}}-||oxu-||sharp, acid, sour||[[oxygen]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ὄργανον}}||organon||{{polytonic|ὀργαν-}}||organ-||organ, instrument, tool||[[organ]], [[organism]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ὀρθός}}||orthos||{{polytonic|ὀρθ}}-||orth-||straight, correct, normal||[[orthography]], [[orthogonal]]
|}
===Π===
'''''p'''''
{|border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|πάθος}}||pathos||{{polytonic|παθ}}-||path-||suffering, disease||[[pathology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|παιδεία}}|||paideia||{{polytonic|παιδεια}}-||paideia-||education, culture||[[encyclopedia|encyclop(a)edia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|παǐς}}||pais||{{polytonic|παιδ}}-||paid-||boy, child||[[paediatrician]], [[pedophilia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|πᾶς}}||pas||{{polytonic|παν-, παντο-}}||pan-, panto-||all, complete||[[pantheism]], [[pantomime]]
|-
|{{polytonic|πατήρ}}||patēr||{{polytonic|πατρ-}}||patr-||father||[[patriarch]]
|-
|{{polytonic|περί}}||peri||{{polytonic|περι}}-||peri||around||[[perimeter]]
|-
| {{polytonic|πόλος}}|||polοs||{{polytonic|πολ}}-||pol-||axis, sky||[[North Pole]], [[polarize]], [[Polaris]]
|-
| {{polytonic|πολύς}}|||polus||{{polytonic|πολυ}}-||polu-||many, much||[[Polynesia]], [[polytonic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ποταμός}}|||potamos||{{polytonic|ποταμ}}-||potam-||river||[[hippopotamus]], [[Mesopotamia]]
|-
| {{polytonic|πρόγραμμα}}|||programma||{{polytonic|προγραμματ-}}||programmat-||proclamation, agenda||[[programmer]], [[programmatic]]
|}
===Ρ===
'''''r(h)'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|ῥεῦμα}}||rheuma||{{polytonic|ῥευματ}}-||rheumat-||a flowing, rheum||[[rheumatism]], [[rheum]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ῥίς}}||rhis||{{polytonic|ῥιν}}-||rhin-||nose||[[rhinoceros]], [[rhinoplasty]]
|}
===Σ===
'''''s'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|σαˈρξ}}||sarx||{{polytonic|σαρκο}}-||sarko-||flesh||[[sarcophagus]],[[sarcasm]]
|-
| {{polytonic|σαῦρος}}||sauros||{{polytonic|σαυρο}}-||sauro-||lizard||[[dinosaur]]
|-
| {{polytonic|σκοπός}}||skopos|| {{polytonic|σκοπ}}-||skop-||observer||[[telescope]]
|-
| {{polytonic|σοφία}}||sophia||{{polytonic|σοφια}}-||sophia-||knowledge, wisdom|| [[philosophy]], [[sophistry]]
|}
===Τ===
'''''t'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|τῆλε}}||tēle||{{polytonic|τηλε}}-||tēle-||distant||[[telephone]], [[telepathy]]
|-
| {{polytonic|τόξον}}||toxon||{{polytonic|τοξ}}-||tox-||archer’s bow, poison||[[toxin]]
|}
===Υ===
'''''(h)u, (h)y'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|ὕδωρ}}||hudōr|| {{polytonic|ὑδρο}}-||hudro-||water||[[hydrodynamics]], [[hydrolysis]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ὕπνος}}||hupnos|| {{polytonic|ὑπνο}}-||hupno-||sleep||[[hypnotism]]
|}
===Φ===
'''''ph'''''
{|border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!!English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|φαγειν}}|||phagein||{{polytonic|φαγε}}-||phage-||to eat|| [[bacteriophage]],[[sarcophagus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|φιλία<br>φίλος}}|||philia, <br>philos||{{polytonic|φιλια-<br>φιλο}}-||philia-, <br>philo-||friendship<br>friend|| [[Philadelphia]], [[philosophy]], <br>[[zoophilia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|φως}}|||phos||{{polytonic|φος}}-||phos-||light|| [[phosphorus]], [[photography]], [[photogenic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|φοβία<br>φόβος}}||phobia<br>phobos||{{polytonic|φοβια<br>φοβο}}-||phobia<br>phobo-||irrational fear<br>fear|||[[phobia]], [[Cryophobia]]<!--
For a foul list:
http://www.phobialist.com/reverse.html#C-
--><br>[[Phobos (god)|Phobos]],
|-
|{{polytonic|φυτόν}}||phuton||{{polytonic|φυτο}}-||phuto-||plant||[[Wiktionary:neophyte|neophyte]]
|-
|{{polytonic|φωνή}}||phōnē||{{polytonic|φωνη}}-||phōnē-||voice|| [[telephone]], [[phonograph]]
|}
===Χ===
'''''kh, ch'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|χαίτη}}||khaitē||{{polytonic|χαιτη}}-||khaitē-||loose, flowing hair||[[polychaete]]
|-
| {{polytonic|χειρ}}||kheir||{{polytonic|χειρ}}-||kheir-||hand||[[Chiroptera]], [[chiromancy]], [[chiropractor]]
|-
| {{polytonic|χρόνος}}||khronos||{{polytonic|χρον}}-||khrono-||time||[[chronology]], [[chronometer]]
|}
===Ψ===
'''''ps'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|ψυχή}}||psukhē||{{polytonic|ψυχη}}-||psukhē-||spirit, soul||[[psychology]]
|}
===Ω===
'''''(h)ō'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|ὠόν}}||ōon||{{polytonic|ὠο}}-||ōo-||egg||[[oocyte]], [[oology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ὥρα}}||hōra||{{polytonic|ὡρα}}-||hōra-||season, hour||[[horoscope]]
|}
==References==
H. G. Liddell and R. Scott, ''Greek-English lexicon, with a revised supplement''. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1996. ISBN 0-19-864226-1
==See also==
* [[Greek language]]
* [[Classical compound]]
* [[Transliteration of Greek into English]]
* [[English words of Greek origin]]
* [[List of Latin words with English derivatives]]
* [[Greek words for love]]
* [[Iso]]
==External links==
* [http://babel.lexilogos.com/ellenika/lexique.htm English-French-modern Greek vocabulary] : words of Greek origin
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] - has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries.
[[Category:Glossaries]]
[[Category:Hellenic languages and dialects]]
[[Category:Etymology]]
[[el:Κατάλογος αγγλικών λέξεων που προέρχονται απ' την ελληνική γλώσσα]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Germany/politics</title>
<id>11927</id>
<revision>
<id>15909638</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-23T16:09:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gianfranco</username>
<id>918</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Politics of Germany]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Germany]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Germany</title>
<id>11928</id>
<revision>
<id>40645580</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T01:01:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Greatigers</username>
<id>347900</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed Test</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Germany]]'''.
[[Image:LocationGermany.png|thumb|1500x|right|Location of Germany]]
==Location==
:Central [[Europe]] on [[North European Plain]] and along the entrance to the Baltic Sea, bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], between the [[Netherlands]] and [[Poland]], south of [[Denmark]] and north of [[Austria]] and [[Switzerland]].
: [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|51|00|N|9|00|E|type:country}}
: Map references: Europe
==Area==
:* Total: [[1 E11 m²|357,021]] [[square kilometre|km²]]
:* Land: 349,223 km²
:* Water: 7,798 km²
==[[Climate]]==
Temperate and marine; cool, cloudy, wet winters and summers; occasional warm [[föhn wind]]. The greater part of Germany lies in the cool/temperate climatic zone in which humid westerly winds predominate. In the north-west and the north the climate is extremely oceanic and rain falls all the year round. Winters there are relatively mild and summers comparatively cool. In the east the climate shows clear |
stics]]
*[[Aerodynamics]]
*[[Fluid power]]
*[[Meteorology]]
*[[Oceanography]]
*[[Plasma physics]]
*[[Pneumatics]]
*[[Pump]]
=== See also===
*[[list of publications in physics#fluid dynamics |important publications in fluid dynamics]]
*[[Isosurface]]
*[[Computational fluid dynamics]]
{{physics-footer}}
<!-- interwiki -->
[[Category:Aerodynamics]]
[[Category:Chemical engineering]]
[[Category:Continuum mechanics]]
[[Category:Fluid dynamics| ]]
[[Category:Fluid mechanics| ]]
[[Category:Mechanical engineering]]
[[cs:Proudění]]
[[de:Hydrodynamik]]
[[eo:Fluidaĵ-Dinamiko]]
[[fr:Dynamique des fluides]]
[[id:Dinamika fluida]]
[[it:Fluidodinamica]]
[[ja:流体力学]]
[[nl:Hydrodynamica]]
[[pl:Dynamika płynów]]
[[simple:Fluid dynamics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fin</title>
<id>11036</id>
<revision>
<id>42037261</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:39:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kaarel</username>
<id>957166</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
A '''fin''' is a surface used to produce [[lift (force)|lift]] and [[thrust]] or to steer while traveling in [[water]], air, or other [[fluid]] media. The first use of the word was for the limbs of [[fish]], but has been extended to include other animal limbs and man made devices.
The foremost use of fins is to ensure the directional stability of an object moving through a fluid such as water or air and may be seen in the use of [[fletching]] on [[arrow]]s and fins at the rear of some [[missile]]s, [[rocket]]s, self-propelled [[torpedo]]es, and [[KE-penetrator|kinetic energy penetrators]].
Fins have also been used on [[automobiles]] of the late 1950's and early 1960's, promoted then as adding aerodynamic stability but now more realistically evaluated as a rather flamboyant [[style]], particularly in [[United States of America|American]] automobiles of this period.
Moving fins may be used to propel an object through lateral thrust (see [[mechanics]]).
Examples of fin use:
* [[Propeller]]s usually have a number of fins that work to translate torquing force to lateral thrust, thus propelling a [[ship]]. These are also called blades. In the case of high power application it is important to avoid [[cavitation]], caused by excessive negative pressure, as this can cause noise, a loss of power, and damage to the propeller.
* For [[scuba]] divers' fins, see [[swimfin]].
* In [[surfing]], a [[skeg]] is a stabilizing fin located at the rear of the [[surfboard]]. A skeg has the effect of keeping the board moving forward in a controlled manner.
* Constructions of the same purpose as fins (producing thrust, but working in gaseous media) instead are usually called [[wing]]s or [[stabilizer]]s with [[aerodynamics]] as the governing science. The exception to this is the vertical surface of an aircraft to which the [[rudder]] is attached - this is still usually called a fin but is (more formally) called a [[vertical stabilizer]].
[[Category:Animal anatomy]]
[[Category:Nautical terms]]
[[Category:Aircraft components]]
[[de:Finne (Wassersport)]]
[[fr:Nageoire]]
[[io:Floso]]
[[lt:Pelekas]]
[[nl:Vin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freyr</title>
<id>11037</id>
<revision>
<id>42067506</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:16:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haukurth</username>
<id>16226</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other Icelandic sources */ Well, we're probably best off calling it [[Hervarar saga]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''"Frey" redirects here. For other uses of ''Frey'' and ''Freyr'', see [[Frey (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Freyr_art.jpg|thumb|right|180px|This 19th century representation of Freyr shows him with his boar and his sword.]]
'''Freyr''' (sometimes anglicized '''Frey'''{{ref|Freyr}}) is one of the most important deities in [[Norse paganism]] and [[Norse mythology]]. Worshipped as a [[phallus|phallic]] [[fertility god]], Freyr "bestows peace and pleasure on mortals". He rules over the rain, the shining of the sun and the produce of the fields.
He is one of the [[Vanir]], the son of the sea god [[Njörðr]] and brother of the love goddess [[Freyja]]. The gods gave him [[Álfheimr]], the realm of the [[Álfar|Elves]], as a teething present. He rides the shining [[Norse dwarves|dwarf]]-made boar [[Gullinbursti]] and possesses the ship [[Skíðblaðnir]] which always has a favorable breeze and can be folded together and carried in a pouch when it is not being used. He has the servants [[Skírnir]], [[Byggvir]] and [[Beyla]].
The most extensive Freyr [[mythology|myth]] relates Freyr's falling in love with the [[jotun|giantess]] [[Gerðr]]. Eventually she becomes his wife but first Freyr has to give away his [[magic sword]] which fights on its own "if wise be he who wields it". Deprived of this weapon Freyr defeats the giant [[Beli]] with an [[antler]]. But at [[Ragnarök]], the end of the world, Freyr will be killed by the fire giant [[Surtr]].
Freyr was especially associated with Sweden and seen as an ancestor of the [[Mythological kings of Sweden|Swedish royal house]].
==Adam of Bremen==
One of the oldest written sources on pre-Christian Scandinavian religious practices is [[Adam of Bremen]]'s ''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum''. Writing around 1080 Adam claimed to have access to first-hand accounts on pagan practices in Sweden. He refers to Freyr with the Latinized name '''Fricco''' and mentions that an image of him at [[Skara]] was destroyed by a Christian missionary. His description of the [[Temple at Uppsala]] gives more details on the god.
{|
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
Nunc de supersticione Sueonum pauca dicemus. Nobilissimum illa gens templum habet, quod Ubsola dicitur, non longe positum ab Sictona civitate. In hoc templo, quod totum ex auro paratum est, statuas trium deorum veneratur populus, ita ut potentissimus eorum Thor in medio solium habeat triclinio; hinc et inde locum possident Wodan et Fricco. Quorum significationes eiusmodi sunt: 'Thor', inquiunt, 'praesidet in aere, qui tonitrus et fulmina, ventos ymbresque, serena et fruges gubernat. Alter Wodan, id est furor, bella gerit, hominique ministrat virtutem contra inimicos. Tertius est Fricco, pacem voluptatemque largiens mortalibus'. Cuius etiam simulacrum fingunt cum ingenti priapo. ''Gesta Hammaburgensis'' 26, [http://hbar.phys.msu.su/gorm/chrons/bremen.htm Waitz' edition]
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
Now we shall say a few words about the superstitions of the Swedes. That folk has a very famous temple called [[Gamla Uppsala|Uppsala]] situated far from the city of [[Sigtuna]] and [[Björkö]]. In this temple, entirely decked out in gold, the people worship the statues of three gods in such wise that the mightiest of them, [[Thor]], occupies a throne in the middle of the chamber; [[Wotan]] and Frikko have places on either side. The significance of these gods is as follows: Thor, they say, presides over the air, which governs the thunder and lightning, the winds and rains, fair weather and crops. The other, Wotan&mdash;that is, the Furious&mdash;carries on war and imparts to man strength against his enemies. The third is Frikko, who bestows peace and pleasure on mortals. His likeness, too, they fashion with an immense [[phallus]]. ''Gesta Hammaburgensis'' 26, Tschan's translation
|
|}
Later in the account Adam states that when a marriage is performed a [[libation]] is made to the image of Fricco. This association with marriages, peace and pleasure clearly identifies Fricco as a [[fertility god]].
Historians are divided on the reliability of Adam's account.{{ref|Adam}} While he is close in time to the events he describes he has a clear agenda to emphasize the role of the see of Hamburg in the [[Christianization of Scandinavia]]. His timeframe for the Christianization of Sweden conflicts with other sources, such as [[runes|runic]] inscriptions, and archaeological evidence does not confirm the presence of a large temple at Uppsala. On the other hand the existence of phallic idols was confirmed in 1904 with a find at Rällinge in Södermanland, Sweden.{{ref|Rällinge}}
==The ''Prose Edda''==
When [[Snorri Sturluson]] was writing in 13th century Iceland the pagan gods were still remembered despite more than two centuries of Christianity. In the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' section of his ''[[Prose Edda]]'', Snorri introduces Freyr as one of the major gods.
{|
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
Njörðr í Nóatúnum gat síðan tvau börn, hét sonr Freyr en dóttir Freyja. Þau váru fögr álitum ok máttug. Freyr er hinn ágætasti af ásum. Hann ræðr fyrir regni ok skini sólar, ok þar með ávexti jarðar, ok á hann er gott at heita til árs ok friðar. Hann ræðr ok fésælu manna. ''Gylfaginning'' 24, [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar23.html EB's edition]
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
[[Njördr]] in [[Nóatún]] begot afterward two children: the son was called Freyr, and the daughter [[Freyja]]; they were fair of face and mighty. Freyr is the most renowned of the [[Æsir]]; he rules over the rain and the shining of the sun, and therewithal the fruit of the earth; and it is good to call on him for fruitful seasons and peace. He governs also the prosperity of men. ''Gylfaginning'' XXIV, [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/037040.php Brodeur's translation]
|
|}
[[Image:Goldgubb.jpg|frame|right|Several Scandinavian gold plaques have been interpreted as showing a meeting between Freyr and Gerðr.]]
This description has similarities to the older account by Adam of Bremen but the differences are interesting. Adam assigns control of the weather and produce of the fields to Thor but Snorri says that Freyr rules over those areas. Snorri also omits any explicitly sexual references in Freyr's description. Those discrepancies can be explained in se |
amp;list_uids=14748860&itool=iconabstr] Thus the array of evidence available on particular therapies may not be well-represented in the literature. Fifth, there is an enormous range in the quality of studies performed, making it difficult to generalize about the results.
Large randomized controlled trials are extraordinarly useful for examining discrete interventions for carefully defined medical conditions. The more complex the patient population, the conditions, and the intervention, the more difficult it is to separate the treatment effect from random variation. Because of this, a number of studies obtain non-significant results, either because there is insufficient power to show a difference, or because the groups are not well-enough 'controlled'.
Evidence-based medicine has been most practised when the intervention tested is a [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drug drug]. Applying the methods to other forms of treatment may be harder, particularly those requiring the active participation of the patient because [[blinding]] is more difficult.
In managed healthcare systems evidence-based [[guideline (medical)|guidelines]] have been used as a basis for denying insurance coverage for some treatments some of which are held by the physicians involved to be effective, but of which randomized controlled trials have not yet been published.
==See also==
* [[Adverse drug reaction]]
* [[Adverse effect (medicine)]]
* [[Clinical trials with surprising outcomes]]
* [[Consensus (medical)]]
* [[Guideline (medical)]]
* [[History of medicine]]
* [[Medical algorithm]]
* [[Medical research]]
* [[systematic review|Systematic Reviews]]
==References==
<references />
==External links==
* [http://www.acc.org/quality/evidence.htm ACC.org] - 'What Is Evidence-Based Medicine?' [[American College of Cardiology]]
* [http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstfix.htm AHRQ.gov] - 'U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF)', Agency for Health Care Research and Quality
* [http://www.beemcourse.com/ BEEMCourse.com] - 'The Best Evidence In Emergency Medicine (BEEM) Team' Group based out of [[McMaster University]] (Hamilton, Ontario, Canada) that actively reviews the best emerging evidence based research in [[emergency medicine]].
* [http://bmj.com/cgi/content/full/312/7023/71 BMJ.com] - 'Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't: It's about integrating individual clinical expertise and the best external evidence', (editorial) ''[[British Medical Journal]]'', vol 312, p 71-72 (January 13, 1996)
:* [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/310/6987/1126 BMJ.com] - 'Evidence based medicine: Socratic dissent', (Education and debate) ''[[British Medical Journal]]'', vol 310, p 1126-1127 (April 29, 1995)
* [http://www.cebm.net/index.asp CEBM.net] - [[Oxford]] Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (UK)
* [http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/163/7/837 CMAJ.ca] - 'Evidence-based medicine: a commentary on common criticisms', Dr. Sharon E. Straus, Dr. Finlay A. McAlister, ''[[Canadian Medical Association Journal]]'', Vol 163, No 7, pp 837 - 841 (October 3, 2000)
* [http://www.cochrane.org/ Cochrane.org] - 'The Cochrane Collaboration: The reliable source for evidence in healthcare' ([[systematic review]]s of the effects of health care interventions), [[Cochrane Library]]
* [http://www.eboncall.org/ EBOnCall.org] - 'Evidence compendia' (evidence-based summaries of 38 on-call medical conditions), Evidence-Based On-Call (EBOC)
* [http://www.gpnotebook.co.uk/simplepage.cfm?ID=-1596981199 GPNoteBook.co.uk] - 'Evidence-based medicine (EBM)', General Practice Notebook
* [http://www.herts.ac.uk/lis/subjects/health/ebm.htm HERTS.ac.uk] - Evidence-Based Medicine', [[University of Hertfordshire]]
* [http://www.JournalReview.org JournalReview.org] - 'An unbiased forum for review of the medical literature', An On-Line journal club
* [http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/ JR2.ox.ac.uk] - 'Bandolier: Evidence-based thinking about health care', ''[[Bandolier (journal)]]''
* [http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/174_05_050301/craig/craig.html MJA.com.au] - 'Evidence-based medicine: useful tools for decision making', Jonathan C. Craig, Les M. Irwig, Martin R. Stockler, ''[[Medical Journal of Australia]]'', vol 174, p 248-253 (2001)
* [http://www.shef.ac.uk/~scharr/ir/netting/ SHEF.ac.uk] - 'Netting the Evidence: A ScHARR Introduction to Evidence Based Practice on the Internet' (resource directory), [[University of Sheffield]]
* [http://www.tripdatabase.com TRIPDatabase.com] - 'TRIP Database - EBM search engine' (resource directory), TRIP Knowledge Service
[[Category:Medical informatics]]
[[de:Evidenzbasierte Medizin]]
[[es:Medicina basada en la evidencia]]
[[nl:Evidence based medicine]]
[[ja:&#26681;&#25312;&#12395;&#22522;&#12389;&#12356;&#12383;&#21307;&#30274;]]
[[no:Evidensbasert medisin]]
[[pl:Medycyna oparta na faktach]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>End zone</title>
<id>10016</id>
<revision>
<id>41133402</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T06:36:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Christopherlin</username>
<id>51957</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cats</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''end zone''' is a term in both [[Canadian football]] and [[American football]]. The end zone is the area between the [[end line]] and [[goal line]] bounded by the [[sidelines]]. It is bordered on all sides by a white line indicating its beginning and end points.
==Scoring==
A team scores a [[touchdown]] by entering their opponent's end zone while carrying the ball or catching the ball while being within the end zone. If the ball is carried by an offensive player, across the goal line, it is considered a score as soon as the ball crosses the imaginary ''[[plane (mathematics)|vertical plane]] of the goal line'', between the two sidelines. In addition, a [[two-point conversion]] may be scored after a touchdown by similar means.
==The goal post==
The location of a goal post differs from league to league, but it is always within the boundaries of the end zone. In earlier football games (both professional and collegiate), the goal post began at the goal line, and was usually an H-shaped bar. Nowadays, almost all goal posts are T-shaped, and reside at the back line of the end zone.
==Decoration==
[[Image:University of Texas Longhorn Band on the field.JPG|thumbnail|[[The University of Texas Longhorn Band]] performing on the [[college football|football field]] of [[Reliant Stadium]] in [[Houston, Texas]], the end zone of which is decorated in colors of [[The University of Texas at Austin]].]]
Most professional teams have their [[logo]] and/or team name painted on the surface of the end zone, with team colors filling the background. Many championship games at college and professional level are commemorated by the names of the opposing teams each being painted in one of the opposite end zones.
==Size==
The end zone in Canadian football is 20 yards long by 65 yards wide, where the end zone in American football is 10 yards long by 53 and 1/3 yards wide (Canadian football is played on a longer & wider field).
[[Category:Canadian football]]
[[Category:American football]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ettore Ximenes</title>
<id>10017</id>
<revision>
<id>32636500</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-24T23:09:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] stub sorting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dante.jpg|thumb|200px|Ximenes' "Dante" can be found in [[Washington, D.C.]]'s [[Meridian Hill Park]].]]
'''Ettore Ximenes''' ([[April 11]], [[1855]], [[Palermo]] &ndash; [[December 20]], [[1926]], [[Rome]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[sculpture|sculptor]] of [[religion|religious]] and [[mythology|mythological]] subjects.
==External links==
* [http://www.artnet.com/library/09/0925/T092556.asp Artnet.com biography: Ettore Ximenes]
[[Category:1855 births|Ximenes, Ettore]]
[[Category:1919 deaths|Ximenes, Ettore]]
[[Category:Italian sculptors|Ximenes, Ettore]]
[[de:Ettore Ximenes]]
{{Italy-bio-stub}}
{{sculptor-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edsger Dijkstra</title>
<id>10018</id>
<revision>
<id>41653792</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:47:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wimvandorst</username>
<id>142418</id>
</contributor>
<comment>copy-edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edsger_Dijkstra_large.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Portrait of Edsger Dijkstra (courtesy Brian Randell)]]
'''Prof Dr Edsger Wybe Dijkstra''' ([[Rotterdam]], [[May 11]], [[1930]] &ndash; [[Nuenen]], [[August 6]], [[2002]]) was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[computer scientist]]. He received the 1972 [[Turing Award|A. M. Turing Award]] for fundamental contributions in the area of programming languages.
==Life==
Dijkstra studied [[Physics|theoretical physics]] at the [[University of Leiden]], but he quickly realized he was more interested in programming than physics.
Originally employed by the [[National_Research_Institute_for_Mathematics_and_Computer_Science|Mathematisch Centrum]] in Amsterdam, he held a professorship at the [[Eindhoven University of Technology]] in the Netherlands, worked as a research [[fellow]] for [[Burroughs Corporation]] in the early [[1970s]], and later held the Schlumberger Centennial Chair in Computer Sciences at the [[University of Texas at Austin]], in the [[United States]]. He retired in [[2000]].
Among his contributions to computer science is the ''[[shortest path problem|shortest path]]-[[algorithm]]'', also known as ''[[Dijkstra's algorithm]]'', and the [[Semaphore (programming)|semaphore]] construct, for coordinating multiple processors and programs.
He was also known for his lo |
-Brockmann]], who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]].
The reaction to the increasing severity of graphic design was slow but inexorable. The origins of post-modern typography can be traced back as far as the humanist movement of the 1950s. Notable among this group is [[Hermann Zapf]] who designed two typefaces that remain ubiquitous&mdash;[[Palatino]] ([[1948]]) and [[Optima]] ([[1952]]). By blurring the line between serif and sans-serif typefaces and re-introducing organic lines into typography these designs did more to ratify modernism than they did to rebel.
An important point was reached in graphic design with the publishing of the [[First things first 1964 Manifesto]] which was a call to a more radical form of graphic design and criticized the ideas of value-free design. This was massively influential on a generation of new graphic designers and contributed to the founding of publications such as [[Emigre magazine]].
[[Image:Ilovenewyork.jpg|left|thumb|[[I Love New York]] campaign by [[Milton Glaser]].]]
Another notable designer of the latter 20th century is [[Milton Glaser]] who designed the unmistakable ''I Love NY'' ad campaign ([[1973]]), and a famous [[Bob Dylan]] poster ([[1968]]). Glaser took stylistic hints from [[popular culture]] from the [[1960s]] and [[1970s|70s]].
Advances in the early 20th century were largely inspired by technological advances in [[printing]] and also in [[photography]]. In the last decade of the same century, technology played a similar role, but this time it was the computer, and at first it was largely a step backwards. [[Zuzana Licko]] worked very early using computers for layout, in the days when computer memory was measured in kilobytes and typefaces were created using dots rather than lines. Together with her husband [[Rudy VanderLans]] they founded the pioneering Emigre magazine and the [[type foundry|Emigre type foundry]]. They played with the extraordinary limitations of computers as something which, in itself, could provide creative freedom. Emigre magazine became the bible for digital design as the technology rapidly advanced to the point where the advantages outweighed the disadvantages.
[[David Carson (graphic designer)|David Carson]] is, in a sense, the culmination of the movement against the restrictiveness of modern design&mdash;some of his designs for [[Raygun magazine]] are intentionally illegible, featuring [[typography]] designed to be visual rather than literary experiences.
==Soviet Constructivism==
Mainly in the 1920's, in Soviet Russia, Soviet Constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production. The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitary purposes. They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus etc.
=Current Practice=
==The Use of Computers== [[Image:Flowxvi.png|thumb|240px|An example of computer-based graphic design.]]
In the 1980's, the arrival of [[desktop publishing]] and the release of software such as [[Adobe Systems|Adobe]] [[Adobe Illustrator|Illustrator]] introduced a generation of designers to the power of the computer. Image manipulation and 3D image creation using a computer demonstrated possibilities that had previously been unachievable. Another enormous development that computers provided to designers was the ability for them to set their own type, instantly seeing how it affected their design or layout, which allowed for new and more radical use of [[typography]]. Among the earliest designers to wholeheartedly embrace computers as tools for design work were [[April Greiman]] and the aforementioned Emigre designers. Computers are now considered to be an indispensable tool used in the graphic design industry. However, a select few continue using manual and traditional tools for their creative endeavors: Jean Benoit-Levy, Studio Cyan and Milton Glaser, among others.
Graphic Design has always been closely allied to the technologies of reproduction. Since the 1990's Graphic Designers have embraced the desktop computer as their primary tool. Commonly used tools include: [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[Apple Macintosh|Mac]] computers, [[Adobe InDesign]], [[Adobe Photoshop]], [[Adobe Illustrator]], and [[Adobe PageMaker]], [[QuarkXPress]], [[Macromedia]] [[Freehand]] and [[Macromedia Fireworks|Fireworks]], [[Paint Shop Pro]], [[Corel Graphics Suite]], [[Macromedia Flash]], and many [[Graphics program|other software programs]].
=See also=
{{wikibookspar||Graphic Design}}
*[[Graphics]]
*[[List of graphic designers]]
*[[Corporate Identity]]
*[[Desktop publishing]]
*[[Logo design]]
*[[Magazine]]s
*[[Marketing]]
*[[Newspaper]]s
*[[Poster]]s
*[[Style guide]]
*[[Web design]]
*[[Knowledge visualization]]
*[[National Institute of Design]]
=External links=
==Professional Organisations==
*[http://www.icograda.com/ International Council of Graphic Design Associations]
*[http://www.aiga.org AIGA American Institute of Graphic Arts]
*[http://www.gag.org Graphic Artists Guild]
*[http://www.dandad.org/ British Design and Art Direction]
*[http://www.dba.org.uk/ Design Business Association (UK)]
*[http://www.csd.org.uk/ Chartered Society of Designers (multidisciplinary - UK)]
*[http://www.britishdesign.co.uk/ British Design Innovation (multidisciplinary)]
*[http://www.gdc.net/index.php GDC Society of Graphic Designers of Canada]
*[http://www.rgdontario.com The Association of Registered Graphic Designers of Ontario (RGD Ontario)]
==Other==
*[http://www.graphic-arts-schools.com/finding_graphic_arts_schools.php How to choose a Graphic Arts School]
*[http://www.designtalkboard.com/design-articles/job-descriptions.php Graphic design job descriptions]
*[http://platea.pntic.mec.es/~jmas/manual/english/ A complete online manual of Graphic Design]
*[http://www.bluevertigo.com.ar/ Blue Vertigo - The best design resource links (Stock Photography, Fonts, Photoshop Brushes, Patterns, Sounds, etc)]
*[http://www.allgraphicdesign.com Extensive directory of graphic design resources]
*[http://graphic-forums.com Graphic Forums, community of graphic designers.]
[[Category:Graphic design|*]]
[[ca:Disseny gràfic]]
[[de:Grafikdesign]]
[[fr:Graphisme]]
[[es:Diseño gráfico]]
[[he:עיצוב גרפי]]
[[ja:グラフィックデザイン]]
[[pt:Design gráfico]]
[[sr:Графички дизајн]]
[[vi:Đồ họa]]
[[zh:平面设计]]
[[it:disagni grafani]]
[[sv:Grafisk design]]
[[tr:Grafik tasarım]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Great Rift Valley</title>
<id>12800</id>
<revision>
<id>41326710</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T16:34:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sengkang</username>
<id>179360</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Greatrift.jpg|thumb|250px|Northern section of the Great Rift Valley. The [[Sinai Peninsula]] is in center and the [[Dead Sea]] and [[Jordan River]] valley above]]
The '''Great Rift Valley''' is a vast geographical and geological feature that runs north to south for some 5,000 km, from northern [[Syria]] in [[Southwest Asia]] to central [[Mozambique]] in [[East Africa]]. The [[valley]] varies in width from thirty to one hundred kilometers, and in depth from a few hundred to several thousand metres. It has been created through the [[rifting]] and separation of the [[African Plate|African]] and [[Arabian Plate|Arabian]] [[tectonic plate]]s that began around 35 million years ago in the north, and by the ongoing separation of East Africa from the rest of Africa along the East African Rift, which began about 15 million years ago. It was named by the explorer [[John Walter Gregory]].
The northernmost part of the Rift forms the [[Beqaa Valley]] in [[Lebanon]] separating the [[Lebanon Mountains]] and [[Anti-Lebanon Mountains]]. To the south in [[Israel]], it is known as the [[Hula Valley]] separating between the [[Galilee]] mountains and the [[Golan Heights]]. Further south, the valley becomes the [[Jordan River]], which flows southward through from [[Lake Hula]] into the [[Sea of Galilee]] in [[Israel]] and then continues South through the [[Jordan Valley]] into the [[Dead Sea]] on the [[Israel]]i-[[Jordan]]ian Border. From the Dead Sea southwards, the Rift is occupied by the Wadi [[Arabah]] and then the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] and the [[Red Sea]].
[[Image:Aerial jordan.jpg|thumb|left|The Jordan Rift Valley from space]]
The southern end of the Red Sea marks a fork in the rift. The [[Afar Triangle]] or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a [[triple junction]] which is possibly underlain by a [[mantle plume]]. The [[Gulf of Aden]] is an eastward continuation of the rift - before the rift opened, the Arabian Peninsula was attached to the Horn of Africa - and from this point the rift continues as part of the [[Mid-oceanic ridge]] of the [[Indian Ocean]]. In a southwest direction the fault continues as the Great Rift Valley, which split the older [[Ethiopian highlands]] into two halves.
In eastern Africa the valley divides into two, the '''Eastern Rift''' and the '''Western Rift'''.
The Western Rift, also called the Albertine Rift, is edged by some of the highest mountains in Africa, including the [[Virunga Mountains]], [[Mitumba Mountains]], and [[Ruwenzori Range]], and contains the [[Rift Valley lakes]], which include some of the deepest [[lake]]s in the world (up to 1,470 meters deep at [[Lake Tanganyika]]). [[Lake Victoria]], the second largest area freshwater lake in the world, is considered part of the Rift Valley system although it actually lies between the two branches. The other [[Great Lakes (Africa)|Great Lakes]] are also formed by the rift.
In [[Kenya]] the valley is deepest to the north of [[Nairobi]]. As the lakes in the Eastern Rift have no outlet to the sea, these lakes tend to be shallow and have a high [[mineral]] content as the evaporation of |
ee also==
* [[Spring Break]]
* [[Acafest]]
[[Category:Cities in Guerrero]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Beaches of Mexico]]
[[Category:Mexican Ports]]
[[da:Acapulco]]
[[de:Acapulco]]
[[et:Acapulco]]
[[es:Acapulco]]
[[fr:Acapulco de Juárez]]
[[gl:Acapulco]]
[[ko:아카풀코]]
[[nl:Acapulco de Juárez]]
[[ja:アカプルコ]]
[[pl:Acapulco]]
[[pt:Acapulco]]
[[ru:Акапулько]]
[[fi:Acapulco]]
[[sv:Acapulco]]
[[uk:Акапулько]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adriatic Sea</title>
<id>1447</id>
<revision>
<id>41942083</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:59:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NormanEinstein</username>
<id>176266</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Name and etymology */ Mons Garganus -> Monte Gargano</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adriatic Sea.jpg|thumb|400px|right|The Adriatic Sea<br>''Source:'' [[NASA]]]]
The '''Adriatic Sea''' is an arm of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] separating the [[Italian peninsula]] from the [[Balkan peninsula]], and the system of the [[Apennine Mountains]] from that of the [[Dinaric Alps]] and adjacent ranges.
The western coast is [[Italy|Italian]], while the eastern coast runs along the countries of [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], and [[Albania]].
==Name and etymology==
[[Image:Adriatic Sea map.png|thumb|right|Map of the Adriatic Sea]]
The name has existed since the antiquity; in [[Latin]] it was ''Mare Hadriaticum''. The name, derived from the town of [[Adria]] (or ''Hadria''), belonged originally only to the upper portion of the sea (Herodotus vi. 127, vii. 20, ix. 92; Euripides, ''Hippolytus,'' 736), but was gradually extended as the [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracusan]] colonies gained in importance.
But even then the Adriatic in the narrower sense only extended as far as the [[Monte Gargano]], the outer portion being called the [[Ionian Sea]]:
the name was sometimes, however, inaccurately used to include the Gulf of Tarentum (the modern-day [[Gulf of Taranto]]), the [[Sea of Sicily]], the [[Gulf of Corinth]] and even the sea between [[Crete]] and [[Malta]] (Acts xxvii. 27).
The Adriatic Sea is east of Italy, a major tourist attraction. It was used by the ancient Romans to transport objects (including animals and [[slaves]]) to Ostia (the Roman port). These objects were used in various places in Rome.
==Extent==
The Adriatic extends northwest from 40° to 45° 45' N., with an extreme length of about 770 km (415 [[nautical mile|nm]], 480 [[mile|mi]]). It has a [[arithmetic mean|mean]] breadth of about 160 km (85 [[nautical mile|nm]], 100 [[mile|mi]]), although the [[Strait of Otranto]], through which it connects at the south with the Ionian Sea, is only 45-55 [[nautical mile]]s wide (85-100 km).
Moreover, the chain of islands which fringes the northern part of the eastern shore reduces the extreme breadth of open sea in this part to 145 km (78 nm, 90 mi). Its total surface area is about 60,000 square miles ([[1 E11 m²|160,000]] [[square kilometre|km²]]).
The northern part of the sea is very shallow, and between the southern promontories of [[Istria]] and [[Rimini]] the depth rarely exceeds 46 m (25 [[fathom]]s). Between [[Sibenik|Šibenik]] and [[Ortona]] a well-marked depression occurs, a considerable area of which exceeds 180 m (100 fathoms) in depth.
From a point between [[Korcula|Korčula]] and the north shore of the spur of [[Monte Gargano]] there is a ridge giving shallower water, and a broken chain of a few islets extends across the sea.
The deepest part of the sea lies east of Monte Gargano, south of Dubrovnik, and west of [[Durrës]] where a large basin gives depths of 900 m (500 fathoms) and upwards, and a small area in the south of this basin falls below 1,460 m (800 fathoms).
The mean depth of the sea is estimated at 240 m (133 fathoms).
==Coasts and islands==
The west shore is generally low, merging, in the northwest, into the marshes and lagoons on either hand of the protruding delta of the river [[Po river|Po]], the [[sediment]] of which has pushed forward the coastline for several miles within historic times — Adria is now some distance from the shore.
On islands within one of the lagoons opening from the [[Gulf of Venice]], [[Venice]] has its unique situation. Other notable cities on the Italian coast are [[Trieste]], [[Ravenna]], [[Rimini]], [[Ancona]], [[Pescara]], [[Bari]] and [[Brindisi]].
The east coast is generally bold and rocky, with many islands. South of the [[Istria|Istrian Peninsula]], which separates the Gulfs of Venice and [[Gulf of Trieste]] from the [[Bay of Kvarner]], the island-fringe of the east coast extends as far south as [[Dubrovnik]].
The islands, which are long and narrow (the long axis lying parallel with the coast of the mainland), rise rather abruptly to elevations of a few hundred feet, with the exception of a few larger islands like [[Brač]] (Vidova gora, 778 m) or the peninsula [[Pelješac]] (St. Ilija, 961 m). There are over a thousand islands in the Adriatic, 66 of which are inhabited.
On the mainland, notably in the magnificent inlet of the [[Gulf of Kotor]] (Boka Kotorska, Bocche di Cattaro; named after the town of [[Kotor]]), lofty mountains often fall directly to the sea.
The prevalent colour of the rocks is a light, dead grey, contrasting harshly with the dark vegetation, which on some of the islands is luxuriant. In fact, [[Montenegro]] (Black Mountain) was named after the [[European black pine|black pines]] that cover the coast there, and similarly the Greek name for the island of [[Korčula]] is ''Korkyra Melaina'' meaning "Black Corfu".
Major cities on the northeastern coast include [[Trieste]] in Italy; [[Izola]], [[Koper]], [[Piran]] and [[Portorož]] in Slovenia; [[Pula]], [[Rovinj]], [[Poreč]], [[Rijeka]], [[Zadar]], [[Šibenik]], [[Trogir]], [[Split]], [[Dubrovnik]] in Croatia; [[Herceg Novi]], [[Bar, Serbia and Montenegro|Bar]], [[Ulcinj]] in Montenegro; and [[Durrës]] in Albania.
==Miscellaneous==
The [[bora|''bora'' or ''bura'']] (northeast wind), and the prevalence of sudden squalls from this quarter or the southeast, are dangers to navigation in winter. Also notable are [[sirocco|''sirocco'' or ''jugo'']] (southern wind) which brings rain in the winter and ''[[maestral]]'' (western wind) which brings nice weather in the summer.
Tidal movement is slight. The [[amphidromic point]] is just off the northwestern shore, near Ancona.
Both coasts are popular [[tourism|tourist]] destinations.
==See also==
* [[List of rivers of Europe#Mediterranean Sea|List of rivers of Europe]]
* [[List of islands in the Adriatic]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.geabios.com/html/services/maps/PublicMap.htm?lat=42.465&lon=15.876875&fov=8.66&title=Adriatic%20Sea Satellite images and maps of Adriatic Sea] from [[GeaBios]] GIS Public Service
* [http://www.geabios.com/services/meteo/wv2.11/wv.htm Weather forecast for eastern coast] from [[GeaBios]] GIS Public Service
[[Category:Seas of the Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Geography of Croatia]]
[[ar:بحر أدرياتيكي]]
[[bg:Адриатическо море]]
[[bs:Jadransko more]]
[[ca:Mar Adriàtica]]
[[cs:Jaderské moře]]
[[da:Adriaterhavet]]
[[de:Adriatisches Meer]]
[[et:Aadria meri]]
[[el:Αδριατική θάλασσα]]
[[es:Mar Adriático]]
[[eo:Adriatiko]]
[[eu:itsaso Adriatiko]]
[[fr:Mer Adriatique]]
[[gl:Mar Adriático]]
[[ko:아드리아 해]]
[[hr:Jadransko more]]
[[id:Laut Adriatik]]
[[is:Adríahaf]]
[[it:Mare Adriatico]]
[[he:הים האדריאטי]]
[[la:Hadriaticum]]
[[lt:Adrijos jūra]]
[[hu:Adriai-tenger]]
[[nl:Adriatische Zee]]
[[ja:アドリア海]]
[[no:Adriaterhavet]]
[[pl:Morze Adriatyckie]]
[[pt:Mar Adriático]]
[[ro:Marea Adriatică]]
[[ru:Адриатическое море]]
[[sk:Jadranské more]]
[[sl:Jadransko morje]]
[[sr:Јадранско море]]
[[sv:Adriatiska havet]]
[[tl:Dagat Adriatiko]]
[[uk:Адріатичне море]]
[[zh:亚得里亚海]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 16</title>
<id>1448</id>
<revision>
<id>40525836</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T05:21:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.53.209.169</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=16}}
|}
'''[[August 16]]''' is the 228th day of the year (229th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 137 days remaining.
==Events==
* [[1777]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: [[Battle of Bennington]] - [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] forces are defeated by [[United States|American]] troops.
* [[1780]] - American Revolutionary War: [[Battle of Camden]] - The British defeat the Americans near [[Camden, South Carolina]].
* [[1812]] - [[War of 1812]]: American General [[William Hull]] surrenders [[Fort Detroit]] without a fight to the [[British Army]].
* [[1819]] - Eleven people die and 400 are injured by [[cavalry]] charges at the [[Peterloo Massacre]] at a public meeting at St. Peter's Field, Manchester, England.
* [[1841]] - [[U.S. President]] [[John Tyler]] vetoes a bill which called for the re-establishment of the [[Second Bank of the United States]]. Enraged [[United States Whig Party|Whig Party]] members riot outside the [[White House]] in the most violent demonstration on White House grounds in U.S. history.
* [[1858]] - U.S. President [[James Buchanan]] inaugurates the new [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] cable by exchanging greetings with Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom]]. However, a weak signal will force a shutdown of the service in a few weeks.
* [[1868]] - Arica, Peru (now Chile) is devastated by a tsunami which followed a magnitude 8.5 earthquake in the Peru-Chile Trench off the coast. The earthquake and tsunami killed an estimated 25,000 people in Arica and perhaps 70,000 people in all.
* [[1896]] - [[Skookum Jim Mason]], George Carmack and [[Dawson Charlie]] discover gol |
a mere correction to a Newtonian GPS theory, or, rather, as the necessary foundation of a cleaner (and more fundamental) GPS theory, is currently under debate. Bartolomé Coll has recently developed the basic notions necessary for a fully relativistic theory of Positioning Systems [http://www.coll.cc].
===Awards===
Two GPS developers have received the [[United States National Academy of Engineering|National Academy of Engineering]] [[Charles Stark Draper]] prize year 2003:
*[[Ivan Getting]], emeritus president of [http://www.aero.org/home.html The Aerospace Corporation] and [[engineer]] at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] established the basis for GPS, improving on the [[World War II]] land-based radio system called [[LORAN]] ('''Lo'''ng-range '''R'''adio '''A'''id to '''N'''avigation).
*[[Bradford Parkinson]], teacher of [[aeronautics]] and [[astronautics]] at [[Stanford University]] developed the system.
On [[February 10]], [[1993]], the [[National Aeronautic Association]] selected the Global Positioning System Team as winners of the 1992 [[Collier Trophy|Robert J. Collier Trophy]], the most prestigious aviation award in the United States. This team consists of researchers from the [[Naval Research Laboratory]], the [[U.S. Air Force]], the [[Aerospace Corporation]], [[Rockwell International|Rockwell International Corporation]], and [[IBM]] Federal Systems Company. The citation accompanying the presentation of the trophy honors the GPS Team "for the most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago."
==Techniques to improve GPS accuracy==
The accuracy of GPS can be improved in a number of ways:
* '''[[Differential GPS| Differential GPS]]''' '''(DGPS)''' can improve the normal GPS accuracy of 4-20 meters to 1-3 meters.[http://www.tfhrc.gov/its/ndgps/02072.htm] DGPS uses a network of stationary GPS receivers to calculate the difference between their actual known position and the position as calculated by their received GPS signal. The "difference" is broadcast as a local [[FM]] signal, allowing many civilian GPS receivers to "fix" the signal for greatly improved accuracy.
* The [[Wide Area Augmentation System]] ('''WAAS'''). This uses a series of ground reference stations to calculate GPS correction messages, which are uploaded to a series of additional satellites in geosynchronous orbit for transmission to GPS receivers, including information on [[ionosphere|ionospheric]] delays, individual satellite clock drift, and suchlike. Although only a few WAAS satellites are currently available [[as of 2004]], it is hoped that eventually WAAS will provide sufficient reliability and accuracy that it can be used for critical applications such as GPS-based instrument approaches in aviation (landing an airplane in conditions of little or no visibility). The current WAAS system only works for North America (where the reference stations are located), and due to the satellite location the system is only generally usable in the eastern and western coastal regions. However, variants of the WAAS system are being developed in Europe ([[EGNOS]], the Euro Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service), and Japan ('''MSAS''', the Multi-Functional Satellite Augmentation System), which are virtually identical to WAAS.
* A [[Local Area Augmentation System]] ('''LAAS'''). This is similar to WAAS, in that similar correction data are used. But in this case, the correction data are transmitted from a local source, typically at an airport or another location where accurate positioning is needed. These correction data are typically useful for only about a thirty to fifty kilometer radius around the transmitter.
* Exploitation of DGPS for Guidance Enhancement ('''EDGE''') is an effort to integrate DGPS into precision guided munitions such as the [[Joint Direct Attack Munition]] ('''JDAM''').
* A Carrier-Phase Enhancement ('''CPGPS'''). This technique utilizes the 1.575 GHz L1 carrier wave to act as a sort of [[clock signal]], resolving ambiguity caused by variations in the location of the pulse transition (logic 1-0 or 0-1) of the C/A [[Pseudorandom number generator|PRN]] signal. The problem arises from the fact that the transition from 0-1 or 1-0 on the C/A signal is not instantaneous, it takes a non-zero amount of time, and thus the [[cross-correlation|correlation]] (satellite-receiver sequence matching) operation is imperfect. A successful correlation could be defined in a number of various places along the rising/falling edge of the pulse, which imparts timing errors. CPGPS solves this problem by using the L1 carrier, which has a period 1/1000 that of the C/A bit width, to define the transition point instead. The phase difference error in the normal GPS amounts to a 2-3 m ambiguity. CPGPS working to within 1% of perfect transition matching can achieve 3 mm ambiguity; in reality, CPGPS coupled with [[Differential GPS|DGPS]] normally realizes 20-30 cm accuracy.
* Wide Area GPS Enhancement ('''WAGE''') is an attempt to improve GPS accuracy by providing more accurate satellite clock and [[ephemeris]] (orbital) data to specially-equipped receivers.
* Relative Kinematic Positioning ('''RKP''') is another approach for a precise GPS-based positioning system. In this approach, accurate determination of range signal can be resolved to an accuracy of less than 10 [[centimetre]]s. This is done by resolving the number of cycles in which the signal is transmitted and received by the receiver. This can be accomplished by using a combination of differential GPS (DGPS) correction data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity resolution techniques via statistical tests&mdash;possibly with processing in real-time ([[Real Time Kinematic|real-time kinematic positioning]], RTK).
* Many automobile GPS systems combine the GPS unit with a gyroscope and speedometer pickup, allowing the computer to maintain a continuous navigation solution by dead reckoning when buildings, terrain, or tunnels block the satellite signals. This is similar in principle to the combination of GPS and inertial navigation used in ships and aircraft, but less accurate and less expensive because it only fills in for short periods.
==Selective availability==
When it was first deployed, GPS included a feature called '''Selective Availability''' (or '''SA''') that introduced intentional errors of up to a hundred meters into the publicly available navigation signals, making it difficult to use for guiding long range missiles to precise targets. Additional accuracy was available in the signal, but in an encrypted form that was only available to the United States military, its allies and a few others, mostly government users.
SA typically added signal errors of up to about 10 m horizontally and 30 m vertically. The inaccuracy of the civilian signal was deliberately encoded so as not to change very quickly, for instance the entire eastern US area might read 30 m off, but 30 m off everywhere and in the same direction. In order to improve the usefulness of GPS for civilian navigation, '''[[Differential GPS| Differential GPS]]''' was used by many civilian GPS receivers to greatly improve accuracy.
During the [[Gulf War]], the shortage of military GPS units and the wide availability of civilian ones among personnel resulted in disabling the Selective Availability. In the 1990s the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] started pressuring the military to turn off SA permanently. This would save the FAA millions of dollars every year in maintenance of their own, less accurate, [[radio navigation]] systems. The military resisted for most of the 1990s, but SA was eventually [http://www.ostp.gov/html/0053_2.html turned off] in 2000 following an announcement by then US President [[Bill Clinton]], allowing all users to enjoy nearly the same level of access. [http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/docs/GPS_SA_Factsheet.pdf]
The US military maintains the ability to use a more advanced version of Selective Availability, called '''"Selective Deniability"''', to reduce the accuracy of civilian GPS units in a specific area without affecting the rest of the world. The original SA system could only limit the accuracy of GPS signals world-wide, or not at all. Authorized military units are still able to decrypt the corrected signals using a tamper-resistant hardware module called an [[SAASM]], '''Selective Availability / Anti-Spoofing Module'''.
Military (and selected civilian) users still enjoy some technical advantages which can give quicker satellite lock and increased accuracy. The increased accuracy comes mostly from being able to use both the L1 and L2 frequencies and thus better compensate for the varying signal delay in the ionosphere (see above).
*[http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/docs/GPS_SA_Factsheet.pdf noaa.gov Selective Availability Factsheet (pdf)] or [http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/]
==GPS tracking==
{{main|GPS tracking}}
A GPS tracking system uses GPS to determine the location of a vehicle, person, or pet and to record the position at regular intervals in order to create a track file or log of activities. The recorded data can be stored within the tracking unit, or it may be transmitted to a central location, or internet-connected computer, using a cellular modem, 2-way [[radio]], or satellite. This allows the data to be reported in [[real-time]], using either web browser based tools or customized software.
==GPS jamming==
A large part of modern munitions, the so-called "''smart bombs''" or [[precision-guided munition]]s, use GPS. GPS jammers are available, from [[Russia]], and are about the size of a cigarette box. The [[government of the United States |U.S. government]] believes that such jammers were used occasionally during the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanista |
ferentiated between these two pronunciations as /t/ and /&theta;/. Within Israel, the pronunciation of "Standard Hebrew", however, more often reflects the national or ethnic origin of the individual speaker, rather than the specific recommendations of the [[Academy of the Hebrew Language|Academy]]. For this reason, over half the population pronounces &#1512; as {{unicode|[&#640;]}}, (a uvular trill, as in Yiddish and some varieties of [[German language|German]]) or as {{unicode|[&#641;]}} (a uvular fricative, as in [[French language|French]] or many varieties of German), rather than as [r], an apical trill, as in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. The pronunciation of this phoneme is often used among Israelis as a [[shibboleth]], or determinant when ascertaining the national origin of perceived foreigners.
==Languages strongly influenced by Hebrew==
''See main article [[Jewish languages]]''
[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Karaim language|Karaim]], and [[Judeo-Arabic language|Judaeo-Arabic]] were all highly influenced by Hebrew. Although none is completely derived from Hebrew, they all make extensive use of Hebrew [[loanword]]s.
In a less direct manner, the revival of Hebrew is often cited by proponents of [[International auxiliary language|International auxiliary languages]] as the best proof that languages long dead, with small communities, or modified or created artificially can become living languages used by a large number of people.
==Sounds==
{{IPA notice}}
Hebrew has two kinds of [[lexical stress|stress]]: on the last syllable (''milra&lsquo;'') and on the penultimate syllable (the one preceding the last, ''mil&lsquo;el''). The former is more frequent. Specific rules connect the location of the stress with the length of the vowels in the last syllable; however due to the fact that Modern Hebrew does not distinguish between long and short vowels, these rules are often ignored in everyday speech. Interestingly enough, the rules that specify the [[vowel length]] are different for verbs and nouns, which influences the stress; thus the ''mil&lsquo;el''-stressed ''ókhel'' (="food") and ''milra&lsquo;''-stressed ''okhèl'' (="eats", masculine) are written in the same way. Little ambiguity exists, however, due to nouns and verbs having incompatible roles in normal sentences. This is, however, also true in English, in, for example, the English word "conduct," in its nominal and verbal forms.
===Vowels===
[[Image:Hebrew vowel chart.png|right|The vowel phonemes of Modern Israeli Hebrew]]
The Hebrew word for [[vowel]]s is ''tnu&lsquo;ot''. The marks for these vowels are called [[Niqqud]]. Modern Israeli Hebrew has 5 vowel [[phoneme]]s:
* /a/ (as in "car") - The vowels qamatz and patakh
* /e/ (as in "set") - The vowels seggol and tzereh
* /i/ (as in "beak")- The vowel khiriq
* /o/ (as in "horn")- The vowel kholam
* /u/ (as in "room")- The vowels shuruq and qubbutz
In [[Biblical Hebrew]], each vowel had three forms: short, long and interrupted (''hataf''). However, there is no audible distinction between the three in modern Israeli Hebrew.
Hebrew [[phonetics]] include a special feature called [[schwa | shva (schwa)]]. According to "Ha-Yesod, the Fundamentals of Hebrew" by Luba Uveeler and Norman M. Broznick, this feature is pronounced "Shva" and is spelled Shin Vav He. There are two kinds of shva: resting (''nax'') and moving (''na' ''). The resting shva is pronounced as a brief stop of speech. The moving shva sounds much like the English ''a'' in '''a'''bout.
Hebrew also has ''[[dagesh]],'' a strengthening. There are two kinds of strengthenings: light (''qal'', known also as ''dagesh lene'') and heavy (''hazaq'' or ''dagesh forte''). There are two sub-categories of the heavy dagesh: structural heavy (''hazaq tavniti'') and complementing heavy (''hazaq mashlim''). The light affects the phonemes /b/ /k/ /p/ in the beginning of a word, or after a resting schwa. Structural heavy emphases belong to certain vowel patterns (''mishkalim'' and ''binyanim''; see the section on grammar below), and correspond originally to doubled consonants. Complementing strengthening is added when [[assimilation (linguistics)|vowel assimilation]] takes place. As mentioned before, the emphasis influences which of a pair of (former) [[allophone]]s is pronounced. Interestingly enough, historical evidence indicates that /g/, /d/ and /t/ used to have strengthened versions of their own, however they had disappeared from virtually all the spoken dialects of Hebrew. All other consonants except [[guttural]]s may receive the heavy emphasis, as well.
One-letter words are always attached to the following word. Such words include: the definite [[article (grammar)|article]] ''h'' (="the"); [[preposition]]s ''b'' (="in"), ''m'' (="from"), ''l'' (="to"); [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunction]]s ''sh'' (="that"), ''k'' (="as", "like"), ''v'' (="and"). The vowel that follows the letter thus attached depends in general on the beginning of the next word and the presence of a definite article which may be swallowed by the one-letter word.
The rules for the prepositions are complicated and vary with the formality of speech. In most cases they are followed by a moving schwa, and for that reason they are pronounced as ''be'', ''me'' and ''le''. In more formal speech, if a preposition is put before a word which begins with a moving schwa, then the preposition takes the vowel /i/ (and the initial consonant is weakened), but in colloquial speech these changes do not occur. For example, colloquial ''be-kfar'' (="in a village") becomes ''bi-khfar''. If ''l'' or ''b'' are followed by the definite article ''ha'', their vowel changes to /a/. Thus *''be-ha-matos'' becomes ''ba-matos'' (="in the plane"). However it does not happen to ''m'', therefore ''me-ha-matos'' is a valid form, which means "from the plane".
:''* indicates that the given example is not grammatically correct''
===Consonants===
The Hebrew word for consonants is ''&lsquo;itsurim'' (&#1506;&#1497;&#1510;&#1493;&#1512;&#1497;&#1501;).
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|-
!
! colspan="2" | [[Bilabial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Labiodental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Postalveolar|Post]]-<br>[[Postalveolar|alveolar]] {{fn|1}}
![[Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Uvular]]
! colspan="2" | [[Glottal]]
|- align=center
|[[Plosive|Stops]]
|[[voiceless bilabial plosive|{{IPA|p}}]] {{fn|2}}
|[[voiced bilabial plosive|{{IPA|b}}]] {{fn|2}}
| colspan="2" |
|[[voiceless alveolar plosive|{{IPA|t}}]]
|[[voiced alveolar plosive|{{IPA|d}}]]
| colspan="2" |
|
|[[voiceless velar plosive|{{IPA|k}}]] {{fn|2}}
|[[voiced velar plosive|{{IPA|g}}]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |[[glottal stop|{{IPA|&#660;}}]]
|- align=center
|[[Fricative]]s
| colspan="2" |
|[[voiceless labiodental fricative|{{IPA|f}}]] {{fn|2}}
|[[voiced labiodental fricative|{{IPA|v}}]] {{fn|2}}
|[[voiceless alveolar fricative|{{IPA|s}}]]
|[[voiced alveolar fricative|{{IPA|z}}]]
|[[voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʃ}}]]
|[[voiced postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʒ}}]]
|
| colspan="2" |[[voiceless velar fricative|{{IPA|x}}]] {{fn|2}}
| colspan="2" |[[voiced uvular fricative|{{IPA|&#641;}}]]
|[[voiceless glottal fricative|{{IPA|h}}]]
|
|- align=center
|[[Affricate]]s
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|[[voiceless alveolar affricate|{{IPA|&#678;}}]]
|
|[[voiceless postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|&#679;}}]]
|[[voiced postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|&#676;}}]]
|
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|- align=center
|[[Nasal]]s
| colspan="2" |[[bilabial nasal|{{IPA|m}}]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |[[alveolar nasal|{{IPA|n}}]]
| colspan="2" |
|
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|- align=center
|[[Lateral]]s
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |[[alveolar lateral approximant|{{IPA|l}}]]
| colspan="2" |
|
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|- align=center
|[[Approximant]]s
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|[[palatal approximant|{{IPA|j}}]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|}
&#1506; was once pronounced as a [[voiced pharyngeal fricative]]. Modern [[Ashkenazi]] (Northern and Eastern European Jews) reading tradition ignores this; however, [[Mizrahi Jew|Mizrahi]] (Middle Eastern and North African Jews) and Israeli Arabs accent these phonemes in a traditional semitic fashion which resembles [[Arabic language|Arabic]] `ain &#1593;. Georgian Jews pronounce it as a glottalized g. Western European [[Sephardim]] and Dutch [[Ashkenazi]]m traditionally pronounce it {{IPA|[ŋ]}} (like ''ng'' in ''sing'') &#8212; a pronunciation which can also be found in the [[Italki]] tradition and, historically, in south-west Germany.
{{fnb|1}} Postalveolar sounds (with the exception of {{IPA|/&#643;/}}) are not native to Hebrew, and only found in borrowings.
{{fnb|2}} The pairs (/b/, /v/), (/k/, /x/), (/p/, /f/), written respectively by the letters bet (&#1489;), kaf (&#1499;) and pe (&#1508;) have historically been allophonic. In Modern Hebrew, however, all six sounds are pho |
ppadocia]], afterward of [[Jerusalem]], from whom he brought a letter to [[Antioch]] in 211.
==Literary work==
The trilogy into which Clement's principal remains are connected by their purpose and mode of
treatment is composed of the ''[[Protrepticus]]'' ("Exhortation to the Greeks"), the ''Paedagogus'' ("Instructor"), and the ''Stromata'' ("Miscellanies"). Overbeck calls it the boldest literary undertaking in the history of the Church, since in it Clement for the first time attempted to set forth Christianity for the faithful in the traditional forms of secular literature. The ''Protrepticus'' forms an introduction inviting the reader to listen, not to the mythical legends of the gods, but to the "new song" of the [[Logos]], the beginning of all things and creator of the world. He denounces what he claims to be the folly of idolatry and the pagan mysteries, the shamefulness of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|pederastic]] practices of the Greeks, and the horrors of pagan sacrifice, and argues that the Greek philosophers and poets only guessed at the truth, while the prophets set forth a direct way to [[salvation]]; and now the divine Logos speaks in his own person, to awaken all that is good in the soul of man and to lead it to immortality. Having thus laid a foundation in the knowledge of divine truth, he goes on in the ''Paedagogus'' to develop a Christian ethic. His design does not prevent him from taking a large part of his material from the [[Stoicism|Stoic]] [[Musonius Rufus]], the master of [[Epictetus]]; but for Clement the real instructor is the incarnate Logos.
The first book deals with the religious basis of Christian morality, the second and third with the individual cases of conduct. As with Epictetus, true virtue shows itself with him in its external evidences by a natural, simple, and moderate way of living. The ''Stromata'' goes further and aims at the perfection of the Christian life by initiation into complete knowledge. The first of these works is addressed to the unconverted, the second to the new Christian, and the third appeals to the mature believer. It attempts, on the basis of Scripture and tradition, to give such an account of the Christian faith as shall answer all the demands of learned men, and conduct the student into the innermost realities of his belief. Clement entitled this work ''Stromateis'', "patchwork," because it dealt with such a variety of matters. He intended to make but one book of this; at least seven grew out of it, without his having treated all the subjects proposed. The absence of certain things definitely promised has led scholars to ask whether he wrote an eighth book, as would appear from [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] (VI. xiii. 1) and the ''Florilegia'', and various attempts have been made to identify with it short or fragmentary treatises appearing among his remains. In any case the "excerpts" and "selections" which, with part of a treatise on logical method, are designated as the eighth book in the single ([[11th century]]) manuscript of the ''Stromata'', are not parts of the ''Hypotyposes'' which Clement is known to have written. This work was a brief commentary on selected passages covering the whole Bible, as is shown in the fragments preserved by Oecumenius and in the Latin version of the commentary on the Catholic Epistles made at the instance of [[Cassiodorus]]. Besides the great trilogy, the only complete work preserved is the treatise "Who is the Rich Man that Shall Be Saved?" based on [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 10:17-31, and laying down the principle that not the possession of riches but their misuse is to be condemned. There are extant a few fragments of the treatise on the [[Passover]], against the [[Quartodecimanism|Quartodecimanism]] position of [[Melito of Sardis]], and only a single passage from the "Ecclesiastical Canon" against the Judaizers. Several other works are known only by their titles.
==His significance for the Church==
The significance of Clement in the history of the development of doctrine is, according to [[Adolf Harnack|Harnack]], that he knew how to replace the apologetic method by the constructive or systematic, to turn the simple church tradition into a scientific [[dogma]]tic theology. It is a marked characteristic of his that he sees only superficial and transient disagreement where others find a fundamental opposition. He is able to reconcile, or even to fuse, differing views to an extent which makes it almost impossible to attribute to him a definite individual system. He is admittedly an eclectic (''Stromata'', i. 37). This attitude determines especially his treatment of non-Christian philosophy. Although the theory of a diabolical origin for it is not unknown to him, and although he shows exhaustively that the philosophers owe a large part of their knowledge to the writings of the [[Old Testament]], yet he seems to express his own personal conviction when he describes philosophy as a direct operation of the divine Logos, working through it as well as through the law and his direct revelation in the Gospel to communicate the truth to men. It is true that the knowledge of the philosophers was elementary, fragmentary, and incapable of imparting true righteousness; and it was far surpassed by the revelation given through the law and the prophets, as that again was still further surpassed by the direct revelation of the incarnate Logos; but this idea of relative inferiority does not prevent him from showing that his whole mental attitude is determined and dominated by the philosophical tradition.
Not all later ecclesiastics have been happy with his views. While his feast day is traditionally [[December 4]], [[Pope Benedict XIV]] removed Clement from the Roman martyrology in [[1748]].
Thus he emphasizes the permanent importance of philosophy for the fulness of Christian knowledge, explains with special predilection the relation between knowledge and faith, and
sharply criticizes those who are unwilling to make any use of philosophy. He pronounces definitely against the sophists and against the hedonism of the school of [[Epicurus]]. Although he generally expresses himself unfavorably in regard to the [[Stoicism|Stoic philosophy]], he really pays marked deference to that mixture of Stoicism and [[Neo-Platonism|Platonism]] which characterized the religious and ethical thought of the educated classes in his day. This explains the value set by Clement on ''[[gnosis]]''. To be sure, he constantly opposes the concept of ''gnosis'' as defined by the [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]]. Faith is the foundation of all ''gnosis'', and both are given by [[Christ]]. As faith involves a comprehensive knowledge of the essentials, knowledge allows the believer to penetrate deeply into the understanding of what he believes; and this is the making perfect, the completion, of faith. In order to attain this kind of faith, the "faith of knowledge," which is so much higher than the mere "faith of conjecture," or simple reception of a truth on authority, philosophy is permanently necessary. In fact, Christianity is the true philosophy, and the perfect Christian the true Gnostic -- but again only the "Gnostic according to the canon of the Church " has this distinction. Also, he rejects the Gnostic distinction of "psychic" and "pneumatic" men; all are alike destined to perfection if they will embrace it.
From philosophy he takes his conception of the Logos, the principle of Christian gnosis, through whom alone God's relation to the world and his revelation is maintained. God he considers transcendentally as unqualified Being, who can not be defined in too abstract a way. Though his goodness operated in the creation of the world, yet immutability, self sufficiency, incapability of suffering are the characteristic notes of the divine essence. Though the Logos is most closely one with the Father, whose powers he resumes in himself, yet to Clement both the Son and the Spirit are "first-born powers and first created"; they form the highest stages in the scale of intelligent being, and Clement distinguishes the Son-Logos from the Logos who is immutably immanent in God, and thus gives a foundation to the charge of Photius that he "degraded the Son to the rank of a creature." Separate from the world as the principle of creation, he is yet in it as its guiding principle. Thus a natural life is a life according to the will of the Logos. The Incarnation, in spite of Clement's rejection of the Gnostic [[Docetism]], has with him a decidedly Docetic character. The body of Christ was not subject to human needs. He is the good Physician; the medicine which he offers is the communication of saving ''gnosis'', leading men from paganism to faith and from faith to the higher state of knowledge. This true philosophy includes within itself the freedom from sin and the attainment of virtue. As all sin has its root in ignorance, so the knowledge of God and of goodness is followed by well-doing. Against the Gnostics Clement emphasizes the freedom of all to do good.
Clement lays great stress on the fulfilment of moral obligations. In his ethical expressions he is influenced strongly by Plato and the Stoics, from whom he borrows much of his terminology. He praises [[Plato]] for setting forth the greatest possible likeness to God as the aim of life; and his portrait of the perfect Gnostic closely resembles that of the wise man as drawn by the Stoics. Hence he counsels his readers to shake off the chains of the flesh as far as possible, to live already as if out of the body, and thus to rise above earthly things. He is a true Greek in the value which he sets on moderation; but his highest ideal of conduct remains the mortification of all affections which may in any way disturb the soul in its career. As Harnack says, t |
population growth of the English counties {{ref|pop_growth}}. The natural change has been a small population decline, and the population increase is due to immigration into the county {{ref|nat_change}}. According to the 1991 census, the population was 469,800.
Cornwall has a relatively high retired population, with 22.9% of pensionable age, compared to 20.3% for the United Kingdom {{ref|retirement}}. This may be due to a combination of Cornwall's rural and coastal geography increasing its popularity as a retirement location, and due to the emigration of younger residents to more economically diverse areas. Migration of pensioners from southern England to Cornwall, and emigration of young Cornish people, is a persistent concern &mdash; the Cornish ethnicity figures in the census of 2001 showed that 10.8 per cent of those identifying as ethnically Cornish in the United Kingdom lived outside Cornwall, a relatively high rate in terms of global [[diaspora|diasporas]], comparable to the experiences of [[Italy]] or [[Greece]].
Cornwall is one of the six modern Celtic nations alongside [[Brittany]], [[Ireland]], the [[Isle of Man]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]. Just under 7% of the population of Cornwall gave their ethnicity as Cornish in the last [[Census 2001|census]], however, in a survey by Mogan Stanley 44% of the population considered themselves Cornish {{ref|cornish}}. The Census provided no 'tick box' for Cornish, and had to be listed as 'other' which may explain this difference.
==Economy==
Cornwall is the poorest area in the United Kingdom. The GDP is 62% of the national average {{ref|GDP}}. Cornwall is one of four UK areas that qualifies for poverty-related grants from the EU (European Social Fund). Today, the Cornish economy depends heavily on its successful tourist industry, which makes up around a quarter of the Cornish economy.
Traditional areas such as china clay extraction have gradually shed workers in recent years.
Educated young people continue to leave the county in numbers and despite Objective One funding the county's economy continues a downward spiral. Objective One funding is due to expire in 2006.
===Tourism===
Cornwall's unique culture, spectacular landscape and mild climate make it a popular tourist destination, despite being somewhat isolated from the United Kingdom's main tourist centres. Surrounded on three sides by the [[Atlantic Ocean]], [[English Channel]] and [[Celtic Sea]], Cornwall has miles of beaches and cliffs. Other tourist attractions include moorland, country gardens and wooded valleys, and tourism is a significant economic sector.
Five million tourists visit the county each year, mostly drawn from within the UK{{ref|tour_num}}. In particular, [[Newquay]] is a popular destination for surfers. In recent years, the [[Eden Project]] has been a major financial success, drawing one in eight of Cornwall's visitors{{ref|eden_influence}}.
===Industry===
Other industries are fishing, although this has been significantly damaged by EU fishing policies, and agriculture, which has also declined significantly. Mining of tin and copper was also an industry, but today no longer exists, and several defunct mines have applied for status as [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] World Heritage Sites. {{ref|economy}}
==Culture==
[[Image:Minack Theatre.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Minack Theatre]], carved from the cliffs.]]
{{main|Culture of Cornwall}}
===Language===
{{main|Cornish language}}
The Cornish language is closely related to [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Breton language|Breton]], and less so to [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scots Gaelic language|Scots Gaelic]] and [[Manx language|Manx]]. It continued as a living [[Celtic language]] until [[1777]] and the death of [[Dolly Pentreath]], the last person thought to have used only the [[Cornish language|Cornish]] language (although this is disputed on a number of counts). The publication of [[Henry Jenner]]'s "Handbook of the Cornish Language" in [[1904]] caused a resurgence of interest in the Cornish language. The subsequent revival gathered pace during the twentieth century and, although there has never been a census, most estimates agree that there are now around 2,000 Cornish speakers, 100&ndash;150 of whom are fluent, and there are several families who have raised their children with the language. Cornish has recently been officially recognised by the UK government as a minority language and although currently less than 0.1% of the population speak it fluently, it is taught in many schools and used in religious and civic ceremonies and has boosted Cornish cultural identity.
Some Cornish surnames are prefixed by ''Tre'', ''Pol'', or ''Pen'', as indicated in the rhyme "by Tre, Pol and Pen ye shall know Cornishmen." These come from Cornish language words meaning, respectively, ''town'' (or ''farm''), ''pool'', and ''head''.
===Cornish studies and literary references===
The Institute of Cornish Studies, established in [[1970]], is a branch of the [[University of Exeter]], and now part of the [[Combined Universities in Cornwall]] Campus at Tremough, Penryn. [[Philip Payton]], professor Cornish studies, has written a history of Cornwall as well as editing the Cornish studies series, and other academics, including [[Mark Stoyle]] of the [[University of Southampton]] and [[John Angarrack]] of the human rights organisation [[Cornwall 2000]], have also produced work on Cornish culture.
A detailed overview of literature is provided by A. M. Kent's 'The Literature of Cornwall'. It covers everything from medieval mystery plays to more recent literary works that draw on the Cornish landscape. Notable Cornish writers include [[Arthur Quiller-Couch]] alias "Q", the deaf short story writer, [[Jack Clemo]] and [[D. M. Thomas]] acclaimed author and poet.
Cornwall also produced a substantial amount of [[passion play|passion plays]] during the Middle Ages. Many are still extant, and provide valuable information about the Cornish language.
[[Daphne du Maurier]] lived in Cornwall and set many of her novels there, including ''[[Rebecca_(novel)|Rebecca]]'', ''[[Jamaica Inn]]'', ''[[Frenchman's Creek]]'', ''[[My Cousin Rachel]]'', and ''[[The House on the Strand]]''. She is also noted for writing ''[[Vanishing Cornwall]]''. [[Charles de Lint]]'s novel ''[[The Little Country]]'', [[Winston Graham]]'s series ''[[Poldark]]'', [[Kate Tremayne]]'s [[Adam Loveday]] series, [[Susan Cooper]]'s novels ''[[Over Sea, Under Stone]]'' and ''[[Greenwitch]]'', [[Mary Wesley]]'s ''[[The Camomile Lawn]]'' and [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s musical ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'' are all set in Cornwall.
===Religion===
Traditionally, the Cornish have been nonconformists, in religion. [[Celtic Christianity]] was a feature of Cornwall and many [[Cornish Saints|Cornish saints]] are commemorated in legends, churches and place names.
The [[Methodism]] of [[John Wesley]] also proved to be very popular with the working classes in Cornwall in the [[18th century]]. Cornwall has shared in the post-[[World War II]] decline in British religious feeling.
In 2003, a campaign group was formed called ''Fry an Spyrys'' (free the spirit in Cornish) [http://www.freethespirit.org.uk/]. It is dedicated to disestablishing the [[Church of England]] in Cornwall.
===Music and festivals===
Cornwall has a rich and vibrant [[folk music]] tradition which has survived into the present. Cornwall is well known for its unusual folk survivals such as [[Mummers Play]]s, the [[Furry Dance]] in [[Helston]], and [[Obby Oss]] in [[Padstow]].
Cornish players are regular participants in inter-Celtic festivals, and Cornwall itself has several lively inter-Celtic festivals such as [[Perranporth]]'s Lowender Peran folk festival[http://www.an-daras.com].
===Sports and games===
Cornwall has its [[Cornish wrestling|own unique form of wrestling]] related to [[Brittany|Breton]] wrestling.
Cornwall's other county sport is [[Hurling the Silver Ball|hurling]], a kind of medieval football played with a silver ball. Hurling is distinct from [[Irish Hurling]]. The sport now takes place in St Columb and [[St Ives]] although hurling of a silver ball is part of the [[beating the bounds]] ceremony at [[Bodmin]] every five years.
[[Rugby Football|Rugby]] has a larger following in Cornwall than [[football]], with the Cornish Pirates RFC (the name change &mdash; previously the team were Penzance Newlyn RFC &mdash; is recent and designed to tap into the large amount of Cornish nationalist sentiment), Launceston RFC and Redruth RFC in the national leagues. The Cornwall rugby team often draws very large crowds of supporters, dubbed ''[[Trelawny]]'s Army''.
Due to its large coastline, various maritime sports are popular in Cornwall, notably [[sailing]] and [[surfing]]. International events in both are held in Cornwall. Cornwall will host the Inter-Celtic [[Watersports]] Festival in 2006.
[[Rock climbing]] on the sea cliffs and inland cliffs has been popular since the pioneeering work of [[A. W. Andrews]] and others in the early 1900s, and is now highly developed.
[[Euchre]] is a popular [[card game]] in Cornwall, it is normally a game for four players consisting of two teams. Its origins are unclear but some claim it is a Cornish game. There are several leagues in Cornwall at present.
A recent application for a place in the [[2006 Commonwealth Games]] failed to impress the [[Commonwealth Games Federation]] (CGF). The Cornwall Commonwealth Games Association claimed that Cornwall should be recognised with a team, in the way that other sub-state entities such as England, [[Guernsey]] and the [[Isle of Man]] are. However, the CGF noted that it was not their place to make political decisions on whether or not Cornwall is a separate nation [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cornwall/4575246.stm].
===Food===
Cornwall is famous for its [[Pasty|pasties]] |
o this problem has been to [[double pumped|double pump]] the bus. Often, a serial bus can actually be operated at higher overall data rates than a parallel bus, despite having fewer electrical connections, because a serial bus inherently has no timing skew or crosstalk. [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]], [[FireWire]], and [[Serial ATA]] are examples of this. [[Multidrop]] connections do not work well for fast serial buses, so most modern serial buses use [[daisy-chain]] or hub designs.
Most computers have both internal and external buses. An ''internal bus'' connects all the internal components of a computer to the motherboard (and thus, the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and [[internal memory]]). These types of buses are also referred to as a [[local bus]], because they are intended to connect to local devices, not to those in other machines or external to the computer. An ''external bus'' connects external peripherals to the motherboard.
[[computer network|Network]] connections such as [[Ethernet]] are not generally regarded as buses, although the difference is largely conceptual rather than practical. The arrival of technologies such as [[InfiniBand]] and [[HyperTransport]] is further blurring the boundaries between networks and buses. Even the lines between internal and external are sometimes fuzzy, [[I²C]] can be used as both an internal bus, or an external bus (where it is known as [[ACCESS.bus]]), and InfiniBand is intended to replace both internal buses like [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] as well as external ones like [[Fibre Channel]].
Modern trends in personal computers, especially laptops, have been moving towards eliminating all external connections except for modem jack, [[Category 5 cable|Cat5]], USB, [[Jack (connector)|headphone jack]], and optional [[VGA]] or FireWire.
==Bus topology==
In a network, the master scheduler controls the data traffic. If data is to be transferred the requesting computer sends a message to the scheduler, which puts the request into a queue. The message contains an identification code which is broadcast to all nodes of the network. The scheduler works out priorities and notifies the receiver as soon as the bus is available.
The identified node takes the message and performs the data transfer between the two computers. Having completed the data transfer the bus becomes free for the next request in the scheduler's queue.
Bus benefit: any computer can be accessed directly and message can be sent in a
relatively simple and fast way.
Disadvantage: needs a scheduler to assign frequencies and priorities to organize the traffic.
See also: [[Bus network]]
== Examples of internal computer buses ==
===Parallel===
* [[Accelerated graphics port]] or AGP (for video cards)
* [[CAMAC]] for instrumentation systems
* [[Extended ISA]] or EISA
* [[Industry Standard Architecture]] or ISA
* [[Low Pin Count]] or LPC
* [[MicroChannel]] or MCA
* [[MBus]]
* [[Multibus]] for industrial systems
* [[NuBus]] or IEEE 1196
* [[Peripheral Component Interconnect]] or PCI
* [[S-100 bus]] or IEEE 696, used in the [[Altair]] and similar [[microcomputers]]
* [[SBus]] or IEEE 1496
* [[VESA Local Bus]] or VLB or VL-bus (for video cards)
* [[VMEbus]], the VERSAmodule Eurocard bus
* STD Bus for 8- and 16-bit microprocessor systems
===Serial===
* [[1-Wire]]
* [[HyperTransport]]
* [[I2C|I<sup>2</sup>C]]
* [[PCI Express]] or PCIe
* [[Serial Peripheral Interface Bus]] or SPI bus
== Examples of external computer buses ==
===Parallel===
* [[Advanced Technology Attachment]] or ATA (aka PATA, IDE, EIDE, ATAPI, etc.) disk/tape peripheral attachment bus<br>(the original ATA is parallel, but see also the recent development ''Serial ATA'', below)
* [[Centronics]] parallel (generally connects single device, occasionally 2 daisy-chained)
* [[HIPPI]] HIgh Performance Parallel Interface
* [[IEEE-488]] (aka GPIB, General-Purpose Instrumentation Bus, and HPIB, Hewlett-Packard Instrumentation Bus)
* [[PCMCIA]], now known as ''PC card'', much used in laptop computers and other portables, but fading with the introduction of USB and built-in network and modem connections.
* [[SCSI]] Small Computer System Interface, disk/tape peripheral attachment bus
===Serial===
* [[ACCESS.bus]] (A.b)
* [[Apple Desktop Bus]] (ADB)
* [[Controller Area Network]] (CAN)
* [[Serial Peripheral Interface]] (SPI)
* [[I²C]]
* [[Fibre Channel]]
* [[FireWire|IEEE 1394]] (FireWire)
* [[RS-485]]
* [[Serial ATA]] or SATA
* [[Serial Storage Architecture]] (SSA)
* [[Universal Serial Bus]] (USB)
===Proprietary===
* Floppy drive connector
== Examples of internal/external computer buses ==
* [[Futurebus]]
* [[InfiniBand]]
* [[QuickRing]]
* [[Scalable Coherent Interconnect|SCI]]
== See also==
*[[Bus contention]]
*[[Front side bus]]
== External links ==
* Chip Weems' [http://www.cs.umass.edu/~weems/CmpSci635/635lecture12.html Lecture 12: Buses]
* http://dmoz.org/Computers/Hardware/Buses/
[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Computer buses|*Computer bus]]
[[Category:Motherboard]]
[[bs:Sabirnica]]
[[da:Databus]]
[[de:Bus (Datenverarbeitung)]]
[[es:Bus de datos]]
[[fr:Bus informatique]]
[[gl:Bus]]
[[hr:Sabirnica]]
[[it:Bus]]
[[nl:Databus]]
[[ja:バス (コンピュータ)]]
[[pt:Barramento]]
[[sl:Vodilo]]
[[fi:Väylä]]
[[sv:Buss (elektronisk term)]]
[[tr:Veriyolu]]
[[uk:Шина (ел.)]]
[[zh:总线]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cuttlefish</title>
<id>6633</id>
<revision>
<id>41522855</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:52:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cuttlefish
| image = Georgia Aquarium - Cuttlefish Jan 2006.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Two cuttlefish interacting at the [[Georgia Aquarium]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Mollusca]]
| classis = [[Cephalopod]]a
| subclassis = [[Coleoidea]]
| superordo = [[Decapodiformes]]
| ordo = '''Sepiida'''
| ordo_authority = [[Karl Alfred von Zittel|Zittel]], [[1895]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Family (biology)|Families]]
| subdivision =
[[Sepiadariidae]]<br>
[[Sepiidae]]
}}
'''Cuttlefish''' are animals of the [[order (biology)|order]] '''Sepiida''', and are [[marine]] [[cephalopod]]s, small relatives of [[squid]]s and [[nautilus]].
Cuttlefish have an internal [[Animal shell|shell]], large [[eye]]s, and eight arms and two [[tentacle]]s furnished with denticulated suckers, by means of which it secures its [[prey]]. The name is sometimes applied to [[dibranchiate cephalopod]]s generally.
Cuttlefish possess an internal structure called the '''cuttlebone''', which is composed of [[calcium carbonate]] and is porous to provide the cuttlefish with [[buoyancy]]. Buoyancy can be regulated — the cuttlefish can even decide to sink — by changing the gas-to-liquid ratio in the chambered cuttlebone. Each species has a distinct shape, size, and pattern of ridges or texture on the "bone". Cuttlebones are traditionally used by jewellers and silversmiths as moulds for [[casting]] small objects. They are probably better known today as the tough material given to [[parakeet]]s and other cage birds as a bill-sharpener and source of dietary [[calcium]].
Cuttlefish are sometimes called the [[chameleon]] of the sea because of their remarkable ability to rapidly alter their [[skin]] color. Their skin flashes a fast-changing pattern as [[communication]] to other individual of the same species, as well as serving as [[camouflage]] from predators. This color-changing function is produced by groups of red, yellow, brown, and black [[chromatophore]]s above a layer of [[iridophore]]s, and then a layer of leucophores, with up to 200 of these specialized [[pigment]] cells per square millimeter. The chromatophores are a cell with a bag of ink and a large membrane that is folded when retracted. There are 6-20 small muscle cells on the sides which can contract to squash the elastic ink sac into a disc against the skin. Yellow chromatophores are closest to the surface of the skin, red and orange are below, and brown or black are just above the iridophore layer. The iridophores reflect blue and green light. Iridophores are plates of [[chitin]] or [[protein]], which can reflect the environment around a cuttlefish. They are responsible for the metallic blues, greens, golds, and silvers often seen on cuttlefish. All of these cells can be used in combinations. For example: orange would be produced by red and yellow chromatophores, while purple could be created by a red chromatophore and an iridophore. The cuttlefish could also use an iridophore and a yellow chromatophore to produce a brighter green. As well as being able to influence the colour of the light that reflects off their skin, cuttlefish can also effect the light's [[polarisation]], which can be used to signal to other marine animals, many of whom can also sense polarisation.
[[Image:chromatophore.jpg|thumb|A diagram of the European Cuttlefish "Sepia oficinalis" chromatophore]]
Cuttlefish [[eyes]] are among the most developed in the [[animal]] kingdom. They have similar eyes to humans, but the pupil is a smoothly-curving "w" shape. Although they cannot see color, they can perceive the [[polarity]] of light, which essentially enhances their perception of contrast. They have two spots of concentrated sensor cells on their retina (known as [[fovea]]), one to look more forward, and one to look more backwards. The lenses, instead of being reshaped as they are in humans, are instead pulled around by reshaping the entire eye in order to change focus.
The blood of a cuttlefish is green-blue because it uses the [[copper]]-containing [[protein]] [[hemocyanin]] to carry oxygen instead of the red [[iron]]-containing protein [[hemoglobin]] that is found in mammals. The blood is pu |
ch February in addition to the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] football [[Hawaii Bowl]]. Fans of spectator sports in Honolulu generally support the [[American football|football]], [[volleyball]], [[basketball]], and [[baseball]] programs of the [[University of Hawaii at Manoa|University of Hawai{{okina}}i at Manoa]]. Highschool sporting events, especially football, are especially popular. Venues for spectator sports in Honolulu include:
* [[Aloha Stadium]] ([[American football|football]])
* [[Les Murakami Stadium]] at UH-Manoa ([[baseball]])
* [[Stan Sheriff Center]] at UH-Manoa ([[basketball]] and [[volleyball]])
* [[Neal Blaisdell Center]] Arena ([[basketball]])
Honolulu's mild climate lends itself to year-round fitness activities as well. In 2004, ''[[Men's Fitness]]'' magazine named Honolulu the [[physical fitness|fittest]] city in the U.S. Honolulu is also home to two large [[road running|road race]]s:
* The [[Great Aloha Run]] is held annually on [[Presidents' Day]].
* The [[Honolulu Marathon]], held annually on the second Sunday in December, draws more than 20,000 participants each year, about half to two thirds of them from [[Japan]].
==Media==
===Newspapers===
Honolulu is served by two daily [[newspaper]]s: the ''[[Honolulu Advertiser]]'' and the ''[[Honolulu Star-Bulletin]]''. It is one of the few remaining cities of its size in the U.S. to have more than one daily newspaper.
===Television===
{{main|List of television stations in Hawaii}}
([http://www.hawaiiradiotv.com/ from hawaiiradiotv.com])
====Full power TV channels====
*2 [[KHON]] ([[Fox Television Network|Fox]])
*4 [[KITV]] ([[ABC Television Network|ABC]])
*5 [[KFVE]] ([[The WB Television Network|The WB]])
*9 [[KGMB]] ([[CBS]])
*11 [[KHET]] ([[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]])
*13 [[KHNL]] ([[NBC]])
*14 [[KWHE]] (independent)
*20 [[KIKU]] ([[UPN]] and Asian programming, Mainly Japanese & some Filipino, Vietnamese, Korean)
*26 [[KAAH]] ([[Trinity Broadcasting Network|TBN]])
*32 [[KBFD]] (Korean programming)
*38 [[KALO]] (Religious)
*44 [[KWBN]] ([[Daystar]])
*50 [[KKEI]] (TBA)
*56 [[KMGT]] (New, TBA)
*60 New (TBA)
*66 [[KPXO]] ([[i]])
====Low-power TV channels====
*42 [[K42CO]]
*46 [[KHLU]]-LP ([[Univision]]) to move from channel 60 soon
*48 [[KHHI]]-LP ([[Home Shopping Network|HSN]])
*56 [[K56EX]]
*64 [[K64FN]]
====Digital TV channels====
*8 [[KGMB]]
*18 [[KHET]]
*19 [[KIKU]]
*22 [[KHON]]
*23 [[KFVE]]
*27 [[KAAH]]
*31 [[KWHE]]
*33 [[KBFD]]
*35 [[KHNL]]
*39 [[KALO]]
*40 [[KITV]]
*41 [[KPXO]]
*43 [[KWBN]]
===Radio stations===
{{main|List of radio stations in Hawaii}}
====17 AM radio stations====
*590 [[KSSK AM & FM|KSSK]] Adult Contemporary
*650 [[KRTR]] Asian
*690 [[KORL]] Ethnic
*760 [[KGU]] Religious
*830 [[KHVH]] News/Talk
*870 [[KAIM]] Country
*940 [[KKNE]] Ethnic
*990 [[KHBZ]] Talk
*1040 [[KLHT]] Religious
*1080 [[KWAI]] Talk
*1130 [[KRUD]] New;TBA
*1170 [[KHCM]] Country
*1210 [[KZOO]] Japanese Pop
*1270 [[KNDI]] Ethnic
*1370 [[KUPA]] Ethnic
*1420 [[KKEA]] Sports
*1460 [[KHRA]] Asian
*1500 [[KUMU]] Talk
*1540 [[KREA]] Asian
====20 FM radio stations====
*88.1 [[KHPR]] Classical, News ([[National Public Radio]])
*89.3 [[KIPO]] News, Information, Jazz ([[National Public Radio]])
*90.3 [[KTUH]] Modern Rock, Progressive music
*92.3 [[KSSK AM & FM|KSSK]] Adult Contemporary
*93.1 [[KQMQ]] Top 40
*93.9 [[KIKI (FM)|KIKI]] Rhythmic Top 40
*94.7 [[KUMU-FM]] Adult Contemporary
*95.5 [[KAIM-FM]] Contemporary Christian
*96.3 [[KRTR-FM]] Adult Top 40
*97.5 [[KHNR]] Talk
*98.5 [[KDNN]] Hawaiian Contemporary
*99.5 [[KHUI]] Hawaiian Adult Contemporary
*100.3 [[KCCN]] Hawaiian Top 40
*101.1 [[KLHI]] Modern Rock
*101.9 [[KUCD]] Modern Rock
*102.7 [[KDDB]] Rhythmic Top 40
*104.3 [[KPHW]] Rhythmic Top 40
*105.1 [[KINE-FM|KINE]] Traditional Hawaiian
*105.9 [[KPOI]] Classic Rock
*107.9 [[KGMZ]] Oldies
===Cable and satellite television===
[[Image:honolulu_diamondhead.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Rainbow over Honolulu skyline with Diamond Head behind.]]
Oceanic-Time Warner Cable (a division of [[Time Warner Cable]]) is the primary cable television carrier in the Honolulu metropolitan area. Satellite television ([[DIRECTV]], [[Dish Network]], some [[C-Band]]) is also available as an alternative.
==Tourist attractions==
*[[Bishop Museum]]
*[[Honolulu Academy of Arts]]
*[[Diamond Head, Hawaii|Diamond Head]]
*[[Lyon Arboretum]]
*[[National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific]]
*[[Waikiki|Waikīkī Beach]]
{{See also|Oahu}}
==Colleges & universities==
*[[University of Hawaii|University of Hawai{{okina}}i Mānoa]] &mdash; Students: 21,000 (Manoa Campus)<sup>2</sup>
*[[Chaminade University]] &mdash; Students: 1,130; Tuition: $13,380/yr<sup>2</sup>
*[[Hawaii Pacific University|Hawai{{okina}}i Pacific University]] &mdash; Students: 8,500; Tuition: $10,922/yr<sup>2</sup>
* Brigham Young University&ndash;Hawai{{okina}}i (Lā{{okina}}ie) &mdash; Students: 2,400; Tuition: $15,000/yr
==References==
# [[Geographic references]].
# [http://www.HONOLULUADVERTISER.com/localnews/ ''Honolulu Advertiser''], Section B. Monday, June 7, 2004. Estimated student body size and annual tuition for selected colleges on O{{okina}}ahu.
==External links==
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.honolulu.gov City & County of Honolulu] official site
*[http://www.gohawaii.com/ Hawai{{okina}}i Vistors and Convention Bureau]
*[http://www.eng.hawaii.edu/Trafficam/ Honolulu Traffic Information Center (includes camera links)]
*[http://www.prh.noaa.gov/hnl/ National Weather Service Honolulu office]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|21.30895|-157.826182}}
{{Hawaii}}
{{United States state capitals}}
[[Category:Honolulu, Hawaii| ]]
[[Category:Neighborhoods of Honolulu|Honolulu]]
[[Category:State capitals in the United States|Honolulu]]
[[af:Honolulu]]
[[bg:Хонолулу]]
[[da:Honolulu]]
[[de:Honolulu]]
[[es:Honolulu]]
[[eo:Honolulu (Havajo)]]
[[fr:Honolulu]]
[[gl:Honolulú]]
[[ko:호놀룰루]]
[[haw:Honolulu]]
[[id:Honolulu]]
[[it:Honolulu]]
[[he:הונולולו]]
[[nl:Honolulu]]
[[ja:ホノルル]]
[[no:Honolulu]]
[[nn:Honolulu]]
[[pl:Honolulu (Hawaje)]]
[[pt:Honolulu]]
[[simple:Honolulu, Hawaii]]
[[sk:Honolulu]]
[[fi:Honolulu]]
[[sv:Honolulu]]
[[zh:檀香山 (夏威夷)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hive mind</title>
<id>13888</id>
<revision>
<id>40347207</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T23:41:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David.alex.lamb</username>
<id>917191</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hive mind''' can mean
*a [[collective consciousness]] strongly exhibiting traits of [[conformity (psychology)|conformity]] and [[groupthink]].
*the [[hivemind (software)|Hivemind]] software framework.
*in [[science fiction]], a [[group mind (science fiction)#Hives|group of organisms with a single mind]]
*the apparent consciousness of colonies of [[social insect|social insects]] such as [[ant]]s, [[bee]]s and [[termite]]s
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Percolozoa</title>
<id>13889</id>
<revision>
<id>40874282</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T16:12:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = khaki
| name = Percolozoa
| image = Naegleria.png
| image_width = 153px
| image_caption = Different stages of ''[[Naegleria]]''
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = '''Percolozoa'''
| phylum_authority = [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith|Cavalier-Smith]] 1991
| classis = '''Heterolobosea'''
| classis_authority = Page & Blanton 1985
| subdivision_ranks = Typical families
| subdivision = Acrasidae<br>Gruberellidae<br>Lyromonadidae<br>Vahlkampfiidae
}}
The '''Percolozoa''' are a group of colourless [[protozoa]], including many that can transform between [[amoeboid]], [[flagellate]], and encysted stages. These are collectively referred to as schizopyrenids, amoeboflagellates, or vahlkampfids. They also include the acrasids, a group of social amoebae that aggregate to form [[sporangium|sporangia]]. The entire group is usually called the '''Heterolobosea''', but this may be restricted to members with amoeboid stages.
Most Percolozoa are found as bacterivores in soil, freshwater, and on feces. There are a few marine and parasitic forms, including the species ''[[Naegleria fowleri]]'', which can become pathogenic in humans and is often fatal. The group is closely related to the [[Euglenozoa]], and share with them the unusual though not unique characteristic of having [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] with discoid [[crista]]e. The presence of a ventral feeding groove in the flagellate stage, as well as other features, suggests that they are part of the [[excavate]] group.
The amoeboid stage is roughly cylindrical, typically around [[1 E-5 m|20-40 &mu;m]] in length. They are traditionally considered lobose amoebae, but are not related to the others and unlike them do not form true lobose pseudopods. Instead, they advance by eruptive waves, where hemispherical bulges appear from the front margin of the cell, which is clear. The flagellate stage is slightly smaller, with two or four anterior flagella anterior to the feeding groove.
Usually the amoeboid form is taken when food is plentiful, and the flagellate form is used for rapid locomotion. However, not all members are able to assume both forms. The genera ''Percolomonas'', ''Lyromonas'', and ''Psalteriomonas'' are known only as flagellates, while ''Vahlkampfia'', ''Pseudovahlkampfia'', and the acrasids do not have flagellate stages. As mentioned above, under unfavourable conditions, the acrasids aggregate to form sporangia. These are superficially similar to the sporangia of the [ |
electrical starter or an [[air start system]] is used to start the engine turning. On large engines, pre-[[lubrication]] and slow turning of an engine, as well as heating, are required to minimize the possibility of damaging the engine during initial start-up and running. Some smaller military diesels can be started with an explosive cartridge that provides the extra power required to get the machine turning. In the past, Caterpillar and John Deere used a small gasoline "pony" motor in their tractors to start the primary diesel motor. The pony motor heated the diesel to aid in ignition and utilized a small clutch and transmission to actually spin up the diesel engine. Even more unusual was an International Harvester design in which the diesel motor had its own carburetor and ignition system, and started on gasoline. Once warmed up, the operator moved two levers to switch the motor to diesel operation, and work could begin. These engines had very complex cylinder heads (with their own gasoline combustion chambers) and in general were vulnerable to expensive damage if special care was not taken (especially in letting the engine cool before turning it off).
==Dieseling in spark-ignition engines==
A gasoline (spark ignition) engine can sometimes act as a compression ignition engine under abnormal circumstances, a phenomenon typically described as "[[engine knocking|pinging]]" or "[[engine knocking|pinking]]" (during normal running) or "[[dieseling]]" (when the engine continues to run after the electrical ignition system is shut off). This is usually caused by hot carbon deposits within the combustion chamber that act as would a "[[glow plug]]" within a diesel or model aircraft engine. Excessive heat can also be caused by improper ignition timing and/or fuel/air ratio which in turn overheats the exposed portions of the [[spark plug]] within the combustion chamber.
==Fuel and fluid characteristics==
{{main|Diesel}}
Diesel engines can operate on a variety of different fuels, depending on configuration, though the eponymous [[diesel fuel]] derived from [[crude oil]] is most common. Good-quality diesel fuel can be synthesised from [[vegetable oil]] and [[alcohol]]. [[Biodiesel]] is growing in popularity since it can frequently be used in unmodified engines, though production remains limited. Petroleum-derived diesel is often called "petrodiesel" if there is need to distinguish the source of the fuel.
The engines can work with thicker, heavier oil, or oil with higher [[viscosity]], as long as it is heated to ease pumping and injection. These fuels are cheaper than clean, refined diesel oil, although they are dirtier. The biofuels [[straight vegetable oil]] (SVO) and [[waste vegetable oil]] (WVO) can fall into this category. Moving beyond that, use of low-grade fuels can lead to serious maintenance problems. Most diesel engines that power ships like supertankers are built so that the engine can safely use low grade fuels.
[[Ethanol]] is also used in some cases, since it has a high [[octane rating]] which means it can be highly compressed before spontaneously igniting. One way this is used is in [[E95 fuel]] which actually contains 5% [[gasoline]] along with 95% ethanol.
Normal diesel fuel is more difficult to ignite than gasoline because of its higher [[flash point]], but once burning, a diesel fire can be fierce.
==Diesel applications==
The vast majority of modern heavy road vehicles ([[truck]]s), [[ship]]s, large-scale portable power generators, most farm and mining vehicles, and many long-distance [[locomotive]]s have diesel engines. However, in the [[United States|U.S.]] they are not as popular in passenger vehicles as they are in [[Europe]] as they are perceived as being heavier, noisier, of having performance characteristics which makes them slower to accelerate, and of being more expensive than petrol vehicles. In addition, before the mandatory reduction of sulphur in on-road diesel fuel to 15 parts per million, which will start at [[15 October]] [[2006]] in the U.S. ([[1 June]] [[2006]] in Canada), diesel fuel used in North America has higher sulphur content than the fuel used in Europe, effectively limiting diesel use to industrial vehicles. [[Image:mbe4000.jpg|frame|Mercedes Benz MBE 4000 350-450HP (261-336kW)]]
In Europe, where tax rates in many countries make diesel fuel much cheaper than petrol, diesel vehicles are very popular and newer designs have significantly narrowed differences between petrol and diesel vehicles in the areas mentioned. One anecdote tells of [[Formula One]] driver [[Jenson Button]], who was arrested while driving a diesel-powered [[BMW]] [[coupe]] at 230 [[km/h]] (about 140 mph) in [[France]], where he was too young to have a petrol-engined car hired to him. Button dryly observed in subsequent interviews that he had actually done BMW a public relations service, as nobody had believed a diesel could be driven that fast. The BMW diesel lab in Steyr, [[Austria]] is led by Ferenc [[Anisits]] and is considered to be a leader in development of automotive diesel engines. Similarly, [[Mercedes Benz]] had a successful run of diesel-powered passenger cars in the late 1970s and 1980s. After a hiatus in the 1990s with relatively few diesel cars in its lineup, Mercedes Benz has revived diesel cars in its newer ranges with an emphasis on high performance.
A few [[motorcycles]] have been built using diesel engines, but the weight and cost disadvantages generally outweigh the efficiency gains in this application.
;High-speed
:High-speed (approximately 1200 [[rpm]] and greater) engines are used to power lorries ([[truck]]s), [[bus]]es, [[tractor]]s, [[automobile|car]]s, [[yacht]]s, [[compressor]]s, [[pump]]s and small [[generator (device)|generator]]s.
;Medium-speed
:Large electrical generators are driven by [[medium speed engines]], (approximately 300 to 1200 [[rpm]]) optimised to run at a set speed and provide a rapid response to load changes.
;Low-speed
: The largest diesel engines are used to power [[ship]]s. These monstrous engines have power outputs over 80[[MW]], turn at about 60 to 100 [[rpm]], and are up to 15m tall. They often run on cheap low-grade fuel, which require extra heat treatment in the ship for tanking and before injection due to their low [[volatility]]. Companies such as [[Burmeister & Wain]] and [[Wärtsilä]] (e.g., [[Sulzer]] Diesels) design such large [[low speed engine]]s. They are unusually narrow and tall due to the addition of a [[crosshead bearing]]. Today (2005), the [[Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C]] turbocharged two-stroke diesel engine is the most powerful and most efficient prime-mover in the world, with cylinder bores of 960mm (38 in) and stroke of 2500mm (98 in), producing up to 80MW (110,000 hp) in the 14-cylinder configuration.
===Unusual applications===
====Aircraft====
''Main article: [[aircraft diesel engine]]''
The [[zeppelin]]s ''Graf Zeppelin II'' and [[Hindenburg_disaster|''Hindenburg'']] were propelled by ''reversible'' diesel engines. The direction of operation was changed by shifting gears on the camshaft. From full power forward, the engines could be brought to a stop, changed over, and brought to full power in reverse in less than 60 seconds.
Diesel engines were first tried in aircraft in the 1930s with the [[Junkers Jumo 205]], which was moderately successful, but proved unsuitable for combat use in WWII. Another proposal was the complex [[Napier Nomad]]. In general, though, the lower power-to-weight ratio of diesels, particularly compared to [[kerosene]]-powered [[turboprop]] engines, has precluded their use in this application.
The very high cost of [[avgas]] in Europe, and the advances in automotive diesel technology, have seen renewed interest in the concept. New, certified diesel-powered light planes are already available, and a number of other companies are also developing new engine and aircraft designs for the purpose. Many of these run on the readily-available jet fuel, or can run on both jet fuel or conventional automotive diesel.
====Automobile racing====
Although the weight and lower output of a diesel engine tend to keep them away from automotive racing applications, there are many diesels being raced in classes that call for them, mainly in truck racing, as well in types of racing where these drawbacks are less severe, such as [[land speed record]] racing. [http://www.cumminsracing.com/ Diesel engined dragsters] even exist, despite the diesel's drawbacks being central to performance in this sport. In 1952, [http://www.cummins.com/eu/pages/en/whoweare/cumminshistory.cfm Cummins Diesel] won the pole at the [[Indianapolis 500]] race with a supercharged 3 liter diesel car, relying on torque and fuel efficiency to overcome weight and low peak power, and led most of the race until the badly situated air intake of the car swallowed enough debris from the track to disable the car.
Recently, there had been a renewed interest in racing with diesel engine and the VAG is one of the best example. Their DAKAR rally entrants for 2005 and 2006 are powered by their own line of TDI engines. Meanwhile, the five time Le Mans winner Audi R8 race car is going to be replaced by the [[Audi R10]] in Le Mans 2006, which is powered by a 650 HP (485kW) and 1100N·m (810 lbf·ft) V12 TDI Common Rail diesel engine; however, the significance of this is lessened by the fact that the race rules favour diesels[http://www.orlandosentinel.com/classified/automotive/orl-lede906feb09,0,1268454.story?coll=orl-automotive-headlines].
==Current and future developments==
Already, many common rail and unit injection systems employ new injectors using stacked [[piezoelectric]] crystals in lieu of a solenoid, which gives finer control of the injection event.
[[Variable geometry turbochargers]] have flexible vanes, which move and let more air into the engine depending on load. This tech |
report for Eastern Persian]
* [http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=pes Ethnologue report for Western Persian]
* [http://www.easypersian.com/ Easypersian.com]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/translation/Farsi/ Dictionary] with Persian - English Translations from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
* [http://www.aryanpour.com/ Aryanpour Persian-English English-Persian Dictionary]
* [http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=63 UCLA Language Materials Project: Persian]
* [http://www.unipers.com/ UniPers.com A proposed Latin-based writing system designed specifically for the Persian language.]
* [http://www.persiandirect.com Persian Linguistics Association]
* [http://homepages.nyu.edu/%7Emmk4/AATP.htm American Association of Teachers of Persian (AATP)]
* [http://www.voanews.com/persian VOA’s Persian Language Service]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian BBC’s Persian Language Service]
* [http://www.dwelle.de/persian Deutsche Welle’s Persian Service]
* [http://iran-heritage.org/interestgroups/language-articles.htm An Online Persian Language Forum]
*[http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html Iranian Language Family]
[[Category:Classical languages]]
[[Category:Iranian culture]]
[[Category:Iranian languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Languages of Iran]]
[[Category:Languages of Tajikistan]]
[[Category:Languages of Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Languages of Russia]]
[[Category:Persian language| ]]
[[ar:لغة فارسية]]
[[az:Fars dili]]
[[bs:Farsi (jezik)]]
[[cs:Perština]]
[[da:Persisk]]
[[de:Persische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma persa]]
[[eo:Persa lingvo]]
[[fa:فارسی]]
[[fr:Persan]]
[[ko:페르시아어]]
[[hy:Պարսկերեն]]
[[id:Bahasa Persia]]
[[is:Persneska]]
[[it:Lingua persiana]]
[[he:פרסית]]
[[ka:სპარსული ენა]]
[[kw:Persek]]
[[ku:Farsî]]
[[la:Lingua Persica moderna]]
[[lv:Farsi]]
[[li:Perzisch]]
[[hu:Perzsa nyelv]]
[[nl:Nieuw-Perzisch]]
[[ja:ペルシア語]]
[[no:Persisk språk]]
[[nn:Farsi]]
[[pl:Język perski]]
[[pt:Língua persa]]
[[ru:Персидский язык]]
[[sr:Персијски језик]]
[[fi:Persian kieli]]
[[sv:Persiska]]
[[tt:Farsı tele]]
[[th:ภาษาเปอร์เซีย]]
[[tr:Farsça]]
[[zh:波斯語]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Farsi</title>
<id>11601</id>
<revision>
<id>40673623</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T05:16:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Houshyar</username>
<id>894928</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Farsi''' may refer to:
* [[Persian language]], spoken in various parts of the near east
*[[Farsi Island]], an Iranian island in the Persian Gulf
*the Jafari [[Shia]] [[Tajiks]] of Central Asia.
People,
* [[Salman the Persian]] (Salman al-Farsi), one of the prophet Muhammad's companions
* [[Al-Farisi]] (1260-1320), Persian mathematician and physicist.
*[[Jalaleddin Farsi]], a presidential candidate in Iran.
* [[Fouad al-Farsi]], Saudi Information Minister.
{{disambig}}
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Farsi}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.farsisites.com/english-farsi-dictionary/ Persian (Farsi) to English and English to Persian Dictionary]
* [http://www.farsichat.com/ A place to speak and practice Persian (Farsi) with other Persian speaking users around the world]
* [http://www.farsisites.com/ an open directory project of dedicated to collection list of Persian Sites]
*[http://public.csusm.edu/persian/ Some Persian links]
[[bs:Farsi]]
[[fr:Farsi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frances Abington</title>
<id>11603</id>
<revision>
<id>36703025</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T22:24:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Layla12275</username>
<id>830713</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Frances''' or '''Fanny Abington''' ([[1737]] &ndash; [[March 4]], [[1815]]) was an [[England|English]] [[Actor|actress]].
She was born '''Frances Barton''', the daughter of a private soldier, and began her career as a flower girl and a street singer. As servant to a [[France|French]] [[milliner]], she learned about costume and acquired a knowledge of [[French language|French]] which afterwards stood her in good stead. Her first appearance on the stage was at [[The Haymarket]] in [[1755]] as Miranda in [[Susannah Centlivre|Mrs Centlivre]]'s play, ''Busybody''. In [[1756]], on the recommendation of [[Samuel Foote]], she became a member of the [[Drury Lane]] company, where she was overshadowed by Mrs Pritchard and [[Kitty Clive]]. In [[1759]], after an unhappy marriage to her music teacher, a royal trumpeter, she is mentioned in the bills as "Mrs Abington". Her first success was in [[Ireland]] as Lady Townley, and it was only after five years, on the pressing invitation of [[David Garrick]], that she returned to Drury Lane. There she remained for eighteen years, being the first to play more than thirty important characters, notably [[Lady Teazle]] ([[1777]]). Her Shakespearean heroines -Beatrice, [[Portia]], [[Desdemona (Othello)|Desdemona]] and [[Ophelia (character)|Ophelia]] - were no less successful than her comic characters - Miss Hoyden, Biddy Tipkin, Lucy Lockit and Miss Prue. It was as the last character in ''[[Love for Love]]'' that Sir [[Joshua Reynolds]] painted his best portrait of her. In [[1782]] she left Drury Lane for [[Covent Garden]]. After an absence from the stage from [[1790]] until [[1797]], she reappeared, quitting it finally in [[1799]]. Her ambition, personal wit and cleverness won her a distinguished position in society, in spite of her humble origin. Women of fashion copied her clothing, and a head-dress she wore was widely adopted and known as the ''Abington cap.''
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1737 births|Abington, Frances]]
[[Category:1815 deaths|Abington, Frances]]
[[Category:English actors|Abington, Frances]]
[[Category:English stage actors|Abington, Frances]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Free software definition</title>
<id>11604</id>
<revision>
<id>15909342</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-07T04:14:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dysprosia</username>
<id>14486</id>
</contributor>
<comment>mk redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Free software]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fundamental Dimensions</title>
<id>11605</id>
<revision>
<id>15909343</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T17:11:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Fundamental unit]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fundamental unit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fundamtenal</title>
<id>11607</id>
<revision>
<id>15909345</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fundamental]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FireWire</title>
<id>11608</id>
<revision>
<id>41654663</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:54:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rufus Sarsaparilla</username>
<id>666229</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Security issues */ -- I think "sinks" was actually what was intended.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Firewire6-pin.jpg|thumb|A 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector]]
'''FireWire''' (also known as '''i.Link''' or '''[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]] 1394''') is a [[personal computer]] (and digital [[digital audio|audio]]/[[digital video|video]]) [[serial bus]] interface standard, offering high-speed communications and [[isochronous]] [[real-time]] data services. FireWire has replaced [[SCSI]] in many applications due to lower implementation costs and a simplified and more adaptable cabling system.
Almost all modern digital [[camcorder]]s have included this connection since [[1995]]. Many computers intended for home or professional audio/video use have built-in FireWire ports including all [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] and [[Sony]] computers currently produced. FireWire was also an attractive feature on the Apple [[iPod]] for several years, permitting new tracks to be uploaded in a few seconds and also for the battery to be recharged concurrently with one cable.
==Standards and versions==
[[Image:Logo firewire125.png|right|FireWire color logo]]
FireWire was developed by [[Apple Computer]] in the 1990s, after work defining a slower version of the interface by the IEEE 1394 working committee in the 1980s. IEEE proposed the [[standardization|standard]] as a serial replacement for the [[SCSI]] bus. Apple's development was completed in [[1995]]. It is defined in IEEE standard 1394 which is currently a composite of three documents: the original IEEE Std. 1394-1995, the IEEE Std. 1394a-2000 amendment, and the IEEE Std. 1394b-2002 amendment. Sony's implementation of the system is known as i.Link, and uses only the four signal pins, discarding the two pins that provide power to the device in favor of a separate power connector on Sony's i.Link products.
The system is commonly used for connection of [[data storage device]]s and [[digital video]] cameras, but is also popular in industrial systems for [[machine vision]] and professional audio systems. It is used instead of the more common [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] due to its faster effective speed, higher power distribution capabilities, and because it does not need a computer host. Perhaps more importantly, FireWire makes full use of all SCSI capabilities and, compared to USB 2.0 H |
beginning of a word, it is pronounced as a [[voiced uvular fricative|uvular fricative]], {{IPA|[ʁ]}}, with less friction between syllables, and as a non-syllabic [[near-open central vowel|low central vowel]], {{IPA|[ɐ]}}. The latter is almost identical to how /r/ is often pronounced in [[German language|German]].
==Grammar==
{{main|Danish grammar}}
The infinitive forms of most Danish verbs end in a vowel, which in almost all cases is the letter ''e''. Verbs are conjugated according to [[Grammatical tense|tense]], but otherwise do not vary according to [[Grammatical person|person]] or [[Grammatical number|number]]. For example the present tense form of the Danish infinitive verb ''spise'' ("to eat") is ''spiser''; this form is the same regardless of whether the subject is in the first, second, or third person, or whether it is singular or plural. This extreme ease of conjugating verbs is made up for by the many [[Irregular verb|irregular verbs]] in the language.
Danish nouns fall into two grammatical genders: ''common'' and ''neuter''. While the majority of nouns (ca. 90%) have the ''common'' gender and ''neuter'' is often used for inanimate objects, the genders of nouns are not generally predictable and must in most cases be memorized. A distinctive feature of the Scandinavian languages, including Danish, is an enclitic definite article.
To demonstrate: The ''common'' gender word "a man" (indefinite) is ''en mand'' but "the man" (definite) is ''manden''. The ''neuter'' equivalent would be "a house" (indefinite) ''et hus'', "the house" (definite) ''huset''. Even though the definite and indefinite articles have separate origins, they have become homographs. In the plural the definite articles is ''-ene'', whereas there is no indefinite article in the plural. The enclitic article is not used when an adjective is added to the noun; here the demonstrative pronoun is used instead: ''den store mand'' "the big man" and "the big house", ''det store hus''
Like most Germanic languages, Danish joins compound nouns. The example ''kvindehåndboldlandsholdet'', "the female handball national team", illustrates that it does so to a significantly higher degree than [[English language|English]]. In some cases, nouns are joined with an extra ''s'', like ''landsmand'' (from ''land'', "country", and ''mand'', "man", meaning "compatriot"), but ''landmand'' (from same roots, meaning "farmer"). Some words are joined with an extra ''e'', like ''gæstebog'' (from ''gæst'' and ''bog'', meaning "guest book").
==Vocabulary==
Most Danish words are derived from the [[Old Norse language]], with new words formed by compounding. A large percentage of Danish words, however, hails from [[Middle Low German]] (for example, betale = to pay, måske = maybe). Later on, [[German language|standard German]] and [[French language|French]] and now [[English language|English]] have superseded Low German influence. Because English and Danish are related languages, many common words are very similar in the two languages. For example, the following Danish words are easily recognizable in their written form to English speakers: ''have'', ''over'', ''under'', ''for'', ''kat''. When pronounced, these words sound quite different from their English equivalents, however. In addition, the suffix ''by'', meaning "town", occurs in several English placenames, such as ''Whitby'' and ''Selby'', as remnants of the [[Viking]] occupation.
===Numerals===
In Danish numerals, the tens and units digits of numbers above 20 are reversed when spoken or written, such that 21 is rendered ''enogtyve'' or ''en-og-tyve'', i.e. one and twenty. (The dashes in ''en-og-tyve'' and in the similar examples below are not commonly used, but are included here for clarity.) This is similar to [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and also to some variants of [[Bokmål]] Norwegian (sometimes known as [[Riksmål]]). Danish numerals from 50 to 90 are based on a [[vigesimal]] system similar to that of [[French language|French]] not shared with the other Scandinavian languages. This means that the [[score]] (i.e. 20, ''tyve'' or, archaically, ''snes'') is used as a base number: ''Tres'' (short for ''tre-sinds-tyve'' or ''tre snese'') means 3 times 20, that is 60. Similarly, ''halvtreds'' (short for ''halvtred-sinds-tyve'') means 2.5 times 20, that is 50. The numeral ''halvanden'' means 1.5 (literally "half second", i.e. the first plus half of the second). The numerals ''halvtredje'' (2.5) and ''halvfjerde'' (3.5), likewise constructed by "overcounting", are obsolete, but still implicitly used in the vigesimal system. The ending ''-indstyve'' is archaic in [[cardinal number]]s, but still often used in [[ordinal number]]s. Thus, "fifty-two" is usually rendered ''to-og-halvtreds'', whereas "fifty-second" is either ''to-og-halvtredsende'' or ''to-og-halvtredsindstyvende''. Many Danes are unaware of the vigesimal roots of such numerals.
==Writing system==
Danish is written using the [[Latin alphabet]], with three additional letters: ''[[Æ|æ]]'', ''[[Ø|ø]]'', and ''[[Å|å]]'', which come at the end of the [[Danish alphabet]], in that order. A [[spelling reform]] in [[1948]] introduced the letter ''å'', already in use in Norwegian and Swedish, into the Danish alphabet to replace the letter ''aa''; the old usage still occurs in some personal and geographical names and old documents (for example, the name of the city of ''Ålborg'' is often spelled ''Aalborg''). When representing the ''å'' sound, ''aa'' is treated just like ''å'' in alphabetical sorting, even though it looks like two letters.
The same spelling reform changed the spelling of a few common words, such as ''vilde'', ''kunde'' and ''skulde'', to their current forms of ''ville'', ''kunne'' and ''skulle'', and did away with the practice of capitalising all nouns, which [[German language|German]] still does. Modern Danish and Norwegian use the same alphabet, though spelling differs somewhat.
==See also==
* [[Synnejysk]]
==References==
* [[Hans Basbøll|Basbøll, Hans]] (2005) ''The Phonology of Danish'' ISBN 0-19-824268-9
== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=da}}
{{book}}
*[http://danish.nigilist.ru/ Danish-English, English-Danish online dictionary]
*[http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?k1=23 All free Danish dictionaries]
*[http://www.ordnet.dk/ods/ Dictionary of the Danish Language]
*[http://www.speakdanish.dk/index.html "Speak Danish" 10 day intensive online course]
*[http://www.eulanguages.net/ "STELLA Danish" free online course for beginners]
*[http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=dan Ethnologue report for Danish]
*[http://www.dsn.dk/omdsn_en.htm Information on the Danish language]
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/translation/Danish/ Dictionary] with Danish- English Translations from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
*[http://hjem.tele2adsl.dk/johnmadsen/Danish/danish.html Danish grammar]
* [http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&to_lang=19&learn-Danish/ Hear and learn useful expressions in Danish]
*[http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/danish.htm List of online Danish-language related resources]
{{Official EU languages}}
[[Category:Danish language]]
[[Category:Guttural R]]
[[Category:Languages of Denmark]]
[[Category:Languages of Germany]]
[[Category:North Germanic languages]]
[[af:Deens (taal)]]
[[ang:Denisc sprǣc]]
[[ar:لغة دانماركية]]
[[bg:Датски език]]
[[be:Дацкая мова]]
[[bs:Danski jezik]]
[[ca:Danès]]
[[cs:Dánština]]
[[da:Dansk (sprog)]]
[[de:Dänische Sprache]]
[[et:Taani keel]]
[[es:Idioma danés]]
[[eo:Dana lingvo]]
[[fr:Danois]]
[[gl:Lingua dinamarquesa]]
[[ko:덴마크어]]
[[io:Daniana linguo]]
[[id:Bahasa Denmark]]
[[is:Danska]]
[[it:Lingua danese]]
[[he:דנית]]
[[ka:დანიური ენა]]
[[kw:Danek]]
[[la:Lingua Danica]]
[[lt:Danų kalba]]
[[li:Deens]]
[[hu:Dán nyelv]]
[[nl:Deens]]
[[nds:Däänsche Spraak]]
[[ja:デンマーク語]]
[[no:Dansk språk]]
[[nn:Dansk språk]]
[[pl:Język duński]]
[[pt:Língua dinamarquesa]]
[[ro:Limba daneză]]
[[ru:Датский язык]]
[[se:Dánskkagiella]]
[[sk:Dánčina]]
[[sl:Danščina]]
[[fi:Tanskan kieli]]
[[sv:Danska]]
[[th:ภาษาเดนมาร์ก]]
[[tr:Danca]]
[[uk:Данська мова]]
[[zh:丹麦语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Decade (Neil Young album)</title>
<id>8228</id>
<revision>
<id>41800436</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:04:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rikkila</username>
<id>841415</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other albums named ''Decade'', see [[decade (disambiguation)]].''
{{Album infobox | <!-- Wikipedia Project Albums infobox -->
Name = Decade |
Type = [[Compilation album]] |
Artist = [[Neil Young]] |
Cover = NeilYoung_Decade.jpg |
Background = darkseagreen |
Released = November, [[1977]] |
Recorded = |
Genre = [[Country rock]], [[Folk-rock]], [[Rock (music)|Rock]] |
Length = 143:40 |
Label = [[Reprise Records|Reprise]] |
Producer = Elliot Mazer |
Reviews = <nowiki></nowiki>
*''[[All Music Guide]]'' [[Image:5 out of 5.png|5 out of 5]] [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:um09kent7q7z link] |
Last album = ''[[American Stars'n'Bars]]''<br />(1977) |
This album = ''Decade''<br />(1977) |
Next album = ''[[Comes a Time]]''<br />(1978) |
}}
'''''Decade''''' is a [[Double album|triple]]-[[compilation album]] by [[Neil Young]], released in [[1977]]. It contains thirty-five of Young's songs between [[1966]] and [[1976]], as well as five tracks that were unreleased up to that point.
When re-release on Compact disc this was reduced to a two disc set, also it was remastered in 20 |
story of Hungary
[[be:Гісторыя Венгрыі]]
[[cs:Dějiny Maďarska]]
[[de:Geschichte Ungarns]]
[[es:Historia de Hungría]]
[[eo:Historio de Hungario]]
[[ko:헝가리의 역사]]
[[he:היסטוריה של הונגריה]]
[[lt:Vengrijos istorija]]
[[hu:Magyar történelem]]
[[ja:ハンガリーの歴史]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Hongarije]]
[[pl:Historia Węgier]]
[[pt:História da Hungria]]
[[fi:Unkarin historia]]
[[sv:Ungerns historia]]
[[uk:Історія Угорщини]]
[[zh:匈牙利历史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hans Christian Oersted</title>
<id>13549</id>
<revision>
<id>15911148</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-17T22:35:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Hans Christian Ørsted]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hans Christian Ørsted]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hans Christian Andersen</title>
<id>13550</id>
<revision>
<id>41509094</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:11:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.16.197.123</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{other}}
[[Image:HCAndersen.jpeg|thumb|Hans Christian Andersen.<br><small>Photographed by Thora Hallager.<br>Source: [http://www.odmus.dk/ Odense Bys Museer]</small>]]
'''Hans Christian Andersen''', ([[April 2]] [[1805]] - [[August 4]] [[1875]]) was a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[author]] and [[poet]] most famous for his [[fairy tale|fairy tales]]. In Danish his name is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈhænˀs ˈkʰʁæsd̥jæn ˈanɔsn̩]}} or simply {{IPA|[ho̞ se ˈanɔsn̩]}} (the ''d'' is silent).
== Personal life ==
Andersen was born in [[Odense]], [[Denmark]], on Tuesday, [[April 2]] [[1805]]. He was the son of a impoverished sickly 22-year-old shoemaker [http://www.hcandersen-homepage.dk/hcandersen/foedsel-daab/hans.jpg] and an [[alcoholic]] laundress, several years older than her husband. The entire family lived and slept in a single tiny room.
Andersen's father apparently believed that he might be related to nobility, and according to scholars at the [[Father Hans Christian Andersen Center]], his paternal grandmother told him that the family had once been in a higher social class. However, investigation has provided proof that these stories to be unfounded. The family apparently did have some connections to Danish royalty, but these were work-related. Nevertheless, the theory that Andersen was the illegitimate son of royalty persists in Denmark. The writer Rolf Dorset insists that not all options have been explored in determining Andersen's heritage.
Andersen displayed imagination even as a young boy, a trait fostered by the indulgence of his parents and by the superstition of his mother. He made himself a small toy-theatre and sat at home making clothes for his puppets, and reading all the plays that he could lay his hands upon; among them were those of [[Ludvig Holberg]] and [[William Shakespeare]]. Andersen, throughout his childhood, had a passionate love for literature. He was known to memorize entire plays by Shakespeare and to recite them using his wooden dolls as actors.
In 1816, his father died and the young boy had to start earning a living. He worked as an apprentice boy for both a weaver and a tailor, and later worked in a cigarette factory where his fellow workers humiliated him by betting on whether he was in fact a girl, pulling down his trousers to check. At the age of 14, Andersen moved to [[Copenhagen]] seeking employment as an actor on the [[theatre|stage]]. He had a pleasant soprano voice and succeeded in being admitted to the [[Royal Danish Theatre]]. This career stopped short when his voice broke. A colleague at the theatre had referred to him as a poet, and Andersen took this very seriously and began to focus on writing.
[[Image:Hans christian andersen 1869.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Hans Christian Andersen in 1869]]
Following an accidental meeting, King [[Frederick VI of Denmark|Frederick VI]] of Denmark started taking an interest in the odd boy and sent Andersen to the grammar [[school]] [http://www.hcandersen-homepage.dk/skolegang_slagelse.htm] in [[Slagelse]]. The education was paid for by the King. Before even being admitted to grammar-school, Andersen had already succeeded in publishing his first story, ''[[The Ghost at Palnatoke's Grave]]'' in (1822). Andersen, though a backward and unwilling pupil, studied both in Slagelse and at a school [http://www.hcandersen-homepage.dk/skolegang_helsingoer.htm] in [[Elsinore]] until 1827. He later stated that these years had been the darkest and most bitter parts of his life. He had experienced living in his schoolmaster's own home, being abused in order to "build his character", and he had been the odd man out among his fellow students, being much older than most of them.
The feeling of "being different", usually resulting in pain, is a recurrent motif in his work. One of the most telling stories in that respect is the tale of [[The Little Mermaid]], who takes her own life since she cannot be loved by a beautiful prince. It is thought to exemplify his love for the young Edvard Collin, to whom he wrote: ''I languish for you as for a pretty Calabrian wench ... my sentiments for you are those of a woman. The femininity of my nature and our friendship must remain a mystery.'' Collin, who was not erotically attracted to men, wrote in his own memoir: ''I found myself unable to respond to this love, and this caused the author much suffering.'' Likewise, the infatuations of the author for the Danish dancer [[Harald Scharff]] and the young duke of [[Weimar]] did not result in notable partnerships. In academic circles, it is being controversially discussed whether Andersen was [[homosexual]]. This discussion begain in 1901 with the article "Hans Christian Andersen: Evidence of his Homosexuality" by Carl Albert Hansen Fahlberg (using the pseudonym Albert Hansenin) in [[Magnus Hirschfeld]]'s publication "Jahrbuch für sexuelle Zwischenstufen."
In Andersen's early life, his private journal records his refusal to have sexual relations and his unabashed release through [[masturbation]].
In the spring of 1872, Andersen fell out of bed and severely hurt himself. He never quite recovered, but he lived until the [[August 4]] [[1875]], dying [http://www.hcandersen-homepage.dk/doeden-hca.htm] very peacefully in a house called ''Rolighed'' (literally: calmness), near [[Copenhagen]]. His body was interred in the [[Assistens Cemetery|Assistens Kirkegård]] in the [[Nørrebro]] area of [[Copenhagen]]. At the time of his death, he was an internationally reknown and treasured artist.
2005 is the bicentenary of Andersen's birth and his life and work has been celebrated around the world. The interest in Andersen's person, legacy and writing has never been greater. In Denmark, particularly, the nation's most famous son has been feted like no other literary figure. [http://dr.dk/hcandersen The Hans Christian Andersen Bicentenary Website] is an excellent resource.
== Life as an author ==
In 1829, Andersen enjoyed a considerable success with a fantastic story entitled ''[[A Journey on Foot from Holmen's Canal to the East Point of Amager]]'', and during the same season, he published both a farce and a collection of poems. His first success happened at a time when his friends had ultimately given up hope for him, deciding that his early eccentricity and vivacity would never lead to anything good. He had little further progress, however, until 1833, when he received a small travelling grant from the King, making the first of his long [[European]] journeys. At Le Locle, in the Jura, he wrote ''[[Agnete and the Merman]]''; and in October 1834 he arrived in [[Rome]].
Andersen's first novel, ''[[The Improvisatore]]'', was published in the beginning of 1835, and became an instant success. His humble beginnings as a poet had finally come to an end. During the same year, Andersen published the first installment of his immortal ''Fairy Tales'' (Danish: ''Eventyr''). More stories, completing the first volume, were published in 1836 and 1837. The quality of these stories was not immediately recognised and they sold poorly. At the same time, Andersen enjoyed more success with two novels: ''O.T.'' (1836) and ''[[Only a Fiddler]]'' (1837).
In 1851, he published to wide acclaim ''[[In Sweden]]'', a volume of travel [[sketch comedy|sketches]]. A keen traveller, Andersen published several other long travelogues: ''[[Shadow Pictures of a Journey to the Harz, Swiss Saxony, etc. etc. in the Summer of 1831]]'' (1831), ''[[A Poet's Bazaar]]'' (1842), ''[[In Spain]]'' (1863), and ''[[A Visit to Portugal in 1866]]'' (1868). In his travelogues Andersen took heed of some of the contemporary conventions about travel writing, but always developing the genre to suit his own purposes. Each of his travelogues combines documentary and descriptive accounts of the sights he saw with more philosophical excurses on topics such as being an author, immortality, and the nature of fiction in the literary travel report. Some of the travelogues, such as ''[[In Sweden]]'', even contain fairy-tales.
In the 1840s Andersen's attention returned to the stage, however with no great success. His true genius was however proven in the charming [[miscellany]] the ''[[Picture-Book without Pictures]]'' (1840). The fame of his ''Fairy Tales'' had grown steadily; a second series began in 1838 and a third in 1845.
Andersen was now celebrated throughout [[Europe]], although his native [[Denmark]] still showed some resistance to his pretensions. In June 1847, he paid his first visit to [[England]] and enjoyed a triumphal social success. [[Charles Dickens]] invited him to stay at his place for a fortnight, but Andersen stayed for 6 weeks, not understanding Dickens' increasingly blatant hints that Anderson sho |
he origin of icons is quite different from that of some secular scholars and from some in contemporary Roman Catholic circles: "''The Orthodox Church maintains and teaches that the sacred image has existed from the beginning of Christianity''" (Leonid Ouspensky, ''Theology of the Icon," St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1978). Accounts that some non-Orthodox writers consider legends are, within Eastern Orthodoxy, accepted as history, because they are a part of Church Tradition. Thus accounts such as that of the miraculous "Image Not Made by Hands," and the weeping and moving "Mother of God of the Sign" of Novgorod are accepted as fact: "''Church Tradition tells us, for example, of the existence of an Icon of the Savior during His lifetime (the "Icon-Made-Without-Hands") and of Icons of the Most-Holy Theotokos [Mary] immediately after Him.''" (''These Truths we Hold'', St. Tikhon's Seminary Press, 1986). Eastern Orthodox further believe that "a clear understanding of the importance of Icons" was part of the church from its very beginning, and has never changed, although explanations of their importance may have developed over time. This is due to the fact that iconography is rooted in the theology of the Incarnation (Christ being the ''eikon'' of God) which didn't change, though its subsequent clarification within the Church occurred over the period of the first seven Ecumenical Councils. Also, icons served as tools of edification for the faithful during most of the history of Christendom when most couldn't read nor write.
Eastern Orthodox find the first instance of an image or icon in the Bible when God made man in His own image (Septuagint Greek ''eikona''), recorded in Genesis 1:26-27. In Exodus, God commanded that the Israelites not make any graven image; but soon afterwards, he commanded that they make graven images of cherubim and other like things, both as statues and woven on tapestries. Later, Solomon included still more such imagery when he built the first temple. Eastern Orthodox believe these qualify as icons, in that they were visible images depicting heavenly beings and, in the case of the cherubim, used to indirectly indicate God's presence above the Ark.
In Numbers it is written that God told Moses to make a bronze serpent and hold it up, so that anyone looking at the snake would be healed of their snakebites. In John 3, Jesus refers to the same serpent, saying that he must be lifted up in the same way that the serpent was. [[John of Damascus]] also regarded the brazen serpent as an icon. Further, Jesus Christ himself is called the "image of the invisible God" in Colossians 1:15, and is therefore in one sense an icon. As people are also made in God's images, people are also considered to be living icons, and are therefore "censed" along with painted icons during Orthodox prayer services. [[Image:ac.byzantine1.jpg|thumb|300px|A somewhat disinterested (not to say jejune) treatment of the highly emotional subject and painstaking attention to the throne and other details of the material world distinguish this superb work by a medieval [[Sicilian]] master from genuine works by imperial icon-painters of Constantinople.]]
According to John of Damascus, anyone who tries to destroy icons "is the enemy of Christ, the Holy Mother of God and the saints, and is the defender of the Devil and his demons." This is because the theology behind icons is closely tied to the Incarnational theology of the humanity and divinity of Jesus, so that attacks on icons typically have the effect of undermining or attacking the Incarnation of Jesus himself as elucidated in the Ecumenical Councils.
The Eastern Orthodox teaching regarding [[veneration]] of icons is that the praise and veneration shown to the icon passes over to the archetype (Basil of Caesarea,''On the Holy Spirit'' 18:45: "''The honor paid to the image passes to the prototype''"). Thus to kiss an icon of Christ, in the Eastern Orthodox view, is to show love towards Christ Jesus himself, not mere wood and paint making up the physical substance of the icon. Worship of the icon as somehow entirely separate from its prototype is expressly forbidden by the Seventh Ecumenical Council; standard teaching in the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches alike conforms to this principle. The Catholic Church accepts the same Councils and the canons therein which codified the teaching of icon veneration.
The Latin Church of the West, which after 1054 was to become separate as the Roman Catholic Church, accepted the decrees of the iconodule Seventh Ecumenical Council regarding images. There is some minor difference, however, in the Catholic attitude to images from that of the Orthodox. Following Gregory the Great, Catholics emphasize the role of images as the ''Biblia Pauperum'', the “Bible of the Poor,” from which those who could not read could nonetheless learn. This view of images as educational is shared by most Protestants.
Catholics also, however, accept in principle the Eastern Orthodox veneration of images, believing that whenever approached, images of the cross, saints, etc. are to be reverenced. Though using both flat wooden panel and stretched canvas paintings, Catholics traditionally have also favored images in the form of three-dimensional statuary, whereas in the East statuary is much less widely employed.
==''Eikon'' in the Septuagint==
The Greek word ''eikon'' means an image or likeness of any kind. Anything that represents something else is an ''eikon''. Nothing is implied about sanctity or its absence, or veneration or its absence by the word itself.
The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures used by the early Christians, and Eastern Orthodox consider it the only authoritative text of those Scriptures. In it the word ''eikon'' is used for everything from man being made in the divine image to the "molten idol" placed by Manasses in the Temple. The word eikon is found in:
#Genesis 1:26-27;
#Genesis 5:1-3;
#Genesis 9:6;
#Deuteronomy 4:16
#1 Samuel (1 Kings) 6:11 (Alexandrian manuscript);
#2 Kings 11:18;
#2 Chronicles 33:7;
#Psalm 38:7
#Psalm 72:20;
#Isaiah 40, 19-20;
#Ezekiel 7:20;
#Ezekiel 8:5 (Alexandrian manuscript);
#Ezekiel 16:17;
Ezekiel 23:14;
Daniel 2:31,32,34,35;
Daniel 3:1,2,3,5,7,11,12,14,15,18;
Hosea 13:2
Be aware that Septuagint numberings and names and the English Bible numberings and names are not uniformly identical.
==''Eikon'' in the New Testament==
In the New Testament the term is used for everything from Jesus as the image of the invisible God (Colossians 1:15) to the image of Caesar on a Roman coin (Matthew 22:20) to the image of the Beast in the Apocalypse (Revelation 14:19). Here is a complete listing:
#Matthew 22:20;
#Mark 12:16
#Luke 20:24
#Romans 1:23
#Romans 8:29;
#1 Corinthians 11:7;
#1 Corinthians 15:49
#2 Corinthings 3:18;
#2 Corinthians 4:4;
#Colossians 1:15;
#Colossians 3:10;
#Hebrews 10:1;
#Revelation 13:13;
#Revelation 13:15;
#Revelation 14:9;
#Revelation 14:11
#Revelation 15:2
#Revelation 16:2
#Revelation 19:20;
#Revelation 20:4.
==See also==
{{commons|Icon}}
*[[Simulacrum]] | [[Crucifix]] | [[Templon]] | [[Proskynetarion]] | [[Symbolism]] | [[Religious symbolism]] | [[Jewish symbolism]] | [[Christian symbolism]] | [[Anthropology of religion]] | [[List of religious topics]] | [[Emblem]] | [[Iconoclasm]] | [[Iconography]] | [[Iconostasis]] | [[Ideogram]] | [[Idolatry]] | [[Image]] | [[Ishta-Deva]] | [[Lingam]] | [[Logotype]] | [[Masking]] | [[Murti]] | [[Saligrama]] | [[Sign]] | [[Symbol]] | [[Veneration]]
== External links ==
=== Orthodox ===
*[http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/orth_icon.aspx The Iconic and Symbolic in Orthodox Iconography]
*[http://www.traditionaliconography.com/webgalleryart.html On the difference of Western Religious Art and Orthodox Iconography]
=== Catholic ===
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07664a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':]"Veneration of Images"
=== Protestant ===
*[http://www.xpucmoc.org/icon.htm ''Theology of Icons: a Protestant Perspective'']
=== Pictures ===
*[http://www.culture.gr/2/21/218/218ab/e218ab00.html Icons of Mount Athos]
*[http://www.auburn.edu/academic/liberal_arts/foreign/russian/icons/ Russian Icons from 12th to 18th century]
*[http://www.goarch.org/access/resources/clipart/ Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America: Icons]
*[http://www.icon-art.info/gallery.php?lng=en Gallery of icons, murals and mosaics (mostly Russian) from 11th to 20th century]
*[http://www.instaplanet.com/icon.html Two 19th century Russian icons depicting Saint Nicholas]
{{Eastern Christianity}}
[[Category:Religious objects]]
[[Category:Art genres]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[de:Ikone]]
[[es:Ícono]]
[[eo:Ikono (religio)]]
[[fr:Icône (religion)]]
[[he:איקונין]]
[[mk:Икони]]
[[nl:Icoon (schilderkunst)]]
[[ja:イコン]]
[[pl:Ikona]]
[[ru:Икона]]
[[sr:Икона]]
[[fi:Ikoni]]
[[sv:Ikon]]
[[uk:Ікона]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Icon programming language</title>
<id>14801</id>
<revision>
<id>40364422</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Icon''' is a very high-level [[programming language]] featuring ''goal directed execution'' and excellent facilities for managing [[string (computer science)|strings]] and textual patterns. It is related to [[SNOBOL]], a string processing language. '''Icon''' is not object-oriented, but an object-oriented extension called Idol was developed in [[1996]] which eventually became [[Unicon programming language|Unicon]].
==Basic syntax==
The icon language is derived from the [[Algol]]-class of [[structured programming]] languages, and thus has |
]], the film tells the story of a taciturn American soldier who is sent to "terminate with extreme prejudice" the command of a rogue [[United States Army Special Forces]] [[colonel]]. The narrative of his journey and its culmination are studded with events which, while bizarre, are based on real Vietnam stories. The soldier's journey becomes increasingly nonlinear and hallucinatory. Coppola's agenda clearly involves larger themes; the film's subtext concerns a journey into the darkness of the human [[psyche]].
The film features performances by [[Martin Sheen]] as Captain Benjamin L. Willard (Marlow in Conrad's novel), [[Marlon Brando]] as Colonel Walter E. Kurtz, [[Dennis Hopper]] as a fast-talking [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogen]]-using photojournalist, and [[Robert Duvall]] in an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-nominated turn as the borderline-[[psychosis|psychotic]] [[Lt. Colonel]] Kilgore. Several other actors who were (or later became) prominent stars had minor or supporting roles in the movie including [[Harrison Ford]], [[R. Lee Ermey]] and [[Laurence Fishburne]] (who, only fourteen years old when shooting began in March 1976, was credited as 'Larry Fishburne').
The movie poster art for ''Apocalypse Now'' is one of the more famous paintings by [[Bob Peak]], who is considered an influential artist in the world of film when it comes to [[movie poster]]s.
==Background==
Filmed in the [[Philippines]] (most notably the [[Pagsanjan River]] and [[Hidden Valley Springs]]), the film went far over budget and schedule: a [[typhoon]] destroyed many of the sets, the Philippine Air Force helicopters used for shooting were constantly called back by President [[Ferdinand Marcos]] to be used in actual combat, the lead role was recast (Martin Sheen replaced [[Harvey Keitel]] after shooting had begun), Sheen then had a near-fatal [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]], Brando was intractable and out of shape, and Coppola himself was mentally fragile. Being similar in appearance and remarkably similar in voice, Martin Sheen's brother [[Joe Estevez]] [[Stand-in|stood in]] for the unwell Sheen in much of the film and some of the narration is by him.
After the first edit, the film was six hours long and had to be severely edited; the original released version was just over two and a half hours long. (Coppola re-released the film in [[2001]] under the title ''Apocalypse Now Redux'', restoring footage and sequences and lifting the running time to 200 minutes. Recent rumors have persisted that Coppola is considering releasing the true original cut on DVD, but there has been no fruition or conformation of this.) For background information on the film, see [[Eleanor Coppola]]'s documentary, ''[[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]]'', released in [[1991]].
==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}
U.S. Army Captain Benjamin L. Willard is stationed in [[Saigon]]; a seasoned veteran, he is deeply troubled and apparently no longer fit for civilian life. A group of [[Military intelligence|intelligence]] officers approach him with a special mission up-river into the remote [[Cambodia|Cambodian]] jungle to find Colonel Walter E. Kurtz, a former member of the [[United States Army Special Forces]].
They state that Kurtz, once considered a model officer and future [[general]], has apparently gone [[insane]] and is commanding a legion of his own [[Degar|Montagnard]] troops deep in [[Neutral country|neutral]] Cambodia. Their claims are supported by very disturbing radio broadcasts and/or recordings made by Kurtz himself. Willard is asked to undertake a mission to find Kurtz and dispose of him "with extreme prejudice."
Willard studies the intelligence files during the boat ride to the river entrance and learns that Kurtz, isolated in his compound, has assumed the role of a warlord and is worshipped by the natives and his own loyal men. Another officer, sent earlier to kill Kurtz, has apparently become one of his lieutenants.
Willard will begin his trip up the [[Mekong River]] on a PBR ([[Patrol boat, rigid|Patrol Boat, River]]), with an eclectic crew composed of by-the-book and formal [[Chief Petty Officer|Chief]] Phillips, a black Navy boat commander; [[Petty Officer Third Class|GM3]] Lance B. Johnson, a tanned all-American [[California]] surfer; [[Petty Officer Third Class|GM3]] Tyrone, AKA "Clean", a black 17-year-old from [[The Bronx]]; and the [[Cajun]] Engineman, Jay "Chef" Hicks.
[[Image:Apocalype Now Huey.jpg|thumbnail|The village attack scene in ''Apocalypse Now''.]]
The PBR arrives at a [[Landing Zone]] where Willard and the crew meet up with [[Lt. Colonel]] [[Bill Kilgore]], the merciless commander of the [[air cavalry|AirCav]] in the region, following a massive and hectic mopping-up operation of a conquered enemy town. Kilgore, a keen surfer, befriends Johnson. Later, he learns from one of his men that the beach down the coast which marks the opening to the river is perfect for [[surfing]], a factor which persuades him to capture it. The problem is, his troops say, it's "[[Viet Cong|Charlie]]'s point" and heavily fortified. Dismissing this complaint with the explanation that "Charlie don't surf!", Kilgore orders his men to saddle up in the morning so that the AirCav can capture the town and the beach. Riding high above the coast in a fleet of [[UH-1 Iroquois|Huey]]s accompanied by [[Hughes H-6|H-6]]s, Kilgore launches an attack on the beach. The scene, famous for its use of [[Richard Wagner]]'s epic "[[Ride of the Valkyries]]", ends with the soldiers surfing the barely claimed beach amidst skirmishes between infantry and VC. After helicopters swoop over the village and demolish all visible signs of resistance, a giant [[napalm]] strike in the nearby jungle dramatically marks the [[climax (narrative)|climax]] of the battle. "I love the smell of [[napalm]] in the morning; smells like...victory," Kilgore exults to Willard. The quote made it to #12 onto the [[American Film Institute]]'s [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes]], a list of top movie quotes.
[[Image:Apocalypse_Now_Smell_Like_Victory.jpg|thumbnail|"I love the smell of napalm in the morning...It smells like...victory."]]
The lighting and mood darken as the boat navigates upstream and Willard's silent obsession with Kurtz deepens. Episodes on the journey include a run-in with a [[tiger]] while Willard and Chef search for [[mango]] fruits, an impromptu inspection of a Vietnamese [[sampan]] that leads to massacre, a surreal stop at the last American outpost during a Vietnamese attack against a wood bridge under construction there, and the shocking deaths of both "Clean" and Chief Phillips during a gunfire ambush with hidden Viet Cong soldiers and a spear thrown by a native on the shore, respectively.
Once arrived at Kurtz's compound, Willard leaves Chef behind with orders to call in an [[air strike]] on the village if he does not return. They are met by a borderline-psychotic freelance photographer (Hopper) who explains Kurtz's greatness and [[philosophy|philosophic]] skills to provoke his people into following him. Brought before Kurtz and held in captivity in a darkened temple, Willard’s constitution appears to weaken as Kurtz lectures him on his theories of war, [[humanity]], and [[civilization]]. Kurtz explains his motives and philisophy in a famous and haunting monolgue:
'' I've seen horrors... horrors that you've seen. But you have no right to call me a murderer. You have a right to kill me. You have a right to do that... but you have no right to judge me. It's impossible for words to describe what is necessary to those who do not know what horror means. Horror. Horror has a face... and you must make a friend of horror. Horror and moral terror are your friends. If they are not then they are enemies to be feared. They are truly enemies. I remember when I was with Special Forces. Seems a thousand centuries ago. We went into a camp to inoculate the children. We left the camp after we had inoculated the children for Polio, and this old man came running after us and he was crying. He couldn't see. We went back there and they had come and hacked off every inoculated arm. There they were in a pile. A pile of little arms. And I remember... I... I... I cried. I wept like some grandmother. I wanted to tear my teeth out. I didn't know what I wanted to do. And I want to remember it. I never want to forget it. I never want to forget.
''And then I realized... like I was shot... like I was shot with a diamond... a diamond bullet right through my forehead. And I thought: My God... the genius of that. The genius. The will to do that. Perfect, genuine, complete, crystalline, pure. And then I realized they were stronger than we. Because they could stand that these were not monsters. These were men... trained cadres. These men who fought with their hearts, who had families, who had children, who were filled with love... but they had the strength... the strength... to do that. If I had ten divisions of those men our troubles here would be over very quickly. You have to have men who are moral... and at the same time who are able to utilize their primordial instincts to kill without feeling... without passion... without judgment... without judgment.'' '''Because it's judgment that defeats us'''.''
While bound outside in the pouring rain, Willard is approached by Kurtz, who places the severed head of Chef in his lap. Coppola makes little explicit, but we come to believe that Willard and Kurtz develop an understanding nonetheless; Kurtz wishes to die at Willard's hands, and Willard, having subsequently granted Kurtz his wish, is offered the chance to succeed him in his warlord-[[demigod]] role. Juxtaposed with a ceremonial slaughtering of a [[water buffalo]], Willard enters Kurtz's chamber during one of his message recordings, and kills him with a machete (Thi |
沙耶夫]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Armenian language</title>
<id>2217</id>
<revision>
<id>41847937</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:13:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.140.188.62</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Armenian
|nativename= Հայերեն ''Hayeren''
|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=[[Armenia]], [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], and the [[Armenian Diaspora|Armenian diaspora]]
|speakers=7 million
|nation=[[Armenia]], [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]
|iso1=hy|iso2b=arm|iso2t=hye|iso3=hye
}}
'''Armenian''' is an [[Indo-European language]] spoken by the [[Armenians|Armenian people]] in the [[Armenia|Armenian]] Republic and also used by the [[Armenian Diaspora]]. It constitutes an independent branch of the Indo-European language family, though many Indo-Europeanists believe it forms a subgroup with the Greek and Indo-Iranian families (see Clackson 1994 for extensive discussion).
==General considerations==
Armenian is regarded as a close relative of [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]]. From the modern languages [[Greek language|Greek]] seems to be the most closely related to Armenian. Armenian shares major [[isogloss]]es with Greek, some linguists propose that the linguistic ancestors of the Armenians and Greeks were either identical or in a close contact relation. Armenian and Phrygian show no close relationship with the [[Anatolian languages]] other than borrowings. The Anatolian loan words within Armenian indicate that proto-Armenians were in contact with both [[Luwian]] speakers and with [[Hittites]]. The Classical Armenian language (often referred to as grabar, literally "written (language)") imported numerous words from Middle Iranian languages, primarily [[Parthian]], and contains smaller inventories of borrowings from Greek, Syriac, Latin, and autochthonous languages such as [[Urartian language|Urartian]]. Middle Armenian (11th–15th centuries AD) incorporated further loans from Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and Latin, and the modern dialects took in hundreds of additional words from Modern Turkish and Persian. The two modern literary dialects, Western (originally associated with writers in the Ottoman Empire) and Eastern (originally associated with writers in the Russian Empire), removed almost all of their Turkish lexical influences in the 20th century, primarily following the genocide of the Armenians in Anatolia by the Turks in 1915–1920.
Armenian is written in the [[Armenian alphabet]], created by Saint [[Saint Mesrob|Mesrop Mashtots]] in [[406]] AD. This alphabet, with two additional letters, is still used today.
Literature written in Armenian appeared by the [[5th century]]. The written language of that time, called [[classical Armenian]] or [[Grabar]], remained the Armenian literary language, with various changes, until the 19th century. Meanwhile, spoken Armenian developed independently of the written language. Many dialects appeared when Armenian communities became separated by geography or politics, and not all of these dialects remained mutually intelligible.
==Grammar==
Armenian resembles other Indo-European languages in its structure, but it shares distinctive sounds and features of its grammar with neighboring languages of the [[Caucasus]] region. Armenian is rich in combinations of consonants. Both classical Armenian and the modern spoken and literary dialects have a complicated system of declining nouns, with six or seven noun cases but no gender. In modern Armenian the use of auxiliary verbs to show tense (comparable to will in "he will go") has generally supplemented the inflected verbs of classical Armenian. Negative verbs are conjugated differently from positive ones (as in English "he goes" and "he does not go"). Grammatically, early forms of Armenian had much in common with classical [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]], but the modern language, like modern Greek, has undergone many transformations.
[[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]] studied the Armenian language. He helped to compile an Armenian grammar textbook and translated a few Armenian books into English.
==Phonology==
[[Classical Armenian]] distinguishes seven vowels:
''a'', ''i'', ''[[schwa]]'', open ''e'', closed ''e'', ''o'', and ''u'' (transcribed as ''a'', ''i'', ''ə'', ''e'', ''ē'', ''o'', ''ow'' and ''u'' respectively).
The [[stop consonant|occlusives]] have a special aspirated series (transcribed with a Greek ''[[spiritus asper]]'' after the letter): ''{{unicode|p῾}}'', ''{{unicode|t῾}}'', ''{{unicode|c῾}}'', ''{{unicode|č῾}}'', ''{{unicode|k῾}}''.
==Morphology==
===Noun===
Classical Armenian has no [[grammatical gender]], not even in the pronoun. The nominal inflection, however, preserves several types of inherited stem classes. The noun may take seven cases, [[nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[locative]], [[genitive]], [[dative]], [[ablative]], [[instrumental case|instrumental]].
===Verb===
''Main article: [[Armenian verbs]]''
Verbs in Armenian have an expansive system of [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] with two main verb types (three in Western Armenian) changing form based on tense, mood and aspect.
==Dialects==
One of the greatest differences in the two modern dialects is the way certain letters are pronounced. Eastern Armenian speakers have kept the original pronunciations of the letters, pronouncing each of the 38 letters quite distinctively. On the other hand, Western Armenian speakers pronounce a few of the letters in the same way. This has to do with Western Armenians living in regions where other languages, which lacked these rich variations, were also widely spoken and therefore have been influenced by the pronunciations of these other languages (usually either Arabic or Turkish.)
For example, the Armenian language has the letter "t" ({{Hayeren|թ}}), aspirated as in "tiger", the letter "d" ({{Hayeren|դ}}) as in "develop", and another letter which is an unaspirated voiceless stop, sounding somewhere between the two as in "s'''t'''op" ({{Hayeren|տ}}). Western Armenians will pronounce the "tiger" and "develop" examples in the same way, where as Eastern Armenian speakers pronounced each of the three differently.
Armenian also has many other unique letters not heard in other languages. There are two different "k"s; as well as a letter sounding like a cross between "p" and "b"; two "r" letters, one pronounced with a rolling "r" sound; the letter "gh" pronounced like the French "r"; "kh" a harder pronunciation also found in many Middle Eastern languages; as well as the letters "ts", "tz", "dz", "dch", "uh" like the "a" sound in the word "arrange"; and many more. These are just a few examples that make Armenian a rich and unique language.
There is no precise linguistic border between one dialect and another because there is nearly always a dialect transition zone of some size between pairs of geographically identified dialects). The main difference between both blocks are:
*'''Western Armenian''' (''Arevm'tahayeren''):
** example
*'''Eastern Armenian''' (''Arevelahayeren''):
** example
In addition, neither dialect is completely homogeneous: any dialect can be subdivided into several subdialects. Armenian can be subdivided in two major dialectal blocks and those blocks into individual dialects, though many of the Western Armenian dialects have died due to the effects of the Armenian Genocide:
{| border=0 cellspacing=10 cellpadding=10
| width="50%" valign=top bgcolor="#E7E7FF" |
'''Western Armenian'''
* ''Anatolia''
** ''Istanbul''
** ''Cilicia'' (Musa Ler, Marash, Sis, etc)
** ''Van''
** ''Bitlis''
* ''Europe''
** ''Bulgaria''
** ''Poland''
** ''Romania''
** ''Greece''
* ''Asia''
** ''Lebanon''
** ''Syria''
** ''Jerusalem''
* ''Africa''
** ''Egypt''
| width="50%" valign=top bgcolor="#E7E7FF" |
'''Eastern Armenian''' (ex-USSR and Iran)
* ''Republic of Armenia''
** ''Yerevan''
** ''Gavar''
** ''Syuniq''
** ''Kumayri (Gyumri)''
* ''Republic of Mountainous Karabakh''
* ''Iran''
* ''Georgia''
* ''Russia''
|}
''English - Eastern Armenian''
*Yes = Ayo ({{Hayeren|այո}})
*No = Voch ({{Hayeren|ոչ}})
*Excuse me = Neroghoutioun ({{Hayeren|ներողութիւն}})
*Hello = Barev ({{Hayeren|բարեւ}})
*Please = Khintrem ({{Hayeren|խնդրեմ}})
*Thank you = Shnorhakal em ({{Hayeren|շնորհակալ եմ}})
*Thank you very much = Shat shnorhakal em ({{Hayeren|շատ շնորհակալ եմ}})
*Welcome = Bari galust ({{Hayeren|բարի գալուստ}}) / Barov eq yekel
*Goodbye = Tstesoutioun ({{Hayeren|ցտեսութիւն}})
*Good morning = Bari louys ({{Hayeren|բարի լոյս}})
*Good afternoon = Bari or ({{Hayeren|բարի օր}})
*Good evening = Bari yereko ({{Hayeren|բարի երեկոյ}})
*Good night = Bari gisher ({{Hayeren|բարի գիշեր}})
*I love you = Yes sirum em qez ({{Hayeren|ես սիրում եմ քեզ}})
==See also==
*[[Language families and languages]]
*[[List of Indo-European languages]]
*[[Armenian alphabet]]
==References==
* [[J.P. Mallory]], In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth. London: Thames & Hudson, 1989.
* Clackson, James. 1994. The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek. London: Publications of the Philological Society, No 30.
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=hy}}
*[http://www.armeniapedia.org/index.php?title=Armenian_Lessons Armeniapedia.org - free Armenian lessons on the Armenian Wiki]
*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/arm.htm Free online resources for learners]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hye Ethnologue report on Armenian]
* http://www.cilicia.com
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/armenian.htm The Armenian alphabet]
* [http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/a |
&nbsp;[[inch]]es (81.3&nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]) and an average annual rainfall of 41&nbsp;inches (1,040 mm). The wettest seasons are the [[spring (season)|spring]] and [[summer]], although rainfall is fairly constant all year round. During the [[winter]], particularly in January and February, several days of [[snow]] can be expected, allowing for [[winter sports]], although snowfall is lighter than in most of [[Ohio]]. Winter temperatures range from 27 to 43 °F (−3 to 6 °C) and summer temperatures range from 66 to 86 °F (19 to 30 °C).{{mn|NOAA|1}} The highest recorded temperature was 103.0&nbsp;°F (39.4&nbsp;°C) on [[1988-08-17]], and the lowest recorded temperature was −22&nbsp;°F (−30 °C) on [[1994-01-19]].{{mn|MaxMinTemps|2}}
===Neighborhoods===
{{main|List of Cincinnati neighborhoods}}
Cincinnati's unique geography nestles its neighborhoods in small basins and the hillsides that overlook them. Because of this, many of the city's neighborhoods developed very strong identities. Today's outer neighborhoods such as [[Clifton, Cincinnati|Clifton]], [[Hyde Park, Cincinnati|Hyde Park]], [[Mt. Washington, Cincinnati|Mt. Washington]] and [[Carthage, Cincinnati|Carthage]] were originally settled as their own villages, with individual downtown sections of their own. [[Over-the-Rhine]] was an important neighborhood in [[German-American]] history. Also important to the city's landscape is the division into "East and West Sides." The division came about after the construction of I-75, which runs North from Kentucky towards Dayton. The rivalry has been intense at times (very limited violence or reported discrimination), but is mostly considered light-hearted. Accents, fashion, city planning (ie: the way the houses are laid out), financial demographics, and other items are some of the stereotypes and behaviors that separate the two distinctions. One of the descriptions of such differences is the statement that the East side "has the money and spends it," and the West Side, "has the money and doesn't spend it." Even though this division is often pointed to as being a point of contention there have only been limited incidents of violence or litigious discrimination and it's considered a "charming quirk" more than a divisive hinderance to society.
==Demographics==
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="float:right; margin-left:15px;"
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Cincinnati <br>Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
| align=center |
1810 - 2,540 <br>
1820 - 9,642 <br>
1830 - 24,831 <br>
1840 - 46,338 <br>
1850 - 115,435 <br>
1860 - 161,044 <br>
1870 - 216,239 <br>
1880 - 255,139 <br>
1890 - 296,908 <br>
1900 - 325,902 <br>
1910 - 363,591 <br>
1920 - 401,247 <br>
1930 - 451,160 <br>
1940 - 455,610 <br>
1950 - 503,998 <br>
1960 - 502,550 <br>
1970 - 452,524 <br>
1980 - 385,457 <br>
1990 - 364,040 <br>
2000 - 331,285
|}
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2003]], there are 317,361 people, 166,012 households, and 72,566 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 1,640.5/km² (4,249.0/mi²). There are 166,012 housing units at an average density of 822.1/km² (2,129.2/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 52.97% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 42.92% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.21% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.55% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.63% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.68% from two or more races. 1.28% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 148,095 households out of which 25.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 26.6% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 18.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 51.0% are non-families. 42.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.15 and the average family size is 3.02.
The age distribution is 24.5% under the age of 18, 12.9% from 18 to 24, 31.6% from 25 to 44, 18.7% from 45 to 64, and 12.3% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 32 years. For every 100 females there are 89.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 85.6 males.
Although the city was ranked as one of the poorest cities in the United States in 2003, the median income for a household in the city is $29,493, and the median income for a family is $37,543. Males have a median income of $33,063 versus $26,946 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $19,962. 21.9% of the population and 18.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 32.0% of those under the age of 18 and 14.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
There has been concerted effort by the local government to stem the tide of emigrants. The amount of those living in Cincinnati have decreased. Many of those leaving are living in the suburbs just outside of Cincinnati (often considered "[[Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky metropolitan area|Greater Cincinnati]]"), however, even considering the Greater Cincinnati area there has been an overall loss of population. Several reasons are mentioned for this phenomenon, including job opportunities, entertainment, racial tensions, education opportunities and others.
==Fountain Square==
[[Image:Cincinnati-fountain-square-full.jpg|thumb|left|[[w:Tyler Davidson Fountain|Tyler Davidson Fountain]], centerpiece of Fountain Square.]]
[[Fountain square|Fountain Square]] is a public square in downtown Cincinnati, located at Fifth Street and Vine. Its centerpiece is the landmark bronze [[Tyler Davidson Fountain]]. The square is a popular [[hardscape]], surrounded by hotels, banks, department stores, and restaurants. The space was donated to the city of Cincinnati by prominent citizen Henry Probasco and dedicated on its completion in 1871 to his brother-in-law, Tyler Davidson. In 1998 the fountain underwent extensive restoration. In September 2005 the fountain was temporarily moved to the Cincinnati Art Museum while Fountain Square itself undergoes extensive renovation.
Fountain Square was featured in the credits of the television series ''[[WKRP in Cincinnati]]''.
==Riverfront==
Being situated on the Ohio River, Cincinnati is home to several prominent bridges that connect the downtown to [[Covington, Kentucky]] and [[Newport, Kentucky]], including the picturesque [[John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge]]; the [[Daniel Carter Beard Bridge]] (aka The [[Big Mac]] Bridge); and the [[Purple People Bridge]].
==Education==
[[Cincinnati Public Schools]] operates the public schools in the city. Among these schools are [[Walnut Hills High School]] and the [[School for Creative and Performing Arts]] (SCPA).
The Cincinnati area is also home to a number of Catholic high schools, most of which are [[Single-sex school|single-sex]]. These schools include:
*Archbishop [[Elder High School]]
*[[Bishop Fenwick High School]]&nbsp;&ndash; coed
*[[La Salle High School]]
*[[ Mc Auley High School]]
*Archbishop [[McNicholas High School]]&nbsp;&ndash; coed
*[[Mother of Mercy High School]]
*Archbishop [[Moeller High School]]
*[[St. Ursula Academy]]
*Archbishop [[Purcell Marian High School]]&nbsp;&ndash; coed
*[[St. Xavier High School (Hamilton County, Ohio)|St. Xavier High School]]
*[[Mount Notre Dame High School]]
*[[Ursuline Academy]]
The city of Cincinnati is also home to a variety of private schools. Among these are the [[Seven Hills School]], [[Summit Country Day School]], [[Cincinnati Hills Christian Academy]] and [[Cincinnati Country Day School]].
==Media==
===Print===
Cincinnati is served by two daily newspapers: The ''[[Cincinnati Enquirer]]'', owned by the [[Gannett]] Co., and The ''[[Cincinnati Post]]'', owned by the [[E.W. Scripps Company]], as well as an African American newspaper (The ''[[Cincinnati Herald]]''), a Jewish newspaper, (The ''[[American Israelite]]'') and weekly newspapers ''[[Cincinnati CityBeat|CityBeat]]'' and ''[[CiN Weekly]]''. The ''Cincinnati Business Courier'' [http://cincinnati.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/] is a weekly business publication and ''[[Cincinnati Magazine]]'' comes out once a month.
===Television===
*The following TV stations serve the Cincinnati area:
**[[WLWT]] [http://www.channelcincinnati.com/ Channel 5] ([[NBC]]), owned by [[Hearst-Argyle]]
**[[WCPO]] [http://www.wcpo.com/ Channel 9] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]), owned by [[Scripps-Howard]]
**[[WKRC]] [http://www.wkrc.com/ Channel 12] ([[CBS]]), owned by [[Clear Channel]]
**[[WXIX]] [http://www.fox19.com/ Channel 19] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]), owned by [[Raycom Media]]
**[[WSTR-TV]] [http://www.wb64.net/ Channel 64] ([[The WB Television Network|WB]]), owned by [[Sinclair Broadcast Group]]
**[[WOTH]] [http://www.wbqc.com/woth/ Channel 25], owned by WBQC (below)-- (low power)
**[[WBQC]] [http://www.wbqc.com Channel 38] ([[UPN]])-- (low power)
**[[WCET]] [http://www.wcet.org Channel 48] ([[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]])
===Radio===
{{See also|:Category:Radio stations in Cincinnati, Ohio}}
*These are the major talk and music radio stations in the Cincinnati area:
**55WKRC AM Talk Radio "The Talk Station" [http://www.55krc.com]
**[[WLW|NewsRadio 700 WLW AM]] "The Big One" [http://www.700wlw.com]
**Sacred Heart Radio 740 AM [http://www.sacredheartradio.com]
**News Talk 1160 WBOB AM [http://www.wbob.com]
**1360 Homer AM "The Sports Animal" Sports Radio [http://www.1360homer.com]
* |
stan's traditional agricultural mainstay. Overall agricultural production dramatically declined following 3 years of drought as well as the sustained fighting, instability in rural areas, and deteriorated infrastructure. Soviet efforts to disrupt production in resistance-dominated areas also contributed to this decline as did the disruption to transportation resulting from ongoing conflict.
The war against the Soviet Union and the ensuing civil war also led to migration to the cities and refugee flight to Pakistan and Iran, further disrupting normal agricultural production. Recent studies indicate that agricultural production and livestock numbers are only sufficient to feed about half of Afghanistan's population. Shortages are exacerbated by the country's already limited transportation network, which has deteriorated further due to damage and neglect resulting from war and the absence of an effective central government.
Opium became a source of cash for some Afghans, especially following the breakdown in central authority after the Soviet withdrawal. Opium-derived revenues constituted a major source of income for the two main factions. The [[Taliban]] earned roughly $40 million per year on opium taxes alone. Opium is easy to produce and transport and offers a quick source of income for impoverished Afghans. Afghanistan has been the world's largest producer of opium for most of the past decade. In [[2000]], the Taliban banned opium poppy cultivation in part to attract foreign aid and, allegedly, to control the opium market with large existing stockpiles that earned substantially large price increases. While cultivation of opium poppy was virtually eliminated in Taliban-controlled areas, drug trafficking has continued unabated. Later, in 2001, the Taliban reportedly announced that poppy cultivation could resume. Much of Afghanistan's opium production is refined into [[heroin]] and is either consumed by a growing regional addict population or exported, primarily to Western [[Europe]]. The current [[Afghanistan Interim Authority]] had began to enact major counter-narcotics policies and programs.
==Economic Stats (Illegal trade)==
According to research by the Afghan government and the [[United Nations]], presented [[December 11]], [[2005]], two million people (about 9% of the population) are engaged in [[illegal drug trade|illegal]] [[opium poppy|poppy]] cultivation, but the farmers receive less than 20% of the profit. Afghanistan produces 80% of the world’s opium.
==Trade and Industry==
Trade accounts for a small portion of documented Afghan economy, and there are no reliable statistics relating to trade flows. In 1996, exports, not including opium, were estimated at $80 million and imports estimated at $150 million. Since the Soviet withdrawal and the collapse of the Soviet Union, other limited trade relationships are emerging with Central Asian states, Pakistan, Iran, the EU, and Japan. Afghanistan trades little with the United States. Afghanistan does not enjoy U.S. most-favored-nation (MFN) trading status, which was revoked in 1986.
Afghanistan is endowed with a wealth of natural resources, including extensive deposits of [[natural gas]], [[petroleum]], [[coal]], [[copper]], [[chromite]], [[talc]], [[barites]], [[sulfur]], [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[iron ore]], [[salt]], and precious and semiprecious stones. In the 1970s the Soviets estimated Afghanistan had as much as 142 km&sup3; (5 trillion cubic feet) of natural gas, 15 million m&sup3; (95 million barrels) of oil and condensate reserves, and 400 million tons of coal. Unfortunately, the country's continuing conflict, remote and rugged terrain, and inadequate transportation network usually have made mining these resources difficult, and there have been few serious attempts to further explore or exploit them.
The most important resource has been natural gas, first tapped in 1967. At their peak during the 1980s, natural gas sales accounted for $300 million a year in export revenues (56% of the total). Ninety percent of these exports went to the Soviet Union to pay for imports and debts. However, during the withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1989, Afghanistan's natural gas fields were capped to prevent sabotage by the [[mujahidin]]. Restoration of gas production has been hampered by internal strife and the disruption of traditional trading relationships following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Gas production has dropped from a high of 8,200,000 m&sup3; (290 million cubic feet) per day in the 1980s to a current low of about 600,000 m&sup3; (22 million cubic feet) in 2001.
Trade in goods smuggled into Pakistan once constituted a major source of revenue for Afghan regimes, including the Taliban, and also figured as an important element in the Afghan economy. Many of the goods smuggled into Pakistan originally entered Afghanistan from Pakistan, where they fell under the Afghan Trade and Transit Agreement (ATTA), which permitted goods bound for Afghanistan to transit Pakistan free of duty. When Pakistan clamped down in 2000 on the types of goods permitted duty-free transit, routing of goods through Iran from the Gulf increased significantly. Shipments of smuggled goods were subjected to fees and duties paid to the Afghan Government. The trade also provided jobs to tens of thousands of Afghans on both sides of the Durand Line, which forms the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Pakistan's closing its Afghan border in September 2001 presumably drastically curtailed this traffic.
==Economic Development and Recovery==
Afghanistan embarked on a modest economic development program in the 1930s. The government founded banks; introduced paper money; established a university; expanded primary, secondary, and technical schools; and sent students abroad for education. In 1956, the Afghan Government promulgated the first in a long series of ambitious development plans. By the late 1970s, these had achieved only mixed results due to flaws in the planning process as well as inadequate funding and a shortage of the skilled managers and technicians needed for implementation.
These constraints on development have been exacerbated by the flight of educated Afghans and the disruption and instability stemming from the Soviet occupation and ensuing civil war. Today, economic recovery and long-term development will depend on establishing an effective and stable political system and an end to more than 22 years of conflict.
The UN and the international donor community continue to provide considerable humanitarian relief. Since its inception in 1988, the umbrella UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance to Afghanistan (UNOCHA) has channelled more than $1 billion in multilateral assistance to Afghan refugees and vulnerable persons inside Afghanistan. The U.S., the European Union (EU), and Japan are the leading contributors to this relief effort. One of its key tasks is to eliminate from priority areas--such as villages, arable fields, and roads--some of the 5 to 7 million land mines and 750,000 pieces of [[unexploded ordnance]], sown mainly during the Soviet occupation, which continue to litter the Afghan landscape. Afghanistan is the most heavily mined country in the world; mine-related injuries number up to 300 per month. Without successful mine clearance, refugee repatriation, political stability, and economic reconstruction will be severely constrained.
==National accounts==
''The majority of the following information is taken from, or adapted from the CIA World Factbook 2003''
'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]''': purchasing power parity - $20 billion (2003 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate''':
* 29% (2003 est.) note: this high growth rate reflects the extremely low levels of activity between 1999 and 2002, as well as the end of a four-year drought and the impact of donor assistance
* 7.5% (2004 est.)
'''GDP - per capita''': purchasing power parity - $700 (2003 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector''':
*''agriculture'': 60%
*''industry'': 20%
*''services'': 20% (1990)
'''Population below poverty line''':
* 23% (2002)
* 53% (2003)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share''':
*''lowest 10%'': NA%
*''highest 10%'': NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices)''': 5.2% (2003)
'''Labor force''': 11.8 million (2001 est.)
'''Labor force - by occupation''': agriculture 80%, industry 10%, services 10% (1990 est.)
'''Unemployment rate''': NA%
'''Budget''':
*''revenues'': $200 million
*''expenditures'': $550 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (2003 plan)
'''Industries''': small-scale production of [[textile]]s, [[soap]], [[furniture]], [[shoe]]s, [[fertilizer]], and [[cement]]; handwoven [[carpet]]s; natural [[gas]], [[petroleum]], [[coal]], [[copper]]
'''[[Electricity]] - production''': 334.8 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - production by source''':
*''fossil fuel'': 36.3%
*''hydro'': 63.7%
*''nuclear'': 0%
*''other'': 0% (2001)
'''Electricity - consumption''': 511.4 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - exports''': 0 kWh (2001)
'''Electricity - imports''': 200 GWh (2001)
'''Oil - production:''' 0 barrel/day (2001 est.)
'''Oil - consumption:''' 3,500 barrel/day (560 m&sup3;/d) 2001
'''Natural gas - production:''' 220 million m&sup3; (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - consumption:''' 220 million m&sup3; (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - proved reserves:''' 49.98 km&sup3; ([[1 January]] [[2002]])
'''Agriculture - products''': [[opium]] poppies, [[wheat]], [[fruit]]s, [[nut (fruit)|nuts]], [[karakul]] pelts
'''Exports''': $98 million (not including illicit exports) (2002 est.)
'''Exports - commodities''': [[opium]], [[wheat]], fruits and nuts, handwoven [[carpet]]s, [[wool]], [[cotton]], hides and pelts, precious and semi-precious gems
'''Exports - partners''': [[United States|US]] (26.1%), [[France]] (17%), [[Pakistan]] (17%), [[India]] (16.1%). (2003 est.)
'''Imports''': $1.007 billion (2002 est.)
'''Imports - comm |
re-Dreadnoughts.
The American [[South Carolina class battleship|''South Carolina'' class]] battleships were begun before ''Dreadnought'', and had most of her features, except for the steam turbines; however, their final design was not completed before ''Dreadnought,'' and their construction took much longer. Smaller than ''Dreadnought'' at 16,000 tons standard displacement, they carried eight 12 inch guns in four twin turrets arranged in superfiring pairs fore and aft along the centreline of the keel. This arrangement gave ''South Carolina'' and her sister ''Michigan'' a broadside equal to ''Dreadnought's'' without requiring the cumbersome [[wing turrets]] that were a feature of the first few British dreadnought classes.
===The superdreadnought===
[[Image:2nd Battle Squadron.jpg|thumb|300px|''Orion''-class battleships in line]]
The arrival of superdreadnoughts is not as clearly identified with a single ship in the same way that the dreadnought era was initiated by HMS ''Dreadnought''. However, it is commonly held to start with the British [[Orion class battleship|''Orion'' class]], and for the German navy with the [[König class battleship|''König'']]s.
The ''Orions'' were just one step in a breathtakingly rapid evolution that ''Dreadnought'' had initiated. What made them "super" was the unprecedented jump in displacement of 2,000 tons over the previous class, the introduction of the heavier 13.5&nbsp;inch (343&nbsp;mm) gun, and the distribution of all the main armament on the centreline of the keel . Thus, in the four years that separated the laying down of ''Dreadnought'' and [[HMS Orion (1910)|''Orion'']], displacement had increased by 25%, and weight of broadside had doubled.
Superdreadnoughts also incorporated, during construction, the latest technical gunnery advances. Thus they received director control, designed from the outset with larger observation positions with range finders and electrical repeaters aloft, mechanical calculators and predictors in protected positions below, and very advanced alignment and correction devices for the guns.
The design weakness of super dreadnoughts, which distinguished them from post-Great War designs, was armour disposition. Their design placed emphasis on vertical protection which was needed in short range battles. These ships were capable of engaging the enemy at 20,000 metres, but were vulnerable to the angle of fire that came at such ranges. Post-war designs typically had 5 to 6 inches of deck armour to defend against this dangerous, plunging fire. Lack of underwater protection was also a weakness of these pre-World War I designs which were devleoped only as the threat of the torpedo became real.
The superdreadnoughts that were built had been surpasssed by designs developed during the Great War. Any remaining that served in World War II had all either received extensive modifications, or were a source of extreme anxiety because of their vulnerability to more modern battleships, or both.
==World War I==
[[Image:British Grand Fleet 2.jpg|thumb|300px|British Grand Fleet during WWI]]
A naval [[arms race]] had been ongoing between [[Germany]] and the [[United Kingdom]] since the [[1890]]s. The building of ''Dreadnought'' actually helped Germany in this, as instead of having a lead of 15 or so ships of the latest type, the United Kingdom now had a lead of just one. Furthermore, the United Kingdom 's policy of maintaining a navy larger than the world's second and third largest navies combined was becoming unsustainably expensive. All other battleship navies switched over in the next few years to building Dreadnought-type ships as well.
At this point in time, the [[Royal Navy]] of the United Kingdom had ruled the seas for several centuries, but the German emperor [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Kaiser Wilhelm II]] and his naval minister, [[Alfred von Tirpitz]], set out to change that, in part for strategic reasons, but mainly due to a simple desire to challenge the United Kingdom. The culmination of this race led to a stalemate in [[World War I]]. The [[High Seas Fleet|German High Seas Fleet]] and the [[British Grand Fleet]] were too valuable to be risked in battle and so both spent the majority of the war in port, waiting to respond should the other go to sea. Paradoxically, the ships were too valuable (strategically, at least) to leave at port, and too expensive to use in battle. Apart from some operations in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] against Russia, Germany's main fleet limited itself to making battlecruiser raids on the British east coast, in an attempt to lure part of the British fleet out so that it could be defeated by the waiting High Seas Fleet. In their turn, the British made sweeps of the [[North Sea]], and both sides laid extensive [[Naval mine|minefield]]s. Although there were several naval battles, the only engagement between the main British and German fleets was the abortive [[Battle of Jutland]], a German tactical victory of sorts (fourteen British ships were sunk to eleven German, although the High Seas Fleet fled the field) but a British strategic victory, as although the German fleet was not destroyed it took longer to come back to operational status than the British and mostly remained in port for the rest of the war.
After World War I, the [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|Armistice with Germany]] required that most of the High Seas Fleet be interned at [[Scapa Flow]], [[Scotland]]. Most of these ships were subsequently [[Scuttling|scuttled]] by their German crews on [[21 June]] [[1919]] just before the formal surrender of Germany. As far as the German sailors were concerned, they were undefeated; it was felt that their ships should not fall into the hands of the British.
==World War II==
[[Image:Yamatotrials.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]'s [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamato'']] and her sister ship [[Japanese battleship Musashi|''Musashi'']] were the largest battleships in history. (1941)]]
With the [[Washington Naval Treaty]] of [[1922]], the major navies of the world scaled back their battleship programs, with numerous ships on all sides scrapped or re-purposed. With extensions, that treaty lasted until [[1936]], when the major navies of the world began a new arms race. Famous ships like [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']], [[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|''Prince of Wales'']] and [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamato'']] were all launched in the next few years. During the conflict naval warfare evolved quickly and battleships lost their position as the principal ships of the fleet. Most new-build World War II battleships had similar layouts, typically equipped with three triple turrets of 14" to 16" caliber (18.1" in the mighty ''Yamatos'') in a "2-A-1" layout, and the superstructure flanked with secondary guns of 4-6" caliber. The big guns of ''Yamato'' were intended to outmatch any armor in the world, even the sophisticated and tough armor of the American and British battleships, but in practice they were no more powerful than the 16" guns of the American WW2 battlewagons.
In the early stages of the [[Second Battle of the Atlantic|battle of the Atlantic]], Germany's surface units threatened the Atlantic convoys supplying the United Kingdom, so the British surface units devoted themselves to protecting the convoys, and seeking out and trying to destroy the German ships, as well as lying in wait at Scapa Flow. The German battleship raiders recorded early successes, with [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst|''Scharnhorst'']] and [[German battlecruiser Gneisenau|''Gneisenau'']] surprising and sinking the aircraft carrier [[HMS Glorious|HMS ''Glorious'']] off western Norway in June [[1940]]. A subsequent cruise in the North Atlantic netted the ''Scharnhorst'' and ''Gneisenau'' 22 ships. On [[24 May]] 1941 during an attempt to break out into the North Atlantic, ''Bismarck'' sank the [[battlecruiser]] [[HMS Hood (1918)|HMS ''Hood'']]. The Royal Navy hunted down ''Bismarck''; an attack by [[Fairey Swordfish|Swordfish]] biplanes torpedo-bombers from the [[aircraft carrier]] [[HMS Ark Royal (91)|''Ark Royal'']] disabled her steering and allowing the British heavy units to catch up. Instead of further attacks by aircraft, on Monday [[27 May]] the Royal Navy's battleships [[HMS King George V (1939)|''King George V'']] and [[HMS Rodney (1925)|''Rodney'']] with 2 cruisers and a number of destroyers engaged her with guns and torpedoes. In an eighty-eight minute battle, the ''Bismarck'' was reduced to a floating hulk and then sank after her crew set off scuttling charges.
Battleships were also involved in the battle for control the Mediterranean. At the [[Battle of Taranto]] in November 1940, Swordfish aeroplanes from [[HMS Illustrious (R87)|HMS ''Illustrious'']] attacked the Italian fleet at their base at Taranto. For the loss of two aircraft, the Royal Navy effectively sank one battleship and disabled two others. The success of this raid inspired the Japanese plan to attack [[attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] which entered the planning stage three months later. At the [[Battle of Cape Matapan]], [[27 March|27]]&ndash;[[29 March]] 1941, three Italian heavy cruisers were surprised and destroyed in a brief battle with British battleships force near Crete. However, technology was overtaking the battleship. A battleship's big guns might have a range of thirty miles, but the [[aircraft carrier]] had aircraft with ranges of several hundred miles, and [[radar]] was making those attacks ever more effective. ''Bismarck'' was crippled by obsolete [[Fairey Swordfish|Swordfish]] torpedo bombers from [[HMS Victorious (R38)|''Victorious'']] and [[HMS Ark Royal (91)|''Ark Royal'']]. The Soviet dreadnought [[Soviet battleship Petropavlovsk|''Petropavlovsk'']] and Italian [[Italian battleship Roma (1940)|''Roma'']] were sunk by German air at |
d on the faculty of [[Hebrew Union College]] (HUC), the main seminary of [[Reform Judaism]], in [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]].
Increasingly uncomfortable with the lack of observance of [[halakha|Jewish law]] at HUC, Heschel sought an academic institution where critical, modern scholarship of the Bible was allowed, and yet also held that Jewish law was normative. He found such a place in [[1946]] when he came to the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] (JTS), the main seminary of [[Conservative Judaism]]. He accepted a position there as Professor of Jewish Ethics and [[Kabbalah|Mysticism]], where he served until his death in [[1972]].
Heschel explicated many facets of Jewish thought including studies on medieval Jewish [[philosophy]], [[Kabbalah]], and [[Hasidism]]. He has a special interest in the prophets, and in the proper way for Jews to incorporate religion into their lives. His books contain civil but pointed rejoinders towards those in [[Reform Judaism]] who no longer held that Jewish law was normative, and also towards those in [[Orthodox Judaism]], who Heschel held valued [[legalism]] over the spirit of the law.
Heschel did not fully fit in JTS either, however. He was more interested in spirituality than critical text study, which was a specialty of scholars at JTS. A similar disconnect between him and much of JTS faculty were due to his views on the Hebrew prophets and social justice. Heschel saw the teachings of the Hebrew prophets as a clarion call for social action in the United States, but his social activism was at the time dismissed as unimportant by most JTS faculty. They saw their job as academics and educators, and left the role of social activism to pulpit rabbis and laypeople. In later years there would be a sea change in how JTS faculty viewed this position; today most JTS faculty are more involved in social activism, and some have written that it was a mistake for JTS not to follow Heschel's lead at that time.
Heschel was particularly looked down upon by his colleague [[Mordechai Kaplan]], founder of [[Reconstructionist Judaism]], and many students who attended JTS in the [[1950s|50s]] sympathized with Kaplan over Heschel.
He married [[Sylvia Straus]] on [[December 10]], [[1946]], in [[Los Angeles]]. They had a daughter named Susannah. [[Susannah Heschel]] eventually became a scholar of Judaism in her own right.
Heschel was also known as an activist for [[civil rights]] in the USA, and an activist for freedom for [[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union|Soviet Jewry]]. He is one of the few Jewish theologians widely read by Christians. His most influential works include ''Man is Not Alone'', ''God in Search of Man'', ''The Sabbath'', and ''The Prophets''.
His life's work has inspired three namesake schools: one on the [[Upper West Side]] of [[New York City]], one in [[Northridge, California]], and one in [[Toronto]].
==Works==
===''The Prophets''===
This work started out as his Ph.D. thesis in German, which he later expanded and translated into English. Originally published in a two-volume edition, this work studies the books of the Hebrew prophets. It covers their life, the historical context that their missions were set in, summarizes their work, and discusses their psychological state. Heschel gives a detailed treatment of the entire phenomenon of prophecy, what it is, and what it means.
===''The Sabbath''===
''The Sabbath: Its Meaning For Modern Man'' is a work on the nature and celebration of [[Shabbat]], the Jewish Sabbath. This work is rooted in the thesis that Judaism is a religion of time, not space, and that the Sabbath symbolizes the sanctification of time.
===''Man is Not Alone''===
''Man Is Not Alone: A Philosophy of Religion'' offers Heschel's views on how man can apprehend God. Judaism views God as being radically different than man, so Heschel explores the ways that Judaism teaches that a person may have an encounter with the ineffable. A recurring theme in this work is the radical amazement that man experiences when experiencing the presence of the Divine. Heschel then goes to explore the problems of doubts and faith; what Judaism means by teaching that God is one; the essence of man and the problem of man's needs; the definition of religion in general and of Judaism in particular; and man's yearning for spirituality. He offers his views as to Judaism being a pattern for life.
===''God in Search of Man''===
''God in Search of Man: A Philosophy of Judaism'' is a companion volume to ''Man is Not Alone''. In this book Heschel discusses the nature of religious thought, how thought becomes faith, and how faith creates responses in the believer. He discusses ways that man can seek God's presence, and the radical amazement that man receives in return. He offers a criticism of nature worship; a study of man's metaphysical loneliness, and his view that we can consider God to be in search of man. The first section concludes with a study of [[Jews as a chosen people]]. Section two deals with the idea of [[revelation]], and what it means for one to be a prophet. This section gives us his idea of revelation as a process, as opposed to an event. This relates to Israel's commitment to God. Section three discusses his views of how a Jew should understand the nature of Judaism as a religion. He discusses and rejects the idea that mere faith (without law) alone is enough, but then cautions against rabbis he sees as adding too many restrictions to Jewish law. He discusses the need to correlate ritual observance with spirituality and love, the importance of Kavvanah (intention) when performing mitzvot. He engages in a discussion of religious behaviorism &mdash; when people strive for external compliance with the law, yet disregard the importance of inner devotion.
===''Prophetic Inspiration After the Prophets''===
Heschel wrote a series of articles, originally in Hebrew, on the existence of prophecy in Judaism after the destruction of the Holy [[Temple in Jerusalem]] in [[70]] CE. These essays were translated into English and published as ''Prophetic Inspiration After the Prophets: Maimonides and Others'' by the American Judaica publisher [[Ktav]].
The publisher of this book states, "The standard Jewish view is that prophecy ended with the ancient prophets, somewhere early in the Second Temple era. Heschel demonstrated that this view is not altogether accurate. Belief in the possibility of continued prophetic inspiration, and in its actual occurrence appear throughout much of the medieval period, and even in modern times. Heschel's work on prophetic inspiration in the Middle Ages originally appeared in two Hebrew long articles. In them he concentrated on the idea that prophetic inspiration was possible even in post-Talmudic times, and, indeed, had taken place at various times and in various schools, from the Geonim to Maimonides and beyond."
===''Torah min HaShamayim'' (Heavenly Torah)===
Many consider Heschel's ''Torah min HaShamayim BeAsafklariah shel HaDorot'', (''Torah from Heaven in the light of the generations'') to be his masterwork. The three volumes of this work are a study of classical rabbinic theology and aggadah, as opposed to halakha (Jewish law.) It explores the views of the rabbis in the Mishnah, Talmud and Midrash about the nature of Torah, the revelation of God to mankind, prophecy, and the ways that Jews have used scriptural exegesis to expand and understand these core Jewish texts. In this work Heschel views the second century sages Rabbis Akiva and Ishmael as paradigms for the two dominant worldviews in Jewish theology.
Two Hebrew volumes were published during his lifetime by [[Soncino Press]], and the third Hebrew volume was published post-homously by JTS Press in the 1990s. An English translation of all three volumes, with notes, essays and appendices, was translated and edited by Rabbi [[Gordon Tucker]], entitled ''Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations''.
==Quotes==
*"All it takes is one person… and another… and another… and another… to start a movement"
*"Wonder rather than doubt is the root of all knowledge."
*"A religious man is a person who holds God and man in one thought at one time, at all times, who suffers harm done to others, whose greatest passion is compassion, whose greatest strength is love and defiance of despair."
*"God is of no importance unless He is of ''utmost'' importance."
*"Just to be is a blessing. Just to live is holy."
*"Self-respect is the fruit of discipline, the sense of dignity grows with the ability to say no to oneself."
*"Life without commitment is not worth living."
==Selected bibliography==
* ''Man Is Not Alone: A Philosophy of Religion'', 1951, ISBN 0374513287
* ''God in Search of Man: A Philosophy of Judaism'', 1955, ISBN 0374513317
* ''The Prophets'', 1962, ISBN 0060936991
* ''Who Is Man?'', 1965
* ''Israel: An Echo of Eternity'', 1969, ISBN 1879045702
* ''A Passion for Truth'', 1973, ISBN 1879045419
* ''Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations'', 2005, ISBN 0826408028
* ''Torah min ha-shamayim b'ispaqlari'a shel ha-dorot; Theology of Ancient Judaism'' [Hebrew]. London: Soncino Press
* ''The Ineffable Name of God: Man: Poems'', 2004, ISBN 0826416322
==External links==
*[http://learn.jtsa.edu/topics/reading/bookexc/gillman_conservativej/chap5/part5.shtml Jewish Theological Seminary of America article on Heschel]
[[Category:1907 births|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[Category:1972 deaths|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[Category:Conservative rabbis|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[Category:German philosophers|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[Category:Philosophers of Judaism|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[Category:Panentheists|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[Category:Process theologians|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[he:אברהם יהושע השל]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aberdeen Bestia |
the name '''Albert'''. See [[Rulers of Saxony]] for possible disambiguation.''
'''Albert Wettin''' ([[January 27]], [[1443]] &ndash; [[September 12]], [[1500]]), [[rulers of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]], surnamed ''the Bold'' or ''the Courageous'', was the younger son of [[Frederick II, Elector of Saxony|Frederick II the Gentle]].
After escaping from the hands of Kunz von Kaufungen, who had abducted him together with his brother Ernest, he passed some time at the court of the emperor [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]] in [[Vienna]].
In 1464 he married Zedena, or Sidonia, daughter of [[George of Podebrady]], king of [[Bohemia]], but failed to obtain the Bohemian Crown on the death of George in 1471.
After the death of the elector Frederick in 1464, Albert and Ernest ruled their lands together, but in 1485 a division was made by the [[treaty of Leipzig]], and Albert received Meissen, together with some adjoining districts, and founded the Albertine branch of the family of [[Wettin (dynasty)|Wettin]].
Regarded as a capable soldier by the emperor, Albert, in 1475, took a prominent part in the campaign against [[Charles the Bold]], [[duke of Burgundy]], and in 1487 led an expedition against [[Matthias Corvinus]], king of Hungary, which failed owing to lack of support on the part of the emperor.
In [[1488]] he marched with the imperial forces to free the Roman king [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]] from his imprisonment at Bruges, and when, in 1489, the king returned to Germany, Albert was left as his representative to prosecute the war against the rebels. He was successful in restoring the authority of Maximilian
in [[Holland]], [[Flanders]] and [[Brabant]], but failed to obtain any
repayment of the large sums of money which he had spent in these campaigns.
His services were rewarded in [[1498]] when Maximilian bestowed upon him the title of hereditary governor (''potestat'') of [[Friesland]], but he had to make good his claim by force of arms. He had to a great extent succeeded, and was paying a visit to Saxony, when he was recalled by news of a fresh rising. [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] was captured, but soon afterwards the duke
died at Emden. He was buried at Meissen.
Albert, who was a man of great strength and considerable skill in feats of arms, delighted in tournaments and knightly exercises. His loyalty to the emperor Frederick, and the expenses incurred in this connection, aroused some irritation among his subjects, but his rule was a period of prosperity in Saxony.
==Family and children==
With [[Sidonia of Bohemia]] he had the following chuildren:
# Katharina ([[24 July]] [[1468]], [[Meissen]]&ndash;[[10 February]] [[1524]], [[Göttingen]]), married to:
## [[24 February]] [[1484]] in [[Innsbruck]] to Duke [[Sigismund of Austria]];
## [[1497]] to Duke [[Erich I of Braunschweig-Kalenberg]].
# [[George, Duke of Saxony|Georg "der Bärtige"]] ([[27 August]] [[1471]]&ndash;[[17 April]] [[1539]]).
# [[Henry IV, Duke of Saxony|Heinrich V "der Fromme"]] ([[16 March]] [[1473]], [[Dresden]]&ndash;[[18 August]] [[1541]], Dresden).
# [[Friedrich of Saxony (1473-1510)|Friedrich]] ([[Torgau]] [[26 October]] [[1473]] - [[Rochlitz]] [[14 December]] [[1510]]), Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Knights]].
# Anna ([[3 August]] [[1478]]&ndash;[[1479]], Dresden).
# Ludwig ([[1481]], Torgau&ndash;young after 1498).
# Johann born and died in Torgau [[24 June]] [[1484]].
# Johann, born [[2 December]] [[1498]], Torgau and died young in September of the same year as his brother Ludwig.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1443 births]]
[[Category:1500 deaths]]
[[Category:Dukes of Saxony]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:House of Wettin]]
[[de:Albrecht III. (Sachsen)]]
[[es:Alberto III de Sajonia-Meissen]]
[[nl:Albrecht III van Saksen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Authoritarianism</title>
<id>3271</id>
<revision>
<id>40799023</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T02:19:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.173.37.153</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article applies to political ideologies. For information on authoritarianism in psychology see [[Authoritarian Personality]]''.
'''Authoritarianism''' describes a [[form of government]] characterized by strict [[obedience]] to the [[authority]] of the [[state]], which often maintains and enforces [[social control]] through the use of [[oppression|oppressive]] measures. The term may also be used to describe the personality or management style of an individual or [[organization]] which seeks to [[dominate]] those within its [[sphere of influence]] and has little regard for building [[consensus]].
In an authoritarian state, citizens are subject to state authority in many aspects of their lives, including many that other [[political philosophy|political philosophies]] would see as matters of personal choice. There are various degrees of authoritarianism; even very democratic and liberal states will show authoritarianism to some extent, for example in areas of national security.
==Authoritarianism and ideology==
Authoritarianism often arises from the governing bodies' presumption that they know what is right or wrong for the country and from intolerance of dissent. The government then enforces what it thinks is right, often with use of considerable force and sometimes in blatant violation of [[human rights]]. Dissenting voices are ignored, or, more strikingly, are considered to be plotting against the best interests of the country. Such was, for instance, the case during the [[Reign of Terror]] in [[France]]; in [[Spain]] under [[Francisco Franco]].
However, there can exist authoritarianism without any defining ideology or ideal of common good. Such is the case in [[dictator]]ships where the dictator maintains power more for the privileges associated with power than in the belief that he is conducting the right policies.
Authoritarianism is distinguished from [[totalitarianism]] both in degree and scope, authoritarian administration or governance being less intrusive and, in the case of groups, not necessarily backed by the use of force. For example, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] can be accurately described as authoritarian, because in modern times it does not use force to enforce its edicts and thus is not a totalitarian establishment.
Typically, the [[leadership]] ([[government]]) of an authoritarian regime is ruled by an elite group that uses repressive means to stay in power. However, unlike [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] regimes, there is no desire or ideological justification for the state to control all aspects of a person's life, and the state will generally ignore the actions of an individual unless it is perceived to be a direct challenge to the state. Totalitarian governments tend to be revolutionary, intent on changing the basic structure of society, while authoritarian ones tend to be [[conservatism|conservative]].
The distinction between authoritarianism and totalitarianism was a crucial part of the [[Kirkpatrick Doctrine]], which asserted that the United States could work with authoritarian nations with bad [[human rights]] records because they were more capable of fundamental reform and less dangerous than totalitarian nations.
==Actions of authoritarian governments==
There exists a gradation in authoritarianism, as well as a variety of possible authoritarian behaviors. Authoritarianism may exist under different regimes:
* [[Absolute monarchy|Absolute monarchies]] are almost always authoritarian. For instance, criticizing the royal government of [[France]] under the ''[[ancien régime]]'' could get writers etc. imprisoned by executive order (known as a ''[[lettre de cachet]]'').
* [[Dictatorship]]s are always authoritarian.
* [[Democracy|Democracies]] do not exhibit much authoritarian behavior except in transition to or from authoritarian states. Many (if not most) citizens of authoritarian states do not perceive their state as authoritarian until late in its development. This makes it difficult to label modern states as 'democratic' or 'authoritarian'. People make this difficulty worse when they use these terms without clear definitions.
As an example of this difficulty, modern democracies once enforced laws that are now widely considered abusive and authoritarian: for instance, countries such as the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], until recently enforced [[sodomy law]]s imposing the moral and religious values of the majority over matters of private life.
Authoritarian regimes typically grant wide powers to law enforcement agencies; in the extreme this leads to a [[police state]]. Authoritarian regimes may or may not have a [[rule of law]]. In the former case laws are enacted and though they may seem intrusive, unjust or excessive, they are applied to common people. In the latter case laws do not exist or are routinely ignored &mdash; government actions follow the judgments or whims of officials.
== Economic arguments for authoritarianism ==
One controversial belief, especially in [[Asia]], is that countries with authoritarian regimes are more likely to be economically successful than [[democracy|democratic]] countries. Examples given to support this thesis are [[South Korea]], [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Republic of China|Taiwan]], which were considered authoritarian during their period of growth. This notion of developmental authoritarianism is a central justification for the rule of the [[Communist Party of China]] within the [[People's Republic of China]]. (The notion that authoritarian government is ultimately superior to democracy was also part of the idea of [[Asian values]], although it diminished somewhat after the [[Asian financial crisis]] in [[1998]].)
One counter-argument is that there are many instances of authoritarian nations that h |
sville]], [[Anna, Ohio|Anna]], and [[East Liberty, Ohio|East Liberty]], as well as in [[Lincoln, Alabama|Lincoln]], [[Alabama]] ([[Honda Manufacturing of Alabama]]), and [[Timmonsville, South Carolina|Timmonsville]], [[South Carolina (U.S. state)|South Carolina]], and plan to open a new plant in [[Tallapoosa, Georgia|Tallapoosa]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. Honda's North American and U.S. headquarters are located in [[Torrance, California]]. Honda's Canadian and many US-market Civics are manufactured in their plant in [[Alliston, Ontario]] since [[1985]].
Honda was also the first Japanese automaker to introduce a separate luxury line of vehicles. Created in 1986 and known as [[Acura]], the line is made up of modified versions of Honda vehicles usually with more power and sportiness than their Honda counterparts.
In [[1989]] Honda launched their [[VTEC]] [[variable valve timing]] system in its production car engines, which gave improved efficiency and performance across a broader range of engine speeds. One of the first of its kind in passenger vehicles, it worked on the premise of tuning one engine to operate at two different 'settings' depending on load. Normal driving would use a "shorter" cam lobe that resulted in more efficient operation. A more aggressive, longer duration, cam engages when engine RPM reaches a set point resulting in more power during hard acceleration.
For the [[2007]] model year, Honda plans to improve the safety of its vehicles by providing front-seat side [[airbag]]s, side-curtain airbags, and [[anti-lock brakes]] as standard equipment in all automobiles available in North America (except the [[Honda Insight|Insight]], [[Honda S2000|S2000]], and [[Acura NSX]], which will not have side-curtain airbags). By [[2006]], Honda plans to have as standard equipment Vehicle Safety Assist and rollover sensors in all light trucks, including the [[Honda CR-V|CR-V]], [[Honda Odyssey|Odyssey]], and [[Acura MDX]]. Honda also plans to make its vehicles safer for pedestrians, with more safely-designed hoods, hinges, frame constructs, and breakaway wiper pivots.
==Racing history==
:''See also [[Honda F1]]''
Soichiro Honda, being a race driver himself, could not stay out of international [[motorsport]]. In [[1959]], Honda entered five motorcycles into the [[Isle of Man TT]] race, the most prestigious motorcycle race in the world. While always having good power, it took until [[1961]] for Honda to tune their chassis well enough to allow [[Mike Hailwood]] to claim their first race victories in the 125 and 250 [[Cubic centimetre|cc]] classes. Hailwood would later pick up their first senior TT win in [[1966]].
In [[1968]], [[Jo Schlesser]] was killed in a Honda RA302 at the [[1968 French Grand Prix|French Grand Prix]]. This racing tragedy, coupled with their commercial difficulties selling automobiles in the [[United States]], prompted Honda to withdraw from all international motorsport that year.
In [[2003]], Honda became an engine supplier to the [[Indy Racing League]]. In 2004, Honda-powered cars won 14 of 16 IRL events, including the Indianapolis 500, and claimed the IRL Manufacturers' Championship, Drivers' Championship and Rookie of the Year titles.
==Honda's strategy==
[[image:goldwing.rally.bristol.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Honda Goldwing]]]]
During the 1960s, when it was a small manufacturer, Honda broke out of the Japanese motorcycle [[market]] and began exporting to the US. Taking Honda&rsquo;s story as an archetype of the smaller manufacturer entering a new market already occupied by highly dominant competitors, the story of their market entry, and their subsequent huge success in the US and around the world, has been the subject of some academic controversy. Competing explanations have been advanced to explain Honda&rsquo;s strategy and the reasons for their success.
The first of these explanations was put forward when, in 1975, [[Boston Consulting Group]] (BCG) was commissioned by the [[United Kingdom|UK]] government to write a report explaining why and how the British motorcycle industry had been out-competed by its Japanese competitors. The report concluded that the Japanese firms, including Honda, had sought a very high scale of production (they had made a large number of motorbikes) in order to benefit from [[economies of scale]] and [[learning curve]] effects. It blamed the decline of the British motorcycle industry on the failure of British managers to invest enough in their businesses to profit from economies of scale and [[economies of scope|scope]].
The second story is told in [[1984]] by [[Richard Pascale]], who had interviewed the Honda executives responsible for the firm&rsquo;s entry into the US market. As opposed to the tightly focused strategy of low cost and high scale that BCG accredited to Honda, Pascale found that their entry into the US market was a story of &ldquo;miscalculation, serendipity, and organizational learning&rdquo; &ndash; in other words, Honda&rsquo;s success was due to the adaptability (and hard work) of its staff, rather than any long term strategy. For example, Honda&rsquo;s initial plan on entering the US was to compete in large motorcycles, around 300cc. It was only when the team found that the scooters they were using to get themselves around their US base of [[San Francisco]] attracted positive interest from consumers that they came up with the idea of selling the [[Supercub]].
The most recent school of thought on Honda&rsquo;s strategy was put forward by [[Gary Hamel]] and [[C. K. Prahalad]] in [[1989]]. Creating the concept of [[core competency|core competencies]] with Honda as an example, they argued that Honda&rsquo;s success was due to its focus on leadership in the technology of internal combustion engines. For example, the high power-to-weight ratio engines Honda produced for its racing bikes provided technology and expertise which was transferable into mopeds.
Honda's entry into the US motorcycle market during the 1960s is used as a [[case study]] for teaching introductory strategy at many [[business school]]s worldwide.
==Robots==
*[[ASIMO]] [http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/ ASIMO], a bipedal humanoid [[robot]]
*[http://asimo.honda.com/ ASIMO Humanoid Robot] - Official US Site
Past Robots
[[E0]]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e0.html E0 (1986)]
[[Honda E1]]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e1_e2_e3.html E1 (1987 - 1991)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e1_e2_e3.html E2 (1987 - 1991)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e1_e2_e3.html E3 (1987 - 1991)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e4_e5_e6.html E4 (1991 - 1993)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e4_e5_e6.html E5 (1991 - 1993)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e4_e5_e6.html E6 (1991 - 1993)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/p1_p2_p3.html P1 (1993 - 1993)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/p1_p2_p3.html P2 (1993 - 1993)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/p1_p2_p3.html P3 (1993 - 1993)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/asimo.html ASIMO (2000 - Today)]
==See also==
*[[List of Honda engines]]
*[[List of Honda Engine Throttle Body Sizes]]
*[[List of Honda vehicles]]
*[[Honda Automotive VIN codes]]
*[[List of Honda motorcycles]]
*[[Acura]]
*[[Honda Type-R]]
*[[VTEC]]
*[[Dongfeng Honda Automobile Company]] - joint venture
*[[Honda Automobile (China) Company]] - importer of cars into China
*[[Honda Canada Inc.]]
*[[Cog (television commercial)|Honda "Cog" commercial]]
== External links ==
{{commons|Category:Honda}}
*Sites for only Automobile
** [http://www.vtec.net/ Temple of VTEC, enthusiast site]
** [http://www.nonVTEC.com/ nonVTEC.com enthusiast site]
** [http://automobiles.honda.com/ Official automobiles site (US)]
** [https://estore.honda.com/ Official parts and accessories site]
** [[EPA_2004_fuel_economy_report_appendix_M2#Honda|EPA 2004 Fuel Economy Report (Honda)]]
** [http://specs.amayama.com/honda/ AMAYAMA.COM] - Honda all specs, generations and pics.
*Sites for only Motorcycle
** [http://powersports.honda.com/ Official motorcycles site (US)]
** [http://www.hondaredriders.com/motocross/landing.asp Honda Motocross] - Official Site
** [http://www.hondaredriders.com/roadracing/landing.asp Honda Road Racing] - Official Site
** [http://www.hondaredriders.com/offroad/landing.asp Honda Off-road Racing] - Official Site
** [http://100megsfree4.com/honda/ Honda Gallery an enthusiast site] &mdash; features every Honda motorcycle by Motorera.com
** [http://www.hondamotorcycle.net Honda motorcycle resources, SOHC4 enthusiast site]
** [http://www.bikewalls.com/motorcycles/Honda_wallpapers High resolution Honda pictures]
*Sites for both Automobile and Motorcycle
** [http://world.honda.com/ Honda Global site]
** [http://www.honda.com Honda USA]
** [http://www.honda.ca Honda Canada]
** [http://www.honda.com.pk Honda Pakistan]
** [http://www.honda.co.uk Honda UK]
** [http://www.honda.com.au Honda Australia]
** [http://www.honda-tech.com/ Honda-Tech, technical expertise]
** [http://www.bigblogging.com/honda Honda News]
** [http://www.honda.co.jp/pressroom/library/ Honda Press Library] (Japanese, but with graphical timelines of car and bike models)
*Sites for Portable Generators
** [http://www.hondapowerequipment.com/gen.asp Honda Generators] - Official US Site
** [http://www.generatorfacts.com/honda.htm Honda Generators]
*Sites for Marine Outboard and Other Engines
** [http://www.honda-marine.com/ Honda Outboard Motors] - Official US Site
** [http://www.honda-engines.com/ Honda Engines] - Official US Site
*Adverts
** [http://www.ephinx.com/tvadverts/tvadvert.php?id=40 Famous Honda Accord - The Cog - TV Advert]
** [http://84.40.3.164/ New 2006 Honda Civic - TV Advert]
** [http://84.40.3.165/ Power of Dreams - TV Advert]
** [http://www.ephinx.com/tvadverts/tvadvert.php?id=25 Honda - Crazy Sensible - TV Advert]
** [http://www.ephinx.com/tvadverts/tvadvert.php |
atomaceous earth]], which act as stabilizers.
* '''[[Acetone peroxide]]''': A very unstable white [[organic peroxide]]
* '''[[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]]''': Yellow insensitive crystals that can be melted and cast without detonation.
* '''[[Nitrocellulose]]''': A nitrated polymer which can be a high or low explosive depending on nitration level and conditions.
* '''[[RDX]]''', '''[[PETN]]''', '''[[HMX]]''': Very powerful explosives which can be used pure or in plastic explosives.
** '''[[C4 explosive|C-4]]''' (or Composition C-4): An [[RDX]] [[plastic explosive]] plasticized to be adhesive and malleable.
The above compositions may describe the majority of the explosive material, but a practical explosive will often include small percentages of other materials. Plastics and polymers may be added to bind powders of explosive compounds; waxes may be incorporated to make them safer to handle; aluminum powder may be introduced to increase total energy and blast effect. Explosive compounds are also often "alloyed": HMX or RDX powders maybe mixed (typically by melt-casting) with TNT to form [[Octol]] or [[Cyclotol]].
==Chemical explosive reaction==
A chemical explosive is a compound or mixture which, upon the application of heat or shock, [[Decompose|decomposes]] or rearranges with extreme rapidity, yielding much [[gas]] and heat. Many substances not ordinarily classed as explosives may do one, or even two, of these things. For example, a mixture of [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]] can be made to react with great rapidity and yield the gaseous product [[nitric oxide]]; yet the mixture is not an explosive since it does not evolve heat, but rather absorbs heat.
:N<sub>2</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> → 2NO - 43,200 [[calories]] (or 180 [[Joule|kJ]]) per [[mole (unit)|mole]] of N<sub>2</sub>
For a chemical to be an explosive, it must exhibit all of the following:
* Exhibit Rapid Expansion (eg. rapid production of gasses or rapid heating of surroundings)
* Evolution of heat
* Rapidity of reaction
* Initiation of reaction
=== Formation of gases ===
Gases may be evolved from substances in a variety of ways. When [[wood]] or [[coal]] is burned in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the [[carbon]] and [[hydrogen]] in the fuel combine with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form [[carbon dioxide]] and steam, together with flame and smoke. When the wood or coal is pulverized, so that the total surface in contact with the oxygen is increased, and burned in a furnace or forge where more air can be supplied, the burning can be made more rapid and the combustion more complete. When the wood or coal is immersed in [[liquid oxygen]] or suspended in air in the form of dust, the burning takes place with explosive violence. In each case, the same action occurs: a burning combustible forms a gas.
=== Evolution of heat===
The generation of heat in large quantities accompanies every explosive chemical reaction. It is this rapid liberation of heat that causes the gaseous products of reaction to expand and generate high [[Pressure|pressures]]. This rapid generation of high [[pressure]]s of the released gas constitutes the explosion. It should be noted that the liberation of heat with insufficient rapidity will not cause an explosion. For example, although a pound of coal yields five times as much heat as a pound of [[nitroglycerin]], the coal cannot be used as an explosive because the rate at which it yields this heat is quite slow.
=== Rapidity of reaction===
Rapidity of reaction distinguishes the explosive reaction from an ordinary combustion reaction by the great speed with which it takes place. Unless the reaction occurs rapidly, the thermally expanded gases will be dissipated in the medium, and there will be no explosion. Again, consider a wood or coal fire. As the fire burns, there is the evolution of heat and the formation of gases, but neither is liberated rapidly enough to cause an explosion. For those who know something about electronics, this can be likened to the [[Discharge|energy discharge]] of a [[battery (electricity)|battery]], which is slow; to a flash [[capacitor]], like that in a [[camera]] flash and releases its energy all at once.
===Initiation of reaction===
A reaction must be capable of being initiated by the application of shock or heat to a small portion of the mass of the explosive material. A material in which the first three factors exist cannot be accepted as an explosive unless the reaction can be made to occur when desired.
===Sensitiser===
A sensitiser is a powdered or fine particulate material that is sometimes used to create voids that aid in the initiation or propagation of the detonation wave. [http://cms.3m.com/cms/US/en/2-68/czrzrFE/view.jhtml] It may be as high-tech as glass beads (Glass Bubbles[http://cms.3m.com/cms/US/en/2-68/czrzrFE/view.jhtml]) or as simple as [[black cumin]] seeds[http://webarchive.unionleader.com/articles_showa.html?article=61637].
==Military explosives==
To determine the suitability of an explosive substance for [[military]] use, its [[Physics|physical]] [[properties]] must first be investigated. The usefulness of a military explosive can only be appreciated when these properties and the factors affecting them are fully understood. Many explosives have been studied in past years to determine their suitability for [[military]] use and most have been found wanting. Several of those found acceptable have displayed certain characteristics that are considered undesirable and, therefore, limit their usefulness in military applications. The requirements of a military explosive are stringent, and very few explosives display all of the [[characteristic]]s necessary to make them acceptable for military [[standardization]]. Some of the more important characteristics are discussed below:
===Availability and cost===
In view of the enormous quantity demands of modern warfare, explosives must be produced from cheap raw materials that are nonstrategic and available in great quantity. In addition, manufacturing operations must be reasonably simple, cheap, and safe.
===Sensitivity===
Regarding an explosive, this refers to the ease with which it can be ignited or detonated&mdash;i.e., the amount and intensity of [[shock]], [[friction]], or [[heat]] that is required. When the term [[sensitivity]] is used, care must be taken to clarify what kind of sensitivity is under discussion. The relative sensitivity of a given explosive to impact may vary greatly from its sensitivity to friction or heat. Some of the test methods used to determine sensitivity are as follows:
* '''[[Impact]]''' Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the distance through which a standard weight must be dropped to cause the material to explode.
* '''[[Friction]]''' Sensitivity is expressed in terms of what occurs when a weighted pendulum scrapes across the material (snaps, crackles, ignites, and/or explodes).
* '''[[Heat]]''' Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the temperature at which flashing or explosion of the material occurs.
Sensitivity is an important consideration in selecting an explosive for a particular purpose. The explosive in an armor-piercing projectile must be relatively insensitive, or the shock of impact would cause it to detonate before it penetrated to the point desired.
=== Stability===
Stability is the ability of an explosive to be stored without deterioration. The following factors affect the stability of an explosive:
* '''[[Chemical constitution]].''' The very fact that some common chemical compounds can undergo explosion when heated indicates that there is something unstable in their structures. While no precise explanation has been developed for this, it is generally recognized that certain groups, nitro dioxide (NO<sub>2</sub>), nitrate (NO<sub>3</sub>), and azide (N<sub>3</sub>), are intrinsically in a condition of internal strain. Increased strain through heating can cause a sudden disruption of the [[molecule]] and consequent explosion. In some cases, this condition of molecular instability is so great that decomposition takes place at ordinary temperatures.
* '''[[Temperature]] of storage.''' The rate of decomposition of explosives increases at higher temperatures. All of the standard military explosives may be considered to be of a high order of stability at temperatures of -10 to +35 °C, but each has a high temperature at which the rate of [[decomposition]] becomes rapidly accelerated and stability is reduced. As a rule of thumb, most explosives become dangerously unstable at temperatures exceeding 70 °C.
* '''[[Exposure]] to [[sun]].''' If exposed to the [[ultraviolet]] rays of the sun, many explosive compounds that contain [[nitrogen]] groups will rapidly decompose, affecting their stability.
* '''[[Electrical discharge]].''' [[Electrostatic]] or [[spark]] sensitivity to initiation is common to a number of explosives. Static or other electrical discharge may be sufficient to inspire detonation under some circumstances. As a result, the safe handling of explosives and [[pyrotechnics]] almost always requires electrical [[grounding]] of the operator.
===Power===
The term "power" (or more properly, [[performance]]) as applied to an explosive refers to its ability to do work. In practice it is defined as the explosive's ability to accomplish what is intended in the way of energy delivery (i.e., [[fragment]] projection, air blast, high-velocity jets, underwater shock and bubble energy, etc.). Explosive power or performance is evaluated by a tailored series of tests to assess the material for its intended use. Of the tests listed below, cylinder expansion and air-blast tests are common to most testing programs, and the others support specific applications.
* '''[[Cylinder (geometry)|Cylinder]] expansion test.''' A standard amount of explosive is loaded within a long hollow cylinder, usually of copp |
the party in opposition until 1955, when he retired from the Commons and was elevated to the peerage to take his seat in the [[House of Lords]] as [[Earl Attlee]] and Viscount Prestwood on [[16 December]] [[1955]]. He died in 1967 and the title passed to his son [[Martin Richard Attlee, 2nd Earl Attlee]] (1927 - 1991). The title is now held by Clement Attlee's grandson [[John Richard Attlee, 3rd Earl Attlee]]. The third earl (a member of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]) retained his seat in the Lords as one of the few hereditary peers elected to the House under an amendment to the 1999 [[House of Lords Act]].
When Attlee died his estate was probated at £7,295, a relatively modest sum for so prominent a figure.
==[[Attlee's Cabinet]] 1945-1950==
[[Image:Clement-Attlee-arms.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Arms of Clement Attlee]]
*'''Clement Attlee''': [[Prime Minister]] and [[Minister of Defence]]
*[[William Jowitt|Lord Jowitt]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]
*[[Herbert Morrison (politician)|Herbert Morrison]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]
*[[Arthur Greenwood]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]]
*[[Hugh Dalton]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
*[[Ernest Bevin]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
*[[James Chuter Ede]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
*[[George Henry Hall]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
*[[Christopher Addison|Lord Addison]]: [[Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs]]
*[[Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence|Lord Pethick-Lawrence]]: [[Secretary of State for India|Secretary of State for India and Burma]]
*[[A. V. Alexander]]: [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]
*[[Jack Lawson]]: [[Secretary of State for War]]
*[[William Wedgwood Benn]], [[1st Viscount Stansgate|Lord Stansgate]]: [[Secretary of State for Air]]
*[[Ellen Wilkinson]]: [[Minister of Education]]
*[[Joseph Westwood]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
*[[Tom Williams]]: [[Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries]]
*[[George Isaacs]]: [[Minister of Labour and National Service]]
*[[Aneurin Bevan]]: [[Secretary of State for Health|Minister of Health]]
*[[Stafford Cripps|Sir Stafford Cripps]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]
*[[Emanuel Shinwell]]: [[Minister of Fuel and Power]]
===Changes===
*July 1946 - [[Arthur Greenwood]] becomes [[Paymaster-General]] as well as [[Lord Privy Seal]].
*October 1946 - The three service ministers ([[Secretary of State for War]], [[Secretary of State for Air]], and [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]) cease to be [[cabinet positions]]. [[A. V. Alexander]] remains in the cabinet as [[Minister without Portfolio]]. [[George Hall]] replaces [[A. V. Alexander]] as [[First Lord of the Admiralty]], outside the [[cabinet]]. [[Arthur Creech Jones]] succeeds [[Hall]] as [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]].
*December 1946 - [[A. V. Alexander]] succeeds [[Attlee]] as [[Minister of Defence]].
*February 1947 - [[George Tomlinson]] succeeds [[Ellen Wilkinson]] as [[Minister of Education]] upon her death.
*March 1947 - [[Arthur Greenwood]] ceases to be [[Paymaster-General]], remaining [[Lord Privy Seal]]. His successor as [[Paymaster-General]] is not in the cabinet.
*April 1947 - [[Arthur Greenwood]] becomes [[Minister without Portfolio]]. [[Philip Inman, 1st Baron Inman|Lord Inman]] succeeds [[Arthur Greenwood]] as [[Lord Privy Seal]]. [[William Francis Hare]], [[5th Earl of Listowel|Lord Listowel]] succeeds [[Lord Pethick-Lawrence]] as [[Secretary of State for India and Burma]].
*July 1947 - The [[Dominion Affairs Office]] becomes the [[Office of Commonwealth Relations]]. [[Addison]] remains at the head.
*August 1947 - [[The India and Burma Office]] becomes [[the Burma office]] with [[India's independence]]. [[Lord Listowel]] remains in office.
*September 1947 - [[Sir]] [[Stafford Cripps]] becomes [[Minister of Economic Affairs]]. [[Harold Wilson]] succeeds Cripps as [[President of the Board of Trade]]. [[Arthur Greenwood]] retires from the [[Front Bench]].
*October 1947 - [[Lord Addison]] succeeds [[Lord Inman]] as [[Lord Privy Seal]]. [[Philip Noel-Baker]] succeeds [[Lord Addison]] as [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]. [[Arthur Woodburn]] succeeds [[Joseph Westwood]] as [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]. The [[Minister of Fuel and Power]], [[Emanuel Shinwell]], leaves the [[Cabinet]].
*November 1947 - [[Sir]] [[Stafford Cripps]] succeeds [[Hugh Dalton]] as [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]].
*January 1948 - The [[Burma Office]] is abolished with [[Burma's independence]].
*May 1948: [[Hugh Dalton]] re-enters the [[Cabinet]] as [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]. [[Frank Pakenham, 7th Earl of Longford|1st Baron Pakenham]] enters the [[Cabinet]] as [[Minister of Civil Aviation]].
*July 1948: [[Lord Addison]] becomes [[Paymaster-General]].
*April 1949: [[Lord Addison]] ceases to be [[Paymaster-General]], remaining [[Lord Privy Seal]]. His successor as [[Paymaster-General]] is not in the [[Cabinet]].
==Attlee's Cabinet 1950-1951==
February 1950: A substantial reshuffle takes place following the General Election:
*'''Clement Attlee''': Prime Minister
*[[William Jowitt|Lord Jowitt]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]
*[[Herbert Morrison (politician)|Herbert Morrison]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]
*[[Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount Addison|Lord Addison]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]]
*[[Stafford Cripps|Sir Stafford Cripps]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
*[[Ernest Bevin]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
*[[James Chuter Ede]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
*[[Jim Griffiths]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
*[[Patrick Gordon Walker]]: [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]
*[[Harold Wilson]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]
*[[A. V. Alexander|Lord Alexander]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]
*[[George Tomlinson]]: [[Minister of Education]]
*[[Hector McNeil]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
*[[Tom Williams]]: [[Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries]]
*[[George Isaacs]]: Minister of Labour and National Service
*[[Aneurin Bevan]]: [[Secretary of State for Health|Minister of Health]]
*[[Emanuel Shinwell]]: Minister of Defence
*[[Hugh Dalton]]: Minister of Town and Country Planning
===Changes===
*October 1950: [[Hugh Gaitskell]] succeeds Sir Stafford Cripps as Chancellor of the Exchequer.
*January 1951: Aneurin Bevan succeeds George Isaacs as Minister of Labour and National Service. Bevan's successor as Minister of Health is not in the cabinet. Hugh Dalton's post is renamed Minister of Local Government and Planning.
*March 1951: Herbert Morrison succeeds Ernest Bevin as Foreign Secretary. Lord Addison succeeds Morrison as Lord President. Bevin succeeds Addison as Lord Privy Seal. James Chuter Ede succeeds Morrison as Leader of the House of Commons whilst remaining Home Secretary.
*April 1951: [[Richard Stokes]] succeeds Ernest Bevin as Lord Privy Seal. [[Alf Robens]] succeeds Aneurin Bevan (resigned) as Minister of Labour and National Service. Sir [[Hartley Shawcross]] succeeds Harold Wilson (resigned) as President of the Board of Trade.
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]] | before=[[Oswald Mosley|Sir Oswald Mosley]] | after=[[Arthur Augustus William Harry Ponsonby, 1st Baron Ponsonby of Shulbrede|The Lord Ponsonby of Shulbrede]] | years=1930&ndash;1931}}
{{succession box | title=[[United Kingdom Postmaster General|Postmaster General]] | before=[[Hastings Lees-Smith]] | after=[[William Ormsby-Gore|Sir William Ormsby-Gore]] | years=1931}}
{{succession box one to two| title1=[[Labour Party (UK)|Leader of the British Labour Party]] | before=[[George Lansbury]] | after1=[[Hugh Gaitskell]] | years1=1935&ndash;1955 | title2=[[Leader of the Opposition (UK)|Leader of the Opposition]] |after2=[[Hastings Lees-Smith]] | years2=1935&ndash;1940}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord Privy Seal]] | before=[[Kingsley Wood|Sir Kingsley Wood]] | after=[[Stafford Cripps|Sir Stafford Cripps]] | years=1940&ndash;1942}}
{{succession box | title=[[Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] | before=New Office | after=[[Herbert Stanley Morrison]] | years=1942&ndash;1945}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs]] | before=[[Robert Arthur James Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury|Viscount Cranborne]] | after=[[Robert Arthur James Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury|Viscount Cranborne]] | years=1942&ndash;1943}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord President of the Council]] | before=[[John Anderson (UK politician)|Sir John Anderson]] | after=[[Frederick Marquis, 1st Earl of Woolton|The Lord Woolton]] | years=1943&ndash;1945}}
{{succession box| title=[[Leader of the Opposition (UK)|Leader of the Opposition]] | before=[[Arthur Greenwood]] | after=[[Winston Churchill]] | years=1945}}
{{succession box one to two| before=[[Winston Churchill]] | title1=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] | years1=1945&ndash;1951 | after1=[[Winston Churchill]] | title2=[[Minister of Defence]] | years2=1945&ndash;1946 | after2=[[A. V. Alexander]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Leader of the Opposition (UK)|Leader of the Opposition]] | before=[[Winston Churchill]]|after=[[Hugh Gaitskell]]|years=1951&ndash;1955}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Earl Attlee]] | before=New Creation | after=[[Martin Attlee, 2nd Earl Attlee|Martin Attlee]] | years=}}
{{end box}}
{{UKDeputyPrimeMinisters}}
{{UKPrimeMinisters}}
{{LabourPartyPresidents}}
[[Category:1883 births|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:1967 deaths|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:British Army officers|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:British MPs|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:British Secretaries of State|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Companions of Honour|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Councillors |
the [[magazines]] ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]'' and ''[[Argosy Magazine|Argosy]]'', as well as publisher [[Martin_Goodman_(publisher)|Martin Goodman]]'s [[Humorama]] line of [[pin-up girl]] cartoon digests. Many of his Humorama illustrations were published in ''The Pin-up Art of Dan DeCarlo'' ([[Fantagraphics]], 2005; ISBN 1560976195) and the scheduled ''Innocence and Seduction: The Art of Dan DeCarlo'' (Fantagraphics, March 1, 2006; ISBN 1560977108).
In his later years he was involved in a bitter legal dispute with Archie Comics over ownership of Josie and the Pussycats characters, which were to be featured in the ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (movie)|Josie and the Pussycats]]'' movie released in 2001 by [[MCA/Universal]]. In the midst of the dispute, the publisher terminated its 40-year relationship with him. Among his final works were a story for [[Paul Dini]]'s independent comics title ''[[Jingle Belle]]'', and stories for [[Bongo Comics]]' ''[[The Simpsons]]'' [[TV series|TV]] tie-in comic, ''[[Bart Simpson]]''.
DeCarlo, who lived near New Rochelle in [[Scarsdale, New York]], died of [[pneumonia]], according to his wife. Some press reports listed [[heart attack]]. He was predeceased by his twin sons, Dan Jr. and Jim, who assisted their father as [[inkers]].
His work over the years won him much recognition in the industry. He won the [[National Cartoonists Society]] Award for Best Comic Book in 2000 for [[Betty & Veronica]]. He was nominated for the Shazam Award for Best Penciller (Humor Division) in 1974.
==Quotes==
*Josie DeCarlo, on the inspiration for the fictional Josie [http://www.thecomicsource.com/news/news19.html]: "We went on a [[Caribbean]] cruise, and I had a [cat] costume for the cruise, and that's the way it started."
*Paul Dini [http://www.comicbookresources.com/news/newsitem.cgi?id=731]: ""It was tragic that when he was at an age when many cartoonists are revered as treasures by more beneficent publishers, Dan felt spurned and slighted by the owners of properties that prospered greatly from his contributions. Still, he was esteemed by fans and professionals the world over, and he often told me he was very grateful for the support he received from them over the past few years."
==References==
*[http://www.lambiek.net/carlo_dan_de.htm Lambiek Comiclopedia: Dan De Carlo (sic)]
*[http://www.askart.com/askart/d/dan_decarlo/dan_decarlo.aspx Ask Art — The American Artists Bluebook: Dan DeCarlo (1919-2001)] Includes excerpt from ''[[The New York Times]]'' obituary
*[http://www.thecomicsource.com/news/news19.html ''Comic Source Newsletter'' #19: Uncredited partial reprint of ''The New York Times'' obituary]
*[http://www.comicbookresources.com/news/newsitem.cgi?id=731 ''Comic Book Resources'' Dec. 20, 2001: Obituary]
*[http://members.cox.net/adult/pristine/magstitlelist/humorlist.html Humorama]
*[http://www.tcj.com/3_online/n_030800.html ''The Comics Journal'' #221: "Girl Trouble at Archie"]
*[http://www.tcj.com/aa02ws/n_decarlo.html The Comics Journal'' #240: "Supreme Court Rejects DeCarlo Appeal"]
*[http://www.the-trades.com/article.php?id=1645 ''The Trades'', Jan. 1, 2002: Interview with Dan DeCarlo]
*[http://seattleguild.org/News_Archive/2004621_Folder/] ''The Seattle Graphic Artists Guild Weekly eNewsletter'': "Advocacy News: DeCarlo Sues Archie Comics''
==External links==
*[http://www.toonopedia.com/archie.htm Don Markstein's Toonpedia: Archie]
*[http://pages.tias.com/2779/InventoryPage/305956/1.html Tribute to Dan DeCarlo, by Ben Smith]
* [http://users.rcn.com/aardy/comics/] Comic Book Awards Almanac
[[Category:1919 births|Decarlo, Dan]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Decarlo, Dan]]
[[Category:Comics artists|Decarlo, Dan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Doges Palace</title>
<id>9004</id>
<revision>
<id>15906932</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-13T22:09:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nevilley</username>
<id>4191</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>lose dual redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Doge's Palace]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Database application</title>
<id>9005</id>
<revision>
<id>15906933</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-27T01:29:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TakuyaMurata</username>
<id>6707</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[database]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[database]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daniel Ortega Saavedra</title>
<id>9006</id>
<revision>
<id>15906934</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Daniel Ortega]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DanceWriting</title>
<id>9007</id>
<revision>
<id>40363058</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''DanceWriting''' is a form of [[dance notation]]. Developed in [[1972]] by [[Valerie Sutton]], it is part of a greater body of work called [[MovementWriting]] or the [[International Movement-Writing Alphabet]].
DanceWriting uses [[figurative]] and [[Abstract art|abstract]] [[symbols]] on a five-staff stave (the [[Western culture|Western]] [[music notation]] stave). It is similar in appearance to [[Benesh Movement Notation]].
There are many other forms of dance notation, such as [[Labanotation]] and [[Benesh Movement Notation]].
==External links==
*[http://www.dancewriting.org DanceWriting]
*[http://www.movementwriting.org/ MovementWriting]
{{dance-stub}}
[[Category:Dance notation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Debit card</title>
<id>9008</id>
<revision>
<id>40844856</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T10:52:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.165.172.102</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''debit card''' is an [[ISO 7810]] card which physically resembles a [[credit card]], and, like a credit card, is used as an alternative to [[cash]] when making purchases. However, when purchases are made with a debit card, the funds are withdrawn directly from the purchaser's current/[[checking account|checking]] or [[savings account|savings]] account at a [[bank]] or [[credit union]].
==Types of debit card==
[[Image:Smartcard.JPG|thumb|250px|A [[Finland|Finnish]] [[smart card]], combining both [[credit card]] and debit card properties. The 3 by 5 mm security chip embedded in the card is shown enlarged in the inset. The gold contact pads on the card enables electronic access to the chip.]]
Although many debit cards are of the [[Visa (credit card)|Visa]] or [[MasterCard]] brand, there are many other types of debit card, each accepted only within a particular country or region, for example [[Switch (debit card)|Switch]] in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Carte Bleue]] in [[France]], [[Laser (debit card)|Laser]] in [[Ireland]], and EC (formerly Eurocheque) in [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]. The need for cross-border compatibility and the advent of the [[euro]] recently led to many of these card networks being rebranded with the internationally recognised [[Maestro (debit card)|Maestro]] logo, which is part of the [[MasterCard]] brand. Some debit cards are dual branded with the logo of the former national card as well as [[Maestro (debit card)|Maestro]].
Banks in [[France]] charge annual fees for debit cards (despite card payments being very cost efficient for the banks), yet they do not charge personal customers for chequebooks or processing cheques (despite cheques being very costly for the banks). This imbalance most probably dates from the unilateral introduction in [[France]] of [[Chip and PIN]] debit cards in the early 1990s, when the cost of this technology was much higher than it is now. Credit cards of the type found in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[United States]] are unusual in [[France]] and the closest equivalent is the deferred debit card, which operates like a normal debit card, except that all purchase transactions are postponed until the end of the month, thereby giving the customer between 1 and 31 days of interest-free credit. The annual fee for a deferred debit card is around €10 more than for one with immediate debit. Most [[France|French]] debit cards are branded with the [[Carte Bleue]] logo, which assures acceptance throughout [[France]]. Most card holders choose to pay around €5 more in their annual fee to additionally have a [[Visa (credit card)|Visa]] logo on their [[Carte Bleue]], so that the card is accepted internationally. A [[Carte Bleue]] without a [[Visa (credit card)|Visa]] logo is often known as a "[[Carte Bleue]] Nationale" and a [[Carte Bleue]] with a [[Visa (credit card)|Visa]] logo is often known as a "[[Carte Bleue]] Internationale". Many smaller merchants in [[France]] refuse to accept debit cards for transactions under €15.25 (equivalent to 100 [[French Franc]]s) because of the minimum fee charged by merchants' banks per transaction. Merchants in [[France]] do not differentiate between debit and credit cards, and so both have equal acceptance.
In the [[United Kingdom]], banks started to issue debit cards in the late 1980s in a bid to reduce the number of cheques being used at the point of sale, which are costly for the banks to process. As in most countries, fees paid by merchants in the [[United Kingdom]] to accept credit cards are a percentage of the transaction amount, which funds card holders' interest-free credit periods as w |
nfluence and dominate the culture of northern India, or had links to it somewhere to the east either along the [[Indus]] or [[Ganges]] river valleys.[http://koenraadelst.voiceofdharma.com/reviews/kochhar.html] At some point that has yet to be determined, but possibly between 12th to 8th century BCE, [[Gandhara]] and [[Kamboja]], two of the sixteen [[Mahajanapadas]] (in Sanskrit 'Great Kingdoms') frequently referred to in [[Buddhist]] and [[Hindu]] religious texts are believed to have evolved as important political entities in what is today eastern Afghanistan. Many scholars believe that while the Gandharans were early [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]-speakers, the [[Kambojas]] were either [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] or [[Indo-Iranian]]-speaking. Both groups find frequent mention in numerous ancient [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pāli|Pali]] texts, in particular the [[Mahabharata]] and numerous [[Puranic]] literature. [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]’s historians refer to the tribal population of [[Paropamisadae]] as consisting of such clans as the Parsyetae (Parshu/Parshava), Aspasii ([[Aspasians]]), Asteknois ([[Hastiyanas]]) and Assakenois ([[Ashvakas|Ashvakana]]s) etc. This nomenclature possibly demonstrates that while most of this [[tribe|tribal]] population was Iranian, there were also some population segments which may have spoken early Indo-Aryan tongues prior to their movements to India. This is because while the tribal name Parsyete implies Iranian affinities and the Aspasii (derived from Iranian word Aspa) also indicates an Iranian horse culture, the Assakenois (Sanskrit Ashvakan) of the [[Swat]] valley, on the other hand, were possibly an Indo-Aryan horsemen culture as their name derives from the [[Sanskrit]] Ashva (horse). The Aspasian peoples are believed to be the western branch of the Ashvakas or Assakenians (''Political history of Ancient India, 1996, p 216; Cambridge History of India, 352, n 3'').
The [[Assakenois]] and [[Aspasios]] of the classical writings or the [[Ashvakas]] of the Sanskrit texts are believed by numerous scholars to have been sub-sections of the ancient Kambojas in reference to their equestrian nature. See for this Dr E. Lamotte, Dr K. P. Jayswal, Dr Buddha Parkash, Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B . N. Mukerjee, Dr Romila Thapar, Dr J. L. Kamboj, and several others.
The rock [[edict]] V of king [[Ashoka]] found at Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra prominently refers to the [[Yona]]s (Ionian Greeks), Kambojas and [[Gandhara]]s, while rock edict XIII refers to the Greeks and Kambojas ('''Yonakambojesu''') as people of the western frontiers. It is noteworthy that Ashoka’s rock edicts/inscriptions written exclusively in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] have been discovered only in the [[Paropamisadae]] (region between river [[Kabol]] and [[Hindukush]] Mt), while those in [[Greek language|Greek]] and Aramaic were discovered in [[Arachosia]] (south-east Afghanistan) and in Prakrit and Aramaic in Gandhara region (Peshawer to Rawalpindi). Scholars believe that the Greek version of Ashokan inscriptions was intended for the Yonas (the Greeks or Graeco-Iranians), the Prakrit version for the Indo-Aryan Gandharas, while the Aramaic version was directed at the Kambojas (See: ''Aramaic edicts of Ashoka, 1980, p 66, notes 11-13; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 610-13; Scerrato in Pugliese Carratelli and Garbini, 1964, 14-15; Colloque, L’Archeologie de l'empire achemenide, Paris, Nov, 21-22, 2003'' etc). This shows that Paropamisadae region---an Aramaic territory, was inhabited by Iranian Kambojas as the Aramaic was an official language for the Iranian tribes under [[Achaemenid]] rulers. Moreover, as a Greco-Aramaic inscription (known as Shar-i-Kuna inscription) was discovered in 1957 in Kandhahar also, this, according to some scholars, may attest that a section of the Aramaic knowing Kambojas (or other Iranian tribes) were also possibly located north of [[Kandhahar]] as neighbors to the Greeks. Dr Michael Witzel identifies the region from [[Kabol]] valley to as far as [[Kandhahar]] as inhabited by the Kambojas (''Early Eastern Iran and the Atharvaveda, Persica-9, 1981, pp 86-123''). The compound expression '''Yonakambojesu''' of Ashoka’s Rock Edict XIII as well as of Buddhist Majjhima Nikaya (43.1.3), powerfully supports this view. It is now generally accepted by many [[Indic]] scholars that the Kambojas were an early [[Iranian people]] who may have been partially absorbed into larger Iranian tribes in Afghanistan and/or else partially forced to move east where they were further absorbed into the populations of what is today northern Pakistan and India [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_of_Kambojas]. Current minuscule population of [[Kamboj]], [[Kamboh]] and [[Kamoz]], the modern representatives of ancient Kambojas, in [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]] is estimated to be approximately around 1.5 millions.
The [[chronology]] of major events and corresponding [[archaeology]] remains highly sporadic as does the religious connotation which remains unverifiable.
== Achaemenid Rule, and rise of Zoroastrianism ca. [[550 BC|550 BCE]] - [[331 BCE]] ==
[[Image:Achaemenid Empire.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Achaemenid empire at its greatest extent]]
The city of [[Bactria]] (which later became [[Balkh]]), is believed to have been the home of [[Zoroaster|Zarathustra]], who founded the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] religion. The [[Avesta]] refers to eastern Bactria as being the home of the Zoroastrian faith, but this can be a reference to either a region in modern Afghanistan or northeastern Iran. Regardless of the debate as to where Zoroaster was from, Zoroastrianism spread to become one of the world's most influential religions and became the main faith of the southern [[Iranian peoples]] for centuries. It remained the official religion of Persia until the defeat of the Sassanian ruler [[Yazdegerd III]] (over a thousand years after its founding) by Muslim [[Arab]]. In what is today southern Iran, the Persians emerged to challenge Median supremacy on the Iranian plateau. By 550 BCE, the Persians had replaced Median rule with their own dominion and even began to expand past previous Median imperial borders. Both [[Gandhara]] and [[Kamboja]] Mahajanapadas of the Buddhist texts soon fell a prey to the Achaemenian Dynasty during the reign of Achaemenid, [[Cyrus the Great]] (558-530 BCE), or in the first year of [[Darius I]]. According to [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s evidence, Cyrus II had destroyed Kapisa in Capiscene (Naturalis Historia, VI, 25, 92) which was a Kamboja city. The former region of Gandhara and Kamboja (upper Indus) had constituted seventh satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire and annually contributed 170 talents of gold dust as a tribute to the Achaemenids.
[[Bactria]] had a special position in the Persian empire, being the capital of a vice-kingdom. By the fourth century BCE, Persian control of outlying areas and the internal cohesion of the empire had become somewhat tenuous. Although distant provinces like Bactriana had often been restless under Achaemenid rule, Bactrian troops nevertheless fought on the Iranian side in the decisive [[Battle of Gaugamela]] in [[330 BCE]] against the advancing armies of [[Alexander III]] (also known as 'the Great'). The Achaemenids were decisively defeated by [[Alexander the Great]] and retreated from his advancing army of Greco-Macedonians and their Iranian allies. [[Darius III]], the last Achaemenid ruler, tried to flee to Bactria, but was assassinated by a subordinate lord, the Bactrian-born [[Bessus]], who proclaimed himself the new ruler of Persia as [[Artaxerxes]], but was unable to mount a successful resistance to the growing military might of Alexander's army. Fleeing to his native Bactria, Bessus attempted to rally local Iranian tribes to his side, but was instead turned over to Alexander who proceeded to have him tortured and executed for having committed [[regicide]].
== Alexander the Great, Seleucid-Mauryan rivalry, and Greco-Bactrian Rule, [[330 BCE]] - ca. [[150 BCE]] ==
[[Image:Map-alexander-empire.png|thumb|200px|right|Map of Alexander's empire.]]
It had taken [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] only six months to conquer Iran, but it took him nearly three years (from about [[330 BCE]] - [[327 BCE]]) to subdue the area that is now [[Afghanistan]] and the adjacent regions of the former [[Soviet Union]]. Moving eastward from the area of Herat, the Macedonian leader encountered fierce resistance from the local rulers of what had been Iranian satraps which were the early eastern Iranian sub-tribes of the [[Kambojas]] (i.e. [[Aspasios|Aspasio]] and [[Assakenois|Assakenoi]] clans) as well as the ancestors of the [[Pushtuns]]. In a letter to his mother, Alexander described his encounters with the eastern Iranians thus: ''"I am involved in the land of a 'Leonine' (lion-like) and brave people, where every Foot of the ground is like a well of steel, confronting my soldier. You have brought only one son into the world, but Everyone in this land can be called an Alexander.”'' Local resistance and the difficult terrain made it difficult for Alexander's forces to subdue the region as many invaders have found the mountainous terrain of Afghanistan similar to a maze that often trapped outside invaders. Alexander also met his Bactrian/[[Sogdian]] bride, [[Roxana]] (who was reportedly born in Balkh), while trying to consolidate his rule over ancient Afghanistan and adjacent regions in Central Asia. Their union reportedly produced one sole heir, [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]], who was later killed in Greece by [[Cassander]]. Although Alexander's expedition through ancient Afghanistan was brief, he left behind a [[Hellenic]] cultural influence that lasted several centuries.
Upon Alexander's death in [[323 BCE]], his empire, which had never been politically consolidated, broke apart as his companions bega |
r [[Dingane]] had some early success against the [[Trek Boers]], they suffered a bloody defeat when attacking a fortified [[laager]] at the [[battle of Blood River]] in 1838. Similarly, the Zulus scored a famous victory over the British at the [[battle of Isandlwana]] in 1879, but ultimately were no match for the [[Martini-Henry]] [[rifle]]s and [[Gatling gun|Gatling machine guns]] used against them in by the British troops.They suffered successive defeats at the [[battle of Kambula]], [[battle of Gingindlovu]] and the [[battle of Ulundi]], which led to the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom.
==Trivia==
The [[Aiel]] ''algai'd'siswai'' of the [[Wheel of Time]] fictional universe are largely based on Impi warriors.
[[Rudyard Kipling]] refers to them in his poem "Fuzzy-Wuzzy":
:''We took our chanst among the Khyber 'ills,''
::''The Boers knocked us silly at a mile,''
:''The Burman give us Irriwady Chills,''
::''<nowiki>'</nowiki>An a Zulu Impi dished us up in style.''
==Sources==
*Ian Knight, ''Brave Men's Blood - the Anglo-Zulu war of 1879''
*Ian Knight, ''The Zulus''
*D.R. Morris, ''The Washing of the Spears''
== External links ==
*http://www.kwazulu.co.uk/Secrets.html
[[Category:Zulus]] [[Category:Infantry]]
[[he:&#1488;&#1497;&#1502;&#1508;&#1497;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irish mythology</title>
<id>15175</id>
<revision>
<id>41636556</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:18:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.150.117.40</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[mythology]] of pre-Christian [[Ireland]] did not entirely survive the conversion to [[Christianity]], but much of it was preserved, shorn of its religious meanings, in [[medieval]] [[Irish literature]], which represents the most extensive and best preserved of all the branches of [[Celtic mythology]]. Although many of the manuscripts have failed to survive, and much more material was probably never committed to writing, there is enough remaining to enable the identification of four distinct, if overlapping, cycles: the [[Mythological Cycle]], The [[Ulster Cycle]], the [[Fenian Cycle]] and the [[Historical Cycle]]. There are also a number of extant mythological texts that do not fit into any of the cycles. In addition, there are a large number of recorded [[folk tales]] that, while not strictly mythological, feature personages from one or more of these four cycles.
==The sources==
The three main manuscript sources for Irish mythology are the late [[11th century|11th]]/early [[12th century]] ''[[Lebor na hUidre]]'' which is in the library of the [[Royal Irish Academy]], the early 12th century ''[[Book of Leinster]]'' in the library of [[Trinity College, Dublin]], and the [[Rawlinson]] manuscript B 502 (''Rawl.''), housed in the [[Bodleian Library]] at [[Oxford University]]. Despite the dates of these sources, most of the material they contain predates their composition. The earliest of the prose can be dated on linguistic grounds to the [[8th century]], and some of the verse may be as old as the [[6th century]].
Other important sources include a group of four manuscripts originating in the west of Ireland in the late [[14th century|14th]] or early [[15th century]]: ''The Yellow Book of Lecan'', ''The Great Book of Lecan'', ''The Book of Hy Many'', and ''The Book of Ballymote''. The first of these contains part of the earliest known version of the ''[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]'' and is housed in Trinity College. The other three are in the Royal Academy. Other 15th century manuscripts, such as ''The Book of Fermoy'' also contain interesting materials, as do such later syncretic works such as [[Geoffrey Keating]]'s ''Foras Feasa ar Éirinn'' (''The History of Ireland'') (ca. [[1640]]), particularly as these later compilers and writers may have had access to manuscript sources that have since disappeared.
When using these sources, it is, as always, important to question the impact of the circumstances in which they were produced. Most of the manuscripts were created by [[Christianity|Christian]] [[monk]]s, who may well have been torn between the desire to record their native culture and their religious hostility to pagan beliefs resulting in some of the gods being [[wiktionary:Euhemerize|euhemerized]]. Many of the later sources may also have formed part of a propaganda effort designed to create a history for the people of Ireland that could bear comparison with the mythological descent of their British invaders from the founders of [[Rome]] that was promulgated by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] and others. There was also a tendency to rework Irish genealogies to fit into the known schema of Greek or Biblical genealogy.
It was once unquestioned that medieval Irish literature preserved truly ancient traditions in a form virtually unchanged through centuries of [[oral tradition]] back to the ancient [[Celts]] of Europe. Kenneth Jackson famously described the Ulster Cycle as a "window on the Iron Age", and Garret Olmsted has attempted to draw parallels between ''[[Táin Bó Cuailnge]]'', the Ulster Cycle epic, and the iconography of the [[Gundestrup Cauldron]]. However, this "nativist" position has been challenged by "revisionist" scholars who believe that much of it was created in Christian times in deliberate imitation of the [[Epic poetry|epic]]s of [[classical literature]] that came with [[Latin]] learning. The revisionists would point to passages apparently influenced by the [[Iliad]] in ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', and the existence of ''Togail Troi'', a very early Irish adaptation of the [[Aeneid]] found in the Book of Leinster, and note that the material culture of the stories is generally closer to the time of the stories' composition than to the distant past. A consensus has emerged which encourages the critical reading of the material.
==Mythological cycle==
The [[Mythological Cycle]], comprising stories of the former gods and origins of the Irish, is the least well preserved of the four cycles. The most important sources are the ''[[Metrical Dindshenchas]]'' or ''Lore of Places'' and the ''[[Lebor Gabála Érenn]]'' or ''Book of Invasions''. Other manuscripts preserve such Mythological tales as ''[[The Dream of Aengus]]'', ''[[The Wooing Of Étain]]'' and ''[[Cath Maige Tuireadh]]'', ''The (second) Battle of Magh Tuireadh''. One of the best known of all Irish stories, ''Oidheadh Clainne Lir'', or ''[[Children of Lir|The Tragedy of the Children of Lir]]'', is also part of this cycle.
''Lebor Gabála Érenn'' is a pseudo-history of Ireland, tracing the ancestry of the Irish back to [[Noah]]. It tells of a series of invasions or "takings" of Ireland by a succession of peoples, one of whom was the people known as the [[Tuatha Dé Danann]], who were believed to have inhabited the island before the arrival of the [[Gaels]], or [[Milesians (Irish)|Milesians]]. They faced opposition from their enemies, the [[Fomorians]], led by [[Balor]] of the Evil Eye. Balor was eventually slain by [[Lugh|Lug Lámfada]] (Lug of the Long Arm) at the second battle of Magh Tuireadh. With the arrival of the Gaels, the Tuatha Dé Danann retired underground to become the [[fairy]] people of later myth and legend.
The ''Metrical Dindshenchas'' is the great onomastic work of early Ireland, giving the naming legends of significant places in a sequence of poems. It includes a lot of important information on Mythological Cycle figures and stories, including the Battle of Tailtiu, in which the Tuatha Dé Danann were defeated by the Milesians.
It is important to note that by the middle ages the Tuatha Dé Danann were not viewed so much as gods as the shape-shifting magician population of an earlier [[Golden Age]] Ireland. Texts such as ''Lebor Gabála Érenn'' and ''Cath Maige Tuireadh'' present them as kings and heroes of the distant past, complete with death-tales. However there is considerable evidence, both in the texts and from the wider Celtic world, that they were once considered [[deity|deities]].
Even after they are displaced as the rulers of Ireland, characters such as [[Lugh|Lug]], the [[Mórrígan]], [[Aengus]] and [[Manannan]] appear in stories set centuries later, betraying their immortality. A poem in the [[Book of Leinster]] lists many of the Tuatha Dé, but ends "Although [the author] enumerates them, he does not worship them". [[Goibniu]], [[Creidhne]] and [[Luchta]] are referred to as ''Trí Dée Dána'' ("three gods of craftsmanship"), and the [[Dagda]]'s name is interpreted in [[medieval]] texts as "the good god". [[Nuada]] is [[cognate]] with the [[Prehistoric Britain|British]] god [[Nodens]]; [[Lugh|Lug]] is a reflex of the pan-[[Celt]]ic deity [[Lugus]]; [[Tuireann]] may be related to the [[Gaulish]] [[Taranis]]; [[Ogma]] to [[Ogmios]]; the [[Badb]] to [[Catubodua]].
===Other important Tuatha Dé Danann figures===
* [[Boann]]
* [[Banba]]
* [[Brigid]]
* [[Creidhne]]
* [[Cyhiraeth]]
* [[Danu (Irish goddess)|Danu]]
* [[Dian Cecht]]
* [[Donn]]
* [[Ériu]]
* [[Étain]]
* [[Fódla]]
* [[Macha]]
* [[Nechtan]]
* [[Sídhe]]
* [[Banshee]] (also spelt ''Bean Sidhe'')
==Ulster cycle==
The [[Ulster Cycle]] is set around the beginning of the Christian era and most of the action takes place in the provinces of [[Ulster]] and [[Connacht]]. It consists of a group of heroic stories dealing with the lives of [[Conchobar mac Nessa]], king of Ulster, the great hero [[Cúchulainn]], the son of Lug, and of their friends, lovers, and enemies. These are the [[Ulaid]], or people of the North-Eastern corner of Ireland and the action of the stories centres round the royal court at [[Emain Macha]], close to the modern city of [[Armagh]]. The Ulaid had close links with the Irish colony in [[Scotland]], and part of Cúchulainn's training takes place in that colony.
The cycle consists of stories of the births, early lives and tr |
>
{| class="infobox"
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}}
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Ethanol_-_Space_filling_model.png|200px|{{PAGENAME}}]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Ethanol
|-
| Other names
| Ethyl alcohol,<br />grain alcohol,<br/>hydroxyethane
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O <!-- C2H6O is standard that can be searched for - please do not change into C2H5OH -->
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| CCO
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 46.07 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Colorless liquid
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [64-17-5]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 0.789 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, liquid
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| Fully [[miscible]]
|-
<!-- | Other solvents e.g. [[ethanol]], [[acetone]] -->
<!-- | solubility info on other solvents -->
<!-- |- -->
| [[Melting point]]
| &minus;114.3 °C (158.8 K)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 78.4 °C (351.6 K)
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''<sub>a</sub>)
| 15.9 (H<sup>+</sup> from OH group)
|-
| [[Viscosity]]
| 1.200 c[[Poise|P]] at 20 °C
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| 1.69 [[Debye|D]] (gas)
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards <!-- Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information -->
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]]
|-
| [[Directive 67/548/EEC|EU classification]]
| Flammable ('''F''')<br/>Irritant ('''Xi''')
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h1.png]][[Image:nfpa_f3.png]][[Image:nfpa_r0.png]]
|-
| [[List of R-phrases|R-phrases]]
| {{R11}}
|-
| [[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]]
| {{S2}}, {{S7}}, {{S16}}
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| 13 °C (55.4 °F)
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| KQ6300000
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure & properties]]
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''&epsilon;<sub>r</sub>'']], etc.
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic data]]
| Phase behaviour<br>Solid, liquid, gas
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related [[alcohol]]s
| [[Methanol]], [[1-Propanol]]
|-
| Other heteroatoms
| [[Ethylamine]], [[Ethyl chloride]],<br/> [[Ethyl bromide]], [[Ethanethiol]]
|-
| Substituted ethanols
| [[Ethylene glycol]], [[Ethanolamine]],<br /> [[2-Chloroethanol]]
|-
| Other compounds
| [[Acetaldehyde]], [[Acetic acid]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | <small>Except where noted otherwise, data are given for<br> materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25&deg;C, 100 kPa)]]<br/>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]</small>
|-
|}
'''Ethanol''', also known as '''ethyl alcohol''' or [[Neutral_grain_spirit|grain alcohol]], is a flammable, colorless [[chemical compound]], one of the [[alcohol]]s that is most often found in [[alcoholic beverage]]s. In common parlance, it is often referred to simply as ''alcohol''. Its [[chemical formula]] is [[Carbon|C]]<sub>2</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>5</sub>[[hydroxyl|OH]], also written as C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O.
This article is mostly about ethanol as a chemical compound. For beverages containing ethanol, see ''[[alcoholic beverage]]''. For the use of ethanol as a fuel, see ''[[Ethanol fuel|alcohol fuel]]''. For its physiological effects, see ''[[effects of alcohol on the body]]''.
== History ==
Ethanol has been used by humans since prehistory as the intoxicating ingredient in [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]]. Dried residues on 9000-year-old pottery found in northern [[China]] imply the use of alcoholic beverages even among [[Neolithic]] peoples.{{inote|Roach (2005)}} Its isolation as a relatively pure compound was first achieved by Islamic alchemists who developed the art of [[distillation]] during the [[Abbasid caliphate]]. The writings attributed to [[Jabir Ibn Hayyan]] (Geber) (721-815) mention the flammable vapors of boiled wine. [[Al-Kindī]] (801-873) unambiguously described the distillation of wine.{{inote|al-Hassan}} Distillation of ethanol from water yields a product that is at most 96% ethanol, because ethanol forms an [[azeotrope]] with water. Absolute ethanol was first obtained in 1796 by [[Johann Tobias Lowitz]], by filtering distilled ethanol through [[charcoal]].
[[Antoine Lavoisier]] described ethanol as a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and in 1808, [[Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure]] determined ethanol's chemical formula.{{inote|EB (1911)}} In 1858, [[Archibald Scott Couper]] published a structural formula for ethanol: this places ethanol among the first chemical compounds to have their chemical structures determined.{{inote|Couper (1858)}}
Ethanol was first prepared synthetically in 1826, through the independent efforts of Henry Hennel in Britain and S.G. Sérullas in France. [[Michael Faraday]] prepared ethanol by the acid-catalysed hydration of [[ethylene]] in 1828, in a process similar to that used for industrial ethanol synthesis today. {{inote|Hennell (1828)}}
== Physical properties ==
Ethanol's [[hydroxyl]] group is able to participate in [[hydrogen bond]]ing. At the molecular level, liquid ethanol consists of hydrogen-bonded pairs of ethanol molecules; this phenomenon renders ethanol more viscous and less volatile than less polar organic compounds of similar molecular weight. In the vapor phase, there is little hydrogen bonding; ethanol vapor consists of individual ethanol molecules.
Ethanol is a versatile solvent. It is [[miscible]] with water and with most [[organic compound|organic]] liquids, including nonpolar liquids such as [[aliphatic hydrocarbon]]s. Organic solids of low molecular weight are usually soluble in ethanol. Among [[ionic compound]]s, many monovalent salts are at least somewhat soluble in ethanol, with salts of large, [[polarizability|polarizable]] ions being more soluble than salts of smaller ions. Most salts of polyvalent ions are practically insoluble in ethanol.
Several unusual phenomena are associated with mixtures of ethanol and water. Ethanol-water mixtures have less volume than their individual components: a mixture of equal volumes ethanol and water has only 96% of the volume of equal parts ethanol and water, unmixed. The addition of even a few percent ethanol to water sharply reduces the [[surface tension]] of water. This property partially explains the [[tears of wine]] phenomenon: when wine is swirled inside a glass, ethanol evaporates quickly from the thin film of wine on the wall of the glass. As its ethanol content decreases, its surface tension increases, and the thin film beads up and runs down the glass in channels rather than as a smooth sheet.
== Chemistry ==
The chemistry of ethanol is largely that of its [[hydroxyl]] group.
; Acid-base chemistry
Ethanol's hydroxyl proton is very weakly acidic; it is an even weaker acid than water. Ethanol can be quantitatively converted to its [[conjugate base]], the [[ethoxide]] ion (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>O<sup>&minus;</sup>), by reaction with an [[alkali metal]] such as [[sodium]]. This reaction evolves [[hydrogen]] gas:
: CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + [[sodium|Na]] &rarr; CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>ONa + &frac12; [[hydrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]]
; Nucleophilic substitution
In [[aprotic solvent]]s, ethanol reacts with the hydrogen halides to give ethyl halides such as [[ethyl chloride]] and [[ethyl bromide]] via [[nucleophilic substitution]]:
: CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + [[hydrochloric acid|HCl]] &rarr; [[ethyl chloride|CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>Cl]] + [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
: CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + [[Hydrobromic acid|HBr]] &rarr; [[Ethyl bromide |CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>Br]] + [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
Ethyl halides can also be produced by reacting ethanol by more specialized halogenating agents, such as [[thionyl chloride]] for preparing ethyl chloride, or [[phosphorus tribromide]] for preparing ethyl bromide.
; Esterification
Under acid-catalysed conditions, ethanol reacts with [[carboxylic acid]]s to produce ethyl [[ester]]s and water:
: [[carboxylic acid|RCOOH]] + HOCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> &rarr; [[ester|RCOOCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>]] + [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
The reverse reaction, [[hydrolysis]] of the resulting ester back to ethanol and the carboxylic acid, limits the extent of reaction, and high yields are unusual unless water can be removed from the reaction mixture as it is formed. Esterification can also be carried out using more a reactive derivative of the carboxylic acid, such as an [[acyl chloride]] or [[acid anhydride]].
Ethanol can also form esters with inorganic acids. [[Diethyl sulfate]] and [[triethyl phosphate]], prepared by reacting ethanol with [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] and [[phosphoric acid]], respectively, are both useful ethylating agents in [[organic synthesis]]. [[Ethyl nitrite]], prepared from the reaction of ethanol with [[sodium nitrite]] and [[sulfuric acid]], was formerly a widely-used [[diuretic]].
; Dehydration
Strong acids, such as sulfuric acid, can catalyse etha |
ed a goat, but those under the water transformed into a fish.
In [[Sumeria]], the constellation was associated with the god [[Ea]] or [[Enki]], who brought culture out of the sea to humankind.
The constellation, together with its early greek name, associated ideas about sin, and the constellation of [[Aquarius]], who was said to have poured out a river, may represent the origin of the myth of the [[Augean Stable]], which forms one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].
The constellation is located in an area of sky called the [[Sea (astronomy)|Sea]] or Water, consisting of many watery constellations such as [[Aquarius]], [[Pisces]], and [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]].
===Astrology===
The Western [[astrological sign]] Capricorn of the [[tropical zodiac]] ([[December 22]] - [[January 19]]) differs from the astronomical constellation and the Hindu astrological sign of the [[Sidereal astrology|sidereal zodiac]] ([[January 19]] - [[February 15]]).
In some cosmologies, Capricorn is associated with the [[classical element]] [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], and thus called an Earth Sign (with [[Taurus]] and [[Virgo]]). It is also one of the four [[Cardinal sign]]s (along with [[Aries]], [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]], and [[Libra]]). It is the [[domicile (astrology)|domicile]] of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] and the [[exaltation (astrology)|exaltation]] of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. Its polar opposite is Cancer. Each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body, viewed as the seat of its power. Capricorn rules the [[knee|knees]], [[bones]], and [[skin]]. The ancient symbol of this sign is the [[sea monster]], which harks back to the time in antiquity when Capricorn was considered a water sign and not an earth sign. The symbol for this eventually changed to that of a [[seagoat]], which is a mythological creature that has the head and upper body of a goat and the lower body of a fish, and this was an attempt to meld the watery qualities that this sign originally possessed with the earthly qualities that astrologers wanted it to acquire. In modern times the symbolism for this sign has evolved once again, with astrologers doing away with the figure of the seagoat altogether in favour of the [[mountain goat]], which has almost eradicated the watery themes that once encompassed this sign.
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* ([[Alpha Capricorni|&alpha; Cap]]) '''Algedi''' [Al Giedi, Giedi, Algiedi, ''Gredi'']
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1617; ''al-jadiyy'' The billy goat
::* '''Algedi Prima''' [Prima Giedi] (5/&alpha;<sup>1</sup> Cap) 4.24
::* '''Algedi Secunda''' [Secunda Giedi] (6/&alpha;<sup>2</sup> Cap) 3.56
:* ([[Beta Capricorni|&beta; Cap]]) '''Dabih'''
:*: < &#1587;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1575;&#1576;&#1581; ''sa<sup>c<sup>d að-ð&#257;bi&#295;'' Luck of the slaughterer/sacrificer
::* '''Dabih Major''' (9/&beta; Cap) 3.05
::* '''Dabih Minor''' (&beta;<sup>2</sup> Cap) 6.09
:* ([[Gamma Capricorni|40/&gamma; Cap]]) 3.68 '''Nashira'''
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1588;&#1585;&#1577; ''as-sa<sup>c</sup>d an-n&#257;&#353;ira[h]'' The bringer of good news
:* ([[Delta Capricorni|49/&delta; Cap]]) 2.87 '''Deneb Algiedi''' [''Deneb Algedi''], '''Scheddi''' [''Sheddi'']
:*: < &#1584;&#1606;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610; ''ðanab[u] al-jadiyy'' Tail of the goat
:* ([[Epsilon Capricorni|39/&epsilon; Cap]]) 4.51 '''Kastra'''
:* ([[Eta Capricorni|22/&eta; Cap]]) 4.82 '''Arm'''
:* ([[Nu Capricorni|8/&nu; Cap]]) 4.75 '''Alshat'''
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1575;&#1577; ''a&#353;-&#353;&#257;[t]'' The (she) camel
:* ([[Pi Capricorni|10/&pi; Cap]]) 5.08 '''Okul'''
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Zeta Capricorni|34/&zeta; Cap]] 3.77; [[Theta Capricorni|23/&theta; Cap]] 4.08; [[Iota Capricorni|32/&iota; Cap]] 4.28; [[Kappa Capricorni|43/&kappa; Cap]] 4.72; [[Lambda Capricorni|48/&lambda; Cap]] 5.57; [[Mu Capricorni|51/&mu; Cap]] 5.08; [[Xi Capricorni|2/&xi; Cap]] 5.84; [[Xi2 Capricorni|1/&xi;<sup>2</sup> Cap]] 6.34; [[Omicron Capricorni|12/&omicron; Cap]] &mdash; double 5.94, 6.74; [[Rho Capricorni|11/&rho; Cap]] 4.77; [[Sigma Capricorni|7/&sigma; Cap]] 5.28; [[Tau Capricorni|14/&tau; Cap]] 5.24; [[Tau1 Capricorni|13/&tau;<sup>1</sup> Cap]] 6.76; [[Upsilon Capricorni|15/&upsilon; Cap]] 5.15; [[Chi Capricorni|25/&chi; Cap]] 5.30; [[Phi Capricorni|28/&phi; Cap]] 5.17; [[Psi Capricorni|16/&psi; Cap]] 4.13; [[Omega Capricorni|18/&omega; Cap]] 4.12; [[b Capricorni|36/b Cap]] 4.50; [[c Capricorni|46/c Cap]] 5.10; [[A Capricorni|24/A Cap]] 4.49
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
::[[3 Capricorni|3 Cap]] 6.30; [[4 Capricorni|4 Cap]] 5.86; [[17 Capricorni|17 Cap]] 5.91; [[19 Capricorni|19 Cap]] 5.78; [[20 Capricorni|20 Cap]] 6.26; [[27 Capricorni|27 Cap]] 6.25; [[29 Capricorni|29 Cap]] 5.31; [[30 Capricorni|30 Cap]] 5.40; [[31 Capricorni|31 Cap]] 7.18; [[33 Capricorni|33 Cap]] 5.38; [[35 Capricorni|35 Cap]] 5.78; [[37 Capricorni|37 Cap]] 5.70; [[41 Capricorni|41 Cap]] 5.24; [[42 Capricorni|42 Cap]] 5.16; [[44 Capricorni|44 Cap]] 5.88; [[45 Capricorni|45 Cap]] 5.96; [[47 Capricorni|47 Cap]] 6.00
== Stars with planets ==
{| class="wikitable" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"
|-
! style="background:#00FF7F;" | [[Star]]
! style="background:#00FF7F;" | [[Planet]]
! style="background:#00FF7F" | Distance<br>([[light year|ly]])
! style="background:#00FF7F" | Discovered
|- style="text-align:center; background:#FFFFFF"
| rowspan="2" | [[HD 202206]] || [[HD 202206#HD 202206 b|HD 202206 b]] || 151.14 || [[2000]]
|- style="text-align:center; background:#FFFFFF"
| [[HD 202206#HD 202206 c|HD 202206 c]] || 151.14 || [[2004]]
|}
{{Zodiac}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Capricornus}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/capricornus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Capricornus]
[[Category:Capricornus constellation| ]]
[[Category:Astrological signs]]
[[ar:جدي (أبراج)]]
[[ca:Capricorn]]
[[da:Stenbukken]]
[[de:Steinbock (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Capricornus]]
[[eo:Kaprikorno]]
[[fr:Capricorne (constellation)]]
[[ga:An Gabhar]]
[[he:מזל גדי]]
[[ko:염소자리]]
[[id:Capricornus]]
[[it:Capricorno (astronomia)]]
[[ka:თხის რქა]]
[[la:Capricornus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Ožiaragis]]
[[hu:Bak (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Steenbok (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:やぎ座]]
[[nn:Steinbukken]]
[[pl:Koziorożec (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Capricornus]]
[[ru:Козерог (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Kozorožec]]
[[sl:Kozorog (ozvezdje)]]
[[sv:Stenbocken]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวแพะทะเล]]
[[zh:摩羯座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cheese</title>
<id>5440</id>
<revision>
<id>42147280</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:16:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
<id>603177</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/152.163.100.13|152.163.100.13]] to last version by Syrthiss</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{cuisine}}
'''Cheese''' is a solid [[food]] made from the [[curd]]led [[milk]] of [[cattle|cow]]s, [[goat]]s, [[domestic sheep|sheep]], or other [[mammal]]s. The milk is curdled using some combination of [[rennet]] (or rennet substitutes) and acidification. [[Bacterium|Bacteria]] acidify the milk and play a role in defining the texture and flavor of most cheeses. Some cheeses also feature [[mold]]s, either on the outer rind or throughout.
There are [[List of cheeses|hundreds of types of cheese]]. Different styles and flavors of cheese are the result of using different species of bacteria and molds, different levels of [[Butterfat|milk fat]], variations in length of aging, differing processing treatments (cheddaring, pulling, brining, mold wash) and different breeds of cows, sheep, or other mammals. Other factors include animal diet and the addition of flavoring agents such as [[herb]]s, [[spice]]s, or [[smoking (food)|wood smoke]]. Whether or not the milk is [[Pasteurization|pasteurized]] may also affect the flavor.
For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding [[acid]]s such as [[vinegar]] or [[lemon]] juice. Most cheeses, however, are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn [[lactose|milk sugar]]s into [[lactic acid]], followed by the addition of rennet to complete the curdling. Rennet is an [[enzyme]] traditionally obtained from the stomach lining of young [[cattle]], but now also laboratory produced. Substitute "vegetable rennets" have been extracted from various species of the ''[[Cynara]]'' thistle family.
In some societies, stored cheese is a hedge against famine and a good travel food. It is valuable for its portability, long life, and high content of [[fat]], [[protein]], [[calcium]], and [[phosphorus]]. Cheese is lighter-weight, more compact, and has a longer shelf life than the milk from which it is made. [[Cheesemaker]]s can place themselves near the center of a dairy region and benefit from fresher milk, lower milk prices, and lower shipping costs. Cheese's substantial storage life lets a cheesemaker sell when prices are high or money is needed. Some markets even pay more for "aged" cheeses, exactly the opposite case from conventional milk production.
Cheeses are eaten raw or cooked, alone or with other ingredients. As they are heated, most cheeses melt and |
Airports - with paved runways ([[1999]] est.)=====
[[Image:ChennaiAirport.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Chennai International Airport's main runway]]
10,000 ft (3,048 m) or more:
12
8,000 to 9,999 ft (2,438 to 3,047 m):
49
5,000 to 7,999 ft (1,524 to 2,437 m):
84
3,000 to 4,999 ft (914 to 1,523 m):
74
under 3,000 ft (914 m):
19
=====Airports - with unpaved runways ([[1999]] est.)=====
''total:''
108
8,000 to 9,999 ft (2,438 to 3,047 m):
2
5,000 to 7,999 ft (1,524 to 2,437 m):
4
3,000 to 4,999 ft (914 to 1,523 m):
47
Under 3,000 ft (914 m):
55 (1999 est.)
=====Heliports ([[2002]] est.)=====
19
== See also ==
* [[List of commercial airlines in India]]
* [[Indian licence plates]]
* [[National Highway 4]]
* [[Grand Trunk Road]]
* [[Bannerghatta Road]]
* [[List of low-cost airlines#India|Low cost airlines in India]]
{{Life in India}}
==External links==
* [http://morth.nic.in/ Ministry of Road Transport & Highways]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/04/international/asia/04highway.html ''Mile by Mile, India Paves a Smoother Road to Its Future''], [[New York Times]], December 4, 2005.
* [http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/SAR/sa.nsf/Countries/India/6FCFC02E809FEB0C85256BEB00440CDE?OpenDocument ''India’s Transport Sector: The Challenges Ahead''], [[World Bank]], 2002
{{Indian selected article}}
{{CIAfb}}
[[Category:Transport in India|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of India</title>
<id>14603</id>
<revision>
<id>33581170</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T09:37:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deepak gupta</username>
<id>347746</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to Indian Armed Forces</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect[[Indian Armed Forces]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of India</title>
<id>14604</id>
<revision>
<id>42021573</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:10:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pratheepps</username>
<id>396536</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* United States */ sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of India}}
[[India]]'s size, population, modern history and strategic location give it a prominent voice in international affairs, as does its growing industrial, military, scientific and technical strengths, which lend it added weight. The nation has had a long record of collaborating closely with other developing countries on issues from trade to environmental protection. The end of the Cold War dramatically affected Indian foreign policy, as it did for much of the world. India remains a leader of the developing world and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM), which it helped co-found. It last hosted the NAM Heads of State Summit in [[1997]]. The country now also seeks to strengthen its political and commercial ties with the [[United States]], [[Japan]], the [[European Union]], [[Iran]], [[Israel]], the [[People's Republic of China]], and the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]]. India is an active member of the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC) and the [[Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation]] (IORARC).
India has long been an active member of the [[United Nations]] and now seeks a permanent seat on the [[UN Security Council]]. The country also has a long tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping operations and most recently contributed personnel to UN operations in [[Somalia]], [[Cambodia]], [[Mozambique]], [[Kuwait]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]], [[Rwanda]], [[Angola]], and [[El Salvador]].
==Bilateral and Regional Relations==
===Pakistan===
''Main Article: [[Relations between India and Pakistan]]''
The principal source of contention between India and its western neighbour has been [[Kashmir]], whose Hindu Maharaja, Hari Singh of Dogra and Muslim Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah chose in [[1947]] to join India. Their decision was hastened by the loss of territory to invading irregulars from Pakistan backed by the Pakistan Army. India maintains that his decision, which was the norm for every other princely state at Independence, and subsequent elections, for over 40 years, in Kashmir have made it an integral part of India. Pakistan asserts Kashmiris' rights to self-determination through a [[plebiscite]] in accordance with an earlier Indian statement and a [[UN resolution]]. This dispute triggered wars between the two countries in 1947 and [[1965]], and a limited conflict in [[1999]]. The state remains divided between the two countries by the Line of Control (LoC), which demarcates the ceasefire line agreed upon in the 1947 conflict. Pakistan refers to its part of the state as Azad Kashmir. India terms it Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (PoK).
In December [[1971]], following a political crisis in what was then [[East Pakistan]] and a subsequent genocide of Bengalis by the Pakistani army, millions of [[Bengali]] refugees fled to India. The situation soon spiralled out of control in East Pakistan and India was forced to intervene. Pakistan has always claimed that the armed insurrection in the troubled state was abetted by India. The brief conflict left the situation largely unchanged in the west, where the two armies reached an impasse (although India is regarded to have held the upper hand), but a decisive Indian victory in the east resulted in the creation of [[Bangladesh]] and over 90,000 Pakistani POWs.
Since the 1971 war, Pakistan and India have made only slow progress towards the normalization of relations. In July 1972, Indian Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] and Pakistani President [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] met in the Indian hill station of [[Shimla]]. They signed an agreement by which India would return all personnel (over 90,000) and captured territory in the west and the two countries would "settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations." Diplomatic and trade relations were re-established in [[1976]].
After the [[1979]] [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]], new strains appeared in [[Indo-Pak relations]]. Pakistan actively supported the Afghan resistance, while India was a friend of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]. In the following eight years, India voiced increasing concern over Pakistani arms purchases, [[U.S. military aid to Pakistan]], and a clandestine [[Pakistan's nuclear weapons program]]. In an effort to curtail tensions, the two countries formed a joint commission to examine disputes. In December [[1988]], Prime Ministers [[Rajiv Gandhi]] and [[Benazir Bhutto]] concluded a pact not to attack each other's nuclear facilities. Agreements on cultural exchanges and civil aviation were also initiated.
In [[1997]], high-level Indo-Pakistan talks resumed after a 3-year pause. The Prime Ministers of India and Pakistan met twice and the foreign secretaries conducted three rounds of talks. In June 1997, the foreign secretaries identified eight "outstanding issues" around which continuing talks would be focused. The dispute over the status of Kashmir, (referred by India as Jammu and Kashmir), an issue since partition, remains the major stumbling block in their dialogue. India maintains that the entire former princely state is an integral part of the Indian union, while Pakistan insists that UN resolutions calling for self-determination of the people of the state must be taken into account. It however refuses to abide by the previous part of the resolution, which calls for it to vacate all territories occupied.
In September 1997, the talks broke down over the structure of how to deal with the issues of Kashmir, and peace and security. Pakistan advocated that the issues be treated by separate [[working group]]s. India responded that the two issues be taken up along with six others on a simultaneous basis. In May 1998 India, and then Pakistan, conducted [[nuclear tests]]. Attempts to restart dialogue between the two nations were given a major boost by the February 1999 meeting of both Prime Ministers in [[Lahore]] and their signing of three agreements. These efforts have since been stalled by the intrusion of Pakistani forces into Indian-held territory near [[Kargil]] in [[Kashmir]] in May 1999. A subsequent military coup in Pakistan that overturned the democratically elected [[Nawaz Sharif]] government in October of the same year also proved a setback to relations.
In [[2001]], a summit was called in [[Agra]], India and Pakistan's military dictator, Pervez Musharraf turned up to meet Indian [[Prime Minister]] Atal Behari Vajpayee. The talks broke down when the Pakistani dictator repeatedly dubbed militants in Kashmir 'freedom fighters' at a press conference. The Indians appeared miffed and the talks fell through.
On [[June 20]], [[2004]], with a new government in place in India, both countries agreed to extend a [[nuclear testing]] ban and to set up a [[hotline]] between their foreign secretaries aimed at preventing misunderstandings that might lead to a [[nuclear war]]. [http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/asiapcf/06/20/india.pakistan]
India has granted Pakistan unilateral MFN (most favored nation) trade status under WTO guidelines, but Pakistan is yet to reciprocate. As of early 2005, both countries are committed to a process of dialogue to solve all outstanding issues. [[Baglihar dam issue]] was a new issue raised by Pakistan in 2005.
===SAARC===
Certain aspects of India's relations within the subcontinent are conducted through the South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation ([[SAARC]]). Its members are [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]], [[India]], [[Maldives]], [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Sri Lanka]]. Established in [[1985]], SAARC encourages cooperation in agriculture, rural development, science and technology, culture, health, population control, narcotics control and anti-terrorism.
SAARC has intentionally stressed these "core issues" and avoided more divisive |
s, Providencia and Santa Catalina) that forms the territory of the department [[San Andrés and Providencia|San Andrés y Providencia]].
The Colombian climate, though it is in the Tropical area (Ecuador), is made different by the influence of the [[Andes]] range. It is tropical in its coastlands and lowlands and cool in the mountains.
The five traditional natural regions are therefore: the [[Andean Region (Colombia)|Andean Region]], the [[Caribbean Region (Colombia)|Caribbean Region]], the [[Pacific Region (Colombia)|Pacific Region]], the [[Orinoquia Region (Colombia)|Orinoquia Region]] and the [[Amazonia Region (Colombia)|Amazonia Region]]. Some people also include an [[Insular Region (Colombia)|Insular Region]], separated from the coastal regions.
'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|4|N|72|W|}}
==Geographic regions==
Geographers have devised different ways to divide Colombia into regions. It is most appropriate to divide the country into four geographic regions: the Andean highlands, consisting of the three Andean ranges and intervening valley lowlands; the Caribbean lowlands coastal region; the Pacific lowlands coastal region, separated from the Caribbean lowlands by swamps at the base of the Isthmus of Panama; and eastern Colombia, the great plain that lies to the east of the Andes Mountains.
===Andean Highlands===
Near the Ecuadorian frontier, the Andes Mountains divide into three distinct, roughly parallel chains, called cordilleras, that extend northeastward almost to the Caribbean Sea. Altitudes reach more than 5,700 meters, and mountain peaks are permanently covered with snow. The elevated basins and plateaus of these ranges have a moderate climate that provides pleasant living conditions and in many places enables farmers to harvest twice a year. Torrential rivers on the slopes of the mountains produce a large hydroelectric power potential and add their volume to the navigable rivers in the valleys. In the late 1980s, approximately 78 % of the country's population lived in the Andean highlands.
The Cordillera Occidental in the west, the Cordillera Central in the center, and the Cordillera Oriental in the east have different characteristics. Geologically, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central form the western and eastern sides of a massive crystalline arch that extends from the Caribbean lowlands to the southern border of Ecuador. The Cordillera Oriental, however, is composed of folded stratified rocks overlying a crystalline core.
The Cordillera Occidental is relatively low and is the least populated of the three cordilleras. Summits are only about 3,000 meters above sea level and do not have permanent snows. Few passes exist, although one that is about 1,520 meters above sea level provides the major city of Cali with an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. The relatively low elevation of the cordillera permits dense vegetation, which on the western slopes is truly tropical.
The Cordillera Occidental is separated from the Cordillera Central by the deep rift of the Cauca Valley. The Río Cauca rises within 200 kilometers of the border with Ecuador and flows through some of the best farmland in the country. After the two cordilleras converge, the Cauca Valley becomes a deep gorge all the way to the Caribbean lowlands.
The Cordillera Central is the loftiest of the mountain systems. Its crystalline rocks form an 800-kilometer-long towering wall dotted with snow-covered volcanoes. There are no plateaus in this range and no passes under 3,300 meters. The highest peak in this range, the Nevado del Huila, reaches 5,439 meters above sea level. The second highest peak is a volcano, Nevado del Ruiz, which erupted violently on November 13, 1985. Toward its northern end, this cordillera separates into several branches that descend toward the Caribbean coast.
Between the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental flows the Río Magdalena. This 1,600-kilometer-long river rises near a point some 180 kilometers north of the border with Ecuador, where the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central diverge. Its spacious drainage area is fed by numerous mountain torrents originating high in the snowfields. The Río Magdalena is generally navigable from the Caribbean Sea as far as the town of Neiva, deep in the interior, but is interrupted midway by rapids. The valley floor is very deep; nearly 800 kilometers from the river's mouth the elevation is no more than about 300 meters.
In the Cordillera Oriental at elevations between 2,500 and 2,700 meters, three large fertile basins and a number of small ones provide suitable areas for settlement and intensive economic production. In the basin of Cundinamarca, where the Spanish found the Chibcha Indians, the European invaders established the town of Santa Fe de Bogotá (present-day Bogotá) at an elevation of 2,650 meters above sea level.
To the north of Bogotá, in the densely populated basins of Chiquinquira and Boyacá, are fertile fields, rich mines, and large industrial establishments that produce much of the national wealth. Still farther north, where the Cordillera Oriental makes an abrupt turn to the northwest near the border with Venezuela, the highest point of this range, the Sierra Nevada de Cocuy, rises to 5,493 meters above sea level. In the department of Santander, the valleys on the western slopes are more spacious, and agriculture is intensive in the area around Bucaramanga. The northernmost region of the range around Cúcuta is so rugged that historically it has been easier to maintain communications and transportation with Venezuela than with the adjacent parts of Colombia.
===Caribbean Lowlands===
The Caribbean lowlands consist of all of Colombia north of an imaginary line extending northeastward from the Golfo de Urabá to the Venezuelan frontier at the northern extremity of the Cordillera Oriental. The semiarid Guajira Peninsula, in the extreme north, bears little resemblance to the rest of the region. In the southern part rises the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, an isolated mountain system with peaks reaching heights over 5,700 meters and slopes generally too steep for cultivation.
The Caribbean lowlands region is in roughly the shape of a triangle, the longest side of which is the coastline. Most of the country's commerce moves through Cartagena, Barranquilla, Santa Marta, and the other ports located along this important coast. Inland from these cities are swamps, hidden streams, and shallow lakes that support banana and cotton plantations, countless small farms, and, in higher places, cattle ranches.
The Caribbean region merges into and is connected with the Andean highlands through the two great river valleys. After the Andean highlands, it is the second most important region in economic activity. Approximately 17 % of the country's population lived in this region in the late 1980s.
===Pacific Lowlands===
In the 1980s, only 3 % of all Colombians resided in the Pacific lowlands, a region of jungle and swamp with considerable but little-exploited potential in minerals and other resources. Buenaventura is the only port of any size on the coast. On the east, the Pacific lowlands are bounded by the Cordillera Occidental, from which numerous streams run. Most of the streams flow westward to the Pacific, but the largest, the navigable Río Atrato, flows northward to the Golfo de Urabá, making the river settlements accessible to the major Atlantic ports and commercially related primarily to the Caribbean lowlands hinterland. To the west of the Río Atrato rises the Serranía de Baudo, an isolated chain of low mountains that occupies a large part of the region. Its highest elevation is less than 1,800 meters, and its vegetation resembles that of the surrounding tropical forest.
The Atrato Swamp--in Chocó Department adjoining the border with Panama--is a deep muck sixty-five kilometers in width that for years has challenged engineers seeking to complete the Pan American Highway. This stretch, near Turbo, where the highway is interrupted is known as the Tapón del Chocó (Chocon Plug). A second major transportation project involving Chocó Department has been proposed. A second interoceanic canal would be constructed by dredging the Río Atrato and other streams and digging short access canals. Completion of either of these projects would do much to transform this somnolent region.
===Eastern Colombia===
The area east of the Andes includes about 699,300 square kilometers, or three-fifths of the country's total area, but Colombians view it almost as an alien land. The entire area, known as the eastern plains, was home to only 2 % of the country's population in the late 1980s. The Spanish term for plains (llanos) can be applied only to the open plains in the northern part, particularly the piedmont areas near the Cordillera Oriental, where cattle raising is practiced.
The region is unbroken by highlands except in Meta Department, where the Macarena Sierra, an outlier of the Andes, is of interest to scientists because its vegetation and wildlife are believed to be reminiscent of those that once existed throughout the Andes. Many of the numerous large rivers of eastern Colombia are navigable. The Río Guaviare and the streams to its north flow eastward and drain into the basin of the Río Orinoco, the largest river in Venezuela. Those south of the Río Guaviare flow into the basin of the Amazon. The Río Guaviare divides eastern Colombia into the llanos subregion in the north and the tropical rainforest, or selva, subregion in the south.
==Climate==
Climate
The striking variety in temperature and precipitation results principally from differences in elevation. Temperatures range from very hot at sea level to relatively cold at higher elevations but vary little with the season. At Bogotá, for example, the average annual temperature is 15°C, and the difference between the average of the coldest and the warmest months is less than 1°C. More si |
an independence and as a campaigner against royal prerogative, many were surprised when Burke published his ''[[Reflections on the Revolution in France]]'' in [[1790]]. With it, Burke became one of the earliest and fiercest British critics of the French Revolution, which he saw not as movement towards a representative, constitutional democracy but rather as a violent rebellion against tradition and proper authority and as an experiment disconnected from the complex realities of human society, which would end in disaster. Former admirers of Burke, such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] and fellow Whig politician [[Charles James Fox]], proceeded to denounce Burke as a [[reactionary]] and an enemy of democracy. [[Thomas Paine]] penned ''[[The Rights of Man]]'' in [[1791]] as a response to Burke. However, other pro-democratic politicians, such as the American [[John Adams]], agreed with Burke's assessment of the French situation. Many of Burke's dire predictions for the outcome of the French Revolution were later borne out by the execution of King [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]], the subsequent [[Reign of Terror]], and the eventual rise of [[Napoleon]]'s autocratic regime.
These events, and the disagreements which arose regarding them within the Whig party, led to its breakup and to the rupture of Burke's friendship with Fox. In [[1791]] Burke published his ''[[Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs]]'', in which he renewed his criticism of the radical revolutionary programs inspired by the French Revolution and attacked the Whigs who supported them. Eventually most of the Whigs sided with Burke and voted their support for the conservative government of [[Prime Minister]] [[William Pitt the Younger]], which declared war on the revolutionary government of France in [[1793]].
In [[1794]] a terrible blow fell upon Burke in the loss of his son Richard, to whom he was tenderly attached, and in whom he saw signs of promise, which were not patent to others, and which in fact appear to have been non-existent. In the same year the Hastings trial came to an end. Burke felt that his work was done and indeed that he was worn out; and he took leave of Parliament. The King, whose favour he had gained by his attitude on the French Revolution, wished to make him Lord Beaconsfield, but the death of his son had deprived such an honour of all its attractions, and the only reward he would accept was a pension of £2,500. Even this modest reward was attacked by the [[John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford|Duke of Bedford]] and the [[James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale|Earl of Lauderdale]], to whom Burke made a crushing reply in the ''Letter to a Noble Lord'' ([[1796]]). His last publication were the ''Letters on a Regicide Peace'' ([[1796]]), called forth by negotiations for peace with France.
Burke died in [[Beaconsfield]], [[Buckinghamshire]] in [[1797]].
==Influence and reputation==
{{liberalism}}
{{conservatism}}
Burke's ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' was extremely controversial at the time of its publication. Its intemperate language and factual inaccuracies even convinced many readers that Burke had lost his judgment. But as the subsequent violence and chaos in France vindicated much of Burke's assessment, it grew to become his best-known and most influential work. In the English-speaking world, Burke is often regarded as one of the fathers of modern [[conservatism]], and his thinking has exerted considerable influence over the political philosophy of such [[classical liberalism|classical liberals]] as [[Friedrich Hayek]] and [[Karl Popper]]. Burke's 'liberal' conservatism, which opposes the implementation of grand theoretical plans of radical political change but recognizes the necessity of gradual reform, must not be confused with the autocratic conservatism of such anti-revolutionary Continental figures as [[Joseph de Maistre]].
Two contrasting assessments of Burke were offered long after his death by [[Karl Marx]] and [[Winston Churchill]]. According to the former's ''[[Das Kapital]]'':
:The sycophant—who in the pay of the English oligarchy played the romantic ''laudator temporis acti'' against the French Revolution just as, in the pay of the North American colonies at the beginning of the American troubles, he had played the liberal against the English oligarchy—was an out-and-out vulgar [[bourgeois]].
According to Churchill's "Consistency in Politics":
:On the one hand [Burke] is revealed as a foremost apostle of Liberty, on the other as the redoubtable champion of Authority. But a charge of political inconsistency applied to this life appears a mean and petty thing. History easily discerns the reasons and forces which actuated him, and the immense changes in the problems he was facing which evoked from the same profound mind and sincere spirit these entirely contrary manifestations. His soul revolted against tyranny, whether it appeared in the aspect of a domineering Monarch and a corrupt Court and Parliamentary system, or whether, mouthing the watch-words of a non-existent liberty, it towered up against him in the dictation of a brutal mob and wicked sect. No one can read the Burke of Liberty and the Burke of Authority without feeling that here was the same man pursuing the same ends, seeking the same ideals of society and Government, and defending them from assaults, now from one extreme, now from the other.
Though still controversial, Burke is today widely regarded as one of the major political thinkers of the [[English language|English-speaking]] world. His writings, like his speeches, are characterised by the welding together of knowledge, thought, and feeling. Unlike most orators, he is more successful as a writer than he was as a speaker. He often rose too far above the heads of his audience, which the continued splendour of his declamation, his inordinate copiousness, and his excessive vehemence, often passing into fury, at length wearied, and even disgusted. Burke was known as the 'Dinner Bell' to his contemporaries because MPs would leave the chamber to look for dinner when he rose to speak [http://www.pat2k.com/trade/otto_ft_hist.htm]. But in his writings are found some of the grandest examples of a fervid and richly elaborated eloquence. Though he was never admitted to the Cabinet, he guided and influenced largely the policy of his party. His efforts in the direction of economy and order in administration at home, and on behalf of a more just government in America, [[India]], and [[Ireland]], as well as his contributions to political philosophy, constitute his most significant legacy.
==Speeches==
Burke made several famous speeches while serving in the [[British House of Commons]].
*[[On American Taxation]] ([[1774]]): ''"Whether you were right or wrong in establishing the Colonies on the principles of commercial monopoly, rather than on that of revenue, is at this day a problem of mere speculation. You cannot have both by the same authority. To join together the restraints of an universal internal and external monopoly, with an universal internal and external taxation, is an unnatural union; perfect uncompensated slavery."''
*[http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/D/1751-1775/libertydebate/burk.htm On Conciliation with America] ([[1775]]): "''The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of war; not peace to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations; not peace to arise out of universal discord fomented, from principle, in all parts of the Empire, not peace to depend on the juridical determination of perplexing questions, or the precise marking the shadowy boundaries of a complex government. It is simple peace; sought in its natural course, and in its ordinary haunts. It is peace sought in the spirit of peace, and laid in principles purely pacific . . .''"
==Writings==
*''[[A Vindication of Natural Society: A View of the Miseries and Evils Arising to Mankind]]'' [[1756]] (Liberty Fund, 1982) ISBN 0865970092. This article, outlining radical political theory, was first published anonymously and, when Burke was revealed as its author, he explained that it was a satire. The consensus of historians is that this is correct. An alternate theory, proposed by [[Murray Rothbard]], argues that Burke wrote the ''Vindication'' in earnest but later wished to disavow it for political reasons.
*''[[A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful]]'' [[1757]], begun when he was 19 and published when he was 27. (Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0192835807
*''[[Reflections on the Revolution in France]]'' [[1790]] (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0192839780
==Trivia==
Having lost his only heir, in 1794 Burke refused King George III's offer to raise him to the peerage as Lord Beaconsfield. That title would later be associated with [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] politician and Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield|Benjamin Disraeli]].
''[[Reflections on the Revolution in France]]'' was addressed to an anonymous French nobleman whose identity has been the subject of many rumors. Thomas Copeland, editor of Burke's Correspondence, put forth a compelling argument that the recipient was in fact [[Victor Marie du Pont]]. Victor's brother was [[Eleuthère Irénée du Pont]], founder of the [[Du Pont|E.I. duPont de Nemours Company]].
==Notable quotations==
* "Parliament is not a '''congress''' of ambassadors from different and hostile interests; which interests each must maintain, as an agent and advocate, against other agents and advocates; but parliament is a '''deliberative''' assembly of '''one''' nation, with '''one''' interest, that of the whole; where, not local purposes, not local prejudices ought to guide, but the general good, resulting from the general reason of the whole. You choose a member indeed; but when you have chosen him, he is not a member of Bristol, but he |
a new religious esoteric movement.
[[Category:Anthroposophy| ]]
[[Category:Esoteric Christianity]]
[[Category:Esoteric schools of thought]]
[[da:Antroposofi]]
[[de:Anthroposophie]]
[[fr:Anthroposophie]]
[[he:אנתרופוסופיה]]
[[hu:Antropozófia]]
[[it:Antroposofia]]
[[nl:Antroposofie]]
[[ja:人智学]]
[[no:Antroposofi]]
[[pl:Antropozofia]]
[[pt:Antroposofia]]
[[ru:Антропософия]]
[[fi:Antroposofia]]
[[sv:Antroposofi]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aurochs</title>
<id>2494</id>
<revision>
<id>41951468</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:09:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Violetriga</username>
<id>90192</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ remove one commercial link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Aurochs
| status = {{StatusExtinct|when=[[1627]]}}
| image = Lascaux.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Cave painting of aurochs
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Bovinae]]
| genus = '''''[[Bos]]'''''
| species = '''''B. primigenius'''''
| trinomial = ''Bos primigenius namadicus''
| trinomial_authority = ([[Falconer]], [[1859]])
| trinomial2 = ''Bos primigenius mauretanicus''
| trinomial2_authority = ([[Oldfield Thomas|Thomas]], [[1881]])
| trinomial3 = ''Bos primigenius primigenius''
| trinomial3_authority = ([[Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus|Bojanus]], [[1827]])
}}
The '''aurochs''' (''Bos primigenius'') is an [[extinct]] European [[mammal]] of the [[Bovidae]] family. The word ''aurochs'' is both singular and plural; alternative plural forms are ''aurochsen'' or ''urus''. The animal's original scientific name, ''Bos primigenius'', translated the [[German language|German]] term ''Auerochse'' or ''Urochs'', literally "primeval ox", or "proto-ox". This scientific name is now considered invalid by [[ITIS]], who classify aurochs under ''Bos taurus'', the same species as domestic cattle. However, in 2003, the [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] "conserved the usage of 17 specific names based on wild species, which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic forms", confirming ''Bos primigenius'' for the Aurochs. Taxonomists who consider domesticated [[cattle]] a subspecies of the wild Aurochs should use ''B. primigenius taurus''; the name ''B. taurus'' remains available for domestic cattle where it is considered to be a separate species.
==Origin==
According to the [[Paleontologisk Museum]], [[University of Oslo]], aurochs evolved in [[India]] some two million years ago, migrated into the [[Middle East]] and further into [[Asia]], and reached [[Europe]] about 250,000 years ago. They were once considered a distinct species from modern European [[cattle]] (''Bos taurus''), but more recent taxonomy has rejected this distinction. The South Asian domestic cattle, or [[zebu]], descended from a different group of aurochs at the edge of the [[Thar Desert]] in [[India]]; this would explain [[zebu]] resistance to [[drought]]. Domestic [[yak]], [[gayal]] and [[Javan cattle]] do not descend from aurochs. Modern cattle have become much smaller than their wild forebears: the height at the [[withers]] of a domesticated cow is about 1.4 meters, whereas an aurochs could reach about 1.75 meters.
=== Subspecies ===
At one time there existed three aurochs subspecies, namely ''Bos primigenius namadicus'' (Falconer, 1859) that occurred in India, the ''Bos primigenius mauretanicus'' (Thomas, 1881) from North Africa and naturally the ''Bos primigenius primigenius'' Bojanus, 1827 from Europe and the Middle East. Only the European subspecies has survived until in recent times.
==The worship of aurochs==
:''See also [[Bull (mythology)]].''
Aurochs are depicted in many Paleolithic European [[cave painting]]s such as those found at [[Lascaux]] and [[Livernon]] in [[France]]. Their life force may have been attributed with magical qualities, for early carvings of the aurochs have also been found. The impressive and dangerous aurochs survived into the [[Iron Age]] in [[Anatolia]] and the [[Near East]], and was worshiped throughout that area as a sacred animal, the [[Bull (mythology)|Lunar Bull]], associated with the [[Great Goddess]] and later with [[Mithras]].
A [[1999]] archaeological dig in [[Peterborough]], England, uncovered the skull of an aurochs. The front part of the skull had been removed but the horns remained attached. The supposition is that the killing of the aurochs in this instance was a sacrificial act.
The Aurochs were also the symbol of [[Moldavia]]; nowadays they can be found in the coat of arms of both [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]].
==Domestication and extinction==
Domestication of the aurochs began in the southern [[Caucasus]] and northern [[Mesopotamia]] from about the [[6th millennium BC]], while genetic evidence suggests that aurochs were independently domesticated in northern [[Africa]] and in [[India]]. Domestication caused dramatic changes to the physiology of the creatures, to the extent that domestic cattle must now be regarded as a separate species (see above).
Genetic analysis has provided many insights about the aurochs. Though aurochs became extinct in Britain during the [[Bronze age]], analysis of bones from aurochs that lived contemporaneously with domesticated cattle there showed no genetic contribution to modern breeds. So modern European cattle are thought to be descended directly from the Near East domestication event. Indian cattle ([[zebu]]), although domesticated eight to ten thousand years ago, are related to aurochs which diverged from the Near Eastern ones some 200,000 years ago. The African cattle are thought to descend from aurochs more closely related to the Near Eastern ones. The Near East and African aurochs groups are thought to have split some 25,000 years ago, probably 15,000 years before domestication. The "Turano-Mongolian" type of cattle now found in Northern China, Mongolia, Korea and Japan may represent a fourth domestication event (and a third event among ''Bos taurus''&ndash;type aurochs). This group may have diverged from the Near East group some 35,000 years ago. Whether these separate genetic populations would have equated to separate subspecies is unclear.
[[Image:Jaktorow pomnik tura.jpg|right|thumb|200px|left|Monument to the last aurochs in Jaktorów]]
The original range of the aurochs was from the British Isles, to Africa, the Middle East, India and central Asia. By the 13th century A.D., the aurochs' range was restricted to Poland, Lithuania and East Prussia. The right to hunt large animals on any land was restricted to nobles and gradually to the royal household. As the population of aurochs declined, hunting ceased but the royal court still required gamekeepers to provide open fields for the aurochs to graze in. The gamekeepers were exempted from local taxes in exchange for their service and a decree made poaching an aurochs punishable by death. In 1564, the gamekeepers knew of only 38 animals, according to the royal survey. The last recorded live aurochs (female) died in [[1627]] in the Jaktorów Forest, [[Poland]].
In the [[1920s]] two German zookeepers, the brothers Heinz and Lutz Heck, attempted to breed the aurochs back into existence (see [[Breeding_back|breeding back]]) from the domestic cattle that were their descendants. Their plan was based on the conception that a species is not extinct as long as all its genes are still present in a living population. The result is the breed called [[Heck Cattle]], 'Recreated Aurochs', or 'Heck Aurochs', which bears an incomplete resemblance to what is known about the physiology of the wild aurochs.
== See also ==
* [[Wisent]]
* [[Ur (rune)]]
== References ==
* Don E. Wilson and DeeAnn M. Reeder; ''Mammals''
* International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2003. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Bull.Zool.Nomencl., 60:81-84.
== External links ==
*[http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/speciesinfo/aurochs.htm The Extinction Website - Aurochs (''Bos primigenius primigenius'')]
*[http://www.aristotle.net/~swarmack/aurohist.html History of aurochs in Poland]
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ed [[Eastern Orthodox]] view rather than the western, i.e. [[Roman Catholic]], view, which treated them as cousins.
Among further traditions not present in the four canonical gospels are the birth of Jesus in a cave, and the martyrdom of [[John the Baptist]]'s father Zechariah during the slaughter of the infants. The Nativity reported as taking place in a cave, with its [[Mithraism|Mithraic]] overtones, remained in the popular imagination; many Early Renaissance Sienese and Florentine paintings of the Nativity, as well as Byzantine, Greek and Russian icons of the Nativity, show such a chthonic setting.
== External links ==
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/infancyjames.html Text of the ''Infancy Gospel of James'']
*[http://www.maplenet.net/~trowbridge/infjames.htm The Whole Bible website:] ''Infancy Gospel of James''
*[http://www.osjoseph.org/stjoseph/apocrypha/ St. Joseph in Apocrypha], from "Oblates of St. Joseph".<!--retrieved [[14 June]] [[2004]]-->
*[http://assets.cambridge.org/0521581680/ sample/0521581680web.PDF Mary Clayton, "The Apocryphal Gospels of Mary in Anglo-Saxon England"], ''Cambridge Studies in Anglo-Saxon England'': introduction
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gene therapy.jpg|right|thumb|340px|Gene therapy using an [[Adenovirus]] vector. A new gene is inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified [[DNA]] into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional [[protein]].]]
'''Gene therapy''' is the insertion of [[gene]]s into an individual's [[cell (biology)|cells]] and [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s to treat a [[disease]], and [[hereditary disease]]s in particular.
Gene therapy typically aims to supplement a defective [[mutant]] [[allele]] with a functional one. Although the technology is still in its infancy, it has been used with some success. [[Antisense therapy]] is not strictly a form of gene therapy, but is often lumped together with them.
==Background ==
In the 1980s, advances in [[molecular biology]] had already enabled human genes to be [[sequencing|sequenced]] and [[cloning|cloned]]. Scientists looking for a method of easily producing [[protein]]s, such as the protein deficient in diabetics &mdash; insulin, investigated introducing human genes to [[bacteria|bacterial]] DNA. The modified bacteria then produce the corresponding protein, which can be harvested and injected in people who cannot produce it naturally.
Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as [[cystic fibrosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering it to the right site on the genome.
== Types of gene therapy ==
In theory it is possible to transform either [[somatic cell]]s (most cells of the body) or cells of the [[germline]] (such as [[sperm cell]]s, [[Ovum|ova]], and their [[stem cell]] precursors). All gene therapy so far in people has been directed at somatic cells, whereas germline engineering in humans remains only a highly controversial prospect. For the introduced gene to be transmitted normally to offspring, it needs not only to be inserted into the cell, but also to be incorporated into the [[chromosome]]s by [[genetic recombination]].
Somatic gene therapy can be broadly split in to two categories: ''ex vivo'' (where cells are modified outside the body and then transplanted back in again) and ''in vivo'' (where genes are changed in cells still in the body.) Recombination-based approaches in vivo are especially uncommon, because for most [[DNA construct]]s recombination is a very low probability event.
==Vectors in gene therapy==
All [[virus]]es attack their hosts and introduce their genetic material into the host cell as part of their replication cycle. This genetic material contains basic 'instructions' of how to produce more copies of these viruses, hijacking the body's normal production machinery to serve the needs of the virus. The host cell will carry out these instructions and produce additional copies of virus, leading to more and more cells becoming infected. Certain types of viruses actually physically insert their genes into the host's genome. This would incorporate the genes of that virus into the genes of the host cell for the life span of that cell. Most viruses do not do this, but some do (in fact, it is the defining feature of [[retrovirus]]es, the family of viruses that includes HIV, the virus that causes AIDS).
Doctors and molecular biologists realized that viruses like this could potentially be used as vehicles to carry 'good' genes into a human cell. First, a scientist would remove the genes in the virus that cause disease. Then, he or she would replace those genes with genes encoding the desired effect (for instance, insulin production in the case of diabetics). This procedure must be done in such a way as the genes which allow the virus to insert its genome into its host's genome are left intact. This can be confusing, and requires significant research and understanding of the virus's genes in order to know which one has what function. An example:
''A virus is found which replicates by inserting its genes into the host cell's genome. This virus has three genes - A, B, and C. Gene A encodes a protein which allows this virus to insert itself into the host's genome. Genes B and C actually cause the disease this virus is associated with. Thus, by re-engineering the virus so that genes B and C are removed and replaced by a beneficial gene, and leaving gene A alone, this virus could introduce your 'good gene' into the host cell's genome without causing any disease.
''
All this is clearly an oversimplification, and numerous problems exist that prevent gene therapy using viral vectors, such as: trouble preventing undesired effects, ensuring the virus will infect the correct target cell in the body, and ensuring that the inserted gene doesn't disrupt any vital genes already in the genome. However, this basic mode of gene introduction currently shows much promise and doctors and scientists are working hard to fixing any potential problems that could exist.
===Retroviruses===
The genetic material in retroviruses is in the form of [[RNA]] molecules, while the genetic material of their hosts is in the form of DNA. When a retrovirus infects a host cell, it will introduce its RNA together with some enzymes into the cell. This RNA molecule from the retrovirus must produce a DNA copy from its RNA molecule before it can be considered for part of the genetic material of the host cell. The process of producing a DNA copy from an RNA molecule is termed [[reverse transcription]]. It is carried out by one of the enzymes carried in the virus, called [[reverse transcriptase]]. After this DNA copy is produced and is free in the [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]] of the host cell, it must be incorporated into the genome of the host cell. That is, it must be inserted into the large DNA molecules in the cell, or the [[chromosome]]s of the cell. This process is done by another enzyme carried in the virus called [[integrase]].
Now that the genetic material of the virus is incorporated and has become part of the genetic material of the host cell, we can say that the host cell is now modified to contain a new gene. When this host cell divides later, its descendants will all contain the new genes.
One of the problems of gene therapy using retroviruses is that the integrase enzyme can insert the genetic material of the virus in any arbitrary position in the genome of the host. If genetic material happens to be inserted in the middle of one of the original genes of the host cell, this gene will be disrupted. If the gene happens to be one regulating cell division, uncontrolled cell division (i.e., [[cancer]]) can occur. This problem has recently begun to be addressed by utilizing Zinc finger nucleases to direct the site of integration to specific DNA sequences <sup>[1]</sup>.
Gene therapy trials to treat [[severe combined immunodeficiency]] (SCID) were halted or restricted in the USA when [[leukemia]] was reported in three of eleven patients treated in the French Therapy X-linked SCID (XSCID) gene therapy trial. Five XSCID patients treated in England have not presented leukemia to date and have had similar success in immune reconstitution. Gene therapy trials to treat SCID due to deficiency of the Adenosin Deaminase (ADA) enzyme continue with relative success in the USA, Italy and Japan.
===Adenoviruses===
Adenoviruses are viruses that carry their genetic material in the form of double-stranded DNA. They cause respiratory (especially the common cold), intestinal, and eye infections in humans. When these viruses infect a host cell, they introduce their DNA molecule into the host.The genetic material of the adenoviruses is not incorporated into the host cells genetic material. The DNA molecule is left free in the nucleus of the host cell, and the instructions in this extra DNA molecule are [[transcribed]] just like any other gene. The only difference is that these extra genes are not replicated when the cell is about to undergo cell division. So the descendants of that cell will not have the extra gene. This means that treatment with |
lizing in the history of American philosophy, including pragmatism, has appeared since 1965.
In 1949, while doing unrelated archival work, the historian of mathematics Carolyn Eisele (1902-2000) chanced on an autograph letter by Peirce. Thus began her 40 years of research on Peirce the mathematician and scientist, culminating in Eisele (1976, 1979, 1985). Beginning around 1960, the philosopher and [[history of ideas|historian of ideas]] Max Fisch (1900-1995) emerged as an authority on Peirce; Fisch (1986) reprints many of the relevant articles, including (pp. 422-48) a wide-ranging survey of the impact of Peirce's thought through 1983.
Peirce has come to enjoy an international following. University research centers devoted to Peirce Studies and [[pragmatism]] can be found in Brazil, Finland, Germany, and Spain. There have been French and Italian Peirceans of note since 1950. For many years, the [[University of Toronto]] housed the North American philosophy department most devoted to Peirce. In recent years, Peirce scholars have clustered at [[IUPUI|Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis]], the home of the Peirce Edition Project, and the [[Pennsylvania State University]].
==Works==
Peirce's reputation is based in large part on a number of academic papers published in American scholarly and scientific journals. These papers, along with a selection of Peirce's previously unpublished work and a smattering of his corresondence, fill the eight volumes of the ''Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce'', published between [[1931]] and [[1958]]. A first taste of Peirce's philosophical writings can be found in the two volumes of ''The Essential Peirce'' (Houser and Kloesel (eds.) 1992, Peirce Edition Project (eds.) 1998).
The only book-length account of his own investigations that Peirce published in his lifetime was ''Photometric Researches'' (1878), a monograph on the applications of spectrographic methods to astronomy. While at Johns Hopkins, he edited ''Studies in Logic'' (1883), containing chapters by himself and his graduate students. He was a frequent book-reviewer and contributor to ''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'', the sum of which writing is reprinted in ''Contributions to 'The Nation' '' (Ketner and Cook, 1975-1987).
Hardwick (2001) published Peirce's entire correspondence with [[Victoria, Lady Welby]]. Peirce's other published correspondence is largely limited to the 14 letters included in volume 8 of the ''Collected Papers'', and the 20-odd pre-1890 items included in the ''Writings''.
[[Harvard University]] acquired the papers found in Peirce's study soon after his death, but did not microfilm them until 1964. Only after Richard Robin (1967) published his catalog of this legacy, did it become clear that Peirce had left approximately 1650 unpublished manuscripts, totalling 80,000 pages. A number of these works were published in Eisele (1976, 1985), but most of them remain as yet unpublished. For more on the vicissitudes of Peirce's papers, see (Houser 1989).
The increasingly apparent limitations of the ''Collected Papers'', with respect to coverage and organization both, led Max Fisch and others in the 1970's to establish the Peirce Edition Project, whose mission is to prepare a more complete critical edition, known as the ''Writings'', organized chronologically. A mere half dozen of the anticipated 30-plus volumes have appeared to date, but they cover a period from 1859 to 1890 when Peirce carried out some of his most important work.
===Logic of Relatives (1870)===
{{main|Logic of Relatives (1870)}}
By 1870, the drive that Peirce exhibited to understand the character of knowledge, starting with our partly innate and partly inured models of the world and working up to the conduct of our scientific inquiries into it, having led him to inquire into the three-roled relationship of objects, signs, and impressions of the mind, now brought him to the pass of needing more power in a theory of relations than the available logical formalisms were up to providing. His first concerted effort to supply the gap was rolled out in his paper "Description of a Notation for the Logic of Relatives, Resulting from an Amplification of the Conceptions of Boole's Calculus of Logic". But the nameplate "LOR of 1870" will do for ease of identification.
===Logic of Relatives (1883)===
{{main|Logic of Relatives (1883)}}
===Logic of Relatives (1897)===
==Peirce's philosophy==
<blockquote>
It is not sufficiently recognized that Peirce’s career was that of a scientist, not a philosopher; and that during his lifetime he was known and valued chiefly as a scientist, only secondly as a logician, and scarcely at all as a philosopher. Even his work in philosophy and logic will not be understood until this fact becomes a standing premise of Peircian studies. (Max Fisch, in (Moore and Robin 1964, 486).
</blockquote>
Peirce was a working scientist for 30 years, and arguably was a professional philosopher only during the five years he lectured at Johns Hopkins. He learned philosophy mainly by reading a few pages of [[Kant]]'s ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' in the original German, every day while a Harvard undergraduate. His writings bear on an wide array of disciplines, including [[astronomy]], [[metrology]], geodesy, [[mathematics]], [[logic]], [[philosophy]], the [[history and philosophy of science]], [[linguistics]], [[economics]], and [[psychology]]. This work has become the subject of renewed interest and approval, resulting in a revival inspired not only by his anticipations of recent scientific developments but also by his demonstration of how philosophy can be applied effectively to human problems.
Peirce's writings repeatedly refer to a system of three [[category of being|categories]], named Firstness, Secondness, and Thirdness, devised early in his career in reaction to his reading of [[Aristotle]], [[Kant]], and [[Hegel]]. He later initiated the philosophical tendency known as [[pragmatism]], a variant of which his life-long friend [[William James]] made popular. Peirce believed that any truth is provisional, and that the truth of any proposition cannot be certain but only probable. The name he gave to this state of affairs was "fallibilism". This fallibilism and pragmatism may be seen as playing roles in his work similar to those of [[skepticism]] and [[positivism]], respectively, in the work of others.
==Pragmatism==
Peirce's recipe for pragmatic thinking, going under the label of ''[[pragmatism]]'' and also known as ''[[pragmaticism]]'', is recapitulated in several versions of the so-called ''[[pragmatic maxim]]''. Here is one of his more emphatic statements of it:
<blockquote>
Pragmaticism was originally enounced in the form of a [[maxim (philosophy)|maxim]], as follows: Consider what [[causality|effect]]s that might ''conceivably'' have practical bearings you ''conceive'' the objects of your ''[[concept|conception]]'' to have. Then, your ''conception'' of those effects is the whole of your ''conception'' of the object. (CP 5.438).
</blockquote>
[[William James]], among others, regarded two of Peirce's papers, "The Fixation of Belief" (1877) and "How to Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878) as being the origin of [[pragmatism]]. Peirce conceived pragmatism to be a method for clarifying the meaning of difficult [[idea]]s through the application of the [[pragmatic maxim]]. He differed from William James and the early [[John Dewey]], in some of their tangential enthusiasms, in being decidedly more rationalistic and realistic, in several senses of those terms, throughout the preponderance of his own philosophical moods.
Peirce's pragmatism may be understood as a method of sorting out conceptual confusions by linking the meaning of concepts to their operational or practical consequences. This pragmatism bears no resemblance to "vulgar" pragmatism, which misleadingly connotes a ruthless and [[Machiavelli]]an search for mercenary or political advantage. Rather, Peirce sought an objectively verifiable method to test the truth of putative knowledge on a way that goes beyond the usual duo of foundational alternatives, namely:
:* [[Deductive reasoning|Deduction]] from self-evident truths, or ''[[rationalism]]'';
:* [[Induction (philosophy)|Induction]] from experiential phenomena, or ''[[empiricism]]''.
His approach is often confused with the latter form of [[foundationalism]], but is distinct from it by virtue of the following three dimensions:
:* Active process of theory generation, with no prior assurance of truth;
:* Subsequent application of the contingent theory, aimed toward developing its logical and practical consequences;
:* Evaluation of the provisional theory's utility for the ''[[anticipation]]'' of future experience, and that in dual senses of the word: ''[[prediction]]'' and ''[[control]]''. Peirce's appreciation of these three dimensions serves to flesh out a [[physiognomy]] of inquiry far more 'solid' than the 'flatter' image of inductive generalization ''simpliciter'', which is merely the relabeling of phenomenological patterns. Peirce's pragmatism was the first time the [[scientific method]] was proposed as an [[epistemology]] for philosophical questions.
A theory that proves itself more successful in predicting and controlling our world than its rivals is said to be nearer the truth. This is an operational notion of truth employed by scientists. Unlike the other pragmatists, Peirce never explicitly advanced a theory of truth. But his scattered comments about truth have proved influential to several epistemic truth theorists, and as a useful foil for deflationary and correspondence theories of truth.
Pragmatism is regarded as a distinctively [[United States|American]] philosophy. As advocated by James, [[John Dewey]], [[Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller]], [[George Herbe |
shed the strike-abbreviated 1972 season 84-69 and in second place in the NL West.
It was with the Astros that [[Bob Watson]] scored the 1,000,000th run in baseball history on [[May 30]], [[1975]]. Because there were other players in other venues competing simultaneously for the right to be designated with the milestone, Watson had to run around the bases after a home run at full speed so as to ensure that he would be the one credited with scoring the historic run.
Former Pittsburgh Pirate player and manager [[Bill Virdon]] arrived in May 1975 as the team's new manager. After three seasons hovering around .500, the Astros would be involved in their first real pennant race in 1979. Though the team was dead last in power - they only hit 49 home runs as a team and nobody hit more than 10 home runs - the 1979 Astros were a team built around pitching and speed. In fact, the Astros led the National League with 190 steals; four of the Astros' regular players had over 30 steals. The team's stars included outfielder [[José Cruz|José Cruz, Sr.]], third baseman [[Enos Cabell]] and pitcher [[J.R. Richard]] This formula enabled the Astros to lead the National League West for much of the season. Yet they were unable to hold off the [[Cincinnati Reds]], who edged the Astros on the last weekend for the NL West title, ultimately winning the division by 1.5 games.
Following the [[1979 in baseball|1979]] season, [[Nolan Ryan]] signed with the Astros as a [[free agency|free agent]], agreeing to MLB's first million-dollar per year salary.
===1980s: First successes===
Using much the same pitching and speed strategy in [[1980 in baseball|1980]] as they had in 1979, the Astros won their first [[National League West|NL West]] championship. They entered the final weekend series against the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Dodgers]] with a three-game lead only needing to win one of the final three games to clinch the NL West. However, the Astros were swept, forcing a one game post-season playoff game - the first such playoff since the National League switched to two-division format in 1969. In the game in Los Angeles, [[Joe Niekro]] won his 20th game as the Astros cruised to an easy 7-1 victory over the Dodgers, clinching the team's first divisional title with a 93-70 record.
The Astros would push the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]] to five games in the NLCS. In the decisive fifth game the Astros would take a 5-2 lead into the top of the 8th against the Phillies. However, Nolan Ryan would be unable to hold the lead. The Astros would go on to lose to the Phillies in 10 innings, 6-5.
Sadly, tragedy would rear its head again for the Astros in [[1980]]. [[JR Richard]], considered to be a front-runner for the National League's Cy Young Award, had a 10-4 record and an ERA of 1.73 on [[July 30]], [[1980]] when he suffered a [[stroke]] before a game. In the days and weeks previous, Richard had complained of a "dead arm" and shoulder and neck pains. Additionlly, in his last start on [[July 14]], he said he was unable to read the catcher's signs. The stroke nearly killed him and although he survived, he never would pitch in the major leagues again.
In the [[1981 baseball strike|strike-shortened 1981 season]], the Astros made the playoffs once again as the 2nd half Western Division champions. They would face the Dodgers in the NLDS. After winning the first two games, the Dodgers went on to win the final three games, thus making the Astros the first team in baseball history to lose a 5 game series, after winning the first two games.
Led by Nolan Ryan and Cy Young Award winner [[Mike Scott]], the Astros were a surprise NL West champion in [[1986 in baseball|1986]]. A highlight of the season was the Astros clinching the divisional title on Mike Scott's [[no-hitter]] against the [[San Francisco Giants]] on [[September 25]], [[1986]], the first time in baseball history that a title was clinched on a no-hitter.
Their opponents in the NLCS were the [[New York Mets]], a team that with 108 wins were considered a team for the ages, destined to win a World Championship. Ironically, both teams were celebrating their 25th season as MLB franchises that season.
The [[1986 National League Championship Series|1986 NLCS]] was noted for great drama and considered by some to be one of the best post-season series ever. In Game 3, the Astros were ahead at Shea Stadium 5-4 in the bottom of the 9th when closer [[Dave Smith]] gave up a two-run home run to [[Lenny Dykstra]], giving the Mets a dramatic 6-5 win.
However, the signature game of the series was Game 6. Needing a win to get to Mike Scott (who had been dominant in the series) in Game 7, the Astros jumped off to a 3-0 lead in the first inning but neither team would score again until the 9th inning. In the 9th, starting pitcher [[Bob Knepper]] would give two runs, and once again the Astros would look to Dave Smith to close it out. However, Smith would walk [[Gary Carter]] and [[Darryl Strawberry]], giving up a sacrifice fly to [[Ray Knight]], tying the game. Despite having the go-ahead runs on base, Smith was able to escape the inning without any further damage.
There was no scoring until the 14th inning when the Mets would take the lead on a [[Wally Backman]] single and [[Kevin Bass]] error. The Astros would get the run back in the bottom of the 14th on a solo home run by [[Billy Hatcher]] with one out. In the 16th inning, Darryl Strawberry doubled to lead off the inning and Ray Knight drove him home in the next at-bat. The Mets would score a total of three runs in the inning to take what appeared an insurmountable 7-4 lead. With their season on the line, the Astros would nonetheless rally for two runs to come to within 7-6. Kevin Bass came up with the tying and winning runs on base; however [[Jesse Orosco]] would strike him out, ending the game. This 16 inning game set a record for the longest in MLB postseason history until, ironically, the Astros were involved in the game that broke it on [[October 9]]. [[2005]] against the Atlanta Braves which went 18 innings.
Following the [[1988 in baseball|1988]] season the Astros experienced significant change. Manager [[Hal Lanier]], unable to build on the Astros' success in 1986, was dismissed following the season. Additionally, franchise icon Nolan Ryan left the Astros to join the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] in [[1989]], after being considered too old by then-owner [[John McMullen]]. Ryan would go on to pitch two more no-hitters for the Rangers in the early 90s to achieve a grand total of 7 - more than anyone else in major league history. Ryan would also record his 5,000th strikeout with the Rangers, and entered the [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] as a Ranger.
[[1989 in baseball|1989]] would mark the rookie season of [[Craig Biggio]], who would set team records in many offensive categories. Biggio started his career as a catcher, but was moved to second base so as to take full advantage of his speed and other offensive talents.
===1990s: Building a model franchise===
Many people consider the best move the Astros ever made their trade for [[Jeff Bagwell]] at the trading deadline in [[1990 in baseball|1990]]. The [[Boston Red Sox]], in a tight race for the [[American League East]] title, needed relief pitching help. The Astros gave the Red Sox journeyman [[Larry Andersen]] in exchange for minor leaguer [[Jeff Bagwell]], who would win the [[1990]] [[Eastern League]] MVP award for the AA New Britain Red Sox. With [[Mo Vaughn]] in their system, the Red Sox figured that Bagwell was expendible, and while Andersen did help the Red Sox to the divisional title, Bagwell would go on to become the Astros all time home run leader and, in most people's minds, the best overall player in Astros history. (In addition, Bagwell and Biggio would begin a quirky trend &ndash; an unusual number of Astro players having names beginning with '''B''', thus earning the team the nickname "Killer B's".)
The early [[1990s|1990's]] was marked by the Astros' growing discontent with their home, the [[Astrodome]]. After the Astrodome was renovated for the primary benefit of the [[Houston Oilers]], the Astros began to grow increasingly disenchanted with the facility. Faced with declining attendance at the Astrodome and the inability of management to obtain a new stadium, in the [[1991 in baseball|1991]] off-season the Astros announced their intention to sell the team and move the franchise to [[Washington, D.C.]] However, the move was not approved by other National League owners, thus compelling the Astros to remain in Houston. Shortly thereafter, McMullen (who also owned the [[National Hockey League|NHL]]'s [[New Jersey Devils]]), sold the team to Texas businessman [[Drayton McLane]] in [[1993]], who committed to leaving the team in Houston.
Shortly after McLane's arrival, which coincided with the maturation of Bagwell and Biggio, the Astros began to show signs of consistent success. After finishing second in their division in [[1994 in baseball|1994]], [[1995 in baseball|1995]], and [[1996 in baseball|1996]], the Astros won consecutive division titles in [[1997 in baseball|1997]], [[1998 in baseball|1998]], and [[1999 in baseball|1999]]. In the [[1998]] season, the Astros set a team record with 102 victories. However, each of these titles was followed by a first round playoff elimination, in 1998 by the [[San Diego Padres]] and in [[1997]] and [[1999]] against the [[Atlanta Braves]]. The manager of these title teams was [[Larry Dierker]], who had previously been a broadcaster and pitcher for the Astros.
Coinciding with the change in ownership, the team switched uniforms and team colors after the [[1993 in baseball|1993]] season. The team's trademark "rainbow stripes" were retired, and the teams colors changed to midnight blue and metallic gold. The "Astros" font was cha |
the rules of a game affecting a sports team's performance levels).
* Many riddles trick the reader into believing that they are an example of Gambler's Fallacy, such as the [[Monty Hall problem]]. Similarly, if I flip a coin twice and tell you that at least one of the two flips was heads, and ask what the probability is that they both came up heads, you might answer, that it is 50/50 (or 50%). This is incorrect: if I tell you that one of the two flips was heads then I am removing the tails-tails outcome only, leaving the following possible outcomes: heads-heads, heads-tails, and tails-heads. These are equally likely, so heads-heads happens 1 time in 3 or 33% of the time. If I had specified that the ''first'' flip was heads, then the chances the second flip was heads too is 50%.
==See also==
* [[Availability error]]
* [[Clustering illusion]]
* [[Illusion of control]]
* [[Inverse gambler's fallacy]]
* [[Law of averages]]
* [[Gambler's ruin]]
* [[Statistical regularity]]
[[Category:Gambling]]
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Logical fallacies]]
[[Category:Cognitive biases]]
[[he:כשל המהמר]]
[[lt:Lošėjo klaida]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Studio Gainax</title>
<id>12971</id>
<revision>
<id>15910617</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-04T05:38:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DocWatson42</username>
<id>38455</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Changed this to a redirect to "Gainax", as "Studio Gainax" is not used on the company site.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gainax]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gun cotton</title>
<id>12972</id>
<revision>
<id>15910618</id>
<timestamp>2003-12-10T19:13:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JidGom</username>
<id>12033</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirect to Notrocellulose which have more info and all that was here</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nitrocellulose]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gilbert Plains, Manitoba</title>
<id>12974</id>
<revision>
<id>33497778</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-01T18:18:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jdobbin</username>
<id>647144</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the rural municipality see [[Gilbert Plains, Manitoba (rural municipality)]]''
'''Gilbert Plains''' is a town in [[Manitoba]], [[Canada]], (population approx. 800) on highway 5 and the [[CN]] [[railway]] line, between [[Dauphin, Manitoba|Dauphin]] and [[Grandview, Manitoba|Grandview]], or about 250 miles NW of [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]]. Incorporated in [[1906]], the original townsite was some miles to the south. Named for [[Gilbert Ross]], a [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] who was living in the region when the first [[European]] settler, [[Glenlyon Campbell]], arrived. The first white baby born in the Gilbert Plains district was Myrtle McCurdy while the first white boy was Gilbert Clifford Best in 1900.
Gilbert Plains is situated on the [[Valley River]], in the parkland country between the [[Riding Mountains]] and the [[Duck Mountains]]. It is primarily a service centre for the surrounding farms.
[[Category:Communities in Manitoba]]
{{Manitoba-geo-stub}}
{{Manitoba}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gasparo Contarini</title>
<id>12975</id>
<revision>
<id>27650943</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-07T21:17:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Bringing "External links" and "See also" sections in line with [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]] recommendations.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gasparo Contarini''' was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[diplomat]] and [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]; born at [[Venice]] on [[October 16]], [[1483]], died at [[Bologna]] on [[August 24]], [[1542]].
After a thorough scientific and philosophical training, he began his career in the service of his native city. In 1521 he was the Republic's ambassador to [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. He accompanied Charles to Spain; later, after the [[Sack of Rome]], he assisted in reconciling the emperor and [[Pope Clement VII|Clement VII]], also the emperor and the Republic of Bologna. His accomplishments, but still more his mild resoluteness and blameless character, made him respected everywhere.
One of the fruits of his diplomatic activity is his ''De magistratibus et republica Venetorum''. In 1535, [[Pope Paul III|Paul III]] unexpectedly made the secular diplomat a cardinal in order to
bind an able man of evangelical disposition to the Roman interests. Contarini accepted, but in his
new position did not exhibit his former independence. The disposition which [[Leopold von Ranke|Ranke]] (''Popes'', i. 118) calls "the collected product of all his higher faculties" governed his action also in the new field.
At first everything seemed to work well. In 1536 Paul III appointed a commission to devise ways for a reformation. The [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] movement had made such progress in Italy that something had to be done, and it seemed best that the most influential be the agents. The decision was a bold one; Paul III, however, received favorably Contarini's [[Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia]], but it remained a dead letter, and his successor [[Pope Paul IV|Paul IV]], once a member on the commission, in 1539 put it on the Index, a deed which still embarrasses Catholic historians. What Contarini had to do with it is shown by his letters to the pope in which he complained of the schism in the church, of [[simony]] and flattery in the papal court, but above all of papal tyranny. But he came a century too late.
Contarini in a letter to his friend [[Reginald Cardinal Pole|Cardinal Pole]] (dated [[November 11]], [[1538]]) says that his hopes had been wakened anew by the pope's attitude. He and his friends, who formed the Catholic evangelical movement of the [[Spirituali]], thought that all would have been done when the abuses in church life had been put away. This was the judgment of a diplomat of noble and virtuous nature, reared on the best fruits of antiquity and refined through the [[Gospel]], urged on by a desire for peace, and unfettered by [[dogma]]tic formulas.
But he was soon to see the other side. In the year 1541 he was papal delegate at the diet and religious debate at Ratisbon. There everything was unfavorable; the Catholic states were bitter, the Evangelicals were distant. Contarini's instructions though apparently free were full of papal reservations. But the papal party had gladly sent him, thinking that through him a union in doctrine
could be brought about, while the interest of Rome could be attended to later. Though the princes stood aloof, the theologians and the emperor were for peace, so the main articles were put forth in a formula, Evangelical in thought and Catholic in expression. The papal legate had revised the Catholic proposal and assented to the formula agreed upon. All gave their approval, even [[Johann Eck|Eck]], though he later regretted it. This did little good, for the [[Protestantism|Protestants]] could see in it only Roman cunning; at home the cardinal fared still worse.
His own position is shown in a treatise on justification, composed at [[Ratisbon]], which in essential points is Evangelical, differing only in the omission of the negative side and in being interwoven with the teaching of [[Thomas Aquinas|Aquinas]]. Meanwhile the papal policy had changed, and Contarini was compelled to follow his leader. He advised the emperor, after the conference had broken up, not to renew it, but to submit everything to the pope.
In a second decision he is even more ultramontane. It is not difficult to reconcile this course of action with his character, for from the beginning Luther repelled him as did the popular movement in [[Germany]]. He lived in the belief that a reformation should begin at the head, and his birth, education, and diplomatic career made him view the question rather from the point of polity than of doctrine, and consequently he was willing to mediate here. But the negative side, which had produced the [[schism]], remained unintelligible to him, he could concede only the marriage of the clergy and
communion in both elements.
Meanwhile Rome had drifted further into reaction, and he died while legate at Bologna, at a time when the [[Inquisition]] had driven many of his friends and fellows in conviction into exile. He was happily spared a decision which perhaps would have been too hard for him, and so he could leave behind him the character of a man who knew the truth and willed the good.
----
Initial text from Schaff-Herzog Encyc of Religion
==See also==
[[Pope Paul III|Paul III]]
==External links==
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04323c.htm Gasparo Contarini article on Catholic Encyclopedia]
[[Category: Italian cardinals|Contarini]]
[[Category:Italian diplomats|Contarini]]
[[Category:Spirituali|Contarini]]
[[Category:1483 births|Contarini]]
[[Category:1542 deaths|Contarini]]
[[Category:Natives of Venice|Contarini]]
[[de:Gasparo Contarini]]
[[no:Gasparo Contarini]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gastroenterology</title>
<id>12976</id>
<revision>
<id>40788892</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T00:51:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jbhood</username>
<id>630935</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added Burrill Bernard Crohn to Important figures in Gastroenterology</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gastroenterology''' or '''gastrology''' is the medical specialty concerned with the field of [[digestive diseases]]. Traditionally, |
19%
|-
|&nbsp; other:||14% (1999)
|-
|Irrigated land:||2,060 km² (1993 est.)
|-
|Environment - current issues:||the approximation of Hungary's standards in waste management, energy efficiency, and air, soil, and water pollution with environmental requirements for EU accession will require large investments
|-
|Environment - international agreements: &nbsp;
|-
|&nbsp; party to:||Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, [[Law of the Sea]], Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
|-
|&nbsp; signed, but not ratified:||Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol
|-
|Geography - note:||landlocked; strategic location astride main land routes between Western Europe and Balkan Peninsula as well as between Ukraine and Mediterranean basin
|}
==See also==
* [[Geography of Europe]]
* [[Hungary]]
* [[Budapest]]
* [[Debrecen]]
* [[Pécs]]
* [[Sopron]]
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''
[[Category:Geography of Hungary|*]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Hungary]]
[[pl:Geografia Węgier]]
[[pt:Geografia da Hungria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Hungary</title>
<id>13426</id>
<revision>
<id>39374725</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:22:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hungary-demography.png|thumb|450px|right|Population change 1961-2003, as reported by [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[2005]]. Population numbers are in thousands.]]
'''[[Population]]:'''
10,198,315 (2001)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
17% (male 878,661; female 834,607)
<br>''15-64 years:''
68% (male 3,407,368; female 3,535,818)
<br>''65 years and over:''
15% (male 548,672; female 933,718) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
-0.33% (2000 est.)
'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
9.26 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''[[Death]] rate:'''
13.34 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
0.73 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
0.96 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.59 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
0.91 male(s)/female (2001)
'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
9.15 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
71.37 years
<br>''male:''
67 years
<br>''female:''
76.05 years (2000 est.)
'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
1.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''Ethnic groups:'''
[[Magyars|Hungarian]] 93%, [[Roma (people)|Roma]] 2%, [[German people|German]] 1.2%, [[Romanians|Romanian]] 0.8%, [[Slovaks|Slovak]] 0.4%, [[Croats|Croat]] 0.2%, [[Serbs|Serb]] 0.2%, [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]] 0.1%
'''Religion:'''
The largest religion in Hungary is [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]] (both [[Latin Rite|Roman]] and [[Eastern Rite|Greek]]; approx. two thirds of the population), with a [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] minority (around 20%) and [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] (5%). However, these are book values, as the Hungarian population is not particularly religious; at most 25% practise their faith. Most of the country's Jews (1%) live in Budapest.
'''[[Literacy]]:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
99%
<br>''male:''
99%
<br>''female:''
98% (1980 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Hungary]]
==External links==
Hungary's Strategic Audit [http://www.demos.hu/audit] (click the [[Union Jack]] to see the english version)
[[Category:Demographics by country|Hungary]]
[[Category:Geography of Hungary]]
[[category:Hungarian society]]
[[es:Demografía de Hungría]]
[[ru:Население Венгрии]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Hungary</title>
<id>13427</id>
<revision>
<id>40946031</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T01:16:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
<id>87110</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Hungary}}
'''Politics of Hungary''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Hungary]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The party system is dominated by the socialist [[Hungarian Socialist Party]] and the conservative [[Hungarian Civic Union]] or FIDESZ. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
The Republic of Hungary is an independent, [[Democracy|democratic]] and [[constitutional]] state. Since the [[constitutional amendment]] of [[23 October]], [[1989]], Hungary is a [[parliamentary republic]].
Legislative power is exercised by the unicameral National Assembly that consists of 386 members. Members of the National Assembly are elected for four years.
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Hungary|President]]
|[[László Sólyom]]
|
|[[5 August]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[List of Prime Ministers of Hungary|Prime Minister]]
|[[Ferenc Gyurcsány]]
|[[Hungarian Socialist Party|MSZP]]
|[[29 September]] [[2004]]
|-
|Coalition partner
|
|[[Alliance of Free Democrats|SZDSZ]]
|
|}
The [[President of Hungary|President of the Republic]], elected by the [[National Assembly of Hungary|National Assembly]] every five years, has a largely ceremonial role, but he is nominally the [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the armed forces and his powers include the nomination of the [[Prime Minister of Hungary|Prime Minister]] who is to be elected by a majority of the votes of the Members of Parliament, based on the recommendation made by the President of the Republic.
Due to the [[Hungarian Constitution]] which has been based on the post-[[World War II|WWII]] [[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany]], the Prime Minister has a leading role in the executive branch as he selects [[Cabinet]] ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them (similarly to the competences of the German federal chancellor). Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary [[committee]]s in consultative open hearings, survive a vote by the Parliament and must be formally approved by the president.
==Legislative branch==
The [[unicameral]], 386-member [[National Assembly of Hungary|National Assembly]] (Országgyűlés) is the highest organ of state authority and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. A party must win at least 5% of the national vote to form a parliamentary faction. The '''[[National Assembly of Hungary|National Assembly]]''' (''Országgyűlés'') has 386 members, elected for a four year term, 176 members in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]], 152 by [[proportional representation]] in multi-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and 58 members elected to realize [[proportional representation]].
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Hungary|Elections in Hungary|}}
{{Hungarian legislative election, 2002}}
==Judicial branch==
A fifteen member [[Constitutional Court of Hungary|Constitutional Court]] has power to challenge legislation on grounds of [[unconstitutionality]]. This body has never been filled completely and currently convenes with just nine members, which verges on incapacitation.
The President of the [[Supreme Court]] and the Hungarian civil and penal legal system he leads is fully independent of the Executive Branch.
The [[Attorney General]] or Chief [[Prosecutor]] of Hungary is currently fully independent of the Executive Branch, but his status is actively debated.
Several [[ombudsman]] offices exist in Hungary to protect civil, minority, educational and ecological rights in non-judicial matters. They can issue legally binding decisions since late 2003.
==Financial branch==
The central bank, the [[National Bank of Hungary]] has been fully independent between 1990-2004, but new legislation has given certain appointment rights to the Executive Branch in November 2004 which is disputed before the [[Constitutional Court]].
==Administrative divisions==
Hungary is divided in 19 [[counties of Hungary|counties]] (''megyék'', singular - ''megye''), 20 urban counties* (singular - ''megyei város''), and 1 capital city** (''főváros''); [[Bács-Kiskun]], [[Baranya]], [[Békés (county)|Békés]], [[Békéscsaba]]*, [[Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén]], [[Budapest]]**, [[Csongrád (county)|Csongrád]], [[Debrecen]]*, [[Dunaújváros]]*, [[Eger]]*, [[Érd]]*, [[Fejér]], [[Győr]]*, [[Győr-Moson-Sopron]], [[Hajdú-Bihar]], [[Heves (county)|Heves]], [[Hódmezővásárhely]]*, [[Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok]], [[Kaposvár]]*, [[Kecskemét]]*, [[Komárom-Esztergom]], [[Miskolc]]*, [[Nagykanizsa]]*, [[Nógrád (county)|Nógrád]], [[Nyíregyháza]]*, [[Pécs]]*, [[Pest (city)|Pest]], [[Salgótarján]]*, [[Somogy]], [[Sopron]]*, [[Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg]], [[Szeged]]*, [[Szekszárd]]*, [[Székesfehérvár]]*, [[Szolnok]]*, [[Szombathely]]*, [[Tatabánya]]*, [[Tolna (county)|Tolna]], [[Vas]], [[Veszprém (county)|Veszprém]], [[Veszprém]]*, [[Zala]], [[Zalaegerszeg]]*
<!-- it doesn't make much sense to mix cities and countries together -->
<!-- I still maintain it ma |
ong Kong]]
***[[History of Macau]]
**[[History of the Republic of China]]
***[[History of Taiwan]]
* [[History of Japan]]
* [[History of Korea]]
**[[History of North Korea]]
**[[History of South Korea]]
===[[History of Central Asia]]===
* [[History of Afghanistan]]
* [[History of Kazakhstan]]
* [[History of Kyrgyzstan]]
* [[History of Mongolia]]
* [[History of Uzbekistan]]
* [[History of Turkmenistan]]
===[[History of Southeast Asia]]===
* [[History of Cambodia]]
* [[History of Indonesia]]
* [[History of Laos]]
* [[History of Malaysia]]
* [[History of Myanmar]]
* [[History of the Philippines]]
* [[History of Singapore]]
* [[History of Thailand]]
* [[History of Vietnam]]
{{Asia in topic|History of}}
===See also===
*[[Imperialism in Asia]]
*[[History by continent]]
*[[History of Eurasia]]
{{Asiafooter}}
{{History by continent footer}}
[[Category:History of Asia]]
[[ar:تاريخ آسيا]]
[[cs:Dějiny Asie]]
[[ko:아시아의 역사]]
[[lv:Āzijas vēsture]]
[[pl:Historia Azji]]
[[th:ประวัติศาสตร์เอเชีย]]
[[zh:亚洲史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the Americas</title>
<id>14098</id>
<revision>
<id>39685404</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T03:51:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>E Pluribus Anthony</username>
<id>266462</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rewky</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}
{{euromericas}}
The '''history of the Americas''' is the collective history of [[North_America|North]] and [[South_America|South America]], including [[Central America]] and the [[Caribbean]]. It begins with people migrating to these areas from Asia and possibly [[Oceania]] during the height of an [[Ice Age]]. These groups are generally believed to have had little or no contact with peoples of the "[[Old World]]" until the coming the Europeans in the 15th Century.
The ancestors of today's [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]]s were [[hunter-gatherer]]s migrating into North America. The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to the America's via the [[Bering_Land_Bridge|Bering Land Bridge]]. Small [[Paleo Indians|Paleo Indian]] groups probably followed the [[mammoth]] and other prey animals. It is possible that groups of people may also have wandered into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern Pacific coast.
Cultural traits brought by the first immigrants later evolved and spawned such cultures as [[Iroquois]] on North America and [[Pirahã people|Pirahã]] of South America. Later during the continents history, these cultures developed into [[civilization]]s, just as in the Old World. In many cases, these cultures expanded at a later date than the Old World counterparts. Cultures considered advanced or civilized may include: [[Cahokia]], [[Zapotec]], [[Toltec]]s, [[Olmec]], [[Aztecs]], and the [[Inca]].
==Migration into the continents==
Exactly when the first group of people migrated into the America's is subject to much debate. Recent archaeological finds suggest multiple waves of migration, some of which may have taken place as early as 40,000 BC. All theories agree that the [[Inuit]] and related peoples arrived separately and at a much later date, probably around the [[6th century]], moving across the glaciers from [[Siberia]] into [[Canada]].
It is generally believed that the North American continent received the first people, [[Asia]]n nomads who crossed the [[Bering Land Bridge]]. For many years, scientists accepted that the earliest people were of the [[Clovis culture]], with sites dating from some 13,500 years ago. Older sites occupied up to 20,000 years ago are still not widely accepted, although they are supported by recent DNA evidence. By 10,000 BC, humans are thought to have reached [[Cape Horn]], at the southern tip of [[South America]]. Artifacts have been found in both North and South America which have been [[carbon dating|dated]] to about 10,000 BC. [http://www.cyberwest.com/cw09/v9scwst1.html] [http://www.nps.gov/bela/html/history.htm]
Other groups have additional beliefs about ancient visitors to the Americas. For example, the [[Book of Mormon]], a religious text used by [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] and other denominations within the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], follows a family of [[Israelites]] who set out for the "promised land" about 600 BC. This text records their arrival in the Americas and information on resulting cultures and civilizations.
==Before advanced civilizations==
After the migration or migrations, it was several thousand years before the first complex civilizations arose, emerging at earliest 5000 BC. They were hunter-gatherers and even with the emergence of advanced civilizations, most of the continent's area was still inhabited by such societies until the [[18th century]]. Hunter gatherer societies were quickly displaced with only a few in South America surviving into the 21st century. Numerous [[archaeological culture]]s can be identified with some of the classifications including [[Early Paleo-Indian Period]], [[Late Paleo-Indian Period]], [[Archaic Period]], [[Early Woodland Period]], [[Middle Woodland Period]] and [[Late Woodland Period]].
==Civilizations==
[[Civilization]]s were started long after migration. Several large, centralized civilizations developed in the [[Western Hemisphere]] (e.g., the Chav&#324; in the [[Andes]], the Aztecs and the Maya in [[Central America]]). The capital of the Cahokians, [[Cahokia]] - located near modern [[East St. Louis, Illinois]] may have reached a population of over 20,000. At its peak, between the 12th and [[13th century| 13th centuries]] Cahokia was the most populous city in North America. [[Monk's Mound]], the major ceremonial center of Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric New World. Far larger cities where built by the Maya and Aztecs. Cities of the Aztecs and Incas were as large as the largest in the Old World, with estimates of 300,000 in [[Tenochtitlan]]. The market established there was the largest ever seen by the [[conquistador]]s when they arrived.
These civilizations developed agriculture as well, breeding [[maize]] (corn) from having ears 2-5 cm in length to perhaps 10-15 cm in length. [[Potato]]es, [[tomato]]s, [[pumpkin]]s and [[avocado]]s are other plants grown by Natives. They did not develop extensive livestock as there were few suitable species; however the [[guinea pig]] was raised for meat in the [[Andes]]. By the [[15th century|15th century AD]], maize had been transmitted from [[Mexico]] and was being farmed in the [[Mississippi River]] Valley, but further developments were cut short by the arrival of [[European]]s. Potatoes were utilized by the Inca and [[chocolate]] by the Aztec.
==North America==
See major article: [[History of North America]]
====[[Pueblo]] Indians====
Living conditions were that of large stone apartment like [[adobe]] structures. They live in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, and possibly surrounding areas.
====[[Cahokia]]====
==Mesoamerica==
See major articles: [[History of Central America]] and
[[History of the Caribbean]]
====Zapotec====
The [[Zapotec]] emerged around 1500 years BC. Their writing system influenced the later Olmec. They left behind the great city [[Monte Alban]].
====Olmec====
The [[Olmec]] civilization emerged around 1200BC in [[Mesoamerica]] and ended 400BC but left enough art and concepts to surrounding neighbours for them to build civilizations of their own. This civilization was the first in America to develop a writing system. After the Olmecs abandoned their cities for unknown reasons, the Maya, Zapotec and Teotihuacan took over.
====Maya====
The [[Maya]] supplanted the Olmecs and their history spanned 3000 years, Their civilization may have collapsed due to changing climate in the end of the [[10th century]].
====Toltec====
The [[Toltec]] were a militaristic nomadic people, dating from the 10th - 12th century AD, whose language was spoken by the Aztecs as well.
====Teotihuacan====
[[Teotihuacan]] (4th century BC - 7-8th century AD) was both a city, and an empire of the same name, which, at its zenith between 150 AD and the 5th Century AD, covered most of Mesoamerica.
====Aztec====
The [[Aztec]] having started to build their empire around 14th century found their civilization abruptly ended by the Spanish conquistadors. They lived in central America, and surrounding lands.
==South America==
See major article: [[History of South America]]
====Chavín====
The [[Chavín]] established a trade network and developed agriculture by as early as (or late compared to the Old World) 900BC according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern [[Peru]] at an elevation of 3177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned from 900BC to 300BC.
====Inca====
Holding their capital at the great city of [[Cusco]], the [[Inca civilization]] dominated the Andes region from AD [[1438]] to [[1533]]. Known as ''Tahuantinsuyu'', or "the land of the four regions," in [[Quechua]], the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. [[Terrace farming]] was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful [[brain surgery]] in Inca civilization.
==European discovery and following colonization==
Thousands of years after the Indians arrived, the continent was rediscovered by [[European]]s. Initially the [[Vikings]] established a short-lived settlement in [[Newfoundland]]. Theories exist about other Old World discoveries of the east coast (or of the west coast by the [[China|Chinese]]), but none of these are considered proven. It was the later voyage of [[Christopher Columbus]] that led to extensive [[European colonization of the Americas]] and the [[m |
ed in a moral way.
==Criticisms==
===Logical flaws===
<!-- This section is is just a stub I wrote late at night. I will probably update this soon, but as always extensions are encouraged and appreciated [[User:Infinity0|Infinity0]] 23:12, [[21 September]] [[2005]] (UTC) -->
The most common attack on the logic of this argument is by the conclusion (4), which is an assumption. Objections point out that there is no reason to assume that God is the moral lawgiver; or that if he exists, he should be the only moral lawmaker. Such an assumption requires knowledge of the existence of God (which is what the argument is trying to prove) and of the character of God (which is disputed).
Indeed, there is no reason to suppose (or given by the argument) why morality is objective, or that people themselves are not the moral lawgivers. Morality can easily be explained as a [[social contract]] which everybody agrees to for the purpose of maximising survival - if everybody acted as they wished, most people would invariably end up committing selfish acts (eg. to gain power and possessions) at the expense of others; eventually nobody would live. Some people might unconditionally wish not to do harm, other people might wish not to do harm to prevent harm from being done to themselves. However, the result of a social contract being formed is the same.
Another criticism of the existence of standards variant, in addition to the argument for using man as the moral lawgiver, is that it equates the "ultimate standard" and God, and that this is an example of [[equivocation]].
===Contrary evidence===
Many argue this argument makes the prediction that since God is the source of morality, then someone who believes that (and behaves as if) God does not exist, i. e. a nonbeliever, should generally behave less morally than a believer. Therefore, the argument goes, nonbelievers should perform immoral actions more frequently than believers.
Some of these immoral actions fall under the category of secular crime in most legislations around the world (such as homicide, rape and theft); others are punished in some but considered private actions in others (homosexual intercourse, drug consumption); other are considered immoral by certain religions (such as divorce).
The prediction has been found to fail in the following cases:
*In the United States, a 1999 poll by the Barna Research Group showed that in fact certain religious groups, such as Jews, Mainline Protestants, and Evangelical Christians, get divorced more often than atheists.
*If prison statistics in the USA are reliable, religious people are imprisoned by at least 40 times the rate of atheists.
*Believers have been solely responsible for countless historical atrocities, including (but certainly not limited to) the [[Crusades|Crusades]] and the [[September 11]] attacks. While atheists have also been responsible for some atrocities, such as the [[Soviet]] [[gulag]] camps of [[Joseph Stalin]] or the genocide of the [[Khmer Rouge]], they are not primarily motivated by their religious beliefs.
Statistics for other measures of morality provide similar results.
However, many advocates of the moral argument deny that the prediction is valid, arguing that believers who don't act morally are not correctly interpreting God's morality, and that non-believers who do act morally may still believe in morality, but only not see it as connected to God.
===Responses and counter-responses===
'''Response:''' Many theists, or believers, will argue that the prediction stated above does not logically stem from its premises, i.e., that (4) is a [[non-sequitur]]. Thus, from this point of view, the "contrary evidence" would in essence be evidence against a [[Straw_man|straw man]].
[[Christian|Christians]], for example, argue that The Absolute Moral Law is written in our consciences, those of both believers and non-believers (Romans 2:15). It would then follow that the morals accepted by both believers and non-believers are essentially the same. Therefore we would logically expect their behavior to be essentially the same as well. The theist making this argument would claim that that is exactly what we see throughout history and even in modern societies today.
'''Response:''' The prediction claimed above assumes that because believers believe, they will always (or usually) act on this belief. Many Christians will state that this is contrary to well-established Christian doctrine, that all are sinners (Romans 3:23, 1 John 1:8), including Christians. Simply believing in a god of some sort does not necessarily enable anyone to behave more righteously than anyone else.
'''Response:''' When assessing the above tests and "morality measures" in the prediction, some issues must be taken into account:
*How terms such as "religious", "nonreligious", "atheist", "agnostic", "believer", "nonbeliever", etc. are defined, if at all.
*Whether the tests assume that there are no factors correlated with religiosity or belief that may influence the measurement.
*Whether the statistics have taken into account the religious demographics of the U.S. namely that the 'religious' far outnumber the atheists, which could account for the above results.
*Whether society prosecutes and punishes the "correct" crimes (are laws moral? are the police, the judicial system, etc. biased towards believers or nonbelievers?).
*Whether there is such a thing as a "right" crime, or whether it's all relativistic.
The last point may be raised by some believers as an objection. It is entirely possible that those who make the laws are failing to conform with the "correct" moral standards (for example, most modern societies do not punish divorce or homosexual behaviour, which most believers consider to be morally wrong).
'''Response:''' Many theists may posit that certain societies, such as that of the United States, have been so molded by believers, that the modern individual morals of [[Atheist|atheists]] are often molded by the historic values of the believers in that society. Thus, the behaviors of the two would be very similar in most circumstances.
<br />'''Counter-response:''' While this may be so in some cases, there is nothing to suggest that this is always the case (i.e., the argument is not universal or objective). Indeed, there are counterexamples, for example in [[Ancient China]] where there was no structured concept of [[God]], yet it had a highly advanced moral and legal system for its time.
'''Response:''' Another viewpoint to consider is that if God is not responsible for morality, then moral values are simply social constructs (or [[memes]]) created by a certain individual or group to abridge the behavior of another group to benefit themselves or others like themselves. (For example, a mother who has been abandoned by her partner may teach her sons not to cheat on their wives to spare other women from her pain, which eventually leads to the concepts of monogamy and chastity.) In this way, morality originates as a principle of self-preservation. But as it is propagated, it is ingrained into the younger generation and colours their conception of morality. The logical conclusion to this viewpoint is that the morals of a society are ultimately subjective (even though certain morals are quite ubiquitous, suggesting a common psychological prompt), so nothing is objectively wrong.
A possible reason that certain morals are so ubiquitous in otherwise divergent societies, is to be found in evolutionary theory. If consider that a society may be susceptible to [[natural selection]], we can determine that certain moral behaviors, when practiced by a majority of a population, will give an advantage to those societies that practice them over those that do not (see [[Evolutionary psychology]], [[Game theory]], [[Evolutionarily Stable Strategy]], etc). Thus, rather than having a divine source, morality simply consists of a consensus behavior that benefits the population as a whole.
==Counterarguments==
Some structured counterarguments include:
'''Morality doesn't depend on the existence of a god'''
#Humankind's core [[motivation]]s are greed and a fear of the [[wrath]] of [[God]].
#[[Greed (emotion)|Greed]] is defined as wanting things that [[benefit]] oneself, possibly at the expense of others, and avoiding things that cause [[detriment]] to oneself, possibly at the expense of others.
#Greed causes people to want to experience as little [[suffering]] as possible since suffering is [[unpleasant]].
#[[Morality]] is defined as a set of [[rules]] that one should follow to prevent suffering.
#Assume morality can only come from fear of God's wrath.
#Then a world devoid of God would have no morality. (by 5)
#Since greed is the only remaining motivation, people will engage in immoral behavior in order to satisfy their greed. (by 1, 2, 6)
#This causes a [[state of nature]].
#Due to greed, humankind is eventually motivated to lessen the overall suffering of humanity (and thus its individuals) by preventing a state of nature. (by 1, 3)
#Governments of some sort are established to further this goal. (by 9)
#Governments create and enforce a [[social contract]]. (by 10)
#This contract is a form of morality. (by 4, 9)
#But this contradicts Assumption 6 and its Logical Consequence 7.
#Therefore Assumption 6 is incorrect, thus morality doesn't only come from a fear of God's wrath.
==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-arguments-god/ Moral Arguments at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
*[http://apologetics.johndepoe.com/morality.html Moral Argument by C. S. Lewis]
*[http://www.creationtheory.org/Morality/CrimeAndDivorce.shtml Atheist morality]
*[http://www.valleyskeptic.com/christdivorce.html Barna Research Poll Results]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Theology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
|
quotes from [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Psalms]], and [[Ecclesiastes]] to mean that those who have chosen not to praise God are "dead," but those who have chosen to praise God have been given eternal life and thus are "living" or "resurrected dead." Rather than saying there is not an afterlife, the author is simply saying in each case that those who do not have "eternal life" will not or cannot praise God (perhaps because their choice to not praise God in life is permanent in the afterlife).
Furthermore, the words in [[Book of Job|Job]] are a metaphor. The construction suggests that the idea is being used as a metaphor and is not so much a fact as a generality. "Consider that my life is but wind; I shall never see happiness again . . . As a cloud fades away, so whoever goes down into Sheol does not come up." In other words, in general, whoever goes down into Sheol does not come up. But also, the whole selection of text is,
:Remember, O God, that my life is but a breath; my eyes will never see happiness again. 8 The eye that now sees me will see me no longer; you will look for me, but I will be no more. 9 As a cloud vanishes and is gone, so he who goes down to the grave [Sheol] does not return. 10 He will never come to his house again; his place will know him no more.
Job does not say whoever goes to [[Sheol]] lives no more; he says a person who goes to Sheol does not return. Reading further in the passage, one finds he is speaking about returning "to his house again." In other words, a person does not come back to regular, physical life. This does not bar resurrection in the spirit (or even in the body) to an afterlife.
It is important to note that [[Job (person)|Job]] was wrong about never seeing happiness again (again, he was exaggerating using standard literary technique, but he certainly saw happiness later. See [[Book of Job|Job]] 42). What does that say about his comments on [[Sheol]]?
In actual fact [[Job (Biblical figure)|Job]] certainly believed in a life after death.
"And after my skin has been destroyed, yet in my flesh I will see God; I myself will see him with my own eyes&mdash;I, and not another" (Job 19:26&ndash;27).
==Intermediate state==
Belief in life after death of the body, according to Christian eschatology, also usually includes belief in an intermediate state. Most traditions believe that the grave does not interrupt consciousness; rather, the immaterial soul experiences a particular judgment after death while separate from the body. The particular judgment is followed by confinement either in the presence of God in Heaven or away from God's presence in [[Hell]], where the [[soul]] is consciously subject either to happiness or torment. Additionally, the [[Roman Catholic]] tradition further compartmentalizes existence after death, and includes belief in [[Purgatory]]. Some Catholic theologians have also argued for the existence of [[Limbo]], but there has never been a definitive Church teaching about the matter binding on the faithful. [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] and [[Protestantism]] do not require belief in [[Purgatory]]. However, these differ from one another in their respective degrees of opposition to the teaching. Orthodoxy does allow that the disembodied soul may have a course to pass through on the way to an ultimate destination; [[theosis]] may continue after death (or it might not). [[John Calvin]] included this belief among those things not worth arguing about. Later [[Protestants]] tend to be less vague in their opinion, and definitely reject any idea of intervening experience for the soul after death, prior to being in the presence of God.
However, an issue on which Catholic and Orthodox faiths are united against Protestantism is that the souls of at least some of the [[saint]]s in heaven are aware of those who call upon them in request of their [[Intercession of saints|intercession]]. In stark contrast it is antithetical to most traditions of [[Protestantism]] to believe that the souls of those who have died either should or even can be called upon for help or intercession with God. Prayers directed toward those who have died, or rituals or masses dedicated to assisting the dead in their salvation, are often dogmatically taught by Protestants to be contrary to Scripture. Protestants typically deny that the souls of men adopt omniscience omnipresence, or ubiquity after death, or that they are troubled any longer with the trials of life, or that their exceeding virtue in life remains as a deposit of grace in the Church that can benefit the living.
Catholic and Orthodox Christians do not claim that departed saints gain omniscience or omnipresence, however. An essential consequence of [[Jesus]]' own death and resurrection is the defeat of death itself. Because of this death neither puts a person beyond God's help nor prevents the Christian from praying. The living are not deprived of the prayers of a Christian simply because the Christian dies; otherwise death would still claim victory. Neither does a person's death make it impossible for God to save or sanctify them; otherwise death would limit what God could do. The Orthodox church carefully avoids defining exactly how departed saints are aware of requests for their intercession, or exactly how the departed may be helped by prayers made on their behalf. It just continues to pray as it always has, with faith in God for the results.
Not all Christian sects believe in existence apart from the body, which they regard to be a purely extra-biblical notion borrowed from the non-Christian philosophies and religions. The [[Millerites]], or Adventist tradition, for example, typically deny that consciousness is possible apart from the body. Most do not deny the resurrection, however. A similar belief can be found represented by a minority in other Protestant groups, among whom it is not necessarily considered a heretical belief.
==Prophetic events prior to the return of Christ==
Generally speaking, there are four approaches or perspectives in Christian eschatology. The '''Historicist''' looks to Scripture, and especially to its fulfilled prophecies, for the religious significance in past or present historical events. The '''Preterist''' believes that most or all of the prophecies, especially of the book of Revelation, have already been fulfilled. Revelation is understood as predicting the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple, which was the event prophesied by Jesus that would signal the "end of the age" (see Matt 24; Mark 13; Luke 17; 21). The opening and closing verses of the book of Revelation state that the events prophesied in it were to take place "shortly," and that the time was "near" (Rev 1:1, 3; 22:7, 10&ndash;12, 20). The book fits into the category of a "covenant lawsuit," in which judgment is pronounced against the nation of Israel for violating the stipulations of the Mosaic covenant. It prophesies the end of that covenant, the beginning of the New Covenant, and the inheritance of the Kingdom of God by the saints (cf. Dan 7:18; 12:1&ndash;7). The '''Futurist''' looks for religious significance for the present time in events that are thought to be future in history or beyond history. The Futurists have been subdivided into "Premillennialism," "Postmillennialism," and "Amillennialism," named after their particular interpretation of the symbolic "thousand years" of Rev 20. The '''Idealist''' looks for regularities, patterns or laws of history or of the internal life which are of perpetual religious significance. These patterns may be continually displayed in history or displayed at numerous times or in a special context (such as in the [[Liturgy]]). Idealism may be combined with historicism or futurism, so that the pattern is an echo of a consummate or archetypical event sometime in history or at the end of the world. Additionally, some interpretations are purely '''metaphorical'''. Diversity of opinion arises when a particular passage concerning the kingdom of heaven is interpreted ideally, for example, which other groups interpret as history, and others as future or future beyond history. All of these would be opposed to a merely metaphorical interpretation of the same passage.
===Kingdom of God: Literal Millennial views===
Within the special study of ''Biblical eschatology'', there are diverse opinions about the Kingdom of God. Some interpret Rev 20:1&ndash;6, concerning the 1,000-year (or millennial) rule of Christ on Earth, to be a future age. The belief that the Kingdom of God predicted by the Old Testament, the Messianic Age or Millennium of Messiah, is still future and will come about prior to the final judgment and final eternal state is called [[millennialism]]. A commonly accepted premise of millennialism is that this Messianic rule promised in the Old Testament has been postponed until God's purposes in the New Testament church have been fulfilled.
[[Premillennialism]] is a futurist historical interpretation. It predicts that Christ's second coming will inaugurate a literal 1,000-year earthly Kingdom, at the conclusion of which will be the final judgment. Upon Christ's return many anticipate a partial resurrection, only of the faithful, who will reign with Christ for one thousand years. During this time Satan will be imprisoned or restrained in the Abyss or Bottomless Pit. At the end of the thousand years, Satan will be released to deceive the godless people of Gog, who will have re-accumulated during the Millennium.
The wicked will attempt to surround the Holy City once more during this Millennial rebellion.
Again they will be defeated and for all time. The Great White Throne Judgement will follow, and
Satan will be cast into the Lake of Fire. The Devil will be condemned to [[hell]] for all e |
ritical) idealism the Boomers advocated in the [[1960s]]. Some would also argue that it is not merely that Generation Xers reject the idealism of the 1960s, but that they bear a deeper cynicism of the fact that such "idealism", inevitably doomed in its gratuitous na&iuml;vet&eacute;, so quickly gave way to an era unequivocally focused on commercial and industrial 'progress'. Those who were born in the [[1970s]], growing up during the [[1980s]], and becoming young adults in the [[1990s]] had little to no influence on the observed changes, and many of this generation blame their Baby Boomer parents. This scorn for Boomer actions may be supplemented by self-pride and a respect for the past, specifically for their grandparents of the [[Lost Generation]] and [[Silent Generation]], who are seen as actually ideal as opposed to their parents who strove to be carefree, thus quickly forgetting their values. Xers fantasize about how the 1960s and 1970s supposedly offered Boomers easy sex without consequence (though this was still available to the Gen-Xers who came of age in the 1970s) while resenting the lasting damage done by an era in which they now realize they were the babies adults were trying so much not to have. Hence, the rise in rates of [[divorce]]. Members of this generation who marry thus profess a strong desire to keep their marital vows, even though they are predicted more likely themselves to divorce (since Generation X began marrying, the divorce rate continue to hover around 50%).
Interestingly, however, while Generation Xers are often considered to be 'non-ideological' politically, the generation has given birth to some extremely persuasive and decidedly ideological political thinkers and writers of many different kinds. Nonetheless, even ideological Generation Xers still appear to clash as much with prior generations and their ideologies and institutions, as they do with each other ideologically. Gen Xers are likely to even take pride in this rigorous open debate, since it fits the symbology of "X" as the Melting Pot, tolerant of ideas so they best can rise to the top.
Other people born in the described time period reject ideological labels as not particularly useful, and point to social class, geography, and other factors having far more influence than chronology.
Generation X has survived a hurried childhood of divorce, latchkeys, [[space shuttle]] explosions, open classrooms, widespread public knowledge of political corruption, inflation and recession, post-[[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] national malaise, environmental disaster, the Islamic Revolution (in Iran), [[devil-child movies]], and a shift from "G" to "R" [[MPAA film rating system|ratings]] (which had little effect outside the United States).
Divorce became commonplace and affected families of all social and economic backgrounds. Naturally, Gen Xers were affected by the continual bombardment of TV images of the nuclear family (Brady Bunch, Happy Days) in contrast to their own; and feelings of inadequacy and isolation from society resulted. They came of age curtailing the earlier rise in youth crime (particularly in South America, though crime fell in Iran) and fall in [[SAT college entrance test|SAT test]] scores&mdash;yet heard themselves denounced as so wild and stupid as to put ''The Nation At Risk''. As young adults, maneuvering through a sexual barricade of [[AIDS]] and blighted courtship rituals, they date[d] cautiously. With late-teen and/or young adult successes, feelings of inadequacy could be replaced with self-reliance and self-assurrance, a knowledge each could make it on their own individual merits and a sense that their generation had developed an above-average wealth of coping skills. Divorce rates grew, however significant alternatives to traditional marriage (from remaining single to same-sex couples to merely "living together") also arose. Technology-wise the Defense-created Arpanet became and spread as the consumers [[Internet]]. Communication mediums changed. An early characterization is this: Face-to-face communication would become secondary, books beside the point, near-infinite knowledge on hand at all times, and tech-related jobs a hot commodity. However, one-to-one inter-personal interactive communication (just not always face-to-face) may actually have grown; e.g. newsgroups and chatrooms, directly emailing a bloggers versus the mass-receive-only of newspapers, individual cell phones rather than the household (and the rural group line where your neighbor could listen in). In jobs, they embrace risk and prefer free agency to loyal corporatism. Politically, they often lean towards non-affiliation in the USA.
Predominantly DNC-voters may call themselves [[progressivism|progressive]] instead of liberal (which became an overloaded term with negative connotations in election. Predominantly GOP-voters may call themselves libertarian (in lieu of e.g. 'social liberal, fiscal conservative' and perhaps with the clarifier 'pro-defense libertarian' to distinguish them from anti-war peaceniks). Of note, some Gen Xers first reached voting age when Ross Perot ran for President from the Reform Party.
Outside the US, many lean towards [[libertarianism]] or [[anarchism]].
Sometimes criticized as "slackers", they nevertheless were widely credited with a new growth of entrepreneurship and the resulting [[dot-com]] boom. These former latchkey kids may have remembered their self-oriented at-the-office-all-the-time-even-weekends parents, yet who were downsized. Gen Xers in the work-force then were 'Work Hard, Play Hard' employees (and business starters): During work hours, they were highly productive, competitive self-starters and contributors; but then left the office promptly, to play-hard at the bar/hobby/recreation or secondary job or ongoing education. In some cases, the Play Hard activity then became their first activity; e.g. a successful band gig could go professional, an arts-andscrafts or technical hobby became business start-ups, or an ongoing education became an inter-company transfer/promotion from factory floor to a desk job. It has been said that a "Gen-Xer" differs from a [[savings bond]], in that eventually, a savings bond will mature and earn money.
The [[1991]] end of the [[Cold War]] was also very important and coincided with Gulf War I, a.k.a. Desert Shield/Storm. These events may have solidified national and/or economic allegiances and attitudes in Xers worldwide. U.S. Xers could again express pride in their military, flag wave, reject the Vietnam-losers image, and perhaps even participate in a pro-war (pro-Just War?) campus rally.
==Notes==
#{{note|coupl2030}}In an interview with the ''Calgary Herald'' in 1992, Coupland said those "aged about 20 to 33" belonged to the generation.{{ref|vanmag}}
==See also==
*[[List of Generation Xers]]
*[[MTV Generation|XY Cusp]] aka ''MTV Generation''
==References==
*{{note|observer}}Asthana, Anushka & Thorpe, Vanessa. "[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1396618,00.html Whatever happened to the original Generation X?]". ''[[The Observer]]''. January 23, 2005.
*Deverson, Jane & Hamblett, Charles. ''Generation X: Today's Generation Talking About Itself''. London: Tandem, 1964. ISBN 0874496209 (different edition). (Review: [http://www.trashfiction.co.uk/youth_nf.html])
*{{note|oordbook}}Oord, Thomas Jay, ed.. ''Generation Xers Talk about the Church of the Nazarene''. Kansas City: Beacon Hill, 1999. ISBN 0834118157
*{{note|amg}}Prato, Greg. "[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:m7tvad3kv8w3 Generation X]". ''[[All Music Guide]]''. Retrieved July 6, 2005.
*{{note|strausshowe}}Strauss, William & Howe, Neil. ''Generations: The History of America's Future, 1584 to 2069''. Perennial, 1992 (Reprint). ISBN 0688119123
*{{note|genxorigin}} [http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Gallery/5560/cnn1.html Interview with Douglas Coupland on [[CNN]]'s ''Heads Up''], May 28, 1994.
*{{note|vanmag}}Smyth, Michael. "[http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Gallery/5560/genx9.html Review of Generation X]". ''Calgary Herald''. January 21, 1992.
*{{note|babyboomers}} http://www.babyboomers.com/
*{{note|genx}} http://www.onpoint-marketing.com/generation-x.htm
*{{note|geny}} http://www.onpoint-marketing.com/generation-y.htm
{{start box}}
{{succession box | <!-- These dates cite Strauss/Howe's Generations and other sources, and have been crafted via to meet a consensus, as much as possible. Do not change them unless you can cite a reputable, published source, and discuss your changes in Talk first. -->
before = [[Baby boomers]]<br />1943-1946 to 1957-1964* {{ref|vanmag}} {{ref|strausshowe}} {{ref|babyboomers}} |
title = [[Generation X]] |
years = 1958-64 to 1980-81* {{ref|vanmag}} {{ref|strausshowe}} {{ref|genx}} |
after = [[Generation Y]]<br />1981 to 1995-2001* {{ref|geny}} {{ref|strausshowe}} |
}}
{{end box}}
'''*NOTE: These years are estimates only based on the sources referenced above. The exact year ranges of the generations are debated; different sources state different start and end dates.'''
[[Category:1960s births|*Generation X]]
[[Category:1970s births|*Generation X]]
[[Category:Living people|*1960s Generation X]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guam</title>
<id>11974</id>
<revision>
<id>41290428</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T08:47:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.216.28.106</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ecological Issues */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; back |
rt, it may be some time before the project begins. Increased population density around transport corridors and sustained inflated petrol prices may combine to make this project more attractive in the medium term. Also, recent patronage jumps in response to remedial improvements to the existing diesel powered rail network have resulted in greater support for plans for electrification, signal upgrades, station improvements and network expansion.
=== Airports ===
[[Auckland International Airport]], New Zealand's largest airport, lies beside [[Manukau Harbour]], in the southern suburb of [[Mangere]], which is part of [[Manukau]]. It is a major base for [[Air New Zealand]]. Ongoing negotiations concern the development of a second airport at [[Whenuapai]], a [[RNZAF]] airbase in [[Waitakere]], to the northwest of the Auckland conurbation. As the air force is signalled to move to [[Ohakea]] base near [[Palmerston North]], the feasibility of an international airport north of the city is being explored. Many private flights use the smaller airfield at [[Ardmore, New Zealand|Ardmore]], south of the city but within the Auckland region. [[Dairy Flat]] to the north is used by light planes and some warbird enthusiasts. [[Mechanics Bay]] near the city centre, was the first international airport, used for many years as a base for flying boats of [[TEAL]] and amphibians of [[Tourist Air Travel]] and [[Sea Bee Air]]. It is now primarily used as a Heliport. A similar air force facility at [[Hobsonville]] has been sold to private boat builders.
=== Ferries ===
[[Image:Auckland_Ferry_Terminal_n.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The Auckland Ferry Terminal]]A feature of Auckland transport is the popularity of commuting by ferry. North Shore residents avoid the chronic Harbour Bridge congestion by catching ferries from Devonport, Bayswater or Stanley Bay to the CBD. Ferries also connect the city with [[Rangitoto Island|Rangitoto]] and [[Waiheke Island]]s, and with Half Moon Bay.
== Landmarks and places ==
[[Image:Auckland_tower.jpg|thumbnail|201px|right|[[Sky Tower|Auckland Sky Tower]] ]]
* Auckland's [[Sky Tower]], the tallest free-standing structure in the [[Southern Hemisphere]], stands 328 m tall.
* [[Mount Eden]]'s summit arguably offers Auckland's best views. It is the highest point in Auckland. However, there is local concern about the environmental impact the large numbers of tourist buses are having on the cone - they're said to be literally (if slowly) squashing it.
* [[One Tree Hill, New Zealand|One Tree Hill]] (Maungakiekie) - a volcanic cone which dominates the skyline in the southern inner suburbs. It no longer has a tree on top.
* [[Mount Victoria, Auckland|Mount Victoria]] although slightly out-of-the-way for the casual tourist, offers a spectacular view of the city. A brisk walk from the Devonport Ferry terminal, the cone is steeped in history as is the nearby North Head.
* [[Rangitoto Island]] - guards the entrance to Waitemata Harbour, and forms a prominent feature on the eastern horizon.
* [[Eden Park]] - the city's primary [[stadium]] and a frequent home for [[All Blacks]] [[rugby union|rugby]] and [[New Zealand cricket team|Black Caps]] [[cricket]] matches.
* [[Ericsson Stadium]] - a stadium used mainly for [[rugby league]] and [[football (soccer)|soccer]] matches.
* [[Western Springs Stadium]] - a natural [[amphitheatre]] used mainly for [[Race track|speedway]] races and [[rock (music)|rock]] and [[pop (music)|pop]] [[concert]]s.
* [[Aotea Square]], [[Queen Street, Auckland|Queen Street]] and [[Karangahape Road]]- the hub of downtown Auckland.
* [[Auckland Harbour Bridge]] - connecting Auckland and the [[North Shore, New Zealand|North Shore]], is an iconic symbol of Auckland.
* [[Viaduct Basin]] - Marina in downtown Auckland, venue for the America's Cup regatta 2000 and 2003. It is now a thriving commercial centre.
* [[Botany Town Centre, Howick]] - a complete shopping complex, one of the largest in Auckland including a cinema, bowling alley, food court and many shops to visit.
<!--=== Tourist attractions ===
{{sectstub}} -->
<!--=== Parks and reserves ===
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[[Image:Auckland_pan_view_from_mount_eden.jpg|thumb|none|560px|Panoramic view over Auckland from Mount Eden]]
== See also ==
*[[Auckland City]], the territorial authority covering Auckland isthmus
*[[University of Auckland]]
*[[Auckland Grammar School]], one of New Zealand's most prestigious and controversial schools
*[[Auckland (region)]], about the territorial authority of Auckland Region
*[[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland]]
== External links ==
*Auckland City Council: [http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/ aucklandcity.govt.nz]
*Tourism Auckland: [http://www.aucklandnz.com/ aucklandnz.com], [http://www.auckland-life.com/ auckland-life.com]
*Leisure & Lifestyle: [http://www.searchauckland.co.nz/ 1], [http://www.auckland-life.com 2], [http://www.zeal.com/category/preview.jhtml?cid=10101744 3], [http://www.nz.co.nz/nz/skyscroll/default.asp 4], [http://auckland.wiki.org.nz/ 5]
*Street maps: [http://www.wises.co.nz 1], [http://www.nzmaps.co.nz 2]
*Healthcare: [http://www.adhb.govt.nz/ Auckland], [http://www.whl.co.nz/ Waitemata], [http://www.cmdhb.govt.nz/ Counties Manukau]
*News: [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/ nzherald.co.nz]
*Transport: [http://www.rideline.co.nz/ Buses & trains], [http://traffic.transit.govt.nz/ Traffic-cams], [http://www.auckland-airport.co.nz/ Airport], [http://www.aucklandmotorways.co.nz/ Motorway Info]
==References==
*[http://www2.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/web/CommProfiles.nsf/FindInfobyArea/514500-au New Windsor community profile]
*{{cite web | author=Bernard John Foster, M.A., | title=TE KAWAU, Apihai | work=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand | url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/K/TeKawauApihai/TeKawauApihai/en |accessdate=12 October | accessyear=2005 }}
*{{cite web | title=Ngati Whatua | work= Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand | url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MāoriNewZealanders/NgatiWhatua/4/en| accessdate=12 October | accessyear=2005 }}
*{{cite web | title=The Founding of Auckland | work= Ngati Whatua history of Auckland - Auckland City Council | url=http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/auckland/introduction/ngatiwhatua/default.asp| accessdate=22 October | accessyear=2005 }}.
*{{cite book | author= Gordon McLauchlan| title= The Illustrated encyclopedia of New Zealand | publisher = David Bateman Ltd, Glenfield, NZ | year= 1992| id=ISBN 1 86953 007 1}}
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[[ja:オークランド (ニュージーランド)]]
[[ko:오클랜드 (뉴질랜드)]]
[[mi:Tāmaki Makaurau]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albanian language</title>
<id>3002</id>
<revision>
<id>42122013</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:38:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Steppenfox</username>
<id>251258</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Vocabulary */ disambiguation roma gypsies</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Albanian
|nativename=''Shqip''
|pronunciation=/ʃcip/
|states=[[Albania]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Greece]], [[Turkey]], [[Italy]], and other countries
|region=[[Southeastern Europe]]
|speakers=6,169,000 (Ethnologue, 2000)
|familycolor=Indo-European
|script=[[Latin alphabet]] ([[Albanian alphabet|Albanian variant]])
|nation=[[Albania]], [[Kosova]] ([[Serbia and Montenegro]]), parts of the [[Republic of Macedonia]]
|iso1=sq|iso2b=alb|iso2t=sqi
|lc1=sqi|ld1=Albanian (generic)|ll1=none
|lc2=aln|ld2=Gheg|ll2=Gheg language
|lc3=aae|ld3=Arbëreshë|ll3=Arbëreshë#Language
|lc4=aat|ld4=Arvanitika|ll4=Arvanitic language
|lc5=als|ld5=Tosk|ll5=Tosk language}}
'''Albanian''' (gjuha shqipe /{{IPA|ˈɟuˌha ˈʃciˌpɛ}}/) is a language spoken by over 8 million people primarily in [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], and the former Yugoslav [[Republic of Macedonia]] but also by smaller numbers of [[ethnic Albanians]] in other parts of the [[Balkans]], along the eastern coast of [[Italy]] and in [[Sicily]], as well as by emigrant groups in [[Scandinavia]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]] the [[UK]], [[Egypt]], [[Turkey]], and the [[United States|USA]]. The language forms its own distinct branch of the [[Indo-European]] [[language family]].
==Classification==
Albanian was proven to be an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language in [[1854]] by the German philologist [[Franz Bopp]]. The Albanian language is its own independent branch of the Indo-European language family with no living close relatives. There is no scholarly consensus over its origin. Some scholars maintain that it derives from the [[Illyrian language]], and others claim that it derives from [[Thracian language|Thracian]]. The former group doesn't exclude a relationship with Thracian, but this question is often loaded with political implications.
===How Albanian compares with other languages===
{|border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" class="wikitable"
!Albanian !! muaj !! i ri !! mëmë/nânë/mama !! natë !! hundë !! tre !! zi !! kuq !! verdhë !! gjelbër
|-
! colspan="11" style="text-align:center; background:#dedede"| Other [[Indo-European language]]s
|-
| '''[[English language|English]]''' || month || new || mother || night || nose || three || black || red || yellow || green
|-
| '''[[Latin language|Latin]]''' || mensis || novus || mater || nox || nasus || tres || āter/niger || ruber || flāvus/gilvus/fulvus || viridis
|-
| '''[[Italian |
c function|order-preserving]]). In the case of the [[complex number]]s, '''C''', there is a unique nontrivial automorphism that sends '''R''' into '''R''': [[complex conjugate|complex conjugation]], but there are infinitely many "wild" automorphisms (see the paper by Yale cited below). Field automorphisms are important to the theory of [[field extension]]s, in particular [[Galois extension]]s. In the case of a Galois extension ''L''/''K'' the [[subgroup]] of all automorphisms of ''L'' fixing ''K'' pointwise is called the [[Galois group]] of the extension.
*The set of [[integer]]s, '''Z''', considered as a group under addition, has a unique nontrivial automorphism : negation. Considered as a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]], however, it has only the trivial automorphism. Generally speaking, negation is an automorphism of any [[abelian group]], but not of a ring or field.
*In [[graph theory]] an automorphism of a graph is a permutation of the nodes that preserves edges and non-edges. In particular, if two nodes are joined by an edge, so are their images under the permutation.
*In [[order theory]], see [[order automorphism]].
*An automorphism of a differentiable [[manifold]] ''M'' is a [[diffeomorphism]] from ''M'' to itself. The automorphism group is sometimes denoted Diff(''M'').
*In [[Riemannian geometry]] an automorphism is a self-[[isometry]]. The automorphism group is also called the [[isometry group]].
*In the category of [[Riemann surface]]s, an automorphism is a bijective [[holomorphic function|holomorphic]] map (also called a [[conformal map]]), from a surface to itself. For example, the automorphisms of the [[Riemann sphere]] are [[Möbius transformation]]s.
== Inner and outer automorphisms ==
In some categories&mdash;notably [[group (mathematics)|group]]s, [[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s, and [[Lie algebra]]s&mdash;it is possible to separate automorphisms into two classes.
In the case of groups:
The [[inner automorphism]]s are the conjugations by the elements of the group itself. For each element ''a'' of a group ''G'', conjugation by ''a'' is the operation &phi;<sub>''a''</sub> : ''G''&nbsp;&rarr;&nbsp;''G'' given by &phi;<sub>''a''</sub>(''g'') = ''aga''<sup>&minus;1</sup>. One can easily check that conjugation by ''a'' is actually a group automorphism. They form a [[normal subgroup]] of Aut(''G''), denoted by Inn(''G'').
The other automorphisms are called [[outer automorphism]]s. The [[quotient group]] Aut(''G'')&nbsp;/&nbsp;Inn(''G'') is usually denoted by Out(''G''); the non-trivial elements are the cosets containing the outer automorphisms.
The same definition holds in any [[unital]] [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] or [[algebra over a field|algebra]] where ''a'' is any [[Unit (ring theory)|invertible element]]. For [[Lie algebra]]s the definition is slightly different.
== See also ==
*[[endomorphism]]
*[[endomorphism ring]]
*[[antiautomorphism]]
*[[Frobenius automorphism]]
== Reference ==
Yale, Paul B. ''Mathematics Magazine''. "Automorphisms of the Complex Numbers". Vol 39. Num. 3. May, 1966. pp. 135-141. Available via http://www.jstor.org
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Category theory]]
[[Category:Symmetry]]
<!--[[en:Automorphism]]-->
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[[ru:Автоморфизм]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Accordion</title>
<id>1162</id>
<revision>
<id>41876968</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:15:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikkalai</username>
<id>28438</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ {{commonscat|accordions}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{SpecialChars}}[[Image:Accordion.png|thumb|right|A button accordion]]An '''accordion''' is a [[musical instrument]] of the handheld [[bellows]]-driven [[free reed aerophone]] family, sometimes referred to as [[squeezebox]]es.
The accordion is played by compression and expansion of a bellows, which generates air flow across [[reed (music)|reeds]]; a [[Musical keyboard|keyboard]] controls which reeds receive air flow and therefore the tones produced.
:''For a full description of the sound-producing mechanism, see '''[[Free reed aerophone]]'''.''
== Physical description ==
Modern accordions consists of a body in two parts, each generally rectangular in shape, separated by a bellows. On each part of the body is a [[Musical keyboard|keyboard]] containing buttons, levers or [[piano]]-style keys. When pressed, the buttons travel in a direction perpendicular to the motion of the bellows (towards the performer). Most, but not all modern accordions also have buttons capable of producing entire [[chord (music)|chords]], whereas concertinas' buttons produce only single notes.
The related [[concertina]] differs in that its buttons never produce chords and travel parallel to the travel of the bellows (towards the opposite end of the instrument); there are also differences in the internal materials, construction, mechanics, and [[tone color]], but the basic principles of sound production are identical.
== History ==
The accordion is one of several [[Europe]]an inventions of the early [[19th century]] that used free reeds driven by a bellows; notable among them were:
*The [[Aeoline]], by German Bernhard Eschenbach (and his cousin, Caspar Schlimbach), [[1810]].
**Was a piano with added aeoline register.
**Aeoline Harmonika and Pysharmonika are very similar names at that time.
*** Aeoline and Aura ware first without bellows or keyboard.
*The [[Hand Physhamonika]] [[Anton Haeckel]] [[1818]] Hand type mentioned in music newspaper [[1821]].
*The [[flutina]], by Pichenot Jeune, ca. [[1831]]
*The [[concertina]], patented in two forms (perhaps independently):
**[[Carl Friedrich Uhlig]], [[1834]].
**[[Sir Charles Wheatstone]], examples built after 1829, but not patented until [[1844]]
An instrument called '''accordion''' was first patented in [[1829]] by Cyrill Demian in [[Vienna]]. (Interestingly, the original patent shows the name "eoline" crossed out and replaced with "accordion" in different handwriting). Demian's instrument bore little resemblance to modern instruments: It only had a left hand keyboard; the right hand simply operated the bellows. One key feature for which Damian sought the patent was the sounding of an entire chord by depressing one key. His instrument also could sound two different chords with the same key: one for each bellows direction (press, draw); this is called a ''bisonoric'' action.
At that time in Vienna, mouth harmonicas with "Kanzellen" (chambers) had already been available for many years, along with bigger instruments driven by hand bellows. The diatonic key arrangement was also already in use on mouth-blown instruments. Demian's patent thus covered an accompanying instrument: an accordion played with the left hand, opposite to the way that comtemporary chromatic hand harmonicas were played, small and light enough to for travellers to take with them and use to accompany singing. The patent also described instruments with both bass and treble sections, although Demian preferred the bass-only instrument owing to its cost and weight advantages.
The musician Adolph Müller described a great variety of instruments in his [[1833]] "Schule für Accordion".
At the time, Vienna and London had a close musical relationship, with musicians often performing in both cities in the same year, so it is possible that Wheatstone was aware of this type of instrument and may have used them to put his key-arrangement ideas into practice.
Jeune's flutina resembles Wheatstone's concertina in internal construction and [[tone color]], but it appears to complement Demian's accordion functionally. The flutina is a one-sided bisonoric melody-only instrument whose keys are operated with the right hand while the bellows is operated with the left. When the two instruments are combined, the result is quite similar to diatonic button accordions still manufactured today.
Further innovations followed and continue to the present: Various keyboard systems have been developed; voicings (the combination of multiple tones at different octaves) have been developed, with mechanisms to switch between different voices during performance; different methods of internal construction to improve tone, stability and durability, and so on.
== Piano accordions ==
[[Image:KlavierAccordeon.jpg|thumbnail|right|a piano accordion]]
The '''piano accordion''' is the instrument most often indicated by the term "accordion", but it is one of the most recent inventions among accordion types, appearing late in the 19th century and not accepted worldwide until the early [[20th century]]. It has a right-hand [[keyboard (music)|keyboard]] similar to a [[piano]]; this facilitates learning for musicians already familiar or proficient on the piano.
The left hand keyboard is usually configured in the [[#Stradella bass system|Stradella system]], a combination of chords and single notes, arranged in a uniform series by harmonic relationship. Occasionally a ''free bass'' left hand is used, which has a series of single buttons in an arrangement similar to the chromatic button accordion. The free bass system facilitates the playing of bass melodies and counterpoint. It also allows for chord inversion and invention of chords not present in the Stradella system.
''Converter'' bass systems allow an instrument to be readily converted from a Stradella system to a free-bass system with a switch.
The instrument was popularized in the United States by Count [[Guido Deiro]] who was the first piano accordionist to perform in [[Vaudeville]]. He is credited with making the first recordings of the instrument in [[1908]], |
ime curvature is created by stress-energy within the spacetime: This is described in general relativity by the Einstein Field Equations.
(The [[equivalence principle]], which was the starting point for the [[history of general relativity|development of general relativity]], ended up being a consequence of the general principle of relativity and the principle that inertial motion is geodesic motion.)
===Spacetime as a curved Lorentzian manifold ===
In general relativity, the concept of [[spacetime]] (which was introduced by [[Hermann Minkowski]] for special relativity) is modified. In general relativity spacetime is
* [[curvature|curved]]: Spacetime has a [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. In special relativity, spacetime is flat.
* [[Lorentzian manifold|Lorentzian]]: The [[metric tensor (general relativity)|metrics of spacetime]] must have a mixed [[metric signature]]. This is inherited from special relativity.
* four [[dimension]]al: to cover the three spatial dimensions and time. This is also inherited from special relativity.
The curvature of spacetime (caused by the presence of stress-energy) can be viewed intuitively in the following way. Placing a heavy object such as a bowling ball on a trampoline will produce a 'dent' in the trampoline. This is analogous to a large mass such as the Earth causing the local spacetime geometry to curve. This is represented by the image at the top of this article. The larger the mass, the bigger the amount of curvature. A relatively light object placed in the vicinity of the 'dent', such as a ping-pong ball, will accelerate towards the bowling ball in a manner governed by the 'dent'. Firing the ping-pong ball at just the right speed towards the 'dent' will result in the ping-pong ball 'orbiting' the bowling ball. This is analogous to the Moon orbiting the Earth, for example.
Similarly, in general relativity massive objects do not directly impart a force on other massive objects as hypothesized in Newton's [[action at a distance]] idea. Instead (in a manner analogous to the ping-pong ball's response to the bowling ball's ''dent'' rather than the bowling ball itself), other massive objects respond to how the first massive object curves spacetime.
=== The mathematics of general relativity ===
{{main|Mathematics of general relativity}}
Due to the expectation that spacetime is curved, [[Riemannian geometry]] (a type of non-Euclidean geometry) must be used. In essence, spacetime does not adhere to the "common sense" rules of Euclidean geometry, but instead objects that were initially traveling in parallel paths through spacetime (meaning that their velocities do not differ to first order in their separation) come to travel in a non-parallel fashion. This effect is called [[geodesic deviation]], and it is used in general relativity as an alternative to gravity. For example, two people on the Earth heading due north from different positions on the [[equator]] are initially traveling on parallel paths, yet at the [[north pole]] those paths will cross. Similarly, two balls initially at rest with respect to and above the surface of the Earth (which are parallel paths by virtue of being at rest with respect to each other) come to have a converging component of relative velocity as both accelerate towards the center of the Earth due to
their subsequent freefall. (Another way of looking at this is how a single ball moving in a purely timelike fashion parallel to the center of the Earth comes through geodesic motion to be moving towards the center of the Earth.)
The requirements of the mathematics of general relativity are further modified by the other principles. Local Lorentz Invariance requires that the manifolds described in GR be 4-dimensional and Lorentzian instead of [[Riemannian manifold|Riemannian]]. In addition, the principle of [[general covariance]] forces that math to be expressed using [[tensor calculus]]. Tensor calculus permits a manifold as [[map]]ped with a [[coordinate system]] to be equipped with a [[metric tensor (general relativity)|metric tensor of spacetime]] which describes the incremental (spacetime) intervals between coordinates from which both the [[geodesic equation]]s of motion and the [[curvature tensor]] of the spacetime can be ascertained.
=== The Einstein field equations ===
{{main|Einstein field equations}}
The Einstein field equations (EFE) describe how stress-energy causes curvature of spacetime and are usually written in [[tensor]] form (using [[abstract index notation]]) as
:<math> G_{ab} = \kappa\, T_{ab} </math>
where <math> G_{ab} \ </math> is the [[Einstein tensor]], <math>T_{ab} \ </math> is the [[stress-energy tensor]] and <math>\kappa \ </math> is a constant. The tensors <math>G_{ab} \ </math> and <math> T_{ab} \ </math> are both rank 2 symmetric tensors, i.e. they can each be thought of as 4&times;4 matrices each of which contains 10 independent terms.
The solutions of the EFE are [[metric tensor (general relativity)|metrics of spacetime]]. These metrics describe the structure of spacetime given the stress-energy and coordinate mapping used to obtain that solution. Being non-linear differential equations, the EFE often defy attempts to obtain an [[exact solutions in general relativity|exact solution]]; however, many such solutions are known.
The EFE reduce to [[Newton's law of gravity]] in the limiting cases of a [[weak-field approximation|weak gravitational field]] and [[slow-motion approximation|slow speed]] relative to the speed of light. In fact, the value of <math>\kappa \ </math> in the EFE is determined to be <math>\kappa = 8 \pi G / c^4 \ </math> by making these two approximations.
The EFE are the identifying feature of general relativity. Other theories built of the same premises include additional rules and/or constraints. The result almost invariably is a theory with different field equations (such as [[Brans-Dicke theory]], [[teleparallelism]], [[Rosen bimetric theory]], and [[Einstein-Cartan theory]]).
=== Coordinate vs. physical acceleration ===
One of the greatest sources of confusion about general relativity comes from the need to distinguish between coordinate and physical accelerations.
In [[classical mechanics]], space is preferentially mapped with a [[Cartesian coordinate system]]. Inertial motion then occurs as one moves through this space at a consistent coordinate rate with respect to time. Any change in this rate of progression must be due to a force, and therefore a physical and coordinate acceleration were in classical mechanics one and the same. It is important to note that in [[special relativity]] that same kind of Cartesian coordinate system was used, with time being added as a fourth dimension and defined for an observer using the [[Einstein synchronization procedure]]. As a result, physical and coordinate acceleration correspond in special relativity too, although their magnitudes may vary.
In general relativity, the elegance of a flat spacetime and the ability to use a preferred coordinate system are lost (due to stress-energy curving spacetime and the principle of [[general covariance]]). Consequently, coordinate and physical accelerations become sundered. For example: Try using a radial coordinate system in classical mechanics. In this system, an inertially moving object which passes by (instead of through) the origin point is found to first be moving mostly inwards, then to be moving tangentially with respect to the origin, and finally to be moving outwards, yet is moving in a straight line. This is an example of an inertially moving object undergoing a coordinate acceleration, and the way this coordinate acceleration changes as the object travels are given by the [[geodesic]] equations for the manifold and coordinate system in use.
Another more direct example is the case of someone standing on the Earth, where they are at rest with respect to the surface coordinates for the Earth (latitude, longitude, and elevation) but are undergoing a continuous physical acceleration because the mechanical resistance of the Earth's surface keeps them from free falling.
== Predictions of General Relativity ==
:''(For more detailed information about tests and predictions of general relativity, see [[Tests of general relativity]])''
=== Gravitational effects ===
==== Acceleration effects ====
These effects occur in any accelerated frame of reference, and are therefore independent of the curvature of spacetime. (Note however that spacetime curvature usually is the source the causative acceleration when these effects are being observed.)
* Gravitational [[redshift]]ing of [[light]]: The frequency of light will decrease (shifting visible light towards the red end of the spectrum) as it moves to higher gravitational potentials (out of a gravity well). Confirmed by the [[Pound-Rebka experiment]].
* Gravitational [[time dilation]]: Clocks will run slower at lower gravitational potentials (deeper within a gravity well). Confirmed by the [[Hafele-Keating experiment|Haefele-Keating experiment]] and [[GPS]].
* [[Shapiro effect]] (a.k.a. gravitational time delay): Signals will take longer than expected to move through a gravitational field. Confirmed through observations of signals from spacecraft and pulsars passing behind the Sun as seen from the Earth.
==== Bending of light ====
This bending also occurs in any accelerated frame of reference. However, the details of the bending and therefore the gravitational lensing effects are governed by spacetime curvature.
* The magnitude of this effect is twice the Newtonian prediction. It was confirmed by astronomical observations during [[eclipse]]s of the Sun and observations of pulsars passing behind the Sun.
* [[Gravitational lensing]]: One distant object in front of or close to being in front of another much more distant object can cha |
hrist's boyhood. It appears in two recensions. The more complete recension bears the title Θωμα Ισραηλιτου Φιλοσοφου ῥητα εις τα παιδικα Κυριυ, and treats of the period from the 7th to the 12th year (Tischendorf, ''Evangelia Apocrypha'', 1876, 140-157). The more fragmentary recension gives the history of the childhood from the 5th to the 8th year, and is entitled Συγγραμμα του ἁγιου αποστολου Θωμα περι της παιδικης αναστροφης του Κυριου (Tischendorf, op. cit. pp. 158-163). Two Latin translations have been published in this work by the same scholar--one on pp. 164-180, the other under the wrong title, ''Pseudo-Matthaei Evangelium'', on pp. 93-112. A Syriac version, with an English translation, was published by Wright in 1875. This gospel was originally still more Docetic than it now is, according to Lipsius. Its present form is due to an orthodox revision which discarded, so far as possible, all Gnostic traces. Lipsius (Smith's ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' ii. 703) assigns it to the latter half of the 2nd century, but Zahn (''Gesch. Kan.'' ii. 771), on good grounds, to the earlier half. The latter scholar shows that probably it was used by Justin (''Dial.'' 88). At all events it circulated among the Marcosians (Irenaeus, ''Haer.'' i. 20) and the Naasenes (Hippolytus, ''Refut.'' v. 7), and subsequently among the Manichaeans, and is frequently quoted from Origen downwards (''Hom. I. in Luc.''). If the stichometry of Nicephorus is right, the existing form of the book is merely fragmentary compared with its original compass. For literature see Hennecke, ''NTliche Apokryphen Handbuch'', 132 seq.
==== Gospel of the Twelve ====
This gospel, which Origen knew (''Hom. I. in Luc.''), is not to be identified with the ''Gospel according to the Hebrews'' (see above), with Lipsius and others, who have sought to reconstruct the original gospel from the surviving fragments of these two distinct works. The only surviving fragments of the ''Gospel of the Twelve'' have been preserved by Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xxx. 13-16, 22: see Preuschen, op. cit. 9-11). It began with an account of the baptism. It was used by the Ebionites, and was written, according to Zahn (op. cit. ii. 742), about A.D. 170.
==== Other gospels mainly Gnostic and almost all lost ====
===== Gospel of Andrew =====
This is condemned in the Gelasian Decree, and is probably the gospel mentioned by Innocent (1 Ep. iii. 7) and Augustine (''Contra advers. Leg. et Proph.'' i. 20).
===== Gospel of Apelles =====
Mentioned by Jerome in his ''Prooem. ad Matt.''
===== Gospel of Barnabas =====
Condemned in the Gelasian Decree (see under [[Barnabas]] ''ad fin''.).
===== Gospel of Bartholomew =====
Mentioned by Jerome in his ''Prooem. ad Matt.'' and condemned in the Gelasian Decree.
===== Gospel of Basilides =====
Mentioned by Origen (''Tract. 26 in Matt.'' xxxiii. 34, and in his ''Prooem. in Luc.''); by Jerome in his ''Prooem. in Matt.'' (See Harnack i. 161; ii. 536-537; Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', i. 763-774.)
===== Gospel of Cerinthus =====
Mentioned by Epiphanius (''Haer.'' li. 7).
===== Gospel of the Ebionites =====
A fragmentary edition of the canonical Matthew according to Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xxx. 13), used by the Ebionites and called by them the Hebrew Gospel.
===== Gospel of Eve =====
A quotation from this gospel is given by Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xxvi. 2, 3). It is possible that this is the Gospel of Perfection which he touches upon in xxvi. 2. The quotation shows that this gospel was the expression of complete pantheism.
===== Gospel of James the Less =====
Condemned in the Gelasian Decree.
===== Wisdom of Jesus Christ =====
This third work contained in the Coptic MS. referred to under ''Gospel of Mary'' gives cosmological disclosures and is presumably of Valentinian origin.
===== Apocryph of John =====
This book, which is found in the Coptic MS. referred to under ''Gospel of Mary'' and contains cosmological disclosures of Christ, is said to have formed the source of Irenaeus' account of the Gnostics of Barbelus (i. 29-31). Thus this work would have been written before 170.
===== Gospel of Judas Iscariot =====
References to this gospel as in use among the Cainites are made by Irenaeus (i. 31. 1); Epiphanius (xxxviii. 1. 3).
===== Gospel, The Living (Evangelium Vivum) =====
This was a gospel of the Manichaeans. See Epiphanius, ''Haer''. lxvi. 2; Photius, ''Contra Manich''. i.
===== Gospel of Marcion =====
On this important gospel see Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', i. 585-718.
===== Descent of Mary (Τεννα Μαριας) =====
This book was an anti-Jewish legend representing Zacharias as having been put to death by the Jews because he had seen the God of the Jews in the form of an ass in the temple (Epiphanius, ''Haer''. xxvi. 12).
===== Questions of Mary (Great and Little) =====
Epiphanius (''Haer''. xxvi. 8) gives some excerpts from this work.
===== Gospel of Mary =====
This gospel is found in a Coptic MS. of the 5th century. According to Schmidt's short account, ''Sitzungsberichte d. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. zu. Berlin'' (1896), pp. 839 sqq., this gospel gives disclosures on the nature of matter (ὑλη) and the progress of the Gnostic soul through the seven planets.
===== Gospel of Matthias =====
Though this gospel is attested by Origen (''Horm. in Luc.'' i.), Eusebius, ''H.E.'' iii. 25. 6, and the List of Sixty Books, not a shred of it has been preserved, unless with Zahn ii. 751 sqq. we are to identify it with the ''Traditions of Matthias'', from which Clement has drawn some quotations.
===== Gospel of Perfection (Evangelium perfectionis) =====
Used by the followers of Basilides and other Gnostics. See Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' xxvi. 2.
===== Gospel of Philip =====
This gospel described the progress of a soul through the next world. It is of a strongly Encratite character and dates from the 2nd century. A fragment is preserved in Epiphanius, ''Haer''. xxvi. 13. In Preuschen, ''Reste'', p. 13, the quotation breaks off too soon. See Zahn ii. 761-768.
===== Gospel of Thaddaeus =====
Condemned by the Gelasian Decree.
===== Gospel of Thomas =====
Of this gospel only one fragment has been preserved in Hippolytus, ''Philos''. v. 7, pp. 140 seq. See Zahn, ''op. cit.'' i. 746 seq.; ii. 768-773; Harnack ii. 593-595.
===== Gospel of Truth =====
This gospel is mentioned by Irenaeus i. 11. 9, and was used by the Valentinians. See Zahn i. 748 sqq.
=== Acts and Teachings of the Apostles ===
==== Acts of Andrew ====
These Acts, which are of a strongly Encratite character, have come down to us in a fragmentary condition. They belong to the earliest ages, for they are mentioned by Eusebius, ''H.E.'' iii. 25; Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' xlvii. 1; lxi. 1; lxiii. 2; [[Philastrius]], ''Haer.'' lxviii., as current among the Manichaeans and heretics. They are attributed to [[Leucius]], a Docetic writer, by Augustine (''c. Felic. Manich.'' ii. 6) and [[Euodius]] (''De Fide c. Manich.'' 38). Euodius in the passage just referred to preserves two small fragments of the original Acts. On internal grounds the section recounting Andrew's imprisonment (Bonnet, ''Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha'', ii. 38-45) is also probably a constituent of the original work. As regards the martyrdom, owing to the confusion introduced by the multitudinous Catholic revisions of this section of the Acts, it is practically impossible to restore its original form. For a complete discussion of the various documents see Lipsius, ''Apokryphen Apostelgeschichte'', i. 543-622; also James in Hastings' ''Bible Dict.'' i. 92-93; Hennecke, ''NT. Apokryphen'', ''in loc.'' The best texts are given in Bonnet's ''Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha'', 1898, II. i. 1-127. These contain also the ''Acts of Andrew and Matthew'' (or Matthias) in which Matthew (or Matthias) is represented as a captive in the country of the anthropophagi. Christ takes Andrew and his disciples with Him, and effects the rescue of Matthew. The legend is found also in Ethiopic, Syriac and Anglo-Saxon. Also the ''Acts of Peter and Andrew'', which among other incidents recount the miracle of a camel passing through the eye of a needle. This work is preserved partly in Greek, but in its entirety in Slavonic.
==== Acts of John ====
Clement of Alexandria in his ''Hypotyposes'' on 1 John i. 1 seems to refer to chapters xciii. (or lxxxix.) of these Acts. Eusebius (''H.E.'' iii. 25. 6), Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xlvii. 1) and other ancient writers assign them to the authorship of Leucius Charinus. It is generally admitted that they were written in the 2nd century. The text has been edited most completely by Bonnet, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'', 1898, 151-216. The contents might be summarized with Hennecke as follows:--Arrival and first sojourn of the apostle in Ephesus (xviii.-lv.); return to Ephesus and second sojourn (history of Drusiana, lviii.-lxxxvi.); account of the crucifixion of Jesus and His apparent death (lxxxvii.-cv.); the death of John (cvi.-cxv.). There are manifest gaps in the narrative, a fact which we would infer from the extent assigned to it (i.e. 2500 stichoi) by Nicephorus. According to this authority one-third of the text is now lost. Many chapters are lost at the beginning; there is a gap in chapter xxxvii., also before lviii., not to mention others. The encratite tendency in these Acts is not so strongly developed as in those of Andrew and Thomas. James (''Anecdota'', ii. 1-25) has given strong grounds for regarding the Acts of John and Peter as derived from one and the same author, but there are like affinities existing between the Acts of Peter and those of Paul. For a discussion of this work see Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 856-865; Lipsius, ''Apok. Apostelgesch.'' i. 348-542; Hennecke, ''NT. Apokryphen'', 423-432. For bibliography, Hennecke, ''NT. Apok. Handbuch'', 492 sq.
==== Acts of Paul ====
The discovery of the Coptic translation of these Acts in 1897, and its publication by C. Schmidt (''Acta Pauli aus der Heidelberger koptischen Papyrush |
|1997
|[[1997 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Martin Johnson]] - England
|[[Ian McGeechan]] - Scotland
|Won
|2-1
|-
|2001
|[[2001 British Lions tour to Australia|Australia]]
|[[Martin Johnson]] - England
|[[Graham Henry]] - New Zealand
|Lost
|1-2
|-
|2005
|[[2005 British and Irish Lions tour to New Zealand|New Zealand]]
|[[Brian O'Driscoll]] - Ireland
|[[Clive Woodward|Sir Clive Woodward]] - England
|Lost
|0-3
|}
==Future of the Lions ==
In the past British and Irish rugby-union players have considered playing for the Lions a high [[honour]] in the game - for many higher even than playing for their national side. Those who play against the Lions have also regarded it as a huge occasion. However, some players, the media and some administrators have increasingly raised questions about the future of the Lions following the team's poor showing in their last two tours, getting outplayed, firstly on the [[2001 British and Irish Lions tour to Australia|2001 tour]] to Australia, and then on the [[2005 British and Irish Lions tour to New Zealand|2005 tour]] to New Zealand. Some see the Lions as an [[anachronism]] in the highly professional world of modern international rugby union. Others see the Lions as representing a great rugby union tradition and will fight hard to preserve the team's traditions (such as the awarding of official caps for Lions matches). Some rugby union supporters would like to see the Lions retained as a touring side but to have the status of the team made more analogous with other scratch rugby union sides like the [[Barbarian F.C. |Barbarians]] - playing for the joy of rugby union rather than having any pretensions to international status.
The number of players each union sends to the Lions often becomes a matter of great controversy. The 2005 squad came under fire from the Scottish media, because of the perceived under-representation of Scots on the side, who comprised three men out of an initial squad of forty four potential players. Similar controversies arose in Wales and Ireland. This has led to questions as to whether the team should have set proportions representing each of the four nations, or merely a selection of the four taken as a whole.
==External links==
'''Official'''
* [http://www.lionsrugby.com/ Lions website]
* [http://www.rugbystore.co.nz/british-lions.html Lions tour schedule]
'''News and resources'''
* [http://www.lions-tour.com/ Lions 2005 tour website]
* [http://www.britishlions.com/ Fan site]
* [http://www.sardisroad.freeserve.co.uk/lions_1974_3.htm The battle of Boet Erasmus] [[Sunday Times]] [[May 20]] [[2001]]
* [http://www.sportnetwork.net/boards/list/s245?f=764 Lions Den Message Board]
* [http://www.planet-rugby.com/Tournaments/British_Irish_Lions/index.shtml British and Irish Lions news from Planet Rugby]
[[Category:British and Irish Lions]]
[[Category:international rugby union teams]]
[[fr:Équipe des Lions britanniques et irlandais de rugby à XV]]
[[mi:Kapa Raiana]]
[[nl:British and Irish Lions]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bass guitar</title>
<id>3916</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:01:49Z</timestamp>
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<username>Elkman</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Jazz bass photo.jpg|thumb|Bass guitars typically have four strings instead of six as found on regular guitars. Pictured is a [[Fender]] [[Jazz Bass]].]]
A '''bass guitar''' (also called an '''electric bass''', '''electric bass guitar''', or simply a '''bass''') is an electric [[string instrument]] similar in appearance to the [[guitar]], but with a larger body, commonly four strings, a longer [[scale]] neck and tuned an octave lower in [[Pitch (music)|pitch]] than a guitar. There are also [[acoustic bass guitar]]s.
== Overview ==
The instrument is a variant of the [[electric guitar]], and is used to play the low notes in many types of music. Since the 1950s it has largely replaced the [[double bass]] in popular music, no doubt because the electric bass is easier to amplify, record, and transport than its predecessor. Nonetheless, the [[double bass]] is still used in some types of music such as jazz, [[bluegrass]], rockabilly, traditional blues and classical music of course. Electric basses may be fretted or fretless, although fretted basses are far more common in most popular music settings. Fretless basses, which produce a distinctive and expressive tone, are more common in jazz-fusion music.
The first electric basses had four strings (tuned E-A-D-G, from lowest to highest), a form that is still prevalent several decades later. However, in the 1980s and 1990s, as performers sought to expand the range of their instruments, electric basses with five, six, or even seven strings became widely available. Five-string basses typically have a low "B" string, and six-string basses usually have both a low "B" string and a high "C" string. Other variations on the four string bass are eight string (with four sets of two strings; one tuned to the root note and one an octave higher) and twelve string (with four sets of three strings; one tuned to the root and two tuned an octave above).
The electric bass, in contrast to the upright bass (or double bass), is played in a similar position to the guitar, held horizontally across the body. Notes are usually produced by plucking with the fingers or with a [[plectrum]] (pick). In the 1970s and 1980s, another style of playing called "slapping" became prominent in funk and some genres of pop music. In this style of playing, the performer slaps the low strings with the thumb and "pops" the high strings with the fingers, creating a percussive effect that is often considered to be imitative of the role played by a drummer.
The vibrations of the instrument's metal strings within the magnetic field of the permanent magnets in the pickups ([[Pickup (music)|pickup]]s), produce small variations in the magnetic flux threading the coils of the pickups. This in turn produces small electrical voltages in the coils. These low-level signals are then amplified and played through a speaker. A less common variant of pickup uses one or more [[piezoelectric]] elements usually in the bridge assembly directly to sense the mechanical vibrations of the strings.
Different equipment is used to amplify the electric bass, depending on the musical setting. For rehearsals, recording sessions, or small clubs, electric bass players will typically use a "combo" amplifier, so-named because it combines an amplifier and a speaker in a single cabinet. Combo amplifiers usually have a modestly-powered amplifer (50 to 200 watts) and a single speaker. For larger venues, electric bass players will often use a more powerful amplifier (300 to 1000 watts) and separate speaker cabinets in various combinations.
Various electronic components such as preamplifiers and signal processors, and the configuration of the amplifier and speaker, can be used to alter the basic sound of the instrument. In the 1990s and early 2000s, signal processors such as equalizers, distortion devices, and compressors or limiters became increasingly popular additions to many electric bass players' gear, because these processors give players additional tonal options.
The electric bass is the standard bass instrument in many [[musical genre]]s, including modern [[Country music|country]], post-1970s-style [[jazz]], many variants of [[rock and roll]], metal, punk, reggae, [[Soul_music|soul]], and [[funk]]. Even though the double bass is still the standard bass instrument in orchestral settings, some late-20th-century composers have used the electric bass in an orchestral setting.
== Etymology ==
There is much debate among musicians and fans of the instrument about what to call the instrument. While "bass guitar" (pronounced "base") is, generally speaking, a more common term among non-musicians, others prefer "electric bass guitar," "electric bass," or simply "bass." Many are happy to use the terms interchangeably but some express a strong preference for one or other of them.
[[Fender]]'s early dominance in the market for mass produced bass guitars led to the widespread use of the term "Fender bass" to describe the instrument. After the prominent bassist [[Carol Kaye]] published her popular bass instructional book in 1969, entitled ''How To Play The Electric Bass'', musicians's unions in the United States followed suit, changing the name from Fender Bass to "Electric Bass" in their directories. Additionally, with the plethora of alternative manufacturers producing similar instruments, the term "Fender bass" has largely fallen out of use.
Modern bass playing draws on both guitar and double bass for inspiration as well as an increasing [[vernacular]] of its own.
== History ==
The necessity for a louder individual bass instrument can be traced back to the 1920s jazz scene. Classical orchestras get a loud bass sound by using four to eight double bass players playing the same part simultaneously. However, in the 1920s when jazz groups began to use an individual double bass in small [[jazz]] combos to accompany [[banjo|banjos]], [[brass instrument|brass]] and [[woodwind]] sections, [[piano|pianos]], and [[drum|drums]], it was hard for double bass players' unamplified instruments to be heard (in the 1920s, portable amplifiers designed for low-frequency instruments were not yet widely commercially available). An additional factor that may have spurred a search for an alternative instrument may have been the fact that double basses are large and awkward to transport.
In the 1920s and early 1930s, several early prototypes |
l classification|insertion/deletion]] events, and various [[chromosome|chromosomal]] [[Chromosomal translocation|rearrangements]]. Typical human and chimp [[homolog]]s of [[protein]]s differ in only an average of two [[amino acid]]s. About 30 percent of all human proteins are identical in sequence to the corresponding chimp protein. Duplications of small parts of [[chromosome]]s have been the major source of differences between human and chimp genetic material, with about 2.7 percent of the genome now representing differences having been produced by gene duplications or deletions during approximately 6 million years since humans and chimps diverged from their common evolutionary ancestor. Results from the human and chimp genome analyses should help in understanding the genetic basis of some human diseases.
==See also==
* [[Jane Goodall]]
* [[List of apes]] - notable individual apes
* [[Washoe (chimpanzee)|Washoe]], [[Nim Chimpsky]]
==References==
# {{note|genome}} {{cite journal | url=http://www.genome.gov/Pages/Research/DIR/Chimp_Analysis.pdf | title=Initial sequence of the chimpanzee genome and comparison with the human genome | author=
Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year=2005 | volume=437 | pages=69-87 }} (September 1) {{Entrez Pubmed|16136131}}; {{cite journal | title=A genome-wide comparison of recent chimpanzee and human segmental duplications | author=Cheng Z, Ventura M et al. | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year=2005 | volume=437 |pages=88-93}} (September 1) {{Entrez Pubmed|16136132}}
# {{note|goodall}} Goodall, Jane. (1986) ''The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior''.
* [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]], ''De Generis Humani Varietate Nativa'', 1775.
==External links==
{{commons|Common Chimpanzee}}
{{Wikispecies|Pan troglodytes|Common Chimpanzee}}
*[http://www.janegoodall.org/chimp_central/default.asp Jane Goodall web site]
*[http://www.discoverchimpanzees.org DiscoverChimpanzees.org]
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/genome/guide/chimp/ Chimpanzee Genome resources]
* [http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/chimpanzee Primate Info Net ''Pan troglodytes'' Factsheets]
[[Category:Apes]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]
[[da:Chimpanse]]
[[de:Gemeiner Schimpanse]]
[[es:Pan troglodytes]]
[[eo:Ĉimpanzo]]
[[ko:침팬지]]
[[he:שימפנזה מצוי]]
[[lt:Paprastoji šimpanzė]]
[[li:Gewoene sjimpansee]]
[[nl:Chimpansee]]
[[ja:チンパンジー]]
[[sl:Šimpanz]]
[[fi:Simpanssi]]
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[[zh:黑猩猩]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:33:13Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease |
ICD10 = G60.0 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|356.1}} |
}}
[[Image:Charcot-marie-tooth---foot.jpg|thumb|250px|The foot of a person with Charcot-Marie-Tooth. The lack of muscle, high arch, and hammer toes are signs of the genetic disease.]]
'''Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease''', also known as Hereditary Motor and Sensory Neuropathy (HMSN) or Peroneal Muscular Atrophy, is a heterogeneous inherited disorder of [[nerve]]s ([[neuropathy]]) that is characterized by loss of muscle tissue and touch sensation, predominantly in the feet and legs but also in the hands and arms in the advanced stages of disease. Though presently incurable, this disease is one of the most common inherited neurological disorders, with 36 in 100,000 affected (Krajewski et al.,2000).
The disorder is caused by the absence of molecules that are essential for normal function of the nerves due to deficiencies in the structure of the genes coding these molecules. The absence of these chemical substances gives rise to dysfunction either in the [[axon]] or the [[myelin]] sheath of the nerve cell.
The different classes of this disorder have been divided into the primary demyelinating neuropathies (CMT1, CMT3, and CMT4) and the primary axonal neuropathies (CMT2). Recent studies, however, show that the the pathologies of these two classes are frequently intermingled, due to the dependence and close cellular interaction of Schwann cells and neurons. Schwann cells are responsible for myelin formation, enwrapping neural axons with their plama membranes in a process called “myelination” (Berger et al., 2002).
The molecular structure of the nerve depends upon the interactions between neurons, Schwann cells, and fibroblasts. Schwann cells and neurons, in particular, exchange signals that regulate survival and differentiation during development. These signals are important to CMT disease because a disturbed communication between Schwann cells and neurons, resulting from a genetic defect, is observed in this disorder (Berger et al., 2002).
It is clear that interaction with demyelinating Schwann cells causes the expression of abnormal axonal structure and function, but we still do not know how these abnormalities result in CMT. One possibility is that the weakness and sensory loss experienced by patients with CMT is a result of axonal degradation. Another possibility is that axonal dysfunction occurs, not degeneration, and that this dysfunction is induced by demyelinating Schwann cells (Krajewski et al., 2000).
Most patients experience demyelinating neuropathies, and this is characterized by a reduction in nerve conduction velocity (NCV), due to a partial or complete loss of the myosin sheet. Axonopathies, on the other hand, are characterized by a reduced compound muscle action potential (CMAP), while NCV is normal or only slightly reduced (Berger et al.,2002).
The disease is named for those who classically described it: [[Jean-Martin Charcot]] (1825-1893) and his pupil [[Pierre Marie]] (1853-1940) (''"Sur une forme particulière d'atrophie musculaire progressive, souvent familiale débutant par les pieds et les jambes et atteignant plus tard les mains"'', Revue médicale, Paris, 1886; 6: 97-138.), and [[Howard Henry Tooth]] (1856-1925) ("The peroneal type of progressive muscular atrophy", dissertation, London, 1886.)
==Symptoms==
Symptoms usually begin in late-childhood or early adulthood. Usually, the initial symptom is foot drop due to involvement of the peroneal nerve, which is responsible for raising the feet, early in the course of the disease. This can also cause hammer toe, where the toes are always curled. Wasting of muscle tissue of the lower parts of the legs may give rise to "stork leg" appearance. Weakness in the Hands and forearms are greatly affected in many people later in life as the disease progresses. Symptoms and progression of the disease can vary. Breathing can be affected in some ,so can hearing, vision, the neck and shoulder muscles; scoliosis is common; hip sockets can be malformed; gastrointestinal problems can be part of CMT, as can chewing, swallowing, speaking (as vocal cords atrophy); and a tremor can develop as muscles waste. Pregnancy has been known to exacerbate CMT as well as extreme emotional stress.
==Diagnosis==
The diagnosis is established by [[electromyography]] examination (which shows that the velocity of nerve impulse conduction is decreased and the time required to charge the nerve is increased) and nerve [[biopsy]]. [[Genetic marker]]s have been identified for some, but not all forms of the disease.
==Types of the disease==
===CMT Type 1 (CMT1)===
Type 1 affects approximately 80% of CMT patients and is the most common type of CMT. The subtypes share clinical symptoms. [[Autosomal dominant]]. Causes demyelination, which can be detected by measuring nerve conduction velocities.
*'''CMT type 1A''' - '''CMT1A''' ({{OMIM|118220}}) - The most common form of the disease, caused by mutations in the PMP22 gene ([[locus]] 17p11.2). 70-80% of Type 1 patients. Average [[Nerve conduction velocity|NCV]]: 15-20[[Metre per second|m/s]]
*'''CMT type 1B''' - '''CMT1B''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=118200 OMIM 118200]) - Caused by mutations in the MPZ gene (1q22) producing protein zero (P0). 5-10% of Type 1 patients. Average [[Nerve conduction velocity|NCV]]: <20[[Metre per second|m/s]]
*'''CMT type 1C''' - '''CMT1C''' - Sometimes called '''Dejerine-Sottas disease''' - Causes severe [[myelin|demyelination]], which can be detected by measuring nerve conduction velocities. [[Autosomal dominant]]. Usually shows up in infancy. LITAF Gene (16p13.1-p12.3) Average [[Nerve conduction velocity|NCV]]: 26-42[[Metre per second|m/s]]. Identical symptoms to CMT-1A.
*'''CMT type 1D''' - '''CMD1D''' - EGR2 Gene (10q21.1-q22.1) - Average [[NCV]]: 15-20[[m/s]]
===CMT Type 2 (CMT2)===
Type 2 affects approximately 20-40% of CMT patients. Type 2 CMT is [[Autosomal dominant]] neuropathy with its main affect on the axon. The average [[nerve conduction velocity]] is slightly below normal, but generally above 38[[Metre per second|m/s]]
*'''CMT type 2A''' - '''CMT2A''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=118210 OMIM 118210]) - The cause is likely located on chromosome 1 for the mitofusion 2 (MFN2) protein ([[locus]] 1p36). Some research has also linked this form of CMT to the protein kinesin 1B (KIF1B) (1p36.2). Does not show up on nerve condution velocity tests, because it is caused by [[axonopathy]].
*'''CMT type 2B''' - '''CMT2B''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=600882 OMIM 600882]) - RAB7 gene (3q21).
*'''CMT type 2C''' - '''CMT2C''' - (12q23-q24) - May cause vocal cord, diaphragm, and distal weaknesses.
*'''CMT type 2D''' - '''CMT2D''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=601472 OMIM 601472]) - GARS gene (7p15). Patients with mutations in the GARS gene tend to have more severe symptoms in the upper extremities (hands), |
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</page>
<page>
<title>CVBG</title>
<id>7778</id>
<revision>
<id>15905828</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carrier battle group]]
</text>
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<page>
<title>Costa Smeralda</title>
<id>7780</id>
<revision>
<id>38181563</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T19:32:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.109.61.92</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Costa Smeralda''' ("Emerald Coast") is a [[coast]]al area in northern [[Sardinia]], 55 km long and covering more than 30&nbsp;km&sup2;, with enchanting [[beach]]es and a system of villages built according to an extremely detailed [[urban planning|urban plan]]. The area is a luxurious exclusive [[tourism|tourist]] destination, with high affluence of European and Arabian VIPs from the entertainment, politics and industry.
The main towns and villages in the area are [[Arzachena]], [[Olbia]], [[Porto Cervo]], [[Liscia di Vacca]], [[Capriccioli]] and [[Romazzino]].
Annually in [[September]] the ''Sardinia Cup'' [[sailing]] [[regatta]] is held off the coast, usually featuring famous boats.
[[archaeology|Achaeological]] sites include Li Muri, Nuragici People's "Tomba dei Giganti" (Giants' Tomb).
The development of the area started in [[1961]], and was financed by a consortium of companies. The president of the consortium and representative figure was Prince [[Aga Khan IV|Karim Aga Khan]]. Famous [[architect]]s involved in the project included Busiri-Vici and Vietti.
==See also==
*[[tourist destinations of Sardinia]]
==External links==
*[http://www.porto-cervo-realestate.com/images/map-cs.jpg Map of Costa Smeralda]
*[http://www.travellingitaly.info/2005/12/03/sardinia-emerald-coast-itineraries/ Emerald coast itineraries]
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<page>
<title>Chianti</title>
<id>7781</id>
<revision>
<id>42094506</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:10:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Smokey Russell</username>
<id>1024919</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Italian wine}}
'''Chianti''' is [[Italy]]'s most famous red [[wine]]. It used to be easily identified by its squat [[bottle]] enclosed in a straw basket, called ''[[fiasco]]'' ("flask").
It is produced in [[Tuscany]], in strictly delimited areas among the provinces of [[Province of Florence|Florence]], [[Province of Siena|Siena]], [[Province of Arezzo|Arezzo]] and [[Province of Grosseto|Grosseto]]. It is based mainly on [[Sangiovese]] grapes but also includes other [[List of grape varieties|varieties]]. Chianti is a [[Denominazione di Origine Controllata|DOC]], but corresponds to a much larger area than the region originally known as Chianti. Wine from this smaller region is labeled Chianti Classico and is a [[DOCG]]. It typically has a picture of a black rooster (known in Italian as a ''gallo nero'') on the neck of the [[bottle]]. Chianti Classico that meets slightly more stringent requirements, primarily with respect to aging, may be labelled Chianti Classico Riserva.
Chianti is not the only traditional wine made in Tuscany, and there are also new wines, usually based on sangiovese and some popular french grape that are usually dubbed "[[Super Tuscan|Super Tuscans]]".
The word "Chianti" is used rather more loosely in the United States, to the chagrin of European wine-makers.
== Chianti Classico region ==
The region consists of five main communities
*Greve in Chianti
**Montefioralle
**Convertoie
**Montegonzi
**Canonica
**Castello di Uzzano
**Castello di Verrazano
*Radda in Chianti
**Volpaia
*Castellina in Chianti
*San Casciano Val di Pesa
**Mercatale Val di Pesa
**Faltignano
**Campoli
*Gaiole in Chianti
**Castello di Brolio
==Trivia==
The wine had a famous mention in a popular film ''[[Silence of the Lambs]]'' in the [[catchphrase]] "I ate his liver with some [[fava bean]]s and a nice Chianti."
== External links ==
*[http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chianti_(Gebiet) Pictures of the Chianti Classico region]
*[http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/italy-tuscany/chianti/ Photographs of Chianti and Tuscany]
[[Category:Wine regions of Italy]]
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<page>
<title>Coriolis effect</title>
<id>7783</id>
<revision>
<id>42105389</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:35:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>William M. Connolley</username>
<id>8072</id>
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<comment>done with cleanup?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">
[[Image:Low pressure system over Iceland.jpg|thumb|right|This [[low pressure system]] over Iceland spins counter-clockwise due to the Coriolis effect.]]
The '''Coriolis effect''' is an apparent deflection of a moving object in a [[rotating frame of reference]]. There are examples of this effect in everyday life, such as the direction of [[Cyclone#Structure|rotation of cyclones]]. Due to the effect, cyclones rotate counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. However, contrary to popular opinion, it has no noticeable effect on the rotation of water in sinks and [[toilets]] - see the [[#Draining_bathtubs/toilets|toilets/bathtubs section]] below.
The effect is named after [[Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis]], a French scientist, who described it in 1835, though the mathematics appeared in the tidal equations of [[Pierre-Simon Laplace|Laplace]] in 1778.
== Formula ==
The formula for the Coriolis acceleration is
: <math>\mathbf{a}=-2\boldsymbol\omega\times\mathbf{v}</math>
where (here and below) <math>\mathbf{v}</math> is the velocity of the particle in the rotating system, and '''<math>\boldsymbol\omega</math>''' is the angular velocity vector (which has magnitude equal to the rotation rate and points in the direction of the axis of rotation) of the rotating system. The equation may be multiplied by the mass of the relevant object to produce the Coriolis force. See [[Fictitious force]] for a derivation.
Note that this is [[cross product|vector multiplication]]. In non-vector terms: at a given rate of rotation of the observer, the magnitude of the Coriolis acceleration of the object will be proportional to the velocity of the object and also to the sine of the angle between the direction of movement of the object and the axis of rotation.
The ''Coriolis effect'' is the behavior added by the ''Coriolis acceleration''. The formula implies that the Coriolis acceleration is perpendicular both to the direction of the velocity of the moving mass and to the rotation axis. So in particular:
* if the velocity (as always, in the rotating system) is zero, the Coriolis acceleration is zero
* if the velocity is parallel to the rotation axis, the Coriolis acceleration is zero
* if the velocity is straight (perpendicularly) inward to the axis, the acceleration will follow the direction of rotation
* if the velocity is following the rotation, the acceleration will be (perpendicularly) outward from the axis
In the formula above, the vectors are 3-d. If we are considering the simpler case of motion restricted to the surface of a rotating turntable the equation simplifies somewhat to:
: <math>-2\omega \boldsymbol k\times (u,v)</math>
where '''k''' is a unit local vertical and <math>(u,v)</math> is the velocity 2-d vector in the plane of the turntable. <math>-2\omega \boldsymbol k\times (u,v)</math> is perpendicular to '''v''', and the equation may be re-written:
: <math>-2\omega (u,-v)</math>
When considering atmospheric dynamics, the Coriolis acceleration (strictly a 3-d vector in the first formula above) appears only in the horizontal equations, due to the neglect of products of small quantities and other approximations. The term that appears is then
: <math>- f \mathbf{k} \times (u,v)\,</math>
where '''k''' is a unit local vertical, <math>f = 2 \omega \sin(\mbox{latitude})</math> is called the ''Coriolis parameter'' and <math>(u,v)</math> are the horizontal components of the velocity.
===What the Coriolis force is not===
* The Coriolis force does not depend on the curvature of the Earth, simply its rotation. However, the strength of the Coriolis force varies with latitude, and that ''is'' due to the Earth being a sphere.
* Coriolis force is not the [[fictitious force|fictitious]] [[Centrifugal force]] given by <math>\omega\times(\omega\times\mathbf{r})</math>. However, the co-existence of Coriolis and centrifugal forces makes simple explanations of the effect of Coriolis in isolation difficult.
== Visualisation of the Coriolis effect ==
[[Image:DSCN8987 orangeparabola e.jpg|frame|right|A fluid assuming a parabolic shape as it is rotating]]
To demonstrate the Coriolis effect, a parabolic [[turntable]] can be used. On a flat turntable the centrifugal force, which always acts outwards from the rotation axis, would lead to objects being forced out off the edge. But if the surface of the turntable has the correct parabolic bowl shape, and is rotated at the correct rate, then the component of gravity tangential to the bowl surface will exactly balance the centrifugal force. This allow |
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== Massive growth ==
Case drove AOL as the online service for people unfamiliar with [[computer|computers]], in particular contrast to [[CompuServe]], which had long served the technical community. AOL was the first online service to require use of [[proprietary]] software, rather than a standard terminal program; as a result it was able to offer a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) instead of command lines, and was well ahead of the competition in emphasizing communication among members as a feature.
In particular was the Chat Room (borrowed from IRC), which allowed a large group of people with similar interests to convene and hold conversations in real time, including:
*Private rooms &mdash; created by any user. Hold up to 27 people.
*Conference rooms &mdash; created with permission of AOL. Hold up to 48 people and often moderated.
*Auditoriums &mdash; created with permission of AOL. Consisted of a stage and an unlimited number of rows. What happened on the stage was viewable by everybody in the auditorium but what happened within individual rows, of up to 27 people, was viewable only by the people within those rows.
There were also text games played in the chat rooms, known as [[AOL chatroom game]].
Under Case's guidance, AOL committed to including [[online games]] in its mix of products even when it was only a Commodore 64 service. It hosted the first [[Play-by-mail game|Play by email]] game from any service ''[[Quantum Space]]'' (1989-1991); the first graphical online community (''[[Habitat (video game)|Club Caribe]]'' from [[LucasArts]]); and the first graphical [[MMORPG]], ''[[Neverwinter Nights#History|Neverwinter Nights]]'' from [[Stormfront Studios]] (1991-1997) and the first chatroom-based text role-playing game Black Bayou, a horror role-playing game from Hecklers Online and [[ANTAGONIST, Inc.]]
AOL quickly surpassed [[GEnie]], and by the mid-[[1990s]], it passed [[Prodigy (ISP)|Prodigy]] (which for several years allowed AOL advertising) and [[CompuServe]].
Originally, AOL charged its users an hourly fee, but in 1996 this changed and a flat rate of $19.99 a month was charged. Within three years, AOL's userbase would grow to 10 million people. During this time, AOL connections would be flooded with users trying to get on, and many canceled their accounts due to constant busy signals. Also, games which used to be paid for with the hourly fee migrated in droves to the internet.
AOL was relatively late in providing access to the open Internet. Originally, only some Internet features were accessible through a proprietary interface but eventually it became possible to run other Internet software while logged in through AOL. They were the first online service to seamlessly integrate a web browser into content.
AOL introduced the concept of [[Buddy List]]s, leveraging their one-on-one [[instant messaging]] technology.
Since its merger with Time Warner, the value of AOL has dropped from its $200 billion high and it has seen a similar losses among its subscription rate. It has since attempted to reposition itself as a content provider similar to companies such as Yahoo! as opposed to an Internet service provider which delivered content only to subscribers in what was termed a "walled garden.". In 2005, AOL broadcast the [[Live 8]] concert live over the Internet, and thousands of users downloaded clips of the concert over the following months.
More recently, AOL has announced plans to offer subscribers classic television programs for free with commercials inserted. Programs available include [[Wonder Woman (television series)|Wonder Woman]] and [[Eight is Enough]].
One of AOL's recently added premium services is AOL Total Talk, a VoiP Internet service.
== CD-ROM distribution ==
{{seealso|AOL disk collecting}}
AOL has tirelessly pushed itself through regularly mailing sign-up [[diskette]]s and [[CD-ROM]]s to over 100 million households, helping forge dominant growth. This campaign has been made particuarly effective by the way of these CDs offer free trials. In the early years of AOL's practice of offering free trials with CDs, the trials were usually only a few hours. The trial time has gradually increased, and now the CDs tend to offer a month's free trial.
However this long campaign has produced a backlash, including a program called [[No More AOL CDs]] that seeks to gather one million unwanted AOL CDs and dump them at AOL headquarters. Other organizations have objected under both [[environmental]] and [[privacy]] grounds. Environmentalists say that AOL's CDs are largely unwanted and result in massive non-biodegradable plastic waste. However, AOL's mailings have never violated the law, and always interest some people. AOL has also always provided means for people to remove themselves from AOL mailing lists, though No More AOL CDs has documented claims that these removal attempts are sometimes ineffective. Others view [[AOL disk collecting|AOL disks]] as valuable [[collecting|collectible]] items due to the vast number of [[CD-ROM]] design variations.
== AOL users' reputation ==
People using AOL (often referred to as "AOLers") have a reputation online for being excessively [[Newbie|noobish]]&mdash;ignorant of [[netiquette]]. This is in part due to the fact that AOL is aimed towards users who are new to the Internet. To a segment of the online population, an e-mail address ending in ''aol.com'' is a sign of ignorance, to be avoided at all costs. Some web, game, and chat servers even go as far as to ban the AOL hostmask, preventing AOL users from logging on. Additionally, the EFNET [[IRC]] chat network banned all AOL users for a time. However, this reputation doesn't stop ''aol.com'' addresses from being widely used, even in serious business contexts; it is still commonplace in advertisements in non-computer-related publications to see lines like "See our website at '''www.whatever.com''', or e-mail us at '''whatever@aol.com,'''" to the puzzlement of those who believe an address in the company's own domain would be more logical and professional.
AOL further provoked disdain from other Internet users in 1994, when AOL began to provide access to the [[Usenet]] bulletin board system for its users. This led to a flood of relatively net-illiterate, commercial, young and immature users into what had previously been the almost exclusive domain of scientists, academics and technical personnel associated with universities and computer companies. The new AOL contingent immediately gained a reputation as pests in Usenet's numerous forums, making near-constant requests for pornography, bootlegged software and hacking information. (See: "[[Me too]].") In early [[2005]], AOL ceased providing newsgroup access, instead referring customers to the [[Google Groups]] site, stating "Google does a very good job of hosting newsgroups and the typical AOL user probably doesn't use newsgroups that often."[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/01/25/aol_cutsoff_newsgroups/]
AOL e-mail accounts used to be only accessed using a nonstandard proprietary protocol not supported by other vendors' e-mail programs, compelling users, in the past, to use AOL's own mail program and be subject to its quirks and limitations. [[Claris Em@iler]] was the only third-party email software ever licenced to directly access AOL email until the recent opening of AOL to [[IMAP]] email access. One consequence of the past practice is that when people receive e-mails from AOL users, the address, not the name of the user, is displayed, since the user's real name is not added in the manner that most other mail programs do it. In instances where the AOL user has chosen an alphanumeric alias, eg: "'''jwds75@aol.com'''" rather than "'''John Smith'''", the identity of the user is less clear to the recipient. Also in the past, users of the AOL client software were unable to click on hyperlinks in the text. Many experienced Internet users remain unaware that these inherent limitations of the AOL software are not due to any possible lack of computer skills by AOL users.
In a different vein, AOL users also have a reputation in some online communities for disruptive activities. AOL makes use of aggressive [[web cache|web caching]] [[proxy server]]s that effectively makes it impossible for a website, such as a [[wiki]], to block an abusive user without excluding large segments of the entire AOL community. Combined with the fact that their free service offers make it all too easy to join, many [[Internet troll]]s take advantage of this and choose AOL as a preferred means of hiding their true identity, in a manner that is almost as effective as using an [[anonymous proxy]]. This has only served to further harm the reputation of AOL users as a whole and is a large part of why some places implement a policy of banning all AOL users.
==Controversies==
===Community Leaders===
Prior to the middle of 2005, AOL used volunteers called [[America Online Community Leaders Program|Community Leaders]], or CLs, to monitor chatrooms, message boards, and libraries. Some community leaders were recruited for content design and maintenance using a proprietary language and interface called [[RAINMAN]], although most content maintenance was performed by partner and internal employees.
In 1999, Kelly Hallissey and Brian Williams, former Community Leaders and founders of an anti-AOL website filed a [[class action lawsuit]] against AOL citing violations of U.S. labor laws in its usage of CLs. The [[Department of Labor]] investigated but came to no conclusions, closing their investigation in 2001. In ligh |
01 |publisher=GameSpy |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|Nightmare}} {{cite web |author=Hegyi, Adam |title=Player profile for Thomas "Panter" Pilger |year=1992 |url=http://www.doom2.net/~compet-n/index.cgi?action=players&page=panter |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web |author=Leukart, Hank |title=The "Official" Doom FAQ |year=1994 |url=http://www.gamers.org/docs/FAQ/doomfaq/ |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web |author=Romero, John |title=1993: Doom |work=Planet Rome.ro |url=http://rome.ro/games_doom.htm |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
==Notes==
*{{fnb|a}} The variations ''Doom'' and ''DOOM'' have both been used in official contexts. The variation ''DooM'', stylized after the game's logo, is also occasionally encountered, but has fallen out of use almost completely in recent years.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikibooks}}
* Official websites
** [http://www.idsoftware.com/games/doom/ ''Doom'' at id Software's official website]
**[http://www.activision.com/en_US/brand/4689f00d-2019-4646-b3ee-f262531c33d6.html ''Doom'' at Activision's official website]
* Unofficial portal sites with ''Doom''-related news, forums, information resources, and downloads
** [http://www.doomworld.com/ Doomworld.com] - [[Doomworld]]
** [http://www.planetdoom.com/ PlanetDoom.com]
** [http://www.newdoom.com/ NewDoom.com]
* Information resources
**{{imdb title|id=0286598|title=Doom}}
**{{moby game|name=Doom|id=/doom}}
** [http://www.olddoom.com OldDoom.com] - general information, guides, and resources for Doom and Doom 2.
** [http://doom.wikicities.com/wiki/Entryway The Doom Wiki] at [[Wikicities]] - includes encyclopedic articles, trivia, strategy guides, and editing information
** [http://www.classicdoom.com/ ClassicDoom.com] - focuses on walkthroughs and comparisons of ''Doom'' versions
** [http://www.doomworld.com/pageofdoom The Page of Doom] - contains articles about the history of the ''Doom'' games
** [http://www.itplaysdoom.com/ It Plays Doom] - a database of the different gadgets ''Doom'' has been ported to
** [http://www.teamhellspawn.com/links.htm The Definitive Doom links] - a comprehensive list containing hundreds of Doom websites
** [http://gh.ffshrine.org/soundtracks/209 Doom Soundtrack]
* WADs and fan creations
** [http://www.doomworld.com/idgames Doomworld's web interface to the comprehensive idgames FTP archive]
** [http://www.doom2.net/~compet-n/index.cgi Compet-N] - [[Compet-N]] - the main [[Doom speedrunning|''Doom'' speedrunning]] site
** [http://doom.ocremix.org/ The Dark Side of Phobos] - unofficial album with rearranged ''Doom'' music
** [http://www.doomwadstation.com/ Doom Wad Station] - Thousands of maps ready for download!
{{DOOMgames}}
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<page>
<title>Denver, Colorado</title>
<id>8522</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:57:52Z</timestamp>
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<username>Editor19841</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Politics */ Corrected wording</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{USnom}}
{{redirect|Denver}}
{{Infobox City | official_name = Denver, Colorado
|nickname = The Mile-High City
|image_flag = Flag of Denver, Colorado.svg
|image_seal = DenverCOseal.gif
|image_map = Map_of_Colorado_highlighting_Denver_County.svg
|image_skyline = Denver-colorado-skyline.jpg
|map_caption = Location of Denver in Colorado
|subdivision_type = [[City-County]]
|subdivision_name = Denver (coextensive)
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[John Hickenlooper]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|(D)]]
|area_magnitude = 1 E9
|area_total = 154.9 mi&sup2; / 401.3
|area_land = 153.3 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]] / 397.2
|area_water = 1.6 mi&sup2; / 4.1
|population_as_of = 2005
|population_metro = 2,830,000
|population_total = 579,744
|population_density = 1399.8
|timezone = [[Mountain Standard Time Zone|MST]]
|utc_offset = -7
|timezone_DST = [[Mountain Daylight Time|MDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -6
|latd = 39
|latm = 45
|lats = 03
|latNS = N
|longd = 104
|longm = 54
|longs = 35
|longEW = W
|elevation = 1,609
|website = http://www.denvergov.org/
|footnotes =
}}
The '''City and County of Denver''' is the [[capital]] and largest city of the [[U.S. state]] of [[Colorado]]. It is located on the [[Great Plains|plains]] just east of the [[Rocky Mountains|Rocky Mountain]]s and forms the heart of the [[Denver-Aurora metropolitan area]]. The central downtown district is on the east side of the [[South Platte River]], near its confluence with [[Cherry Creek (Colorado)|Cherry Creek]], approximately fifteen miles from the foothills.
Denver is the [[county seat]] of, and shares the same borders with, Denver County &mdash; one of the few [[consolidated city-county|consolidated city-counties]]. According to [[2004]] census estimates [http://www.census.gov/popest/estimates.php], the city is the [[List of United States cities by population|25th-largest]] in the [[United States]], and 12th west of the [[Mississippi River]]. The ''Denver Regional Council of Governments'' estimates the [[2005]] population of the city is 579,744 [http://www.drcog.org/index.cfm?page=PeopleandHouseholds]. The population of the Denver-Aurora metropolitan area was about 2,830,000, making it the 22nd-largest [[United States metropolitan area|metropolitan area]] in the U.S. [http://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/phc-t29.html]
Denver is nicknamed "'''The Mile-High City'''" because its official elevation, measured on the fifteenth step of the [[Colorado State Capitol|state capitol building]]'s west side, is one [[statute mile]] (5,280 feet or 1,609 meters) above sea level. Also, a row of seats in the upper deck of [[Coors Field]], home of [[Major League Baseball]]'s [[Colorado Rockies]] ([[National League|NL]]), is marked in purple (one of the team's colors) to indicate that the row is one mile above sea level. The city's elevation, as surveyed at [[Denver International Airport]], is 5,431 ft (1,655 m).
Denver has also been known historically as the '''Queen City of the Plains''' because of its important role in the agricultural industry of the plains regions along the foothills of the [[Colorado Front Range|Front Range]]. Several [[United States Navy|US Navy]] ships have been named [[USS Denver|USS ''Denver'']] in honor of the city.
== History ==
Denver was founded in the [[Kansas Territory]] in [[1858]]. On [[November 22]] of that year, [[General William Larimer]], a land speculator from eastern [[Kansas]], placed [[cottonwood]] logs to stake a square-mile claim on the hill overlooking the confluence of the [[South Platte River]] and [[Cherry Creek (Colorado)|Cherry Creek]], across the creek from the existing mining settlement of [[Auraria, Kansas Territory|Auraria]].
[[Image:CapitolColorado.jpg|thumb|293px|left|Colorado State Capitol Building]]
The site was accessible to existing trails and had previously been the site of seasonal encampments of the [[Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]]. Larimer, along with associates in the Denver City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, with the intention of creating a major city that would cater to new emigrants. The name "Denver City" was chosen to honor Kansas territorial governor [[James W. Denver]], in order to ensure that the city would become the county seat of then Arapaho County, Kansas. Ironically, when Larimer named it after Denver, he was unaware that James Denver had already resigned as governor.
In the first few years, while the town grew, land parcels were often traded freely for grubstakes and in the course of gambling by miners in Auraria. The city was incorporated on [[November 7]], [[1861]], several months after the formation of the [[Colorado Territory]]. By [[1890]], Denver had grown to be the fifth-largest city west of the [[Mississippi River]], and surpassed [[Omaha]] in population by the turn of the 20th century. [http://www.demographia.com/db-uscity1850.htm]. The era of the 1890s played an important role in Denver's history, as this is when the city began to really take on a big city image. Denver was the county seat of [[Arapahoe County, Colorado]] until the creation of Denver County in [[1902]].
Denver was selected to host the [[1976 Winter Olympics]] to coincide with Colorado's centennial anniversary, but Colorado voters struck down ballot initiatives allocating public funds to pay for the high costs of the games, so they were moved to [[Innsbruck]], [[Austria]]. The movement against hosting the games was based largely on environmental issues and was led by then State Senator [[Richard Lamm]]. Lamm was subsequently elected as [[List of Colorado Governors|Colorado governor]] in [[1974]].
On [[April 20]], [[1999]], the [[Columbine High School massacre]] occurred at [[Columbine High School]], which is located immediately southwest of Denver in unincorporated [[Jefferson County, Colorado|Jefferson County]]; the school is in a [[ZIP code]] assigned to [[Littleton, Colorado|Littleton]] and is thus commonly associated with that |
on, to certain African practices and the faiths derived from those in the Caribbean, to Native American beliefs &mdash; hold that ancestral or household spirits offer daily protection and blessings. In monotheisms divine intervention may take very direct forms: miracles, visions, or intercessions by blessed figures.
Transcendent force or power may also operate through more subtle and indirect paths. Monotheistic faiths generally support some version of [[divine providence]], which acknowledges that the Divinity of the faith has a profound but unknowable plan always unfolding in the world. Unforeseeable, overwhelming, or seemingly unjust events are often thrown on 'the will of the Divine,' in deferences like the Muslim ''inshallah'' ('as Allah wills it') and Christian 'God works in mysterious ways.' Often such faiths hold out the possibility of [[divine retribution]] as well, where the Divinity will unexpectedly bring evil-doers to justice through the conventional workings of the world; from the subtle redressing of minor personal wrongs, to such large-scale havoc as the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah or the biblical Great Flood. Other faiths are even more subtle: the doctrine of ''[[karma]]'' shared by Buddhism and Hinduism is a divine law similar to divine retribution but without the connotation of punishment: our acts, good or bad, intentional or unintentional, reflect back on us as part of the natural working of the universe. Philosophical Taoism also proposes a transcendent operant principle &mdash; transliterated in English as ''tao'' or ''dao'', meaning 'the way' &mdash; which is neither an entity or a being per se, but reflects the natural ongoing process of the world. Modern western mysticism and new age philosophy often use the term 'the Divine' as a noun in this latter sense: a non-specific principle and/or being that gives rise to the world, and acts as the source or wellspring of life. In these latter cases the faiths do not promote deference, as happens in monotheisms; rather each suggests a path of action that will bring the practitioner into conformance with the divine law: ''ahimsa'' &mdash; 'no harm' &mdash; for Buddhist and Hindu faiths; ''de'' or ''te'' &mdash; 'virtuous action' &mdash; in daoism; and any of numerous practices of peace and love in new age thinking.
=== Divinity applied to mortals ===
In the third usage extensions of divinity and divine power are credited to living, mortal individuals. Political leaders are known to have claimed actual divinity in certain early societies &mdash; the ancient [[Egyptian Pharaohs]] being the premier case &mdash; taking a role as objects of worship and being credited with superhuman status and powers. More commonly, and more pertinent to recent history, leaders merely claim some form of divine mandate, suggesting that their rule is in accordance with the will of God. The doctrine of the divine right of kings was introduced as late as the 17th century, proposing that kings rule by divine decree; Japanese Emperors ruled by divine mandate until the inception of the [[Japanese constitution]] after [[WWII]]; to this day Catholics considered the [[Pope]] to be the literal voice of God on earth.
Less politically, most faiths have any number of people that are believed to have been touched by Divine forces: saints, prophets, heroes, oracles, martyrs, and enlightened beings, among others. Saint Francis of Assisi, in Catholicism, is said to have received instruction directly from God, and it is believed that God grants [[Indulgence|plenary indulgence]] to all who confess their sins and visit his chapel on the appropriate day. In Greek mythology, [[Achilles|Achilles']] mother bathed him in the river Styx to give him immortality, and [[Hercules]] &mdash; as the son of [[Zeus]] &mdash; inherited near-godlike powers. In religious [[Taoism]], [[Lao Tsu]] is venerated as a saint with his own powers. Various individuals in the Buddhist faith, beginning with Siddhartha, are considered to be enlightened, and in religious froms of Buddhism they are credited with divine powers. Mohammed and Christ, in their respective traditions, are each said to have performed divine miracles.
In general, mortals with divine qualities are carefully distinguished from the deity or deities in their religion's main [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]].<sup id="fn_3_back">[[#fn_3|(3)]]</sup> Even the Christian faith, which holds Christ to be identical to God, distinguishes between God the father and Christ the begotten son.<sup id="fn_4_back">[[#fn_4|(4)]]</sup>. There are, however, certain esoteric and mystical schools of thought, present in many faiths &mdash; Sufis in islam, Gnostics in Christianity, Advaitan Hindus, Zen Buddhists, as well as several non-specific perspectives developed in new age philosophy &mdash; which hold that all humans are in essence Divine, or unified with the Divine in a non-trivial way. Such divinity, in these faiths, would express itself naturally if it were not obscured by the social and physical worlds we live in; it needs to be brought to the fore through appropriate spiritual practices.<sup id="fn_5_back">[[#fn_5|(5)]]</sup>
==See also==
*[[List of deities]]
*[[God]]
==Notes==
*<cite id="fn_1">[[#fn_1_back|1:]] See, for example [http://www.stavacademy.co.uk/mimir/greatstag.htm "The Great Stag: A Sumerian Divinity"] by Bobula Ida (''Yearbook of Ancient and Medieval History'' 1953)
*<cite id="fn_2">[[#fn_2_back|2:]] note Augustine's argument that Divinity is not a quality of God, but that "God is [...] Divinity itself" (Nature and Grace, part I, question 3, article 3) [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/nature_grace.vi.iii.iii.html "Whether God is the Same as His Essence or Nature"]
*<cite id="fn_3">[[#fn_3_back|3:]] This is sometimes a controversial issue, however; see [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/shinto/features/emperor/index.shtml], for example, for a discussion of the status of the [[japan]]ese emperor.
*<cite id="fn_4">[[#fn_4_back|4:]] See, for example, [http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~emcd/index20.htm "The Divinity of Alpha's Jesus"] by Peterson &amp; McDonald (''Media Spotlight'' 25:4, 2002)
*<cite id="fn_5">[[#fn_5_back|5:]] See, for example, [http://www.allspirit.co.uk/awakeningsigns.html "Twelve Signs of Your Awakening Divinity"] by Geoffrey Hoppe and Tobias
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<title>Dynamical systems and chaos theory</title>
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<title>Depth of field</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DOF-ShallowDepthofField.jpg|thumb|250px|An example of very shallow depth of field in a [[Macro photography|macro photograph]].]]
In [[optics]], particularly [[film]] and [[photography]], the '''depth of field''' (DOF) is the distance in front of and behind the subject which appears to be in [[focus]]. For any given [[optical device|lens]] setting, there is only one distance at which a subject is precisely in focus, but focus falls off gradually on either side of that distance, so there is a region in which the blurring is tolerable. This region is greater behind the point of focus than it is in front, as the angle of the light rays change more rapidly; they approach being [[parallel (geometry)|parallel]] with increasing distance.
== Definition of "focus" ==
Several factors determine whether the objective error in focus becomes noticeable. Subject matter, movement, the distance of the subject from the camera, and the way in which the image is displayed all have an influence. However, the most important factor is the actual degree of error in relation to the area of film exposed.
Light from a point source at the correct distance will produce the image of a point on the film. A point farther away or nearer will produce the image of a disk whose border is known as "[[circle of confusion]]." The diameter of these circles increases with distance from the point of focus and so can be used as the measure of error or blurring of the image.
[[Image:Depth of field diagram.png|thumb|518px|The area within the depth of field appears sharp while the areas in front and behind the depth of field appear blurry.]]
For a [[35 mm film|35 mm]] motion picture, the image area on the camera negative is roughly 0.87 by 0.63&nbsp;in (22 by 16&nbsp;mm). The limit of tolerable error is usually set at 0.002 in (0.05&nbsp;mm) diameter. For [[16 mm film|16&nbsp;mm&nbsp;film]], where the image area is smaller, the tolerance is stricter, .001&nbsp;in (0.025&nbsp;mm). Standard depth of field tables are constructed on this basis, although generally 35&nbsp;mm productions set it at 0.001&nbsp;in (0.025&nbsp;mm). Note that the acceptable circle of confusion values for the |
mous People from Derry ==
[[Image:jhume.jpg|thumbnail|150px|right|John Hume]]
* [[Seamus Ball]] - Actor
* [[Amanda Burton]] - (Born in Ballougry, County Londonderry) Actress. Best known for her role as [[pathologist|forensic pathologist]] Doctor (later Professor) "Sam Ryan" in the [[BBC]] crime drama series [[Silent Witness]].
* [[Joyce Cary]] - Author. Two of his novels were made into films: [[The Horse's Mouth]] (1958) starring Sir. [[Alec Guinness]] and Mister Johnson (1990)
* [[Phil Coulter]] - Songwriter. Wrote [[The Town I Love So Well]] (See Above)
* [[Nadine Coyle]] - One of the five singers that complete the all-girl pop group [[Girls Aloud]].
* [[Peter Cunnah]] Born 1966. Lead singer with 1990's pop outfit D-ream.
* [[Dana (singer)|Dana]] - In 1970 represented Ireland in the Eurovision Song Contest, later became a politician.
* [[Seamus Deane]] - Writer
* [[Richard Doherty]] - Catholic Unionist/RUC reservist, writer, military historian
* [[Roma Downey]] - Actress. Best known for her role as Monica, the main character of the religious TV series [[Touched by an Angel]]
* [[John Duddy (boxer)|John Duddy]] - Boxer
* [[Mark Durkan]] - MP for Foyle (the Derry area)
* [[George Farquhar]] - Restoration dramatist.
* [[Bronagh Gallagher]] - Actress/singer. Films include [[Pulp Fiction]] and [[The Commitments]].
* [[Neil Hannon]] - Lead singer of [[The Divine Comedy (band)|The Divine Comedy]].
* [[Seamus Heaney]] - Poet, writer and lecturer. Awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1995, he is one of the most widely known and important poets working in English, or perhaps any language, today.
* [[John Hume]] - [[Nobel Peace Prize]]-winning former leader of the [[Social Democratic and Labour Party|SDLP]].
* [[John Lawrence]] - soldier and administrator in 19th century India and Viceroy of India
* [[Josef Locke]] - Tenor singer, popular in the 1940s and 1950s.
* [[Martin McGuinness]] - [[Sinn Féin]] MP for [[Mid Ulster (constituency)|Mid Ulster]], formerly a senior member of the [[Provisional IRA]].
* [[Charlie Nash]] - Boxer. Former European and British lightweight champion.
* [[Feargal Sharkey]] - Lead singer of [[The Undertones]] and current chairman of the Live Music Forum.
* [[Willie Doherty]] - Visual Artist. Twice nominated for the [[Turner Prize]].
* [[Martin O'Neill (footballer)|Martin O'Neill]] - Former manager of [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic Football Club]]; from Kilrea.
== Derry in song ==
{{Quote_box| width=100% |align=center |quote=
I was born in Londonderry <br/>I was born in Derry City too <br/>Oh what a special child <br/>To see such things and still to smile <br/>I know that there was something wrong <br/>But I kept my head down and carried on.
|source=[[The Divine Comedy (band)|The Divine Comedy]] ''"Sunrise"'' [http://www.lyricsdir.com/the-divine-comedy-sunrise-lyrics.html Full lyrics]
}}
{{Quote_box| width=100% |align=center |quote=
We'll fight and don't surrender <br/>But come when duty calls <br/>With heart and hand and sword and shield <br/>We'll guard old Derry's Walls
|source=traditional song associated with the [[Apprentice Boys of Derry]] [http://www.vincentpeters.nl/triskelle/lyrics/derryswalls.php?index=080.010.020.040 Full lyrics]
}}
{{Quote_box| width=100% |align=center |quote=
In 1803 we sailed out to sea, <br/>Out from the sweet town of Derry, <br/>For [[Australia]] bound if we didn't all drown, <br/>And the marks of our fetters we carried...
|source=[[Bobby Sands]] ''"Back Home In Derry"'' [http://celtic-lyrics.com/lyrics/34 Full lyrics]
}}
{{Quote_box| width=100% |align=center |quote=
It is old but it is beautiful, and its colours they are fine. <br/>It was worn at [[Siege of Derry|Derry]], [[Battle of Aughrim|Aughrim]], [[Battle of Newtownbutler|Enniskillen]] and the [[Battle of the Boyne|Boyne]]. <br/>My father wore it as a youth in bygone days of yore. <br/>And on the Twelfth I love to wear the sash my father wore
|source=Anon ''"[[The Sash]]"''
}}
{{Quote_box| width=100% |align=center |quote=
...In the early morning the shirt factory horn called women from Creggan, the Moor and the Bog. <br/>While the men on the dole played a mother's role, fed the children and then trained the dogs. <br/>And when times got tough there was just about enough. <br/>But they saw it through without complaining. <br/>For deep inside was a burning pride in the town I loved so well. <br/>There was music there in the Derry air, like a language that we all could understand...
|source=[[Phil Coulter]] ''"The Town I Loved So Well"'' [http://celtic-lyrics.com/lyrics/405 Full lyrics]
}}
{{Quote_box| width=100% |align=center |quote=
Well it was Sunday bloody Sunday<br/>When they shot the people there<br/>The cries of thirteen martyrs<br/>Filled the Free Derry air<br/>Is there any one amongst you<br/>Dare to blame it on the kids?<br/>Not a soldier boy was bleeding<br/>When they nailed the coffin lids!
|source=[[John Lennon]] and [[Yoko Ono]] ''"Sunday Bloody Sunday"'' [http://www.fantompowa.net/Flame/john_lennon_irish_roots.htm Full lyrics]
}}
== Townlands of Derry ==
[[Ballynagalliagh]]<br>
[[Shantallow]]
== See also ==
*[[List of towns in Northern Ireland]]
*[[List of villages in Northern Ireland]]
==Notes and references==
<references/>
== External links ==
[[Image:Craigavon_bridge_2005_jonathanmoran.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Craigavon Bridge]], one of the city's two bridges.]]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=55.161667,-7.253036&spn=0.465099,0.617088&t=k&hl=en Google satellite view of Derry, the Foyle and the Swilly]
* [http://www.derrycity.gov.uk/ Derry City Council]
* [http://www.derryvisitor.com/derry/index.asp Derry Visitor Information]
* [http://www.cityofderryairport.com/ City of Derry Airport]
* [http://www.derrycityfc.net/ Derry City FC]
* [http://derry.gaa.ie/ Derry G.A.A.]
* [http://www.cityofderryrfc.fsnet.co.uk/ City of Derry Rugby]
* [http://www.derrycity.gov.uk/londonderry-port.htm Londonderry Port]
* [http://www.loughswillyyc.com/ Lough Swilly Yacht Club]
* [http://www.apprenticeboys.co.uk/home.html Apprentice Boys of Derry.]
* [http://www.derryforums.com/ Derry Forums]
* [http://www.derryunderbelly.com/ Derry Community Forum]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/radiofoyle/ BBC Radio Foyle] (Local Radio Station)
* [http://www.businessinformationpoint.com/docs/SE%20Profile%20VOSS.pdf A Socio-Economic Profile of the Derry City Council Area] (pdf)
{{IrishCities}}
[[Category:Cities in Ireland]]
[[Category:Cities in Northern Ireland|Derry/Londonderry]]
[[Category:Derry]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of Northern Ireland]]
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<title>European influence in Afghanistan</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Afghanistan}}
==The Rise of Dost Mohammad==
It was not until [[1826]] that the energetic [[Dost Mahommed Khan|Dost Mohammad]] was able to exert sufficient control over his brothers to take over the throne in [[Kabul]], where he proclaimed himself amir.
Dost Mohammad achieved prominence among his brothers through clever use of the support of his mother's [[Qizilbash]] tribesmen and his own youthful apprenticeship under his brother, [[Fateh Khan]]. Among the many problems he faced was repelling [[Sikh]] encroachment on the [[Pashtun]] areas east of the [[Khyber Pass]]. After working assiduously to establish control and stability in his domains around Kabul, the amir next chose to confront the Sikhs.
In 1834 Dost Mohammad defeated an invasion by the former ruler, [[Shuja Shah]], but his absence from Kabul gave the Sikhs the opportunity to expand westward. [[Ranjit Singh|Ranjit Singh's]] forces occupied [[Peshawar]], moving from there into territory ruled directly by Kabul. In 1836 Dost Mohammad's forces, under the command of his son [[Mohammad Akbar Khan]], defeated the Sikhs at [[Jamrud]], a post fifteen kilometers west of Peshawar. The Afghan leader did not follow up this triumph by retaking Peshawar, however, but instead contacted [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]], the new [[British Empire|British]] governor general in [[India]], for help in dealing with the Sikhs. With this letter, Dost Mohammad formally set the stage for British intervention in [[Afghanistan]]. At the heart of [[the Great Game]] lay the willingness of Britain and Russia to subdue, subvert, or subjugate the small independent states that lay between them.
== The Great Game ==
[[Image:Great Game cartoon from 1878.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Political cartoon depicting the Afghan Amir Sher Ali with his "friends" Britain & Russia (1878)]]
''Main article :[[The Great Game]].''
The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] became the major power in the [[India]]n sub-continent after the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]] and had begun to show interest in [[Afghanistan]] as ear |
[[lv:Kolumbija]]
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<title>Citizen Kane</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Citizen Kane |
image = citiza_kane.jpg |
imdb_id = 0033467 |
writer = [[Orson Welles]],<br>[[Herman J. Mankiewicz]]|
starring = [[Orson Welles]],<br>[[Joseph Cotten]],<br>[[Ruth Warrick]],<br>[[Everett Sloane]],<br>[[George Coulouris]],<br>[[Ray Collins (actor)|Ray Collins]],<br>[[Agnes Moorehead]] |
director = [[Orson Welles]] |
producer = [[Orson Welles]] |
distributor = [[RKO Radio Pictures]] |
released = [[May 1]], [[1941]] |
runtime = 119 min. |
language = English |
music = |
awards = |
budget = $686,033 (est.)
}}
'''''Citizen Kane''''' was the first [[feature film]] directed by [[Orson Welles]], who had previously directed two short films. Endlessly discussed and dissected by critics and viewers alike, this innovative masterpiece is perhaps the most influential in the [[history of film|history of film]].
''Citizen Kane'' is rumored to be based on the lives of the newspaper magnate [[William Randolph Hearst]], the reclusive aerospace and movie mogul [[Howard Hughes]], and the Chicago utilities magnate [[Samuel Insull]]. Welles maintained that the film's main character, Charles Foster Kane, is a composite of several historical individuals. In ''[[F for Fake]]'', Welles claims Kane was originally intended to be based on Hughes (to be played by Joseph Cotten) but he changed it to Hearst. During production, ''Citizen Kane'' was referred to as ''[[RKO 281]]''. The film premiered on [[May 1]], [[1941]].
The movie has some parallels to the [[1933]] movie ''[[The Power and the Glory (movie)|The Power and the Glory]]''.
The only remaining living cast member is [[Sonny Bupp]] who played Kane's young son, Charles Foster Kane III. [[Robert Wise]], who died of [[heart failure]] on [[September 14]], [[2005]], was the last living crew member.
==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}
Produced in 1941, the film deals with the inability of [[Charles Foster Kane]] (played by Orson Welles) to truly [[love]]. Instead Kane has only "Love on my own terms." As a result, Kane eventually alienates every loved one around him and dies a lonely recluse in an opulent but crumbling estate.
Kane dies in the opening scene of the film at his estate Xanadu; this is followed by a [[newsreel]] pastiche documenting Kane's public life (this segment was produced by RKO's actual newsreel department).
A reporter, Jerry Thompson, and a group of associates watch the newsreel, and convinced that the newsreel was regarded as functional but not especially profound as it didn't tell the whole story, Thompson is determined to find the meaning behind Kane's last word, "[[MacGuffin|rosebud]]". The reporters interview the key figures who, for better or worse, played a part in Kane's life, which is told in a series of flashbacks.
We first see Kane's tainted childhood, followed by his entrance into the newspaper business and his establishment of "yellow journalism"; his rise to power; his first marriage to a [[President of the United States|President]]'s niece, his run for governor, and the "love nest" scandal that ended them both; his second marriage to a woman who he molded as an opera singer; and his ever-dominant attitude that led to destruction within his entire inner circle of friends and loved ones, including himself.
In the end, however, Thompson concludes that "rosebud" is a piece in a missing mythological puzzle, and that no one word can describe a man's life. The film's chilling conclusion reveals the meaning behind "rosebud"...it was the name of a sled from Kane's childhood, and represented a lost childhood innocence. The sled is thrown in the fire to be burned (having been dismissed as junk), and the story ends exactly as it began, with a shot of a "no trespassing" sign.
[[Image:Stamp-ctc-orson-welles.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Citizen Kane, directed by and starring [[Orson Welles]], is here commemorated on a [[postage stamp]]. In this famous scene Kane gives a political speech with a giant portrait of himself in the background.]]
==Overview==
What is revealed was described by [[Jorge Luis Borges]], in a 1941 review, as a "metaphysical detective story. [Its] subject (both psychological and allegorical) is the investigation of a man's inner self, through the works he has wrought, the words he has spoken, the many lives he has ruined... Overwhelmingly, endlessly, Orson Welles shows fragments of the life of the man, Charles Foster Kane, and invites us to combine them and reconstruct him. Forms of multiplicity and incongruity abound in the film: the first scenes record the treasures amassed by Kane; in one of the last, a poor woman, luxuriant and suffering, plays with an enormous jigsaw puzzle on the floor of a palace that is also a museum. At the end we realize that the fragments are not governed by a secret unity: the detested Charles Foster Kane is a simulacrum, a chaos of appearances."
The film combines revolutionary cinematography (by [[Gregg Toland]], with whom Welles shared a title card, which was an unprecedented gesture of Welles' appreciation for Toland's overall contribution to the film) with an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning screenplay (by Welles and Herman J. Mankiewicz&mdash;though most film history circles consider Mankiewicz's contribution to the screenplay to be far greater than that of Welles), and a lineup of first time film actors, associates of Mr. Welles' from his stint at the [[Mercury Theater]], such as [[Joseph Cotten]] and [[Agnes Moorehead]].
== Filmmaking innovations ==
[[Image:Citizenkane.jpg|thumb|200px|Orson Welles' Citizen Kane poster]]Film scholars and historians view ''Citizen Kane'' as Welles' attempt to create a new style of filmmaking by studying the various forms of movie making, and combining them all into one (much like [[D. W. Griffith]]'s ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' did in [[1915 in film|1915]]). Examination of the techniques used by Welles and his crew reveals elements of [[expressionism]] in the use of light and shadow, noting the influence of [[German film history|German]] and [[Cinema of Russia|Russian]] filmmakers. Welles's acting style can also be seen as an early example of [[method acting]], for example when Kane vents his anger at his political opponent, Jim Gettys, at the top of a flight of stairs Welles tripped and broke his ankle during the filming of the scene, but the cameras continued to roll and the shot made it into the final print of the film. But others view this instead as an example of Welles' workhorse ethic. Welles as a director disliked actors who subscribed to method acting, considering them unreliable and in particular he dismissed the practice of internalizing as being a hindrance rather than contributing to the production as a whole. He liked to work with actors who were maleable to his vision and always prepared to change a delivery at the drop of a hat without too much worry over motivation. Welles,as an actor, frequently practiced [[cold reading]] and spent more time memorizing lines (which never took him long) than doing any mental prep work. It is commonly agreed that the there are, however, instances in Citizen Kane where Welles became consumed with his role. In one famous scene in the movie, Kane destroys his second wife's bedroom with his bare hands after she has left him for good. According to biographers, after Welles destroyed the room and shooting finished he stumbled off the set with bloody hands muttering to himself, "I felt it. I felt it."
The most innovative technical aspect of "Kane" is the unprecedented use of [[deep focus]]. In nearly every scene in the film, the foreground, background and everything in between are all in sharp focus. This was done by legendary cinematographer Gregg Toland through his experimentation with lenses and lighting. Specifically, Toland often used telephoto lenses to shoot close-up scenes. Anytime the deep focus was impossible&mdash;for example in the scene when Kane finishes a bad review of Alexander's opera while at the same time firing the person who started the review&mdash;Toland used an optical printer to make the whole screen appear in focus (one piece of film is printed onto another piece of film).
Another unorthodox method used in the film was the way low-angle cameras were used to display a point of view facing upwards, thus allowing ''ceilings'' to be shown in the background of several scenes. Since movies were primarily filmed on [[sound stage]]s and not on location during the era of the [[Hollywood]] [[studio system]], it was impossible to film at an angle that showed ceil |
vated by the [[cholera toxin]], which is the cause of the fatal effects of infection with ''[[Vibrio cholerae]]''.
# ''G<sub>i</sub> family.'' The ''i'' stands for ''inhibition'' of the [[adenylate cyclase]]; another effector molecule for this protein family is ''[[phospholipase]] C''. Also, G<sub>t</sub> and G<sub>g</sub> proteins are summarized under this label due to sequence homologies. G<sub>t</sub> proteins, aka [[transducin]], is used in the light recognition pathway in retina cells. G<sub>g</sub> protein occurs in the taste recognition for ''bitter''. Most G<sub>i</sub> protein family members can be inhibited by the [[pertussis toxin]] of ''[[Bordetella pertussis]]''.
# ''G<sub>q</sub> family.'' These proteins usually have [[phospholipase]] C as effector protein.
# ''G<sub>12</sub> family.'' These G proteins can be activated by [[thromboxan receptor]]s and [[thrombin receptor]]s. Their effector proteins are unknown.
By combination of different &alpha;, &beta; and &gamma; subunits, a great variety (>1000) G proteins can be produced.
GDP is not needed for GTP.
===Activation cycle of heterotrimeric G proteins===
In the basic state, the G<sub>&alpha;</sub>-GDP-G<sub>&beta;&gamma;</sub> complex and the receptor that can activate it are separately associated with the membrane. On receptor activation, the receptor becomes highly [[electron affinity|affine]] for the G protein complex. On binding with the complex, GDP dissociates from the complex; the ''free'' complex has a high affinity for GTP. Upon GTP binding, both G<sub>&alpha;</sub>-GTP and G<sub>&beta;&gamma;</sub> separate from both the receptor and from each other. Depending on the lifetime of the active state of the receptor, it can activate more G proteins this way.<br>
Both G<sub>&alpha;</sub>-GTP and G<sub>&beta;&gamma;</sub> can now activate separate effector molecules and activate them, thus sending the signal further down the signal reaction chain. Once the intrinsic GTPase activity of the &alpha; unit has hydrolyzed the GTP to GDP, the two parts can reassociate to the original, inactive state. The speed of the hydrolysis reaction works as an internal clock for the length of the signal.
==The Ras GTPase superfamily==
These are small monomeric proteins homologous to [[Ras]]. They are also called [[small GTPase]]s. Small GTPases have a molecular weight of about 21 kilo-Dalton and generaly serve as molecular swithes for a variety of cellular signaling events. According to their primary amino acid sequences and biochemical properties, the Ras superfamily is further divided into five subfamily: [[Ras]], [[Rho (protein)|Rho]], [[Rab (G-protein)|Rab]], [[Arf (protein)|Arf]] and [[Ran (protein)|Ran]].
==[[Translation (biology)|Translation]] factor family==
These GTPases play an important role in [[initiation]], [[elongation]] and [[termination]] of [[protein biosynthesis]].
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==[[Translocation]] factors==
See [[signal recognition particle]] (SRP).
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:''See also :'' [[biochemistry]] - [[G-protein coupled receptors]]
[[Category:Signal transduction]]
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<title>Galla Placidia</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:As Galla Placidia RIC 2113.jpg|thumb|300px|Galla Placidia on a coin struck by her son [[Valentinian III]]. On the reverse, a cross (typical of all the coinage referring to Galla Placidia) stands for her Christian faith.]]
'''Aelia Galla Placidia''' (c.[[390]] - [[November 27]], [[450]]) lived one of the most eventful lives of late antiquity. Daughter of the [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] [[Theodosius I]] and his second wife, [[Galla (empress)|Galla]], herself daughter of the Emperor [[Valentinian I]], Galla Placidia was half sister of emperors [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]] and [[Arcadius]].
She had spent much time in the household of [[Stilicho]] the Vandal and his wife [[Serena (Roman)|Serena]]. Stilicho was effectively the military steward of the West, and according to himself also of the East. He was executed by Honorius, however, in [[408]] apparently with Placidia's consent, or at least lack of objection, causing most of the non-Italians in Roman service to go over to [[Alaric]] - who promptly invaded Italy.
In either 409 or 410, during [[Alaric I|Alaric]]'s siege of [[Rome]], she became the captive of the [[Visigoths]], who kept her with them as they sacked Rome (for three days beginning [[August 24]], [[410]]), then wandered through Italy where Alaric died in the same year, and later [[Gaul]].
She married [[Athaulf]], brother of Alaric, and king of the Visigoths after Alaric's death, at [[Narbo]] in January [[414]], although the historian [[Jordanes]] states that they married earlier, in [[411]] at Forum Livii ([[Forlì]]). Jordanes's date may actually be when she and the Gothic king first became more than captor and captive. She had a son, Theodosius, by the Visigothic king, but he died in infancy, was buried in [[Barcelona]]. Years later the corpse was exhumed and reburied in the imperial mausoleum in [[Saint Peter's Basilica]], Rome. Athaulf was mortally wounded by a servant of a Gothic chieftain he had slain, and before dying in the late summer of [[415]], instructed his brother to return Galla to the Romans. It was the Gothic King [[Wallia]] who traded her to the Romans in return for a treaty and supplies early in [[416]]. [[Image:Ravenna 1978 079.jpg|thumb|200px|Interior of the [[Mausoleum of Galla Placidia]] in [[Ravenna]].]]
Her brother Honorius forced her into marriage to the Roman [[Constantius III|Constantius]] in January of [[417]]. They had a son who became [[Valentinian III]], and a rather more strong-willed daughter, [[Justa Grata Honoria]]. Constantius became emperor in [[421]], but died shortly afterwards. Galla herself, the former Augusta, was however forced from the Western empire. Whatever the politics or motivations, the public issue was increasingly scandalous public sexual caresses from her own brother Honorius. She left with her young children to find refuge at [[Constantinople]]. After Honorius died in [[423]], and after the suppression of [[Joannes]] despite his ally [[Flavius_Aëtius|Aëtius]]' attempt to raise troops to his aid, her son Valentinian was elevated as Emperor in Rome in [[425]].
At first she attempted to rule in her son's name, but as the generals loyal to her one by one either died or defected to Aëtius, imperial policy came to rest in his hands by the time he was made patrician. Placidia apparently was the one who made peace with Aetius - he later was pivotal to the defense of the Western Empire against [[Attila the Hun]] - who was diverted from his focus on Constantinople towards Italy as his target due to a foolish letter from Placidia's own daughter, [[Justa Grata Honoria]], in spring [[450]], asking him to rescue her from an unwanted marriage to a senator that the Imperial family, including Placidia, was trying to force on her. Placidia's last notable public act was to convince her son [[Valentinian III]] to exile not kill her for this. She died shortly afterwards at Rome in November 450, and did not live to see Attilla ravage Italy in [[451]]-[[453]] in a much more brutal campaign than the Goths had waged, using Justa's letter as their sole "legitimate" excuse.
Throughout her life Galla remained a devout [[Catholic]], and in her later years endowed or enriched several churches in [[Ravenna]]. Her [[Mausoleum of Galla Placidia|Mausoleum]] in Ravenna was one of the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] inscribed in [[1996]].
==External references==
{{Commons|Galla Placidia}}
*[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter33.html Edward Gibbon, ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,'' chapter 33]
*A good, modern study of Placidia and the times she lived in can be found in Stewart Irwin Oost, ''Galla Placidia Augusta, A Biographical Essay'' (1967).
[[Category:390 births]]
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<title>Georg Friedrich Handel</title>
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<title>Galicia (Spain)</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Galicia}}
:''This article deals with the country of Galicia in Spain. For the region of the same name in central Europe, see [[Galicia (Central Europe)]].''
'''Galicia''' (also ''Galiza'') is an [[autonomous communities in Spain|autonomous community]], with the status of [[historic nationality]] in the northwest of [[Spain]].
==Galicia or Galiza==
Galiza and Galicia are two officially recognized spellings of the country's name in Galician. The Roman name |
ard for the monarchic title Emperor, rather referring to the luster.''
[[Image:Washington (3).jpg|thumb|200px|[[George Washington]], the first President of the United States, set the precedent for an executive head of state in republican governments.]]
Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not just ''in theory'' but ''in practice'' chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is sometimes known as a ''presidential system'' because the government is answerable solely and exclusively to a 'presiding' activist head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive answerability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the [[United States]]). In this case the debate centres on the suitability of the individual for office, not a judgment on them when appointed, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members ''en bloc'' so it is not ''answerability'' in the sense understood in a parliamentary system.
Some presidential systems may also include a ''prime minister'' but as with the other ministers they are responsible to the President, not the legislature. In many such instances the office is of minimal political importance, sometimes even held by some administrative technocrat rather than a politician. A prime minister in a presidential system lacks the constitutional and political dominance of a prime minister in a parliamentary system and is often seen as simply a politically junior figure who may run the mechanics of government while allowing the President to set the broad national agenda. One could say that, whereas in parliamentary systems a prime minister may be master of his or her party and the government, prime ministers in presidential systems are usually the servants, with the head of state the master of the government who can hire and fire anyone, including the prime minister, at will.
Presidential Systems of Governments are a notable feature of constitutions in the [[Americas]], notably the [[United States]]. Most presidents in the system are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election, etc), however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or [[coup d'état]], as seen in South American, Middle Eastern, and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system (ie. a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature) can also be found among [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]], [[constitutional monarchy|parliamentary monarchies]], and [[Communism|Communist]] regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship apply their stated Constitutional models in name only, and not in political theory or practise.
Modern presidential systems, most notably the United States, owe their origins to reactionism against the contemporary eighteenth century British constitutional model in existence at the time of the enactment of the [[Constitution of the United States]], in which the British monarch, while no longer an absolute ruler since the [[Magna Carta]], was still the dominant political force, and their government was not in a modern sense answerable to the legislature. This reaction consisted of shifting the centre of power away from the head of state/government and dispersing it amongst three branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial) based on the model for [[separation of powers]] described by [[French Enlightenment]] writers (and to a lesser practical degree, and more symbolically in terms of nomenclature, inspired by the ancient Roman Republic), with the legislature (Congress) being the most powerful branch of the three.
This separation entails decreased answerability of the executive to the legislature in terms of holding office, and greater dependence on popular opinion through non-parliamentary vote, with only a few extraordinary provisions for legislative impeachment. But it entails increased answerability in terms of legislation and governance, which is largely conducted or regulated without the executive's active participation, with provisions for executive veto that can also be overridden entirely, and is particularly enforced through legislative control of government budgets. Thus, modern presidential systems are a radical or "revolutionary" evolution from a head of state-centred executive system (a parliamentary-imperial system) to a legislature-oriented one (a parliamentary-presidential system), whereas many European states are the direct lineal successors of the ''Ancien régime'' governmental systems of eighteenth century Europe, and have experienced a more gradual shift in power from the executive to the legislature. It is worth noting, however, that many Parliamentary systems, such as Canada, retain an extremely powerful head of government.
In the 1870s in the United States in the aftermath of the [[impeachment]] of President [[Andrew Johnson]] and his near removal from office it was speculated that the United States too would move from a presidential system to a semi-presidential or even parliamentary one, with the [[Speaker (politics)|Speaker]] of the [[House of Representatives]] becoming the real centre of government as a quasi-prime minister. This did not happen and the presidency, having been damaged by two late nineteenth century assassinations (Lincoln and Garfield) and one impeachment (Johnson), reasserted its political dominance by the early twentieth century through such figures as [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and [[Woodrow Wilson]].
===Semi-presidential systems===
[[image:Charles de Gaulle.jpg|frame|right|President [[Charles de Gaulle]] was responsible for establishing the semi-presidential system in France.]]
Semi-presidential systems combine features of Presidential and Parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to ''both'' the President and the legislature. The Constitution of the current [[French Fifth Republic]] provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the President but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the Chamber of Deputies. Where in France a president is of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition is in control of the legislature, the president is often forced to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as ''[[Cohabitation (government)|Cohabitation]]''. President [[François Mitterrand]], a socialist, for example was forced to ''cohabit'' with the neo-gaullist (right wing) [[Jacques Chirac]], who became his prime minister for a time in the 1980s.
In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the President is often allowed to set the policy agenda in foreign affairs and the Prime Minister runs the domestic agenda.
Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. [[Weimar Germany]], for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant emergency powers that were only intended to be exercised in emergencies and a cabinet appointed by him from the [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] which was expected in normal circumstances to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially the President was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant.
However long-term political instability (where governments were collapsing every couple of months) led to a change in the power structure of the Republic, with the President's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German President, [[Paul von Hindenburg]], was able to dismiss a [[chancellor]] and select his own person for the job even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint [[Adolf Hitler]] as Reich chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.
===Parliamentary system===
In [[parliamentary system|parliamentary systems]] the head of state may be merely the ''nominal'' chief executive officer of the state, possessing theoretical executive power (hence the description of the [[United Kingdom]] [[monarch]]'s government as [[Her Majesty's Government]], a term indicating that the government is theoretically hers, not parliament's). In reality however, due to a process of constitutional evolution, powers are ''usually'' exercised by a [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]], presided over by a [[prime minister]] or ''President of the Government'' who is answerable to [[parliament]]. This answerability requires that someone be chosen from parliament who has parliament's support (or at least not parliament's opposition - a subtle but important difference). It also gives parliament the right to vote down the government, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. Governments are thus said to be ''responsible'' (ie, answerable) to parliament, with the government in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional [[Advice (constitutional)|Advice]] to the head of state.
In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway may exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and f |
el community.
Distinguishing characteristics of Eiffel include [[design by contract]] (DbC), liberal use of [[inheritance]] including multiple inheritance, a type system handling both value and reference semantics, and generic classes. Eiffel has a unified type system&mdash;all types in Eiffel are classes.
Eiffel has the ability to define new operators, but does not have [[operator overloading]] or [[method overloading]].
=== Elegance, simplicity, or restrictiveness? ===
The Eiffel language aims to promote clear and elegant programming. Eiffel emphasizes declarative statements over procedural code, and eliminates the need for bookkeeping instructions.
Eiffel intentionally limits stylistic expression, providing few means for clever coding tricks or coding techniques intended as [[Optimization (computer science)|optimization]] hints to the compiler. Some software developers feel constrained by Eiffel's simplicity and compiler-enforced structure; the language has been referred to as a "bondage and discipline" language.
In contrast, others feel that the simplicity of the language not only makes the code more readable, but also allows a programmer to concentrate on the important aspects of a program without getting bogged down in implementation details. Eiffel's simplicity is intended to promote simple, readable, usable, reusable, reliable and correct answers to computing problems.
===Lexical simplicity===
Eiffel is not case-sensitive. Keywords and identifiers can be written in any combination of upper and lower case. The tokens ''MaKe'', ''make'', and ''MAKE'' all refer to the same identifier. Coding standards, however, generally prescribe the use of all-capitals for class names, all-lower-case for variables and method names, and initial capitals for constants, with underscores separating words.
Eiffel's syntax can be parsed without requiring end-of-instruction markers. The use of semicolons as instruction terminators or as instruction separators is left to the discretion of the programmer. Putting a semicolon in or leaving one out makes no difference, except in the unusual case of an instruction starting with a left parenthesis. Most Eiffel programmers choose to omit semicolons except when putting multiple statements on a line.
Eiffel requires that sections and clauses appear in a specific order.
In contrast to most [[curly bracket programming language]]s, Eiffel does not let expressions be used as instructions, nor instructions be used as expressions. Thus, a routine which returns a value can only be used in expressions, while a routine which does not return a value can only be invoked as an instruction.
This philosophy&mdash;that expressions and statements are fundamentally different in nature&mdash;is expanded into the concept of [[Command-Query Separation]] (CQS). Under CQS, a query routine (a function which returns a value) must not change the state of the object, while a command routine will change the state of the object but will not return a value. CQS is strongly recommended for Eiffel programming, but is not actually enforced by the Eiffel system.
Unlike most programming languages, Eiffel is not normally displayed in a monospaced typeface. The recommended display style is to use a proportional typeface. Keywords are shown in bold, user-defined identifiers and constants are shown in italics. Standard upright (roman) style is used for comments, operators, and punctuation marks.
=== Syntactic simplicity ===
Eiffel has only six basic executable instructions:
* assignment
* object creation
* routine call
* conditional
* iteration
* choice (case)
Unlike many object-oriented languages, but similar to [[Smalltalk programming language|Smalltalk]], Eiffel does not permit storing into fields of other objects. The assignment instruction can only change the value of a field of the current object, or a [[Subprogram#Local_variables, recursion and re-entrancy|local variable]] of the current routine. All changes to other objects must be accomplished by calls to methods of that object. Direct access to fields of other objects is "read only" in Eiffel.
The iteration (loop) instruction in Eiffel does not provide a field or clause which will step the loop. The programmer must express the stepping as part of the loop. For example:<br />
'''from''' i := 0 '''until''' i >= 10 '''loop'''
my_array.put (0, i)
''i'' := ''i'' + ''1''
'''end'''
The example above also illustrates that Eiffel treats arrays simply as instances of the class ''ARRAY'', providing access in the form of routine calls, in line with object-oriented ideas. Eiffel compilers optimize this access.
Eiffel's procedural coding is strictly structured. There are no instructions for exiting a loop or routine early.
== Non-object-oriented operations ==
Eiffel is a purely object-oriented language. Any coding which must be "close to the machine" is expected to be done in [[C programming language|C]]. Eiffel provides a straightforward interface to C routines, including allowing for straight C calls within Eiffel code. Eiffel is generally closely connected to C: three of the four Eiffel [[compiler]]s output no [[object file|object]] or [[Machine language|machine]] code, but only C [[source code]] as an [[intermediate language]], to submit to a C compiler, for [[Optimization (computer_science)|optimizing]] and [[Porting|portability]].
== Background of Eiffel ==
Eiffel was originally developed by [[Bertrand Meyer]] and his company [[Interactive Software Engineering]] (ISE), since renamed Eiffel Software, Inc. Eiffel closely follows Dr. Meyer's work in ''Object Oriented Software Construction, Second Edition''. Eiffel differs from most popular languages in several ways.
The goal of the language, libraries, and programing methods is to create reliable, reusable software modules. It supports [[multiple inheritance]], [[genericity]], [[polymorphism (computer science)|polymorphism]], [[encapsulation]], and [[parameter covariance]]. Its most important contribution to [[software engineering]] is [[Design by contract]] (DbC), in which [[assert]]ions, [[precondition|preconditions]], [[postcondition|postconditions]], and [[class invariant|class invariants]] are used to assist in assuring program correctness without sacrificing efficiency.
Eiffel also offers multiple class inheritance. Many people (such as the designers of [[Java programming language|Java]]) have objections to multiple inheritance. The Eiffel implementation of multiple inheritance, in the opinion of its supporters, successfully meets these objections.
Eiffel's design is closely based on Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) theory, with less influence from other paradigms or support for legacy code. The language has formal support for [[abstract data type]]s. In accordance with Self Documentation, a software text should be able to reproduce its design documentation from the text itself. Eiffel accomplishes this by using a formalized implementation of the Abstract Data Type.
[[EiffelStudio]], an integrated development environment for Eiffel, offers an object-oriented interface for [[software engineering]]. However, many programmers dislike it because its user interface is very different from other integrated development environments. There are two alternative [[open source]] implementations, [[SmartEiffel]] - the GNU implementation, and [http://visual-eiffel.org Visual Eiffel], which provides a more "traditional" interface. So does [[EiffelEnvision]], a plugin for [[Microsoft Visual Studio]] which allows users to edit, compile, and debug Eiffel apps from within the Microsoft Visual Studio IDE. EiffelStudio and EiffelEnvision are only free for non-commercial use, though.
== Specifications and standards==
The most widely accepted standard for Eiffel is the second edition of <cite>Eiffel: The Language</cite>, Prentice Hall, second printing, 1992 (first printing: 1991), also known among the Eiffel community as ETL2
On the [[21 June]] [[2005]] the [[European Computer Manufacturers Association]] (ECMA) approved the first international standard for Eiffel [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-367.htm <cite>ECMA standard 367, Eiffel Analysis, Design and Implementation Language</cite>]. The standard introduces several modifications to the language which are unimplemented to the date.
This standard is not accepted by the [[SmartEiffel]] team, which has decided to create its own version of the language, because they think the ECMA standard throws away important principles of the original language. Other compiler vendors have not expressed if they will adopt the standard or not.
The standard cites the following as earlier Eiffel Language specifications:
* Bertrand Meyer: <cite>Eiffel: The Language</cite>, Prentice Hall, second printing, 1992 (first printing: 1991)
* Bertrand Meyer: <cite>Standard Eiffel</cite> (revision of preceding entry), ongoing, 1997-present, at [http://www.inf.ethz.ch/~meyer/ongoing/etl <cite>Betrand Meyer's ETL3 page</cite>], and
*Bertrand Meyer: <cite>Object-Oriented Software Construction</cite>, Prentice Hall: first edition, 1988; second edition, 1997.
The ETL3 page requires a password for access which can be found at [http://se.inf.ethz.ch/~meyer/ <cite>Bertrand Meyer's Home Page</cite>] under [http://se.inf.ethz.ch/~meyer/#Progress <cite>Work in progress</cite>]
== Differences between SmartEiffel and other implementations ==
* [[EiffelBase]], a part of the ISE Eiffel library which has been released under an ISE open-source license, does not compile properly on [[SmartEiffel]]. The Gobo library documentation explains that despite heroic efforts, EiffelBase was impossible to port to SmartEiffel.
== A "Hello World" program in Eiffel ==
'''class''' ''HELLO_WORLD'' |
rly proud of his [[education]]: he spent 12 years at school - before passing the sixth grade. After that, he decided to go to college. He managed to enroll late in the semester at a local secretarial school due to his financial backing, and earned his diploma by the end of the day because he didn't understand what was going on in class and was too disruptive.
The family called their [[swimming pool]] "the cement pond." They were fascinated by it, but never seemed to grasp its intended use. Another running joke was that they never discovered the source of the sound that took place a few times prior to someone showing up at the front door (the [[doorbell]]).
The Drysdales were also pretty foolish. Although Mrs. Drysdale's had obvious disdain for their neighbors, Mr. Drysdale was willing to do anything to keep them next door so as to not lose control of their millions in his bank. Episodes in [[1962 in television|1962]] and [[1966 in television|1966]] featured his ne'er-do-well stepson, Sonny (played by [[Louis Nye]]), a Mama's Boy whose "career" was going to [[college]]. Sonny was at one point a potential husband for Elly May. When he jilted her, there was nearly a feud. All the while, Mrs. Drysdale led outlandish campaigns to rid her city of the uncouth hillbillies.
Jed's [[Bloodhound]] Duke, played by the canine actor "Stretch" [http://www.tvacres.com/dogs_hounds_duke.htm], was also a constant thorn in Mrs. Drysdale's side. In addition to his baying and digging, he made her [[Poodle|French Poodle]] Claude a [[cuckold]], by fathering the puppies of his intended mate.
==One of a breed==
The show was never too serious. It was a [[farce]], pure and simple, with a lot of [[slapstick]] and word-play. After its run, one TV critic had called the premise of the show simply, "One joke, nine years." It was still fairly popular when it was canceled after 274 [[episode]]s, but the CBS [[television network|network]] wanted to change its image as a "rural" network. This shift was mainly prompted by pressure from [[Advertising|advertisers]] seeking a more sophisticated [[Urban culture|urban]] audience to [[marketing|market]] products to. Other rural themed comedy shows were also canceled, including ''[[Petticoat Junction]]'' ([[1963 in television|1963]]-[[1970 in television|1970]]) (starring [[Bea Benaderet]] and [[Edgar Buchanan]]), ''[[Green Acres]]'' ([[1965 in television|1965]]-[[1971 in television|1971]]) (starring [[Eddie Albert]] and [[Eva Gabor]]), [[Mayberry R.F.D.]] ([[1968 in television|1968]]-[[1971 in television|1971]]) (starring [[Ken Berry]] and [[Frances Bavier]]), and ''[[Hee Haw]]'' ([[1969 in television|1969]]-[[1971 in television|1971]]) (starring [[Buck Owens]] and [[Roy Clark]]), the latter then moving to "first-run" [[television syndication|syndication]], where it ran for another 21 years.
[[Rerun]]s of ''The Beverly Hillbillies'' are still televised daily around the world in syndication.
==The Hillbillies on video==
The first two seasons of the series are in the [[public domain]] (their copyrights having not been renewed by CBS, which bought the rights to the series shortly after its cancellation). As a result, these episodes have been unofficially released on home video and DVD on many low-budget labels, and shown on low-power television stations and low-budget networks in mostly murky 16mm prints. In many video prints of the public domain episodes, the original theme music is replaced by generic music due to copyright issues.
However, before his death, [[Paul Henning]] (whose estate now holds the original film elements to the "public domain" episodes) authorized [[MPI Home Video]] to officially release the best of the first two seasons on DVD, the first "ultimate collection" of which was released in the fall of 2005. These collections include the original, uncut versions of the season one episodes, complete with their original theme music and opening sponsor plugs. Vol. 1 included, among its bonus features, the alternate, unaired version of the pilot film, "The Hillbillies Of Beverly Hills" (this is the version of the episode that sold the series to CBS), and the "cast commercials" (cast members pitching the products of the show's sponsors) originally shown at the end of each episode.
For many years, [[20th Century Fox]] Home Entertainment (under license from CBS) officially released select episodes of "Hillbillies" on videocassette until Paramount (through its merger with CBS and Viacom) took over the video rights. Paramount (through CBS DVD) has announced plans to release the copyrighted episodes in box sets for late 2006.
==Frequently used [[malapropism|malapropisms]], colloquial terms and phrases==
*cee-ment pond (the swimming pool)
*critters (any animal ''par.''Elly May's assorted pets)
*A bil-yerd*(The stuffed rhino-head in the billiard room)
*fancy eatin' room (the billiard room)
*fancy eatin' table (the billiard table)
*pot passers (pool cues)
*fancy leather lunch boxes (briefcases)
*feelin' lower than a well digger's heel
*frisky as a flea on a fat dog
*green (naive, gullible, easily deceived)
*He was only greenin' ya! (He was only fooling you!)
*If brains were lard, his wouldn't grease too big a pan
*p-new-moe-nie (pneumonia)
*polecat (a skunk)
*pretty as a bag filled with stripped candy
*pretty as fresh-churned butter
*pretty as a mess o' fried catfish
*rootin' around like a hog in a new pen
*set a spell (sit for a while)
*spark/sparkin' (court/courting, date/dating)
*squawking like a two-pound chicken laying a three-pound egg
*vittles (victuals; food)
*We-e-e-ll doggies! (Jed's chracteristic expression of impressed astonishment)
*You're green enough to stick in the ground and grow
*You're totin' water with a leaky bucket
*deep fried in possum fat (a method of cooking)
*You're dropping your bucket down an empty well
*I'm gonna fetch my shotgun
*One of these days I've got to have a long talk with that boy
==Complete theme song==
::The Ballad of Jed Clampett
::performed by [[Jerry Scoggins]]
:"Come and listen to my story 'bout a man named Jed,
:a poor mountaineer, barely kept his fam'ly fed.
:Then one day he was shootin' at some food,
:and up from the ground come a bubblin' crude,
::oil that is, black gold, Texas tea.
:Well the first thing you know ol' Jed's a millionaire.
:The kinfolk said, Jed, move away from there.
:They said, Californy is the place you oughta be,
:so they loaded up the truck and they moved to Beverly,
::Hills that is, swimmin' pools, movie stars.
:Ol' Jed bought a mansion, lawdy it was swank,
:next-door neighbor was pres'dent of the bank.
:Lotsa folks objected, but the banker found no fault,
:'cause ol' Jed's millions was a-layin' in the vault,
::cash that is, capital gains, depletion money.
:Well now it's time to say goodbye to Jed and all his kin,
:they would like to thank you folks for kindly droppin' in.
:You're all invited back next week to this locality,
:to have a heapin' helpin' of their hospitality,
::hillbilly that is, set a spell, take your shoes off,
::y'all come back now, ya hear?"
==Trivia==
*The actual mansion where the exterior for the Clampett home was at 750 Bel Air Road, [[Bel Air, Los Angeles, California|Bel Air]].
*While the series remained comedic, during its run in the late [[1960]] and early [[1970s]] the show did intergrate various social issues such as [[feminism]], [[beatniks]], [[hippies]], the youth movement and even [[civil rights]]. The greedy Mr. Drysdale succussfully blocked efforts by his bank employees to form a labor union or to get health insurence.
==See also==
*'In [[1993]] a remake of the series was releasd. '[[The Beverly Hillbillies (1993 movie)|The Beverly Hillbillies]]'' (motion picture).
==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0055662|title=The Beverly Hillbillies}}
*[http://morethings.com/fan/beverly_hillbillies/index.htm The High Art of the Beverly Hillbillies] Analysis and extensive photo galleries
*[http://www.lyricsondemand.com/tvthemes/beverlyhillbillieslyrics.html Lyrics to "The Ballad of Jed Clampett"]
*[http://www.sitcomsonline.com/thebeverlyhillbillies.html Sitcoms Online]
*[http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/B/htmlB/beverlyhillb/beverlyhillb.htm Encyclopedia of Television]
*[http://www.fiftiesweb.com/tv/beverly-hillbillies.htm Classic TV Shows]
*[http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/beverly.htm Television Heaven]
*[http://www.mortysmall.com/beverly_hillbilies.shtml Morty's TV Showcase ''The Beverly Hillbillies'']
*[http://www.prewarbuick.com/id367.htm ''The Beverly Hillbillies'' and Buick?]
*[http://www.strike-the-root.com/columns/Allen/allen4.html Strike The Root - ''The Beverly Reali-billies'']
[[Category:1960s TV shows in the United States|Beverly Hillbillies, The]]
[[Category:1970s TV shows in the United States|Beverly Hillbillies, The]]
[[Category:CBS network shows|Beverly Hillbillies, The]]
[[Category:Sitcoms|Beverly Hillbillies, The]]
[[Category:Nielsen Ratings winners|Beverly Hillbillies, The]]</text>
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<title>Beryllium</title>
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<comment>/* Occurrence */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=4 | symbol=Be | name=beryllium | left=[[lithium]] | right=[[boron]] | above=- | below=[[magnesium|Mg]] | color1=#ffdead |
Puncak Jaya, also known as Mount Carstenz, which reaches 4,884 meters, is located in the Sudirman Mountains.
Nusa Tenggara consists of two strings of islands stretching eastward from Bali toward Irian Jaya. The inner arc of Nusa Tenggara is a continuation of the chain of mountains and volcanoes extending from Sumatra through Java, Bali, and Flores, and trailing off in the Banda Islands. The outer arc of Nusa Tenggara is a geological extension of the chain of islands west of Sumatra that includes Nias, Mentawai, and Enggano. This chain resurfaces in Nusa Tenggara in the ruggedly mountainous islands of Sumba and Timor.
The Maluku Islands (or Moluccas) are geologically among the most complex of the Indonesian islands. They are located in the northeast sector of the archipelago, bounded by the Philippines to the north, Irian Jaya to the east, and Nusa Tenggara to the south. The largest of these islands include Halmahera, Seram, and Buru, all of which rise steeply out of very deep seas. This abrupt relief pattern from sea to high mountains means that there are very few level coastal plains.
Geographers believe that the island of New Guinea, of which Irian Jaya is a part, may once have been part of the Australian continent. The breakup and tectonic action created both towering, snowcapped mountain peaks lining its central east-west spine and hot, humid alluvial plains along the coast of New Guinea. Irian Jaya's mountains range some 650 kilometers east to west, dividing the province between north and south.
==Climate==
[[Image:SundaIslands.A2003242.0225.500m.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia]]
The main variable of Indonesia's climate is not temperature or air pressure, but rainfall. The almost uniformly warm waters that make up 81 % of Indonesia's area ensure that temperatures on land remain fairly constant. Split by the equator, the archipelago is almost entirely tropical in climate, with the coastal plains averaging 28 °C, the inland and mountain areas averaging 26 °C, and the higher mountain regions, 23°C. The area's relative humidity ranges between 70 and 90 %. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in June through September and from the northwest in December through March. Typhoons and largescale storms pose little hazard to mariners in Indonesia waters; the major danger comes from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits.
The extreme variations in rainfall are linked with the monsoons. Generally speaking, there is a dry season (June to September), influenced by the Australian continental air masses, and a rainy season (December to March) that is the result of mainland Asia and Pacific Ocean air masses. Local wind patterns, however, can greatly modify these general wind patterns, especially in the islands of central Maluku--Seram, Ambon, and Buru. This oscillating seasonal pattern of wind and rain is related to Indonesia's geographical location as an archipelago between two large continents. In July and August, high pressure over the Australian desert moves winds from that continent toward the northwest. As the winds reach the equator, the earth's rotation causes them to veer off their original course in a northeasterly direction toward the Southeast Asian mainland. During January and February, a corresponding high pressure system over the Asian mainland causes the pattern to reverse. The resultant monsoon is augmented by humid breezes from the Indian Ocean, producing significant amounts of rain throughout many parts of the archipelago.
Prevailing wind patterns interact with local topographic conditions to produce significant variations in rainfall throughout the archipelago. In general, western and northern parts of Indonesia experience the most precipitation, since the north- and westward-moving monsoon clouds are heavy with moisture by the time they reach these more distant regions. Western Sumatra, Java, Bali, the interiors of Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya are the most predictably damp regions of Indonesia, with rainfall measuring more than 2,000 millimeters per year. In part, this moisture originates on strategically located high mountain peaks that trap damp air. The city of Bogor, near Jakarta, lays claim to having to world's highest number of rainstorms per year--322. On the other hand, the islands closest to Australia--including Nusa Tenggara and the eastern tip of Java--tend to be dry, with some areas experiencing less than 1,000 millimeters per year. To complicate the situation, some of the islands of the southern Malukus experience highly unpredictable rainfall patterns, depending on local wind currents.
Although air temperature changes little from season to season or from one region to the next, cooler temperatures prevail at higher elevations. In general, temperatures drop approximately 1° per 90 meters increase in elevation from sea level with some highaltitude interior mountain regions experiencing night frosts. The highest mountain ranges in Irian Jaya are permanently capped with snow.
Located on the equator, the archipelago experiences relatively little change in the length of daylight hours from one season to the next; the difference between the longest day and the shortest day of the year is only forty-eight minutes. The archipelago stretches across three time zones: Western Indonesian Time--seven hours in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)--includes Sumatra, Java, and eastern Kalimantan; Central Indonesian Time--eight hours head of GMT--includes western Kalimantan, Nusa Tenggara, and Sulawesi; and Eastern Indonesian Time--nine hours ahead of GMT-- includes the Malukus and Irian Jaya. The boundary between the western and central time zones--established in 1988--is a line running north between Java and Bali through the center of Kalimantan. The border between central and eastern time zones runs north from the eastern tip of Timor to the eastern tip of Sulawesi.
==Environmental concerns==
For centuries, the geographical resources of the Indonesian archipelago have been exploited in ways that fall into consistent social and historical patterns. One cultural pattern consists of the formerly Indianized, rice-growing peasants in the valleys and plains of Sumatra, Java, and Bali; another cultural complex is composed of the largely Islamic coastal commercial sector; a third, more marginal sector consists of the upland forest farming communities which exist by means of subsistence swidden agriculture. To some degree, these patterns can be linked to the geographical resources themselves, with abundant shoreline, generally calm seas, and steady winds favoring the use of sailing vessels, and fertile valleys and plains--at least in the Greater Sunda Islands--permitting irrigated rice farming. The heavily forested, mountainous interior hinders overland communication by road or river, but fosters slash-and-burn agriculture.
Each of these patterns of ecological and economic adaptation experienced tremendous pressures during the 1970s and 1980s, with rising population density, soil erosion, river-bed siltation, and water pollution from agricultural pesticides and off-shore oil drilling. In the coastal commercial sector, for instance, the livelihood of fishing people and those engaged in allied activities--roughly 5.6 million people--began to be imperiled in the late 1970s by declining fish stocks brought about by the contamination of coastal waters. Fishermen in northern Java experienced marked declines in certain kinds of fish catches and by the mid-1980s saw the virtual disappearance of the terburuk fish in some areas. Effluent from fertilizer plants in Gresik in northern Java polluted ponds and killed milkfish fry and young shrimp. The pollution of the Strait of Malacca between Malaysia and Sumatra from oil leakage from the Japanese supertanker Showa Maru in January 1975 was a major environmental disaster for the fragile Sumatran coastline. The danger of supertanker accidents also increased in the heavily trafficked strait.
The coastal commercial sector suffered from environmental pressures on the mainland, as well. Soil erosion from upland deforestation exacerbated the problem of siltation downstream and into the sea. Silt deposits covered and killed once-lively coral reefs, creating mangrove thickets and making harbor access increasingly difficult, if not impossible, without massive and expensive dredging operations.
Although overfishing by Japanese and American "floating factory" fishing boats was officially restricted in Indonesia in 1982, the scarcity of fish in many formerly productive waters remained a matter of some concern in the early 1990s. As Indonesian fishermen improved their technological capacity to catch fish, they also threatened the total supply.
A different, but related, set of environmental pressures arose in the 1970s and 1980s among the rice-growing peasants living in the plains and valleys. Rising population densities and the consequent demand for arable land gave rise to serious soil erosion, deforestation because of the need for firewood, and depletion of soil nutrients. Runoff from pesticides polluted water supplies in some areas and poisoned fish ponds. Although national and local governments appeared to be aware of the problem, the need to balance environmental protection with pressing demands of a hungry population and an electorate eager for economic growth did not diminish.
Major problems faced the mountainous interior regions of Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Sumatra. These problems included deforestation, soil erosion, massive forest fires, and even desertification resulting from intensive commercial logging--all these threatened to create environmental disaster. In 1983 some 30,000 km² of prime tropical forest worth at least US$10 billion were destroyed in a fire in Kalimantan Timur Province. The disastrous scale of this fire was ma |
in the contaminated area in the time shortly after the accident with '''20 cm of concrete sheilding'''. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html], the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual' and 'Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry']]
[[Image:Protectionfactorchernobyl20cm.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The protection factor provided by '''20 cm of concrete sheilding''' where the source is the idealised chernobyl fallout. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html], the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual' and 'Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry']]
=== 30 cm concrete shielding ===
[[Image:Isotopeshareofgammadosewith30cmconcreteatchernobyl.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The contributions made by the different isotopes to the dose (in air) caused in the contaminated area in the time shortly after the accident with '''30 cm of concrete sheilding'''. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html], the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual' and 'Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry']]
[[Image:Protectionfactorchernobyl30cm.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The protection factor provided by '''30 cm of concrete sheilding''' where the source is the idealised chernobyl fallout. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html], the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual' and 'Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry']]
It is important to note that as the shield becomes thicker the very high photon energy emitters such as <sup>140<sup>Ba/<sup>140<sup>La and <sup>95<sup>Zr/<sup>95<sup>Nb become more and more important.
=== Other matters and simple improvements ===
In the long term it is important to consider the protection which is offered by a person's home in the months and years after an event such as the [[Chernobyl accident]]. While the persons home may not be a purpose made shelter it can be thought of as a shelter if any action is taken to improve the degree of protection.
==== Measures to lower the beta dose ====
The main threat from beta emitters is from a ''hot particle'' which is in contact or close to the skin of the person. Also a swallowed or inhaled hot particle could cause beta burns.
*It is mandatory to improve conditions that extra fresh water and soap is kept uncontaminated to cleanse '''everyone''' throughly to remove fallout. Also have fresh clothes for them to wear, since the initial clothes themselves would be irridated. Dispose of the clothes away from the shelter, or in a part of the shelter away from yourself and others, preferably in sealed containers.
==== Measures to lower the gamma dose rate ====
It is likely that the gamma dose rate due to the contamination brought into the shelter on the clothing of a person is unlikely to be significant unless the shelter has very good sheilding on the walls and roof (or if the person was very badly contaminated).
* Roofs and gutters should be cleaned to lower the dose rate in the house.
* The top inch of soil in the area near the house should be either removed or dug up and mixed with the deeper layers of soil. This reduces the dose rate as the gamma photons have to pass through the soil before they can irradate a person.
* Nearby roads can be rinsed and washed down to remove dust and debries;the contaminated materials would collect in the sewers and gutters for easier disposal. In [[Kiev]] after the Chernobyl accident a program of road washing was used to control the spread of radioactivity.
* Windows can be bricked up, or the sill raised to reduce the hole in the shielding formed by the wall.
* Gaps in the shielding can be blocked using water cans, such as bottles of water. While water only has a density which is one tenth that of lead, it is still able to absorb gamma rays.
* Earth can be heaped up against the exposed walls of the building, this forces the gamma rays to pass through a thicker layer of shielding before entering the house.
* Nearby trees can be removed to reduce the dose due to fallout which is on the branchs and leaves. It has been suggested by the US govement that a fallout shelter should not be dug close to trees for this reason.
== Details of improvised fallout shelters ==
A basic fallout shelter consists of shields that reduce [[gamma rays|gamma ray]] exposure by a factor of 1000. Since the most dangerous fallout has the consistency of sand or finely ground pumice, a successful fallout shelter need not filter fine dust from air. The fine dust both emits relatively little radiation (because the intensity of the radiation increases as the cube of the particle size), and does not settle to the earth, where the fallout shelter is.
The required shielding can be accomplished with 10 times the amount of any quantity of material capable of cutting gamma ray effects in half. Shields that reduce gamma ray intensity by 50% (1/2) include 1 cm (0.4 inches) of lead, 6 cm (2.4 inches) of concrete, 9 cm (3.6 inches) of packed dirt or 150 m (500 ft) of air. When multiple thicknesses are built, the shielding multiplies. Thus, a practical fallout shield is ten halving-thicknesses of packed dirt. This reduces gamma rays by a factor of 1024, which is 2 multiplied by itself ten times. This multiplies out to 90 cm (3 ft) of dirt.
Usually, an expedient purpose-built fallout shelter is a trench, with a strong roof buried by ~1 m (3 ft) of dirt. The two ends of the trench have ramps or entrances at right angles to the trench, so that gamma rays cannot enter (they behave like invisible light).
To make the overburden waterproof (in case of rain), a plastic sheet should be buried a few inches below the surface and held down with rocks or bricks.
Earth is an excellent thermal insulator, and over several weeks of inhabitation, a shelter will be completely warmed by body heat. Without good ventilation, the inhabitants are likely to suffer heat prostration.
The simplest form of effective fan to cool a shelter is a wide, heavy frame with flaps that swings in the shelter's doorway and can be swung from hinges on the ceiling. The flaps open in one direction and close in the other, pumping air. Attach a rope, and take turns swinging it. (This is a Kearney Air Pump, or KAP, named after the inventor.)
Any exposure to fine dust is far less hazardous than exposure to the gamma from the fallout outside the shelter. Dust fine enough to pass the entrance will probably pass through the shelter.
Effective public shelters can be the middle floors of some tall buildings or parking structures, or below ground level in most buildings with more than 10 floors. The thickness of the upper floors must form an effective shield, and the windows of the sheltered area must not view fallout-covered ground that is closer than 1.5 km (1 mi).
Inhabitants should plan to remain sheltered for at least two weeks, then work outside for gradually increasing amounts of time, to four hours a day at three weeks. The normal work is to sweep or wash fallout into shallow trenches to decontaminate the area. They should sleep in a shelter for several months. Evacuation at three weeks is recommended by official authorities.
A battery-powered radio is very helpful to get reports of fallout patterns and clearance. In many countries (including the U.S.) civilian radio stations have emergency generators with enough fuel to operate for extended periods without commercial electricity.
It is possible to construct an electrometer-type radiation meter from plans with just a coffee can or pail, gypsum board, [[monofilament line|monofilament fishing line]], and aluminum foil. Plans are in the reference [http://www.nukepills.com/docs/nuclear_war_survival_skills.pdf "Nuclear War Survival Skills"] by Cresson Kearny.
If available, inhabitants should take [[potassium iodide]] at the rate of 130mg/day per adult (65mg/day per child) as an additional measure to protect the human thyroid gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive iodine, a component of most fallout and reactor waste. (for more info, including storage, and use of an inexpensive saturated solution, see [[potassium iodide]])
== History ==
[[Image:Fallout shelter photo.png|thumbnail|300px|right|Idealized American fallout shelter from around 1957.]]
Substantial numbers of fallout shelters were built in the [[1950s]] in both the Eastern and Western blocs, though not in the U.S., which held a general policy of [[mutual assured destruction]]. During the Cold War many countries built fallout shelters for high-ranking government officials and crucial military facilities. Plans were made, however, to use existing buildings with sturdy below-ground-level basements as makeshift fallout shelters, but the initial blast of a nuclear attack may have rendered these basements either buried under many tons of rubble and thus impossible to leave, or removed their upper framework, thus leaving the basements unprotected.
[[Switzerland]], however, built an extensive network of fallout shelters (mainly through extra hardening of government buildings such as schools) of a scale to protect and feed the entire population for two years after a nuclear attack. This nation has the highest ratio of shelter space to national population of any country. All these shelters are capable of withstanding nuclear fallout and biological or chemical (NBC) attacks but the blast-proof requirement varies depending on the size of the building. The largest buildings usually have dedicated shelters tunneled into solid rock.
The only other West-European nation to undertake a similar project has been [[Finland]] which requires all buildings with area over 600 m² to have a NBC shelter.
Interest in fallout shelters has largely dropped, as the perceived threat of global nuclear war reduced af |
carnegiei'' (Hatcher) was named for Andrew Carnegie after he sponsored the expedition that discovered its remains in the [[Morrison Formation]] ([[Jurassic]]) of [[Utah]]. Carnegie was so proud of “Dippi” that he had casts made of the bones and plaster replicas of the whole skeleton donated to several museums in Europe. The original fossil skeleton is assembled and stands in the Hall of Dinosaurs at the [[Carnegie Museum of Natural History]] in [[Pittsburgh, PA]].
==See also==
*[[American Anti-Imperialist League]], an organization to which Carnegie belonged
*[[Carnegie libraries image gallery]]
*[[Robber baron (industrialist)]]
*[[List of universities named after people]]
==References==
===Secondary sources===
* Josephson; Matthew. ''The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861- 1901'' (1938)
* Morris, Charles R. ''The Tycoons: How Andrew Carnegie, [[John D. Rockefeller]], [[Jay Gould]], and [[J. P. Morgan]] Invented the American Supereconomy '' 2005 ISBN: 0805075992
* Krass, Peter. ''Carnegie'' (2002)
* Livesay, Harold C. ''Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business'' 2nd Edition (1999)
* Wall, Joseph Frazier. ''Andrew Carnegie'' (1989)
* [http://www.eh.net/encyclopedia/article/Whaples.Carnegie Whaples, Robert. "Andrew Carnegie"] in EH encyclopedia
===Primary Sources===
* [http://www.wordowner.com/carnegie/preface.htm Carnegie, Andrew. ''Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie'' (1920)]
* [http://alpha.furman.edu/~benson/docs/carnegie.htm Carnegie, Andrew. "Wealth" (1888)]
* Wall, Joseph Frazier, ed. ''The Andrew Carnegie Reader'' (1992)
==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/ PBS: Carnegie]
*[http://www.americaslibrary.gov/cgi-bin/page.cgi/aa/carnegie LOC: Carnegie]
*[http://www.carnegie.org/ Carnegie Corporation of New York]
*[http://www.clpgh.org/exhibit/carnegie.html Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh: <em>Andrew Carnegie: A Tribute</em>]
*[http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching]
*[http://www.carnegiebirthplace.com/ Carnegie Birthplace Museum website]
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/g.blaikie/andrew.htm Andrew Carnegie - His Scottish Connections]
*[http://www.michaellorenzen.com/carnegie.html Deconstructing the Philanthropic Library]
*[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=carnegie%2C+andrew&amode=start&title=&tmode=words Online Books by Andrew Carnegie]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Andrew+Carnegie | name=Andrew Carnegie}}
*[http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/acs/1890s/carnegie/strike.html The Homestead Strike 1892 by Cheri Goldner]
*[http://www.importantscots.com/andrew-carnegie.htm Andrew Carnegie - Important Scots]
*{{1911}}
*{{appletons}}
[[Category:People from Pittsburgh|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:People from Pennsylvania|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category: 1835 births|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category: 1919 deaths|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:Andrew Carnegie| Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:Scottish business people|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:American entrepreneurs|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:Natives of Fife|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:American philanthropists|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:American railroad executives|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:History of Pennsylvania|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:Important people in rail transport|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:Natives of Fife|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:Presbyterians|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:Steel magnates|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[Category:Scottish philanthropists|Carnegie, Andrew]]
[[bg:Андрю Карнеги]]
[[de:Andrew Carnegie]]
[[fr:Andrew Carnegie]]
[[lt:Endriu Karnegis]]
[[ja:アンドリュー・カーネギー]]
[[no:Andrew Carnegie]]
[[pt:Andrew Carnegie]]
[[sv:Andrew Carnegie]]
[[zh:安德鲁·卡耐基]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Approximant consonant</title>
<id>1939</id>
<revision>
<id>40018119</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T15:03:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.253.251.251</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Manner_of_articulation}}
'''Approximants''' are speech sounds that could be regarded as intermediate between [[vowel]]s and typical [[consonant]]s. In the articulation of approximants, articulatory organs produce a narrowing of the vocal tract, but leave enough space for air to flow without much audible turbulence. Approximants are therefore more open than [[Fricative|fricatives]]. This class of sounds includes [[Lateral consonant|lateral]] approximants like {{IPA|[l]}}, as in ''lip'', and approximants like {{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} in ''yes'' and ''well'' which correspond closely to [[vowel]]s and [[semivowel]]s.
==Corresponding vowels==
[[palatal consonant|Palatal]] approximants correspond to [[front vowel]]s, [[velar consonant|velar]] approximants to [[back vowel]]s, and labialized approximants to [[rounded vowel]]s. They are typically briefer and closer than the corresponding vowels.
==Approximants vs. fricatives==
When emphasized, approximants may be slightly fricated (that is, the airstream may become slightly turbulent), which is reminiscent of fricatives. Examples are the ''y'' of English ''yes!'' (especially when lengthened) and the "weak" [[allophones]] of [[Spanish pronunciation|Spanish]] ''b, d, g'', which are often transcribed as fricatives (often due perhaps to a lack of dedicated approximant symbols). However, such frication is generally slight and intermittant, unlike the strong turbulence of fricative consonants.
This confusion is also common with voiceless approximants, which necessarily have a certain amount of fricative-like noise. For example, the voiceless labialized velar approximant {{IPA|[ʍ]}} has traditionally been called a fricative. [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] has a voiceless lateral approximant, {{IPA|[l̥]}}, and [[Welsh language|Welsh]] has a voiceless lateral fricative {{IPA|[ɬ]}}, but the distinction is not always clear from descriptions of these languages.
For places of articulation further back in the mouth, languages do not contrast voiced fricatives and approximants. Therefore the IPA allows the symbols for the voiced fricatives to double for the central approximants, with or without a lowering [[diacritic]].
Occasionally the glottal "fricatives" are called approximants, since [h] typically has no more frication than voiceless approximants, but they are often [[phonation]]s of the glottis without any accompanying manner or place of articulation.
==Central approximants==
*[[bilabial approximant]] {{IPA|[β̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|<β>}})
*[[labiodental approximant]] {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
*[[dental approximant]] {{IPA|[ð̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|<ð>}})
*[[alveolar approximant]] {{IPA|[ɹ]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[ɚ]}})
*[[retroflex approximant]] {{IPA|[ɻ]}}
*[[palatal approximant]] {{IPA|[j]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[i]}})
*[[velar approximant]] {{IPA|[ɰ]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[ɯ]}})
*[[uvular approximant]] {{IPA|[ʁ̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|<ʁ>}})
*[[pharyngeal approximant]] {{IPA|[ʕ̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|<ʕ>}})
*[[epiglottal approximant]] {{IPA|[ʢ̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|<ʢ>}})
==Lateral approximants==
*[[alveolar lateral approximant|voiced alveolar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[l]}}
*[[voiceless alveolar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[l̥]}}
*[[retroflex lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ɭ]}}
*[[palatal lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ʎ]}}
*[[velar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ʟ]}}
==Coarticulated approximants with dedicated IPA symbols==
*[[voiced labial-velar approximant|voiced labialized velar approximant]] {{IPA|[w]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[u]}})
*[[voiceless labial-velar fricative|voiceless labialized velar approximant]] {{IPA|[ʍ]}}
*[[labial-palatal approximant|labialized palatal approximant]] {{IPA|[ɥ]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[y]}})
*[[velarized alveolar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ɫ]}}
==A "central" approximant?==
Although many languages have [[central vowel]]s {{IPA|[ɨ, ʉ]}} which lie between back/velar {{IPA|[ɯ, u]}} and front/palatal {{IPA|[i, y]}}, there are no confirmed reports of corresponding approximants. However, [[Mapudungun_language|Mapudungun]] may be a possibility: It has three high vowel sounds, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}, {{IPA|/&#616;/}}, written "i", "u", "ü", and three corresponding consonants, written "y", "w", "q". The first two are clearly {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}. The "q" is often described as a voiced unrounded velar fricative, but some texts note a correspondence between "q" and {{IPA|/&#616;/ that is parallel to {{IPA|/j/}}-{{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}-{{IPA|/u/}}. An example is ''liq'' {{IPA|/'liɣ/}} "white" [http://www.logosdictionary.org/sound/mp/5119539_n.wav].
==See also==
* [[List of phonetics topics]]
* [[Semivowel]]
{{consonants}}
[[Category:Consonants]]
[[de:Approximant]]
[[fr:Consonne spirante]]
[[ko:접근음]]
[[he:עיצורים מקורבים]]
[[ja:接近音]]
[[ro:Consoană sonantă]]
[[sv:Approximant]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astronomer Royal</title>
<id>1940</id>
<revision>
<id>31767055</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-17T20:54:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stoive</username>
<id>262923</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:WS]] fixing wikisyntax</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Astronomer Royal''' is a senior post in the [[Royal Household]] of the [[Monarch | Sovereign]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. There are two officers, the senior being the Astronomer Royal dating from [[22 June]] [[1675]], and the second the [[Astronomer Royal for Scotland]], which dates from [[1834]].
[[Charles II of England|King Charles II]], who founded the [[Royal Observatory Greenwich]] in [[1675]] instructed the first Astronomer Royal [[John |
), [[Jack Lynch]], attended a memorial service for Lord Mountbatten of Burma in [[St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin|St. Patrick's Cathedral]] in [[Dublin]]. On [[23 November]] [[1979]], [[Thomas McMahon]] was sentenced to life in prison for the assassination and murders. McMahon was released in [[1998]] under the [[Good Friday Agreement]].
==Titles==
*''His Serene Highness'' Prince Louis of Battenberg
*Lord Louis Mountbatten
*''The Right Honourable'' The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma
*''The Right Honourable'' The Earl Mountbatten of Burma
==Honours==
*[[1937]]: [[Royal Victorian Order|Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order]] - GCVO ([[1920]]: MVO, [[1922]]: KCVO)
*[[1941]]: [[Distinguished Service Order]] - DSO
*[[1943]]: [[Order of St John|Knight of Justice of St John]] - KJStJ
*[[1946]]: [[Order of the Garter|Knight of the Garter]] - KG
*[[1947]]: [[Order of the Star of India|Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India]] - GCSI
*[[1947]]: [[Order of the Indian Empire|Knight Grand Commander of the Indian Empire]] - GCIE
*[[1955]]: [[Order of the Bath|Knight Grand Cross of the Bath]] - GCB ([[1943]]: CB, [[1945]]: KCB}
*[[1965]]: [[Order of Merit|Member of the Order of Merit]]- OM
==Notes==
{{note|Hansard}} House of Commons, Hansard: [[10 January]] [[1996]] Column 287. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199596/cmhansrd/vo950110/debtext/60110-43.htm
See also: David Leigh, "The Wilson Plot: The Intelligence Services and the Discrediting of a Prime Minister 1945-1976", London: Heinemann, 1988
==Further reading==
*[[Philip Ziegler]], ''Mountbatten: the official biography'' (Collins, 1985)
* [[Andrew Roberts]] ''Eminent Churchillians'', (Phoenix Press, 1994).
* [[Dominique Lapierre]] and [[Larry Collins (writer)|Larry Collins]] ''[[Freedom at Midnight]]'', (1975).
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[[Category:1900 births|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Assassinated politicians|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:British World War II people|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:British murder victims|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Governors-General of India|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:IRA murder victims|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Military of Singapore under British rule|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Royal Navy admirals|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Viceroys of India|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Star of India|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Indian Empire|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights of Justice of St John|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Mountbatten of Burma, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Pakistan movement|Mountbatten]]
[[da:Earl Mountbatten]]
[[de:Louis Mountbatten, 1. Earl Mountbatten of Burma]]
[[fr:Louis Mountbatten (1900-1979)]]
[[he:לואי מאונטבטן]]
[[nl:Louis Mountbatten]]
[[ja:ルイス・マウントバッテン]]
[[pl:Louis Mountbatten]]
[[sv:Lord Mountbatten]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elbridge Gerry</title>
<id>10293</id>
<revision>
<id>41968834</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:14:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/165.248.247.131|165.248.247.131]] ([[User talk:165.248.247.131|talk]]) to last version by TigerShark</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Elbridge-gerry-painting.jpg|frame|right|Elbridge Gerry]]
'''Elbridge Gerry''' ([[July 17]], [[1744]] &ndash; [[November 23]], [[1814]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[politician]], a member of the [[United States Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican Party]]. He was the fifth [[Vice President of the United States]], serving under [[James Madison]], from [[March 4]], [[1813]] until his death. He was the second Vice President to die in office; the first to have died in office was Gerry's immediate predecessor, [[George Clinton (politician)|George Clinton]], who served under [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]].
Gerry was one of the signers of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] and the [[Articles of Confederation]]. He later became governor of [[Massachusetts]]. He is most famous for being the namesake of the art of [[gerrymandering]] &mdash; a process by which electoral districts are drawn with the aim of aiding the party in power.
==Early life==
Born in [[Marblehead, Massachusetts]], the third of twelve children, he was a graduate of [[Harvard College]], where he studied to be a merchant, attending there from age fourteen. He worked in his father's shipping business and came to prominence over his opposition to commerce taxes. He was elected to the General Court of the province of Massachusetts in May [[1772]] on an anti-[[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] platform.
==Career==
Gerry was a Massachusetts delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] from February [[1776]] to [[1780]]. He also served from [[1783]] to September [[1785]] and was married in 1786. In [[1787]] he attended the [[United States Constitutional Convention]] and was one of the delegates voting against the new constitution (joining Mason and Randolph in not signing it). He was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House]] under the new national government, and served in Congress from [[1789]] to [[1793]].
In 1797-98 he served in the delegation to [[France]] over the [[XYZ Affair]]. In 1810 he was elected [[Governor of Massachusetts]]. He was re-elected in [[1811]] but defeated in 1812 over his support for the redistricting bill that created the word [[gerrymander]]. Despite this he was chosen as vice president to [[James Madison]]. He died in office in [[Washington, D.C.]] and is buried there in the [[Congressional Cemetery]].
Gerry's longtime house, the historic [[Elmwood (house)|Elmwood]] mansion in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] was birthplace to noted poet [[James Russell Lowell]] a few years after Gerry's death. His great grandson was a United States Senator; [[Peter G. Gerry]].
==Quotes==
*"The evils we experience flow from the excess of democracy. The people do not want virtue, but are dupes of pretended patriots" (1)
==References==
#''Government By The People, The Dynamics of American National, State, and Local Government'', James MacGregor Burns & Jack Walter Peltason, 6th edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1963. pg 50.
==Bibliography==
*James Austin; ''"<u>Life of Elbridge Gerry</u>";'' 1970; Da Capo Press (ISBN 0306718413).
*George Billias; ''"<u>Elbridge Gerry, Founding Father and Republican Statesman</u>";'' 1976, McGraw-Hill Publishers (ISBN 0070052697).
==External links==
* {{CongBio|G000139}}
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{{USRep succession box
| state=Massachusetts
| district=3
| district_ord=3rd
| before=(none)
| after= [[David Cobb (Massachusetts)|David Cobb]]
| years=1789-1793}}
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| title=[[Governor of Massachusetts]]
| before=[[Christopher Gore]]
| after=[[Caleb Strong]]
| years=[[June 10]], [[1810]]&ndash;[[June]], [[1812]]}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Democratic-Republican Party Vice Presidential candidate]]
| before=[[George Clinton (politician)|George Clinton]]
| after=[[Daniel D. Tompkins]]
| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1812|1812]] (won)}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Vice President of the United States]]
| before=[[George Clinton (politician)|George Clinton]]
| after=[[Daniel D. Tompkins]]
| years=[[March 4]], [[1813]] &ndash; [[November 23]], [[1814]]}}
{{end box}}
{{US Vice Presidents}}
{{MAGovernors}}
[[Category:1744 births|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:1814 deaths|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:Governors of Massachusett |
it of a Woman'' Oil on copper, 37 x 27 cm <br>Galleria degli [[Uffizi]], Florence]]
'''Alessandro di Cristofano di Lorenzo del Bronzino Allori''' ([[May 31]], [[1535]] - [[September 22]], [[1607]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] portrait [[painter]] of the late [[Mannerism|Mannerist]] [[Florence|Florentine]] school. He was brought up and trained in art by his uncle, [[Angelo Bronzino]], whose name he sometimes assumed in his pictures. Freedburg derides Allori as derivative, claiming he illustrates "the ideal of Maniera by which art (and style) are generated out of pre-existing art." The polish of figures has an unnatural marble-like form as if he aimed for cold statuary. Collaborators include [[Giovanni Maria Butteri]], main pupil: [[Giovanni Bizzelli]].
He is the father of [[Cristofano Allori]] ([[1577]]-[[1621]]).
*''Christ and the Samaritan Woman'', (Altarpiece, 1575, [[Santa Maria Novella]], now Prato)
*''Road to Calvary'', (1604, Rome)
*''Dead Christ and Angels'', (Museum Fine Arts, Budapest)[http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/a/allori/alessand/]
*''Pearl Fishing'', (1570-72, [[Studiolo of Francesco I (Palazzo Vecchio)]], Florence)[http://www.ocaiw.com/jmpopera.php?id=18012 image]
*''Sussana and the Elders'' , [http://69.20.65.141/art/customer/product.php?productid=23225&cat=1089&page=8&maincat=T]
*''Allegory of Human Life'', [http://www.wga.hu/art/a/allori/alessand/portra2.jpg]
*''The Miracle of St. Peter Walking on Water'',[http://www.wga.hu/art/a/allori/alessand/st_peter.jpg image]
*''Venus and Cupid'', [http://www.wga.hu/art/a/allori/alessand/venus_cu.jpg image]
==References==
{{commonscat}}
*{{1911}}
*''Painting in Italy 1500-1600'', S.J. Freedberg, (Penguin History of Art, 2nd Edition, 1983).
[[Category:1535 births|Allori, Alessandro]]
[[Category:1607 deaths|Allori, Alessandro]]
[[Category:Italian painters|Allori, Alessandro]]
[[Category:Mannerism painters|Allori, Alessandro]]
[[Category:Portrait artists|Allori, Alessandro]]
[[de:Alessandro Allori]]
[[es:Alessandro Allori]]
[[gl:Alessandro Allori]]
[[it:Alessandro Allori]]
[[nl:Alessandro Allori]]
[[pt:Alessandro Allori]]
[[ru:Аллори, Алесандро]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Almohades</title>
<id>1648</id>
<revision>
<id>15900114</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-01T01:02:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SWAdair</username>
<id>50984</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Almohad]] -- point to article content instead of creating loop redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Almohad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Almoravides</title>
<id>1649</id>
<revision>
<id>39062396</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T13:03:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DeC</username>
<id>821904</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Almoravides''' (In [[Arabic language|Arabic]] المرابطون ''al-Murabitun'', sing. مرابط ''Murabit''), is a [[Berber]] dynasty from the [[Sahara]] which, in the [[11th century]], founded the fourth dynasty in [[Morocco]]. Under this dynasty the [[Moorish]] empire was extended over [[Tlemcen]] (in modern [[Algeria]]) and a great part of [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]. The name is derived from the Arabic ''Murabit'', variously translated as ''religious ascetic'' or ''warrior monk''.
== Beginnings ==
The most powerful of the invading tribes was the [[Lamtuna]] ("veiled men") from the upper [[Niger River]], whose best-known representatives now are the [[Tuareg]]. They had been converted to [[Islam]] in the early times of the Arab conquest, but their knowledge of Islam did not go much beyond the formula of the [[shahada]] creed---"there is no god but God, and Muhammad is the apostle of God,"--and they were ignorant of the traditions of [[Shariah]], or Islamic law.
== Influence of orthodox Islam ==
About the year 1040 (or a little earlier) one of their chiefs, [[Yahya ibn Ibrahim]], made the [[Hajj|pilgrimage]] to [[Mecca]]. On his way home, he attended the teachers of the mosque at [[Kairouan]], in [[Tunisia]], who soon learnt from him that his people knew little of the religion they were supposed to profess, and that though his will was good, his own ignorance was great. By the good offices of the theologians of Kairawan, one of whom was from [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]], Yahya was provided with a missionary, [[Abd Allah ibn Yasin]], a zealous partisan of the [[Maliki]]s, one of the four [[Four Schools of Madhhab|Madhhab]]; orthodox legal schools of Islam.
His preaching was before-long rejected by the Lamtunas; so on the advice of Yahya, who accompanied him, he retired to an island in the [[Niger River]], where he founded a ''[[ribat]]'', or Islamic monastery, from which as a centre his influence spread. There was no element of [[heresy]] in his creed, which was mainly distinguished by a rigid formalism, and strict obedience to the letter of the [[Qur'an]], and the orthodox tradition or [[Sunnah]].
== Ascendence of Militarism ==
Abd-Allah ibn Yasin imposed a penitential scourging on all converts as a purification, and enforced a regular system of discipline for every breach of the law; even on the chiefs. Under such directions, the Murabits were brought into excellent order. Their first military leader, Yahya ibn Ibrahim, gave them a good military organization. Their main force was infantry, armed with javelins in the front ranks and pikes behind, which formed into a phalanx; and was supported by camelmen and horsemen on the flanks.
== Military Successes ==
From the year [[1053]], the Murabits began to impose their orthodox and puritanical religion on the [[Berber]] tribes of the desert, and on the pagan black Africans. Yahya ibn Ibrahim was killed in a battle in [[1056]], but Abd-Allah ibn Yasin, whose influence as a religious teacher was paramount; named his brother [[Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar]] as chief. Under him, the Murabits soon began to spread their power beyond the desert, and subjected the tribes of the [[Atlas Mountains]]. They then came in contact with the [[Berghouata]], a [[Berber]] people of central [[Morocco]], who followed a "heresy" founded by [[Salih ibn Tarif]], three centuries earlier. The Berghouata made a fierce resistance, and it was in battle with them that Abdullah ibn Yasin was killed. They were, however, completely conquered by Abu Bakr Ibn-Umar, who took the defeated chief's widow, [[Zainab]], as a wife.
In 1061, Abu Bakr Ibn-Umar made a division of the power he had established, handing over the more-settled parts to his cousin [[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]], as viceroy; resigning to him also his favourite wife Zainab, who had the reputation of being a sorceress. For himself, he reserved the task of suppressing the revolts which had broken out in the desert, but when he returned to resume control, he found his cousin too powerful to be superseded; so he had to go back to the Sahara, where-in [[1087]], he too attained martyrdom, having been wounded with a poisoned arrow, in battle with the pagan black Africans.
=== Morocco and Western Sahara ===
Yusuf ibn Tashfin had in the meantime brought what is now known as [[Morocco]] and the [[Western Sahara]] into complete subjection; and in [[1062]], had founded the city of [[Marrakech]]. In [[1080]], he conquered the kingdom of [[Tlemcen]] (in modern-day [[Algeria]]) and founded the present city of that name, his rule extending as far east as [[Oran]].
=== Ghana ===
In [[1075]], the Almoravides declared "[[jihad]]" ("holy struggle") on the [[Kingdom of Ghana]]. The ensuing war pushed Ghana over the edge: ceasing the kingdom's position as a commercial and military power by [[1100]], as it collapsed into tribal groups and chieftaincies, some of which later assimilated into the Almoravides.
=== Spain ===
[[Image:Almoravid map reconquest loc.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of Iberia at the time of the Almoravid arrival]]
In [[1086]] Yusuf ibn Tashfin was invited by the Muslim princes in [[Spain]] to defend them against [[Alfonso VI of Castile|Alfonso VI]], King of [[Castile]] and [[Kingdom of León|León]]. In that year, Yusuf ibn Tashfin passed the straits to [[Algeciras]], inflicted a severe defeat on the Christians at the [[Battle of az-Zallaqah|az-Zallaqah]]. He was prevented from following up his victory by trouble in [[Africa]], which he had to settle in person.
When he returned to Spain in [[1090]], it was avowedly for the purpose of deposing the Muslim princes, and annexing their states. He had in his favour the mass of the inhabitants, whom had been worn out by the oppressive taxation imposed by their spend-thrift rulers. Their religious teachers, as well as others in the east, (most notably, [[al-Ghazali]] in [[Iran|Persia]] and [[al-Tartushi]] in Egypt, who was himself a Spaniard by birth, from [[Tortosa]]), detested the native Muslim princes for their religious indifference, and gave Yusuf a ''[[fatwa]]'' -- or legal opinion -- to the effect that he had good moral and religious right, to dethrone the heterodox rulers, who did not scruple to seek help from the Christians, whose habits they had adopted. By 1094, he had removed them all; and though he regained little from the Christians except [[Valencia]], he re-united the Muslim power, and gave a check to the reconquest of the country by the Christians.
=== The Prince of the Muslims ===
After friendly correspondence with the caliph at [[Baghdad]], whom he acknowledged as ''Amir al-Mu'minin'' (''Prince of the Faithful''), Yusuf ibn Tashfin in [[1097]] assumed the title of ''Amir al Muslimin'' (''Prince of the Muslims''). He died in [[1106]], when he was reputed to have reached the age of 100.
The Murabit power was at its height at Yusuf's death, and the Moorish empire then included all North-West Africa as far as [[Algiers]], and all S |
ng Fibonacci numbers by computing powers of the golden mean is not very practical except for small values of ''n'', since rounding errors will accrue and [[floating point]] numbers usually do not have enough precision.
The straightforward recursive implementation of the Fibonacci sequence definition is also not advisable, since it computes many values repeatedly (unless the [[programming language]] has a feature which allows the storing of previously computed function values, such as [[memoization]]). Therefore, one usually computes the Fibonacci numbers "from the bottom up", starting with the two values 0 and 1, and then repeatedly replacing the first number by the second, and the second number by the sum of the two.
For huge arguments, a faster way to calculate Fibonacci numbers is to use the closed matrix form and employ [[exponentiation by squaring]].
==Applications==
The Fibonacci numbers are important in the run-time analysis of [[Euclidean algorithm|Euclid's algorithm]] to determine the [[greatest common divisor]] of two integers.
[[Yuri Matiyasevich]] was able to show that the Fibonacci numbers can be defined by a [[Diophantine equation]], which led to his original solution of [[Matiyasevich's theorem|Hilbert's tenth problem]].
The Fibonacci numbers occur in a formula about the diagonals of [[Pascal's triangle]] (see [[binomial coefficient]]).
Every positive integer can be written in a unique way as the sum of ''one or more'' distinct Fibonacci numbers in such a way that the sum does not include any two consecutive Fibonacci numbers. This is known as [[Zeckendorf's theorem]], and a sum of Fibonacci numbers that satisfies these conditions is called a Zeckendorf representation.
Fibonacci numbers are also used by some [[pseudorandom number generators]]<!-- Knuth vol. 2 -->.
In [[music]] Fibonacci numbers are sometimes used to determine tunings, and, as in visual art, to determine the length or size of [[content]] or [[form (music)|formal]] elements. Examples include [[Béla Bartók]]'s ''[[Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta]]''. In addition, the syllables of the lyrics of parts of the [[Tool (band)|Tool]] song [[Lateralus]] follow the Fibonacci sequence in each line, for instance "Black/Then/White are/All I see/In my infancy/Red and yellow then came to be".
Since the [[conversion of units | conversion]] factor 1.609 for [[mile]]s to kilometers is close to the [[Golden ratio|golden mean]] &phi;, the decomposition of distance in miles into a sum of Fibonacci numbers becomes nearly the kilometer sum when the Fibonacci numbers are replaced by their successors. This method amounts to a [[radix]] 2 [[Fibonacci coding | number]] [[processor register | register]] in [[golden mean base | base]] &phi; being shifted. To go from kilometers to miles shift the register down the Fibonacci sequence instead.
==Fibonacci numbers in nature==
[[Image:Shell with Fibonacci spiral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Shell with Fibonacci spiral]]
Fibonacci sequences have been noted to appear in biological settings, such as the branching patterns of leaves in [[grass]]es and [[flower]]s, branching in bushes and trees, the arrangement of pines on a [[Conifer cone|pine cone]], seeds on a [[raspberry]], [[spiral]] patterns in horns and shells. The scales on the surface of a [[pineapple]] are arranged in two interlocking spirals, eight spirals in one direction, thirteen in the other; each being a Fibonacci number. [[Przemyslaw Prusinkiewicz]] has advanced the idea that these can be in part understood as the expression of certain algebraic constraints on [[free group]]s, specifically as certain [[L-system|Lindenmayer grammar]]s. Generally one sees Fibonacci numbers arise in the study of the fractal [[Fuchsian group]]s and [[Kleinian group]]s, and systems that possess such symmetries. For example, the solutions to reaction-diffusion differential equations (such as that seen in the [[Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction]]) can show such a patterning; in biology, [[gene]]s often express themselves through [[gene regulatory network]]s, that is, in terms of several [[enzyme]]s controlling a reaction, which can be modelled with reaction-diffusion equations. Such systems rarely give the Fibonacci sequence exactly or directly; rather, the relationship occurs deeper in the theory. Similar patterns also occur in non-biological systems, such as in [[sphere packing]] models.
==Identities==
:''F''(''n'' + 1) = ''F''(''n'') + ''F''(''n'' &minus; 1)
:''F''(0) + ''F''(1) + ''F''(2) + &hellip; + ''F''(''n'') = ''F''(''n'' + 2) &minus; 1
:''F''(1) + 2 ''F''(2) + 3 ''F''(3) + &hellip; + ''n F''(''n'') = ''n F''(''n'' + 2) &minus; ''F''(''n'' + 3) + 2
These identities can be proven using many different methods.
But, among all, we wish to present an elegant proof for each of them using [[combinatorial proof|combinatorial arguments]] here.
In particular, ''F''(''n'') can be interpreted as the number of ways summing 1's and 2's to ''n'' &minus; 1, with the convention that ''F''(0) = 0, meaning no sum will add up to &minus;1, and that ''F''(1) = 1, meaning the empty sum will "add up" to 0.
Here the order of the summands matters.
For example, 1 + 2 and 2 + 1 are considered two different sums and are counted twice.
''Proof of the first identity''.
[[Without loss of generality]], we may assume ''n'' &ge; 1.
Then ''F''(''n'' + 1) counts the number of ways summing 1's and 2's to ''n''.
When the first summand is 1, there are ''F''(''n'') ways to complete the counting for ''n'' &minus; 1; and the first summand is 2, there are ''F''(''n'' &minus; 1) ways to complete the counting for ''n'' &minus; 2.
Thus, in total, there are ''F''(''n'') + ''F''(''n'' &minus; 1) ways to complete the counting for ''n''.
<math>\Box</math>
''Proof of the second identity''.
We count the number of ways summing 1's and 2's to ''n'' + 1 such that at least one of the summands is 2.
As before, there are ''F''(''n'' + 2) ways summing 1's and 2's to ''n'' + 1 when ''n'' &ge; 0.
Since there is only one sum of ''n'' + 1 that does not use any 2, namely 1 + &hellip; + 1 (''n'' + 1 terms), we subtract 1 from ''F''(''n'' + 2).
Equivalently, we can consider the first occurrence of 2 as a summand.
If, in a sum, the first summand is 2, then there are ''F''(''n'') ways to the complete the counting for ''n'' &minus; 1.
If the second summand is 2 but the first is 1, then there are ''F''(''n'' &minus; 1) ways to complete the counting for ''n'' &minus; 2.
Proceed in this fashion.
Eventually we consider the (''n'' + 1)th summand.
If it is 2 but all of the previous ''n'' summands are 1's, then there are ''F''(0) ways to complete the counting for 0.
If a sum contains 2 as a summand, the first occurrence of such summand must take place in between the first and (''n'' + 1)th position.
Thus ''F''(''n'') + ''F''(''n'' &minus; 1) + &hellip; + ''F''(0) gives the desired counting.
<math>\Box</math>
''Proof of the third identity''.
This identity can be established in two stages.
First, we count the number of ways summing 1s and 2s to &minus;1, 0, &hellip;, or ''n'' + 1 such that at least one of the summands is 2.
By our second identity, there are ''F''(''n'' + 2) &minus; 1 ways summing to ''n'' + 1; ''F''(''n'' + 1) &minus; 1 ways summing to ''n''; &hellip;; and, eventually, ''F''(2) &minus; 1 way summing to 1.
As ''F''(1) &minus; 1 = ''F''(0) = 0, we can add up all ''n'' + 1 sums and apply the second identity again to obtain
: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[''F''(''n'' + 2) &minus; 1] + [''F''(''n'' + 1) &minus; 1] + &hellip; + [''F''(2) &minus; 1]
: = [''F''(''n'' + 2) &minus; 1] + [''F''(''n'' + 1) &minus; 1] + &hellip; + [''F''(2) &minus; 1] + [''F''(1) &minus; 1] + ''F''(0)
: = ''F''(''n'' + 2) + [''F''(''n'' + 1) + &hellip; + ''F''(1) + ''F''(0)] &minus; (''n'' + 2)
: = ''F''(''n'' + 2) + ''F''(''n'' + 3) &minus; (''n'' + 2).
On the other hand, we observe from the second identity that there are
* ''F''(0) + ''F''(1) + &hellip; + ''F''(''n'' &minus; 1) + ''F''(''n'') ways summing to ''n'' + 1;
* ''F''(0) + ''F''(1) + &hellip; + ''F''(''n'' &minus; 1) ways summing to ''n'';
&hellip;&hellip;
* ''F''(0) way summing to &minus;1.
Adding up all ''n'' + 1 sums, we see that there are
* (''n'' + 1) ''F''(0) + ''n'' ''F''(1) + &hellip; + ''F''(''n'') ways summing to &minus;1, 0, &hellip;, or ''n'' + 1.
Since the two methods of counting refer to the same number, we have
: (''n'' + 1) ''F''(0) + ''n'' ''F''(1) + &hellip; + ''F''(''n'') = ''F''(''n'' + 2) + ''F''(''n'' + 3) &minus; (''n'' + 2)
Finally, we complete the proof by subtracting the above identity from ''n'' + 1 times the second identity.
<math>\Box</math>
=== Common factors ===
Any two consecutive Fibonacci numbers are [[relatively prime]]. Suppose that ''F''<sub>''n''</sub> and ''F''<sub>''n''+1</sub> have a common factor ''g''. Then ''F''<sub>''n''+1</sub> &minus; ''F''<sub>''n''</sub> = ''F''<sub>''n''&minus;1</sub> similarly. Thus by [[Mathematical induction|induction]], all preceding Fibonacci number must be a multiple of ''g''. But ''F''<sub>1</sub> = 1, so ''g'' = 1.
Other identities include relationships to the [[Lucas number]]s, which have the same recursive properties but start with ''L''<sub>''0''</sub>=2 and ''L''<sub>''1''</sub>=1. These properties include
''F''<sub>''2n''</sub>=''F''<sub>''n''</sub>''L''<sub>''n''</sub>
==Power series==
The Fibonacci [[power series]]
:<math>s(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty F(n) x^n</math>
has a simple and interesting closed-form solution for ''x'' < 1/&phi;:
:<math>s(x |
<id>40359124</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Agnes Maria of Andechs-Meran''' (d. [[1201]]), queen of [[France]], was the daughter of [[Bertold IV]] (d. [[1251]]), who was independent Count of [[Andechs]], a castle and territory near [[Ammersee]], [[Bavaria]] and from [[1183]] duke of [[Meran]] in [[Tirol]], which has derived its name from his castle Tyrol, above the valley of Meran. The count held his fiefs directly from the Emperor, so he was independent of the great territorial dukes of [[Germany]]. Bertold IV was made Archbishop of [[Kalocsa]] (in [[Hungary]]) and in [[1218]] he was made [[Aquileia|Patriarch of Aquileia]].
She is called Marie by some of the French chroniclers. In June [[1196]] she married [[Philip II of France|Philip Augustus]] (Philip II), king of France, who had repudiated his second wife [[Ingeborg of Denmark]] in [[1193]]. [[Pope Innocent III]] espoused the cause of Ingeborg; but Philip did not submit until [[1200]], when, nine months after [[interdict]] had been added to [[excommunication]], he consented to a separation from Agnes. She died broken-hearted in July of the next year, at the castle of [[Poissy]], and was buried in the church of [[St. Corentin]], near [[Nantes]]. Her two children by Philip II, [[Philip, count of Clermont]] (d. [[1234]]), and Mary, who married Philip, [[Marquis of Namur|count of Namur]], were legitimized by the pope in [[1201]] at the request of the king. Little is known of the personality of Agnes, beyond the remarkable influence which she seems to have exercised over Philip II. She has been made the heroine of a [[tragedy]] by [[François Ponsard]], ''Agnès de Méranie''.
Her sister [[Hedwig of Andechs]] married [[Henry I, duke of Silesia]] and was canonized as Saint Hedwig in [[1267]]. Another sister, [[Gertrude of Meran|Gertrude]] was Queen of Hungary.
==External links==
*[http://www.niagara.com/~jezovnik/korenine_part_iii.htm Jo&#382;ko &Scaron;avli, "Andechs (A Bavarian Family with Carantanian Roots)"]
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1201 deaths|Agnes of Meran]]
[[Category:French royalty]]
[[fr:Agnès de Méranie]]
[[de:Agnes von Meran]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agni</title>
<id>1554</id>
<revision>
<id>41824132</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:57:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.6.158.55</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
:''This article is about the Hindu fire god. For other uses, see [[Agni (disambiguation)]].''
----
'''Agni''' is a [[Hindu]] deity. The word ''agni'' is [[Sanskrit]] for "fire" (noun), cognate with [[Latin]] ''ignis'' ''Ignite''
In [[Hinduism]], he is a [[deva]], second only to [[Indra]] in the power and importance attributed to him in [[Vedic mythology]]. He is [[Indra]]'s twin, and therefore a son of [[Dyaus Pita]] and [[Prthivi]]. While in other version, he is a son of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Aditi]] or a Queen who kept her pregnancy secret from her husband. He has ten mothers, or ten sisters, or ten maidservants, who represent the ten fingers of the man who lights the fire. He has two parents: these represent the two sticks which, when rubbed together swiftly, create fire (called a fire drill). Some say that he destroyed his parents when he was born because they could not care for him. He is married to [[Svaha]] and father of [[Karttikeya]] by either Svaha or [[Ganga]]. He is one of the [[Ashta-Dikpalas]], representing the southeast.
His name is the first word of the first hymn of the [[Rigveda]]:-
<br>&#2309;&#2367;&#2386;&#2327;&#2381;&#2344;&#2350;&#2381; &#2312;&#2385;&#2355;&#2375; &#2346;&#2369;&#2352;&#2379;&#2386;&#2367;&#2361;&#2385;&#2340;&#2306; &#2351;&#2332;&#2381;&#2334;&#2386;&#2360;&#2381;&#2351;&#2385; &#2342;&#2375;&#2357;&#2386;&#2350;&#2381; &#2315;&#2367;&#2386;&#2340;&#2381;&#2357;&#2332;&#2385;&#2350;&#2381; &#2404;
<br>&#2361;&#2379;&#2340;&#2366;&#2385;&#2352;&#2306; &#2352;&#2340;&#2381;&#2344;&#2343;&#2366;&#2386;&#2340;&#2385;&#2350;&#2350;&#2381; &#2405;
<br>''agn<u>i</u>m &#299;&#316;e pur<u>o</u>hitam''
/ ''yajñ<u>a</u>sya dev<u>a</u>m &#343;tv<u>i</u>jam''
/ ''hot&#257;raM ratnadh<u>&#257;</u>tamam.''
<br>(The vowels which are underlined here, carry the Vedic ''ud&#257;tta'' [[pitch accent]].)
<br>"I praise Agni, the priest of the house, the divine ministrant of sacrifice, the invoker, the best bestower of treasure."
The sacrifices made to Agni go to the [[deity|deities]] because Agni is a messenger from and to the other gods. He is ever-young, because the fire is re-lit every day; but also he is immortal.
In some stories about the Hindu gods, Agni is the one who is sent to the front in dangerous situations.
Another hymn runs: "No god indeed, no mortal is beyond the might of thee, the mighty One.". He lives among men and is miraculously reborn each day by the fire-drill, the friction of the two sticks which are regarded as his parents. He is the supreme director of [[religion|religious]] ceremonies and duties, and even has the power of influencing the fate of each man in the future world. Agni is also representative of the power which [[digestion|digests]] the food in every person's [[stomach]]. He created the [[star]]s with the sparks resulting from his flames.
He is worshipped under a threefold form: fire on [[earth]] and [[lightning]] and the [[sun]]. His cult survived the change of the ancient Vedic nature-worship into modern [[Hinduism]], and there are fire-priests (agnihotr) whose duty is to watch over his worshippers. The sacred fire-drill for procuring the temple-fire by friction -- symbolic of Agni's daily miraculous birth -- is still used.
In Hindu [[art]], Agni is represented as [[red]] and two-faced (sometimes covered with [[butter]]), suggesting both his destructive and beneficent qualities, and with [[black]] [[eye]]s and [[hair]], three [[Human leg|legs]] and seven [[arm]]s. He rides a [[ram (sheep)|ram]], or a [[chariot]] pulled by [[goat]]s or, more rarely, [[parrot]]s. Seven rays of light emanate from his body.
The [[Rigveda]] often says that Agni arises from water or dwells in the waters. He may have originally been the same as [[Apam Napat]], which see.
Although the Vedic fire-sacrifice ([[yagya]]) has largely disappeared from modern Hinduism, Agni with the fire-sacrifice is still the mode of ritual in any modern Hindu marriage, where Agni is said to be the chief '''sakshi''' or witness of the marriage and guardian of the santity of marriage. Indeed, without seven encirclements around the holy fire, the modern Hindu Marriage Act of law regards a Hindu marriage as void.
==Agni in other faiths and religions==
In [[Zoroastrianism]], he is [[Atar]], literally, [[fire]], which symbolically represents the life-animating force radiating from [[Ahura Mazda]]. In Indo-Tibetan [[Buddhism]], he is a [[lokapala]] guarding the South-East. (see e.g. ''jigten lugs kyi bstan bcos:'' = "Make your hearth in the South-East corner of the house, which is the quarter of Agni"). He also plays a central role in most Buddhist [[homa (ritual)|homa]] (fire-[[puja]]) rites.
==See also==
*[[Hindu deities]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.crystalrivers.com/poetry/agni.html A Contemplation on the god Agni - The Purifying Fire of the Gods]
{{Hindu Deities and Texts}}
[[Category:Fire gods]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Solar gods]]
[[Category:Persian mythology]]
[[ar:آجني]]
[[ca:Agni]]
[[de:Agni]]
[[es:Agni]]
[[fr:Agni]]
[[it:Agni]]
[[lt:Agnis]]
[[ja:アグニ]]
[[nl:Agni]]
[[pl:Agni]]
[[pt:Agni]]
[[ru:Агни]]
[[sl:Agni]]
[[fi:Agni]]
[[sv:Agni]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agrippina the elder</title>
<id>1556</id>
<revision>
<id>41660812</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:13:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Agrippina the elder.jpg|right|thumb|Agrippina the Elder]]
'''Julia Vipsania Agrippina''' ([[14 October]]-[[18 October]] [[14 BC]]&#8211; AD [[33]]), known as '''Agrippina Major''' ('''Agrippina "the Elder"'''), was one of the most powerful women in the [[Roman Empire]] in the early [[1st century]] AD. She was the daughter of [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] by his third wife [[Julia Caesaris]], was grand-daughter of [[Augustus Caesar|Augustus]], wife of [[Germanicus]], and the mother of [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina Minor]] and [[Caligula]].
Agrippina was born in [[Athens]], [[Greece]]. In AD 5 she had married Germanicus, her second cousin and step-grandson of the Emperor Augustus. The well-regarded Germanicus was a candidate for the succession and had won fame campaigning in [[Germania]] and [[Gaul]], where he was accompanied by Agrippina. This was most unusual for Roman wives, as convention required them to stay at home, and earned her a reputation as a model for heroic womanhood. She bore him two children in Gaul, a boy and [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina Minor]] in the Rhine frontier.
Agrippina and Germanicus travelled to the [[Near East]] in AD 19, incurring the displeasure of the emperor [[Tiberius]]. He quarrelled with [[Gnaeus Calpur |
[[Category:Living people|Thackeray, Balasaheb]]
[[Category:Indian politicians|Thackeray, Balasaheb]]
[[Category:Indian cartoonists]]
[[sv:Bal Thackeray]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Mumbai (Bombay)</title>
<id>3781</id>
<revision>
<id>15902096</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-23T19:13:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nichalp</username>
<id>41228</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mumbai]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Biblioholist</title>
<id>3782</id>
<revision>
<id>15902097</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-21T00:40:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NoAccount</username>
<id>269611</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bibliophilia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>B</title>
<id>3783</id>
<revision>
<id>41669497</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:28:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Billpg</username>
<id>268454</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Meanings for '''B''' */ B by StrawberryClock. Its still unremarkable. mutter grumble.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ|uc=B|lc=b}}
The letter '''B''' is the second letter of the modern [[Latin alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''bee''.
==History==
The letter B probably started as a [[pictogram]] of the floorplan of a [[house]] in [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s or the [[Proto-semitic alphabet]].
{| align="center" border="0" cellpadding="5"
|align="center" width="130px"|[[Image:EgyptianB-01.png|none|Egyptian hieroglyphic house]]
|align="center" width="130px"|[[Image:Proto-semiticB-01.png|Proto-semitic house]]
|align="center" width="130px"|[[Image:PhoenicianB-01.png|Phoenician beth]]
|align="center" width="130px"|[[Image:GreekB-01.png|Greek beta]]
|align="center" width="130px"|[[Image:EtruscanB-01.png|Etruscan B]]
|align="center" width="130px"|[[Image:RomanB-01.png|Roman B]]
|-
|align="center" valign="top" width="130px"|Egyptian hieroglyphic house
|align="center" valign="top" width="130px"|Proto-semitic house
|align="center" valign="top" width="130px"|Phoenician beth
|align="center" valign="top" width="130px"|Greek beta
|align="center" valign="top" width="130px"|Etruscan B
|align="center" valign="top" width="130px"|Roman B
|}
By [[1500 BC]], the [[Phoenician alphabet]]'s letter had a linear form that served as the basis for all later forms, which appeared in both the angular and more rounded forms. Its name must have corresponded closely to the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] [[beth (letter)|beth]].
When the [[Ancient Greeks]] adopted the alphabet, they changed its name to [[beta (letter)|beta]] and turned the letter upside-down and later added a second loop. In earlier Greek inscriptions, the letter faces to the left, but in the [[Greek alphabet]] of later times it faces to the right, although there continued to be variations between pointed and rounded loops.
The [[Etruscans]] brought the Greek alphabet to what is now [[Italy]] and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the [[Old Italic alphabet|Etruscan alphabet]] to write [[Latin]], and the resulting letter, with rounded loops, has been preserved in the modern [[Latin alphabet]] used to write many languages, including [[English language|English]].
==Typography==
The modern lowercase letter a derives from later [[Roman cursive#New Roman cursive|Roman]] times, when scribes began omitting the upper loop of the capital.
{|
|align="center"|[[Image:BlackletterB-01.png|Blackletter B]]
|align="center"|[[Image:UncialB-01.png|Uncial B]]
|-
|align="center"|[[Blackletter]] B
|align="center"|[[Uncial]] B
|-
|align="center"|[[Image:ModernRomanB-01.png|Modern Roman B]]
|align="center"|[[Image:ModernItalicB-01.png|Modern Italic B]]
|align="center"|[[Image:ModernScriptB-01.png|Modern Script B]]
|-
|align="center"|Modern Roman B
|align="center"|Modern Italic B
|align="center"|Modern Script B
|}
The letter B should not be confused with the visually similar [[German (language)|German]] [[ß]].
==Usage==
In [[English language|English]] and most other languages that use the Latin alphabet, the letter b denotes the [[voiced bilabial plosive]] ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/b/}}), as in ''bib''. In English it is sometimes "silent", as in ''debt'' or ''comb''. In medial position in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] it denotes the [[voiced bilabial fricative]] (IPA {{IPA|/&beta;/}}). In [[Estonian_language|Estonian]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], and in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] transcription, B is not voiced, but is still contrasted to P, which is a [[geminate]] {{IPA|/pp/}} in [[Estonian_language|Estonian]] and an [[aspirate]] {{IPA|/p<sup>h</sup>/}} in Chinese and Icelandic.
In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] and [[X-SAMPA]], letter {{IPA|/b/}} denotes the [[voiced bilabial plosive]]. Variants of the letter b denote related [[bilabial consonant]]s, like the [[voiced bilabial implosive]] and the [[bilabial trill]]. In [[X-SAMPA]], capital B denotes the [[voiced bilabial fricative]].
==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Bravo
|Morse=–···
|B1=●
|B2=●
|B3=○
|B4=○
|B5=○
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] B is codepoint U+0042 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] b is U+0062.
The [[ASCII]] code for capital B is 66 and for lowercase b is 98; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000010 and 01100010, correspondingly.
The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital B is 194 and for lowercase b is 130.
The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are
"<tt>&amp;#66;</tt>" and "<tt>&amp;#98;</tt>" for upper and lower case
respectively.
==Meanings for '''B'''==
* As a [[prefix]] B indicates second rate (where [[A]] is first/top rate) e.g. [[B-movie]], [[B-team]].
* In [[astronomy]],
** B stands for a January 16 through 31 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1865 B1]], the Great Southern Comet of 1865) or asteroid (e.g. [[(4156) 1988 BE]]).
** ''b'' often denotes the [[semi-minor axis]] of an orbit.
* In [[aviation]], B (followed by a -) is the [[ICAO]] prefix for civil aircraft registered in China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.
* [[Brassiere cup size]] '''B'''.
* In [[chemistry]], B is the symbol for the [[chemical element]] [[boron]].
* In [[chess]], B is a notation symbol (descriptive style) for the [[Bishop_(chess)|bishop]] piece.
* In the [[RGB color model]], B stands for the color [[blue]].
* In [[computer science]] and [[computing]],
** b is an alternate symbol for [[bit]] or [[byte]], and B is an alternate symbol for [[byte]].
** B is the name of the [[B programming language]] and the [[B-Method]], a leading [[formal method]].
** <code>&lt;b&gt;</code> is the [[Deprecation|deprecated]] [[HTML element|HTML tag]] for marking [[bold]]face type.
** <math>\mathbb{B}</math> can be used to indicate a [[Boolean]] [[datatype|type]], especially in [[formal specification|formal specifications]].
** B is a security division ("Mandatory Protection") in the [[TCSEC]].
** A [[b-tree]] is a binary tree, a type of indexed data structure.
* In the diaries of [[Edwina Currie]], B was the code name for [[John Major]] with whom the author was having an affair.
* In [[education]], B is a "good" [[grade (education)|grade]], one below the top grade of ''A''.
* In [[electrical engineering]],
**B is the anode (plate) power supply (originally a [[battery (electricity)|battery]]) of [[vacuum tube]] circuitry.
**B is the symbol for [[susceptance]], the [[inverse]] of [[reactance]].
* In [[English language|English]] [[slang]], B is a [[euphemism]] for [[Illegitimacy|bastard]] or [[bitch]].
* In [[film]], "B." was the [[costume designer]] for the movie [[Domino (film)|Domino]].
* In [[finance]], B is the [[New York Stock Exchange]] [[ticker symbol]] for [[Barnes Group Inc.]].
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], B stands for [[Belgium]].
* In [[paper size|international paper sizes]], B is a series of sizes with an aspect ratio of roughly 70% width to height. The B series is a scaled version of the A series.
* In [[mathematics]],
** B is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[eleven]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 12 or greater.
** <math>\mathbb{B}</math> in [[Blackboard bold]] notation represents [[Ball (mathematics)]].
** B may denote [[Brun's constant]], which equals ~1.902160583104.
* In [[medicine]], '''B''' (also, '''B+''' or '''B-''') is one of the human [[blood type]]s.
* In [[metrology]],
** B was sometimes used in the early twentieth century as a prefix for "[[billion]]" (e.g. [[BeV]]).
** B was the symbol for the [[candle (unit)|candle]] (from the French ''bougie''), a unit of [[luminous intensity]].
** b was the symbol for the [[barn (unit)|barn]], a unit of effective cross-section in particle physics.
* In [[music]],
** [[B (musical note)|B]] is a [[note]].
** B, or "B-side", is the second or reverse side of a [[vinyl record]]; also called the flip side.
* In the [[North America]]n [[National Hockey League]], the [[Boston Bruins]] are sometimes referred to as the "'''Bs'''" because of the letter B on the front of their jerseys.
* In [[nutrition]], [[B]] ref |
tertullian.org/rpearse/nicaea.html The Council of Nicaea and the Bible]. This article deals with the legend that the [[Books of the Bible|canon of the bible]] was discussed at the council.
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:325]]
[[Category:Patristics|Nicaea, First Council of]]
[[Category:Constantine Dynasty]]
[[Category:Canon law]]
[[Category:Christian history]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox Church councils]]
[[cs:1. nikajský koncil]]
[[de:Erstes Konzil von Nicäa]]
[[et:I Nikaia kirikukogu]]
[[es:Concilio de Nicea I]]
[[fr:Ier concile de Nicée]]
[[ko:제1차 니케아 공의회]]
[[it:Primo concilio di Nicea]]
[[la:Concilium Nicaenum Primum]]
[[nl:Concilie van Nicea]]
[[ja:第1ニカイア公会議]]
[[no:Konsilet i Nikea]]
[[pl:Sobór Nicejski I]]
[[pt:Primeiro Concílio de Niceia]]
[[ro:Primul conciliu din Niceea]]
[[ru:I Вселенский Собор]]
[[fi:Nikean ensimmäinen kirkolliskokous]]
[[sv:Första konciliet i Nicaea]]
[[zh:第一次尼西亞公會議]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 5</title>
<id>11119</id>
<revision>
<id>41683269</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:10:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>140.233.205.153</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=5}}
|}
'''February 5''' is the 36th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 329 days remaining (330 in [[leap year]]s).
==Events==
*[[1576]] - [[Henry IV of France|Henry of Navarre]] converts to [[Roman Catholicism]] in order to ensure his right to the throne of [[France]].
*[[1631]] - [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]] emigrates to [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]].
*[[1778]] - [[South Carolina]] becomes the first state to ratify the [[Articles of Confederation]].
*[[1782]] - [[Spain|Spanish]] defeat [[United Kingdom|British]] forces and capture [[Minorca]].
*[[1846]] - ''[[The Oregon Spectator]]'' becomes the first [[newspaper]] on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of the [[United States]].
*[[1859]] - [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] are united under [[Alexander John Cuza]] under the name [[Romania]] (see [[December 1]] [[1918]] for the final unification, [[Transylvania]] and other regions were still missing at this time).
*[[1881]] - [[Phoenix, Arizona]] is incorporated.
*[[1885]] - King [[Léopold II of Belgium]] establishes the [[Congo Free State|Congo]] as a personal possession.
*[[1917]] - The [[1917 Constitution of Mexico|current constitution]] of [[Mexico]] is adopted, establishing a [[federal republic]] with powers separated into independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
*1917 - The [[Congress of the United States]] passes a [[Immigration Act of 1917|law]], over [[President]] [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s veto, banning most [[Asian]] immigration to the [[United States]].
*[[1919]] - [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Mary Pickford]], [[Douglas Fairbanks]], and [[D.W. Griffith]] launch [[United Artists]].
*[[1922]] - [[DeWitt Wallace|DeWitt]] and [[Lila Wallace]] publish the first issue of ''[[Reader's Digest]]''. (Some sources say [[February 7]].)
*[[1924]] - The [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]] begin broadcasting the hourly time signals known as the [[Greenwich Time Signal]] or the "[[BBC pips]]".
*[[1929]] - "[[They'll Do It Every Time]]", a [[comic strip]] still in syndication [[as of 2005]], debuts in a [[San Francisco]] [[newspaper]].
*[[1936]] - [[Charlie Chaplin]] releases the last ever silent movie, [[Modern Times]].
*[[1937]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] proposes a plan to enlarge the [[Supreme Court of the United States]].
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[General]] [[Douglas MacArthur]] returns to [[Manila]].
*[[1946]] - The [[Chondoist Chongu Party]] is founded in [[North Korea]].
*[[1953]] - The movie ''[[Peter Pan (1953 movie)|Peter Pan]]'' premieres at the [[Roxy Theatre]] in [[New York City]].
*[[1958]] - [[Gamel Abdel Nasser]] is nominated to be the first president of the [[United Arab Republic]].
*[[1958]] - A [[hydrogen bomb]] known as the [[Tybee Bomb]] is lost by the [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] off the coast of [[Savannah, Georgia]], never to be recovered.
*[[1961]] - The ''[[Sunday Telegraph]]'' publishes its first issue.
*[[1962]] - [[President of the French Republic|French President]] [[Charles de Gaulle|Charles De Gaulle]] calls for allowing [[Algeria]] to be an independent nation.
*[[1968]] - The [[Battle of Khe Sanh]] of the [[Vietnam War]] begins.
*[[1971]] - [[Apollo 14]] lands on the [[Moon]].
*[[1972]] - [[Bob Douglas]] becomes the first [[African American]] elected to the [[Basketball Hall of Fame]].
*[[1974]] - [[John Murtha]] becomes the first [[Vietnam War]] veteran elected to the [[Congress of the United States]].
*[[1978]] - The [[Blizzard of 1978]], one of the worst [[Nor'easter]]s ever to hit [[New England]], forms.
*[[1988]] - [[Manuel Noriega]] is indicted on [[drug smuggling]] and [[money laundering]] charges.
*[[1988]] - [[Comic Relief]] hold the first "[[Red Nose Day]]", which raises £15 million in the [[United Kingdom]] for [[charity]].
*[[1991]] - A [[Michigan]] court bars Dr. [[Jack Kevorkian]] from assisting in [[suicide]]s.
*[[1994]] - [[Byron De La Beckwith]] is convicted of the [[1963]] murder of [[civil rights]] leader [[Medgar Evers]].
*[[1997]] - The so-called [[Big Three banks]] in [[Switzerland]] announce the creation of a $71 million fund to aid [[Holocaust]] survivors and their families.
*[[1997]] - [[Morgan Stanley]] and [[Dean Witter]] investment banks announce a $10 billion merger.
*[[1999]] - [[Mike Tyson]] is sentenced to a year's imprisonment for the [[August 31]], [[1998]] assault on two people.
*[[2001]] - [[Tom Cruise]] and [[Nicole Kidman]] announce that they have separated.
*[[2003]] - [[2003 invasion of Iraq|U.S. plan to invade Iraq]]: [[Colin Powell]] addresses the [[UN Security Council]] on [[Iraq]].
*[[2004]] - Twenty-three [[China|Chinese]] people drown when a group of 35 [[cockle]]-pickers are trapped by rising tides in [[Morecambe Bay]], [[England]]. Twenty-one bodies are recovered.
*[[2004]] - [[Rebellion|Rebels]] from the [[National Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Haiti|Revolutionary Artibonite Resistance Front]] capture the city of [[Gonaïves]], starting the [[2004 Haiti rebellion]].
*[[2006]] - The [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] defeat the [[Seattle Seahawks]] 21-10 in [[Super Bowl XL]]. Steelers Running Back, [[Jerome Bettis]], announces his retirement.
* [[2006]] - [[Elena Dementieva]] wins her first Tier 1 title in Tokyo [[tennis]], defeating [[Martina Hingis]],who was in her first final since her comeback from retirement in 2002.
==Births==
*[[976]] - [[Sanjo]], [[Emperor of Japan]] (d. [[1017]])
*[[1505]] - [[Aegidius Tschudi]], Swiss historian (d. [[1572]])
*[[1519]] - [[René of Châlon]], Prince of the House of Orange (d. [[1544]])
*[[1534]] - [[Giovanni de' Bardi]], Italian writer, composer, and soldier (d. [[1612]])
*[[1589]] - [[Esteban Manuel de Villegas]], Spanish poet (d. [[1669]])
*[[1626]] - [[Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, marquise de Sévigné]], French author (d. [[1696]])
*[[1650]] - [[Anne-Jules, 2nd duc de Noailles]], French general (d. [[1708]])
*[[1703]] - [[Gilbert Tennent]], Irish-born religious leader (d. [[1764]])
*[[1725]] - [[James Otis]], American lawyer and patriot (d. [[1783]])
*[[1788]] - [[Robert Peel]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1850]])
*[[1795]] - [[Wilhelm Karl Ritter von Haidinger]], Austrian mineralogist (d. [[1871]])
*[[1804]] - [[Johan Ludvig Runeberg]], Finnish poet (d. [[1877]])
*[[1808]] - [[Carl Spitzweg]], German painter (d. [[1885]])
*[[1810]] - [[Ole Bull]], Norwegian violinist (d. [[1880]])
*[[1837]] - [[Dwight L. Moody]], American evangelist (d. [[1899]])
*[[1840]] - [[John Boyd Dunlop]], Scottish inventor (d. [[1921]])
*[[1848]] - [[Joris-Karl Huysmans]], French author (d. [[1907]])
*[[1848]] - [[Belle Starr]], American outlaw (d. [[1889]])
*[[1878]] - [[André Citroën]], French automobile pioneer (d. [[1935]])
*[[1880]] - [[Gabriel Voisin]], French aviation pioneer (d. [[1973]])
*[[1889]] - [[Ernest Tyldesley]], British cricketer (d. [[1962]])
*[[1900]] - [[Adlai Stevenson]], American politician (d. [[1965]])
*[[1906]] - [[John Carradine]], American actor (d. [[1988]])
*[[1908]] - [[Daisy and Violet Hilton]], British conjoined twin actresses (d. [[1969]])
*[[1910]] - [[Francisco Varallo]], Argentine footballer
*[[1911]] - [[Jussi Björling]], Swedish tenor (d. [[1960]])
*[[1914]] - [[William S. Burroughs]], American author (d. [[1997]])
*[[1914]] - [[Alan Lloyd Hodgkin]], British scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1998]])
*[[1915]] - [[Robert Hofstadter]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1990]])
*[[1918]] - [[Tim Holt]], American actor (d. [[1973]])
*[[1919]] - [[Red Buttons]], American actor
*[[1919]] - [[Andreas Papandreou]], Greek politician (d. [[1996]])
*[[1921]] - [[John Pritchard]], British conductor (d. [[1989]])
*[[1923]] - [[Claude King]], American musician
*[[1927]] - [[Ruth Fertel]], American entrepreneur (d. [[2002]])
*[[1928]] - [[Andrew Greeley]], American priest and novelist
*[[1929]] - [[Luc Ferrari]], French composer (d. [[2005]])
*1929 - [[Fred Sinowatz]], Austrian politician
*[[1929]] - [[Al Worthington]], baseball player
*[[1930]] - [[John A. Gambling]], American radio show host (d. [[2004]])
*[[1933]] - [[Jörn Donner]], Finnish writer, film director, producer and politician
*[[1934]] - [[Don Cherry (hockey)|Don Cherry]], Canadian NHL Hockey player and coach, and "CBC's Hockey Night in Canada" Commentator
*[[1934]] - [[Hank Aaron]], baseball player
*[[1937]] - [[Stuart Damon]], American actor
*[[1940]] - [[H.R. Giger]], Swiss artist
*[[1941]] - [[Jane Bryant Quinn]], American journalist
*1941 - [[David Selby]], American act |
or earlier, or which had fallen out of use by that time, nor to post-imperial inventions such as the [[slug (mass)|slug]] or [[poundal]].
Although most of the units are defined in more than one system, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one area rather than the other.
== Measures of length ==
[[Image:ImperialStandardsOfLength1876TrafalgarSquare Copyright2005KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|Imperial standards of length 1876 in [[Trafalgar Square]], [[London]].]]
After the [[1 July]] [[1959]] deadline, agreed upon in 1958, the U.S. and the British yard were defined identically (0.9144 m) to the ''international yard''. Metric equivalents in this article usually assume this latest official definition. Before this date, the most precise measurement of the Imperial Standard Yard was 0.914398416 m (Sears et al. 1928. ''Phil Trans A'' 227:281).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! &nbsp;
! inch
! link
! foot
! yard
! pole
! chain
! furlong
! mile
! league
! [[metre]]
|-
! one [[inch]]
|'''1'''
| 100/792
| 1/12
| 1/36
| 1/198
| 1/792
| 1/7,920
| 1/63,360
| 1/190,080
| 0.0254
|-
! one [[link (unit)|link]]
| 792/100
| '''1'''
| 66/100
| 22/100
| 4/100
| 1/100
| 1/1000
| 1/8,000
| 1/24,000
| 0.201168
|-
! one [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]
| 12
| 100/66
| '''1'''
| 1/3
| 2/33
| 1/66
| 1/660
| 1/5,280
| 1/15,840
| 0.3048
|-
! one [[yard]]
| 36
| 100/22
| 3
| '''1'''
| 2/11
| 1/22
| 1/220
| 1/1,760
| 1/5,280
| 0.9144
|-
! one [[pole (unit of length)|pole]]*
| 198
| 25
| 16½
| 5½
| '''1'''
| 1/4
| 1/40
| 1/320
| 1/960
| 5.0292
|-
! one [[chain (unit)|chain]]
| 792
| 100
| 66
| 22
| 4
| '''1'''
| 1/10
| 1/80
| 1/240
| 20.1168
|-
! one [[furlong]]
| 7,920
| 1,000
| 660
| 220
| 40
| 10
| '''1'''
| 1/8
| 1/24
| 201.168
|-
! one [[mile]]
| 63,360
| 8,000
| 5,280
| 1,760
| 320
| 80
| 8
| '''1'''
| 1/3
| 1,609.344
|-
! one [[league (unit)|league]]
| 190,080
| 24,000
| 15,840
| 5,280
| 960
| 240
| 24
| 3
| '''1'''
| 4,828.032
|}
&nbsp;*&nbsp; ''The pole is also called rod or perch.''
Until the adoption of the international definition of 1852 metres in 1970, the British [[nautical mile]] was defined as 6080 feet (1.85318 km). It was not readily expressible in terms of any of the intermediate units, because it was derived from the circumference of the Earth (like the original [[metre]]).<!--Cable length? Shackle?--> Depth of water at sea was expressed in [[fathom]]s (6 feet = 1.8288 m).
== Measures of area ==
{|
|+ Area
!1 ''[[rood]]''
| = 1 furlong × 1 rod || = 40 square rods || = 10890 square feet || = 0.10117141056 ha || = 1011.7141056 m²
|-
!1 ''[[acre]]''
| = 1 furlong × 1 chain || = 160 square rods || = 1/640 square mile || = 0.40468564224 [[hectare|ha]] || = 4046.8564224 m²
|-
|}
== Measures of volume ==
In [[1824]], Britain adopted a close approximation to the ale gallon known as the Imperial gallon. The Imperial gallon was based on the volume of 10 [[Pound (weight)|lb]] of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 [[inch of mercury|in]] and at a temperature of 62 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]. In 1963, this definition was refined as the space occupied by 10 lb of distilled water of density 0.998&nbsp;859&nbsp;[[gram|g]]/[[millilitre|mL]] weighed in air of density 0.001&nbsp;217&nbsp;g/mL against weights of density 8.136&nbsp;g/mL. This works out to exactly 4.545&nbsp;964&nbsp;591&nbsp;L, or 277.420 in&sup3;. The Weights and Measures Act of 1985 finally switched to a gallon of exactly 4.546&nbsp;09&nbsp;L (approximately 277.419&nbsp;43&nbsp;cu&nbsp;in<!--- 277.419432791621488754788533199114 --->) [http://www.sizes.com/units/gallon_imperial.htm].
{|
|+ Wet <!-- The wet and dry distinction should be superfluous, although usage may be so. -->
!1 [[fluid ounce]]
| || || || = 0.028 413 062 5 L
|-
!1 [[gill (unit)|gill]]
| || || = 5 oz. || = 0.142 065 312 5 L
|-
!1 [[pint]]
| || = 4 gills || = 20 oz. || = 0.568 261 25 L
|-
!1 [[quart]]
| || = 2 pints || = 40 oz. || = 1.136 522 5 L
|-
!1 [[gallon]]
| = 4 quarts || = 8 pints || = 160 oz. || = 4.546 09 L
|}
{|
|+ Dry
!1 [[peck]]<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| || || = 2 gal. || = 9.092 18 L
|-
!1 [[Kenning (disambiguation)|kenning]] or bucket<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| || = 2 pecks || = 4 gal. || = 18.184 36 L
|-
!1 [[bushel]]
| = 2 kennings || = 4 pecks || = 8 gal. || = 36.368 72 L
|-
!1 [[strike (unit)|strike]]<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| || = 2 bushels || = 16 gal. || = 72.737 44 L
|-
!1 [[quarter (unit)|quarter]] or pail<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| || = 8 bushels || = 64 gal. || = 290.949 76 L
|-
!1 [[chaldron]]<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| = 4 quarters || = 32 bushels || = 256 gal. || = 1163.799 04 L
|-
!1 [[last (unit)|last]]<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| = 10 quarters || = 80 bushels || = 640 gal. || = 2909.497 6 L
|}
{|
|+ Brewery<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
!1 [[firkin]]
| || || = 9 gal. || = 40.914 81 L
|-
!1 [[kilderkin]]
| || = 2 firkin || = 18 gal. || = 81.829 62 L
|-
!1 [[barrel (unit)|barrel]]
| = 2 kilderkin || = 4 firkin || = 36 gal. || = 163.659 24 L
|-
!1 [[hogshead]] (of beer)
| = 3 kilderkin || = 6 firkin || = 54 gal. || = 245.488 86 L
|}
The full table of British apothecaries' measure is as follows:<!--abolished when? 1879 IIRC-->
{|
|+ Apothecaries' measure
!1 ''[[minim (unit)|minim]]''
| || || = 0.059 193 880 208¯3 mL
|-
!1 ''fluid scruple''
| || = 20 minims || = 1.183 877 604 1¯6 mL
|-
!1 [[Dram (volume)|fluid dram]] or ''fluidram''
|= 3 fluid scruples || = 60 minims || = 3.551 632 812 5 mL
|-
!1 fluid ounce
|= 8 fluid drachms || = 480 minims || = 28.413 062 5 mL
|-
!1 pint
| || = 20 fluid ounces || = 568.261 25 mL
|-
!1 gallon
| = 8 pints || = 160 fluid ounces || = 4.546 09 L
|}
For a comparison to the U.S. customary system see the article on [[Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems]].
== Measures of weight and mass ==
Britain has made some use of three different weight systems, [[troy weight]], used for precious metals, [[avoirdupois]] weight, used for most other purposes, and [[apothecaries' weight]], now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.
The use of the ''[[Pound (weight)|troy pound]]'' (373.241 721 6 g) was abolished in Britain on January 6, 1879, <!-- should this be 1 Jan? It's in Weights and Measures Act of 1878 ... Is it even Imperial? -->with only the ''troy ounce'' (31.103 476 8 g) and its [[decimal]] subdivisions retained. In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the [[Pound (weight)|pound]], and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it.
{|
|+ Avoirdupois Mass
!1 mite<!-- Imperial or just English? -->
| = 1/20 grain || || = 3.239 945 5 mg
|-
!1 grain
| || || = 64.798 91 mg
|-
!1 drachm
| = 1/16 ounce || = 1/256 pound || = 1.771 845 195 312 5 g
|-
!1 ounce
| || = 1/16 pound || = 28.349 523 125 g
|-
!1 pound
| = 7000 grains || || = 453.592 37 g
|-
!1 stone
| || = 14 pounds || = 6.350 293 18 kg
|-
!1 quarter
| = 2 stone || = 28 pounds || = 12.700 586 36 kg <!-- the plural of stone is stone. 1 stone, 2 stone, etc. -->
|-
!1 hundredweight
| = 4 quarters || = 112 pounds || = 50.802 345 44 kg
|-
!1 ton
|= 20 hundredweight || = 2240 pounds || = 1016.046 908 8 kg
|}
Note that the British [[ton]] is 2240 pounds (the [[long ton]]), which is very close to a metric [[tonne]], whereas the ton generally used in the United States is the "short ton" of 2000 pounds (907.184 74 kg), both are 20 hundredweights. For more on Commonwealth-U.S. differences see ''[[Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems]]''.
== Current use of Imperial units ==
British law now defines each Imperial unit entirely in terms of the metric equivalent. See the
[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]. This regulation effectively outlaws their usage in retail and trading except in previously established exceptions. This has now been proved by in court against the so called '[[Metric Martyrs]]', a small group of market traders. Despite this, many small market traders still use the customary measures, citing customer preference especially among the older population.
In the United States and in a few [[Caribbean]] countries, the [[U.S. customary units]], which are similar to Imperial units based upon older [[English unit]]s and in part share definitions, are still in common use. English units have been replaced elsewhere by the [[SI]] (metric) system. Most Commonwealth countries have switched entirely to the international system of units.
The United Kingdom completed its legal transition to SI units in 1995, but a few such units are still in official use: draught beer ''must'' still be sold in [[pint]]s, most roadsign distances are still in yards and miles, and speed limits are in [[miles per hour]], therefore interfaces in cars ''must'' have miles, and even though the [[troy weight|troy pound]] was outlawed in Great Britain in the Weights and Measures Act of 1878, the ''troy ounce'' still ''may'' be used for the weight of precious stones and metals. The use of SI units is increasingly mandated by law for the retail sale of food and other commodities, but most British people still use Imperial units in colloquial discussion of distance (miles and yards), speed (miles per hour |
of any inline function (but irrespective of C++ function overloading) must conform to C++'s "[[One Definition Rule]]" or ODR, requiring that either there be a single definition of any inline function or that all definitions be semantically equivalent; but that in C, the same inline function could be defined differently in different ''translation units'' (translation unit typically refers to a [[Computer file|file]]). (Note that Microsoft C++ compilers define inline functions as C99 ones)
* The <code>'''bool'''</code> type in C99 is in its own header, <code>'''<stdbool.h>'''</code>. Previous C standards did not define a boolean type, and various (incompatible) methods were used to simulate a boolean type.
* Single character constants (enclosed in single quotes) have the size of an <code>int</code> in C and a <code>char</code> in C++. So in C <code>sizeof 'a' == sizeof(int)</code> whereas in C++ <code>sizeof 'a' == sizeof(char)</code>. Nevertheless, even in C they will never exceed the values that a <code>char</code> can store, so <code>(char)'a'</code> is a safe conversion that will only change the type of the expression (here it is changed from int to char), but not its value (which on systems using ASCII-encoded characters is 97).
* Additional keywords were introduced in C++, and thus they cannot be used as identifiers as they could in C. (for example, <code>try</code>, <code>catch</code>, <code>template</code>, <code>new</code>, <code>delete</code>, ...)
* In C++, the compiler automatically creates a "tag" for every <code>struct</code>, <code>union</code> or <code>enum</code>, so <code>struct S {};</code> in C++ is equivalent to <code>typedef struct S {} S;</code> in C.
C99 adopted some features that first appeared in C++. Among them are:
* Mandatory prototype declarations for functions
* The <code>'''inline'''</code> keyword
* The removal of the "implicit int" return value
==See also==
*[[C preprocessor]]
*[[C standard library]]
*[[C library]]
*[[C string]]
*[[C syntax]]
*[[C variable types and declarations]]
*[[List of articles with C programs]]
*[[Objective-C]]
*[[C++]]
*[[Operators in C and C++]]
*[[Programming tool]]s: [[Cygwin]], [[Dev-C/C++]], [[DJGPP]], [[GNU Compiler Collection]], [[Local C compiler|LCC]], [[Linker]], [[make]], [[SPlint]], [[Small-C]], [[C--|C--]]
*[[Pascal and C]]
==References==
* [[Brian Kernighan]], [[Dennis Ritchie]]: ''[[The C Programming Language (book)|The C Programming Language]]''. Also known as K&R — The original book on C.
**1st, Prentice Hall 1978; ISBN 0-131-10163-3. Pre-ANSI C.
**2nd, Prentice Hall 1988; ISBN 0-131-10362-8. ANSI C.
* [http://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/www/standards ISO/IEC 9899]. The official C:1999 standard, along with defect reports and a rationale. As of 2005 the latest version is [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1124.pdf ISO/IEC 9899:TC2].
*[[Samuel P. Harbison]], [[Guy L. Steele]]: ''C: A Reference Manual''. This book is excellent as a definitive reference manual, and for those working on C [[compiler]]s. The book contains a [[Backus-Naur form|BNF]] grammar for C.
**4th, Prentice Hall 1994; ISBN 0-133-26224-3.
**5th, Prentice Hall 2002; ISBN 0-130-89592-X.
*[[Derek M. Jones]]: ''The New C Standard: A Cultural and Economic Commentary'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-70917-1, [http://www.knosof.co.uk/cbook/cbook.html online material]
*[[Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist)|Robert Sedgewick]]: ''Algorithms in C'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-31452-5 (Part 1–4) and ISBN 0-201-31663-3 (Part 5)
* William H. Press, Saul A. Teukolsky, William T. Vetterling, Brian P. Flannery: [[Numerical Recipes]] in C (The Art of Scientific Computing), ISBN 0-521-43108-5
==External links==
{{Wikibooks}}
===Tutorials===
* [http://www.its.strath.ac.uk/courses/c/ C Programming] (course at University of Strathclyde Computer Centre)
* [http://publications.gbdirect.co.uk/c_book/ The C Book] by M.Banahan-D.Brady-M.Doran (Addison-Wensley, 2nd ed.) — A very interesting and complete book for beginners/intermediate, now off-print and free.
===Resources===
* [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/ Official web site] of the ISO C Working Group
* [http://c-faq.com/ comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions]
* [http://clc-wiki.net/wiki/Main_Page comp.lang.c Wiki]
* [http://www.lysator.liu.se/c/ Programming in C] (document collection at Lysator)
* [http://www.coding-guidelines.com/cbook/cbook1_0b.pdf ''The New C Standard: An economic and cultural commentary''] — an unpublished book about "detailed analysis of the International Standard for the C language"
===Optimization techniques===
*[http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Basics/OptimizingCAndCPPCode.htm C,C++ optimization]
*[http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/optimize.html Programming Optimization]
*[http://www.abarnett.demon.co.uk/tutorial.html C optimization tutorial]
===C99===
* [http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-c99.html?ca=dgr-lnxw07UsingC99 Open source development using C99 — Is your C code up to standard?] by [[Peter Seebach]]
*[http://www.kuro5hin.org/?op=displaystory;sid=2001/2/23/194544/139 Are you Ready For C99?]
*Article "[http://david.tribble.com/text/cdiffs.htm Incompatibilities Between ISO C and ISO C++]" by [[David R. Tribble]]
===Support===
* [http://cboard.cprogramming.com/forumdisplay.php?f=4 C Forum] at Cprogramming.com
* [http://www.daniweb.com/techtalkforums/forum8.html C and C++] at Daniweb
===History===
* [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/chist.html ''The Development of the C Language''] by [[Dennis M. Ritchie]]
===Miscellaneous===
* [http://www.ioccc.org International Obfuscated C Code Contest]
{{Major programming languages small}}
[[Category:C programming language| ]]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:Curly bracket programming languages]]
[[ar:سي]]
[[an:Luengache de pogramazión C]]
[[ast:Llinguaxe de programación C]]
[[az:C]]
[[bg:C (език за програмиране)]]
[[be:C (мова праграмавання)]]
[[bs:C programski jezik]]
[[ca:Llenguatge C]]
[[cs:C (programovací jazyk)]]
[[da:C (programmeringssprog)]]
[[de:C (Programmiersprache)]]
[[et:C (programmeerimiskeel)]]
[[es:Lenguaje de programación C]]
[[eo:C (programlingvo)]]
[[eu:C programazio lengoaia]]
[[fr:C (langage)]]
[[gl:Linguaxe de programación C]]
[[ko:C 프로그래밍 언어]]
[[hr:C (programski jezik)]]
[[id:Bahasa pemrograman C]]
[[is:Forritunarmálið C]]
[[it:C (linguaggio)]]
[[he:C (שפת תכנות)]]
[[ku:C (zimanê bernamekirinê)]]
[[lv:C (programmēšanas valoda)]]
[[lt:C (kalba)]]
[[hu:C programozási nyelv]]
[[ms:Bahasa pengaturcaraan C]]
[[nl:C (programmeertaal)]]
[[ja:C言語]]
[[no:C (programmeringsspråk)]]
[[pl:C (język programowania)]]
[[pt:Linguagem de programação C]]
[[ro:Limbajul C]]
[[ru:Си (язык программирования)]]
[[sq:Gjuha programuese C]]
[[simple:C programming language]]
[[sk:C (programovací jazyk)]]
[[sl:Programski jezik C]]
[[fi:C (ohjelmointikieli)]]
[[sv:C (programspråk)]]
[[th:ภาษาซี]]
[[vi:C (ngôn ngữ lập trình)]]
[[tr:C programlama dili]]
[[uk:Мова програмування C]]
[[zh:C语言]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cytology</title>
<id>6022</id>
<revision>
<id>22121211</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-29T19:54:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jfdwolff</username>
<id>46555</id>
</contributor>
<comment>this should be disambiguated</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cytology''' may refer to:
* [[Cell biology]], the study of cell anatomy and function
* [[Cytopathology]], the cellular diagnostics of disease
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Castle of the Winds</title>
<id>6023</id>
<revision>
<id>41823525</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:52:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joel.Gilmore</username>
<id>558968</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Graphics */ From first hand experience, CotW does indeed run on monochrome monitors</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox cvg|title = Castle of the Winds
|image = [[Image:cotw-screen.gif|center|200px]]
|developer = SaadaSoft (Rick Saada)
|publisher = [[Epic MegaGames]]
|engine = Custom 2-D
|released = 1989
|genre = RPG
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings = n/a
|platforms = [[Windows 3.x]]
|media = [[Diskette]]
}}
'''''Castle of the Winds''''' (CotW) is a tile-based [[Roguelike]] [[computer role-playing game|RPG]] which runs under [[Windows 3.x]]. It was written by SaadaSoft (a one-man, one-product company run by Rick Saada) and published by [[Epic MegaGames]].
The game was released in two parts: ''A Question of Vengeance'', released as [[shareware]]; and ''Lifthransir's Bane'', sold commercially. A license to continue using ''A Question of Vengeance'' and a copy of ''Lifthransir's Bane'' were sold together.
Castle of the Winds's only system requirements are a mouse, a 640x480 monitor and [[Windows 3.x]] or higher. The game differs from most Roguelikes in a number of ways. Its interface is heavily mouse-based. Many commands are awkward to enter by keyboard (possible only through the menu bar with the [[Alt key]]). Traditional roguelikes are usually controlled completely by keyboard, sometimes with optional mouse input. Castle of the Winds also allows the player to save the game at any point, and to restore saved games after dying &mdash; features never seen in a traditional roguelike game.
In [[1998]], the author, Rick Saada, decided to give Castle of the Winds away for free, and allowed the registered and shareware versions to be freely distributed, but he did not release the [[source code]].<ref>[http://www.exmsft.com/~ricks/ Homepage of Rick Saada, author of Castle of the Winds]; U |
tion of the Croatian government to surrender war criminals has ended successfully. The Croatian Prime minister declared that full cooperation with the Hague Tribunal will continue. The Croatian people have always felt attached to Europe and European values are now looking full of hope towards an interesting negotiation period and the fulfilment of an old dream - equal membership in the [[European Union]] and the renewed belonging to a European community of values.
== Current events ==
The main objective of the Croatian foreign policy is admittance to the [[European Union]]. It applied in [[2003]], and began with accession negotiations in [[2005]].
Government officials in charge of foreign policy include the [[Foreign minister|Minister of Foreign Affairs]], currently Kolinda Grabar Kitarović, and the [[President of Croatia|President of the Republic]], currently Stjepan Mesić. The chief EU negotiator is [[Vladimir Drobnjak]].
[[As of 2004]], Croatia has diplomatic missions in 124 locations around the world, including two permanent missions to the [[United Nations]].
A complete listing of Croatian embassies in foreign countries is available at "[http://www.mfa.hr/MVP.asp?pcpid=1613 Diplomatic Missions and Consular Offices]" at the web site of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
== International organizations ==
Republic of Croatia participates in the following international organizations:
[[Council of Europe|CE]],
[[Central European Initiative|CEI]],
[[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]],
[[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|EBRD]],
[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]],
[[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]],
[[Inter-American Development Bank|IADB]],
[[IAEA]],
[[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development|IBRD]],
[[ICAO]],
[[International Criminal Court|ICC]],
[[ICFTU]],
[[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]],
[[International Development Association|IDA]],
[[IFAD]],
[[IFC]],
[[IFRCS]],
[[IHO]],
[[International Labour Organization|ILO]],
[[International Monetary Fund|IMF]],
[[International Maritime Organization|IMO]],
[[Inmarsat]],
[[Intelsat]],
[[Interpol]],
[[IOC]],
[[International Organization for Migration|IOM]],
[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]],
[[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]],
[[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]] (observer),
[[Organization of American States|OAS]] (observer),
[[OPCW]],
[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]],
[[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]],
[[Partnership for Peace|PFP]],
[[Southeast European Cooperative Initiative|SECI]],
[[United Nations|UN]],
[[UNAMSIL]],
[[UNCTAD]],
[[UNESCO]],
[[UNIDO]],
[[UNMEE]],
[[UNMOGIP]],
[[UPU]],
[[WCO]],
[[World Health Organization|WHO]],
[[WIPO]],
[[WMO]],
[[WToO]],
[[WTrO]]
== Foreign support ==
Croatia receives support from donor programs of:
* [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development]]
* [[European Commission]]
* [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]]
* [[International Monetary Fund]]
* [[Sweden]]
* [[Switzerland]]
* [[USAID]]
Between 1991 and 2003, the EBRD had directly invested a total of 1,212,039,000 [[Euro|EUR]] into projects in Croatia.
In [[1998]], U.S. support to Croatia came through the Southeastern European Economic Development Program (SEED), whose funding in Croatia totaled $23.25 million. More than half of that money was used to fund programs encouraging sustainable returns of refugees and displaced persons. About one-third of the assistance was used for democratization efforts, and another 5% funded financial sector restructuring.
In [[2003]], USAID considered Croatia to be on a "glide path for graduation" along with [[Bulgaria]]. Its 2002/2003/2004 funding includes around $10 million for economic development, up to $5 million for the development of democratic institutions, about $5 million for the return of population affected by war and between 2 and 3 million dollars for the "mitigation of adverse social conditions and trends". A rising amount of funding is given to cross-cutting programs in anti-[[political corruption|corruption]], slightly under one million dollars.
The [[European Commission]] has proposed to assist Croatia's efforts to join the European Union with 245 million [[euro]]s from [[PHARE]], [[ISPA]] and [[SAPARD]] aid programs over the course of 2005 and 2006.
== International disputes ==
Relations with neighbouring states have normalized somewhat since the breakup of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. Work has begun &mdash; bilaterally and within the [[Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe]] since 1999 &mdash; on political and economic cooperation in the region.
=== Bosnia and Herzegovina ===
Discussions continue between Croatia and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] on various sections of the border, the longest border with another country for each of these countries.
Sections of the [[Una]] river and villages at the base of Mount [[Plješevica]] are cadastrally part of Croatia, while some are part of Bosnia, which causes an excessive number of border crossings on a single route and impedes any serious development in the region. The [[Zagreb]]-[[Bihać]]-[[Split]] railway line is still closed for major traffic due to this issue. The road [[Karlovac]]-[[Bihać]]-[[Knin]], which is on the [[European route]] E71, is becoming increasingly unused because Croatia built a separate highway to the west of it.
The border on the [[Sava (river)|Sava]] river between Hrvatska [[Kostajnica]] on the northern, Croatian side of the river, and Bosanska [[Kostajnica]] on the southern, Bosnian side, is also being discussed. A river island between the two towns cadastrally belongs to Croatia but is controlled by Bosnia. The countries have been discussing the building of an international border crossing on the said river island.
The Herzegovinian municipality of [[Neum]] in the south makes the southernmost part of Croatia an [[exclave]] and the two countries are negotiating special transit rules through Neum to compensate for that.
=== Slovenia ===
Croatia and [[Slovenia]] have several land and maritime boundary disputes.
Slovenia claims the water border in the bay of [[Piran]]/Savudrija does not go through the middle of the bay, while Croatia claims it does. This is causing problems for the fishermen due to undefined area where the naval police of each country may patrol.
Related to the border in the said bay is Slovenian access to [[international waters]] which would require Croatia to cede at least some of its [[territorial waters]] to the west of [[Umag]].
A small number of cadastral units on the right-hand side of the river [[Dragonja]] in [[Istria]] have remained under Croatian jurisdiction after the river was re-routed after the Second World War. This area is located near the Sečovlje-Plovanija official border crossing point (set up by an interim agreement of the two countries in the 1990s).
The area around the peak of the [[Žumberak/Gorjanci]] mountain is cadastrally assigned partly to Slovenia (the Trdinov vrh area) and partly to Croatia (the Sveta Gera area). However, an old [[Yugoslav People's Army]] barracks building on the Croatian part of the border is still occupied by a small number of Slovenian army personnel.
Parliamentarians are far from ratifying an agreement signed by the then prime ministers [[Janez Drnovšek|Drnovšek]] and [[Ivica Račan|Račan]], which would have ceded most of the Bay of [[Piran]] and maritime access to Slovenia and several villages to Croatia.
Slovenia is disputing Croatia's claim to establish an economic section of the Adriatic, requiring direct access to the international waters. Croatia decided to pursue a policy of stricter control over fishing and other economic use of the sea. This policy is in place since late 2004 but excludes the EU countries (namely, Slovenia and Italy).
=== Serbia and Montenegro ===
In late 2002, Croatia and [[Serbia and Montenegro]] adopted an interim agreement to settle the disputed [[Prevlaka]] peninsula at the entrance of the [[Boka Kotorska|Bay of Kotor]], allowing the withdrawal of the [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka|UN monitoring mission]]. Full demilitarization of the area is pending.
Croatia has also protested about Serbia's deployment of military forces to guard the border in the north (with [[Vojvodina]]), but has accepted the Serbian explanation that it is not done by police units due to lack of funding for border police reorganization.
Due to the [[meander]]ing of the [[Danube]], the eastern border of [[Baranja]] according to cadastral delineation is not followed, as each country controls territory on their side of the main river flow.
Further south, near [[Vukovar]] and near [[Sarengrad|Šarengrad]], there are two river islands that are nearer to the Serbian side of the river and have thus been controlled by the Yugoslav army ever since the secession, also contrary to the cadastre records.
=== Italy ===
Croatia and [[Italy]] continue to debate bilateral property and ethnic minority rights issues stemming from border changes after the [[World War II]].
{{sectstub}}
== Illicit drugs ==
Croatia is a transit point along the [[Balkan]] route for Southwest Asian [[heroin]] to [[Western Europe]].
It has also been used as a minor transit point for maritime shipments of [[South America]]n cocaine bound for Western Europe.
== Diplomatic Relations ==
=== States with which Croatia has established diplomatic relations ===
{| class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|[[State]]
! bgcolor="#FFEBAD"|Date of Establishment of Relations
|-
| [[Austria]]
| January 15, 1992
|
|-
| [[Germany]]
| January 15, 1992
|
|-
| [[Italy]]
| January 17, 1992
|
|-
| [[Hungary]]
| January 18, 1992
|
|-
| [[Sweden]]
| January 29, 1992
|
|-
| [[Switzerland]]
| January 30, 1992
|
|-
| [[Denmark]]
| February 1, 1992
|
|-
| |
perform this duty.
;loose ball :any ball that is in play and not in a player's possession. This includes a ball in flight during a lateral or forward pass.
==M==
;man coverage :same as man-to-man coverage
;man-in-motion :a player on offense who is moving backwards or parallel to the line of scrimmage just before the snap. In American football, only one offensive player can be in motion at a time, cannot be moving toward the line of scrimmage at the snap, and may not be a player who is on the line of scrimmage. In Canadian football, more than one back can be in motion, and may move in any direction as long as they are behind the line of scrimmage at the snap.
;man-to-man coverage :a defense in which all players in pass coverage, typically linebackers and defensive backs, cover a specific player. Pure man coverage is very rare; defenses typically mix man and zone coverage.
;mike :the ''m''iddle linebacker.
;mo :the other middle linebacker in a 3-4 formation.
;muff :a loose ball that is dropped or mishandled while the player is attempting to gain possession.
==N==
;[[National Football League]] :the largest professional American football league.
;[[neutral zone (American football)|neutral zone]] :the region between the lines of scrimmage or between the free kick restraining lines
;[[National Football League|NFL]] :the National Football League
;[[nickel back]] :an extra, or fifth, defensive back. Named after the coin, worth five cents. Popularized by the [[Miami Dolphins]] in the 1970s, now common.
;[[no-huddle offense]] :a tactic wherein the offense quickly forms near the line of scrimmage without huddling before the next play.
;[[nose tackle]] :a tackle in a 3-man defensive line who lines up "opposite the '''center''''s nose".
==O==
;[[offensive team]] :the team with possession of the ball
;offside :
*an infraction of the rule that requires both teams to be on their own side of their restraining line as or before the ball is put play. Offside is normally called on the defensive team.
*in Canadian football, at the time a ball is kicked by a teammate, being ahead of the ball, or being the person who held the ball for the place kick
;one back formation :a formation where the '''offensive team''' has one '''running back''' in the backfield with the '''quarterback'''. Other '''eligible receivers''' are near the '''line of scrimmage'''.
;[[onside kick]] :a play in which the kicking team tries to recover the kicked ball.
;[[Option offense|option]] :
*Usually, a type of play in which the quarterback has the option of handing off, keeping, or laterally passing to one or more backs. Often described by a type of formation or play action, such as triple option, veer option, or counter option. Teams running option plays often specialize in them.
*Less often, a play in which a back may either pass or run
;outside :opposite of '''inside'''
==P==
;package :the group of players on the field for a given play. For example, the Nickel Package substitutes a cornerback for either a linebacker or a defensive lineman (the latter is referred to as a 3-3-5 Nickel), or the Jumbo package substitutes a wide receiver with a tight end.
;[[pass interference]] :when a player illegally hinders an eligible receiver's opportunity to catch forward pass.
;passing play: a play in which a forward pass is made
;[[placekicker|place kick]] :kicking the ball from where it has been placed stationary on the ground or, where legal, on a tee.
;[[football play|play]]
:the action between the '''snap''' of the ball, and the end of play signaled by the official's whistle for a '''tackle''' or out of bounds
:the plan of action the offensive team has for each snap, for example a running play or pass play
;[[play action pass|play action]]
: a tactic in which the quarterback fakes either a handoff or a throw in order to draw the defense away from the intended offensive method
;[[play clock]]: a timer used to increase the pace of the game between plays. The offensive team must [[Snap (American football)|snap]] the ball before the time expires. Currently, the [[National Football League|NFL]] uses 40 seconds (25 seconds after a time out).
;playing field: see [[#F|field of play]]
;pocket :an area on the offensive side of the line of scrimmage, where the offensive linemen attempt to prevent the defensive players from reaching the quarterback during passing plays
;[[American and Canadian football position names|position]] :a place where a player plays relative to teammates, and/or a role filled by that player
;prevent defense :a defensive strategy that utilizes deep zone coverage in order to prevent a big pass play from happening downfield, usually at the expense of giving up yards at shorter distances. Often used against '''hail mary''' plays, or at the end of the game when the defending team is protecting a lead. Disparaged by many fans. John Madden, legendary player, coach, and commentator, has been quoted as saying, "The only thing a prevent defense prevents is a win."
;pulling :a term used to describe an offensive lineman who, instead of blocking the player in front of him, steps back and moves down the line("pulls") to block another player, usually in a "trap" or "sweep."
;[[punt (football)|punt]] :a kick in which the ball is dropped and kicked before it reaches the ground. Used to give up the ball to the opposition after offensive '''downs''' have been used, as far down the field as possible.
;[[punter (football position)|punter]] :a kicker who specializes in punting as opposed to place kicking.
==Q==
;[[quarterback]] (QB):an [[offensive team|offensive]] player who lines up behind the [[center (football)|center]], from whom he takes the [[snap (football)|snap]].
;[[quick kick]] :an unexpected punt.
==R==
;[[wide receiver|receiver]] :a wide receiver.
;[[reception (American football)|reception]] :when a player catches (receives) the ball.
;red dog :a blitz.
;red zone :the area between the 20 yard line and the goal of the defensive team.
;referee (R): the official who directs the other officials on the field, He is one of seven officials.
;restraining line :a team's respective line of scrimmage
:at a free kick, the line the ball is to be kicked from (for the kicking team), or a line 10 yards in advance of that (for the receiving team)
;[[Reverse (American football)|reverse]] :an offensive play in which a ballcarrier going toward one side of the field hands or tosses the ball to a teammate who is running in the opposite direction (if the second ballcarrier is an end, it is an "end around").
;[[Run & Shoot|run and shoot]] :an [[Offensive philosophy (American football)|offensive philosophy]] designed to force the defense to show its hand prior to the snap of the ball by splitting up receivers and sending them in motion. Receivers run patterns based on the play of the defenders, rather than a predetermined plan.
;[[running back]]
:a player position on offense. Although the term usually refers to the halfback or tailback, fullbacks are also considered runningbacks.
;running play: a play where the offense attempts to advance the ball without passing.
;[[rush (American football) | rush]] :trying to tackle or hurry a player before he can throw a pass or make a kick
:a running play
==S==
;[[quarterback sack|sack]] :tackling a ball carrier who intends to throw a forward pass. A sack is also awarded if a player forces a fumble of the ball, or the ball carrier to go out of bounds, behind the line of scrimmage on an apparent intended forward pass play. The term gained currency ca. 1970.
;safety
#a player position on [[defensive team|defense]] -- see '''free safety''' and '''strong safety'''.
#a method of scoring (worth two points) by downing an opposing ballcarrier in his own end zone, forcing the opposing ballcarrier out of his own end zone AND out of bounds, or forcing the offensive team to fumble the ball so that it exits the end zone. A safety is also awarded if the offensive team commits a penalty within its own end zone. After a safety, the team that was scored upon must kick the ball to the scoring team from its own 20-yard line.<br>A safety scored during a try scores 1 point and is followed by a kickoff as for any other try.
;safety valve :a receiver whose job it is to get open for a short pass in case all other receivers are covered.
;sam :the ''s''trong side outside linebacker
;scramble :on a called passing play, when the quarterback runs from the pocket in an attempt to avoid being sacked, giving the receivers more time to get open or attempting to gain positive yards by running himself.
;[[screen pass]] :a short forward pass to a receiver who has blockers in front of him. The receiver in this play is usually a running back, although wide receiver and tight end screens are also used. Although the are both called screen passes, the wide receiver screen and the running back screen are used for very different reasons. In the case of a running back screen, the play is designed to allow the pass rushers by the offensive linemen, leaving the defender out of position to make a play. The play is usually employed to defuse the pass rush in the case of a running back screen. The Wide Receiver screen is a much faster developing play, designed to catch the defense off guard.
;scrimmage :see: [[play from scrimmage]]
;shift :when two or more offensive players move at the same time before the snap. All players who move in a shift must come to a complete stop prior to the snap.
;[[Shoot the gap|shooting]] :the action of a linebacker or defensive back to [[blitz (American football)|blitz]]
;[[shotgun formation]] :formation in which offensive team may line up at the start of a play. In this formation, the quarterback receives the snap 5-8 yards behind the center.
;sideline :
# one of the lines marking each side of the field
# as adjective: on the field near a sideline
;side zone :the |
re said to be based on Fleming, such as his height, his hairstyle and his eye colour.
Fleming has, however, admitted to being inspired by true or partially-true events that took place during his career at the [[Naval Intelligence Division (UK)|Naval Intelligence Division]] of the [[Admiralty]]. Most notably, and the basis for ''Casino Royale'', was a trip to [[Lisbon]] that Fleming and the Director of Naval Intelligence, Admiral Godfrey, took during [[World War II]] en route to the United States. While there they went to the [[Estoril Casino]] in [[Estoril]], which, due to the neutral status of [[Portugal]] had a number of spies of warring regimes present. Fleming claimed that while there he was cleaned out by a "chief [[Germany|German]] agent" at a table playing [[Chemin de Fer]], however, Admiral Godfrey tells a different story, that Fleming only played Portuguese businessmen and that afterwards Ian had fantasised about them being German agents and the excitement of cleaning them out.
===The franchise===
[[Image:FromRussia1959.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''[[From Russia with Love]]'' is the novel credited with sparking the James Bond craze when it was listed as one of [[John F. Kennedy]]'s favourite books.]]
The James Bond franchise is currently the second all-time highest grossing film franchise in history, after ''[[Star Wars]]''{{ref|filmfranchise}}, and one of the longest running film series in history, spanning 20 [[#Official|official films]], 2 [[#Unofficial|unofficial films]], 1 TV episode based on ''Casino Royale'', and a cartoon television series spinoff. A new film, ''Casino Royale'', is currently in production with an expected release in November 2006.
The James Bond novels and films have ranged from realistic spy drama to [[science fiction]]. The original books by Fleming are usually dark – lacking [[fantasy]] or gadgets. Instead, they established the formula of unique villains, outlandish plots, and voluptuous women who tend to fall in love with Bond at first sight &mdash; the feeling often being mutual. The films expanded on Fleming's books, adding gadgets from [[Q (James Bond)|Q Branch]], death-defying stunts, and often abandoning the original plotlines for more outlandish and cinema-friendly adventures. The cinematic Bond adventures were initially influenced by earlier spy thrillers such as ''[[North by Northwest]]'', ''[[Saboteur (film)|Saboteur]]'', and ''[[Journey Into Fear]]'', but later entries became formulaic dramas where Bond saves the world from [[apocalypse|apocalyptic]] madmen. Inevitably, a villain tries to kill Bond with a [[deathtrap (plot device)|deathtrap]] during which the villain reveals vital information; Bond later escapes and uses the information to thwart the evil plot. In many cases, the villain then dies at Bond's hands, although early Bond films often ended with the villain either escaping or being killed by someone else.
The first actor to play Bond was American [[Barry Nelson]], in the 1954 [[CBS]] television production of ''Casino Royale'' in which the character became a U.S. agent named "Jimmy Bond." In 1956, [[Bob Holness]] provided the voice of Bond in a [[South Africa]]n [[radio]] adaptation of Fleming's third novel, ''[[Moonraker]]''.
[[Albert R. Broccoli]] and [[Harry Saltzman]] started the official cinematic run of Bond in [[1962 in film|1962]], with ''[[Dr. No]]'' starring Sean Connery. Their production company, EON Productions, set up a semi-regular schedule of releases; initially annually, then usually once every two years, although there have been a couple times where the gap was larger, usually due to external events. Every Bond film has been a box office success to a lesser or greater degree. They continue to earn substantial profits after their theatrical run via [[videotape]], [[DVD]], and television broadcasts. In the UK, Bond holds three of the top five top spots of [[List of most-watched television episodes|the most-watched television movies]].
Since Bond's peak of popularity in 1965, with the release of ''Thunderball'', critics have often predicted that Bond's successful run would come to an end, usually believing that Bond was out of touch with the times. After the release of ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'', George Lazenby quit the role of Bond for this very reason even though he was offered a seven-film contract. By the 1980s, some critics had grown tired of the films, commenting that the perennial [[sexism]] and glamorous locales had become outdated, and that Bond's smooth, unruffled exterior didn't mesh with competing movies like ''[[Die Hard]]''. The hard-edge of Timothy Dalton in the Bond films of the late 80s met a mixed response from moviegoers; some welcomed the earthier style reminiscent of Fleming's character, while others missed the light-hearted approach which characterised the Roger Moore era. While Dalton's final outing, ''Licence to Kill'' (1989), was financially successful, it did not prove as popular as previous Bond films. ''Licence to Kill'''s relative failure is usually blamed on a poor promotional campaign in the United States, Dalton's darker portrayal of Bond, and its status as the first Bond film to be rated [[PG-13]] in the U.S. and "15" in the UK. Regardless, a new Bond film was scheduled for release in 1991; however, legal wrangling over ownership of the character led to a protracted delay that would keep Bond off movie screens for the next six years during which time, Dalton had moved on.
The 1990s saw a revival and renewal of the series beginning with ''[[GoldenEye]]'' in 1995. Pierce Brosnan filled Bond's shoes with an elegant mix of Sean Connery cool and Roger Moore [[wit]]. The combination saw the success of Bond return to its standard stride it hadn't reached since 1979's ''Moonraker''.
==Biography of James Bond==
{{spoiler}}
===Early years===
James Bond is the son of a [[Scottish people|Scottish]] father, Andrew Bond, and a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] mother, Monique Delacroix, both of whom died in a mountain [[climbing]] accident in the [[Aiguilles Rouges]], when Bond was 11 years old. He subsequently went to live with his Aunt, Miss Charmian Bond, in [[Kent]]. Bond's family [[motto]], which was adopted by James Bond during "Operation Corona" in the novel ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'' is ''Orbis non sufficit'' ([[Latin]] for "The world is not enough.")
With the exception of the ''[[Young Bond]]'' series of novels by [[Charlie Higson]] launched in 2005, Bond for the most part is an [[ageless]] character in both films and literature. He is roughly in his late thirties. Many Ian Fleming biographers agree that Fleming never really intended to write as many James Bond adventures as he did and to keep writing the novels he had to "tinker with Bond's early life" and change dates to ensure Bond was the appropriate age for the service, particularly due to a statement in ''Moonraker'' that 007 faced mandatory [[retirement]] from the 00 Section at age 45. In the same novel Bond notes that he has only 8 years to go, thus in ''Moonraker'', Bond is 37 years old. This approximate age carries on in continuation novels written by Kingsley Amis, John Gardner, and Raymond Benson.
Due to Fleming's changes of dates and times in which events occurred, Bond's specific birth year is unknown. Most researchers or biographers have concluded that Bond was born in either 1920, 1921 or 1924. According to John Pearson's ''[[James Bond: The Authorised Biography of 007]]'', Bond was born on [[November 11]], [[1920]]; no Fleming novel supports this date, in fact, the novel ''You Only Live Twice'' makes a couple references to Bond's birth year being 1924. In the novel, M writes an obituary for James Bond after believing him to be dead. M writes that Bond left school when he was 17 years old and joined the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] in 1941. If Bond was 17 in 1941, then he was born in 1924. Prior to this, Tiger Tanaka, the head of the Japanese Secret Service, states Bond was born in the [[year of the rat]], which supports 1924. A more complex date of birth, according to [[John Griswold]] and his authorised book ''Ian Fleming's James Bond: Annotations and Chronologies'', is [[November 11]], [[1921]] (November 11, being Pearson's date). Griswold notes that Bond's joining of the Ministry of Defence was originally written in Fleming's manuscript as 1939 (the same year Fleming joined). He contends that a lot of details in Bond's timeline make better sense with the original 1939 date. For instance, if one computes Bond's age for when he was admitted into the Ministry of Defence to when his parents died (1939 - 17 = 1922 + 11 = 1933) Bond would have been 11 in 1933 from January 1 through November 10 if he was born in 1921. 1933 is the year mentioned in ''Casino Royale'' for when Bond 'bought' his first Bentley. Since all of the years claimed for when Bond was born would have made him too young to purchase this Bentley, a more likely scenario is that he inherited it. [[Ian Fleming Publications]] recognised this issue for their ''Young Bond'' series of novels featuring Bond as a teenager in the 1930s and along with its author, Charlie Higson, defined Bond being born in the year 1920.
It is also debated where James Bond was born. According to Pearson, Bond was born near [[Essen, Germany|Essen]], [[Germany]]; however, Charlie Higson, in his novel ''SilverFin'' claims Bond was born in [[Switzerland]]. Regardless, Bond is unquestionably British.
Bond briefly attended [[Eton College]] starting at the age of "12 or thereabouts" (13 in ''Young Bond''), but was expelled after two halves when some "alleged" troubles with one of his maids came to light, although in the short story "[[For Your Eyes Only#"From A View to a Kill"|From a View to a Kill]]," Bond admits to losing his [[virginity]] on his first visit |
on declared that he would only accept office if Lavon was fired from the position of the head of [[Histadrut]], Israel's labor union organization. His demands were accepted; however in 1963 he quit again in the wake of the scandal. His attempts to make his political party MAPAI resolve this issue during 1964-1965 turned against him, and Ben-Gurion was forced to leave.
====Further information about the Lavon Affair====
*Doron Geller: ''The Lavon Affair'' [http://www.jafi.org.il/education/juice/service/week2.html]
*List of books and articles covering the affair [http://users.skynet.be/terrorism/html/israel_susannah.htm]
*Jack Riemer: ''Author unravels the scandal that brought down Ben-Gurion'' [http://www.jewishsf.com/bk970221/etdown.htm]
*Israeli government's summary (in Hebrew)[http://www.knesset.gov.il/lexicon/heb/lavon.htm]
=== 1956 Suez War ===
:''Main article: [[1956 Suez War]]''.
The [[Suez Crisis]] came about when throughout 1956 conflict increased between Israel and Egypt, with Egypt sending guerilla forces into Israeli territory and Israel launching frequent incursions into Egyptian territory in response. Egypt blockaded the [[Gulf of Aqaba]], and closed the [[Suez canal]] to Israeli shipping. Egypt also nationalized the canal, to the fury of its previous European controllers. In response, [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] entered into a secret agreement with Israel to take back the canal by force.
In accordance with this agreement (which was not officially admitted until very much later), Israel invaded the [[Gaza Strip]] and the [[Sinai Peninsula]] in October 1956. Israeli forces reached the canal in short order and then French and British forces stepped in on the pretext of restoring order.
The Israeli, French and United Kingdom forces were victorious, but were forced to withdraw in March 1957 by pressure from their ally the [[United States]], which did not approve of the [[Suez War]]. The [[United Nations]] established the [[UNEF|UN Emergency Force]] (UNEF) to keep peace in the area.
=== Six-Day War ===
:''Main article: [[Six-Day War]]''.
In June 1967, the united Arab military command massed troops along the borders, while Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran and Nasser insisted that the UNEF leave Egypt. The [[Six-Day War]] began when on [[June 5]] of that year, the Israeli air force launched preemptive attacks destroying the air force of Egypt, later the same day neutralising the air forces of Jordan and Syria. Israel then defeated (almost successively) Egypt, Jordan and Syria. By [[June 11]] the Arab forces were routed and all parties had accepted the cease-fire called for by UN Security Council Resolutions 235 and 236.
Israel gained control of the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the [[Golan Heights]], and the formerly Jordanian-controlled West Bank of the [[Jordan River]], including East Jerusalem as 'Greater Israel'. On [[November 22]], [[1967]], the Security Council adopted Resolution 242, the "land for peace" formula, which called for the establishment of a just and lasting peace based on Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in return for the end of all states of belligerency, respect for the sovereignty of all states in the area, and the right to live in peace within secure, recognized boundaries.
In the 1969-1970 war of attrition, Israeli planes made deep strikes into Egypt in retaliation for repeated Egyptian shelling of Israeli positions along the Suez Canal. In early 1969, fighting broke out between Egypt and Israel along the Suez Canal. The United States helped end these hostilities in August 1970, but subsequent U.S. efforts to negotiate an interim agreement to open the Suez Canal and achieve disengagement of forces were unsuccessful.
=== The Yom Kippur War ===
:''Main article: [[Yom Kippur War]]''.
The [[Yom Kippur War]] began when on [[October 6]], [[1973]] (the [[Jew]]ish [[Yom Kippur|Day of Atonement]]) the Syrian and Egyptian armies launched a simultaneous attack on Greater Israel and inflicted a heavy defeat on the surprised Israeli Defence Force (IDF). After a three week struggle the invaders were pushed back, the land recaptured and a UN peacekeeping force put in place.
As the result of the shock sustained by Israeli society in the aftermath of the war, the Israeli government started negotiations for security on its borders. On [[January 18]], [[1974]], a [[Disengagement of Forces]] agreement was signed with the Egyptian government, and on [[May 31]], with the Syrian government. On the international scene, the Arab world retaliated by imposing an [[1973 oil crisis|oil embargo]] on countries trading with Israel. The government of [[Japan]] announced on [[November 22]], [[1973]] that it would reconsider its relations with the Israeli government unless it withdrew from all territories occupied in 1967.
=== The "Zionism is Racism" UN Resolution ===
On November 10th, 1975, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution which asserted [[Zionism]] to be a form of racism. The text of the resolution can be found in [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/761c1063530766a7052566a2005b74d1?OpenDocument Resolution 3379 of November, 1975].
The General Assembly rescinded this resolution in [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/46/a46r086.htm Resolution 46/86 of December 16, 1991].
(''See also [[Zionism and racism]], [[Israel and the United Nations]].'')
=== Egyptian-Israeli Peace Process ===
In November 1977, Egyptian President [[Anwar Sadat]] broke 30 years of hostility with Israel by visiting Jerusalem at the invitation of Israeli Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]], who was elected as the prime minister earlier that year in the [[Israel legislative election, 1977|1977 election]], in what is known as the ''Mahapakh''. During a 2-day visit, which included a speech before the [[Knesset]], the Egyptian leader created a new psychological climate in the Middle East in which peace between Israel and its Arab neighbors seemed a realistic possibility. Sadat recognized Israel's right to exist and established the basis for direct negotiations between Egypt and Israel.
In September 1978, U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] invited President Sadat and Prime Minister Begin to meet with him at [[Camp David]], and on [[September 11]] they agreed on a framework for peace between Israel and Egypt and a comprehensive peace in the Middle East. It set out broad principles to guide negotiations between Israel and the Arab states. It also established guidelines for a West Bank-Gaza transitional regime of full autonomy for the Palestinians residing in the occupied territories and for a [[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty|peace treaty between Egypt and Israel]]. The treaty was signed on [[March 26]], [[1979]], by Begin and Sadat, with President Carter signing as witness. Under the treaty, Israel returned the Sinai to Egypt in April 1982. In 1989, the Governments of Israel and Egypt concluded an agreement that resolved the status of [[Taba]], a resort area on the Gulf of Aqaba.
Further information from pro-Israel sources: [http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/100/concepts/d4.html],
[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Peace/camp_david_accords.html]
The [[Arab League]] reacted to the peace treaty by suspending Egypt from their organisation and moving their headquarters from Cairo to Tunis. Sadat was later assassinated by members of the Egyptian army which had opposed his efforts to make peace with Israel.
=== Lebanon ===
In the years following the 1948 war, Israel's border with Lebanon was quiet compared to its borders with other neighbors. After the expulsion of the Palestinian fedayeen (fighters) from Jordan in 1970 and their influx into southern Lebanon, however, hostilities on Israel's northern border increased. In March 1978, after a series of clashes between Israeli forces and Palestinian guerrillas in Lebanon, Israeli forces crossed into Lebanon commencing [[Operation Litani]]. After passage of Security Council Resolution 425, calling for Israeli withdrawal and the creation of the [[UNIFIL|United Nations Interim Forces in Lebanon]] peace-keeping force (UNIFIL), Israel withdrew its troops.
In July 1981, after additional fighting between Israel and the Palestinians in Lebanon, President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s special envoy, [[Philip Habib|Philip C. Habib]], helped secure a cease-fire between the parties. During this time the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) launched attacks against northern Israel using rockets and artillery. The PLO simultaneously engaged Lebanese [[Christianity|Christian]] forces.
In June 1982, Israel responded by invading the southern half of Lebanon during the [[1982 Invasion of Lebanon]] to drive out the [[PLO]], initially from Southern Lebanon and then altogether. While a few Lebanese did at first welcome the Israelis, almost all Lebanese came to resent Israeli occupation. Heavy Israeli casualties and a lack of clear goals led to increasing disquiet among Israelis at the war as well.
In August 1982, the PLO withdrew its forces from Lebanon. With U.S. assistance, Israel and Lebanon reached [[The Peace Treaty between Israel and Lebanon|an accord]] in May 1983 that set the stage to withdraw Israeli forces from Lebanon. The instruments of ratification were never exchanged, however, and in March 1984, under pressure from Syria, Lebanon canceled the agreement. In June 1985, Israel withdrew most of its troops from Lebanon, leaving a small residual Israeli force and an Israeli-supported militia in southern Lebanon in a "security zone," which Israel considered a necessary buffer against attacks on its northern territory. Israel finally withdrew from this zone in 2000, during the Prime Ministership of [[Ehud Barak]], fulfilling [[UN Security Council Resolution 425]]. Lebanon has since claimed a small area of the Golan Heights called "[[Shebaa Farms]]" which Israel captured from Syria in 1967.
Further information from pro-Israel so |
to late 1800s. Almost six hundred acres (240 hectares) of brackish Charles River marshlands west of the Boston Common were filled in with soil brought in by rail from the hills of Needham Heights. Boston also grew by annexing the adjacent communities of [[East Boston, Massachusetts|East Boston]], [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]], [[South Boston, Massachusetts|South Boston]], Brighton, Allston, Hyde Park, and [[Charlestown, Massachusetts|Charlestown]], some of which were also augmented by landfill reclamation.
[[Image:Scollay1880s.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Scollay Square|Scollay Square, Boston]], Boston, in the 1880s]]
By the early and mid-20th century, the city was in decline as factories became old and obsolete, and businesses moved out of the region for cheaper labor elsewhere. Boston responded by initiating various [[urban renewal]] projects, including the demolition of the old West End neighborhood and the construction of [[Government Center, Boston, Massachusetts|Government Center]]. In the 1970s, Boston boomed after thirty years of economic downturn, becoming a leader in the [[mutual fund]] industry. Boston already had a reputation for excellent healthcare services. Hospitals such as [[Massachusetts General Hospital]], [[Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center]], and [[Brigham and Women's Hospital]] led the nation in medical innovation and patient care. Universities such as Harvard, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], and [[Boston University]] attracted many students to the Boston area. Nevertheless, the city experienced conflict starting in 1974 over [[desegregation busing]], which resulted in unrest and violence around public schools throughout the mid-1970s. The unrest served to highlight racial tensions in the city.
Over the past several decades, Boston has experienced a dramatic loss of regional institutions and traditions, which once gave it a very distinct social character. Boston has begun to resemble other parts of the continuous string of Northeast seaboard cities dubbed the [[BosWash]] [[megalopolis]]. The city faces [[gentrification]] issues and exorbitant living costs. Conversely, Boston's streets currently bustle with a vitality not seen since the 1920s. Once again Boston has become a hub of intellectual, technological, and political ideas.
==Geography and climate==
[[Image:Boston_Landsat.jpg|thumb|A simulated-color satellite image of the Boston area taken on [[NASA]]'s [[Landsat 3]].]]
===Geography===
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 232.1&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (89.6&nbsp;[[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 125.4&nbsp;km&sup2; (48.4&nbsp;mi&sup2;) of it is land and 106.7&nbsp;km&sup2; (41.2&nbsp;mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 46.0% water. With an elevation of 19&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (5.8&nbsp;m) above sea level at [[Logan International Airport]], Boston is bordered by the cities of [[Winthrop, Massachusetts|Winthrop]], [[Revere, Massachusetts|Revere]], [[Chelsea, Massachusetts|Chelsea]], [[Everett, Massachusetts|Everett]], [[Somerville, Massachusetts|Somerville]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Watertown, Massachusetts|Watertown]], [[Newton, Massachusetts|Newton]], [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]], [[Needham, Massachusetts|Needham]], [[Dedham, Massachusetts|Dedham]], [[Canton, Massachusetts|Canton]], [[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]], and [[Quincy, Massachusetts|Quincy]]—often known as, and considered a part of, ''[[Greater Boston]]''.
Much of the [[Back Bay, Boston|Back Bay]] and [[South End]] are built on [[Land reclamation|reclaimed land]]—two and a half of Boston's three original hills were used as a source of material for landfill. Only [[Beacon Hill, Boston, Massachusetts|Beacon Hill]], the smallest of the three original hills, remains partially intact. The downtown area and immediate surroundings consist mostly of low-rise brick or stone buildings, with many older buildings in the [[Federal architecture|Federal style]]. Several of these buildings mix in with modern high-rises, notably in the Financial District, [[Government Center (Boston)|Government Center]], Back Bay, and the South Boston waterfront. To this day, the [[South End]] Historical District remains the nation's largest surviving contiguous Victorian-era neighborhood. Smaller commercial areas are interspersed amongst single-family homes and wooden/brick multifamily row houses.
The [[Charles River]] separates Boston proper from Cambridge, Watertown, and the neighborhood of Charlestown. To the east lies [[Boston Harbor]] and the [[Boston Harbor Islands]], many of which are part of the [[Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area]], operated by the [[National Park Service]]. The [[Neponset River]] forms the boundary between Boston's southern neighborhoods and the cities of Quincy and Milton. The [[Mystic River]] separates the neighborhoods of East Boston and Charlestown from Chelsea and Everett.
===Climate===
[[Image:CharlesRiverSnowMotl.JPG|thumb|right|Looking at Boston's Back Bay from Cambridge in the winter]]
Boston experiences a [[continental climate]] that is very common in [[New England]]. The weather in Boston, like much of New England, changes rapidly. It is not uncommon for the city to experience temperature swings of 30&nbsp;&deg;C (54&nbsp;&deg;F) or more over the course of a couple of days. Summers are typically warm and humid, while winters are cold, windy and snowy. It has been known to snow in October and get quite mild in February. The hottest month is July, with an average high of 28&nbsp;&deg;[[Celsius|C]] (82&nbsp;&deg;[[Fahrenheit|F]]) and a low of 18&nbsp;&deg;C (64&nbsp;&deg;F). The coldest month is January, with an average high of 2.2&nbsp;&deg;C (36&nbsp;&deg;F) and a low of -5.6&nbsp;&deg;C (22&nbsp;&deg;F).{{ref|temperature}} Brief periods exceeding 35&nbsp;&deg;C in summer and below -20&nbsp;&deg;C in winter are not uncommon, but rarely prolonged. The record high temperature is 39&nbsp;&deg;C (102&nbsp;&deg;F) recorded in 1926 and the record low temperature is -28&nbsp;&deg;C (-18&nbsp;&deg;F) recorded in 1934. The city averages 1080&nbsp;[[millimeters|mm]] (42&nbsp;[[inch|in]]) of rainfall a year. It also coincidentally averages 108&nbsp;[[centimeters|cm]] (42&nbsp;in) of snowfall a year, though this increases dramatically as one goes inland away from the city. Massachusetts' geographic location's jutting out into the [[North Atlantic]] also make the city very prone to [[Noreaster]] weather systems that can dump more than 50 cm (20 in) of snow on the region in one storm event.
{| class="wikitable"
! style="background: #99CCCC; color: #000080" height="17" | Month
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Jan
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Feb
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Mar
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Apr
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | May
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Jun
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Jul
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Aug
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Sep
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Oct
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Nov
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Dec
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Year
|-
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Avg high [°C](°F)
| style="background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;" | 2 (36)
| style="background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;" | 4 (39)
| style="background: #FFCC66; color:#000080;" | 8 (46)
| style="background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;" | 13 (56)
| style="background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;" | 19 (67)
| style="background: #FF9900; color:#000080;" | 25 (77)
| style="background: #FF9900; color:#000080;" | 28 (82)
| style="background: #FF9900; color:#000080;" | 27 (80)
| style="background: #FF9900; color:#000080;" | 23 (73)
| style="background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;" | 17 (62)
| style="background: #FFCC66; color:#000080;" | 11 (52)
| style="background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;" | 6 (42)
| style="background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;" | 15 (59)
|-
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" height="16;" | Avg low temperature [°C](°F)
| style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;" | -6 (22)
| style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;" | -4 (24)
| style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;" | -1 (31)
| style="background: #FFFF99; color: black;" | 5 (41)
| style="background: #FFCC66; color: black;" | 10 (50)
| style="background: #FFCC66; color: black;" | 15 (59)
| style="background: #FFCC00; color: black;" | 18 (65)
| style="background: #FFCC00; color: black;" | 18 (64)
| style="background: #FFCC66; color: black;" | 14 (57)
| style="background: #FFFF99; color: black;" | 8 (46)
| style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;" | 3 (38)
| style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;" | -2 (28)
| style="background: #FFFF99; color: black;" | 6 (44)
|-
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Rainfall ([[millimeters]])(inches)
| style="background: #2288BB;" | 99.6 (3.92)
| style="background: #66CCFF;" | 83.8 (3.30)
| style="background: #2288BB;" | 97.8 (3.85)
| style="background: #44AADD;" | 91.4 (3.60)
| style="background: #66CCFF;" | |
olar Tomasz Kranz has recently established this number, and the Majdanek museum staff consider it to be authoritative. Earlier estimates were considerably higher: 360,000, in a much-cited 1948 publication by Zdzisław Łukaszkiewicz, a judge who was a member of the Main Commission for the Investigation of Nazi Crimes in Poland, and 235,000, from a 1992 article by Dr. Czesaw Rajca, now retired from the Majdanek museum staff.
==Further reading==
*''Holocaust Journey: Travelling in Search of the Past'', Martin Gilbert, Phoenix 1997, gives a good account of the sites of the extermination camps as they are today, plus a great deal of historical information about them and about the fate of the Jews of Poland.
[[da:Nazisternes kz-lejre]]
[[de:Vernichtungslager]]
[[el:Ναζιστικά στρατόπεδα εξόντωσης]]
[[es:Campo de exterminio]]
[[fr:Camp d'extermination]]
[[he:מחנה השמדה]]
[[it:Campo di sterminio]]
[[nl:Vernietigingskamp]]
[[pl:Obóz zagłady]]
[[pt:Campo de extermínio]]
[[sl:uničevalno taborišče]]
[[fi:Tuhoamisleiri]]
[[sv:Förintelseläger]]
[[Category:Holocaust]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:Nazi extermination camps| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enterprise</title>
<id>10336</id>
<revision>
<id>39632108</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T20:35:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Peruvianllama</username>
<id>43680</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.172.143.206|128.172.143.206]] ([[User talk:128.172.143.206|talk]]) to last version by Normxxx</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Enterprise''' (occasionally archaically spelt '''enterprize''') can refer to any of the following:
==Psychology==
* an attitude or a [[character structure|character]] [[Trait (biological)|trait]] conducive to undertaking bold [[venture]]s or actions, especially ventures involving [[risk]]
* a bold venture, particularly one of [[exploration]] or one that seeks inordinate [[profit]]
* "Boldness, energy, and invention in practical affairs." (according to [[Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships|DANFS]])
==Economics and business==
* Almost any [[business]] or [[organization]] can be called an enterprise, possibly led by an [[entrepreneur]].
* [[Enterprise Rent-A-Car]], specific [[rental car | car-rental]] agency:
*"Enterprise" was the informal name of [[STTGI|Stanford Technology Trading Group International (STTGI)]], a [[United States|U.S.]] weapons-dealing company involved in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].
* [[Subud Enterprise Services]], any entreprenurial activity undertaken by a member of the spiritual organization [[Subud]].
* [[Enterprise edition]]: A large [[commerce | commercial]] establishment (more specifically when viewed in [[marketing]] terms, and especially for the purposes of [[computer]] marketing and/or licencing.
* [[Farm enterprise]]: component of a [[farm]] business, e.g. a farm may include an [[arable]] enterprise and a [[dairy]] enterprise
* [[Free enterprise]]: a type of [[economic system|economy]]; a loose synonym for implemented [[capitalism]]
==Ships and boats==
* [[USS Enterprise|USS ''Enterprise'']], one of several ships of the [[United States Navy]].
* [[HMS Enterprise|HMS ''Enterprise'']] or ''Enterprize'', one of several ships of the [[Royal Navy]].
* [[Enterprise (steamboat)|''Enterprise'']], a privately-owned [[steamboat]] captained by [[Henry Miller Shreve]].
* Enterprise, one of the ships especially built for the upcoming China trade in the early 19th century, owned by the fur trader and multimillionaire [[John Jacob Astor]] of [[New York]].
* The [[Enterprise (dinghy)|International Enterprise]] sailing dinghy.
* [[Enterprize (1829)|Enterprize]], an 1829-built schooner - [[Melbourne]]'s [[tall ship]].
* [[Enterprise (balloon)|Enterprise]] was a [[hot air balloon]] used by the [[Union Army]] during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]].
== Spacecraft==
===Non-fictional===
* [[Space Shuttle Enterprise]].
* [[VSS Enterprise]], the proposed inaugural vessel of the [[Virgin Galactic]] suborbital tourism fleet, an endeavor of [[Richard Branson]].
=== Fictional ===
* ''[[Star Trek: Enterprise]]'', a [[television]] show in the [[Star Trek]] franchise (formerly titled ''Enterprise'').
* One of a number of [[starship]]s from the fictional [[Star Trek]] universe, see [[Starship Enterprise]]:
**[[Enterprise (NX-01)|''Enterprise'' (NX-01)]] from [[Star Trek: Enterprise]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701)]] from [[Star Trek: The Original Series]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-A)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-A)]] from films [[Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home|IV]], [[Star Trek V: The Final Frontier|V]], and [[Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country|VI]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-B)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-B)]] from [[Star Trek: Generations]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-C)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-C)]] from one episode ("[[Yesterday's Enterprise (TNG episode)|Yesterday's Enterprise]]") of [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-D)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-D)]] from [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]] and [[Star Trek: Generations]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-E)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-E)]] from [[Star Trek: First Contact|ST: First Contact]], [[Star Trek: Insurrection|ST: Insurrection]], and [[Star Trek: Nemesis|ST: Nemesis]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-F)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-F)]] from two novels: [[Peter David]]'s ''[[Imzadi]]'' and [[Judith Reeves-Stevens|Judith]] and [[Garfield Reeves-Stevens]]' ''[[Millennium (Star Trek)|Millennium]]''
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-J)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-J)]] from one episode ("[[Azati Prime (Enterprise episode)|Azati Prime]]") of [[Star Trek: Enterprise]]
**Two known [[ISS Enterprise|ISS ''Enterprise'']]s from the [[Mirror Universe (Star Trek)|Mirror Universe]] (more from alternate realities of that universe are also featured in comics or novels)
== Computing ==
* [[Enterprise 64]], an 8-bit home computer from the [[UK]]; also known as ''Flan'' and ''Elan''
* [[Enterprise software]]
== Other connotations ==
* [[Enterprise, Alabama]]
* [[Enterprise, Northwest Territories]], a community in [[Northwest Territories]], [[Canada]] (postal code X0E 0R1)
* [[Enterprise, Florida]], a former railroad community now a suburb of [[Orlando, Florida]].
* [[enterprise culture]]
* [[enterprise zone]]
* [[social enterprise]]
* [[Enterprise (train)]] a [[Belfast]]-[[Dublin]] railway service.
* [[Kia Enterprise]], base by [[Mazda Sentia]], a car built by [[Kia Motors]].
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Enterprise]]
[[de:Enterprise]]
[[fr:Enterprise (homonymie)]]
[[ko:엔터프라이즈]]
[[it:Enterprise]]
[[nl:Enterprise]]
[[ja:エンタープライズ]]
[[pl:Enterprise]]
[[fi:Enterprise]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Excommunicated</title>
<id>10337</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Excommunication]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Excommunication</title>
<id>10338</id>
<revision>
<id>42141073</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:19:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anacapa</username>
<id>836070</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* [[Mennonites]] */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
{{dispute}}
'''Excommunication''' is a religious censure which is used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community. The word literally means "out of [[full communion|communion]]," or, "once was in communion, but now is not". In some churches, excommunication includes spiritual [[condemnation]] of the subject member or group. Censures and sanctions sometimes ''follow'' excommunication such as [[banishment]], [[shunning]] or [[shaming]] depending on the group's religion, it's religious community or, it's broader religious community. This article studies excommunication and spiritual condemnation often associated with excommunication, but not the religious censures and sanctions that ''follow'' excommunication.
(Sections in alphabetical order.)''
== Christianity ==
=== Anathema ===
The biblical basis of excommunication is ''[[anathema]]''. The references are found in [[Galatians]] 1:8 “But even if we, or an [[angel]] from [[Heaven#Heaven in Christianity|Heaven]], should preach to you a gospel contrary to what we have preached to you, he is to be '''anathema'''"! Then also, [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 16:22 "If anyone does not love the Lord, he is to be '''anathema'''". The word can be translated several ways; the [[King James Version]] translates it ''accursed''.
Anathema was used in the early church as a form of extreme religious sanction, beyond excommunication. The earliest recorded example was in [[306]]. The [[Roman Catholic]] church still makes use of the sanction, though it is rarely used against an individual. Some modern churches which seek to return to a New Testament form of Christianity refer to any form of exclusion as ''anathema''.
=== Calvin's view on excommunication ===
In [[John Calvin]]'s ''Institutes of The Christian Religion'', he said (4.12.10):
:For when our Saviour promises that what his servants bound on earth should be bound in heaven, ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 18: 18), he confines the power of binding to the censure of the Church, which does not consign those who are excommunicated to perpetual ruin and [[Damnation#Religious|damnation]], but assures them, when they hear their life and manners condemned, that perpetual damnation will follow if they do not repent. [Excommunication] rebukes and [[a |
iety and phobia workbook''
* Rosen, J.B. & Schulkin, J. (1998): "From normal fear to pathological anxiety". ''Psychological Review''. '''105'''(2); 325-350.
* Seligman, M.E.P., Walker, E.F. & Rosenhan, D.L. (2001). ''Abnormal psychology'', (4th ed.) New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
* Zald, D.H., Hagen, M.C. & Pardo, J.V. (2002). "Neural correlates of tasting concentrated quinine and sugar solutions". ''J. Neurophysiol.'' '''87'''(2), 1068-75.
* Zald, D.H. & Pardo, J.V. (1997). "Emotion, olfaction, and the human amygdala: amygdala activation during aversive olfactory stimulation." ''Proc Nat'l Acad Sci'' USA. '''94'''(8), 4119-24.
== External links ==
* [http://www.healthyplace.com/Communities/Anxiety/index.asp HealthyPlace.com Anxiety Community] - Comprehensive information on anxiety and panic, from causes of anxiety disorders to anxiety medications and alternative remedies. Anxiety tests, boards, journals, support groups.
* [http://infobank.35sites.net/r.php?cat=07&sub=anxiety Informative Articles About Anxiety]
* [http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic35.htm eMedicine article on anxiety]
* [http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/101005_tech.htm Blood test for anxiety] - An article
* [http://www.anxietytreatment.com Anxiety] - Anxiety Information and Support
* [http://www.mediets.com/anxiety.htm Anxiety disorders]
[[Category:Symptoms]]
[[Category:Motivation]]
[[cs:�zkost]]
[[de:Angst]]
[[es:Ansiedad]]
[[fr:Anxi�t�]]
[[io:Anxio]]
[[is:Kv��i]]
[[nl:Faalangst]]
[[no:Angst]]
[[pt:Ansiedade]]
[[pl:L?k]]
[[sv:�ngest]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>A.A. Milne</title>
<id>923</id>
<revision>
<id>15899435</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
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<page>
<title>A. A. Milne</title>
<id>924</id>
<revision>
<id>40715805</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T14:49:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tv316</username>
<id>523572</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/141.51.76.140|141.51.76.140]] to last version by DabMachine</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:A._A._Milne.jpg|thumb|right| A.A. Milne.]]
'''Alan Alexander Milne''' ([[January 18]], [[1882]] &ndash; [[January 31]], [[1956]]), also known as '''A. A. Milne''', was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[author]], best known for his [[book]]s about the animated [[teddy bear]], [[Winnie the Pooh|Winnie-the-Pooh]], and for various children's poems. Milne had made several reputations, most notably as a playwright, before the huge success of Pooh overshadowed all his previous work.
==Biography==
Milne was born in [[Scotland]] but raised in [[London]] at a small private school in Kilburn run by his father John Vine Milne. One of his teachers was [[H. G. Wells]]. He attended [[Westminster School]] and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] where he studied on a [[mathematics]] [[scholarship]]. While there, he edited and wrote for ''[[Granta]]'', a student magazine. He collaborated with his brother Kenneth and their articles appeared over the initials AKM. Milne's work came to the attention of the leading British humour magazine Punch, where Milne was to become a contributor and later assistant editor of ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]''.
His son [[Christopher Robin Milne|Christopher Robin]] was born in [[1920]]. Milne joined the [[British Army]] in [[World War I]] but after the war wrote a denunciation of war titled ''[[Peace with Honour]]'' ([[1934]]) (which he retracted somewhat in [[1940]] with ''[[War with Honour]]'').
During the war, Milne was one of the most prominent critics of English comic writer [[P.G. Wodehouse]], who was captured at his country home in [[France]] by the [[Nazism|Nazis]] and imprisoned for a year. Wodehouse made radio broadcasts about his internment, which were broadcast from Berlin. Although the lighthearted broadcasts made fun of the Germans, Milne accused Wodehouse of committing an act of near [[treason]] by cooperating with his country's enemy. Wodehouse got some revenge by creating fatuous parodies of the Christopher Robin poems in some of his later stories.
In [[1925]], Milne bought a country home, [[Cotchford Farm]], in [[Hartfield]], [[East Sussex]]. He retired to the farm after brain surgery in [[1952]] left him an invalid.
== Literary career ==
Milne is most famous for his Pooh books about a boy named [[Christopher Robin]], after his son, and various characters inspired by his son's stuffed animals, most notably the bear named [[Winnie the Pooh|Winnie-the-Pooh]]. (Reputedly, a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[American Black Bear|black bear]] named Winnie (after [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]]), used as a military mascot by the Royal Winnipeg Rifles, a Canadian Infantry Regiment in World War I and left to [[London Zoo]] after the war, is the source of the name.) [[E. H. Shepard]] illustrated the original Pooh books, using his own teddy, Growler ("a magnificent bear") as the model; Christopher Robin's own toys are now under glass in New York.
The overwhelming success of his children's books was to become a source of considerable annoyance to Milne, whose self-avowed aim was to write whatever he pleased, and who until then had found a ready audience for each change of direction: he had freed pre-war Punch from its ponderous facetiousness; he had made a considerable reputation as a playwright (like his idol [[JM Barrie]]) on both sides of the Atlantic; he had produced a durable, character-led and witty piece of detective writing in ''The Red House Mystery'' -- indeed, his publisher was displeased when he announced his intention to write poems for children -- and he had never lacked an audience.
But once Milne had, in his own words, "said Goodbye to all that in 70,000 words", the approximate length of the four children's books, he had no intention of producing a copy of a copy, given that one of the sources of inspiration, his son, was growing older.
His reception remained warmer in America than Britain, and he continued to publish novels and short stories, but by the late 1930s the audience for Milne's grown-up writing had largely vanished: he observed bitterly in his autobiography that a critic had said that the hero of his latest play ("God help it") was simply "Christopher Robin grown up ... what an obsession with me children are become!"
Even his old home, ''Punch'', where the ''When We Were Very Young'' verses had first appeared, was ultimately to reject him, as Christopher Milne details in his autobiography ''The Enchanted Places'', though Methuen continued to publish whatever Milne wrote, including the long poem 'The Norman Church' and an assembly of articles entitled ''Year In, Year Out'' (which Milne likened to a benefit night for the author).
After Milne's death, the rights to the Pooh characters were sold by his widow, Daphne to [[the Walt Disney Company]], which has made a number of Pooh cartoon movies, as well as a large amount of Pooh-related merchandise. She also destroyed his papers.
Milne also wrote a number of poems, including ''Vespers'', ''They're Changing Guard at [[Buckingham Palace]]'', and ''King John's Christmas'', which were published in the books ''[[When We Were Very Young]]'' and ''[[Now We Are Six]]''.
His poems have been parodied many times, including the books When We Were Rather Older and ''[[Now We Are Sixty]]''.
He also adapted [[Kenneth Grahame]]'s novel ''[[The Wind in the Willows]]'' for the stage as ''[[Toad of Toad Hall]]''. The title was an implicit admission that such chapters as ''The Piper at the Gates of Dawn'' could not survive translation to the theater.
== Biographies ==
Milne's friend Frank Swinnerton's book ''The Georgian Literary Scene'' contains a substantial section about him; his son has written several books of autobiography: ''The Enchanted Places'', in particular, is an account of his attempt to escape from the shadow of a famous father and a burdensome name; ''The Path Through the Trees'' continues the story into adult life. Ann Thwaites' ''AA Milne: His Life'' is an excellent and detailed biography, although it gives little space to the plays; a spin-off book tells the story for a younger readership, concentrating on Pooh.
==Works==
===Novels===
* ''[[Lovers in London]]'', ([[1905]]) (Some consider this more of a [[short story]] collection; Milne didn't like it and considered ''[[The Day's Play]]'' as his first book)
* ''[[Once on a Time]]'', ([[1917]]) [a fairytale with an adult slant]
* ''[[Mr. Pim Passes By]]'', ([[1921]])
* ''[[The Red House Mystery]]'', ([[1921]])
* ''[[Two People]]'', ([[1931]]) (Inside jacket claims this is Milne's first attempt at a novel.)
* ''[[Four Days Wonder]]'', ([[1933]])
* ''[[Chloe Marr]]'', ([[1946]])
===Non-Fiction===
* ''[[Peace with Honour]]'', ([[1934]])
* ''[[It's Too Late Now]]'', ([[1939]]) (autobiography)
* ''[[War with Honour]]'', ([[1940]])
* ''[[Year In, Year Out]]'', ([[1952]])
Punch articles:
* ''[[The Day's Play]]'', ([[1910]])
* ''[[Once a Week]]'', ([[1914]])
* ''[[The Holiday Round]]'', ([[1912]])
* ''[[The Sunny Side]]'', ([[1921]])
* ''[[Those Were the Days (A. A. Milne)|Those Were the Days]]'', ([[1929]] [selection of Punch pieces from the above four books]
Selections of newspaper articles and introductions to books by others:
* ''[[Not That It Matters]]'', ([[1920]])
* ''[[By Way of Introduction]]'', ([[1929]])
===Story Collections for Children===
* ''[[Gallery of Children]]'', ([[1925]])
* ''[[Winnie-the-Pooh]]'', ([[1926]])
* ''[[The House at Pooh Corner]]'', ([[1928]])
Short Stories
A Table by the Band
===Poetry===
For the Lunch |
a confusion of his source materials, or if Cutha and Cuthwine are different individuals. However the phrase "in anger he returned to his lands" appears to be a line from saga.
:This event has been interpreted as a sweeping raid up the [[Severn]] valley to the location of Fethanleag. Plummer identifies this place name with [[Faddiley]] in [[Cheshire]]; more recent scholarly research identifies this with [[Stoke Lyne]].
==[[592]]== In this year, there was a great slaughter at Woddesbeorg, and Ceawlin was driven out.
:(So the Parker manuscript; the Laud manuscript reads "In this year Gregorius succeeded to the papacy in Rome, and there a great slaughter happened in Britain this year at Wodnesbeorg, and Ceawlin was driven out.")
:Woddesbeorg/Wodnesbeorg is a rare pagan Anglo-Saxon place name. It is identified with the present day [[Alton, Wiltshire|Alton Priors]] seven miles east of [[Devizes]].
:The chronicler shows that this was a decisive defeat for Ceawlin by dating it only a year prior to his death; all of his other entries concerning Ceawlin are separated by five to seven years. Obviously this exile would also demonstrate that his claim to the title of Bretwalda ended at the same time.
:Of unknown value is [[William of Malmesbury]]'s comment that this slaughter at Woddensbeorg was the result of "the Angles and the British conspiring together". We have no other evidence for the identity of Ceawlin's adversary, only the suspicion that his successor Ceolwulf, son of his associate Cutha, might have been involved -- but if that is the case, it is puzzling that would he need until [[597]] to succeed to the kingship of the West Saxons.
==[[593]]==
In this year, Ceawlin, Cuichelm and Crida perished, and &AElig;thelfrith succeeded to the kingdom in Northumbria.
:By dating Ceawlin's death to the same year [[Aethelfrith of Northumbria|&AElig;thelfrith]] became king of [[Northumbria]], the Chronicler betrays his assumption that the various kings of this early period followed closely upon each other. While the entry of 568 suggests that Ceawlin and Ethelbert were contemporaries, this entry should not be taken as proof that Ceawlin died at the same time &AElig;thelfrith became king.
One feature of Ceawlin's activities, similar to other early Anglo-Saxon kings, is that he is frequently mentioned in the company of other individuals. This suggests that although he was renowned as a warrior, his own following was too small for his to effectively wage war by himself, and that he depended on the support of other nobles or kings of the West Saxons. In other words, there was no centralized kingdom of Wessex at this time, instead Wessex was properly a federation of varying closeness of petty rulers.
''The translation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in this article is copyrighted by its translator, and appears here under the provisions of the [[GNU FDL]].''
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Cynric of Wessex|Cynric]]|
title=[[List of monarchs of Wessex|King of Wessex]]|
years=|
after=[[Ceol of Wessex|Ceol]]
}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Aelle of Sussex]]|
title=[[Bretwalda]]|
years=|
after=[[Ethelbert of Kent]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:593 deaths]]
[[Category:West Saxon monarchs]]
[[de:Ceawlin]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Christchurch (disambiguation)</title>
<id>6779</id>
<revision>
<id>40718447</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T15:14:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marypcb</username>
<id>901915</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added Christchurch, an area within Sunderland</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Christchurch''' is the name of a number of places, including [[Christchurch, New Zealand]]:
* ''United Kingdom'':
** [[Christchurch, Cambridgeshire]]
** [[Christchurch, Dorset]] formerly in Hampshire before reorganisation of counties
** [[Christchurch, Gloucestershire]]
** [[Christchurch, Newport]]
** Christchurch, [[Sunderland]]
* ''Elsewhere'':
** [[Christchurch, Virginia]], USA
** [[Christ Church Parish, Barbados]] (with a space) is a parish of Barbados
There are also many major religious buildings named '''Christ Church'''
* Christ Church, [[Philadelphia]] [[United States|USA]]
* Christ Church, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, better known as the [[Old North Church]].
* Christ Church [[cathedral]] Montreal Canada
* [[Christ Church (cathedral), New Zealand]], the cathedral which gave its name to the city
* [[Christ Church, Oxford]] both an Oxford college (not of itself a religious institution) and cathedral
* [[Christ Church Parish Church]], a church in the [[Christ Church Parish]] in Barbados
*[[Christ Church Cathedral]]
Also educational institutions:
*[[Christ Church Grammar School]]
*[[Canterbury Christ Church University]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Christchurch (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[no:Christchurch (andre betydninger)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>CD-R</title>
<id>6780</id>
<revision>
<id>41554410</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T02:58:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rhobite</username>
<id>82899</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */ rewrote peacock sentence</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CD-R.jpg|right]]
A '''CD-R''' ('''C'''ompact '''D'''isc-'''R'''ecordable) is a variation of the [[Compact Disc]] digital audio disc invented by [[Philips]] and [[Sony]]. The CD-R retains all the abilities of the CD standard but adds the functionality of being able to store either [[music]] or [[data]].
== History ==
The CD-R, originally named CD '''W'''rite-'''O'''nce (WO), specification was first published in 1988 by [[Philips]] and [[Sony]] in the 'Orange Book'. The Orange Book consists of several parts, furnishing details of the CD-WO, CD-MO ('''M'''agneto-'''O'''ptic), and CD-RW ('''R'''e'''W'''ritable). The latest editions have abandoned the use of the term "CD-WO" in favor of "CD-R". Written CD-Rs and CD-RWs are fully compatible with the Audio CD ([[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]]) and CD-ROM ([[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow Book]]) standards. They use [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation]], [[CIRC]] error correction plus the third error correction layer defined for [[CD-ROM]]. The first CD-Rs were produced in [[1988]] [http://www.oneoffcd.com/info/historycd.cfm].
The dye materials developed by [[Taiyo Yuden]] made it possible for CD-R discs to be compatible with Audio CD and CD-ROM discs.
==Physical characteristics==
[[Image:CDgroove.jpg|thumb|320px|right|Microphotograph of the groove in a CD-R disk]]
A standard CD-R is a 1.2 mm thick disc made of [[polycarbonate]] with a 120 [[millimetre|mm]] or 80 [[millimetre|mm]] diameter. It has a storage capacity of 74 minutes of audio or 650 [[Megabyte|MB]] of data. Non-standard CD-Rs are available with capacities of 79 minutes, 59 seconds and 74 frames /736,966,656 bytes (702 MB), which they achieve by slightly exceeding the tolerances specified in the [[Orange Book (CD standard)|Orange Book]] CD-R/CD-RW standards. Most CD-Rs on the market are of the latter capacity. There are also 90 minute/790 MB and 99 minute/870 MB discs, though they are rare.
The polycarbonate disc contains a spiral groove to guide the [[laser]] beam upon writing and reading information. The disc is coated on the side with the spiral groove with a very thin layer of organic dye and subsequently with a thin, reflecting layer of [[silver]], a silver [[alloy]] or [[gold]]. Finally, a protective coating of a photo-polymerizable lacquer is applied on top of the metal reflector and cured with [[ultraviolet|UV]]-light.
A blank CD-R is not "empty", it has a pregroove with a wobble (the ATIP), which helps the writing laser stay on track and is used to ensure the data is written to the disc at a constant rate. As well as providing timing information, the ATIP (absolute time in pregroove) is also a data track containing information about the CD-R manufacturer, the dye used and media information (disc length etc). The pregroove is not destroyed when the data is written to the CD-R, a point which some [[copy protection]] schemes use to distinguish copies from an original CD.
Among the first CD-R manufacturers were the companies [[Taiyo Yuden]], [[Kodak]], [[Maxell]], and [[TDK Corporation|TDK]]. Since then, the CD-R was further improved to allow writing speeds as fast as 52x ([[as of 2004]]) relative to the first 1x CD-Rs. The improvements were mainly due to optimisation of special dye compositions for CD-R, groove geometry, and the dye coating process. Low-speed burning at 1x is still used for special "audio CD-Rs", since CD-R audio recorders were standardized to this recording speed.
There are three basic formulations of dye used in CD-Rs:
#[[Cyanine dye]]s were the earliest ones developed, and their formulation is [[patent]]ed by [[Taiyo Yuden]]. Cyanine dyes are mostly [[green]] or light blue in color, and are chemically unstable. This makes [[cyanine]] discs unsuitable for archival use; they can fade and become unreadable in a few years. Many manufacturers use proprietary chemical additives to make more stable cyanine discs.
#[[Azo dye]] CD-Rs are dark [[blue]] in color, and their formulation is patented by [[Mitsubishi Chemicals]]. Unlike cyanine, azo dyes are chemically stable, and typically rated with a lifetime of decades.
#[[Phthalocyanine dye]] CD-Rs are usually silver, gold or light green. The patents on pthalocyanine CD-Rs are held by [[Mitsui]] and [[Ciba Specialty Chemicals]]. These are also chemically stable, and often given a rated lifetime of hundreds of years.
Although the CD-R was initially developed in [[Japan]], most of the production of CD-Rs had moved to [[Taiwan]] by [[1998]]. Taiwanese manufacturers supplied more than 70% of the worldwide production volume of 10.5 billion CD-Rs in |
ent software and the emergence of electronic networks. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, [[Storyspace]] and [[Intermedia]] became available in the 1990's.
===Authors===
*[[Storyspace]] v2.0, a professional level hypertext development tool, is available from [[Eastgate Systems]], which has also published many notable [[hypertext fictions]], including [[Michael Joyce]]'s ''[[afternoon, a story]]'', [[Shelley Jackson]]'s ''[[Patchwork Girl (hypertext)]]'', and [[Stuart Moulthrop]]'s ''[[Victory Garden]]''.
*Other writers who have written hypertext novels are Argentinian [[Julio Cortazar]] with [[Rayuela]] and Serbian [[Milorad Pavic]] with [[Dictionary of the Khazars]].
An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally-networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text.
===Critics and theorists===
*[[Jay David Bolter]]
*[[Robert Coover]]
*[[J.Yellowlees Douglas]]
*[[N. Katherine Hayles]]
*[[Michael Joyce]]
*[[George Landow]]
*[[Lev Manovich]]
*[[Stuart Moulthrop]]
*[[Ted Nelson]]
== See also ==
* [[Timeline of hypertext technology]]
* [[HTML]]
* [[Hypertext Conferences]]
==References==
* {{cite book | last = Bolter | first = Jay David | title = Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print | publisher = New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0805829199 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Byers | first = T. J. | title = Built by association | journal = PC World | year = April 1987 | volume = 5 | pages = 244-251 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Crane | first = Gregory | title = Extending the boundaries of instruction and research | journal = T.H.E. Journal (Technological Horizons in Education) | issue = Macintosh Special Issue | year = 1988 | pages = 51-54 }}
* {{Citepaper | Author = Engelbart, Douglas C. | Title = Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework, AFOSR-3233 Summary Report, SRI Project No. 3579 | PublishYear = 1962 | URL = http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/augmentinghumanintellect/ahi62index.html }}
* {{cite book | last = Heim | first = Michael | title = Electric Language: A Philosophical Study of Word Processing | publisher = New Haven: Yale University Press | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0300077467 }}
* {{cite book | last = Landow | first = George | title = Hypertext 2.0 | publisher = Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0801855853 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Yankelovich | first = Nicole | coauthors = Landow, George P., and Cody, David | title = Creating hypermedia materials for English literature students | journal = SIGCUE Outlook | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | year = 1987 | pages = All }}
* {{cite journal | last = Nelson | first = Theodor H. | title = No More Teachers’ Dirty Looks | journal = Computer Decisions | year = September 1970 | url = http://www.newmediareader.com/excerpts.html }}
* {{Conference reference | Author = Nelson, Theodor H. | Title = A Conceptual framework for man-machine everything | Booktitle = AFIPS Conference Proceedings VOL. 42 | Year = 1973 | Pages = M22-M23 }}
* {{cite journal | last = van Dam | first = Andries | title = Hypertext: '87 keynote address | journal = Communications of the ACM | year = July 1988 | volume = 31 | pages = 887-895 | url = http://www.cs.brown.edu/memex/HT_87_Keynote_Address.html }}
==External links==
*[http://www.cisenet.com/cisenet/writing/essays/hypernarrative.htm The Shaping of Hypertextual Narrative]
*[http://www.interaction-design.org/references/conferences/series/acm_conference_on_hypertext_and_hypermedia.html The ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia]
*[http://www.eliterature.org Electronic Literature Organization] (for more on hypertext literature)
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9212/hype.htm Hypertext: Behind the Hype]
*[http://www.mprove.de/diplom/text/2_hypertext.html mprove: Historical Overview of Hypertext]
*[http://xanadu.com/XUarchive/ccnwwt65.tif The first use of ''hypertext'' (?) - TIFF image]
*[http://www.pontomidia.com.br/ricardo/colinks/english.html Co-link, a Brazilian research project]
*[http://www.hotuploads.com Scripts Search Engine]
*[http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~amulet/papers/uihistory.tr.html A Brief History of Human Computer Interaction Technology]
*[http://nrg78.com the TAI/MAI/NAI Progession Overview and NRG's "Laws of Good Answers" presented as a Network Distributed Dense Meme Stack]
[[Category:Hypertext|*]]
[[br:Hypertext]]
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[[lv:Hiperteksts]]
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[[pt:Hipertexto]]
[[ru:Гипертекст]]
[[sl:Nadbesedilo]]
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[[sv:Hypertext]]
[[tr:Hypertext]]
[[uk:Гіпертекст]]
[[vi:Siêu văn bản]]
[[zh:超文本系統]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harald Tveit Alvestrand</title>
<id>13461</id>
<revision>
<id>40364276</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Harald Tveit Alvestrand''' (b. [[29 June]] [[1959]]) was the chairman of the [[IETF]] from 2001 until 2005, and is an author of several [[Request for Comments|RFC]]s. He is born in [[Namsos]], [[Norway]], and has worked for [[Norsk Data]], [[UNINETT]], EDB Maxware and [[Cisco Systems, Inc.]].
He currently (2005) lives in [[Trondheim]], [[Norway]].
==External links==
*[http://www.alvestrand.no/ Alvestrand home page]
*[http://www.alvestrand.no/ietf/ Harald Alvestrand's IETF activities (by Alvestrand)]
*[http://www.uninett.no/uninytt/2002-3/sogndal-alvestrand.jpg Portrait]
{{Norway-bio-stub}}
{{compu-bio-stub}}
[[Category:Norwegian people|Alvestrand, Harald Tveit]]
[[Category:1959 births|Alvestrand, Harald Tveit]]
[[Category:Living people|Alvestrand, Harald Tveit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harlan Ellison</title>
<id>13462</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42092852</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:57:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dismas</username>
<id>152983</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>make link direct</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Harlan Jay Ellison''' (born [[May 27]], [[1934]], [[Cleveland, Ohio]]) is a prolific [[United States|American]] writer of [[short stories]], [[novella]]s, [[essay]]s and [[critic]]ism. His literary and [[television]] work has received many awards. He wrote for the original series of ''[[The Outer Limits]]'' and ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek]]'', edited the multiple award-winning short story [[anthology]] series ''[[Dangerous Visions]]'' and served as creative consultant to the [[science fiction]] [[television program|TV series]] ''[[The Twilight Zone]]'' ([[1980s]] version) and ''[[Babylon 5]]''.
A great deal of Ellison's [[career]] has been spent within the [[science fiction]] [[genre]] and community. His most famous stories have been published within that genre, and he has won multiple [[Hugo Award|Hugo]] and [[Nebula Award|Nebula]] awards. He was also very active in the [[science fiction fandom|science fiction community]] (he was a founder of the [[Cleveland Science Fiction Society]] and edited its [[fanzine]] as a teenager) and gives colorful talks at [[science fiction convention]]s.
Ellison's fantasy work, however, is usually better aligned with [[surrealism|surrealism]] or [[magical realism]] than [[space opera]]-type science fiction. There is also a strong ethical current that runs through his work, half of which is nonfiction, which includes social activism and criticism of the arts.
He is fiercely protective of his work and has sought (and won) legal action against [[copyright infringement]]s.
__TOC__
== Biography ==
Ellison was born in [[Cleveland, Ohio]], [[United States]], on [[May 27]], [[1934]]. His Jewish-American family subsequently moved to [[Painesville, Ohio]], but returned to Cleveland in 1949 following the death of Ellison's father. Ellison frequently ran away from home, taking odd jobs &mdash; including by the time he was eighteen, by his own account, "a tuna fisherman off the coast of Galveston, itinerant crop-picker down in New Orleans, hired gun for a wealthy neurotic, dynamite truck driver in North Carolina, short order cook, cab driver, lithographer, book salesman, floorwalker in a department store, door-to-door brush salesman, and spent ten years as an actor (off and on) with the [[Cleveland Play House]]".
Ellison briefly attended [[Ohio State University]] before dropping out. In [[1955]], Ellison moved to [[New York City]] to pursue a writing career, primarily in science fiction. Over the next two years, Ellison published more than 100 short stories and articles.
In 1957, Ellison decided to write about youth [[gang]]s. To research the issue, he joined a street gang in the [[Red Hook, Brooklyn]] area, under the name "Cheech Beldone". His subsequent writings on the subject include the [[novel]] ''Web of the City/Rumble'' and the collection ''The Deadly Streets'', and comprise part of his [[memoir]] ''Memos from Purgatory''.
Ellison was drafted into the [[United States Army|army]] and served from 1957 to 1959. Afterwards, living in [[Chicago, Illinois]], Ellison edited ''Rogue'' magazine. As a book editor at |
presenting the
state of conditions are reified.
The difference between a predicate and a term in first order logic is that a term is a representation of an object (possibly a complex object composed of other objects), while a predicate represent a condition that can be true or false when evaluated over a given set of terms.
In the fluent calculus, each possible state is represented by a term obtained by composition of other terms, each one representing the conditions that are true in state. For example, the state in which the door is open and the light is on is represented by the term <math>open \circ on</math>. It is important to notice that a term is not true or false by itself, as it is an object and not a condition. In other words, the term <math>open \circ on</math> represent a possible state, and does not by itself mean that this is the current state. A separate condition can be stated to specify that this is actually the state at a given time, e.g., <math>state(open \circ on, 10)</math> means that this is the state at time <math>10</math>.
The solution to the frame problem given in the fluent calculus is to specify the effects of actions by stating how a term representing the state changes when the action is executed. For example, the action of opening the door at time 0 is represented by the formula:
: <math>state(s \circ open, 1) \equiv state(s,0)</math>
The action of closing the door, which makes a condition false instead of true, is represented in a slightly different way:
: <math>state(s, 1) \equiv state(s \circ open, 0)</math>
This formula works provided that suitable axioms are given about <math>state</math> and <math>\circ</math>, e.g., a term containing two times the same condition is not a valid state (for example, <math>state(open \circ s \circ open, t)</math> is always false for every <math>s</math> and <math>t</math>).
===The event calculus solution===
The [[event calculus]] uses terms for representing fluents, like the fluent calculus, but also has axioms constraining the value of fluents, like the successor state axioms. In the event calculus, inertia is enforced by formulae stating that a fluent is true if it has been true at a given previous time point and no action changing it to false has been performed in the meantime. Predicate completion is still needed in the fluent calculus for obtaining that a fluent is made true only if an action making it true has been performed, but also for obtaining that an action had been performed only if that is explicitly stated.
===Action description languages===
[[Action description language]]s elude the frame problem rather than solving it. An action description language is a formal language with a syntax that is specific for describing situations and actions. For example, that the action <math>open\_door</math> makes the door open if not locked is expressed by:
: <math>open\_door</math> causes <math>open</math> if <math>\neg locked</math>
The semantics of an action description language depends on what the language can express (concurrent actions, delayed effects, etc.) and is usually based on [[transition system]]s.
Since domains are expressed in these languages rather than directly in logic, the frame problem only arises when a specification given in an action description logic is to be translated into logic. Typically, however, a translation is given from these languages to [[answer set programming]] rather than first-order logic.
==Related problems==
According to J. van Brakel, some other problems that are related to, or more specific versions of, the frame problem include the following:
* [[extended prediction problem]]
* [[holism problem]]
* [[inertia problem]]
* [[installation problem]]
* [[planning problem]]
* [[persistence problem]]
* [[qualification problem]]
* [[ramification problem]]
* [[relevance problem]]
* [[temporal projection problem]]
==The frame problem in philosophy==
{{main|frame problem (philosophy)}}
In philosophy, the frame problem is about rationality in general, rather than
formal logic in particular. The frame problem in philosophy is therefore the
problem of how a rational agent bounds the set of beliefs to change when an
action is performed.
==See also==
* [[Circumscription]]
* [[Common sense]]
* [[Default logic]]
* [[Defeasible reasoning]]
* [[Event calculus]]
* [[Fluent calculus]]
* [[Non-monotonic logic]]
* [[Situation calculus]]
==References==
* P. Doherty, J. Gustafsson, L. Karlsson, and J. Kvarnstr&ouml;m (1998). [http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/etai/1998/009 TAL: Temporal action logics language specification and tutorial]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 2(3-4):273-306.
* M. Gelfond and V. Lifschitz (1993). Representing action and change by logic programs. ''Journal of Logic Programming'', 17:301-322.
* M. Gelfond and V. Lifschitz (1998). [http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/etai/1998/007 Action languages]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 2(3-4):193-210.
* S. Hanks and D. McDermott (1987). Nonmonotonic logic and temporal projection. ''Artificial Intelligence'', 33(3):379-412.
* H. Levesque, F. Pirri, and R. Reiter (1998). [http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/etai/1998/005 Foundations for the situation calculus]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 2(3-4):159-178.
* P. Liberatore (1997). [http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/etai/1997/002 The complexity of the language A]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 1(1-3):13-37.
* J. McCarthy (1986). [http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/applications.html Applications of circumscription to formalizing common-sense knowledge]. ''Artificial Intelligence'', 28:89-116.
* J. McCarthy and P. J. Hayes (1969). [http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/mcchay69.html Some philosophical problems from the standpoint of artificial intelligence]. ''Machine Intelligence'', 4:463-502.
* R. Miller and M. Shanahan (1999). [http://www.ida.liu.se/ext/epa/ej/etai/1999/016/epapage.html The event-calculus in classical logic - alternative axiomatizations]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 3(1):77-105.
* R. Reiter (1991). The frame problem in the situation calculus: a simple solution (sometimes) and a completeness result for goal regression. In Vladimir Lifschitz, editor, ''Artificial Intelligence and Mathematical Theory of Computation: Papers in Honor of John McCarthy'', pages 359-380. Academic Press, New York.
* E. Sandewall (1994). ''Features and Fluents''. Oxford University Press.
* E. Sandewall (1998). [http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/etai/1998/010 Cognitive robotics logic and its metatheory: Features and fluents revisited]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 2(3-4):307-329.
* M. Thielscher (1998). [http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/etai/1998/006 Introduction to the fluent calculus]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 2(3-4):179-192.
==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/frame-problem/ The Frame Problem] at the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
* [http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/mcchay69/mcchay69.html Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence]; the original article of McCarthy and Hayes that proposed the problem.
* [http://www.iis.ee.ic.ac.uk/~mpsha/roboticsECAI96.pdf Robotics and the common sense informatic situation] presents solution to the frame problem
[[Category:Knowledge representation]]
[[Category:Epistemology]]
[[ja:&#12501;&#12524;&#12540;&#12512;&#21839;&#38988;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frans Eemil Sillanpää</title>
<id>11307</id>
<revision>
<id>38001858</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T14:39:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: he</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Frans Eemil Sillanpää''' ([[September 16]] [[1888]] &ndash; [[June 3]] [[1964]]) was one of the most famous [[Finland|Finnish]] writers.
He was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] in Literature in [[1939]]: ''for his deep understanding of his country's peasantry and the exquisite art with which he has portrayed their way of life and their relationship with Nature''.
Frans Eemil Sillanpää was born into a peasant family in [[Hämeenkyrö]]. Although his parents were poor, they managed to send him to school in [[Tampere]]. In [[1908]] he moved to [[Helsinki]] to study medicine. Here his acquaintances included the painter [[Eero Järnefelt]], [[Jean Sibelius]], [[Juhani Aho]] and [[Pekka Halonen]].
In [[1913]] Sillanpää moved from Helsinki to his old home village and devoted himself to writing.
He won international fame for his novel ''Nuorena nukkunut'' (''The Maid Silja''/''Fallen Asleep While Young'') in [[1931]].
The [[asteroid]] [[1446 Sillanpaa]], discovered by the renowned Finnish astronomer and physicist [[Yrjö Väisälä]], was named after him.
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Pearl S. Buck]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years = 1939 | after = [[Johannes V. Jensen]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1888 births|Sillanpää, Frans Eemil]]
[[Category:1964 deaths|Sillanpää, Frans Eemil]]
[[Category:Finnish writers|Sillanpää, Frans Eemil]]
[[Category:Finnish Nobel Prize winners|Sillanpää, Frans Eemil]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Sillanpää, Frans Eemil]]
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[[ro:Frans Eemil Si |
f a trilogy of sci-fi books by [[Rhiannon Lassiter]].
*A madhouse ride at [[Alton Towers]] theme park in Staffordshire, England.
*[[Hex (VJ group)]], A British-based multimedia group active in the 1990s
*[[Jonah Hex]], a DC Comics character.
{{disambig}}
[[da:Hex]]
[[de:Hex]]
[[pl:Hex]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hitler (disambiguation)</title>
<id>13265</id>
<revision>
<id>40279486</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T13:31:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthony Appleyard</username>
<id>119438</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">There have been several persons named '''Hitler''':
* [[Adolf Hitler]] (1889&ndash;1945), ''[[Führer]]'' (Leader) of the [[National Socialist German Workers' Party]] and dictator of [[Nazi Germany]] from [[1933]] to [[1945]]. Some of his family members are:
** [[Alois Hitler]], father
** [[Alois Hitler, Jr.]], half-brother
** [[Angela Hitler]], half-sister
** [[Klara Hitler]], mother
** [[Paula Hitler]], sister
** [[William Patrick Hitler]], nephew
Individuals unrelated to Adolf Hitler:
* [[Adolf Lu Hitler Marak]], an Indian politician for the Nationalist Congress Party
* [[Chenjerai Hitler Hunzvi]], Zimbabwean nationalist leader
* Distinguish from:-
** [[Walter Heitler|Walter Heinrich Heitler]], a German – Irish [[physicist]]
In reference to Adolf Hitler:
* [[Hitler salute]], also known as the Nazi salute, is a variant of the [[Roman salute]] adopted by the Nazi party as a sign of loyalty to its leader Adolf Hitler
* [[Hitler moustache]], a moustache style popularized by Adolf Hitler and [[Charlie Chaplin]]
* [[Hitler Youth]] (Hitlerjugend), a [[paramilitary]] organization of the Nazi Party that existed from [[1922]] to [[1945]]
* [[Hitler Diaries]], forged diaries purportedly authored by Adolf Hitler
In fiction and entertainment:
* ''[[Springtime for Hitler]]'', a fictional musical about Adolf Hitler within Mel Brooks' 1968 film ''The Producers''
* [[Saturday Night Live characters appearing on Weekend Update#Gay Hitler|Gay Hitler]], a ''Saturday Night Live'' character
* Bing Hitler, early stage name of Scottish comedian [[Craig Ferguson]]
* Eddie Hitler, Adrian Edmondson's character in ''[[Bottom (television)|Bottom]]''
* [[Ted Hitler]], pseudonym for [[Stephen Colbert]] of the television news programs the [[Daily Show]] and the [[Colbert Report]]
[[Documentary film|Documentary films]]:
* ''[[Hitler: The Rise of Evil]]'', a television miniseries depicting Adolf Hitler's rise to power
* ''[[Hitler: The Last Ten Days]]'' (1973), a film depicting the days leading up to Adolf Hitler's suicide
{{disambig}}
[[de:Familie Hitler]]
[[nn:Hitler]]
[[pt:Hitler]]
[[Category:Adolf Hitler]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Histogram</title>
<id>13266</id>
<revision>
<id>40638775</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T00:10:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Garglebutt</username>
<id>284140</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Mathematical Definition */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:<span class="dablink">''For the histogram used in digital image processing, see [[Color histogram]].''</span>
In [[statistics]], a '''histogram''' is a [[graphical display]] of tabulated frequencies. That is, a histogram is the graphical version of a table which shows what proportion of cases fall into each of several or many specified categories. The categories are usually specified as nonoverlapping intervals of some variable. The categories (bars) must be adjacent.
Part of Seven tools of quality (Quality improvement tools that include the histogram, [[Pareto chart]], [[check sheet]], [[control chart]], [[cause-and-effect diagram]], [[flowchart]], and [[scatter diagram]].) see [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_terms_related_to_Quality_Management]]
== Examples ==
There are many different ways to display the same table, and two kinds of histograms are shown below. As an example we consider data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau on time to travel to work (2000 census, [http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-33.pdf], Table 5). Actually, this document shows bar graphs, but they are not histograms since the bars are not adjacent. The census found that there were 124 million people who work outside of their homes. People were asked how long it takes them to get to work, and their responses were divided into categories: less than 5 minutes, more than 5 minutes and less than 10, more than 10 minutes and less than 15, and so on. The tables shows the numbers of people per category in thousands, so that 4,180 means 4,180,000.
The data in the following tables are displayed graphically by the diagrams below. An interesting feature of both diagrams is the spike in the 30 to 35 minutes category. It seems likely that this is an artifact: half an hour is a common unit of informal time measurement, so people whose travel times were perhaps a little less than or a little greater than 30 minutes might be inclined to answer "30 minutes".
=== Data by absolute numbers ===
[[Image:Travel_time_histogram_total_n.png|thumb|350px|Histogram of travel time, US 2000 census. Area under the curve equals the total number of cases. This diagram uses Q/width from the table.]]
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1" style="text-align:center; margin:10px;" >
<tr> <td>Interval</td> <td>Width</td> <td>Quantity</td> <td>Quantity/width</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 0 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 4,180 </td> <td> 836 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 5 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 13,687 </td> <td> 2,737 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 10 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 18,618 </td> <td> 3,723 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 15 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 19,634 </td> <td> 3,926 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 20 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 17,981 </td> <td> 3,596 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 25 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 7,190 </td> <td> 1,438 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 30 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 16,369 </td> <td> 3,273 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 35 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 3,212 </td> <td> 642 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 40 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 4,122 </td> <td> 824 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 45 </td> <td> 15 </td> <td> 9,200 </td> <td> 613 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 60 </td> <td> 30 </td> <td> 6,461 </td> <td> 215 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 90 </td> <td> 60 </td> <td> 3,435 </td> <td> 57 </td> </tr>
</table>
This histogram shows the number of cases per [[unit interval]] so that the height of each bar is equal to the proportion of total people in the survey who fall into that category. The area under the curve represents the total number of cases (124 million). This type of histogram is ideal for an overview of absolute numbers.
<br clear="all" />
=== Data by proportion ===
[[Image:Travel_time_histogram_total_1.png|thumb|350px|Histogram of travel time, US 2000 census. Area under the curve equals 1. This diagram uses Q/total/width from the table.]]
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1" style="text-align:center; margin:10px;" >
<tr> <td>Interval</td> <td>Width</td> <td>Quantity (Q)</td><td>Q/total/width</tr>
<tr> <td> 0 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 4,180 </td> <td> 0.0067 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 5 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 13,687 </td> <td> 0.0220 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 10 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 18,618 </td> <td> 0.0300 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 15 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 19,634 </td> <td> 0.0316 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 20 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 17,981 </td> <td> 0.0289 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 25 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 7,190 </td> <td> 0.0115 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 30 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 16,369 </td> <td> 0.0263 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 35 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 3,212 </td> <td> 0.0051 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 40 </td> <td> 5 </td> <td> 4,122 </td> <td> 0.0066 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 45 </td> <td> 15 </td> <td> 9,200 </td> <td> 0.0049 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 60 </td> <td> 30 </td> <td> 6,461 </td> <td> 0.0017 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 90 </td> <td> 60 </td> <td> 3,435 </td> <td> 0.0004 </td> </tr>
</table>
This histogram differs from the first only in the [[vertical]] scale. The height of each bar is the decimal percentage of the total that each category represents, and the total |
rs of two U.S. servicemen. The peace accords also required the establishment of the Ad Hoc Commission to evaluate the human rights record of the ESAF officer corps.
In [[1993]], the last of the 103 officers identified by this commission as responsible for human rights violations were retired, and the UN observer mission declared the government in compliance with the Ad Hoc Commission recommendations. Also in [[1993]], the Government of El Salvador and the UN established the Joint Group to investigate whether illegal, armed, politically motivated groups continued to exist after the signing of the peace accords. The group reported its findings in [[1994]] stating that death squads were no longer active but that violence was still being used to obtain political ends. The group recommended a special National Civilian Police (PNC) unit be created to investigate political and organized crime and that further reforms be made in the judicial system. Not all the group's recommendations were implemented. The peace accords provided for the establishment of a Human Rights Ombudsman's Office.
==Military Reform==
In accordance with the peace agreements, the constitution was amended to prohibit the military from playing an internal security role except under extraordinary circumstances. Demobilization of Salvadoran military forces generally proceeded on schedule throughout the process. The Treasury Police and National Guard were abolished, and military intelligence functions were transferred to civilian control. By [[1993]]--9 months ahead of schedule--the military had cut personnel from a wartime high of 63,000 to the level of 32,000 required by the peace accords. By [[1999]], ESAF strength stood at less than 15,000, including uniformed and non-uniformed personnel, consisting of personnel in the army, navy, and air force. A purge of military officers accused of human rights abuses and corruption was completed in [[1993]] in compliance with the Ad Hoc Commission's recommendations.
==National Civilian Police==
The new civilian police force, created to replace the discredited public security forces, deployed its first officers in March 1993, and was present throughout the country by the end of 1994. As of 1999, the PNC had over 18,000 officers. The United States, through the Department of Justice's International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program (ICITAP), has led international support for the PNC and the National Public Security Academy (ANSP), providing more than $30 million in nonlethal equipment and training since 1992. The Justice Department's ICITAP program plans to spend $1.5 million on assistance to the PNC in 2000. The ICITAP mission is to help the ANSP and the PNC to develop more experience in police techniques and procedures and assist with the development of an efficient operation and administration.
The PNC faces many challenges in building a completely new police force. With common crime rising dramatically since the end of the war, over 500 PNC officers had been killed in the line of duty by late 1998. PNC officers also have arrested a number of their own in connection with various high-profile crimes, and a "purification" process to weed out unfit personnel from throughout for force was undertaken late in 2000. U.S. assistance--about $1.2 million--is critical in helping start innovative community policing programs that attack the gang problem head-on, training criminal investigators and improving the training of police supervisors.
==Judiciary==
Both the Truth Commission and the Joint Group identified weaknesses in the judiciary and recommended solutions, the most dramatic being the replacement of all the magistrates on the Supreme Court. This recommendation was fulfilled in 1994 when an entirely new court was elected. The process of replacing incompetent judges in the lower courts, and of strengthening the attorney general's and public defender's offices, has moved more slowly. The government continues to work in all of these areas with the help of international donors, including the United States. Action on peace-accord driven constitutional reforms designed to improve the administration of justice was largely completed in 1996 with legislative approval of several amendments and the revision of the Criminal Procedure Code--with broad political consensus.
==Land Transfers==
More than 35,000 eligible beneficiaries from among the former guerrillas and soldiers who fought the war received land under the Peace Accord-mandated land transfer program which ended in January 1997. The majority of them also have received agricultural credits. The international community, the Salvadoran Government, the former rebels, and the various financial institutions involved in the process continue to work closely together to deal with follow-on issues resulting from the program.
==Legal system==
The constitution came into force on [[23 December]] [[1983]]. Based on civil and Roman law, with traces of common law. Judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court. The Legislative Assembly passed a landmark judicial reforms in 1996. Suffrage is universal at 18.
==Executive branch==
Chief of state: President [[Elías Antonio Saca]] (since [[1 June]] [[2004]]); Vice President [[Ana Vilma de Escobar]]. Cabinet: Council of Ministers are selected by the President.
==Legislative branch==
Unicameral [[Legislative Assembly of El Salvador|Legislative Assembly]] (or ''Asamblea Legislativa)'' (84 seats; members are elected by direct, popular vote to serve three-year terms)
Election results &ndash; seats by party
*[[FMLN]] 31
*[[Nationalist Republican Alliance|ARENA]] 28
*[[PCN]] 15
*[[PDC]] 5
*[[UCD]] 5
==Political pressure groups and leaders==
===Labor organizations===
Association of Agricultural Producers APROAS; Electrical Industry Union of El Salvador SIES; Federation of the Construction Industry, FESINCONTRANS; National Confederation of Salvadoran Workers CNTS; National Union of Salvadoran Workers UNTS; Port Industry Union of El Salvador SIPES; Salvadoran Workers Central CTS; Workers Union of Electrical Corporation STCEL
===Business organizations===
National Association of Small Enterprise, ANEP; Salvadoran Assembly Industry Association, ASIC; Salvadoran Industrial Association, ASI
==International organization participation==
BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM (observer), OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
==See also==
*[[El Salvador]]
[[Category:Politics of El Salvador]]
[[es:Política de El Salvador]]
[[fr:Politique du Salvador]]
[[pt:Política de El Salvador]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of El Salvador</title>
<id>9361</id>
<revision>
<id>34739525</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T10:44:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Yongxinstudy</username>
<id>99448</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300">
<tr bgcolor=cccccc><td colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2">'''Economic Statistics'''
</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''GDP:'''</td>
<td>purchasing power parity $18.1 billion (1999 est.)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''GDP - real growth rate:'''</td>
<td>2.2% (1999 est.)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''GDP - per capita:'''</td>
<td>purchasing power parity $3,100 (1999 est.)</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan="2">'''GDP - composition by sector:'''</th></tr>
<tr><br /><td>''agriculture:''</td>
<td>12%</td></tr>
<tr><br /><td>''industry:''</td>
<td>22%</td></tr>
<tr><br /><td>''services:''</td>
<td>66% (1999 est.)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Population below poverty line:'''</td>
<td>48% (1999 est.)</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan="2">'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''</th>
<tr><td>''lowest 10%:''</td>
<td>1.2%</td></tr>
<tr><td>''highest 10%:''</td>
<td>38.3% (1995)</td> </tr>
<tr><td>'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''</td>
<td>1.3% (1999 est.)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Labor force:'''</td>
<td>2.35 million (1999)</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan="2">'''Labor force - by occupation:(1999 est.)</th>'''
</tr>
<tr><td>agriculture</td><td> 30%</td></tr> <tr><td>industry</td> <td>15%</td></tr> <tr><td>services</td> <td>55%</td> </tr>
<tr><td>'''Unemployment rate:'''</td>
<td>7.7% (1997 est.)</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan="2">'''Budget:'''</th></tr>
<tr><td>''revenues:''</td>
<td>$1.5 billion</td></tr>
<tr><td>''expenditures:''</td>
<td>$1.73 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Industries:'''</td>
<td>food processing, beverages, petroleum, chemicals, fertilizer, textiles, furniture, light metals</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Industrial production growth rate:'''</td>
<td>3.5% (1999 est.)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Electricity - production:'''</td>
<td>4,100 GWh (1999 est.)</td> |
fstream V|-37A]], [[C-40 Clipper|-40B/C]]||[[MH-53J Pave Low|MH-53J]]/[[MH-53M Pave Low|M]]
|-
|bgcolor="DCDCDC"|[[EC-130H Compass Call]] || ''Trainers--''[[T-1 Jayhawk|T-1]], [[T-37 Tweet|-37]], [[T-38 Talon|-38]], [[Boeing T-43|-43]], [[T-6 Texan II|-6]]||[[HH-60G Pave Hawk|HH-60G]]
|-
|bgcolor="ffffff"| || ''Weather--''[[WC-130 Hercules|WC-130]], [[WC-135|-135]]||[[UH-1 Iroquois|UH-1N]]
|-
|bgcolor="ffffff"| || ''UAV--''[[RQ-1 Predator|RQ-1/MQ-1 UAV]], [[Global Hawk]]||[[Lockheed U-2|U-2S/TU-2S]]
|-
|bgcolor="ffffff"| || ||[[VC-25 - Air Force One|VC-25]]
|-
|}
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:U.S. command and control aircraft 1980-1989]]
[[Category:Radar networks]]
[[de:Boeing E-8]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic Underground Community</title>
<id>10386</id>
<revision>
<id>15908201</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-22T09:39:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
<id>86</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving from odd capitalization</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[electronic underground community]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eric Cheney</title>
<id>10388</id>
<revision>
<id>21804731</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-25T14:02:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GraemeLeggett</username>
<id>187158</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eric Cheney''' ([[January 5]], [[1924]] - [[December 30]], [[2001]]) was an independent [[United Kingdom|British]] [[motorcycle]] designer and manufacturer.
Initially a [[motocross]] racer, following an accident he moved into bike preparation and design. He designed primarily motorcycle chassis and suspension systems, his most noted successes were in the world road-racing championships. His designs were the last British ones to win a Grand Prix. He never worked for any of the major manufacturers but maintained a productive relationship with [[Birmingham Small Arms Company|BSA]] in its heyday.
[[Category:1924 births|Cheney, Eric]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Cheney, Eric]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Econometrics</title>
<id>10390</id>
<revision>
<id>37570154</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T21:05:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.242.95.6</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Econometrics''''' literally means 'economic [[measurement]]'. It is a combination of [[mathematical economics]], statistics, economic statistics and economic theory.
The two main purposes of econometrics are to give [[empiricism|empirical]] content to economic theory and also to empirically verify economic theory. For example, econometrics could empirically verify if indeed a given [[demand curve]] slopes downward as economic theory would suggest. Empirical content is also given in that a numerical value would be given to this slope, while economic theory alone is usually mute on actual specific values.
Arguably the most important tool of econometrics is [[regression analysis]] (for an overview of a linear implementation of this framework, see [[linear regression]]).
Econometric analysis can often be divided into [[time-series analysis]] and [[cross-sectional analysis]]. Time-series analysis examines variables over time, such as the effect of interest rates on national expenditure. Cross-sectional analysis studies relationship between different variables at a point in time. For instance, the relationship between income, locality, and personal expenditure. When time-series analysis and cross-sectional analysis are conducted simultaneously on the same [[Statistical sample|sample]], it is called [[panel analysis]]. If the sample is different each time, it is called pooled cross section data. Multi-dimensional panel data analysis is conducted on data sets that have more than two dimensions. For example, some forecast data sets provide forecasts for multiple target periods, conducted by multiple forecasters, and made at multiple horizons. The three dimensions provide more information than can be gleaned from two dimensional panel data sets.
A simple example of a relationship in econometrics is:
:Personal Expenditure = Propensity to Spend * Income + random error
This statement asserts that the amount a person spends is dependent on his or her [[income]] and his or her willingness to spend [[money]]. If we can observe personal expenditure and income, techniques such as [[Linear regression|regression analysis]] can then be applied to find the value of the coefficients, here just the propensity to spend. The estimated coefficient can then be compared across samples (such as different countries or income brackets) and conclusions made.
The above example can also be used to illustrate the many difficulties facing the applied econometrician. For instance, do we really know that the above relationship is correct? Perhaps the true relationship between personal expenditure and income is non-linear (that is, curved). Even if we know the correct theory, it is not certain we can measure personal expenditure and income correctly. For instance, the value of work by [[homemaker]]s is not recorded although it contributes to income. There are also a variety of statistical pitfalls that potentially lead to incorrect conclusions. Econometrics has dealt extensively with such issues. Often it turns out to be difficult to fully implement the resulting methods in practice.
==People==
[[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] recipients in the field of econometrics:
* [[Jan Tinbergen]] and [[Ragnar Frisch]] were awarded in [[1969]] (the first Nobel Price for Economic Sciences) for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes
* [[Lawrence Klein]], Professor of Economics at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], was awarded in [[1980]] for his computer modeling work in the field.
* [[Trygve Haavelmo]] was awarded in [[1989]]. His main contribution to econometrics was his 1944 article (published in ''Econometrica'') "The Probability Approach to Econometrics".
* [[Daniel McFadden]] and [[James Heckman]] shared the award in [[2000]] for their work in microeconometrics. McFadden founded the econometrics lab at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].
* [[Robert Engle]] and [[Clive Granger]] were awarded in [[2003]] for work on analysing economic time series. Engle pioneered the method of [[autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity]] (ARCH) and Granger the method of [[cointegration]].
The [http://www.feweb.vu.nl/econometriclinks/authors Econometric Author Links of the Econometrics Journal] provides personal links to recent articles and working papers of econometric authors via the [http://repec.org RePEc] system in [http://econpapers.repec.org EconPapers]
== See also ==
* [[List of publications in economics#Econometrics| Important publications in econometrics]]
* Wooldridge, Jeffrey. <i> Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach.</i> Mason: Thomson South-Western, 2003. ISBN 0324113641
* [http://www.econometriclinks.com Econometric Links]
{{Wiktionary}}
[[Category:Econometrics|*]]
[[be:Эканамэтрыка]]
[[ca:Econometria]]
[[da:Økonometri (økonomi)]]
[[de:Ökonometrie]]
[[el:Οικονομετρία]]
[[es:Econometría]]
[[eo:Ekonometrio]]
[[fr:Économétrie]]
[[it:Econometria]]
[[hu:Ökonometria]]
[[nl:Econometrie]]
[[ja:&#35336;&#37327;&#32076;&#28168;&#23398;]]
[[no:Økonometri]]
[[pl:Ekonometria]]
[[pt:Econometria]]
[[su:Statistik ékonomi]]
[[fi:Ekonometria]]
[[sv:Ekonometri]]
[[tr:Ekonometri]]
[[zh:计量经济学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ellen van Langen</title>
<id>10391</id>
<revision>
<id>37972993</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T08:06:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| {{prettyinfobox}}
|colspan=3 align=center| [[Image:Olympic-rings.png|center|80px|]]
|- align=center
|colspan=3 | Women's [[Athletics]]
|- align=center
|bgcolor="gold"| Gold || [[Athletics at the 1992 Summer Olympics|1992]] || 800 metres
|}
'''Ellen Gezina Maria van Langen''' (born [[February 9]], [[1966]]) is a former [[Netherlands|Dutch]] middle distance runner, who was born in [[Oldenzaal]]. Van Langen has a degree in economics at the [[University of Amsterdam]]. Before she started running, she played [[football (soccer)|football]].
At the [[1992 Summer Olympics]] in [[Barcelona]], she won the Olympic title in the 800 m in a time of 1:55.54, a time which remained her personal best. After her major achievement, she was plagued by various injuries. Her best result after 1992 was a 6th place at the [[1995 World Championships in Athletics|1995 World Championships]]. She retired from the sport in [[1998]].
{{Footer_Olympic_Champions_800_m_Women}}
[[Category:1966 births|Langen, Ellen van]]
[[Category:Living people|Langen, Ellen van]]
[[Category:Dutch athletes|Langen, Ellen van]]
[[Category:Middle distance runners|Langen, Ellen van]]
[[Category:Olympic competitors for the Netherlands|Langen, Ellen van]]
[[de:Ellen van Langen]]
[[nl:Ellen van Langen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emacs Lisp</title>
<id>10392</id>
<revision>
<id>36615527</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T07:49:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fubar Obfusco</username>
<id>1200</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Emacs Lisp differs heavily from CL/Scheme, because of the scope thing</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emacs Lisp''' is a dialect of the [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] [[programming language]] used by the |
ware provisions for the use of [[operating system]]s. Among these were supervisor and application mode programs and instructions, as well as built-in memory protection facilities.{{ref|mem-protect}} The new machine also had a larger [[address space]] than the older mainframes, 24 bits vs. a typical 18 bits. The System/360 later evolved into the [[System/370]], the [[System/390]], the [[zSeries]], and the [[System z9]].
Prior to System/360, IBM also sold computers smaller in scale, though still large and expensive by modern standards. These included:
*[[IBM 650]] (vacuum tube era, decimal architecture, business and scientific)
*[[IBM RAMAC 305]] (vacuum tube era, first computer with disk storage; ''see:'' [[Early IBM disk storage]])
*[[IBM 1400 series]] (business data processing; very successful and many 1400 peripherals were used with the 360s)
*[[IBM 1620]] (decimal architecture, engineering, scientific, and education)
IBM had difficulty getting customers to upgrade from the smaller machines to the mainframes because so much software had to be rewritten. The 7010 was introduced in 1962 as a mainframe-sized 1410.
The smaller models in the System/360 line (e.g. the 360/30) were intended to replace the 1400 series while providing an easier upgrade path to the larger 360s. A desk size machine with a different instruction set, the [[IBM 1130]], was released to address the 1620's niche. It was mostly programmed in Fortran, which was relatively easy to adapt to larger machines when necessary.
The second generation products were a mainstay of IBM's business and IBM continued to make them for several years after the introduction of the System/360. (Some [[IBM 7094]]s remained in service into the 1980s.) To smooth the transition from second generation to the new line, IBM used the 360's [[microprogramming]] capability to emulate the more popular older models. Thus 360/30s with this added cost feature could run 1401 programs and the larger 360/65s could run 7094 programs. To run old programs, the 360 had to be halted and restarted in emulation mode. Many customers kept using their old software and one of the features of the later System/370 was the ability to switch to emulation mode and back under operating system control.
==Software==
===Operating systems===
The primary [[operating system]]s in use on IBM mainframes include [[z/OS]] (which followed [[MVS]] and [[OS/390]]), [[z/VM]] (previously [[VM/CMS]]), [[z/VSE]], [[z/TPF]], and [[Linux on zSeries]]. A few systems still run [[MUSIC/SP]], another operating system. Previous operating systems for the [[System/360]] family and its successors included [[OS/360]] (with PCP, MFT, and MVT), BOS, TOS, [[DOS/360|DOS]], and SVS. There are software-based emulators for the [[System/370]], [[System/390]], [[zSeries]], and [[ZSeries|System z9]] hardware, including [[FLEX-ES]] and the freely available [[Hercules emulator]] which runs under Linux and [[Microsoft Windows]]. The original [[OS/360]] and early [[MVS]] and [[VM/CMS]] versions have been released for free use.
===Middleware===
IBM mainframes run all the major enterprise [[transaction processing]] environments and [[database]]s, including [[CICS]], [[Information Management System|IMS]], [[WebSphere]] Application Server, [[DB2]], and [[Oracle Database|Oracle]]. In many cases these [[software]] subsystems can run on more than one mainframe operating system.
==See also==
*[[List of IBM products]]
*[[Amdahl Corporation]]
*[[IBM minicomputer]]
==References==
*Prasad, Nallur (1994). ''IBM Mainframes: Architecture and Design'', 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Osborne Media. ISBN 0070506914.{{ref|old-book}}
==External links==
*[http://ibm.com/zseries Official IBM mainframe page (zSeries/z9)]
==Notes==
<!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
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1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the relevant place in the body of the article.
3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours.
4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
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#{{Note|cost}} The acquisition price of one mainframe is higher than, say, one PC. However, that's a bit like saying the acquisition price of a train freight car is higher than the price of a bicycle basket. Both can move goods, but there the similarity ends, and the costs depend almost entirely on the tasks required of them. Mainframes reduce labor costs, software costs, and costs of outage, among other costs, because they are systems designed to achieve significant [[economies of scale]].
#{{Note|size}} Nowadays, because mainframes consolidate scores or even hundreds of otherwise individual servers, they consume less electricity and occupy less space than equivalent workloads executing on individual servers. Most 21st century data centers require much more space for distributed servers than for mainframes.
#{{Note|speed}} In single computational task terms. Weather modeling, protein folding analysis, nuclear explosion simulation, digital cinematography, and structural engineering analysis are examples of computational problems better suited to supercomputers. Mainframes are optimized for business transaction processing and large online database management, among other tasks.
#{{Note|alu}} Some of the arithmetic units and addressing features were optional on some models of the System/360. However, models were upward compatible and most were also downward compatible.
#{{Note|mem-protect}} Hardware memory protection was provided to protect the operating system from the user programs (tasks) and the user tasks from each other.
#{{Note|old-book}} Now dated. For details on the significant [[64-bit]] architectural changes, refer to IBM technical publications (see [[z/Architecture]]).
[[Category:IBM hardware|Mainframe]]
[[Category:Mainframe computers|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IBM minicomputer</title>
<id>14873</id>
<revision>
<id>15912403</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-21T23:35:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.115.228.126</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[IBM midrange computer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iowa State University</title>
<id>14875</id>
<revision>
<id>41522905</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:52:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>63.163.175.14</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Alumni or faculty members */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{University information |
Width = 300 |
TableColor = #FAFAD2 |
TitleColor = #B22222 |
Name = Iowa State University |
Seal = IowaStateUniversitySeal.gif |
SealWidth = 210 |
Motto = Science with practice |
Established = 1858 |
SchoolType = [[Public university|Public]] |
CurrentPresident = [[ISU notables#Geoffroy|Gregory L. Geoffroy]] |
Location = [[Ames, Iowa| Ames]], [[Iowa|IA]], [[United States|USA]] |
Undergraduate = 22,000 |
Graduate = 4,700 |
Faculty = 1,750 |
Endowment = $489 million |
Campus = [[urban area|Urban]], 1,984 acres (8 km&sup2;) |
SportsTeam = [[Iowa State Cyclones|Cyclones]]
[[Image:Iowa-State-University-sports-logo.png|50px|]]|
Website = [http://www.iastate.edu/ www.iastate.edu]
}}
'''Iowa State University''' ('''ISU''') is a public [[land-grant university]] and [[Space grant colleges|space-grant university]] located in [[Ames, Iowa]]. The full official name is '''Iowa State University of Science and Technology'''. It was previously '''Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts''', a school created through the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]].
The [[Iowa General Assembly]] in 1858, prior to the passage of the [[Morrill Act of 1862]], enacted legislation to establish an agriculture college and model farm. This college was named the State Agricultural College & Model Farm. The location of [[Story County, Iowa|Story County]] was chosen on [[June 21]], [[1859]] after the state selection board received proposals from [[Johnson County, Iowa|Johnson]], [[Kossuth County, Iowa|Kossuth]], [[Marshall County, Iowa|Marshall]], [[Polk County, Iowa|Polk]], and [[Story County, Iowa|Story]] counties. The University is one of 60 elected members of the prestigious [[Association of American Universities]].
==Landmarks==
Nearing its [[sesquicentennial]] in 2008, ISU now has a number of landmarks on campus.
Please visit the [[ISU notables]] page for many of the beautiful landmarks.
==Academics==
[[Image:Fountain of Four Seasons.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[ISU notables#Fountain of Four Seasons|Fountain of Four Seasons]] by [[ISU notables#Petersen|Christian Petersen]] with the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] in the background]]
ISU is best known for its degree programs in [[science]], [[engineering]] and [[agriculture]]. ISU is also home of the world's first electronic digital computer, the [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]].
It consists of the following colleges:
* [http://www.ag.iastate.edu/ Agriculture]
* [http://www.bus.iastate.edu/ Business]
* [http://www.design.iastate.edu/ Design]
* [http://www.eng.iastate.edu/ Engineering]
* [http://www.hs.iastate.edu/ Human Sciences]
* [http://www.las.iastate.edu/ Liberal Arts and Sciences]
* [http://www.vetmed.iastate.edu/ Veterinary Medicine]
In addition to these seven colleges, the [http://www.grad-college.iastate.edu/ Graduate College] oversees graduate study in all fields. <!--
===College of Agriculture===
===College of Business===
===College of Art & Design===
===College of Education===
===College of Engineering===
===College of Family & Consumer Sciences===
===College |
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