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uot;; also known as the '''heptatonia prima'''; [[set form]] 7-35) is a seven-note musical [[scale (music)|scale]] comprising five whole-tone and two half-tone steps, in which the half tones are maximally separated. The modern Western concept of diatonicism developed from the writings of [[Guido d'Arezzo]]; diatonic scales are therefore sometimes referred to as ''Guido scales''.
These scales are the fundamental building blocks of the European [[music]]al tradition. The modern major and minor scales are diatonic, as are all of the so-called 'church' [[musical mode|modes]]. The seven [[note (music)|notes]] of a diatonic scale—repeated in each [[octave]]—correspond to the white keys on a [[piano]]. The modern musical keyboard, with its black notes grouped in twos and threes—is essentially diatonic; this arrangement not only helps musicians to find their bearings on the keyboard, but simplifies the system of key signatures compared with what would be necessary for a continuous alternation of black and white notes.<!--Insert image of modern keyboard - is there one on Wikicommons?-->
==Technical composition of diatonic scales==
Technically speaking, diatonic scales are obtained from a [[interval cycle|chain]] of six successive [[perfect fifth|fifths]] in some version of [[meantone temperament]], and resulting in two [[tetrachord]]s separated by [[interval (music)|interval]]s of a [[whole tone]]. If our version of meantone is the twelve tone [[equal temperament]] the pattern of intervals in [[semitone]]s will be 2-2-1-2-2-2-1; these numbers stand for whole tones (2 semitones) and half tones (1 semitone). The [[major scale]] starts on the first note and proceeds by steps to the first octave. In [[solfege]], the syllables for each scale degree are "Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol-La-Ti-Do".<!--Why not refer to sofege further down, in a dedicated paragraph or section? Does an extra layer of one-syllable terms help the reader to understand diatonicism at this stage?-->
The [[minor scale|natural minor scale]] can be thought of in two ways, the first is as the ''relative minor'' of the major scale, beginning on the sixth degree of the scale and proceeding step by step through the same tetrachords to the first octave of the sixth degree. In solfege "La-Ti-Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol." Alternately, the natural minor can be seen as a composite of two different tetrachords of the pattern 2-1-2-2-1-2-2. In solfege "Do-Re-Mé-Fa-Sol-Lé-Té-Do."
Western [[harmony]] from the [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]] up until the [[Romantic music|late 19th century]] is based on the diatonic scale and the unique [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] relationships, or [[diatonic functionality]], created by this system of organizing seven notes. Most longer pieces of common practice<!--many readers won't be familiar with this term; can it be avoided, or mentioned later?--> music [[modulation (music)|change key]], but this leads to a hierarchical relationship of diatonic scales in one key with those in another.
These unique relationships are as follows: Only certain divisions of the octave, 12 and 20 included, allow uniqueness, coherence, and transpositional simplicity, and that only the diatonic and pentatonic subsets of the 12-tone chromatic set follow these constraints (Balzano, 1980, 1982). The diatonic collection contains each interval class a unique number of times (Browne 1981 cited in Stein 2005, p.49, 49n12). [[Diatonic set theory]] describes the following properties: [[maximal evenness]], [[Myhill's property]], [[well formed generated collection|well formedness]], the [[deep scale property]], [[cardinality equals variety]], and [[structure implies multiplicity]].
There is significant evidence that the evolution of the diatonic scale is natural, because it is based on the most basic harmonics of any scale's first note, and that it has actually occurred many times over the course of human history. There is even circumstantial evidence that a flute used by [[neanderthal]]s about 40,000 years ago and found at [[Divje Babe]] played the diatonic scale[http://www.greenwych.ca/fl-compl.htm], and that a song recorded on a clay tablet in ancient [[Syria]] was written in it, 3,400 years ago.[http://www.greenwych.ca/evidence.htm]
==See also==
* [[pitch (music)|Pitch]]
* [[Diatonic genus]]
* [[Piano key frequencies]]
* [[Divje Babe]]
==Further reading==
*Johnson, Timothy (2003). ''Foundations of Diatonic Theory: A Mathematically Based Approach to Music Fundamentals''. Key College Publishing. ISBN 1930190808.
*Clough, John (1979). "Aspects of Diatonic Sets", ''Journal of Music Theory'' 23: 45-61.
*Gould, Mark (2000). "Balzano and Zweifel: Another Look at Generalised Diatonic Scales", "Perspectives of New Music" 38/2: 88-105
*Fink, Bob (2005) ''On the Origin of Music''. Greenwich. ISBN 0912424141.
==Sources==
*Balzano, Gerald J. (1980). "The Group Theoretic Description of 12-fold and Microtonal Pitch Systems", ''Computer Music Journal'' 4: 66-84.
*Stein, Deborah (2005). ''Engaging Music: Essays in Music Analysis''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195170105.
**Browne, Richmond (1981). "Tonal Implications of the Diatonic Set", ''In Theory Only'' 5, nos. 1 and 2: 3-21
==External links==
* [http://www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/music/DiatonicScale.html Diatonic Scale] on Eric Weisstein's Treasure trove of Music
* [http://www.greenwych.ca/natbasis.htm ''Natural Bases of Scales''] and [http://www.greenwych.ca/cycl-5-2.htm ''The 7-Note Solution''] -- Why are so many 5 & 7-note scales found among ancient writings and artifacts?)
{{Scale}} <br>
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[[Category:Musical scales]]
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[[ca:Escala Diatònica]]
[[cs:Diatonická stupnice]]
[[de:Diatonik]]
[[id:Skala diatonik]]
[[it:Scala diatonica]]
[[he:סולם דיאטוני]]
[[lt:Diatoninė gama]]
[[nl:Diatoniek]]
[[ja:全音階]]
[[fi:Diatoninen asteikko]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Das Lied der Deutschen</title>
<id>8203</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:00:28Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Das Lied der Deutschen''' ("The Song of the Germans", also known as '''Das Deutschlandlied''', "The Song of Germany") has been used wholly or partially as the [[national anthem]] of [[Germany]] since [[1922]]. The music, written by [[Joseph Haydn]] in [[1797]], was used as the melody of the Austrian national anthem until 1918. The lyrics were written by [[August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben]] in [[1841]] on the [[North Sea]] island of [[Heligoland]], a then British territory in the [[German Bight]] which became part of Germany in [[1890]]. At the time of their composition, they received little attention. Since [[1952]] only the third stanza has been Germany's national athem.
'''Audio Sample'''
:[[Image:Audiobutton.png]] [http://ingeb.org/Lieder/deutsch2.mid MIDI sound file] ("Das Lied der Deutschen")
==History==
===Earlier German national anthems===
At the beginning of the [[19th century]], Germany was not a unified country, and the various smaller countries considered to be German each had their own anthem. The first pan-German anthem prior to [[1866]] was [[Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland]] ("What is the German's fatherland?"), with lyrics composed in [[1813]] by [[Ernst Moritz Arndt]] ([[1769]]-[[1860]]) and set to music by [[Gustav Reichardt]] ([[1797]]-[[1884]]) in [[1825]].
Following the unification of Germany in [[1871]], the Prussian anthem ''[[Heil dir im Siegerkranz]]'' &mdash; sung to the tune of the British anthem ''[[God Save the King]]'' &mdash; became the national anthem of Germany. Furthermore the anthem ''[[Die Wacht am Rhein]]'' ("The watch on the Rhine") was very popular as an unofficial national anthem in that time.
===Tune===
The tune of "Das Lied der Deutschen" was written by Haydn, but not as a national anthem; Haydn wrote it because he had been requested to provide music to the poem "[[Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser]]" ("God preserve Francis the Emperor"), an anthem to [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]], Holy Roman Emperor, King of Germany, and Archduke of Austria. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, "Gott erhalte..." came to be considered the unofficial national anthem of Austria. This tune also became the second movement of one of Haydn's [[string quartet|string quartets]]. This string quartet is still widely performed today, still with the second movement containing the tune of the German national anthem along with several variations.
For additional details on the tune and how it was composed, see "[[Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser]]".
===Text===
Hoffmann von Fallersleben evidently intended "Das Lied der Deutschen" to be sung to Haydn's tune, as the first publication of the poem included the music. While it may today seem strange that Hoffmann chose a tune that was strongly associated with Austria for his song about Germany, this would not have seemed strange in 1841. First, at the time other countries likewise borrowed tunes for their patriotic songs, particularly the tune from Britain's ''[[God Save the King]]''. Second, Austria was still considered a part of Germany: it was a member of the [[German Confederation]] until that was dissolved in [[1866]], after the Seven Weeks' War; the final separation between southern Germany and Austria did not occur until [[1871]].
The poem was written at a time when Germany was still a collection of more than 30 quarreling [[monarchy|monarchies]] and republican free cities. Hoffmann wanted to express his desire for a united Germany, not national arrogance or striving for power. His poem is in three stanzas, of which the f |
h is used as the base for [[natural logarithm|natural logarithms]]. See [[e (mathematical constant)]].
**E is also used to signify &#215;10<sup>y</sup>; i.e. 7e8 is 7&#215;10<sup>8</sup> or 700,000,000.
**E is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[fourteen]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 15 or greater.
* In the [[SI]] system, E, [[exa]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning 10<sup>18</sup>.
* In [[music]], E is a [[note]].
* In [[nutrition]], [[Tocopherol|E]] is a [[vitamin]].
* In [[physics]], E is,
** The symbol for [[energy]], as in <math>E=mc^2</math> (see [[E=mc²]]).
** The symbol for [[electric field]].
** In [[particle physics]], e is the symbol for the [[electron]].
** Also in semiconductor physics, e may represent [[elementary charge]].
* As the first letter of a [[postal code]],
** In [[Canada]], E stands for [[New Brunswick]].
** In the [[United Kingdom]], E stands for [[East London, England|East London]].
* In [[probability]] and [[statistics]], a capital E denotes [[expected value]].
* In [[sports]], E# refers to a team's [[elimination number]].
* In [[structural engineering]], E stands for the [[modulus of elasticity]].
* In [[symbolic logic]], <math>\exists</math> (a backwards E) is the symbol for "there exists...", called the [[existential quantifier]]. Example: <math>\exists x\,(x+1=3)</math>.
* In [[video games]], E is the [[ESRB]] rating symbol for Everyone.
* &#37122;, or È is an abbreviation for the [[Hubei]] [[Political divisions of China|province]] of the [[People's Republic of China]].
* E is the pseudonym of [[Mark Oliver Everett]], lead singer of [[Eels|The Eels.]]
*[[E!]] (Entertainment Television) is an American [[cable television]] and [[direct broadcast satellite]] network.
* In [[Romania]], E is a symbol of [[parthenogenesis]].
* In [[X Window System]], E is short for [[Enlightenment (X window manager)]].
* In [[Poland|Polish]] [[Polish locomotives designation|locomotives designation]] E stands for [[electric locomotive]].
* In Greek it is used for [[Epsilon Team]]
* In the game [[Dance Dance Revolution]] E signifies a failed song.
==See also==
Similar non-Latin letters:
*&#917; : [[Epsilon]]
*&#1045; : [[Ye (Cyrillic)]]
*&#1028; : [[Ukrainian Ye]]
*&#1069; : [[E (Cyrillic)]]
{{AZsubnav}}
[[Category:Latin letters]]
[[als:E]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Economics</title>
<id>9223</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41938569</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:31:21Z</timestamp>
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<ip>18.89.3.9</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|"Economy" redirects here. For other senses of that word, see [[economy (disambiguation)]].}}
{{featured article}}
'''Economics''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &#959;&#943;&#954;&#959;&#962; [''oikos''], 'house', and &#957;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#962; [''nomos''], 'rule', hence ''"household management"'') is a [[social science]] that studies the [[production]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]], [[trade]] and [[consumption]] of [[Good (economics)|goods]] and services. Economics is said to be [[normative]] when it recommends one choice over another, or when a [[subjective]] value judgment is made. Conversely, economics is said to be [[positive (social sciences)|positive]] when it tries objectively to predict and explain consequences of choices, given a set of [[assumption]]s and/or a set of [[observation]]s. The choice of which assumptions to make in building a model as well as which observations to highlight is, however, normative.
Economics, which focuses on measurable variables, is broadly divided into two main branches: '''[[microeconomics]]''', which deals with individual agents, such as households and businesses, and '''[[macroeconomics]]''', which considers the economy as a whole, in which case it considers [[aggregate supply]] and [[aggregate demand|demand]] for [[money]], [[capital (economics)|capital]] and [[commodity|commodities]]. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are [[resource allocation]], production, distribution, trade, and [[competition]]. Economic logic is increasingly applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity or determining economic [[value (economics)|value]].
The mainstream economic paradigm is a combination of [[neoclassical economics]] and macroeconomics called the [[neoclassical synthesis]]. Various schools of [[heterodox economics]] seek to explain economic phenomena using different assumptions, formalisms or basic paradigmatic assumptions.
A professional working inside one of the many fields of economics or having an [[academic degree]] in this subject, is an [[economist]].
[[Image:Market-Chichicastenango.jpg|thumb|250px|Buyers bargain for good prices while sellers put forth their best front in [[Chichicastenango]] Market, [[Guatemala]].]]
== Definitions of economics ==
Broadly speaking, economics is a social science, and its area of study is human activity involved in meeting needs and wants. Economists generally aspire to be the dominant social science by pretending to apply physical science rigor to "soft" real world phenomena. Economists' works are typically poached from sociology, political science or anthropology, using a method that seeks to apply the narrowest and most complex (albeit usually completely unrealistic) explanations to human beings' passionate and often highly irrational efforts to meet their oftentimes equally irrational needs and wants.
The supreme prize in modern economics is given for bucking the conventional wisdom, no matter how esoteric and convoluted the resulting logic. The best explanations of such phenomena usually begin with an instance of supposed irrationality and then explain it away as the result of sampling error (For this, most economists are awarded the Nobel prize at some point in their career: as a result of their keen understanding of supply and demand, economists more than one century ago managed to convince war profiteer Alfred Nobel to give one award per year in a field that had only a handful of practitioners).
John Maynard Keynes once remarked that "Economics is the science of thinking." Clearly this oft-repeated historical anecdote illustrates that economists have long had big, swollen heads. But as though they purposefully set out to prove the impossibility of the endeavor, few of these proud "thinkers" have recently tried the practice. Instead they stick to their time-honored methodological shortcut of appropriating and generally over-simplifying the findings of other social sciences, cloaking them in ridiculous mathematical scribblings that obfuscate their origins and are further undermined by the complete epistemological unawareness of the modern economist. Modern economics has largely foresworn Keynes' original goals, and most would agree that economics today is the art of running regressions, seeing what the models spit out, and explaining it all away.
=== Wealth definition ===
The earliest definitions of political economy were simple, elegant statements defining it as the study of wealth. [[Adam Smith]], generally regarded as the Father of Economics, author of ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'' (generally known as ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'') defines economics simply as "The science of wealth." Smith offered another definition, "The Science relating to the laws of production, distribution and exchange." Wealth was defined as the specialization of labor which allowed a nation to produce more with its supply of labor and resources. This definition divided Smith and Hume from previous definitions which defined wealth as gold. Hume argued that gold without increased activity simply serves to raise prices.
[[John Stuart Mill]] defined economics as "The practical science of production and distribution of wealth"; this definition was adopted by the ''Concise Oxford Dictionary''. For Mill, wealth is defined as the stock of useful things.
Definitions in terms of wealth emphasize production and consumption, and do not deal with the economic activities of those not significantly involved in these two processes (for example, retired people, beggars). For economists of this period, non-productive activity is a cost on society. This interpretation gave economics a narrow focus that was rejected by many as placing wealth in the forefront and man in the background; [[John Ruskin]] referred to political economy as a "Bastard science, the science of getting riches."
=== Welfare definition ===
Later definitions evolved to include human activity, advocating a shift toward the modern view of economics as primarily a study of man and of human welfare, not of money. [[Alfred Marshall]] in his 1890 book ''Principles of Economics'' wrote, "Political Economy or Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of Life; it examines the part of the individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the use of material requisites of well-being."
The welfare definition was still criticized as too narrowly materialistic. It ignores, for example, the non-material aspects of the services of a doctor or a dancer. A theory of wages which ignored all those sums paid for immaterial services was incomplete. Welfare could not b |
ounter-Strike: Source''. Each pistol has a 15-round magazine of 9mm ammo, although Beretta 96Gs are in reality chambered in .40 S&W. In Condition Zero (expansion of the original CS) and Source, the model for the dualies is based on the [[Beretta 92|Beretta 92F Elite II]], with silver slide.
The "dualies" are rarely used due to their inaccuracy and a dangerously long (if aesthetically pleasing) reload animation. However, they are still occasionally used, mainly by players who enjoy the reckless [[action movie]] feel evoked by the wielding of two guns; getting a kill with these challenging weapons is a satisfying and spectacular feat. Other players exploit their fast rate of fire by binding the up and down movement of a [[mouse wheel]] to fire and then spinning it rapidly, producing a weapon almost matching the SMGs in terms of rate-of-fire.
The dual Berettas were added in Beta 7.0 after overwhelming fan support for it, despite the creators' original intention to not include it.
===FN-Herstal Five-seveN===
''Alternate name: ES Five-Seven''
The [[Fabrique Nationale de Herstal|FN-Herstal]] [[Five-seveN]] is only available to the Counter-Terrorist team. It costs $750 and uses 20-round magazines of 5.7mm ammo. This is an extremely accurate gun with low recoil and large, 20-round magazines. However, the Five-SeveN is expensive and has very little power per round, sometimes requiring three or more shots to the head to kill an opponent, making it less useful since the point of a pistol is for effective close-range kills. Sometimes it is used by advanced players as a way of showing off, similar to the knife. The Five-seveN was added in version 1.0 of ''Counter-Strike''.
Note: The Five-seveN uses the same 5.7mm ammunition as the FN P90 and when both are equipped at the same time they share the same ammunition reserve.
==[[Shotgun]]s==
Shotguns are reloaded one shell at a time and can be fired while reloading. Unlike other guns, shotgun accuracy is the same regardless of whether the player is moving, jumping, crouching, swimming or on a ladder which, although very unrealistic, adds a great amount of fun in using a shotgun, and therefore attracts more users.
===Benelli M3 (pump shotgun) ===
''Alternate name: Leone 12 Gauge Super''
The [[Benelli M3]] Super 90 Combat is round-for-round the more powerful of the two shotguns. It costs $1700 and holds 8 rounds of 12 [[Shotgun#Gauge|gauge]] shells. The M3 is a pump-action weapon that is pumped after each shot to advance the next shell (hence the nickname "pump shottie"). Being a shotgun, its accuracy is not reduced while the player is moving, jumping, swimming or climbing a ladder, but the main strength of the M3 is its high damage: at close range it can kill with one shot. Its disadvantages include its pumping time and the need for precise timing and aiming. Some have also complained that the default M3 model's reload animation obscures what one can see in front. The M3 has been in ''Counter-Strike'' since Beta 1.0. The shotgun is contentious as some players believe effective use of the shotgun requires a high level of skill, whereas others refute this because of the 'spray' effect of shotguns and the supposed lack of skill required to aim and get a kill and hence associate the M3 with [[noobs]]. This has led to a few servers restricting the M3 in the same way the AWP is for quite a number of servers.
===Benelli XM1014 (auto shotgun)===
''Alternate name: Leone YG1265 Auto Shotgun''
The [[Benelli M4 Super 90]] XM1014 is an automatic shotgun. It costs $3000 and holds 7 12-gauge shells. The XM1014 has a high rate of fire, but it empties quickly and each shot does less damage than the M3. As an automatic shotgun, it requires neither timing nor the accuracy of the M3, and its common use among newcomers to the game has earned it the derisive nicknames the "[[newbie]] cannon", "newbie blaster", "noob stick" and "noob-tube". Extreme repeated use of this weapon can result in name calling, such as "shotty whore". This gun is very useful at close range in maps such as cs_office.
Note that the internal name of the "auto-shottie" is weapon_xm1014. At the time ''CS'' was first created, the XM1014 was an experimental semi-automatic shotgun being tested by the [[USMC]]. It is now known as the [[Benelli M4 Super 90]]. The XM1014 was added to ''Counter-Strike'' in Beta 5.0 (December [[1999]]).
==Submachine guns/automatics (SMGs)==
===MP5===
''Alternate name: K&M Submachine Gun''
The [[Heckler & Koch MP5]] 9mm Navy costs $1500 and has 30-round magazines of 9mm Parabellum ammo. It is one of four weapons in the game chambered in [[9mm Parabellum]] (MP5, GLOCK 18, TMP and "Dualies"), dealing less damage than the Dualies, but more than the GLOCK and TMP. Because of this, as well as its decent accuracy and ease of control, it is one of the most popular weapons in the game, particularly in early rounds when its low price is a significant advantage. Its low recoil also makes it relatively easy to achieve headshots. The MP5 has been in CS since Beta 1.0.
===TMP===
''Alternate name: Schmidt Machine Pistol''
The [[Steyr]] [[Tactical Machine Pistol]] 9mm is a gun exclusive to the Counter-Terrorist team. It costs $1250 and has 30-round magazines of 9mm Parabellum ammo. It's chambered with the same type of round as the MP5 (9x19mm), but due to balancing issues and a fixed suppressor it deals very little damage, but can be used to obtain a headshot very easily. It is the cheapest fully automatic firearm, reloads very quickly, has a high rate of fire and remains fairly accurate while moving. The TMP is a fairly rare weapon to see people use, however, if the user is skilled enough, the TMP can be a very effective weapon. Sometimes referred to as "Too Much Pwnage" when effectively used.
===P90===
''Alternate name: ES C90''
The [[Fabrique Nationale]] [[FN P90]] 5.7x28mm is an SMG that uses 50-round magazines of 5.7mm ammo. At $2350 it is the most expensive SMG, and players often instead opt to purchase rifles for a slightly higher (or in the case of the FAMAS and Galil, slightly lower) price. However, the large magazine is an advantage in longer shootouts. The P90 has decent accuracy and the highest rate of fire of any gun in the game at 900 to 1200 rpm. Because of this and the somewhat toned down damage, it has gained the nickname "pea shooter" by some. It is best at close to medium range and has very low recoil so spraying is the best tactic with this gun. The P90 was added in Beta 3.0.
===MAC-10===
The [[Ingram]] [[MAC-10]] .45ACP is a Terrorist-only gun. It costs $1400 and has 30-round magazines of .45 ACP ammo. It is a fearsome weapon at close quarters: it is more powerful than the TMP, and like that weapon, the MAC-10 has a fast rate of fire, is not difficult to control and makes it easy to achieve a head shot. However, its extreme inaccuracy means it is only effective at short ranges — the MP5 is a similar price but is more versatile, so many players opt for that gun instead.
The MAC-10 was added in Beta 6.0. It has no fake name because the companies that originally owned the rights to the MAC-10 name had gone out of production years before.
===UMP45===
''Alternate name: K&M UMP45''
The [[Heckler & Koch UMP]] .45ACP is similar to the MP5 but is slightly more powerful. It costs $1700 and has 25-round magazines of .45 ACP ammo. It has the lowest rate of fire for any gun beside the pistols, but this helps reduce recoil. Also, its accuracy remains high while moving, making it one of the steadiest SMGs. Unfortunately, its low rate of fire, long reload time and higher price make it a rarely used weapon, in contrast to its very popular MP5 relative. The UMP45 was added in ''Counter-Strike'' 1.0.
==[[Rifle]]s==
There are two subcategories of rifles: [[assault rifle]]s and [[sniper rifle]]s.
The assault rifles are all fully automatic like the submachine guns, but there are are several key differences between them. Aside from the higher price, assault rifles do more damage (roughly double), pierce armor better, and can shoot through some objects. However, the most important difference is their accuracy. While submachine guns generally have a low recoil (crosshair does not move too much when spraying) and a high spread (bullets stray from the center of the crosshair), assault rifles generally have a high recoil and low spread. Because of this, rifles used with burst firing are much more effective at long range than are submachine guns. Spraying with an assault rifle is not recommended unless in close range combat.
Scoped rifles (sniper rifles) do not have a crosshair in the normal view, and must be scoped to be accurate. Sniper rifles are more powerful and can penetrate more objects than assault rifles can.
In CS:S, all rifles can shoot through thin objects and crates and damage things on the other side. In CS 1.6, all rifles can pierce up to 3 objects/walls.
===Galil===
''Alternate name: IDF Defender''
The [[Israeli Military Industries|IMI]] [[Galil]] 5.56 is the cheap Terrorist-only counterpart of the Counter-Terrorists' [[FAMAS]]. It costs $2000 and has 35-round magazines of 5.56x45mm ammo (same as the M4A1, but much weaker). It is a good gun when money is tight, especially since it has a slightly larger magazine than other rifles (35 rounds vs 30 rounds). The benefit of using the Galil is that it has the recoil of a submachine gun but has the stopping power of a rifle. The recoil is different than most guns, however. Instead of moving upwards a lot it moves more side to side, making it harder to control and spray. Because of this it is not suggested to spray much at all with this gun except at almost point blank range. The Galil was added in ''Counter-Strike'' 1.6.
===FAMAS===
''Alternate name: Clarion 5.56''
The [[GIAT Industries|GIAT]] [[FA |
s: Vol 2''. Frank Cass, 2005 ISBN 0714652075
* [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/newspaper/0,,170-1670775,00.html The Times article on Freedman's work] [[June 27]] [[2005]], Evans, M. and Hamilton, A.
* [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2002%2F03%2F13%2Fnot13.xml "How France helped us win Falklands war, by John Nott", By George Jones, Political Editor (Filed: 13/03/2002)]
* {{fnb|1}} {{cite web
| title = 1982: Marines land in South Georgia
| work = BBC
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/25/newsid_2503000/2503977.stm
| accessdate = 20 June
| accessyear = 2005
}}
==External links==
*[http://www.falklandswar.org.uk/index.htm Falklandswar.org.uk]
*[http://www.gazettes-online.co.uk/archiveViewFrameSetup.asp?IssueNumber=49134&pageNumber=1&PageDuplicate=x0 Victoria Cross and other citations], [[London Gazette]], [[11 October]] [[1982]]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/falklands/story/0,11707,657871,00.html The Guardian: Julian Barnes]
*[http://www.gregoryferdinandsen.com/EZE2001/Falklands_Memorial.htm Malvinas War Memorial] ([[Buenos Aires]])
*[http://www.falklands-malvinas.com/forum Falklands/Malvinas Forum] ([[English language|English]]/[[Spanish language|Spanish]])
*[http://www.cecim.org.ar ex-7th Argentine Infantry Regiment veterans] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]])
*[http://www.falklands.info/history/82timeline.html Falklands War Timeline]
*[http://www.falklands.info/history/82doc.html Falklands War Documents]
*[http://www.falklands.info/history/82articles.html Falklands War Articles]
{{Falklands War}}
[[Category:Falklands War|*]]
[[Category:Wars of Argentina]]
[[Category:Wars of Great Britain]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fahrenheit</title>
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<revision>
<id>41912833</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:57:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Fahrenheit''' is a [[temperature]] scale named after the [[Germany|German]] [[physicist]] [[Gabriel Fahrenheit]] ([[1686]]&ndash;[[1736]]), who proposed it in [[1724]].
In this scale, the [[freezing point]] of [[water]] is 32 degrees Fahrenheit (written "32 °F"), and the boiling point is 212 degrees, placing the boiling and melting points of water 180 degrees apart. Thus the [[unit]] of this scale, a degree Fahrenheit, is 5/9ths of a [[kelvin]] (which is a degree [[Celsius]]), and minus 40 degrees Fahrenheit is equal to minus 40 degrees Celsius.
==History==
There are several competing versions of the story of how Fahrenheit came to devise his temperature scale. One states that Fahrenheit established the zero (0 °F) and 100 °F points on his scale by recording the lowest outdoor temperatures he could measure, and his own [[body temperature]]. He took as his zero point the lowest temperature he measured in the harsh winter of 1708 through 1709 in his home town of [[Gdańsk]] ([[Danzig]]) (−17.8 °C). (He was later able to reach this temperature under laboratory conditions using a mixture of [[ice]], [[ammonium chloride]] and water.) Fahrenheit wanted to avoid the negative temperatures which [[Ole Rømer]]'s scale had produced in everyday use. Fahrenheit fixed his own body temperature as 100 °F (normal body temperature is closer to 98.6 °F, suggesting that Fahrenheit was suffering a [[fever]] when he conducted his experiments or that his thermometer was not very accurate), and divided his original scale into twelve divisions; later dividing each of these into 8 equal subdivisions produced a scale of 96 degrees. Fahrenheit noted that his scale placed the [[freezing point]] of water at 32 °F and the boiling point at 212 °F, a neat 180 degrees apart.
Another holds that Fahrenheit established the zero of his scale (0 °F) as the temperature at which an equal mixture of [[ice]] and [[sodium chloride|salt]] melts (some say he took that fixed mixture of ice and salt that produced the lowest temperature); and ninety-six degrees as the temperature of blood (he initially used horse blood to calibrate his scale). Initially, his scale only contained 12 equal subdivisions, but later he subdivided each division into 8 equal degrees ending up with 96. He then observed that plain water would freeze at 32 degrees and boil at 212 degrees.
A third well-known version of the story, as described in the popular physics television series [[The Mechanical Universe]], holds that Fahrenheit simply adopted [[Ole Rømer|Rømer]]'s scale, at which water freezes at 7.5 degrees, and multiplied each value by 4 in order to eliminate the fractions and increase the granularity of the scale (giving 30 and 240 degrees). He then re-calibrated his scale between the freezing point of water and normal human body temperature (which he took to be 96 degrees); the freezing point of water was adjusted to 32 degrees so that 64 intervals would separate the two, allowing him to mark degree lines on his instruments by simply bisecting the interval six times (since 64 is 2 to the sixth power).
His measurements were not entirely accurate, though; by his original scale, the actual freezing and boiling points would have been noticeably different from 32 °F and 212 °F. Some time after his death, it was decided to recalibrate the scale with 32 °F and 212 °F as the exact freezing and boiling points of plain water. That change was made to easily convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit and vice versa, with a simple formula. This change also explains why the body temperature once taken as 96 or 100 °F by Fahrenheit is today taken by many as 98.6 °F (it is a direct conversion of 37 °C, a case of excess precision), although giving the value as 98 °F would be more accurate.
A fourth, not so well-known version of the origin of the Fahrenheit scale depends on Fahrenheit himself being a [[Freemason]] (of which there is no definitive evidence). In [[Freemasonry]], there are 32 degrees of enlightenment, 32 being the highest. The use of the '[[degree (temperature)|degree]]' as well is said to have been derived from the degrees of masonry. This may well be coincidence, but there is no conclusive evidence to the contrary, so the thought persists.
A fifth version maintains that Fahrenheit based 0 degrees on an estimate of the temperature someone would freeze to death, and 100 degrees on the temperature someone would die of heat exhaustion from, therefore making 0 to 100 the livable range for human beings.
==Usage==
The Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and medical purposes in most English-speaking countries until the [[1960s]]. In the late [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] the [[Celsius]] (formerly ''centigrade'') scale was phased-in by governments as part of the standardizing process of [[metrication]].
Fahrenheit supporters claim its previous popularity was due to Fahrenheit's user-friendliness. The unit of measure, being only 5/9 the size of the Celsius degree, permits more precise communication of measurements without resorting to fractional degrees. Also, the ambient air temperature in most inhabited regions of the world tends not to go far beyond the range of 0 °F to 100 °F: therefore, the Fahrenheit scale would reflect the perceived ambient temperatures, following 10-degree bands that emerge in the Fahrenheit system:
*10s Deep Frost.
*20s Light Frost.
*30s Cold. Close to freezing.
*40s Cold. Heavy clothing needed.
*50s Very cool. Moderate Clothing required.
*60s Cool. Light clothing.
*70s Comfortable. Summer clothing.
*80s Warm. Bearable. Minimal clothing.
*90s Hot.
*100s Very hot. Take precautions against overheating.
However, such a correlation is largely the result of habit: in the same way, Celsius supporters might indicate that 0&ndash;10 °C indicates cold, 10&ndash;20 °C mild, 20&ndash;30 °C warm and 30&ndash;40 °C hot, with the minus sign indicating frost.
Some people also feel that Fahrenheit scale also allows for different levels of accuracy, although it is more of a matter of how a common set of units for something like temperature has entered the language. For example, it is common for American weather forecasts to predict a temperature of the "low 40s" for three days down the road and the "50s" for next week. Expressing this on the Celsius scale would require different wording.
In [[Jamaica]] and the [[United States]], where metrication has encountered resistance from industry and consumers, the Fahrenheit system continues to be very widely used. In most parts of the [[United Kingdom]] Celsius has been adopted, although Fahrenheit is still occasionally used by older generations for everyday measurement of higher temperatures, while lower temperatures are more often measured in degrees Celsius. Younger generations in the UK and most other countries have adopted Celsius as the primary scale in use.
==Trivia==
The [[Autoignition temperature|fire point]], or kindling point, of paper is claimed by some to be 451 °F (233 °C) (the actual kindling point depends on the the type of pulp used in the paper's manufacture, chemical content, paper thickness etc.). For this reason it is the title of the book by [[United States|American]] author [[Ray Bradbury]], ''[[Fahrenheit 451]]''.
{{Comparison of temperature scales}}
{{TemperatureScales}}
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:SI derived units]]
[[ |
an objects was not that of any well-known art. A wide range in space was proved by the identification of the Inselsteine and the Ialysus vases with the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries. A relationship between objects of art described by [[Homer]] and the Mycenaean treasure was generally allowed, and a correct opinion prevailed that, while certainly posterior, the civilization of the [[Iliad]] was reminiscent of the Mycenaean.
Schliemann got to work again at Hissarlik in [[1878]], and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata, but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his "Lydian" city of the sixth stratum. These were not to be fully revealed until Dr. Wilhelm Dorpfeld, who had become Schliemann's assistant in [[1879]], resumed the work at Hissarlik in [[1892]] after the first explorer's death. But by laying bare in [[1884]] the upper stratum of remains on the rock of [[Tiryns]], Schliemann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric domestic life which was amplified two years later by Christos Tsountas's discovery of the Mycenae palace. Schliemann's work at Tiryns was not resumed till 1905, when it was proved, as had long been suspected, that an earlier palace underlies the one he had exposed.
From 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean [[sepulchre]]s outside the Argolid, from which, and from the continuation of Tsountas's exploration of the buildings and lesser graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann's princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at [[Athens]]. In that year dome-tombs, most already rifled but retaining some of their furniture, were excavated at Arkina and [[Eleusis]] in Attica, at Dimini near Volo in [[Thessaly]], at Kampos on the west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in [[Kefallinia|Cephalonia]]. The richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in [[Laconia]] in [[1889]], and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths' work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting, and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which remained an enigma until the excavation of [[Knossos|Cnossus]].
In [[1890]] and [[1893]] Staes cleared out certain, less rich dome-tombs at Thoricus in [[Attica]]; and other graves, either rock-cut "bee-hives" or chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in [[Aegina]] and [[Salamis Island|Salamis]], at the Heraeum (see [[Argos]]) and Nauplia in the Argolid, near [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Delphi]], and not far from the [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] [[Larissa]]. During the [[Acropolis]] excavations in [[Athens]], which terminated in [[1888]], many potsherds of the Mycenaean style were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the temple site at [[Delphi]] produced nothing distinctively Aegean. The [[United States|American]] explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded in [[1895]], also failed to prove that site to have been important in the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation in the later Aegean periods.
Prehistoric research had now begun to extend beyond the Greek mainland. Certain central Aegean islands, Antiparos, [[Ios]], Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all found to be singularly rich in evidence of the middle-Aegean period. The series of Syran built graves, containing crouching corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the Legean. Melos, long marked as a source of early objects but not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the [[United Kingdom|British]] School at [[Athens]] in [[1896]], yielded at Phylakope remains of all the Aegean periods, except the [[Neolithic]].
A map of [[Cyprus]] in the later [[Bronze Age]] (such as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O. Richter in Catalogue of the [[Cyprus]] Museum) shows more than twenty-five settlements in and about the Mesaorea district alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis, has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found outside Mycenae. E. Chantre in [[1894]] picked up lustreless ware, like that of Hissariik, in central Phtygia and at Pteria (q.v.), and the [[England|English]] archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into north-western [[Anatolia]], have never failed to bring back ceramic specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyndncus, Sangarius and Halys.
In [[Egypt]] in [[1887]] W. M. F. Petrie found painted sherds of Cretan style at [[Kahun]] in the [[Al Fayyum|Fayum]], and farther up the [[Nile]], at [[Amarna|Tell el-Amarna]], chanced on bits of no fewer than 800 Aegean vases in [[1889]]. There have now been recognized in the collections at [[Cairo]], [[Florence]], [[London]], [[Paris]] and [[Bologna]] several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style which can be set off against the many debts which the centres of Aegean culture owed to Egypt. Two Aegean vases were found at [[Sidon]] in [[1885]], and many fragments of Aegean and especially Cypriote pottery have been turned up during recent excavations of sites in [[Philistines|Philistia]] by the [[Palestine Fund]].
Southeastern [[Sicily]], ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in [[1877]], has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik. Sardinia has Aegean sites, e.g. at Abini near Teti; and [[Spain]] has yielded objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near [[Cádiz|Cadiz]] and from [[Zaragoza, Spain|Saragossa]].
One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages&mdash; Crete; and so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as the fountainhead of Aegean civilization, and probably for long its political and social centre. The island first attracted the notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes found in a cave on [[Mount Ida]] in [[1885]], as well as by [[Epigraph|epigraphic]] [[monument]]s such as the famous law of Gortyna. But the first undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in [[1878]]. These were followed by certain discoveries made in the S. plain Messara by F. Halbherr. Unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus were made by both W. J. Stillman and H. Schliemann, and A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in [[1893]], travelled in succeeding years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things would eventually be found. He obtained enough to enable him to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not suspected in Aegean civilization. The revolution of [[1897]]-98 opened the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued, for which see [[Crete]].
Thus the "Aegean Area" has now come to mean the [[Archipelago]] with Crete and [[Cyprus]], the Hellenic peninsula with the [[Ionian Islands|Ionian islands]], and Western [[Anatolia]]. Evidence is still wanting for the [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonian]] and [[Thrace|Thracian]] coasts. Offshoots are found in the western [[Mediterranean]] area, in [[Sicily]], [[Italy]], [[Sardinia]] and [[Spain]], and in the eastern Mediterranean area in [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]]. About the [[Cyrenaica]] we are still insufficiently informed.
==See also==
* [[Minoan civilization]]
* [[Mycenaean Greece]]
* [[Aegean Sea]]
==External links==
*[http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/classics/history/bronze_age/index.html Jeremy B. Rutter, "The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean"]: chronology, history, bibliography
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Aegean civilization|*]]
[[es:Civilización egea]]
[[zh:爱琴文明]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aegeus</title>
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<id>40913059</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T21:20:40Z</timestamp>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: de</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], '''Aegeus''', also '''Aigeus''', '''Aegeas''' or '''Aigeas''', was the father of [[Theseus]] and an [[Kings of Athens|Athenian King]]. He was the son of [[Pandion II]] and a brother of [[Pallas]], [[Nisos]], and [[Lykos]].
Upon the death of Pandion, Aegeus and his brothers took control of [[Athens]] from [[Metion]], who had seized the throne from Pandion. They divided the government in four but Aegeas became king. His first wife was [[Meta]] and the second was [[Chalciope]].
Still without a male heir, Aegeus asked the [[Delphic Sibyl|Oracle]] at [[Delphi]] for advice. Her cryptic words were "Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief."
Aegeus (king of Athens) went to [[Troezen|Troezena]] and met with [[Aethra]], daughter of Troezena's king [[Pittheus]]. Pittheus understood the prophesy and introduced Aegeas to his daughter, Aethra, when he was drunk. They had sex and then, in some versions, Aethra waded out to the sea to [[Sphairia]] and had sex with [[Poseidon]]. When she fell pregnant, Aegeus decided to go back to Athens. Before leaving, he covered his sandals, shield and sword under a huge rock and told her that when their son grew up, he should move the rock and bring the weapons back. Upon his return to Athens, Aegeus married [[Medea]] who had fled from [[Corinth]] and the wrath of [[Jason]]. Aegeus and Medea had one son together named [[Medus]].
In Troezen, Theseus grew up and became a brave young man. He managed to move the rock and took his father's arms. His mother then told him the truth about who his fa |
n that Yahweh will one day renew the covenant, and will take His people back in love.
In Chapter three, at Yahweh's command, Hosea seeks out Gomer once more. Either she has sold herself into slavery for debt, or she is with a lover who demands money in order to give her up, because Hosea has to buy her back. He takes her home, but refrains from sexual intimacy with her for many days, to symbolize the fact that Israel will be without a king for many years, but that Yahweh will take Israel back, even at a cost to Himself.
Chapters 4-14 spell out the allegory at length. Chapters 4-10 contain a series of oracles, or prophetic sermons, showing exactly why Yahweh is rejecting the Northern Kingdom, what are the grounds for the divorce. Chapter 11 is Yahweh's lament over the necessity of giving up the Northern Kingdom, which is a large part of the people of Israel, whom He loves. He promises that He will not entirely give them up. Then, in Chapter 12, he pleads for their repentance. Chapter 13 foretells the destruction of the kingdom at the hands of [[Assyria]], because there has been no repentance. Chapter 14 urges them to seek forgiveness, and promises the restoration of Israel, while urging the utmost fidelity to Yahweh.
==Context==
Hosea prophesied in a difficult period of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]]'s history, the period of the Northern Kingdom's decline and fall in the [[8th century BC]]. Hosea was himself a native of the Northern Kingdom, and wrote in a distinctive northern dialect.
During Hosea's lifetime, the kings of the Northern Kingdom, their aristocratic supporters, and the priests had led the people in falling away from the Law of God, as given in the [[Pentateuch]]. Forsaking the worship of Yahweh, they worshipped other gods, especially Baal, the Canaanite fertility god. Other sins followed, including homicide, perjury, theft, and sexual sin. Hosea, like other 8th century prophets, declares that, unless they repent of these sins, Yahweh will allow their nation to be destroyed, and the people will be taken into captivity by Assyria, the greatest nation of the time.
In fact, Assyria did capture Samaria, the capital of the Northern Kingdom, in 722 BC. All the members of the upper classes and many of the ordinary people were taken captive and carried off to live as prisoners of war.
==Themes==
The primary theme of the Book of Hosea is that God loves Israel, just as a man loves his wife. This is shown by the extended metaphor of Hosea's own marriage.
In conjunction with that theme, however, are the twin themes of Israel's sin and the coming retribution. Although Yahweh loves Israel, Israel has not returned His love. This has been shown by the continued idolatry and acts of violence, oppression, and sexual sin among the people. Because Israel has not returned God's love, He will put them away from Him, just as Hosea did his wife, and send them into exile.
This introduces the fourth theme, which is the restoration of Israel from exile. The country will be conquered; the people will be sent into exile; but some will return and build the land up once more. God will embrace them as His people, and they will be loyal to Him as their God.
==Contribution==
Hosea is believed to be the first prophet to use marriage as a metaphor of the covenant between God and Israel and influenced latter prophets such as Jeremiah. He is among the first writing prophets and the last chapter of Hosea has a format similar to wisdom literature
{{eastons}}
==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15758 Hoshea - Hosea (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/28_hosea.htm ''Hosea'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Hosea}}
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=927&letter=H ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':]''Book of Hosea''
* [http://endtimepilgrim.org/gomer.htm Gomer and Hosea]
*[http://www.bible.org/page.asp?page_id=997]
[[Category:Nevi'im|Hosea, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Hosea]]
[[cs:Kniha Ozeáš]]
[[da:Hoseas' bog]]
[[de:Hosea (Buch)]]
[[de:Prophet Hosea]]
[[fi:Hoosean kirja]]
[[fr:Livre d'Osée]]
[[he:הושע הנביא]]
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[[pl:Księga Ozeasza]]
[[ru:Книга пророка Осии]]
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[[zh:何西阿書]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Obadiah</title>
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<comment>/* Further Study */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
== Overview of Contents ==
The '''Book of Obadiah''' is found in both the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Christian Bible]], where it is the shortest book. Its authorship is generally attributed to a person named Obadiah, which means “servant (or worshipper) of the Lord”. Obadiah is classified as a "[[minor prophet]]" in the Christian Bible due to the brevity of the writing (only 21 verses) and the content (prophetic material). An [[Old Testament]] prophet was [professedly] not only a person who was given divine insight into future events, but a person whom the Lord used to declare his word.
The first nine verses in the book foretell total destruction in the land of [[Edom]] at the hand of the Lord. Obadiah writes that this destruction will be so complete that it will be even worse than a thief who comes at night, for not even a thief would destroy everything. The Lord will allow all allies of [[Edom]] to turn away and help chase [[Edom]] out of its land. What is the reason for such a harsh punishment? Verses ten through fourteen explain that when Israel (the Lord’s chosen people) was attacked, [[Edom]] refused to help them, thus acting like an enemy. What is even worse is that [[Edom]] and [[Israel]] share a common blood line through their founders who were brothers, Jacob and Esau. Because of this gross neglect of a relative, [[Edom]] will be covered with shame and destroyed forever. The final verses, fifteen through twenty-one, depict the restoration of [[Israel]] and the wiping out of the Edomites. Verse eighteen says that there will be no survivors from the house of Esau once the destruction is complete. [[Israel]] will become a holy place and its people will return from exile and inhabit the land once inhabited by the Edomites. The final verse of the prophecy places the Lord as King who will rule over all the mountains of [[Edom]].
== Historical Context ==
The date of composition is disputed among scholars and is difficult to determine due to the lack of personal information about Obadiah, his family, and his historical milieux. The date of composition must therefore be determined based on the prophecy itself. [[Edom]] is to be destroyed due to its lack of defense for its brother nation, Israel, when it was under attack. There are two major historical contexts within which the Edomites could have committed such an act. These are during 853 – 841 B.C. when [[Jerusalem]] was invaded by Philistines and Arabs during the reign of Jehoram (recorded in [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 8:20-22 and [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 21:8-20 in the [[Christian]] [[Old Testament]]) and 605 – 586 B.C. when [[Jerusalem]] was attacked by King Nebuchadnezzer of [[Babylon]], which led to the Babylonian exile of [[Israel]]. The earlier period would place Obadiah as a contemporary of the prophet [[Elisha]], and the later would place Obadiah as a contemporary of the prophet [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], both of whom were prophets in the respective time periods. The later period appears to be the scholarly consensus as Obadiah 1-9 parallels [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 49:7-22. The passage in [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] dates from the fourth year of the reign of Jehoiakim (604 B.C.), and therefore Obadiah 11-14 seems to refer to the destruction of [[Jerusalem]] by Nebuchadnezzar (586 B.C.). It is more likely that Obadiah and [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] together were drawing on a common source presently unknown to us than [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] drawing on previous writings of Obadiah as his source. There is also much material found in Obadiah 10-21 which [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] does not quote, and which, had he had it laid out before him, would have suited his purpose admirably. Despite everything, however, there are a number scholars who support both dates and even some who support dates other than the two major possibilities presented. Therefore, any date for the composition Obadiah must be held tentatively.
== Themes ==
The overwhelming theme found in Obadiah is the destruction of enemies of God’s people. Unlike some other prophets, Obadiah does not present a “turn or burn” message, simply a message of inevitable doom as a consequence of previous actions. A [[Christian]] with a knowledge of the [[New Testament]] of the [[Bible]] would say that although God’s grace and forgiveness abound in situations, there are consequences which result from bad decisions. Even more than all this, Obadiah shows that judgment falls even within the family of God, as [[Israel]] and [[Edom]] descended from twin brothers, Jacob and Esau. One can therefore expect that Obadiah's purpose was to make it known that according to his God, [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]], if members of the same family were to treat each other in the same manner as [[Edom]] treated the Israelites, they too may be subject to the wrath of God.
There is a second theme which lies under the surface of Obadiah's writing which may be relevant for [[Christian|Christians]] as a faith group. Just as there is perpetual conflict |
rs [[Simon Donaldson]] and [[Michael Freedman]] led to the discoveries that there are uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic open subsets of <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> each of which
is homeomorphic to <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, and also that there are
uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic differentiable manifolds
homeomorphic to <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> which do not embed smoothly in <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>.
==See also==
*[[local diffeomorphism]]
[[Category:Differential topology]]
[[de:Diffeomorphismus]]
[[fr:Difféomorphisme]]
[[it:diffeomorfismo]]
[[ru:&#1044;&#1080;&#1092;&#1092;&#1077;&#1086;&#1084;&#1086;&#1088;&#1092;&#1080;&#1079;&#1084;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Diesel engines</title>
<id>8566</id>
<revision>
<id>15906546</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diesel engine]]
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<page>
<title>Dune Messiah</title>
<id>8567</id>
<revision>
<id>41055753</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T19:45:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tempshill</username>
<id>18084</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Synopsis */ Note that Paul can "see" because he now acts in lockstep with his previous visions.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DuneSeries}}
'''''Dune Messiah''''' is a [[science fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]], the second in a series of six novels. It was originally serialized in [[Galaxy science fiction|Galaxy]] magazine in [[1969]]. The [[United States|American]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] editions have different prologues summarizing events in the previous novel. The novels Dune Messiah and [[Children of Dune]] were adapted by the [[Sci-Fi Channel]] in 2003 into a well-received mini-series entitled [[Children of Dune (TV miniseries)|Children of Dune]].
{{spoiler}}
==Synopsis==
[[Image:DuneMessiah.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Dune Messiah]]
Twelve years after the events described in ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'', [[Paul Atreides]] rules as Emperor of the Known Universe, following a galactic [[jihad]] he unleashed by accepting the role of Messiah to the [[Fremen]]. While Paul is the most powerful Emperor ever, he is ironically powerless to stop the lethal religious excesses of the juggernaut he has created.
Although sixty billion people have perished, Paul's [[prescience|prescient]] visions indicate that this is far from the worst possible outcome for humanity. Motivated by this knowledge, Paul hopes to set humanity on a course that will not inevitably lead to stagnation and destruction, while at the same time acting as ruler of the Empire and focal point of the Fremen religion.
The situation is further complicated by the conspiracy of powerful interests who hope to reverse the events that brought [[House Atreides]] to the throne, including the remnants of the displaced [[House Corrino]], the [[Bene Gesserit]] who have lost control of their [[Kwisatz Haderach]], the [[Spacing Guild]], now utterly beholden to Paul, and the [[Bene Tleilax]]. The Atreides dynasty is unstable because Paul has not produced an heir. [[Chani]], his lover, is secretly being given [[contraceptive]]s by the Princess [[Irulan]], and while Paul is aware of this, he has foreseen that the birth of his heir will bring Chani's death, and he does not want to lose her. Chani then conceives after switching to a [[melange|spice]]-only diet.
The conspirators, including [[Gaius Helen Mohiam]], [[Edric (Dune)|Edric]], a guild navigator, [[Scytale (Dune)|Scytale]], a [[face dancer]], and Irulan, give Paul a gift he cannot resist, a [[ghola]] of [[Duncan Idaho]], his childhood teacher and friend, now called "Hayt." The conspirators hope the presence of Hayt will undermine Paul's ability to rule by forcing Paul to question himself and his empire he has created. Furthermore, Paul's acceptance of the gift weakens Paul's support among the Fremen who see the Tleilaxu and their tools as unclean.
Further complicating the situation is the physical maturity of Paul's powerful sister, [[Alia Atreides|Alia]], who finds herself irresistibly attracted to Hayt/Duncan. Alia and Hayt investigate the appearance of a female corpse near the city; Hayt realizes that the fact that no-one has been reported missing implies a Tleilaxu plot in which the woman has been replaced by a [[face dancer]]. Hayt also takes this opportunity to steal a kiss from Alia. She is outraged, but Hayt just laughs, saying he took nothing more than she offered, a fact she admits to herself privately.
Paul Muad'dib demands to see Mohiam, who fears she will be killed, but instead discovers Paul wants to bargain with her: Paul offers to produce a child by artificial insemination in return for the survival of Chani and her child. Mohiam, desperate to regain the Atreides genes for the Bene Gesserit breeding programme, would have to violate the [[Butlerian Jihad|Butlerian]] taboos against the use of machines. Furthermore, she realizes no child born in this way would be a candidate for the Imperial throne, and that the Bene Gesserit could never admit the existence of such a child without risking their position in the Empire. She decides that she must consult with the Mother School of the Bene Gesserit on Wallach IX.
Six weeks later Chani is seen by a medic, and discovers her pregnancy has become complicated because of the contraceptives introduced to her system. Realizing that only Irulan could be the perpetrator, Chani wishes to kill her but is prevented by Paul. She questions whether it is sensible for Paul to continue to spar with Hayt, and Paul replies that the Tleilaxu have made better than they could know and that it may be possible to restore Hayt's memories as Duncan Idaho.
The daughter of Otheym, one of Paul's death commandos, asks Paul to visit her father in secret, and while Paul realizes she has been replaced by a face dancer, his prescient visions show that
revealing this will lead to futures he wishes to avoid. Paul is forced to admit the face dancer asks to be taken into Paul's household, and visits Otheym.
Otheym reveals evidence of a conspiracy against Muad'dib among the Fremen, some of whom are distrustful of following the Atreides, and gives Paul his Tleilaxu servant Bijaz, who like a recording machine can remember faces, names, and details. Paul accepts reluctantly, seeing the strands of a Tleilaxu plot. As Paul's soldiers attack the conspirators, the Tleilaxu set off a [[stone burner]], an atomic weapon that destroys the house and blinds Paul. Paul is able to continue in leadership by fixing his actions precisely in line with what his previous oracular visions showed him; by moving through his life in lockstep with his previous visions, he can see even the slightest details of the world around him. The disadvantage of this is his inability to change any part of his destiny so long as he wishes to appear sighted.
The unraveling of the conspiracy reveals that [[Korba]], high priest of Paul's church, is among Paul's enemies, and while Korba tries to deny this, persuading the Fremen Naibs of his innocence, Paul arrives to confront him directly and Korba is put into [[Stilgar]]'s custody.
Hayt interrogates [[Bijaz]] but Bijaz uses planted conditioning words to control the ghola, and programs Hayt to offer Paul a bargain when Chani dies: Bijaz offers Chani's return as a ghola, and the hope that Duncan Idaho might be reawakened, in return for Paul sacrificing the throne and going into exile. Hayt comes across Alia, who has overdosed herself with spice in the hope of enhancing her prophetic visions. Her peril provokes fierce emotional response from Duncan and Alia realizes that Duncan loves her; he admits the truth.
News is brought that Chani has died giving birth to two healthy children, [[Leto Atreides II| Leto]] and [[Ghanima Atreides| Ghanima]], pre-born (fully conscious with Kwisatz Haderach-like access to ancestral memories due to Chani's encounter with the spice essence while pregnant with the twins) like their aunt Alia. News of the birth is delivered to Paul and his reaction to it triggers the hidden compulsions in Hayt's mind, and he attempts to kill Paul. Reacting against its own programming, Hayt's body remembers itself, and a new consciousness arises that is a mix of Duncan Idaho and Hayt unconditioned by the Tleilaxu programming. Paul is unsurprised by this, having foreseen it.
As Paul nears a crucial decision point in time, causing his prophetic visions to fail and rendering him totally blind, he is thrust into a deadly standoff. Scytale, disguised as Otheym's daughter, holds a knife to the necks of Paul's children. He offers to revive Chani as a ghola in return for Paul's abdication. Paul receives a prescient vision from the perspective of his newborn son, and is able to throw a dagger and kill Scytale.
With Paul's visions gone, he chooses to walk into the desert in the Fremen tradition, winning the fealty of the Fremen for his children, who will inherit his mantle of Emperor. Paul leaves Alia as [[regent]] for his children.
At the conclusion of the novel, Duncan examines the irony that Paul and Chani's deaths enabled them to triumph against their enemies. Duncan realizes that Paul escaped deification, walking into the desert as a man, while guaranteeing Fremen support for the Atreides line. Stilgar interrupts Duncan to suggest he should go to a distraught Alia, and Duncan goes to comfort her. Before Idaho goes to comfort Alia, Stilgar reports that he has carried out Alia's orders to execute Gaius Helen Mohiam, Edric, Korba, and "a few others." Becaus |
Ljubljana]]
#[[Universitat de Lleida]]
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#[[University of Louisville]]
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=== M ===
#[[Universidad de Malaga]]
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=== N ===
#[[Universidad Nacional]]
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#[[University of Namur]]
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#[[University of Natal]]
#[[University of Natal (Durban)]]
#[[University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg]]
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#[[Univerzitet u Novom Sadu]]
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#[[Universidad Nuevo Mundo]]
=== O ===
#[[Universitat Oberta de Catalunya]]
#[[University of Oklahoma]]
#[[University of Oldenburg]]
#[[University of the Orange Free State]]
#[[University of Oregon]]
#[[Universite d'Orleans]]
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#[[University of Ottawa]]
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#[[University of Oxford]] ([[Oxford, England]])
=== P ===
#[[Universidade Paulista]]
#[[University of Pecs Medical School]]
#[[Universidad Pública de Navarra]]
#[[University of the Pacific]]
#[[Universidad del Pacifico]]
#[[University of Padua]]
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#[[University of Parma]]
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#[[Universite de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour]]
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#[[University for Peace]] ([[Ciudad Colon, Costa Rica]])
#[[University of Pennsylvania]] ([[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]])
#[[University of Pereslavl]]
#[[Universite de Perpignan]]
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#[[University of Petroleum of China]]
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#[[University of the Philippines, Los Baños]]
#[[University of the Philippines, Manila]]
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=== Q ===
#[[Université du Québec]]
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#[[University of Queensland]]
=== R ===
#[[Universitat Ramon Llull]]
#[[University of Reading]]
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#[[Universität Regensburg]]
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#[[Universidad Regiomontana]]
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=== S ===
#[[Universidade de São Paulo]]
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#[[University of Skovde]]
#[[Universidad de Sonora]]
#[[University of South Africa]]
#[[University of South Alabama]]
#[[University of South Australia]]
#[[Universi |
y-product]]s of the [[meat]] and [[leather]] industry, mainly pork skins, pork and cattle bones, or split cattle hides. Contrary to popular belief, horns and hooves are not commonly used. The raw materials are prepared by different curing, acid, and alkali processes which are employed to extract the dried collagen hydrolysate and which may take several weeks. The worldwide production amounts to 250,000 tons per year.
As for home cooking, boiling certain cartilagenous cuts of meat, or bones, will result in gelatin being dissolved into the water. Depending on the concentration, the resulting broth, when cooled, will naturally form a [[jelly]]. This process may for instance be used for the ''[[pot-au-feu]]'' dish.
== Edible gelatins ==
Household gelatin comes in the form of sheets, granules or as a powder. Instant types can be added to the food as is; others need to be soaked in water beforehand.
Special kinds of gelatin are made only from certain animals or from fish in order to comply with [[Jew]]ish [[kashrut]] or [[Muslim]] [[halal]] laws. [[Vegetarianism|Vegetarians]] and [[vegan]]s may substitute similar gelling agents such as [[agar]], [[pectin]], or [[konnyaku]] sometimes incorrectly referred to as "vegetable gelatins." There is no chemical relationship; they are [[carbohydrate]]s, not proteins. The name "gelatin" is colloquially applied to all types of gels and jellies, but properly used, it should refer solely to the animal protein product. There is no vegetable source for gelatin.
== Uses ==
Probably best known as a gelling agent in cooking, different types and grades of gelatin are used in a wide range of food and non-food products:
=== Food uses ===
Common examples of foods that contain gelatin are [[gelatin dessert]]s or [[jelly]], [[trifle]]s, [[aspic]], [[marshmallow]]s and confectioneries such as [[Peeps]] and [[gummy bear]]s. Gelatin may be used as a [[stabilizer]], thickener, or texturizer in foods such as [[ice cream]], [[jam]]s, [[yogurt]], [[cream cheese]], [[margarine]]; it is used, as well, in fat-reduced foods to simulate the mouth feel of fat and to create volume without adding calories.
Gelatin is used for the clarification of juices, such as apple juice, and of vinegar. [[Isinglass]], from the swim bladders of fish, is still in use as a fining agent for wine and beer. Beside hartshorn jelly, from deer antlers, isinglass was one of the oldest sources of gelatin.
=== Technical uses ===
* Gelatin typically constitutes the shells of pharmaceutical [[capsule]]s in order to make their contents easier to swallow.
* [[Animal glue]]s such as hide glue are essentially unrefined gelatin.
* It is used to hold [[silver halide]] crystals in an [[emulsion]] in virtually all [[photographic film]]s and [[photographic paper]]s. Despite some efforts, no suitable substitutes with the stability and low cost of gelatin have been found.
* Used as a carrier, coating or separating agent for other substances, it, for example, makes [[beta-carotene]] water-soluble, thus imparting a yellow color to any [[soft drink]]s containing beta-carotene.
* Gelatin is closely related to bone glue and is used as a binder in [[match]] heads and [[sandpaper]].
* [[Cosmetics]] may contain a non-gelling variant of gelatin under the name "hydrolyzed collagen".
* As a surface [[sizing]] it smoothes glossy printing papers or [[playing card]]s and maintains the wrinkles in crepe paper.
===Other uses===
* Blocks of [[ballistic gelatin]] simulate human tissue as a standardized shooting target for testing [[firearm]]s and [[ammunition]].
* Gelatin is used by [[synchronized swimming|synchronized swimmers]] to hold their hair in place during their routines as it will not dissolve in the cold water of the pool. It is frequently referred to as "knoxing", a reference to Knox brand gelatin. Though commonly used, the owners of the trademark object to the [[genericized trademark|genericized]] use of the term.
* When added to boiling water and cooled, unflavored gelatin can make an effective home-made hair styling gel that is cheaper than many commercial hair styling products, but by comparison has a shorter shelf life (about a week) when stored in this form (usually in a refrigerator). Some people claim that gelatin/water-based hair gel does not cause hair to thin with constant long-term use, compared to commercial products because it does not contain certain chemicals. After being applied to scalp hair, it can be removed with rinsing and some shampoo. Striking results can be achieved when hair is held in place and a hair dryer is used, to create spikes, the [[Mohawk hairstyle]], etc.
== Medicinal properties ==
For decades, gelatin has been touted as a good source of protein. It has also been said to strengthen nails and hair. However, there is little scientific evidence to support such an assertion, one which may be traced back to Knox's revolutionary marketing techniques of the 1890s, when it was advertised that gelatin contains protein and that lack of protein causes dry, deformed nails. Actually, the human body itself produces abundant amounts of the proteins found in gelatin. Furthermore, dry nails are usually due to a lack of moisture, not protein.
Although gelatin is 98&ndash;99% protein by dry weight, the body cannot readily use it. Gelatin is notable for its exceptionally low nutritional value. The approximate amino acid composition of gelatin is: [[glycine]] 21 %, [[proline]] 12 %, [[hydroxyproline]] 12 %, [[glutamic acid]] 10 %, [[alanine]] 9 %, [[arginine]] 8%, [[aspartic acid]] 6 %, [[lysine]] 4 %, [[serine]] 4 %, [[leucine]] 3 %, [[valine]] 2 %, [[phenylalanine]] 2 %, [[threonine]] 2 %, [[isoleucine]] 1 %,[[hydroxylysine]] 1 %, [[methionine]] and [[histidine]] <1% and [[tyrosine]] < 0.5 %. These values vary, especially the minor constituents, depending on the source of the raw material and processing technique(3).
Gelatin is unusually high in the non-essential amino acids [[glycine]] and [[proline]], (i.e., those produced by the human body), while lacking certain [[essential amino acid]]s (i.e., those not produced by the human body). Gelatin is one of the few foods that cause a net loss of protein if eaten exclusively. It contains no [[tryptophan]] and is deficient in [[isoleucine]], [[threonine]], and [[methionine]]. Several people died of malnutrition in the 1970s while on popular 'liquid protein' diets.
Gelatin is claimed to promote general joint health. A study at [[Ball State University]], sponsored by [[Nabisco]] (the former parent company of Knox gelatin[http://www.gelita.com/]), found that gelatin supplementation relieved knee joint pain and stiffness in athletes. These results remain yet to be replicated by other researchers.
It has been claimed that an early procedure for creating gelatin was discovered by a 17th-century Franciscan Abbot who was seeking a way to purify human blood. Having failed in this endeavor, he noted that his method of solidifying fluid might be more useful with water, although the supposed records of this were allegedly lost during the Nazi invasion of France.
== Safety concerns ==
Due to [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE), also known as "mad cow disease", and its link to the [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]], there has been much concern about using gelatin derived from possibly infected animal parts. One study released in 2004, however, demonstrated that the gelatin production process destroys most of the BSE [[prion]]s that may be present in the raw material (1). However, more detailed recent studies regarding the safety of gelatin in respect to [[mad cow disease]] have prompted the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] to re-issue a warning and stricter guidelines for [http://www.fda.gov/opacom/morechoices/industry/guidance/gelguide.htm The Sourcing and Processing of Gelatin to Reduce the Potential Risk Posed by Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy] from 1997.
== References ==
(1) Grobben, A. H.; Steele, P. J.; Somerville, R. A.; Taylor, D. M. [http://www.babonline.org/bab/039/0329/0390329.pdf Inactivation of the bovine-spongiform-encephalopathy (BSE) agent by the acid and alkali processes used in the manufacture of bone gelatine.] ''Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry'' (2004), '''39''', 329-338.
(2) Dr. Roland Heynke [http://www.mad-cow.org/~tom/gel_Roland.html Gelatin Production and Prion Theory] General Information about Gelatin and Mad Cow Disease including references to various studies.
(3) P.V. Stevens. Food Australia. 44(7): 320-324, 1992. Described on [http://www.gelatin.co.za/gltn1.html Dr Bernard Cole's website] 2005-08-11.
[[Category:Animal products]]
[[Category:Edible thickening agents]]
[[Category:Proteins]]
[[cs:Želatina]]
[[da:Gelatine]]
[[de:Gelatine]]
[[es:Gelatina]]
[[fr:Gélatine]]
[[he:ג'לטין]]
[[nl:Gelatine]]
[[ja:ゼラチン]]
[[pl:Żelatyna]]
[[pt:Gelatina]]
[[ru:Желатин]]
[[fi:Liivate]]
[[sv:Gelatin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guido Fawkes</title>
<id>13161</id>
<revision>
<id>15910793</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guy_Fawkes]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gelatin dessert</title>
<id>13162</id>
<revision>
<id>41656982</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T21:13:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bunchofgrapes</username>
<id>198074</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Safety */ grammar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:JelloDesserts.JPG|thumb|280px|A variety of pre-packaged gelatin dessert products for sale at a supermarket in the U.S. state of [[Wisconsin]] in 2004]]
[[Image:Jelly.jpg|thumb|Jelly, as sold in UK]]
By far the most popular use for [[ |
l was also responsible for the clearing of the actual London slum that was the basis of the story's Jacob's Island. In addition, with the character of the tragic prostitute, [[Nancy 'Sikes'|Nancy]], Dickens "humanized" such women for the reading public--women who were regarded as "unfortunates," inherently immoral casualties of the Victorian class/economic system. While later novels also centered on idealized characters (Esther Summerson in ''[[Bleak House]]'' and Amy Dorrit in ''[[Little Dorrit]]''), both novels elaborated expansive critiques of the Victorian institutional apparatus: the interminable lawsuits of the Court of Chancery that destroyed people's lives in ''Bleak House'' and a dual attack in ''Little Dorrit'' on inefficient, corrupt patent offices and unregulated market speculation. In actuality, each of his novels after ''Dombey and Son'' (1848) became increasingly less "sentimental" and more concerned with social realism, focusing on mechanisms of social control that direct people's lives (e.g., factory networks in ''[[Hard Times]]'' and hypocritical, exclusionary class codes in ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''). In contrast to popular myth, these novels were quite popular and sold very well.
These novels, as with most of his novels, also employ somewhat incredible coicidences (for example, Oliver Twist turns out to be the lost nephew of the upper class family that randomly rescues him from the dangers of the pickpocket group). Such coincidences were a staple of the eighteenth-century picaresque novels (such as Henry Fielding's ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]]'') that Dickens enjoyed so much. So there is an intertextual aspect to this convention. However, to Dickens these were not just plot devices but an index of a Christian humanism that led him to believe that "good" wills out in the end, often in unexpected ways. Looking at this theme from a biographical context, Dickens's life, against many odds, led him from a disconsolate child forced to work long hours in a bottle factory at age 12 (his father was in the Marshalsea debtor's prison) to his status as the most popular novelist in England by the age of 27.
All authors incorporate autobiographical elements in their fiction, but with Dickens this is very noticeable, even though he took pains to cover up what he considered his shameful, lowly past. ''[[David Copperfield]]'' is one of the most clearly autobiographical but the scenes from ''[[Bleak House]]'' of interminable court cases and legal arguments could only come from a journalist who has had to report them. Dickens' own family was sent to prison for poverty, a common theme in many of his books, in particular the Marshalsea in ''[[Little Dorrit]]''. Little Nell in ''[[The Old Curiosity Shop]]'' is thought to represent Dickens' sister-in-law, Nicholas Nickleby's father and [[Wilkins Micawber]] are certainly Dickens' own father, and the snobbish nature of [[Philip Pirrip|Pip]] from ''[[Great Expectations]]'' is similar to the author himself. Dickens may have drawn on his childhood experiences, but he was also ashamed of them and would not reveal that this was where he got his realistic accounts of squalor. A shameful past in Victorian times could taint reputations, just as it did for some of his characters, and this may have been Dickens' own fear.
==Legacy==
[[Image:Oliver_twist1.jpg|thumb|212px|A scene from ''Oliver Twist'', from an early 20th Century edition.]]
Charles Dickens was a well known personality and his novels were immensely popular during his lifetime. His first full novel, ''The Pickwick Papers'' (1837), brought him immediate fame and this continued right through his career. He maintained a high quality in all his writings and, although rarely departing greatly from his typical "Dickensian" method of always attempting to write a great "story" in a somewhat conventional manner (the dual narrators of Bleak House are a notable exception). He experimented with varied themes, characterizations and [[genre]]s. Some of these experiments were more successful than others and the public's taste and appreciation of his many works have varied over time. He was usually keen to give his readers what they wanted, and the monthly or weekly publication of his works in episodes meant that the books could change as the story proceeded at the whim of the public. A good example of this are the American episodes in ''Martin Chuzzlewit'' which were put in by Dickens in response to lower than normal sales of the earlier chapters. In ''Our Mutual Friend'' the inclusion of the character of Riah was a positive portrayal of a [[Jewish]] character after he was criticised for the depiction of [[Fagin]] in ''[[Oliver Twist]]''.
His popularity has waned little since his death and he is still one of the best known and most read of English authors. At least 180 movies and TV adaptations based on Dickens' works help confirm his success. Many of his works were adapted for the stage during his own lifetime and as early as 1913 a silent film of ''The Pickwick Papers'' was made. His characters were often so memorable that they took on a life of their own outside his books. Gamp became a slang expression for an umbrella from the character [[Martin Chuzzlewit|Mrs Gamp]] and Pickwickian, Pecksniffian and Gradgrind all entered dictionaries due to Dickens' original portraits of such characters who were quixotic, hypocritical or emotionlessly logical. [[Sam Weller]], the carefree and irreverent valet of ''The Pickwick Papers'' was an early superstar, perhaps better known than his author at first. It is likely that ''A Christmas Carol'' is his best-known story, with new adaptations almost every year. It is also the most-filmed of Dickens's stories, many versions dating from the early years of cinema. This simple [[morality play|morality tale]] with both pathos and its theme of redemption, for many, sums up the true meaning of Christmas and eclipses all other Yuletide stories in not only popularity, but in adding archetypal figures (''Scrooge'', Tiny Tim, the Christmas ghosts) to the Western cultural consciousness.
At a time when Britain was the major economic and political power of the world, Dickens highlighted the life of the forgotten poor and disadvantaged at the heart of empire. Through his journalism he campaigned on specific issues &mdash; such as [[sanitation]] and the [[workhouse]] &mdash; but his fiction was probably all the more powerful in changing public opinion in regard to class inequalities. He often depicted the exploitation and repression of the poor and condemned the public officials and institutions that allowed such abuses to exist. His most strident indictment of this condition is in ''Hard Times'' (1854), Dickens's only novel-length treatment of the industrial working class. In that work, he uses both vitriol and satire to illustrate how this marginalized social stratum was termed "Hands" by the factory owners, that is, not really "people" but rather only appendages of the machines that they operated. His writings inspired others, in particular journalists and political figures, to address such problems of class oppression. For example, the prison scenes in ''Little Dorrit'' and ''The Pickwick Papers'' were prime movers in having the [[Marshalsea]] and [[Fleet Prison]]s shut down. As [[Karl Marx]] said, Dickens "issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicans, publicists and moralists put together" (qtd. in [[Peter Ackroyd|Ackroyd]] 720). The exceptional popularity of his novels, even those with socially oppositional themes (''Bleak House'', 1853; ''Little Dorrit'', 1857; Our Mutual Friend, 1865) underscored not only his almost preternatural ability to create compelling storylines and unforgettable characters, but also insured that the Victorian public confronted issues of social justice that had commonly been ignored.
His fiction, with often vivid descriptions of life in [[nineteenth-century]] England, has inaccurately and anachronistically come to globally symbolize [[Victorian era|Victorian]] society (1837-1901) as uniformly "Dickensian," when in fact, his novels' time span is from the 1780s to the 1860s. In the decade following his death in [[1870]], a more intense degree of socially and philosophically pessimistic perspectives invested British fiction; such themes were in contrast to the religious faith that ultimately held together even the bleakest of Dickens's novels. Later Victorian novelists such as [[Thomas Hardy]] and [[George Gissing]] were influenced by Dickens, but their works display a lack or absence of religious belief and portray characters caught up by social forces (primarily via [[lower-class]] conditions) that steer them to tragic ends beyond their control. [[Samuel Butler]] ([[1835]]-[[1902]]), most notably in ''[[The Way of All Flesh]]'' ([[1885]]; pub. [[1903]]), also questioned religious faith but in a more [[upper-class]] milieu.
Novelists continue to be influenced by his books; for example, such disparate current writers as [[Anne Rice]] and [[Tom Wolfe]] evidence direct Dickensian connections. Ultimately, Dickens stands today as a brilliant, innovative and sometimes flawed novelist whose stories and characters have become not only literary archetypes but also part of the public imagination.
== Adaptations of Dickens readings ==
There have been several performances of Dickens readings by [[Emlyn Williams]], [[Bransby Williams]] and also [[Simon Callow]] in the [[Mystery of Charles Dickens]] by [[Peter Ackroyd]].
===Dickens museums and festivals===
There are museums and festivals celebrating Dickens' life and works in many of the towns with which he was associated.
* The [[Charles Dickens Museum, London]] is the only one of Dickens' [[London]] homes to survive. He lived there o |
ader may contain a variable number of options, this field specifies the size of the header which coincides with the offset to the data. The minimum header size is 20 bytes, so the minimum value for this field is 5 (5×4 = 20 bytes). Being a 4-bit field the maximum length is 15 words or 60 bytes.
; Type of Service (ToS) : In RFC 791, the following 8 bits were allocated to a Type of Service (ToS) field:
:* bits 0-2: precedence
:* bit 3: 0 = Normal Delay, 1 = Low Delay
:* bit 4: 0 = Normal Throughput, 1 = High Throughput
:* bit 5: 0 = Normal Reliability, 1 = High Reliability
:* bits 6-7: Reserved for future use
:This field is now used for [[Differentiated services|DiffServ]] and [[Explicit Congestion Notification|ECN]]. The original intention was for a sending host to specify a preference for how the datagram would be handled as it made its way through an internetwork. For instance, one host could set its IPv4 datagrams' ToS field value to prefer low delay, while another might prefer high reliability. In practice, the ToS field has not been widely implemented. However, a great deal of experimental, research and deployment work has focused on how to make use of these eight bits. These bits have been redefined, most recently through [[DiffServ]] working group in the IETF and the [[Explicit Congestion Notification]] codepoints (see RFC 3168). New technologies are emerging that require real-time data streaming and therefore will make use of the ToS field. An example is [[Voice over IP]] (VoIP) that is used for interactive data voice exchange.
; Total Length : This field defines the entire datagram size, including header and data, in bytes. The minimum-length datagram is 20 bytes (20 bytes header + 0 bytes data) and the maximum is 65,535 &mdash; the maximum value of a 16-bit word. The minimum size datagram which any host is '''required''' to be able to handle is 576 bytes, but most modern hosts handle much larger packets. Sometimes [[subnetwork]]s impose further restrictions on the size, in which case datagrams must be [[Fragmentation (computer)|fragmented]]. Fragmentation is handled in either the host or packet switch in IPv4 (''see [[#Fragmentation and reassembly]]'').
; Identification : This field is an identification field and is primarily used for uniquely identifying fragments of an original IP datagram. Some experimental work has suggested using the ID field for other purposes, such as for adding packet tracing information to datagrams in order to help trace back datagrams with spoofed source addresses.
; Flags : A 3-bit field follows and is used to control or identify fragments. They are (in order, from high order to low order):
:* Reserved, must be zero
:* Don't Fragment (DF)
:* More Fragments (MF)
:If the DF flag is set and fragmentation is required to route the packet then the packet will be dropped. This can be used when sending packets to a host that does not have sufficient resources to handle fragmentation.
:When a packet is fragmented, all fragments have the MF flag set except the last fragment which does not have the MF flag set. The MF flag is also not set on packets which are not fragmented &mdash; clearly an unfragment packet can be considered the last fragment.
; Fragment Offset : The fragment offset field is 13-bits long and allows a receiver to determine the place of a particular fragment in the original IP datagram, measured in units of 8-byte blocks. This method allows for a maximum packet length of 65,528 ((2^13 - 1)*8 which exceeds the maximum IP packet length of 65,535.
; Time To Live (TTL) : An 8-bit [[time to live]] (TTL) field helps prevent datagrams from persisting (e.g. going in circles) on an internetwork. Historically the TTL field limited a datagram's lifetime in seconds, but has come to be a [[hop count]] field. Each packet switch (or [[router]]) that a datagram crosses decrements the TTL field by one. When the TTL field hits zero, the packet is no longer forwarded by a packet switch and is discarded. Typically, an [[Internet Control Message Protocol|ICMP]] message (specifically the [[ICMP Time Exceeded|time exceeded]]) is sent back to the sender that it has been discarded. The reception of these ICMP messages is at the heart of how [[traceroute]] works.
; Protocol : This field defines the protocol used in the data portion of the IP datagram. The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] maintains a list of Protocol numbers and were originally defined in RFC 790. Common protocols and their decimal values are shown below (''see [[#Data]]'').
; Header Checksum : The 16-bit [[checksum]] field is used for error-checking of the header. At each hop, the checksum of the header must be compared to the value of this field. If a header checksum is found to be mismatched, then the packet is discarded. Note that errors in the data field are up to the encapsulated protocol to handle &mdash; indeed, both [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] and [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] have internet checksum fields.
: Since the TTL field is decremented on each hop and fragmentation is possible at each hop then at each hop the checksum will have to be recomputed. The method used to compute the checksum is defined within RFC 791:
:: ''The checksum field is the 16 bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of all 16 bit words in the header. For purposes of computing the checksum, the value of the checksum field is zero.''
: In other words, all 16-bit words are summed together using [[one's complement]] (with the checksum field set to zero). The sum is then one's complemented. This final value is then inserted as the checksum field.
; Source address : An [[IP address]] is a group of 4 8-bit octets for a total of 32 bits. The value for this field is determined by taking the binary value of each octet and concatenating them together to make a single 32-bit value.
: For example, the address 10.9.8.7 (00001010.00001001.00001000.00000111 in binary) would be 00001010000010010000100000000111.
: This address is the address of the sender of the packet. Note that this address may not be the "true" sender of the packet due to [[network address translation]]. Instead, the source address will be translated by the NATing machine to its own address. Thus, reply packets sent by the receiver are routed to the NATing machine, which translates the destination address to the original sender's address.
; Destination address : Identical to the source address field but indicates the receiver of the packet.
; Options : Additional header fields (called ''options'') may follow the destination address field, but these are not often used. Note that the value in the IHL field must include enough extra 32-bit words to hold all the options (plus any padding needed to ensure that the header contains an integral number of 32-bit words). The list of options may be terminated with an EOL (End of Options List) option; this is only necessary if the end of the options would not otherwise coincide with the end of the header.
: The use of the LSSR and SSRR options (Loose and Strict Source and Record Route) is discouraged because they create security concerns; packets with them are therefore usually blocked by routers.
===Data===
The last field is not apart of the header and, consequently, not included in the checksum field.
The contents of the data field are specified in the protocol header field and can be any one of the [[transport layer]] protocols.
Some of the most commonly used protocols are listed below including their value used in the protocol field:
* [[Internet Control Message Protocol]] (ICMP) &ndash; 1
* [[Internet Group Management Protocol]] (IGMP) &ndash; 2
* [[Open Shortest Path First]] (OSPF) &ndash; 89
* [[Real-time Transport Protocol]] (RTP)
* [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol]] (SCTP) &ndash; 132
* [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) &ndash; 6
* [[User Datagram Protocol]] (UDP) &ndash; 17
See [[List of IPv4 protocol numbers]] for a complete list.
==Fragmentation and reassembly==
To make IPv4 more tolerant of different networks the concept of [[fragmentation (computer)|fragmentation]] was added so that, if necessary, a device could break up the data into smaller pieces.
This is necessary when the [[MTU (networking)|maximum transmission unit]] (MTU) is smaller than the packet size.
For example, the maximum size of an IP packet is 65,535 bytes while the typical MTU for [[ethernet]] is 1,500 bytes.
Since the IP header consumes 20 bytes (without options) of the 1,500 bytes, that leaves 1,480 bytes of IP data per ethernet frame (this leads to an MTU for IP of 1,480 bytes).
Therefore, a 65,535 byte data payload would require 45 packets (65535/1480 = 44.28).
Fragmentation was chosen to occur at the IP layer is that IP is the first layer that connects hosts instead of machines.
If fragmentation were performed on higher layers (TCP, UDP, etc.) then this would make fragmentation/reassembly be redundantly implemented (once per protocol); if fragmentation were performed on a lower layer (ethernet, ATM, etc.) then this would require fragmentation/reassembly be performed on each hope (could be quite costly) and redundantly implemented (once per link layer protocol).
So doing fragmentation at the IP layer is the most efficient layer for this to be done.
===Fragmentation===
When a device receives an IP packet it examines the destination address and determines the outgoing interface to use.
This interface an associated MTU that dictates the maximum data size for its payload.
If the MTU is smaller than the data size then the device must fragment the data.
The device then segments the data into segments where each segment is less-than-or-equal-to the MTU less the IP header size (20 bytes minimum; 60 bytes maximum).
Each segment is that put into it's own IP packet with the following changes:
* The ''total length'' field will be |
low)
== Employment ==
Andrew started his career working for a company named Efam Resources from 1987 to 1988, designing [[computer modeling|computer models]] of [[financial markets]]. His work led to Andrew developing a product named The Options Analyst, which he marketed and sold for 5 years.
From 1988 to 1989, Andrew worked as a software developer for a company named Sonartech Pty Ltd (now Sonartech Atlas), which developed [[sonar]] technologies for Australian [[submarine]]s. Andrew was involved in developing [[passive sonar]] technology.
Between 1989 and 1990, Andrew was employed to develop software for the Research School of Biological Sciences in the Australian National University, creating computer models of physical and biological events and environments such as bushfire spread and [[population dynamics]].
From 1991 to 1999, Andrew held various other positions at the Australian National University, such as [[Unix|UNIX]] administration, [[satellite]] control, and [[supercomputer]] research. During this period he was seconded to the Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Computational Systems (CRC for ACSys) where he headed the PIOuS (Parallel Input/Output System) project - later HiDIOS (High-performance Distributed Input/Output System) - for parallel file systems on the Fujitsu AP1000 and AP+ supercomputers. Andrew also went on to lecture, first as an associate lecturer, and then as a casual lecturer, in the university's Computer Science division. He remains a Visiting Fellow of the University.
In mid-1999, Andrew joined the [[Linuxcare]] company's office in Canberra as their first Australian employee. He helped to assemble 14 staff for a research and development team. [[Linux]] and open-source companies were quite a new concept at this stage. Andrew was made a research fellow of Linuxcare in 2000.
In March 2001, Andrew joined [[VA Software|VA Linux Systems]], the second high-profile company to base their business model on the open-source community model. Andrew worked in the [[network attached storage]] division for VA Linux Systems, making enhancements to Samba and the [[Linux kernel]] to provide enhanced performance for their network-attached storage device range.
Andrew continued his work with network-attached storage technologies when he joined [[Quantum Corporation]] as a Senior Engineer in the Systems Storage Group. His role once again involved developing functionality and efficiency modifications into Samba to enhance Quantum's Guardian network-attached storage device range. One of the features that he added to Samba at this time was support for [[Microsoft]]'s [[Active Directory]] technology, a new authentication system introduced with Microsoft's [[Windows 2000|Windows 2000 Server]] product range.
In 2004, Andrew was employed by [[IBM]] working remotely for the [[Almaden Research Center]]. He left in January 2005 to become an appointed fellow at [[OSDL]] in order to lead development on version 4 of Samba.
==Awards==
* In January [[2006]], the [[Free Software Foundation]] awarded Tridgel its '''[[2005]] [[FSF Award for the Advancement of Free Software]]''', for his work on Samba, the Linux kernel, and rsync. Tridgell was considered to have furthered an important goal of the free software movement since the founding of [[GNU]], analyzing ways for free software to interact with widespread proprietary systems to allow people to more easily move away from those systems.
==External links==
* [http://www.samba.org/~tridge Andrew's website]
* [http://samba.org/~tridge/phd_thesis.pdf Efficient Algorithms for Sorting and Synchronization (PhD thesis)] - (406kB PDF)
[[Category:1967 births|Tridgell, Andrew]]
[[Category:Living people|Tridgell, Andrew]]
[[Category:Australian hackers|Tridgell, Andrew]]
[[Category:Free Software developers|Tridgell, Andrew]]
[[Category:People from the Australian Capital Territory|Tridgell, Andrew]]
[[Category:Programmers|Tridgell, Andrew]]
[[de:Andrew Tridgell]]
[[es:Andrew Tridgell]]
[[fr:Andrew Tridgell]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Applesoft BASIC</title>
<id>2100</id>
<revision>
<id>41471189</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T15:57:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wernher</username>
<id>19431</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Microsoft BASIC]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Applesoft BASIC''' was the second dialect of [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] supplied on the [[Apple II family|Apple II]] computer, superseding [[Integer BASIC]]. Applesoft BASIC was supplied by [[Microsoft]]; Apple was looking for a new version of BASIC for the '''Apple II Plus''' computer with 48 [[kilobyte|KB]] of [[random access memory|RAM]], and after their success with [[Altair BASIC]], Microsoft had become the BASIC vendor of choice. Apple licensed a 10 KB [[assembly language]] version of BASIC called "Applesoft." It was similar to (and indeed shared a common code base with) BASIC implementations on other [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]]-based computers, such as [[Commodore BASIC]]: it used line numbers, spaces were not necessary in lines. While it was much slower than Integer BASIC, it had some killer features that the older BASIC lacked:
* Atomic strings. A string is no longer an array of characters (like in [[C programming language|C]]); it is instead a [[garbage collection (computer science)|garbage-collected]] object (like in [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] and [[Java programming language|Java]]). This allows for string arrays; <code>DIM A$(10)</code> resulted in a [[vector (computing)|vector]] of ten string variables.
* Multidimensional arrays.
* Single-precision [[floating point]] variables with an 8-bit exponent and a 31-bit significand and improved math capabilities, including a trigonometry library.
* Commands for high-resolution graphics.
* <code>CHR$, ASC, STR$,</code> and <code>VAL</code> functions for converting between string and numeric types
* <code>LET</code> statement optional
* User defined functions (just simple one-line functions with simple parameters written in BASIC).
* Error-trapping, allowing BASIC programs to handle unexpected errors by means of a subroutine written in BASIC.
Relatively few [[action game]]s were written in Applesoft BASIC, for several reasons:
* In this era of carefully counting clock cycles and limited memory, it was silly to write speed-dependent programs that ran on a runtime interpreter.
* The use of real numbers for all math operations created unnecessary overhead and degraded performance. Applesoft actually converted integer numbers to real before performing operations on them them, then converted them back to integers if necessary. Microsoft did not [[Optimization (computer science)|optimize]] this.
* So-called [[shape table]]s are a slow alternative to [[bitmap]]s. No provision existed for mixing text and graphics, except for the limited "Hardware split screen" of the Apple II (four lines of text at the bottom of the screen). Many graphics programs thus contained their own bitmap character generator routines. No provision was added in the 128 KB [[Apple IIe]] and [[Apple IIc]] models' BASIC interpreters for the new machines' extra memory and double-resolution graphics, or for the [[Apple IIgs|Apple II<small>GS</small>]]'s 16-color mode. ([[Beagle Bros]] offered machine-language workarounds for these problems.)
* The program was stored as a [[linked list]] of lines; a <code>[[GOTO]]</code> took [[Computational complexity theory|O(n) (linear) time]], and although Applesoft programs were not very long compared to today's software, on a 1 MHz 6502 this could be a significant bottleneck.
* No sound support aside from a PEEK command that could be used to click the speaker. The language was not fast enough to produce more than a baritone buzz from repeated clicks anyway. However, compiled assembly language was fast enough, and music spanning several octaves could be played by repeated calls to a machine-language tone generator.
* The [[closed source movement]] was just beginning; software publishers found it was harder to crack a machine-language binary than an interpreted source.
Here's [[Hello World]] in Applesoft BASIC:
10 TEXT:HOME
20 ?"HELLO WORLD"
Multiple commands could be included on the same line of code if seperated by a colon (:). The ? can be used in Applesoft BASIC as a shortcut for "PRINT", though spelling out the word is not only acceptable but canonical -- Applesoft converted "?" in entered programs to "PRINT" and the question mark would be "expanded" when entered program lines were listed back out. So the program above would actually appear in a LIST command as shown below:
10 TEXT : HOME
20 PRINT "HELLO WORLD"
''This article includes text from [http://everything2.com/?node=Applesoft+BASIC Everything2], licensed under GFDL.''
== Trivia ==
* There was a well-documented bug in Applesoft BASIC that could actually crash the interpreter if ONERR GOTO was in effect and numerous program errors occurred. Apple provided a short assembly-language routine which could be POKEd into RAM and CALLed to ameliorate the problem to an extent. Later it was discovered by an enterprising hacker that the required code was actually in the Applesoft ROM (though it was never executed) and could be called there instead.
* Applesoft could be extended by two means: the ampersand (&amp;) command and the USR() function. Machine-language routines could be attached to the ampersand and USR hooks in the computer's memory and call Applesoft ROM code to retrieve the values of parameters that followed them. A number of third-party packages were produced to add functionality to Applesoft by one or the other of these mechanisms.
* Applesoft, like Integer BASIC before i |
2001. ISBN 0195122321
[[Category:Musical movements]]
[[Category:Baroque music]]
[[Category:The Enlightenment]]
{{Link FA|fi}}
[[ca:Música barroca]]
[[cs:Baroko (hudba)]]
[[de:Barockmusik]]
[[es:Música barroca]]
[[eo:Baroka muziko]]
[[fa:موسیقی باروک]]
[[fr:Musique baroque]]
[[id:Musik Barok]]
[[he:מוזיקת בארוק]]
[[hu:Barokk zene]]
[[nl:Barokmuziek]]
[[ja:バロック音楽]]
[[no:Barokkmusikk]]
[[pt:Música barroca]]
[[fi:Barokkimusiikki]]
[[sv:Barockmusik]]
[[tr:Barok Müzik]]
[[zh:巴洛克音乐]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Black Death</title>
<id>4501</id>
<revision>
<id>42100896</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:03:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Petros471</username>
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</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverting testing, patent nonsense and/or vandalism to revision ID 42067451 using [[WP:POPUP|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article concerns the worldwide [[pandemic]] starting in the mid-14th century, with a focus on material available from European records and accounts. For detailed information on the most commonly accepted cause of the disease, see [[bubonic plague]]''.
[[Image:Bubonicplague.jpg|thumb|350px|Illustration of the Black Death from the [[Toggenburg]] Bible ([[1411]]).]]
The '''Black Death''' was a devastating [[pandemic]] that first struck [[Europe]] in the mid-14th century ([[1347]]&ndash;[[1350|50]]), killing up to a third of [[Medieval demography|Europe's population]], an estimated 34 million people. A series of contemporaneous plague [[epidemic|epidemics]] also occurred across large portions of [[Asia]] and the [[Middle East]], indicating that the European outbreak was actually part of a multiregional pandemic. The same disease is thought to have returned to Europe every generation with varying degrees of intensity and fatality until the 1700s. Notable late outbreaks include the [[Italian Plague of 1629-1631]], the [[Great Plague of London]] (1665&ndash;66), and the [[Great Plague of Vienna]] (1679). A significant outbreak of the bubonic plague, the [[Great Plague of Marseille]], occurred in France in 1720 - 1722. As the source of this infection was directly from the Middle East, this outbreak is probably not a continuation of the Black Death.
In addition to its drastic effect on Europe's population, the plague irrevocably changed Europe's [[social structure]], was a serious blow to Europe's predominant [[religion|religious]] institution, the [[Christian Church]], resulted in widespread [[persecution]]s of [[minority|minorities]] such as [[Jew]]s and [[Leprosy|leper]]s, and created a general [[Emotional mood|mood]] of [[morbidity]] that influenced people who were uncertain of their daily survival to live for the moment.
The initial 14th-century European event was called the "Great Mortality" by contemporary writers and, with later outbreaks, became known as the "Black Death" because of a striking symptom of the disease, called [[acral necrosis]], in which sufferers' skin would blacken due to subdermal hemorrhages. Historical records attribute the Black Death to an outbreak of [[bubonic plague]], an epidemic of the [[bacterium]] ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' spread by [[flea]]s with the help of animals like the [[black rat]] (''Rattus rattus''), although today's experts debate both the microbiological culprit and mode of [[transmission (medicine)|transmission]].
== Pattern of the pandemic ==
It is most commonly believed that the bubonic plague was originally endemic in populations of infected ground [[rodents]] in central Asia, as it was a known [[cause of death]] among migrant and established populations in that region. However, it is not entirely clear where the 14th-century pandemic started. The most popular theory places the first cases in the [[steppe]]s of central [[Asia]], though some speculate that it originated around northern [[India]]. From there, supposedly, it was carried east and west by traders and [[Mongol]] armies along the [[Silk Road]], and was first exposed to Europe at trading ports in [[Sicily]].
Whether or not this theory is accurate, it is clear that several preexisting conditions such as war, famine, and weather contributed to the severity of the Black Death. A devastating civil war in [[China]] between the established Chinese population and the Mongol hordes raged between 1205 and 1353. This war disrupted farming and trading patterns, and led to episodes of widespread famine. A so-called "[[Little Ice Age]]" had begun at the end of the thirteenth century. The disastrous weather reached a peak in the first half of the fourteenth century with devastating results worldwide.
In the years [[1315]] to [[1322]] a catastrophic famine, known as the [[Great Famine of 1315-1317|Great Famine]], struck all of [[Northern Europe]]. Food shortages and skyrocketing prices were a fact of life for as much as a century before the plague. [[Wheat]], [[oat]]s, [[hay]] and consequently [[livestock]] were all in short supply; and their scarcity resulted in [[hunger]] and [[malnutrition]]. The result was a mounting human vulnerability to disease due to weakened [[immunity]]. The European [[economic system|economy]] entered a vicious cycle in which hunger and small scale disease reduced the [[productivity (economics)|productivity]] of laborers, and so the grain [[output]] suffered, causing the grain prices to increase. The famine was self-perpetuating, devastating places like [[Flanders]] and [[Burgundy]] as much as the Black Death was to devastate all of Europe.
A [[typhoid]] epidemic was to be a predictor of the coming disaster. Many thousands died in populated urban centers, most significantly [[Ypres]]. In [[1318]] a pestilence of unknown origin, sometimes identified as [[anthrax]], hit the animals of Europe. The disease targeted [[Domestic sheep|sheep]] and [[cattle]], further reducing the food supply and [[income]] of the [[peasantry]] and putting another strain on the economy. The increasingly international nature of the European economies meant that the [[depression (economics)|depression]] was felt across [[Europe]]. Due to pestilence, the failure of [[England]]'s [[wool]] [[exports]] led to the destruction of the Flemish weaving industry. Unemployment bred crime and poverty.
===Asian outbreak===
The central Asian scenario agrees with the first reports of outbreaks in [[China]] in the early 1330s. The plague struck the Chinese province of [[Hubei]] in 1334. During 1353&ndash;54, more widespread disaster occurred. Chinese accounts of this wave of the disease record a spread to eight distinct areas: Hubei, [[Jiangxi]], [[Shanxi]], [[Hunan]], [[Guangdong]], [[Guangxi]], [[Henan]] and [[Suiyuan]] (a historical Chinese province that now forms part of Hubei and Nei Mongul provinces), throughout the Mongol/Chinese empires. Historian [[William McNeill]] noted that voluminous Chinese records on disease and social disruption survive from this period, but that modern scholars in neither the East nor the West have studied these sources in depth.
It appears that movement by the Mongols and merchant caravans inadvertently brought the plague from central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. The plague was reported in the trading cities of [[Constantinople]] and [[Empire of Trebizond|Trebizond]] in [[1347]]. In that same year the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] possession of [[Theodosia|Caffa]], a cathedral city and seaport on the [[Crimea]]n peninsula in modern day [[Ukraine]], came under siege by an army of [[Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] warriors under the command of [[Janibeg]], backed by [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] forces. Their objective was disruption of a trading empire Genoa had established in Caffa. In 1347, a terrible sickness began to strike the besieging army. According to accounts, so many died that the survivors had little time to bury them and bodies were stacked like cords of firewood against the city walls. Although the Tatar/Venetian alliance broke off the siege, the disease had already spread to the city.
===European outbreak===
[[Image:Bubonic plague map.PNG|thumb|300px|The Black Death rapidly spread along the major European sea and land trade routes.]]
In October 1347, a fleet of Genovese trading ships fleeing Caffa reached the port of [[Messina, Italy|Messina]]. By the time the fleet reached Messina, all the crew members were either infected or dead. It is presumed that the ships also carried infected rats and/or fleas. Some ships were found grounded on shorelines, with no one aboard remaining alive. Looting of these lost ships also helped spread the disease. From there, the plague spread to Genoa and [[Venice]] by the turn of [[1347]]/[[1348]].
From [[Italy]] the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], and [[Great Britain]] by June [[1348]], then turned and spread east through [[Germany]] and [[Scandinavia]] from [[1348]] to [[1350]], and finally to north-western [[Russia]] in [[1351]]. The plague largely spared some parts of Europe, including the [[Piast_Poland#The_Kingdom_of_Later_Piasts_(1295-1370)|Kingdom of Poland]] and parts of [[Belgium]] and [[The Netherlands|the Netherlands]].
===Middle Eastern outbreak===
The plague struck various countries in the Middle East during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures. The disease first entered the region from southern Russia. In AD 1347, Muslim leader Malik Asraf, of the Jalayird dynasty, returned with his troops to [[Baghdad]] from a military action in Tabriz (near modern [[Azerbaijan]]) where the plague was raging. This same military troop promptly placed the town of Hasan Buzurg, near Baghdad, under siege but had to abort when plague struck the army and spread to Baghdad itself.
By autumn 1347, the plague reached [[Alexandria]] in [[Egypt]], pr |
peror Chuai</title>
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<comment>robot Modifying: de</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Chūai''' (仲哀天皇 ''Chūai Tennō'', fl. late 2nd century?) was [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], the 14th appearing on the traditional [[list of Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor." This does not necessarily imply that no such person existed, just that there is insufficient evidence to conclude that he existed or assign him to a particular period of history. However, since he was the father of [[Emperor Ojin]] (who is generally accepted to have been real) in the ''[[Kojiki]]'', he was probably a historical figure.
According to the legend in ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', he was a son of Prince [[Yamatotakeru]], therefore a grandson of the [[Emperor Keiko|Emperor Keikō]]. His wife was [[Jingu of Japan|Jingū]].
According to Japanese Legend, his wife was suddenly possessed by unknown [[kami|gods]]. The gods promised him a rich land overseas. Chūai gave a look to the sea, but he could not see anything. He denounced his beliefs in the gods' promise. The gods were enraged and declared he would die and never receive the promised land, but his conveived but unborn son would get it instead. The legend than states that Chūai died soon and his widow, Jingū, conquered the promised land, which is conjectured to be [[Korea]].
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[[Category:Japanese emperors|Chuai]]
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<page>
<title>Emperor Ojin</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Ōjin''' (応神天皇 ''Ōjin Tennō'') was the 15th imperial ruler of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor.
He is the earliest historical emperor. He has been deified as [[Hachiman|Hachiman Daimyōjin]], regarded as the guardian of warriors. The [[Hata]] Clan considered him their guardian [[Kami]].
According to the ''[[Kojiki]]'' and the ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', Ōjin was the son of the [[Emperor Chuai|Emperor Chūai]] and his consort [[Jingu of Japan|Jingū]]. As Chūai died before Ōjin's birth, his mother Jingū became the de facto ruler. Ōjin was born in [[200]] in [[Tsukushi]] on the return of his mother from the invasion of [[Korea]] and named him '''Prince Hondawake'''. He became the crown prince at the age of four. He was crowned in [[270]] at the age of 70 and reigned for 40 years until his death in [[310]], although none of the dates around his reign have any historical basis. He lived in two palaces both of which are in present day [[Osaka, Japan|Osaka]].
He was recorded as the father of [[Emperor Nintoku]], his successor.
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[[Category:Japanese emperors|Ojin]]
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<page>
<title>Emperor Nintoku</title>
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<comment>"most" -> "some" -- Kofun image note states that many don't think Daisen Kofun is Nintoku's</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:NintokuTomb.jpg|thumbnail|right|Daisen-Kofun, the tomb of Emperor Nintoku, Osaka]]'''Emperor Nintoku''' (仁徳天皇 ''Nintoku Tennō'') was the 16th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is considered to have ruled the country during the early [[5th century]] CE.
According to ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', he was the fourth son of [[Emperor Ojin|Emperor Ōjin]] and the father of Emperors [[Emperor Richu|Emperor Richū]], [[Emperor Hanzei]], and [[Emperor Ingyo|Emperor Ingyō]]. The book also states that Nintoku ruled from [[313]] till [[399]] but modern research suggests those dates are likely inaccurate.
Scholars identify him with [[King San]] of Japan or [[King Chin]] in the Chinese history book, the [[Book of Song]]. According to the Book of Song, San sent messengers to [[Song Dynasty (420-479)|Song Dynasty]] [[China]] at least twice in [[421]] and [[425]], and died before [[438]]. Chin was the younger brother of San and sent messengers in 438 to have the Song dynasty assure that his position as the King of Japan was accepted.
Daisen-[[Kofun]] (the biggest tomb of the world) in [[Sakai, Osaka]] is considered his tomb by some scholars.
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{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Ojin|Emperor Ōjin]] | after=[[Emperor Richu|Emperor Richū]] | years=313-399<br>''(traditional dates)''}}
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[[Category:5th century deaths|Nintoku]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Nintoku]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing|Nintoku]]
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<page>
<title>Emperor Richu</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Richū''' (履中天皇 ''Richū Tennō'') was the 17th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the early [[5th century]] CE.
According to ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' and ''[[Kojiki]]'', he was the first son of [[Emperor Nintoku]]. He succumbed to disease in his sixth year of reign. His tomb is in Kawachi province, in the middle of present-day [[Osaka prefecture]]. He was succeeded by his younger brother [[Emperor Hanzei]]; none of his sons succeeded to the throne, although two grandsons ([[Emperor Kenzo|Emperor Kenzō]] and [[Emperor Ninken]]) did eventually become emperor.
Some scholars identify him with [[King San]] in the [[Book of Song]]. King San sent messangers to the [[Song Dynasty (420-479)|Song Dynasty]] at least twice in [[421]] and [[425]], died before [[438]] and was succeeded by his younger brother.
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[[Category:5th century deaths|Richu]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Richu]]
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<page>
<title>Emperor Hanzei</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Hanzei''' (反正天皇 ''Hanzei Tennō'') was the 18th [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the early [[5th century]] CE.
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[[Category:5th century deaths|Hanzei]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Hanzei]]
[[cs:Hanzei]]
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[[it:Hanzei imperatore del Giappone]]
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[[zh:反正天皇]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Emperor Ingyo</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Ingyō''' (允恭天皇 ''Ingyō Tennō'') was the 19th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the mid-[[5th century]] CE.
According to ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', he was the 4th son of [[Emperor Nintoku]] and his consort Iwanohime, and therefore a younger brother of his predecessor [[Emperor Hanzei]]. He sat on the throne after Hanzei died and ruled for 41 years. His consort was Oshisaka no Ōnakatsu no Hime. They had five sons and four daughters, including [[Emperor Anko|Emperor Ankō]] and [[Emperor Yuryaku|Emperor Yūryaku]]. He refo |
n as "Nacionales"&mdash;literally "Nationals", usually rendered in English as "Nationalists"&mdash;a very misleading phrase in Basque terms). Today, some Basque nationalists claim that the Spanish Civil War was a war of Spain against the Basques, despite there having been Basques on both sides. There is no question, though, that one of the greatest atrocities of this war was the bombing of [[Guernica]], the traditional [[Biscay]]ne capital, by [[Legion Condor|German planes]]. Much of the city was destroyed and a great deal of Basque history was erased.
In [[1937]], roughly halfway through the war, [[Eusko Gudarostea|the troops]] of the [[Autonomous Basque Government]] surrendered in [[Santoña]] to [[Corpo Truppe Volontari|the Italian allies]] of General Franco on condition that the Basque heavy industry and economy was left untouched, beginning one of the hardest periods of Basque history in Spain. For many leftists in Spain this event is known as the ''[[Treason of Santoña]]''. After the war, Franco began a dedicated effort to consolidate Spain as a uniform [[nation-state]]. Franco's regime introduced severe laws against all Spanish minorities, not least the Basques, in an effort to suppress their cultures and languages. Considering Biscay and Guipúzcoa as "traitor provinces", he abolished the remains of their autonomy, but Navarre and Alava maintained small local police forces and some tax self-government.
The backlash against these actions created a violent Basque separatist movement. The armed group responsible for most of the attacks is known as [[Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]] (ETA), meaning "Basque land and Liberty". Franco's death and the end of his regime saw an end to most repression and the creation of an autonomous Basque region in Spain, but not an end to separatist violence, which [[as of 2005]] has resulted about 850 deaths in the intervening 30 years. Between 1979 and 1983, the Basque Country and surrounding areas were granted extensive autonomy by the Spanish government. This autonomy includes an elected parliament, police force, educational system, tax system, etc.
Navarre was offered the opportunity to join the autonomous Basque Country, but chose the status of a separate autonomous region.
==The Basque diaspora==
{{main|Basque diaspora}}
The Basque [[diaspora]] is a name given to describe the dispersion of the [[Basque people]] throughout the world. The Basques do not have an independent country to call their own, being divided between the [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[France|French]] states. Many Basques have left the [[Basque Country]] for other parts of the globe for economical or political reasons.
Large number of Basques have immigrated to [[Argentina]], [[Chile]], [[Mexico]] and the [[United States]]. In both countries places were named after Basque names such as [[New Biscay]], now [[Durango]] in Mexico and [[Durango]] and [[Biscayne Bay]] in the United States. In Mexico most groups concentrated in the [[Monterrey]] area and the region of Durango.
The largest Basque community in the [[United States]] is in the [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]], [[Idaho]], area. Boise is home of the Basque Museum and Cultural Center and hosts a large Basque festival known as Jaialdi every five years. [[Reno, Nevada|Reno]], [[Nevada]], home of the Basque Studies Department at the [[University of Nevada]], also has a significant Basque population.
==Geography and distribution==
The current autonomous Basque area of Spain, known as ''"Euskadi"'' in [[Basque language|Basque]], ''"[[País Vasco]]"'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''"[[Pays Basque]]"'' in [[French language|French]] and the "[[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]]" in [[English language|English]], is composed of three provinces or territories: [[Álava|Araba/Álava]], [[Vizcaya|Bizkaia/Vizcaya]] and [[Guipúzcoa|Gipuzkoa/Guipúzcoa]] (in each case, this is the Basque name followed by the Spanish name). There are 2,123,000 people living in the Basque Country: Araba, 279,000; Bizkaia, 1,160,000; and Gipuzkoa, 684,000. The most important cities are: [[Bilbao|Bilbo/Bilbao]] (in Bizkaia), [[San Sebastián|Donostia/San Sebastián]] (in Gipuzkoa) and [[Vitoria|Gasteiz/Vitoria]] (in Araba). Both Basque and Spanish are official languages. Knowledge of Spanish is virtually universal; 27 per cent of the people speak the Basque language, but this number is increasing for the first time in many centuries, due to official promotion and popular sympathy.
There is also a substantial Basque feeling among the population of the adjacent Spanish autonomous community and province of Navarre, and in nearby parts of France &mdash; see [[Basque Country]] for more information. There is at least some ethnic Basque presence in many countries of the Americas, including [[Mexico]], [[Argentina]], [[Chile]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]], [[Uruguay]], [[Venezuela]] and a community in [[Idaho]], eastern [[Nevada]], south [[Texas]], and throughout [[California]] who first came over to herd [[domestic sheep|sheep]].
The destination of the majority of Basque emigrants was [[Argentina]], with Basque culture contributing much to Argentine culture. There are Basque cultural centres in most large cities, as well as ''pelota'' courts and Basque language schools. Many places have been given Basque names, including the main international airport, ''[[Ezeiza]]''. Several of [[List of Presidents of Argentina|Argentina's Presidents]] have been of Basque descent, including [[Hipólito Irigoyen|Irigoyen]], [[Pedro Eugenio Aramburu|Aramburu]] and [[Justo José de Urquiza|Urquiza]], not to mention other figures, notably [[Che Guevara]]. There are an estimated 15,000 surnames in Argentina of Basque descent.
Chile also received many Basque emigrants. For example, [[Augusto Pinochet]] is of Basque descent (via his mother's maiden surname, Ugarte).
The largest community of Basques in [[North America]] exists in the greater [[Boise]] area. Boise is home to the Basque Museum & Cultural Center. The area around the center includes a variety of stores and restaurants featuring Basque culture in a so-called "Basque block." The current mayor of Boise, [[David H. Bieter]] is Basque. Another large community of Basques live in the [[California Central Valley|Central Valley]] of California, primarily in the city of [[Bakersfield]]. In Bakersfield you will find several Basque restaurants and the Basque hall, which annually holds a major Basque picnic. Many early immigrants went to Bakersfield for the agricultural and sheep herding opportunities. Another area is in the deep of South Texas along the [[Rio Grande River]]. The area surrounding the [[Rio Grande River]] near the current Texas [[Starr County]], [[Zapata County]], and [[Hidalgo County]] as well as areas within the Mexican states of [[Nuevo Leon]] and [[Tamulipas]], Spanish surnames of Basque descent show up as Spanish Land Grant owners in historical documents. Most of these grants were used for ranching and agriculture in much the same way sheep herding was used in the Basque land. This part of Texas boasts some of the largest ranches in Texas today. Some of these surnames, such as the surname [[Garza]], show up in many political ballots as well as hold high offices in politics. One of the richest families in the world and of [[Mexico]] carries this Basque surname. One city with a Basque name in [[Mexico]], [[San Pedro Garza García]], has the highest income per capita in all of Latin America and Mexico. In the [[Caribbean]], Basque descendants exist in the hills of [[Esperón]] in the province of [[Habana]], where many originally settled during the Spanish colonial period.
==Political conflicts==
===Language===
Both Spanish and French governments have, at times, tried to suppress Basque [[linguistic]] and cultural identity. The [[French Republics]], the epitome of the [[nation-state]], have a long history of attempting the complete cultural absorption of ethnic minority groups. Spain has, at most points in its history, granted some degree of linguistic, cultural, and even political autonomy to its Basques, but under the [[Spain under Franco|regime of Francisco Franco]], The Spanish government reversed the advances of Basque nationalism, as it had fought in the opposite side of the Spanish Civil War: cultural activity in Basque was limited to folkloric issues and the [[Catholic Church]].
Today, the Basque Country within Spain enjoys an extensive cultural and political autonomy. Many schools in the region use Basque as the primary language of education. According to the BBC "over 90% of Basque children are now enrolled in Basque-language schools". However, in Navarre, Basque has been declared an endangered language, since the conservative government of ''[[Unión del Pueblo Navarro]]'' opposes Basque nationalism and symbols of Basqueness, highlighting Navarre's own autonomy.{{ref|EBLUL}}
The promotion of Basque has caused protests by those who fear that monolingual Spanish speakers could be left as second-class citizens.
Spanish is today essential for everyday life, though.
===Political status===
{{Template:POV-section}}
Basque nationalism has pleaded for greater power of Basque institutions. Some [[Basque nationalism|Basque nationalists]] claim that the Basque Country has the right of [[self-determination]], including eventual [[independence]]. The desire for independence is particularly common among [[left-wing politics|leftist]] Basque nationalists. The right of self-determination was claimed by the [[Basque Parliament]].<!-- when? -->
Since self-determination is not recognized in the [[Spanish Constitution of 1978]], many Basques abstained or voted against in the referendum of [[December 6]] of that year. However it was approved by a [[majority]] at the Spanish, Navarrese and Basque levels, and the derived a |
(d. [[1767]])
*[[1758]] - [[James Monroe]], 5th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1831]])
*[[1819]] - [[Ezra Abbot]], American Bible scholar (d. [[1884]])
*[[1838]] - [[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]], Dutch jurist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1913]])
*[[1874]] - [[Karl Kraus]], Austrian journalist and author (d. [[1936]])
*[[1878]] - [[Lionel Barrymore]], American actor (d. [[1954]])
*[[1886]] - [[Ghabdulla Tuqay|&#286;abdulla Tuqay]], Russian poet (d. [[1913]])
*[[1889]] - [[António de Oliveira Salazar]], dictator of Portugal (d. [[1970]])
*[[1900]] - [[Jan Oort]], Dutch astronomer (d. [[1992]])
*[[1903]] - [[Johan Borgen]], Norwegian author (d. [[1979]])
*[[1906]] - [[Kurt Gödel]], Austrian mathematician (d. [[1978]])
*1906 - [[Paul Sacher]], Swiss conductor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1908]] - [[Oskar Schindler]], Austrian businessman and anti-Nazi resistance worker (d. [[1974]])
*[[1912]] - [[Odette Sansom]], French resistance worker (d. [[1995]])
*[[1916]] - [[Ferruccio Lamborghini]], Italian automobile manufacturer (d. [[1993]])
*[[1921]] - [[Rowland Evans]], American journalist and commentator (d. [[2001]])
*[[1924]] - [[Kenneth Kaunda]], [[President of Zambia]]
*[[1926]] - [[Harper Lee]], American author
*[[1928]] - [[Yves Klein]], French painter (d. [[1962]])
*1928 - [[Eugene M. Shoemaker]], American planetary scientist (d. [[1997]])
*[[1930]] - [[James Baker]], American politician
*1930 - [[Carolyn Jones]], American actress (d. [[1983]])
*[[1937]] - [[Saddam Hussein]], former leader of Iraq
*[[1938]] - [[Madge Sinclair]], Jamaican actress (d. [[1995]])
*[[1941]] - [[Ann-Margret]], Swedish-born actress
*1941 - [[K. Barry Sharpless]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1943]] - [[Jacques Dutronc]], French singer and actor
*[[1944]] - [[Jean-Claude Van Cauwenberghe]], Belgian politician
*[[1948]] - [[Terry Pratchett]], English author
*1948 - [[Marcia Strassman]], American actress
*[[1950]] - [[Jay Leno]], American comedian and television host
*[[1952]] - [[Mary McDonnell]], American actress
*[[1953]] - [[Kim Gordon]], American musician ([[Sonic Youth]])
*[[1955]] - [[Paul Guilfoyle]], American actor
*[[1955]] - [[Nicky Gumbel]], British Author and Priest
*[[1956]] - [[Jimmy Barnes]], Scottish-born singer
*[[1958]] - [[Hal Sutton]], American golfer
*[[1960]] - [[John Cerutti]], baseball player and announcer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1966]] - [[John Daly]], American golfer
*1966 - [[Too $hort]], American rapper
*[[1970]] - [[Nicklas Lidström]], Swedish Hockey player
*1970 - [[Diego Simeone]], Argentine footballer
*[[1973]] - [[Elisabeth Röhm]], American actress
*1973 - [[Jorge Garcia]], American actor
*[[1974]] - [[Penélope Cruz]], Spanish actress
*1974 - [[Richel Hersisia]], Dutch boxer
*[[1981]] - [[Jessica Alba]], American actress
*[[1986]] - [[Keri Sable]], American pornographic actress
<!-- Please do not add your own birthday to this list. Thank you. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1192]] - [[Conrad of Montferrat]], King of Jerusalem
*[[1498]] - [[Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland]], English politician (killed in battle)
*[[1533]] - [[Nicholas West]], English bishop and diplomat (b. [[1461]])
*[[1695]] - [[Henry Vaughan]], Welsh poet (b. [[1621]])
*[[1710]] - [[Thomas Betterton]], English actor
*[[1726]] - [[Thomas Pitt]], British Governor of Madras (b. [[1653]])
*[[1772]] - [[Johann Friedrich Struensee]], physician of [[Christian VII of Denmark]] (b. [[1737]])
*[[1781]] - [[Cornelius Harnett]], American delegate to the Continental Congress]] (b. [[1723]])
*[[1813]] - [[Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov]], Russian field marshal (b. [[1745]])
*[[1816]] - [[Johann Heinrich Abicht]], German philosopher (b. [[1862]])
*[[1841]] - [[Peter Chanel]], French saint (b. [[1803]])
*[[1853]] - [[Ludwig Tieck]], German writer (b. [[1773]])
*[[1858]] - [[Johannes Peter Müller]], German physiologist (b. [[1801]])
*[[1905]] - [[Fitzhugh Lee]], American Confederate general (b. [[1835]])
*[[1926]] - [[Zip the Pinhead]], American freak show performer (b. [[1857]])
*[[1945]] - [[Benito Mussolini]], Italian fascist dictator (b. [[1882]])
*1945 - [[Clara Petacci]], Italian mistress of [[Benito Mussolini]] (shot) (b. [[1912]])
*1945 - [[Roberto Farinacci]], Italian fascist (b. [[1892]])
*[[1954]] - [[Léon Jouhaux]], French labor leader, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1879]])
*[[1973]] - [[Clas Thunberg]], Finnish speed skater (d. [[1893]])
*[[1978]] - [[Sardar Mohammed Daoud]], [[President of Afghanistan]] (shot) (b. [[1909]])
*[[1992]] - [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]], Anglo-Irish painter (b. [[1909]])
*1992 - [[Iceberg Slim]], American writer (b. [[1918]])
*[[1993]] - [[Jim Valvano]], American basketball coach (b. [[1946]])
*[[1999]] - [[Rory Calhoun]], American actor (b. [[1922]])
*1999 - [[Arthur Leonard Schawlow]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1921]])
*[[2000]] - [[Penelope Fitzgerald]], English writer (b. [[1916]])
*[[2002]] - [[Alexander Lebed]], Russian general (b. [[1950]])
*2002 - [[Lou Thesz]], American wrestler (b. [[1916]])
*[[2005]] - [[Chris Candito|Chris Candido]], professional wrestler (b. [[1972]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman Empire]] - first day of the [[Floralia]] in honor of [[Chloris|Flora]]
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of Jamál (Beauty) - First day of the third month of the Bahá'í Calendar
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/worldday/ World Day for Safety and Health at Work]
*[[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]:
**[[Saints Theodora and Didymus]]
**[[Arthemius]]
**[[Saints Vitalis and Valeria]]
**[[Patritius]]
**[[Luchesius]]
**[[Louis Marie Grignon of Montfort]]
**[[Peter Chanel]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/28 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[April 27]] - [[April 29]] - [[March 28]] - [[May 28]] – [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:28 April]]
[[ar:28 أبريل]]
[[an:28 d'abril]]
[[ast:28 d'abril]]
[[bg:28 април]]
[[be:28 красавіка]]
[[bs:28. april]]
[[ca:28 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 28]]
[[cv:Ака, 28]]
[[co:28 d'aprile]]
[[cs:28. duben]]
[[cy:28 Ebrill]]
[[da:28. april]]
[[de:28. April]]
[[et:28. aprill]]
[[el:28 Απριλίου]]
[[es:28 de abril]]
[[eo:28-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 28]]
[[fo:28. apríl]]
[[fr:28 avril]]
[[fy:28 april]]
[[ga:28 Aibreán]]
[[gl:28 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 28일]]
[[hr:28. travnja]]
[[io:28 di aprilo]]
[[id:28 April]]
[[ia:28 de april]]
[[ie:28 april]]
[[is:28. apríl]]
[[it:28 aprile]]
[[he:28 באפריל]]
[[jv:28 April]]
[[ka:28 აპრილი]]
[[csb:28 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:28'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 28]]
[[lb:28. Abrëll]]
[[li:28 april]]
[[hu:Április 28]]
[[mk:28 април]]
[[mi:28 Paenga-whāwhā]]
[[ms:28 April]]
[[nap:28 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:28 april]]
[[ja:4月28日]]
[[no:28. april]]
[[nn:28. april]]
[[oc:28 d'abril]]
[[pl:28 kwietnia]]
[[pt:28 de Abril]]
[[ro:28 aprilie]]
[[ru:28 апреля]]
[[sco:28 Aprile]]
[[sq:28 Prill]]
[[scn:28 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 28]]
[[sk:28. apríl]]
[[sl:28. april]]
[[sr:28. април]]
[[fi:28. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:28 april]]
[[tl:Abril 28]]
[[tt:28. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 28]]
[[th:28 เมษายน]]
[[vi:28 tháng 4]]
[[tr:28 Nisan]]
[[uk:28 квітня]]
[[ur:28 اپریل]]
[[wa:28 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 28]]
[[zh:4月28日]]
[[pam:Abril 28]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfred the Great</title>
<id>1640</id>
<revision>
<id>42103550</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:22:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UkPaolo</username>
<id>269651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/80.189.247.197|80.189.247.197]] ([[User talk:80.189.247.197|talk]]) to last version by Stbalbach</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Monarch Basic
| name=Alfred the Great
| title=King of England
| image=[[Image:Alfred the Great.jpg|200px]]
| rank=6th
| reign=[[871]]&ndash;[[26 October]], [[899]]
| date of birth=c.[[849]]
| place of birth=[[Wantage]], modern [[Oxfordshire]],<br/>[[England]]
| date of death=[[26 October]] [[899]]
| place of death=|
| place of burial=Hyde Abbey
| married=[[Ealhswith]]
| father=[[Ethelwulf of Wessex|Ethelwulf]]
| mother=[[Osburga]]
}}
'''Alfred''' ([[849]]? &ndash; [[26 October]] [[899]]) or ''Ælfred'' was king of the southern [[Anglo-Saxon]] kingdom of [[Wessex]] from [[871]] to [[899]]. Alfred is famous for his defence of the kingdom against the Danes ([[Vikings]]), becoming as a result the only English monarch to be awarded the [[epithet]] "the Great" by his people. Alfred was the first [[List of monarchs of Wessex|King of Wessex]] to style himself "[[List of British monarchs|King of England]]". Details of his life are known as a result of a work by the [[Wales|Welsh]] scholar, [[Asser, Bishop of Sherborne|Asser]]. A learned man, Alfred encouraged education and improved the kingdom's law system ([[Doom book]]).
== Childhood ==
Alfred was born sometime between [[847]] and AD [[849]] at [[Wantage, England|Wantage]] in present-day [[Oxfordshire]], the fourth son of King [[Ethelwulf of Wessex]] (Æþelwulf), most likely by his first wife, [[Osburh]]. He succeeded his brother, [[Ethelred I]] (Æþelræd I), as King of [[Wessex]] and [[Mercia]] in [[871]].
He seems to have been a child of singular attractiveness and promise, and tales of his boyhood were remembered. At five years old, in [[853]], he is said to have been sent to [[Rome]], where he was confirmed by [[Pope Leo IV]], who is also said to have "anointed him as king." Later writers took this as an anticipatory crowning in preparation for his ultimate succession to the throne of Wessex. That, however, could not have been foreseen in 853, as Alfred had three elder brothers living. It is likely to be understood either of investiture with the consular insignia or possibly with some titular royalty such as that of the und |
nts of centralized economic planning exist in various modern non-socialist systems, such as the [[mixed economy|mixed economies]] of [[liberal democracy|liberal democracies]] (widely seen as being capitalist countries) and the economies of [[fascism|fascist]] nations. Pre-modern economies (those existing before the [[industrial revolution]]) are more difficult to analyze by today's standards, but a number of them, particularly those of [[hydraulic empire]]s, may be seen as having been centrally planned as well.
There is a [[Trotskyism|Trotskyist]] theory of the [[permanent arms economy]], put forward by [[Michael Kidron]], which leads on from the contention that war and accompanying [[industrialisation]] is a continuing feature of capitalist states and that central planning and other features of the [[war economy]] are ever present. {{ref|Kidron}}
==Transition from a planned economy to a market economy ==
The shift from a command economy to a market economy has proven to be difficult; in particular, there were no theoretical guides for doing so before the 1990s. One transition from a command economy to a market economy that is widely considered to be successful is that of the [[People's Republic of China]], in which there was a period of some years lasting roughly until the early 1990s during which both the command economy and the market economy coexisted, so that nobody would be much worse off under a mixed economy than a command economy, while some people would be much better off. Gradually, the parts of the economy under the command economy decreased until the mid-1990s when resource allocation was almost completely determined by market mechanisms.
By contrast, the [[Soviet Union]]'s transition was much more problematic and its [[successor republic]]s faced a sharp decline in [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] during the early 1990s. While the situation has since improved, these countries have yet to generate the high rate of sustained economic growth that China has.
==Similar economic models==
A [[palace economy]] may be considered as a [[subsistence economy]] augmented with elements of command economy.
==See also==
* [[Economy of the Soviet Union]]
* [[Socialist economics]]
* [[Participatory economics]]
* [[Project Cybersyn]]
* [[Public ownership]]
* [[Mixed economy]]
* [[Dirigisme]]
==References==
{{note|Kidron}} [http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/contemp/pamsetc/perm/perm.htm A Permanent Arms Economy by Michael Kidron, First printed in International Socialism 1:28 (Spring 1967)]
:[http://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/aug03/kidron2.html An article against the "The myth of the permanent arms economy"]
[[Category:Economies]]
[[de:Planwirtschaft]]
[[fi:Suunnitelmatalous]]
[[ja:&#35336;&#30011;&#32076;&#28168;]]
[[nl:Centraal geleide economie]]
[[sk:Príkazová ekonomika]]
[[sv:Planekonomi]]
[[zh:计划经济]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Common Chimpanzee</title>
<id>7844</id>
<revision>
<id>41782745</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:43:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/King of the Dancehall|King of the Dancehall]] ([[User talk:King of the Dancehall|talk]]) to last version by Adrian Buehlmann Bot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Common Chimpanzee
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Chimp & baby.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| familia = [[Hominidae]]
| genus = ''[[Chimpanzee|Pan]]''
| species = '''''P. troglodytes'''''
| binomial = ''Pan troglodytes''
| binomial_authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach]], [[1775]])
}}
The '''Common Chimpanzee''' (''Pan troglodytes''), also known as the '''Robust Chimpanzee''', is a [[Hominidae|great ape]]. Colloquially, it is often called the [[chimpanzee]] (or simply "chimp"), though technically this term refers to both [[species]] in the [[genus]] ''[[Chimpanzee|Pan]]'': the Common Chimpanzee and the closely-related [[Bonobo]], or Pygmy Chimpanzee.
Several subspecies of the Common Chimpanzee are been recognized:
* [[Central Chimpanzee]], ''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', in [[Cameroon]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]], the [[Republic of the Congo]], and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]];
* [[West African Chimpanzee]], ''Pan troglodytes verus'', in [[Guinea]], [[Mali]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Liberia]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Ghana]], and [[Nigeria]];
* West Nigeria/East Cameroon or simply [[Nigerian Chimpanzee]], ''Pan troglodytes vellerosus'', in [[Nigeria]] and [[Cameroon]];
* [[Eastern Chimpanzee]], ''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'', in the [[Central African Republic]], the [[Sudan]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Tanzania]], and [[Zambia]].
==Basic facts==
Common Chimpanzees are found in the [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical forests]] and wet [[Tropical_and_subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|savannas]] of Western and Central [[Africa]]. They used to inhabit most of this region, but their [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] has been dramatically reduced in recent years.
Adults in the wild weigh between 40 and 65 kg (88 and 143 lbs); males can measure up to 160 cm (63 inches) and females to 130 cm (51 inches), and both are much stronger than humans. Their bodies are covered by a coarse dark brown hair, except for the face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Both their thumbs and their big toes are opposable, allowing a precision grip. Their [[pregnancy|gestation]] period is 8 months. Infants are weaned when they are about 3 years old, but usually maintain a close relationship with their mother for several more years; they reach [[puberty]] at the age of 8-10, and their lifespan in captivity is about 50 years.
Although omnivores, their diet is mainly vegetarian, consisting of [[fruits]], [[leaves]], [[Nut (fruit) | nuts]], [[seeds]], [[tuber]]s, and miscellaneous plantlife supplemented by [[insect]]s and small prey. There are also instances of organized hunting; in some cases, such as the killing of [[leopard]] cubs, this seems to be primarily a protective effort. However, Common Chimpanzees sometimes band together and hunt [[Western Red Colobus|Western Red Colobus monkeys]] (''Piliocolobus badius'') for their meat. Isolated cases of [[cannibalism]] have been documented. Chimpanzees have also been known on rare occasions to attack and eat human infants.
[[Image:Apeclade.png|thumb|right|'''The ape clade'''. Chimpanzees are the closest living relatives to humans. The numbers in this diagram provide an estimate of relatedness based on similarities in proteins between the various apes.]]
==Social behavior==
Common Chimpanzees live in communities that typically range from 20 to more than 150 members, but spend most of their time traveling in small parties of just a few individuals. They are both arboreal and terrestrial, spending equal time in the trees and on the ground. Their habitual gait is [[quadruped|quadrupedal]], using the soles of their feet and resting on their knuckles, but they can walk upright for short distances.
The Common Chimpanzee lives in a [[fission-fusion society]], where [[mating]] is promiscuous and may be found in groups of the following types: all-male, adult females and offspring, bisexual, one female and her offspring, or a single individual. The core of the societies are males who roam around, protecting members of the group as well as engaging in the search for food. Among males, there is generally a dominance hierarchy. However, this unusual fission-fusion social structure, "in which portions of the parent group may on a regular basis separate from and then rejoin the rest"{{ref|goodall}}, is highly variable in terms of which particular individual chimpanzees congregate at a given time. This is mainly due to chimpanzees having a high level of individual autonomy within the fission-fusion society. Also, communities have large ranges that overlap with those of other groups.
As a result, individual chimpanzees often forage for food alone, or in smaller groups (as opposed to the much larger ''parent'' group, which encompasses all the chimpanzees who regularly come into contact and congregate into parties in a particular area). As stated, these smaller groups also emerge in a variety of types, for a variety of purposes. For example, an all-male troop may be organized in order to [[hunt]] for meat, while a bi-sexual group consisting of one mature male and one mature female may occur for the purposes of [[copulation]]. An individual may encounter certain individuals quite frequently, but have run-ins with others almost never or only in large-scale gatherings. Due to the varying frequency at which chimpanzees associate, the structure of their societies is highly complicated.
==Chimpanzee Genome Project==
{{main|Chimpanzee Genome Project}}
[[Human]] and Common Chimpanzee [[DNA]] is very similar. After the completion of the [[Human genome project]], a Common [[Chimpanzee Genome Project]] was initiated. In December of 2003, a preliminary analysis of 7600 genes shared between the two genomes confirmed that certain genes such as the forkhead-box P2 [[transcription factor]], which is involved in speech development, have undergone rapid evolution in the human lineage. A draft version of the chimpanzee genome was published on [[September 1]], [[2005]], in an article produced by the [[Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium]]{{ref|genome}}. The DNA sequence differences between humans and chimpanzees is about thirty-five million [[Point mutation|single-nucleotide]] changes, five million [[Mutation#Structura |
5 kg
*1 lbf = 32.174 poundals
*1 slug = 32.174 lb
*1 kgf = 2.2046 lbf
==Forces in everyday life==
Forces are part of everyday life, with examples such as:
* [[gravity]]: objects fall, even after being thrown upwards, or slide and roll down
* [[friction]]: floors and objects that are not extremely slippery
* [[Hooke's law|spring force]], objects resist [[tensile stress]], [[compressive stress]] and/or [[shear stress]], objects bounce back.
* [[electromagnetic force]]: attraction of [[magnet]]s
* [[movement]] created by force: the movement of objects when force is applied.
==Forces in the laboratory==
===Founding experiments===
* [[Galileo Galilei]] used rolling balls to disprove the [[Aristotelian theory of motion]] ([[1602]] - [[1607]])
* [[Henry Cavendish]]'s [[torsion bar experiment]] measured the force of gravity between two masses ([[1798]])
===Instruments to measure forces===
* [[spring balance]]
* [[pivot balance]]
* forcemeter
==History==
Force was first described by [[Archimedes]].
==See also==
{{wikibookspar|FHSST Physics Forces|What is a force}}
* [[Fictitious force]]
* [[Fundamental force]]
* [[SI]]
* [[Electromagnetic jet]]
* [[Torque]]
* [[Force (Star Wars)]]
* [[Normal force]]
* [[Reaction (physics)]]
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Halliday | first = David
| coauthors = Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane
| title = Physics v. 1
| location = New York
| publisher = John Wiley & Sons
| year = 2001
| id = ISBN 0471320579
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Serway | first = Raymond A.
| title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers
| location = Philadelphia
| publisher = Saunders College Publishing
| year = 2003
| id = ISBN 0534408427
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Tipler | first = Paul
| title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
| edition = 5th ed.
| publisher = W. H. Freeman
| year = 2004
| id = ISBN 0716708094
}}
== External links ==
*[http://jumk.de/calc/force.shtml Calculation: force F - English and American units to metric units]
*[http://calc.skyrocket.de/en/ Online Unit Converter - Conversion of many different units]
*[http://www.patbelford.com/gallery/web3d/education/forceworkpower/index.html Interactive demonstration of Force-Work-Power Relationship]
*[http://www.TaYloR.com] §
[[Category:Force| ]]
[[Category:Introductory physics]]
[[ca:Força]]
[[cs:Síla]]
[[da:Kraft]]
[[de:Kraft]]
[[eo:Forto]]
[[es:Fuerza]]
[[et:Jõud (füüsika)]]
[[fa:نیرو]]
[[fi:Voima (fysiikka)]]
[[fr:Force]]
[[gu:બળ]]
[[he:כוח (פיזיקה)]]
[[hr:Sila]]
[[io:Forco]]
[[it:Forza (fisica)]]
[[ja:力]]
[[ko:힘]]
[[lv:Spēks]]
[[ms:Daya (fizik)]]
[[nl:Kracht]]
[[no:Kraft]]
[[pl:Siła]]
[[pt:Força]]
[[ru:Сила (механика)]]
[[simple:Force (physics)]]
[[sl:Sila]]
[[sr:Сила]]
[[sv:Kraft]]
[[ta:விசை]]
[[th:แรง]]
[[zh:力]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Table football</title>
<id>10904</id>
<revision>
<id>41311193</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T13:29:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Weregerbil</username>
<id>700735</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vanity. Please cite sources</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Baby foot artlibre jnl.jpg|260px|right|thumb|Table football (Bonzini style table).]]
'''Table football''' is a table-top game based on [[football (soccer)]], and invented by [[Alejandro Finisterre]], an [[editor]] and [[poet]] from [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], Spain.
==Origins==
[[Alejandro Finisterre]] was injured during one of the fascist bombings of [[Madrid]] during the [[Spanish civil war]]. Seeing many children injured like himself in the hospital (i.e. unable to play [[football (soccer)|football]]), he thought of the idea, which was borne from the concept of [[table tennis]]. Finistere credits his friend Francisco Javier Altuna, a [[Basque people|Basque]] [[carpenter]], for making the first table football following the directions he gave him.
Although the invention was patented in 1937, Finisterre had to escape from the fascist ''coup d'état'' to [[France]], and he lost the papers of the patent in a storm.
Table football is also known in the US as '''Foosball''' (from the German ''Fußball'': literally "football" in the European sense, or "soccer" in American English). In German itself it's called ''Kicker'' or ''Tischfußball''. The Spanish for table football is ''futbolín''. In Argentina it is called ''metegol''. In France, the game is called ''Baby-foot''. In Turkey it's called ''langırt'', the onomatopoeic word describing the sound when playing. In Italy, its name is ''calcio balilla'', ''calcetto'' or ''biliardino''. In Chile, it goes by the name of ''taca-taca''. In Portugal, it goes by the name of ''matraquilhos'', or ''matrecos''. It is known as ''Jitz'' in some regions in Canada. In Bosnia, Croatia and Serbia, it goes under the name of ''karambol'' as well as ''stolni nogomet'' in Croatia only. In Bulgaria it is known by the name "djaga" or "djagi"
==The game==
[[Image:foos.png|thumb|left|Drawing of a Tornado (American) style table]]
Players attempt to use figures mounted on rotating bars to kick the ball into the opponent's goal. A ball may travel at speeds up to 75 mph in competition. Most of the time it is hard to even see the ball, it is more of a blur. The sport/game/simulation requires quick reflexes with a delicate touch using the player's fine tuned motor skills, control and knowledge.
The basics include 'passing' the ball, where you have the ball in your possession with one bar, and pass it to another bar, and 'shooting', where you find a hole in the defense and attempt to score.
The winner is determined when one team scores a predetermined number of goals, say 3 or 11. A two goal victory is most often required. In competition, every ball that enters the goal is counted, unless the player or players on the scoring team broke a rule during the play. Large events have referees that determine the infractions and penalties.
A foosball table can vary in size, but is typically about 4&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]] long and 2&nbsp;ft wide. The table usually contains 8 rows of "foos-men", which are plastic, metal, wooden, or sometimes carbon-fiber figures mounted on horizontal metal bars. Each team of 1, 2, or 3 human players controls 4 rows of foos-men.
The arrangement of the foosballers is standard. Looking from left to right on one side of the table, you see:
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#FF9999"
| Row 1 || '''Your goalie''' || 1 foosman (''sometimes 3'')
|- bgcolor="#FF9999"
| Row 2 || '''Your defense''' || 2 foosmen
|- bgcolor="#9999FF"
| Row 3 || Opponent's attack || 3 foosmen
|- bgcolor="#FF9999"
| Row 4 || '''Your midfield''' || 5 foosmen (''sometimes 4'')
|- bgcolor="#9999FF"
| Row 5 || Opponent's midfield || 5 foosmen (''sometimes 4'')
|- bgcolor="#FF9999"
| Row 6 || '''Your attack''' || 3 foosmen
|- bgcolor="#9999FF"
| Row 7 || Opponent's defense || 2 foosmen
|- bgcolor="#9999FF"
| Row 8 || Opponent's goalie || 1 foosman (''sometimes 3'')
|}
Foosball is often played for fun in pubs, bars, workplaces, schools, and clubs with few rules. "House rules" often include a ban on spinning your foosmen, so one's hand must maintain continuous contact with the handle. And also the off-The-Feed rule, where if the ball is scored before it touches a player or bank the goal is given to the team who had been scored upon.
Foosball is also played in official competitions organized by a number of national organizations. Organized competition can be traced back to the 1940's and 50's in Europe. But the professional tours and bigtime money events began when the founding father of modern professional table soccer, Lee Peppard of Seattle Washington, USA announced a QUARTER MILLION DOLLAR TOUR in 1975. Peppard went on to award several million dollars in prize monies and since his Tournament Soccer Organization went out of business in 1981 several orgs and promoters have continued holding large purse professional table soccer events worldwide. An international organization named ITSF (International Table Soccer Federation) was established in August [[2002]] to bring together all of them, as well as organizing World Championships.
[[Image:foosball_garlando_aerial.jpg|frame|right|A Garlando style table with a game in progress]]
A vast number of different tables exist. The table brands used on the world tour and official ITSF tournaments are "French-style" Bonzini, "American-style" Tornado, "Italian-style" Roberto-Sport, "Belgian-style" Eurosoccer/Wood (Jupiter/ABC). Other major brands include Kicker, Garlando, Löwen-Soccer, Warrior, Lehmacher, Leonhart, Smoby and many more. There was also a 7-meter table created by artist [[Maurizio Cattelan]] for a piece called ''Stadium''. It takes 11 players to a side.
Differences in the table types have great influence on the playing styles. Most tables have one goalie whose movements are restricted to the goal area. On some of these tables the goalie becomes unable to get the ball once it is stuck out of reach in the corner; others have sloped corners to return the ball. Other tables have three goalies, one in the center and one in each corner to reach the ball so sloped corners aren't needed. Another major difference is found in the balls, which can be made of cork, plastic or even marble and metal, varying the speed of shots a great deal, as well as the "grip" between the man and the ball.
Foosball strategy varies greatly. With teams of one human each, it is impossible for each person to control all four rows of foosmen simultaneously. Some players keep the left hand always on the goalie or defensemen and move the right hand |
l-known as a syndicated columnist and occasional guest host of the [[Rush Limbaugh]] radio show. The [[law school]] is ranked among the top 50 in the United States, and the [[Industrial/Organizational Psychology]] graduate program is consistently ranked in the top ten in the nation.
The school is ranked by [[Princeton Review]] as the most diverse university in the nation. The school has students from more than 135 countries and recently opened a international campus in the [[Ras Al Khaimah]] emirate of the [[United Arab Emirates]].
While today, Mason is relatively young, it has grown rapidly, reaching an enrollment in 2005 of 29,728 students and has become the largest public university in the state of Virginia. The University's stated goal is to become the major public research university of the [[Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area|U.S. national capital area]].
The school's sports teams are called Patriots. The university's men's and women's sports teams participate in the [[NCAA]]'s Division I, and are in the [[Colonial Athletic Association]]. The school's colors are green and gold. The university's student publication is [[Broadside (newspaper)]].
The George Mason University logo, originally designed in 1982, was updated in 2004 to reflect the changes the university has undergone since that time.
==History==
The university can trace its roots back to the [[1950s]] when the Virginia state legislature passed a resolution, in January of [[1956]], to establish a branch college of the [[University of Virginia]] in Northern Virginia. In September of [[1957]] the new college opened its doors to seventeen students. All of whom enrolled as freshmen in a renovated elementary school building at [[Bailey's Crossroads]]. John Norville Gibson Finley, served as Director of the new branch, which was known as University College.
The [[City of Fairfax, Virginia]], then the Town of Fairfax, purchased and donated 150 acres of land to the University of Virginia for the college's new location, which was referred to as the Fairfax Campus. The Board of Visitors of UVa selected a permanent name for the college: George Mason College of the [[University of Virginia]] in [[1959]]. The Fairfax campus construction planning that began in early 1960 showed visible results when the development of the first forty acres of Fairfax Campus began in 1962. In the Fall of 1964 the new campus welcomed 356 students.
Local jurisdictions of [[Fairfax County]], [[Arlington County]], and the cities of [[Alexandria]] and [[Falls Church]] agreed to appropriate $3 million to purchase land adjacent to GMC to provide for a 600 acre Fairfax Campus in [[1966]] with the intention that the institution would expand into a regional university of major proportions, including the granting of graduate degrees.
On April 7, [[1972]] the Virginia General Assembly enacted legislation which separated George Mason College from its parent institution, the [[University of Virginia]]. Renamed that day by the legislation, GMC became George Mason University.
In [[1979]] Mason opened its law school in [[Arlington, VA]] and moved all of its athletic programs to [[NCAA]] Division I. Enrollment that year passed 11,000. The university opened its Arlington campus in 1982, two blocks from the Ballston Metro stop in [[Arlington, VA]]
In [[1986]] the university's governing body, the Board of Visitors, approved a new master plan for the year based on an enrollment of 20,000 full-time students with housing for 5,000 students by 1995. That same year university housing opened to bring the total number of residential students to 700.
Through a bequest of Russian immigrant Shelley Krasnow the University established the Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study in [[1991]]. The Institute was created to further the understanding of the mind and intelligence by combining the fields of cognitive psychology, neurobiology, and artificial intelligence.
In [[1992]] GMU's new Prince William Institute begins classes in a temporary site [[Manassas, Virginia]]. The Institute moved to a permanent 124-acre site located on the Rt. 234 bypass, ten miles south of Manasss, by the year 1997, and is known as Prince William Campus. The university graduates more than 5,000 students that following Spring.
In [[2002]] Mason celebrated its 30th anniversary of independence from the [[University of Virginia]] and launched its first capital campaign with a goal to raise $110 million.
By [[2005]] the George Mason University is [[Virginia]]'s largest institution of higher education with an enrollment of more than 29,000. The capital campaign announces it raised more than $135 million. New master plan released indicating university enrollment to reach 35,000 students by 2011 with more than 7000 residential students.
==Presidents of George Mason University==
*[[Lorin A. Thompson]], (1966-73)
*[[Vergil H. Dykstra]], (1973-1977)
*[[Dr. Robert C. Krug]], (1977-1978)
*[[Dr. George W. Johnson]], (1978-1996)
*[[Dr. Alan G. Merten]], (1996-Present)
== Academic and Research Units ==
[[image:Gmulogo.gif|thumb|right|150px|George Mason Academic logo 2004-present]]
[[image:Gmulogo-old.png|thumb|right|150px|George Mason Athletic logo 1982-2004]]
GMU consists of twelve academic and research units:
* [http://www.cas.gmu.edu/ College of Liberal Arts and Human Sciences]
* [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/ George Mason University Department of Economics]
* [http://www.scs.gmu.edu/ School of Computational Sciences]
* [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/ICAR/ Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution]
* [http://cehd.gmu.edu/ College of Education and Human Development]
* [http://ite.gmu.edu/ School of Information Technology and Engineering]
* [[George Mason University School of Law]] [http://law.gmu.edu]
* [http://www.som.gmu.edu/ School of Management]
* [http://cnhs.gmu.edu/index.html College of Nursing and Health Science]
* [http://policy.gmu.edu School of Public Policy]
* [http://www.gmu.edu/cvpa/ College of Visual and Performing Arts]
* [http://www.ncc.gmu.edu/ New Century College-(NCC)]
* [http://krasnow.gmu.edu Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study]
== Points of Interest ==
George Mason University has greatly expanded the scope of the university by hiring very well-known and influential professors to work at the University. The University's [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/ economics department] alone has two professors who have won the [[Nobel Prize]]: [[James M. Buchanan]] and [[Vernon Smith]]. The College of Liberal Arts and Human Science includes history professor, [[Roger Wilkins]], who shared the [[Pulitzer Prize]] for coverage of the [[Watergate scandal]] with [[Bob Woodward]] and [[Carl Bernstein]] while he was working at the Washington Post and [[Frank Sesno]], the former CNN anchor, who is a professor of Communication.
The university has additional strength in the basic and applied sciences with critical mass in [[proteomics]], [[neuroscience]] and [[Computer science|computational sciences]]. Research support comes to Mason faculty from such agencies as the [[National Institutes of Health]], [[NASA]], the [[National Science Foundation]] and the [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]].
Mason is also known for its top tier graduate program in [[Industrial/Organizational Psychology]], which is currently ranked sixth by ''[[US News and World Report]]''.
Mason was awarded $25 million, in 2005, from the [[National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases]] (NIAID), part of the [[National Institutes of Health]], for construction of a Regional Biocontainment Laboratory at the Prince William Campus in Manassas.
Mason also operates the popular [[Ropes course|Ropes/Challenge Course]] in the United States (~20,000 participants per year) at its [http://www.Hemlockoverlook.org/ Hemlock Overlook Center for Outdoor Education]
<math>Insert formula here</math>
==Campus Grounds==
George Mason University is spread across three locations, but its history began at the main Fairfax campus in the early 60's when it was a satellite location to the [[University of Virginia]]. Four buildings were constructed around a lawn which include the East Building, West Building, Krug and Finley Hall. The first four structures, today dubbed "The Original Four," "around a lawn" were understood as a clear reference to the buildings around The Lawn of the [[University of Virginia]] in [[Charlottesville.]] In addition, in the words of the architects, the architecture of the buildings was meant to reflect Jeffersonian influence through the use of red brick with buff colored mortar, white vertical columns, and sloped shingled roofs.
[[Image:Kerrystage.jpg|thumb|280px|right|2004:John Kerry giving a speech in the Johnson Center]]
Master plans were developed to incorporate further development which saw new additions such as Fenwick Library and Lecture Hall. By 1979. the masterplan was developed by the firm of Sasaki & Associates which continued to work alongside the unversity in the years that followed. Student housing first became available in 1977. The 1980's saw the biggest expansion with new buildings being added on each year including the Patriot Center. George W. Johnson Learning Center was opened at the end of the academic year 1995/96 to coincide with the date of the retirement of the fourth president of George Mason University whose name the Center bears. It includes an extension of the university library, radio station, movie theater, art studio, bank, main food court and university offices spread across four floors.
Recent years have seen the most activity on campus. Innovation Hall, a new academic building began usage in 2003.
Housing units (Liberty Square, Potomac Heights) were opened in 2004 to accomodate an unprecedented amount of demand from students. Fall 2005 saw the number of residential students surpass 4100. The Sandy Creek parking deck was re |
year old worm impressions from China.
(There is considerable debate as to whether any of these may be traces of complex animals. They may be imprints of "bags of cells" -- confederations of single-celled creatures moving in concert -- or even inorganic geological anomalies, though most geological opinion tends to the latter. The Ediacara biota is accepted as the earliest record of animal life by most palaeontologists).
==References==
* {{cite web
| title = Ediacaran Period
| work = GeoWhen Database
| url = http://www.stratigraphy.org/geowhen/stages/Ediacaran.html
| accessdate = January 5
| accessyear = 2006
}}
* {{cite journal
| first = James G. | last = Ogg
| title = Status on Divisions of the International Geologic Time Scale
| journal = Lethaia
| year = 2004
| volume = 37
| issue =
| pages = 183–199
| url = http://www.stratigraphy.org/precambrian/Ogg_2003.pdf
}}
* {{News reference
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3721481.stm
| title = Geological time gets a new period: Geologists have added a new period to their official calendar of Earth's history—the first in 120 years
| org = BBC
| date = 17 May, 2004
}}
==External links==
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vendian/vendian.html Introduction to the Vendian Period]
* [http://members.tripod.com/~Cambrian/IntrotoEdiacaran Introduction to the Ediacaran Fauna]
{{Proterozoic Footer}}
[[Category:Proterozoic]]
[[Category:Fossils]]
[[de:Ediacara-Fauna]]
[[et:Ediacara]]
[[fr:Édiacarien]]
[[ja:エディアカラ紀]]
[[pt:Ediacarano]]
[[zh:埃迪卡拉纪]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erotica</title>
<id>9301</id>
<revision>
<id>41884794</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:12:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sanbec</username>
<id>62020</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>es:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Erotica''', from the [[Greek language]] ''Eros'' ("love"), are [[Work (fine arts)|works of art]], including literature, photography, film, sculpture and painting, that deal substantively with [[eroticism|erotically]] [[sexual stimulation|stimulating]] or [[sexual arousal|arousing]] descriptions. ''Erotica'' is rather a modern word used to describe the [[representation (arts)|portrayal]] of human sensuality and sexuality with high-art aspirations, differentiating such work from commercial [[pornography]]. Erotica portraying homosexual people is referred to as [[homoeroticism]].
While pornography popularly focuses on unadorned and unemotional lusts and the explicit depiction of sexual acts, erotica tends to define material with a higher emotional content, the development of place, character and story line, or of an overall artistic theme. However, such distinctions are necessarily subjective and may say more about the critic's own tastes on erotic material than the artistic and other attributes of the material itself. In the [[film|motion picture]] sense, [[Softcore|softcore pornography]] ('''soft porn''') is a similar kind of [[commercial art]] form that resides in the area between erotica and [[hardcore pornography]], although erotica, as a type of [[fine art]], may also be highly [[sexually explicit]]. The division between erotica and porn is an aesthetic division, usually dependent on moral philosophy, religious dogma, or personal outlook. At present, many legal jurisdictions maintain laws regulating the availability of expressions deemed pornographic, arguably to maintain a level of comfort or safety for a majority of citizens.
It is a notable trait of the strength of the human reproductive drive relative to the psyche as a whole, that unambiguous reference to sexuality, framed in a manner which the perceiver thereof finds acceptable, tends to initiate an involuntary reaction of [[sexual arousal]], possibly building increased [[sexual desire]], which may lead to creating or taking advantage of opportunity to engage in [[human sexual behavior|sexual activity]]. This can be true of erotica just as well as other, both more and less refined references to sex. Depictions of the human body which merely fail to conceal or disguise the secondary sexual characteristics of its particular gender may be all that is necessary to trigger arousal in a person who is attracted to that gender. For this reason, erotica is too broadly described merely in terms of the effect that it engenders in its audience, as all sexually related matter has the potential to create such an effect. For example, in the absence of the availability of pornography, some men have used clothing catalogs as a form of erotica. [[Gloria Leonard]] is famously quoted as saying "The difference between pornography and erotica is lighting."
==Erotic art==
===Painters===
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Agostino_Carracci Agostino Carracci]
[[Category:Erotica]]
[[Category:Human sexuality]]
[[es:Erotismo]]
[[he:אירוטיקה]]
[[lt:Erotika]]
[[ru:Эротика]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Existence</title>
<id>9302</id>
<revision>
<id>39553765</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T06:34:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pentasyllabic</username>
<id>414047</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv linkspam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Exist}}
There is no universally accepted theory of what the word '''existence''' means. The dominant (though by no means universal) view in [[20th century|twentieth-century]] and contemporary Anglo-American [[philosophy]] is that existence is what is asserted by statements of [[first order logic]] of the form "for some x Fx". This agrees with the simple and commonsensical view that, in uttering "There is a bridge across the Thames at Hammersmith", or "A bridge crosses the Thames at Hammersmith", one asserts the ''existence'' of a bridge across the Thames at Hammersmith. The word "existence", on this view, is simply a way of describing the logical form of ordinary subject-predicate sentence.
Unfortunately, this simple view is vulnerable to a number of philosophical objections, and the problem of existence is one that still exercises the minds of contemporary philosophers. This article is a brief overview of those problems, of the solutions that certain philosophers have offered, and suggestions for further reading.
== The problems of existence ==
The first problem is that, on the simple view above, any sentence of apparently subject-predicate form "S is P" must assert the existence of an object satisfying "S" and "P". Thus any noun phrase whatsoever that is the subject or predicate of a true sentence of this form, must be presumed to denote something. This leads to the question of what is denoted in sentences containing abstract noun phrases, such as "goodness is a virtue", "blindess can be overcome", "the number 9 is the sum of 6 and 3" and so on. Are goodness, blindness, virtue etc. objects in the sense that chairs, tables and houses are objects?
Worse, a sentence like "existence is not a predicate" is apparently of subject predicate form, thus "existence" must be presumed to denote something. Thus "signifies existence", cannot simply be a way of describing the logical form of ordinary subject-predicate sentence. The sentence "a bridge crosses the Thames at Hammersmith" cannot just be about a bridge, the Thames, and Hammersmith. It must be about "existence" as well.
This question has divided philosophers into two classes: [[Realism | realists]], who assert the existence of objects corresponding to abstract concepts, and [[Nominalism | nominalists]], who deny the existence of such things. The subject of what things exist corresponding to grammatical categories of noun phrase is known as [[ontology]].
The nominalist approach to the question is to argue that certain noun phrases can be "eliminated" by rewriting a sentence in a form that has the same meaning, but which does not contain the noun phrase. Thus Ockham argued that "Socrates has wisdom", which apparently asserts the existence of a reference for "wisdom", can be rewritten as "Socrates is wise", which contains only the referring phrase "Socrates". This method became widely accepted in the twentieth century by the so-called [[Analytic philosophy| analytic school]] of philosophy.
Realists, however, turn this argument on its head, arguing that since the sentence "Socrates is wise" can be rewritten as "Socrates has wisdom", this proves the existence of a hidden referent for "wise".
The second problem is that both a singular sentence like "Pegasus flies" and its negation seem to imply the existence of a subject. If "Pegasus flies" is true, then something (namely Pegasus) flies. So if the sentence is true, "Pegasus" has a referent. But if the sentence is false, its negation is true. But the negation of "Pegasus flies" is "it is not the case that Pegasus flies". If this is true, then something (namely Pegasus) does not fly, and so "Pegasus" still has a referent. Whether "Pegasus flies" is true or not, "Pegasus" has a referent, and so "Pegasus" has a referent. But common sense suggests that "Pegasus" does not have a referent.
== Modern approaches to the problem ==
According to [[Bertrand Russell]]'s [[Theory of Descriptions]], the negation operator in a singular sentence takes wide and narrow scope: we distinguish between "some S is not P" (where negation takes "narrow scope") and "it is not the case that "some S is P" (where negation takes "wide scope"). The problem with thi |
substantial evidence to indicate that the author of Luke also wrote the book of [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]. The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book. Both prefaces are addressed to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]], the author's patron, and the preface of Acts explicitly references "my former book" about the life of Jesus. Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author. With the agreement of nearly all scholars, Udo Schnelle writes, "the extensive linguistic and theological agreements and cross-references between the Gospel of Luke and the Acts indicate that both works derive from the same author" (The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings, p. 259). See also [[Acts of the Apostles#Authorship|Acts of the Apostles -- Authorship]].
The evangelist does not claim to have been an eyewitness of Jesus's life, but to have investigated everything carefully and to have written an orderly narrative of the facts ([[Luke 1|Luke]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%201:1-4;&version=31; 1:1-4]). The authors of the other three Gospels, Matthew, Mark, and John, probably used similar sources. According to the [[two-source hypothesis]], the most commonly accepted solution to the [[synoptic problem]], Luke's sources included the [[Gospel of Mark]] and another collection of lost sayings known by scholars as [[Q document|Q, the ''Quelle'' or "source" document]].
The general consensus is that Luke was written by a Greek for the gentile Christians. The Gospel is addressed to the author's patron, the "most excellent" [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]].
==Date of composition==
The date of this gospel's composition is uncertain. Estimates range from ''ca'' [[60]] to ''ca'' [[100 AD]].
===Traditional views of the date===
Traditionally, Christians believe that Luke wrote under the direction, if not at the dictation, of Paul. This would place it as having been written before the [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]], with Acts being composed around [[63|AD 63]] or [[64]]. Consequently, the tradition is that this Gospel was written about [[60]] or [[63]], when Luke may have been at Caesarea in attendance on Paul, who was then a prisoner. If the alternate conjecture is correct, that it was written at Rome during Paul's imprisonment there, then it would date earlier, [[40]]&ndash;[[60]]. Evangelical Christians tend to favor this view, in keeping with the tradition to date the gospels very early.
Luke addressed his gospel to "most excellent Theophilus." Theophilus, which in Greek means "Friend of God", may just be a literary expression.
Unfortunately, nowhere in ''Luke'' or ''Acts'' does it say that the author is Luke, the companion of Paul; this ascription is late second century. Furthermore, the text itself reveals hints that it was not written as a dictation of a single author, but made use of multiple sources.
===Critical views of the date===
In contrast to the traditional view, many contemporary scholars regard [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] as a source text used by the author(s) of Luke. Since Mark may have been written after the destruction of the [[Temple of Jerusalem]], around [[70]], Luke would not have been written before 70. The Sadducees are another point traditional scholars use to confirm a later date, contrasting Matthew's focus on the tax collecters and Jesus' rebuke of their actions against Luke's hardly mentioning them at all within his gospel, because after the destruction of the Temple, the Sadducees lost their power base. Based on this datum, scholars have suggested dates for Luke from [[75]] to as late as [[100]], and Acts shortly thereafter, also between 80 and 100. Support for a later date comes from the speculation that the universalization of the message must be taken to mean a much later date than the 60&ndash;70 given by the traditional view.
Debate continues among non-traditionalists about whether Luke was written before or after the end of the first century. Those who would date it later argue that it was written in response to heterodoxical movements of the early second century. Those who would date it earlier point out both that ''Luke'' lacks knowledge of the [[bishop|episcopal system]], which had been developed in the second century, and that an earlier date preserves the traditional connection of the gospel with the Luke who was a follower of Paul.
==Manuscripts==
The earliest manuscripts of the Gospel of Luke are [[papyrus]] fragments from the third century, one containing portions of all four gospels (P<sup>45</sup>) and three others preserving only brief passages (P<sup>4</sup>, P<sup>69</sup>, P<sup>75</sup>). These early copies, as well as the earliest copies of ''Acts'', date after the Gospel was separated from ''Acts''.
The [[Codex Bezae]], in the University Library, Cambridge, contains a 5th or 6th century manuscript that is the oldest complete manuscript of ''Luke,'' in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] and [[Latin]] versions on facing pages. The Greek version appears to have descended from an offshoot of the main manuscript tradition and departs from familiar readings at many points. Though the text bears many intended corrections, often to bring it into line with the usual readings, the Codex Bezae demonstrates the latitude in manuscripts of scripture that still existed quite late in the tradition. Biblical scholars have minimized the Codex's importance, citing it generally only when it supports the common readings.
Verses [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2022:19-20;&version=31; 22:19b-20] and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2022:43-44;&version=31; 22:43-44] are not present in early versions and are generally marked as such in modern translations.
===Relationship with other gospels===
Most New Testament scholars believe the author of Luke relied on Mark and Q as his primary sources.
According to Farrar, "Out of a total of 1151 verses, Luke has 389 in common with [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], 176 in common with Matthew alone, 41 in common with Mark alone, leaving 544 peculiar to himself. In many instances all three use identical language."
There are seventeen [[parable]]s peculiar to this Gospel. Luke also attributes to Jesus seven miracles which are not present in Matthew or Mark. The synoptic Gospels are related to each other after the following scheme. If the contents of each Gospel are numbered at 100, then when compared this result is obtained: Mark has 7 peculiarities, 93 coincidences. Matthew 42 peculiarities, 58 coincidences. Luke 59 peculiarities, 41 coincidences. That is, thirteen-fourteenths of [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], four-sevenths of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], and two-fifths of Luke describe the same events in similar language. Luke's style is more polished than that of Matthew and Mark with fewer [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] idioms. He uses a few Latin words (Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%207:41;&version=31; 7:41], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%208:30;&version=31; 8:30], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2011:33;&version=31; 11:33], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2012:6;&version=31; 12:6], and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2019:20;&version=31; 19:20]), but no [[Syriac]] or Hebrew words except ''sikera'', an exciting drink of the nature of wine, but not made of grapes (from Heb. ''shakar'', "he is intoxicated", [[Leviticus]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Leviticus%2010:9;&version=31; 10:9]), probably palm wine. This Gospel contains twenty-eight distinct references to the [[Old Testament]].
Many words and phrases are common to the Gospel of Luke and the Letters of Paul; compare:
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%204:22;&version=31; 4:22] with [[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Colossians%204:6;&version=31; 4:6].
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%204:32;&version=31; 4:32] with [[1 Corinthians]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20corinthians%202:4;&version=31; 2:4].
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%206:36;&version=31; 6:36] with [[2 Corinthians]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20corinthians%201:3;&version=31; 1:3].
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%206:39;&version=31; 6:39] with [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=romans%202:19;&version=31; 2:19].
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%209:56;&version=31; 9:56] with 2 Corinthians [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20corinthians%2010:8;&version=31; 10:8].
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2010:8;&version=31; 10:8] with 1 Corinthians [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20corinthians%2010:27;&version=31; 10:27].
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%2011:41;&version=31; 11:41] with [[Epistle to Titus|Titus]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=titus%201:15;&version=31; 1:15].
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%2018:1;&version=31; 18:1] with [[2 Thessalonians]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20thessalonians%201:11;&version=31; 1:11].
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%2021:36;&version=31; 21:36] with [[Epistle to the Ephesians|Ephesians]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ephesians%206:18;&version=31; 6:18].
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%2022:19-20;&version=31; 22:19- |
ist (d. [[1829]])
*[[1770]] - [[William Clark]], American explorer (d. [[1838]])
*[[1779]] - [[Francis Scott Key]], American lawyer and lyricist (d. [[1843]])
*1779 - [[Lorenz Oken]], German naturalist (d. [[1851]])
*[[1815]] - [[Richard Henry Dana, Jr.]], American lawyer, politician, and author (d. [[1882]])
*[[1818]] - [[Maria Mitchell]], American astronomer (d. [[1889]])
*[[1819]] - [[Herman Melville]], American writer (d. [[1891]])
*[[1858]] - [[Hans Rott]], Austrian composer (d. [[1884]])
*[[1885]] - [[George de Hevesy]], Hungarian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1966]])
*[[1889]] - [[Walter Gerlach]], German physicist (d. [[1979]])
*[[1891]] - [[Karl Kobelt]], Swiss politician (d. [[1968]])
*[[1921]] - [[Jack Kramer (tennis player)|Jack Kramer]], American tennis player
*[[1922]] - [[Pat McDonald]], Australian actress (d. [[1990]])
*[[1924]] - [[Georges Charpak]], Ukrainian-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1925]] - [[Ernst Jandl]], Austrian writer (d. [[2000]])
*[[1927]] - [[Raymond Leppard]], English conductor
*[[1930]] - [[Pierre Bourdieu]], French sociologist (d. [[2002]])
* 1930 - [[Lionel Bart]], English song-writer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1932]] - [[Meir Kahane]], American orthodox rabbi and founder of the Jewish Defense League (d. [[1990]])
*[[1933]] - [[Dom DeLuise]], American actor and comedian
*[[1936]] - [[Yves Saint Laurent]], French fashion designer
*[[1937]] - [[Al D'Amato]], U.S. Senator from New York
*[[1942]] - [[Jerry Garcia]], American guitarist, lyricist, and singer (The [[Grateful Dead]]) (d. [[1995]])
*[[1945]] - [[Douglas D. Osheroff]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1946]] - [[Fiona Stanley]], Australian epidemiologist
*[[1949]] - [[Kurmanbek Bakiyev]], President of Kyrgyzstan
*[[1950]] - [[Jim Carroll]], American poet and actor
*[[1952]] - [[Zoran Đinđić]], [[Prime Minister of Serbia]] (d. [[2003]])
*[[1953]] - [[Robert Cray]], American singer
*[[1955]] - [[Trevor Berbick]], Jamaican boxer
*[[1956]] - [[Tom Leykis]], American radio personality
*[[1958]] - [[Adrian Dunbar]], Northern Irish actor
*[[1959]] - [[Joe Elliott]], English musician ([[Def Leppard]])
*[[1960]] - [[Chuck D]], American rapper ([[Public Enemy]])
*1960 - [[Richard Roeper]], American newspaper columnist and film critic
*[[1962]] - [[Robert Clift]], British field hockey player
*[[1963]] - [[Coolio]], American rapper
*[[1965]] - [[Sam Mendes]], British stage and film director
*[[1970]] - [[David James (footballer)|David James]], English footballer
*[[1973]] - [[Tempestt Bledsoe]], American actress
*[[1978]] - [[Edgerrin James]], American football player
==Deaths==
*[[371]] - [[St Eusebius of Vercelli]], Italian bishop
*[[1137]] - King [[Louis VI of France]] (b. [[1081]])
*[[1227]] - [[Shimazu Tadahisa]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1179]])
*[[1402]] - [[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York]], son of [[Edward III of England]] (b. [[1341]])
*[[1457]] - [[Lorenzo Valla]], Italian humanist
*[[1464]] - [[Cosimo de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (b. [[1386]])
*[[1541]] - [[Simon Grynaeus]], German theologian (b. [[1493]])
*[[1546]] - [[Peter Faber]], French Jesuit theologian (b. [[1506]])
*[[1557]] - [[Olaus Magnus]], Swedish writer (b. [[1490]])
*[[1580]] - [[Albrecht Giese IV]], German politician and diplomat (b. [[1524]])
*[[1589]] - [[Jacques Clément]], French assassin of [[Henry III of France]] (b. [[1567]])
*[[1598]] - [[Abraham Ortelius]], Belgian cartographer (b. [[1527]])
*[[1714]] - Queen [[Anne of Great Britain]] (b. [[1665]])
*[[1787]] - [[Alphonsus Liguori]], Italian founder of the Redemptionist order (b. [[1696]])
*[[1796]] - [[Robert Pigot]], British army officer (b. [[1720]])
*[[1798]] - [[François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers]], French admiral (killed in battle) (b. [[1853]])
*[[1851]] - [[William Joseph Behr]], German writer (b. [[1775]])
*[[1866]] - [[John Ross (Cherokee chief)]], Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation (b. [[1790]])
*[[1917]] - [[Frank Little]], American labor organizer (lynched) (b. [[1879]])
*[[1918]] - [[John Riley Banister]], American cowboy and Texas Ranger (b. [[1854]])
*[[1920]] - [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], Indian nationalist leader (b. [[1856]])
*[[1964]] - [[Johnny Burnette]], American singer (b. [[1934]])
*[[1967]] - [[Richard Kuhn]], Austrian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1900]])
*[[1970]] - [[Frances Farmer]], American actress (b. [[1913]])
*1970 - [[Otto Heinrich Warburg]], German physician and physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1883]])
*[[1973]] - [[Gian Francesco Malipiero]], Italian composer (b. [[1882]])
*[[1977]] - [[Gary Powers]], American spy plane pilot (b. [[1929]])
*[[1981]] - [[Paddy Chayefsky]], American writer (b. [[1923]])
*[[1989]] - [[John Ogdon]], English pianist (b. [[1937]])
*[[1990]] - [[Norbert Elias]], German sociologist (b. [[1897]])
*1990 - [[Graham Young]], British serial killer (b. [[1947]])
*[[1996]] - [[Frida Boccara]], French singer (b. [[1940]])
*1996 - [[Tadeus Reichstein]], Polish chemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1897]])
*[[1997]] - [[Sviatoslav Richter]], Ukrainian pianist (b. [[1915]])
*[[1999]] - [[Nirad C. Chaudhuri]], Indian-born writer (b. [[1897]])
*[[2001]] - [[Korey Stringer]], American football player (b. [[1974]])
*[[2003]] - [[Guy Thys]], Belgian football coach (b. [[1922]])
*2003 - [[Marie Trintignant]], French actress (b. [[1962]])
*[[2004]] - [[Philip Hauge Abelson]] American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1913]])
*[[2005]] - [[Al Aronowitz]], American music journalist (b. [[1928]])
*2005 - King [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia]] (b. [[1923]])
*2005 - [[Constant Nieuwenhuys]], Dutch painter (b. [[1920]])
*2005 - [[Wim Boost|Wibo]], Dutch cartoonist (b. [[1918]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christianity]] - [[Procession of the Cross]]
*[[Angola]] - [[Armed Forces Day]]
*[[Barbados]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Emancipation Day]]
*[[Benin]] - [[National Day]]
*[[People's Republic of China]] - Anniversary of the Founding of the [[People's Liberation Army]]
*[[Democratic Republic of Congo]] - Parent's Day
*[[Nicaragua]] - [[Fiesta Day]]
*[[Rastafari movement]] - Celebration of the liberation of [[Haile Selassie]] from [[slavery]]
*[[Switzerland]] - [[National Day]]
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - [[Feast of Kamál]] (Perfection) - First day of the eighth month of the [[Bahá'í Calendar]]
*[[Lughnasadh]] - Lá Lúnasa, the traditional first day of [[Autumn]] in [[Ireland]].
*[[Lammas]] - [[Neopagan]] festival of [[Lammas]]
*[[Lebanon]] - Army's Day ([[Eid al-Jaysh]])
*[[Yorkshire]], [[United Kingdom]] - [[Yorkshire Day]]
*[[Citizenship Day]] in the [[United States]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/1 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050801.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
----
[[July 31]] - [[August 2]] - [[July 1]] - [[September 1]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:1 Augustus]]
[[als:1. August]]
[[ar:1 اغسطس]]
[[an:1 d'agosto]]
[[ast:1 d'agostu]]
[[bg:1 август]]
[[be:1 жніўня]]
[[bs:1. avgust]]
[[ca:1 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 1]]
[[cv:Çурла, 1]]
[[co:1 d'aostu]]
[[cs:1. srpen]]
[[cy:1 Awst]]
[[da:1. august]]
[[de:1. August]]
[[et:1. august]]
[[el:1 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:1 de agosto]]
[[eo:1-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 1]]
[[fo:1. august]]
[[fr:1er août]]
[[fy:1 augustus]]
[[ga:1 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:1 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 1일]]
[[hr:1. kolovoza]]
[[io:1 di agosto]]
[[ilo:Agosto 1]]
[[id:1 Agustus]]
[[ia:1 de augusto]]
[[ie:1 august]]
[[is:1. ágúst]]
[[it:1 agosto]]
[[he:1 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:1 Agustus]]
[[ka:1 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:1 zélnika]]
[[ku:1'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:1 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 1]]
[[lb:1. August]]
[[li:1 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 1]]
[[mk:1 август]]
[[ms:1 Ogos]]
[[nap:1 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:1 augustus]]
[[ja:8月1日]]
[[no:1. august]]
[[nn:1. august]]
[[oc:1 d'agost]]
[[pl:1 sierpnia]]
[[pt:1 de Agosto]]
[[ro:1 august]]
[[ru:1 августа]]
[[sco:1 August]]
[[sq:1 Gusht]]
[[scn:1 di austu]]
[[simple:August 1]]
[[sk:1. august]]
[[sl:1. avgust]]
[[sr:1. август]]
[[fi:1. elokuuta]]
[[sv:1 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 1]]
[[tt:1. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 1]]
[[th:1 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:1 tháng 8]]
[[tr:1 Ağustos]]
[[uk:1 серпня]]
[[wa:1î d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 1]]
[[zh:8月1日]]
[[pam:Agostu 1]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astronomical Units</title>
<id>1255</id>
<revision>
<id>15899748</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>make redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Astronomical unit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antoninus Pius</title>
<id>1256</id>
<revision>
<id>40695888</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T10:33:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Panairjdde</username>
<id>2400</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Antonius Pius 01.jpg|thumb|right|Emperor Antoninus Pius]]
[[Image:Sesterius-Antoninus Pius-Italia-RIC 0746a.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Sestertius]] of Antoninus Pius, with the personification of [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia]] on reverse. Antoninus had been entrusted with the government of this province as [[proconsul]].]]
'''Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius''' ([[September 19]], [[86]]&ndash;[[March 7]] [[161]]) was [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] from [[138]] to [[161]]. He was the fourth of the [[Five Good Emperors]] and a member of the [[Aurelii]].
He was the son of [[Titus Aurelius Fulvus]], [[consul]] in [[89]] whose family came from [[Nemausus]] (modern-day [[Nîmes]]), and was born near [[Lanuvium]]. After the death of his |
t on the board. In some cases, a player will have a material advantage, but will not have enough material to force a checkmate. In this case, the game is considered a draw by insufficient material.
===Alternative ways to play chess===
[[Blitz chess]] is a version of chess where a [[Game clock|chess clock]] is used to limit the [[Time control|time control]] for each player. Generally each side has three to fifteen minutes (five is common) for all of their moves. An even faster version of chess is known as ''[[bullet chess]]'' or ''lightning chess''. Bullet chess's time controls are less than three minutes. Speed chess requires the player to spend less time thinking because if the player's time runs out, they lose. When playing at a faster time, computers become relatively more powerful than humans.
When two players are separated by great distances they can still play chess. [[Correspondence chess]] is chess played through the [[mail]], [[e-mail]] or special [[Correspondence Chess Server]]s. Today, chess is often [[internet chess server|played on the internet]] through the [[Internet Chess Club]], [[FICS]] or another host.
Chess can also be played [[Blindfold chess|blindfold]]. In this case the play is conducted without the players having sight of the positions of the pieces, or any physical contact with them. Moves are communicated via chess notation.
===Chess variants===
: ''Main article: [[Chess variant]]''
Chess variants are forms of chess where the game is played with a different board, special [[Fairy chess piece|fairy pieces]] or different rules. There are over 1500 unique variants of chess. [[Bobby Fischer]] noted the overemphasis on memorizing chess openings in normal chess and invented [[Fischer Random Chess]]. In this chess variant initial position selected randomly before each game, which makes impossible to prepare the opening play in advance.
There are many more chess variants, like [[Suicide chess]], where the goal of the game is to lose all of ones pieces and if a piece can be taken, it must be taken by the opposing side. Very popular between chess players is also [[Bughouse chess]], in which two teams of players play against each other and give captured pieces to their partner. In [[Progressive chess]] the number of pieces one can move increases each turn (i.e. white moves one piece, black moves two, white moves three, black moves four etc.)
==History==
===Origins of chess===
: ''Main article: [[Origins of chess]]''
[[Image:Youth at chess with suitors - Haft Awrang.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Persian youth playing chess with two suitors. Chess was played in [[Iran|Persia]] as early as the 3rd century AD.]]
Many countries claim to have invented the chess game in some incipient form. The most commonly held view among historians is that chess originated in [[Sindh]]. In ancient India, it was called [[Chaturanga]]. The earliest mention of Chaturanga, or any version of chess, appears in the [[Sanskrit]] epic [[Mahabharata]], written circa 500 BC. It is also believed that the [[Persian people|Persians]] created a more modern version of the game after the Indians named [[Shatranj]]. The oldest known chess pieces have been found in excavations of [[Mohenjo-daro|Moen jo Daro]] in [[Sindh]] dated to the 3000 BC. One ancient text refers to Shah Ardashir, who ruled 224 - 241 AD, as a master of the game. Another theory exists that chess arose from the similar game of [[Xiangqi|Chinese chess]], or at least a predecessor thereof, existing in China since the 2nd century BC. [[Joseph Needham]] and [[David Li]] are two of many scholars who have favored this theory.
Chess eventually spread westward to Europe and eastward as far as Japan, spawning variants as it went. One theory suggests that it migrated from India to [[Iran|Persia]], where its terminology was translated into Persian, and its name changed to ''chatrang''. The entrance of chess into Europe, notably, is marked by a massive improvement in the powers of the [[queen (chess)|queen]]. The oldest known texts describing chess seem to indicate a bi-directional spread from the Persian empire. From Persia it entered the Islamic world, where the names of its pieces largely remained in their Persian forms in early Islamic times. Its name became ''[[shatranj]]'', which continued in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] as ''ajedrez'' and in [[Greek language|Greek]] as ''zatrikion'', but in most of Europe was replaced by versions of the Persian word ''sh&#257;h'' = "king".
There is a theory that this name replacement happened because, before the game of chess came to Europe, merchants coming to Europe brought ornamental chess kings as curiosities and with them their name ''sh&#257;h'', which Europeans mispronounced in various ways.
*'''Checkmate''': This is the [[English language|English]] rendition of ''sh&#257;h m&#257;t'', which is [[Persian language|Persian]] for "the king is finished".
*'''Rook''': From the Persian ''rukh'', which means "chariot", but also means "cheek" (part of the [[face]]). The piece resembles a siege tower. It is also believed that it was named after the mythical Persian bird of great power called the [[roc]]. In India, the piece is more popularly called ''haathi'', which means "elephant".
*'''Bishop'''. From the [[Persian language|Persian]] ''pīl'' means "the elephant", but in Europe and the western part of the Islamic world people knew little or nothing about elephants, and the name of the chessman entered Western Europe as Latin ''alfinus'' and similar, a word with no other meaning (in Spanish, for example, it evolved to the name "alfil"). This word "alfil" is actually the Arabic for "elephant" hence the Spanish word would most certainly have been taken from the Islamic provinces of Spain. The English name "bishop" is a rename inspired by the conventional shape of the piece.
*'''Queen'''. Persian ''farz&#299;n'' = "[[vizier]]" became Arabic ''firz&#257;n'', which entered western European languages as forms such as ''alfferza'', ''fers'', etc but was later replaced by "queen".
The game spread throughout the [[Islam|Islamic]] world after the Muslim conquest of Persia. Chess eventually reached [[Russia]] via [[Mongolia]], where it was played at the beginning of the 7th century. It was introduced into [[Spain]] by the [[Moors]] in the 10th century, and described in a famous 13th century manuscript covering chess, [[backgammon]], and [[dice]] named the ''[[Libro de los juegos]]''. Chess also found its way across [[Siberia]] into [[Alaska]].
=== Modern chess ===
[[Image:Staunton chess set.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|A typical Staunton-design set and [[Game clock|clock]].]]
Early on, the pieces in European chess had limited movement; bishops could only move by jumping exactly two spaces diagonally (similar to the elephant in xiangqi), the queen could move only one space diagonally, pawns could not move two spaces on their first move, and there was no castling. By the end of the 15th century, the modern rules for the basic moves had been adopted from [[Italy]]: pawns gained the option of moving two squares on their first move and the [[En_passant|en passant]] capture therewith, bishops acquired their modern move, and the queen was made the most powerful piece; consequently modern chess was referred to as "Queen's Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess". The game in Europe since that time has been almost the same as is played today. The current rules were finalized in the early 19th century, except for the exact conditions for a draw.
The most popular piece design, the "Staunton" set, was created by [[Nathaniel Cook]] in 1849, endorsed by [[Howard Staunton]], a leading player of the time, and officially adopted by [[Fédération Internationale des Échecs]] (FIDE) in 1924.
Chess's international governing body is FIDE, which has presided over the world championship matches for decades. Most countries of the world have a national chess organization as well. Although chess is not an Olympic sport, it has its own [[Chess Olympiad|Olympiad]], held every two years as a team event.
===World chess champions===
: ''Main article: [[World Chess Championship]]''
* '''Unofficial champions (pre-championship era)'''
**[[François-André Danican Philidor|Philidor]]
**[[Howard Staunton]]
**[[Adolf Anderssen]]
**[[Paul Morphy]]
* '''Official champions (1866–1993)'''
**[[Wilhelm Steinitz]]
**[[Emanuel Lasker]]
**[[José Raúl Capablanca]]
**[[Alexander Alekhine]]
**[[Max Euwe]]
**[[Mikhail Botvinnik]]
**[[Vassily Smyslov]]
**[[Mikhail Tal]]
**[[Tigran Petrosian]]
**[[Boris Spassky]]
**[[Robert Fischer]]
**[[Anatoly Karpov]]
**[[Garry Kasparov]]
* '''"Classical champions" (1993–present)'''
**[[Garry Kasparov]]
**[[Vladimir Kramnik]] (current)
* '''FIDE champions (1993–present)'''
**[[Anatoly Karpov]]
**[[Alexander Khalifman]]
**[[Viswanathan Anand]]
**[[Ruslan Ponomariov]]
**[[Rustam Kasimdzhanov]]
**[[Veselin Topalov]] (current)
==Computer chess==
: ''Main article: [[Computer chess]]''
Serious work on machines that play chess has been going on since 1890, and [[computer chess|chess-playing computer programs]] featured prominently in the [[artificial intelligence]] boom of the 1950s - 1970s. At first considered only a curiosity, the best chess playing programs — like [[Shredder (chess)|Shredder]], [[Fritz (chess)|Fritz]] etc. — have become extremely strong players. In blitz chess, they can beat the best human players; at regular time controls, however, battles between the very best chess programs and the very best human players have been tantalizingly finely balanced. However, it is important to note that the method by which computer programs play chess does not really resemble the way humans play chess — the computer basically just calculates the board position after every possible combi |
[[quadrilateral]], [[rectangle]], [[Square (geometry)|square]]
* In biology: [[animal]], [[bird]], [[bird of prey|raptor]], [[eagle]], [[golden eagle]]
* The [[Chomsky hierarchy]] in formal languages: recursively enumerable, context-sensitive, context-free, regular
* In physics: [[particle_(ecology)|particle]], [[elementary particle]], [[fermion]], [[lepton]], [[electron]]
== See also ==
* [[Cladistics]]
{{Math-stub}}
[[Category:Hierarchy]]
[[Category:Classification algorithms]]
[[Category:Topology]]
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[Category:Taxonomy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical order</title>
<id>6938</id>
<revision>
<id>41086298</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T23:34:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tom Lougheed</username>
<id>450264</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Doric order */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EncycOrders.png|thumb|250px|right|A refined canonic version of the Orders engraved for the ''[[Encyclopédie]],'' vol. 18]]
[[Image:Table of architecture, Cyclopaedia, 1728, volume 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Table of architecture, ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'', 1728]]
A '''classical order''' is one of the ancient styles of building design distinguished by their proportions and their characteristic [http://www.grandtradition.net/ profiles] and details, but most quickly recognizable by the type of [[column]] and [[capital (architecture)|capital]] employed. Each style also has its proper [[entablature]], consisting of [[architrave]], [[frieze]] and [[cornice (architecture)|cornice]]. From the 16th century onwards, theorists recognized five orders. Ranged in the engraving (''illustration, right''), from the stockiest and most primitive to the richest and most slender, they are: [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]] (Roman) and [[Doric order|Doric]] (Greek and Roman, illustrated here in its Roman version); [[Ionic order|Ionic]] (Greek version) and Ionic (Roman version); [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] (Greek and Roman) and [[Composite order|composite]] (Roman). The ancient and original orders of architecture are no more than three, the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, which were invented by the Greeks. To these the Romans added two, the Tuscan, which they made plainer than the Doric, and the Composite, which was more ornamental, if not more beautiful, than the Corinthian. The first three orders alone, however, show invention and particular character, and essentially differ from each other; the two others have nothing but that which is borrowed, and differing only accidentally. The Tuscan is the Doric in its earliest state, and the Composite is the Corinthian, enriched with the Ionic. To the Greeks, therefore, and not to the Romans, we are indebted for what is great, judicious, and dictinct in architecture.
From the first formation of society, order may be traced. When the rigor of seasons first obliged humans to contrive shelter from the inclemency of the weather, we learn that they first planted trees on end, and then laid others across to support a covering. The bands which connected those trees at top and bottom are said to have given rise to the idea of the base and capital of pillars; and from this simple hint originally proceeded the more improved art of architecure.
The ''order'' of a classical building is like the ''mode'' or ''key'' of classical music. It is established by certain ''modules'' like the ''intervals'' of music, and it raises certain expectations in an audiences attuned to its language. The orders are like the ''grammar'' or ''rhetoric'' of a written composition.
== Parts of a column ==
A column is divided into a shaft, its base and its capital. In classical buildings the horizontal structure that is supported on the columns like a beam is called an ''[[entablature]]''. The entablature is commonly divided into the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. To distinguish between the different Classical orders, the capital is used as the most distinct characteristics.
A complete column and entablature consist of a number of distinct parts. The ''stylobate'' is the flat pavement on which the columns are placed. Standing upon the stylobate is the ''plinth,'' a square block – sometimes circular – which forms the lowest part of the base. Further up comes the remainder of the base: one or many circular [[Molding (decorative)|moldings]] with profiles. Common examples are the convex ''torus'' and the concave ''scotia,'' separated by fillets or bands.
On top of the base, the ''shaft'' is placed vertically. The shaft is cylindrical in shape and both long and narrow. The shaft is sometimes decorated with vertical hollows of ''fluting''. The shaft is wider at the bottom than at the top, because its ''[[entasis]]'', beginning a third of the way up, imperceptibly makes the column slightly more slender at the top.
The ''capital'' rests on the shaft. It has a load-bearing function, which concentrates the weight of the entablature, but it primarily serves an aesthetic purpose. The simplest form of the capital is the Doric, consisting of three parts. The ''necking'' is the continuation of the shaft, but is visually separated by one or many grooves. The ''echinus'' lies atop the necking. It is a circular block that bulges outwards towards the top in order to support the [[Abacus (architecture)|''abacus'']], which is a square or shaped block that in turn supports the entablature.
The entablature consists of three horizontal layers, all of which are visually separated from each other using [http://www.grandtradition.net/wiki/index.php?title=Moldings moldings] or bands. The three layers of the entablature have distinct names: the ''architrave'' comes at the bottom, the ''frieze'' is in the middle and the molded ''cornice'' lies on the top. In Roman and post-Renaissance work, the entablature may be curved into an arch that springs from the column that bears its weight.
== Measurement ==
Columns are measured in a ratio. The ratio is the diameter of the shaft at its base compared to the height of the column. As a result, a Doric column can be described as seven diameters high, an Ionic column is eight diameters high and a Corinthian column nine diameters high. Sometimes this is given as seven lower diameters high, in order to make sure which part of the shaft has been measured.
== Greek orders ==
There are two distinct orders in ancient Greek architecture: Doric and Ionic. These two were adopted by the Romans, as was the Corinthian order. The Corinthian capital, however, was modified by the Romans. The adaption of the Greek orders took place in the 1st century BC. The three ancient Greek orders have since been used in classical Western architecture, both ancient and modern.
Sometimes the Doric order is considered the earlier order, but there is no evidence to support this. Rather, the orders seem to have appeared at around the same time, the Ionic order in eastern Greece and the Doric order in the west and mainland.
Both the Doric and the Ionic order appear to have originated in wood. The [[Temple of Hera]] in Olympia is the oldest well-preserved temple of Doric architecture. It was built just after [[600 BC]]. The Doric order later spread across Greece and into [[Sicily]] where it was the chief order for [[monumental architecture]] for 800 years.
=== Doric order ===
:''Main article: [[Doric order]].''
[[Image:DoricParthenon.jpg|thumb|right|100px|The Doric order of the [[Parthenon]]]]
The [[Doric order]] originated on the mainland and western [[Greece]]. It is the simplest of the orders, characterized by short, faceted, heavy columns with plain, round [[Capital (architecture)|capital]]s (tops) and no base. With only four to eight diameters in height, the columns are the most squat of all orders. The shaft of the Doric order is channeled with 20 flutes. The capital consists of a necking which is of a simple form. The echinus is convex and the abacus is square.
Above the capital is a square [[abacus]] connecting the capital to the entablature. The Entablature is divided into two horizontal registers, the lower part of which is either smooth or divided by horizontal lines. The upper half is distinctive for the Doric order. The frieze of the Doric entablature is divided into [[triglyph]]s and [[metope (architecture)|metopes]]. A triglyph is a unit consisting of three vertical bands which are separated by grooves. Metopes are plain or carved reliefs.
The Greek forms of the Doric order come without an individual base. The instead are placed directly on the stylobate. Later forms, however, came with the conventional base consisting of a plinth and a torus. The Roman versions of the Doric order have smaller proportions. As a result they appear lighter than the Greek orders.
=== Ionic order ===
:''Main article: [[Ionic order]].''
[[Image:Jonisk1.png]]
The [[Ionic order]] came from eastern Greece, where its origins are entwined with the similar but little known [[Aeolic order]]. It is distinguished by slender, fluted [[pillar]]s with a large base and two opposed ''volutes'' (also called ''scrolls'') in the echinus of the capital. The echinus itself is decorated with an egg- and- dart motif. The Ionic shaft comes with four more flutes than the Doric counterpart (totalling 24). The Ionic base has two convex moldings called ''tori'' which are separated by a scotia.
The Ionic order is also marked by an [[entasis]], a curved tapering in the column shaft. A column of the ionic order is nine lower diameters. The shaft itself is eight diameters high. The architrave of the entablature commonly consists of three stepped bands (''fasciae''). The frieze comes without the Doric ''triglyph'' and ''metope''. The frieze sometimes comes with a continuous ornament such as carved figures. It is also noteworthy to contemplate the use of the compass in the design of this order.
=== Corinthian order ===
:''Main artic |
s than 91 yards on an [[American Football]] field, with the full field, including the end zones, covering approximately 1.32 acres.
==History==
The acre was selected as approximately the amount of land tillable by one man behind an [[ox]] in one [[day]]. This explains its rectangular definition one-[[chain (length)|chain]] by one-[[furlong]] parcel of land; a long narrow strip of land is more efficient to plough than a square plot, since the plough does not have to be turned so often. Statutory values were enacted in England by acts of
* [[Edward I of England|Edward I]],
* [[Edward III of England|Edward III]],
* [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]],
* [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]] and
* [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] - the British "Weights and Measures Act" of [[1878]] defined it as containing 4,840 square yards.
In the UK use of acres is officially discouraged, but it is still a very familiar measure of land with the general public, especially middle-aged and elderly people.
Acre is measured on "flat plane", therefore land that is steeply sloped may contain more area than one acre while actually being only one acre on a map.
==See also==
* [[Conversion of units]]
* [[Acre-foot]]
* [[Acre (Scots)]]
==External links==
* [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]
* [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/appxc/appxc.htm NIST Handbook 44]
[[Category:Units of area]]
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Customary units in the United States]]
[[Category:Real estate]]
[[da:Acre (arealenhed)]]
[[de:Acre (Einheit)]]
[[eo:Akreo (Mezurunuo)]]
[[fr:Acre (unité)]]
[[he:אקר]]
[[nl:Acre (oppervlaktemaat)]]
[[ja:エーカー]]
[[pl:Akr]]
[[pt:Acre (unidade)]]
[[ru:Акр]]
[[sl:Aker]]
[[ta:ஏக்கர்]]
[[vi:Mẫu Anh]]
[[uk:Акр]]
[[zh:英亩]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Acre, Palestine</title>
<id>1798</id>
<revision>
<id>29401637</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-27T19:09:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gilgamesh</username>
<id>47947</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Acre, Israel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ATP</title>
<id>1799</id>
<revision>
<id>40708635</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T13:34:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ravn</username>
<id>47881</id>
</contributor>
<comment>mv tennis association in category "usually"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ATP''' usually refers to:
*[[Adenosine triphosphate]], the universal energy currency of all living organisms ([[biochemistry]])
*[[Association of Tennis Professionals]], professional men's tennis association
'''ATP''' may also refer to:
;Companies:
*[[Alberta Theatre Projects]], a major [[Canada|Canadian]] theatre company.
*[[Associated Talking Pictures]], a British film company which later became [[Ealing Studios]]
*[[BAe ATP]], the ''British Aerospace ATP''
;Organizations
*[[Academic Talent Program]]
*[[Association of Test Publishers]]
;Technologies
*[[AppleTalk|AppleTalk Transaction Protocol]]
*[[Automated theorem proving]]
*[[Automatic train protection]]
*[[Anti-Tachycardia Pacing]] (see [[Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator]])
*[[Asynchronous Transfer Protocol]] (telecommunications)
;Other
*[[Airline Transport Pilot License]]
*[[Australian Technology Park]]
*[[All Tomorrow's Parties (music festival)|All Tomorrow's Parties]], a music festival.
**''All Tomorrow's Parties'', A song by the [[Velvet Underground]], released in 1967 on the album ''The Velvet Underground and Nico''
**''All Tomorrow's Parties'', A novel in the [[Bridge trilogy]] by [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]
*[[Accepted Test Plan]]
*[[Addressee To Pay]]
*[[Adult Treatment Panel]], guidelines for patients with high cholesterol
*[[Allmänna tilläggspensionen]], a [[supplementary]] (income-related) pension in [[Sweden]].
*[[Arbejdsmarkedets Tillægspension]], a [[supplementary]] (income-related) pension in [[Denmark]]
*[[Available To Promise]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[cs:ATP (rozcestník)]]
[[da:ATP]]
[[de:ATP]]
[[es:ATP]]
[[fr:ATP]]
[[ko:ATP]]
[[it:ATP]]
[[lb:ATP]]
[[nl:ATP]]
[[pt:ATP (desambiguação)]]
[[fi:ATP]]
[[sv:ATP]]
[[zh:ATP]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adenosine triphosphate</title>
<id>1800</id>
<revision>
<id>41811677</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:28:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.81.70.227</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Remove extra ] in chemical name (was introduced 21:29, 26 February 2006)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the initials ATP, see [[ATP (disambiguation)]]''
<div>
<!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
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{| align="right" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090; width: 320px;"
! {{chembox header}}| '''Adenosine 5'-triphosphate'''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:ATP_chemical_structure.png|320px|Chemical structure of ATP]]
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />]]
| [[[5-(6-aminopurin-9-yl)-3,4-dihydroxy-oxolan-2-yl]<br/>methoxy-hydroxy-phosphoryl]<br/>oxy-hydroxy-phosphoryl] oxyphosphonic acid
|-
| Abbreviations
| '''ATP<br/>'''
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Chemical&nbsp;formula]]
| C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>16</sub>N<sub>5</sub>O<sub>13</sub>P<sub>3</sub>
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 507.181 g mol<sup>-1</sup>
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| ? °C
|-
| [[Density]]
| ? g/cm<sup>3</sup>
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|p''K''<sub>a</sub>]]
| ?
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 56-65-5
|-
{{EINECS Row|200-283-2}}
|-
{{PubChem Row|5957}}
|-
|}
</div>
<!-- TEXT -->
'''Adenosine 5'-triphosphate''' ('''ATP''') is a multifunctional [[nucleotide]] primarily known in [[biochemistry]] as the "[[molecule|molecular]] currency" of intracellular [[energy]] transfer. In this role ATP transports chemical energy within [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. It is produced as an energy source during the processes of [[photosynthesis]] and [[cellular respiration]]. ATP is also one of four monomers required for the synthesis of [[ribonucleic acid]]s. Furthermore, in signal transduction pathways, ATP is used to provide the phosphate for protein-kinase reactions.
==Chemical properties==
ATP consists of [[adenosine]] and three [[phosphate]] groups (triphosphate). The phosphoryl groups, starting with that on [[adenosine monophosphate|AMP]], are referred to as the alpha (&alpha;), beta (β), and gamma (&gamma;) phosphates. ATP is extremely rich in chemical energy, in particular between the second and third phosphate groups. The net change in energy of the decomposition of ATP into [[Adenosine diphosphate|ADP]] and an inorganic phosphate is -12 kCal / mole ''in vivo'' (inside of a living cell) and -7.3 kCal / mole ''in vitro'' (in laboratory conditions). This massive release in energy makes the decomposition of ATP extremely [[exergonic]], and hence useful as a means for chemically storing energy.
==Synthesis==
[[Image:Atp_space_filling_ray_trace.jpg|200px|thumb|Space filling image of ATP]]
ATP can be produced by various cellular processes: Under aerobic conditions, the majority of the synthesis occurs in [[mitochondria]] during [[oxidative phosphorylation]] and is catalyzed by [[ATP synthase]] and, to a lesser degree, under anaerobic conditions by [[fermentation]].
The main fuels for ATP synthesis are [[glucose]] and [[triglyceride]]s. The fuels that result from the breakdown of triglycerides are [[glycerol]] and [[fatty acid]]s.
First, glucose and glycerol are metabolised to [[pyruvate]] in the [[cytosol]] using the [[glycolysis|glycolyitic]] pathway. This generates some ATP through [[substrate-level phosphorylation|substrate phosphorylation]] catalyzed by two enzymes: [[Phosphoglycerate kinase|PGK]] and [[Pyruvate kinase]]. Pyruvate is then oxidised further in the [[mitochondrion]].
In the mitochondrion, pyruvate is oxidised by [[pyruvate dehydrogenase]] to [[acetyl-CoA]], which is fully oxidised to carbon dioxide by the [[Krebs cycle]]. Fatty acids are also broken down to acetyl CoA by [[beta-oxidation]] and metabolised by the Krebs cycle. Every turn of the Krebs cycle produces an ATP equivalent (GTP) through [[substrate-level phosphorylation|substrate phosphorylation]] catalyzed by [[Succinyl-CoA synthetase]] as well as reducing power as NADH. The electrons from NADH are used by the [[electron transport chain]] to generate a large amount of ATP by [[oxidative phosphorylation]] coupled with ATP synthase.
The whole process of oxidising glucose to carbon dioxide is known as [[cellular respiration]] and is more than 40% efficient at transfering the chemical energy in glucose to the more useful form of ATP.
ATP is also synthesized through several so-called "replenishment" reactions catalyzed by the enzyme families of NDKs ([[nucleoside diphosphate kinase]]s), which use other nucleoside triphosphates as a high-energy phosphate donor, and the ATP:guanido-phosphotransferase family, which uses [[creatine]].
::[[adenosine diphosphate|ADP]] + [[guanosine triphosphate|GTP]] <math>\to</math> ATP + [[guanosine diphosphate|GDP]]
In plants, ATP is synthesized in [[chloroplast]]s during the light reactions of [[photosynthesis]]. Some of this ATP is then used to power the [[Calvin cycle]], which synthesizes [[triose]] sugars.
If a [[clot]] causes a decreas |
elt was asked by American Jewish organizations and Congressmen to allow these refugees to settle in the U.S. At first he suggested that the Jewish refugees should be "resettled" elsewhere, and suggested [[Venezuela]], [[Ethiopia]] or [[West Africa]] &mdash; anywhere but the U.S. Morgenthau, Ickes and Eleanor pressed him to adopt a more generous policy but he was afraid of provoking the isolationists &mdash; men such as [[Charles Lindbergh]] who exploited anti-Semitism as a means of attacking Roosevelt's policies. In practice very few Jewish refugees came to the U.S. &mdash; only 22,000 German refugees were admitted in 1940, not all of them Jewish. The State Department official in charge of refugee issues, [[Breckinridge Long]], was a visceral anti-Semite who did everything he could to obstruct Jewish immigration. Despite frequent complaints, Roosevelt failed to remove him.
After 1942, when Roosevelt was made aware of the Nazi extermination of the Jews by Rabbi [[Stephen Wise]], the Polish envoy [[Jan Karski]] and others, he refused to allow any systematic attempt to rescue European Jewish refugees and bring them to the U.S. In May 1943 he wrote to Cordell Hull (whose wife was Jewish): "I do not think we can do other than strictly comply with the present immigration laws." In January 1944, however, Morgenthau succeeded in persuading Roosevelt to allow the creation of a [[War Refugee Board]] in the Treasury Department. This allowed an increasing number of Jews to enter the U.S. in 1944 and 1945. By this time, however, the European Jewish communities had already been largely destroyed in Hitler's [[Holocaust]].
In any case after 1945 the focus of Jewish aspirations shifted from migration to the U.S. to settlement in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], where the [[Zionism|Zionist]] movement hoped to create a Jewish state. Roosevelt was also opposed to this idea. When he met King [[Ibn Saud]] of [[Saudi Arabia]] in February 1945, he assured him he did not support a Jewish state in Palestine. He suggested that since the Nazis had killed three million Polish Jews, there should now be plenty of room in Poland to resettle all the Jewish refugees. Roosevelt's attitudes towards Japanese-Americans, Blacks and Jews remain in striking contrast with the generosity of spirit he displayed, and the social liberalism he practiced in other realms.
===Strategy and diplomacy===
{{main|World War II}}
[[Image:Cairo conference.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Chiang Kai-shek]] of China, Roosevelt, and [[Winston Churchill]] of Britain at the [[Cairo Conference]] in 1943]]
The U.S. took the straightforward view that the quickest way to defeat Germany was to transport its army to Britain, invade France across the [[English Channel]] and attack Germany directly from the west, Churchill, wary of the huge casualties he feared this would entail, favored a more indirect approach, advancing northwards from the [[Mediterranean]], where the Allies were fully in control by early 1943, into either [[Italy]] or [[Greece]], and thus into central Europe. Churchill also saw this as a way of blocking the Soviet Union's advance into east and central Europe, a political issue which Roosevelt and his commanders refused to take into account.
Roosevelt's main problem was that as long as the British were providing most of the troops, aircraft and ships against the Germans he had to accept Churchill's idea that a launch across the Channel would have to wait, at least until the American power was at least equal of that of the British. Churchill succeeded in persuading Roosevelt to undertake the invasions of French [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]] ([[Operation Torch]]) in November 1942, of [[Sicily]] ([[Operation Husky]]) in July 1943, and of Italy ([[Operation Avalanche]]) in September 1943). This entailed postponing the cross-Channel invasion from 1943 to 1944. Following the American defeat at [[Anzio]], however, the invasion of Italy became bogged down, and failed to meet Churchill's expectations. This undermined his opposition to the cross-Channel invasion ([[Operation Overlord]]), which finally took place in June 1944. Although most of France was quickly liberated, the Allies were blocked on the German border in the "[[Battle of the Bulge]]" in December 1944, and final victory over Germany was not achieved until May 1945, by which time the Soviet Union, as Churchill feared, had occupied all of eastern and central Europe as far west as the [[Elbe River]] in central Germany.
Meanwhile in the Pacific the Japanese advance reached its maximum extent by June 1942, when Japan sustained a major naval defeat at the hands of the U.S. at the [[Battle of Midway]]. The Japanese advance to the south and south-east was halted at the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]] in May 1942 and the [[Battle of Guadalcanal]] between August 1942 and February 1943. MacArthur and Nimitz then began a slow and costly progress through the Pacific islands, with the objective of gaining bases from which strategic air power could be brought to bear on Japan and from which Japan could ultimately be invaded. In the event, this did not prove necessary, because the almost simultaneous declaration of war on Japan by the Soviet Union and the use of the [[atomic bomb]] on Japanese cities brought about Japan's surrender in September 1945.
By late 1943 it was apparent that the Allies would ultimately defeat Nazi Germany, and it became increasingly important to make high-level political decisions about the course of the war and the postwar future of Europe. Roosevelt met with Churchill and the Chinese leader [[Chiang Kai-shek]] at the [[Cairo Conference]] in November 1943, and then went to [[Tehran]] to confer with Churchill and Stalin. At the [[Tehran Conference]] Roosevelt and Churchill told Stalin about the plan to invade France in 1944, and Roosevelt also discussed his plans for a postwar international organization. Stalin was pleased that the western Allies had abandoned any idea of moving into the [[Balkans]] or central Europe via Italy, and he went along with Roosevelt's plan for the [[United Nations]], which involved no costs to him. Stalin also agreed that the Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan when Germany was defeated. At this time Churchill and Roosevelt were acutely aware of the huge and disproportionate sacrifices the Soviets were making on the eastern front while their invasion of France was still six months away, so they did not raise awkward political issues which did not require immediate solutions, such as the future of Germany and Eastern Europe.
By the beginning of 1945, however, with the Allied armies advancing into Germany, consideration of these issues could not be put off any longer. In February, Roosevelt, despite his steadily deteriorating health, traveled to [[Yalta]], in the Soviet [[Crimea]], to meet again with Stalin and Churchill. This meeting, the [[Yalta Conference]], is often portrayed as a decisive turning point in modern history, but in fact, most of the decisions made there were retrospective recognitions of realities which had already been established by force of arms. The decision of the western Allies to delay the invasion of France from 1943 to 1944 had allowed the Soviet Union to occupy all of eastern Europe, including [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovakia]] and [[Hungary]], as well as eastern Germany. Since Stalin was in full control of these areas, there was little Roosevelt and Churchill could do to prevent him imposing his will on them, as he was rapidly doing by establishing [[Communist]]-controlled governments in all these countries.
Churchill, aware that Britain had gone to war in 1939 in defense of Polish independence, and also of his promises to the [[Polish government in exile]] in [[London]], did his best to insist that Stalin agree to the establishment of a non-Communist government and the holding of free elections in liberated Poland, although he was unwilling to confront Stalin over the issue of Poland's postwar frontiers, on which he considered the Polish position to be indefensible. But Roosevelt was not interested in having a fight with Stalin over Poland, for two reasons. The first was that he believed that Soviet support was essential for the projected invasion of Japan, in which the Allies ran the risk of huge casualties. He feared that if Stalin was provoked over Poland he might renege on his Tehran commitment to enter the war against Japan. The second was that he saw the [[United Nations]] as the ultimate solution to all postwar problems, and he feared the United Nations project would fail without Soviet cooperation.
==The fourth term and his death, 1945==
[[Image:Yalta Conference.jpg|300px|thumb|The "Big Three" Allied leaders at [[Yalta]]: Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin]]
Although Roosevelt was only 62 in 1944, his health had been in decline since at least 1940. The strain of his paralysis and the physical exertion needed to compensate for it for over 20 years had taken their toll, as had many years of stress and a lifetime of chain-smoking. He had been diagnosed with [[high blood pressure]] and long-term [[heart disease]], and was advised to modify his diet (though not to stop smoking). Had it not been for the war, he would certainly have retired at the [[U.S. presidential election, 1944|1944 election]], but under the circumstances both he and his advisors felt there was no alternative to his running for a fourth term. Aware of the risk that Roosevelt would die during his fourth term, the party regulars insisted that [[Henry A. Wallace]], who was seen as too pro-Soviet, be dropped as Vice President. Roosevelt at first resisted but finally agreed to replace Wallace with the little known Senator [[Harry S. Truman]]. In the November elections Roosevelt and Truman won 53 percent of the vote and carried 36 states, against [[New York]] Governor [[Thomas Dewey]]. Afte |
urces: [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Lebanon_War.html], [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Syria%27s_role_in_Leb.html]
=== First Intifada ===
:''Main article: [[First Intifada]]''.
In response to the continuing Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza, Palestinians began the first [[Intifada]] (uprising) in 1987. Israel responded with strong military and police resistance, but failed to end the fighting. The first intifada continued until 1991.
=== Gulf War ===
:''Main article: [[Gulf War]]''
In 1990, Iraq invaded [[Kuwait]], triggering the [[Gulf War]] between Iraq and a large allied force, led by the [[United States]]. Iraq, seeking to inflame Arab public opinion and draw Arab states out of the alliance (and possibly to Iraq's side), attacked Israel with 39 [[Scud missile]]s. Under pressure from the United States, Israel did not retaliate. Instead, it accepted U.S. assistance in deflecting the attacks. One man in the [[Ramat Khen]] neighborhood in [[Ramat Gan]] was killed by a [[MIM-104 Patriot]] anti-missile missile which went astray. Between 7 and 13 people died from asphyxiation due to gas mask misuse. Statistical analysis suggests that 30-80 excess deaths occurred, mostly from heart attacks due most likely to "emotional stress and breathing difficulties" (''Journal of the American Medical Association'', Volume 273(15), 19 Apr 1995, pp 1208-1210).
=== Immigration from the former Soviet Union ===
In 1990, the [[Soviet Union]] permitted Soviet Jews to emigrate from the Soviet Union to Israel. Prior to this the Soviet government had prohibited those members of its Jewish population (approximately three million) who wished to emigrate from doing so. Several hundred thousand chose to leave once the restrictions were eased. There has been some doubt expressed as to how many of these emigrants were Jewish according to Jewish law. Traditional Jews expressed these concerns due to issues of Jewish unity.
Additional concerns centred on the ability of these immigrants to adapt to Israeli culture and find suitable employment. [http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/100/concepts/aliyah6.html]
=== Middle East peace process ===
:''Main article: [[Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]''.
The coalition's victory in the Gulf war opened new possibilities for regional peace, and in October 1991 the Presidents of the United States and the Soviet Union jointly convened an historic meeting in [[Madrid]] of Israeli, Lebanese, Jordanian, Syrian, and Palestinian leaders. This meeting became the foundation for ongoing bilateral and multilateral negotiations designed to bring lasting peace and economic development to the region.
On [[September 13]], [[1993]], Israel and the PLO signed a Declaration of Principles (DOP) [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Peace/dop.html (text of DOP]) on the South Lawn of the [[White House]]. The declaration was a major conceptual breakthrough achieved under the Madrid framework. It established an ambitious set of objectives relating to a transfer of authority from Israel to an interim Palestinian authority. The DOP established May 1999 as the date by which a permanent status agreement for the West Bank and Gaza Strip would take effect. Israel and the PLO subsequently signed the [[Gaza-Jericho Agreement]] on [[May 4]], [[1994]], and the [[Agreement on Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities]] on [[August 29]], 1994, which began the process of transferring authority from Israel to the Palestinians.
Further information from pro-Israel sources: [http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/100/maps/oslo.html],
Tensions with [[Jordan]] were lessened on [[July 25]], 1994 when the two nations signed the [[Washington Declaration]] which formally ended the [[state of war]] that had existed between them since 1948. On [[October 26]], 1994, [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace|Israel and Jordan signed a historic peace treaty]] at a border post between the two countries, witnessed by US President [[Bill Clinton]], accompanied by US Secretary of State [[Warren Christopher]]. Israel ceded a small amount of contested land to Jordan, and the countries opened official diplomatic relations, with open borders and free trade. [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace%20Process/Guide%20to%20the%20Peace%20Process/Main%20Points%20of%20Israel-Jordan%20Peace%20Treaty Govt Israel], [http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/peacetreaty.html Govt Jordan]
Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Rabin]] and PLO Chairman [[Yasser Arafat]] signed the historic Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip on [[September 28]], [[1995]], in [[Washington, D.C.]]. The agreement, witnessed by President Bill Clinton on behalf of the United States and by [[Russia]], Egypt, [[Norway]], and the [[European Union]], incorporates and supersedes the previous agreements and marked the conclusion of the first stage of negotiations between Israel and the PLO.
The accord broadens Palestinian self-government by means of a popularly elected legislative council. It provides for election and establishment of that body, transfer of civil authority, Israeli redeployment from major population centers in the West Bank, security arrangements, and cooperation in a variety of areas. Negotiations on permanent status began on [[May 5]], [[1996]] in Taba, Egypt. As agreed in the 1993 DOP, those talks will address the status of Jerusalem, Palestinian refugees, Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, final security arrangements, borders, relations and cooperation with neighboring states, and other issues of common interest.
=== Assassination of Rabin ===
The [[Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin|assassination of Prime Minister Rabin]] by a right-wing Jewish radical on [[November 4]], 1995 climaxed an increasingly bitter national debate over where the peace process was leading. Rabin's death left Israel profoundly shaken, ushered in a period of national self-examination, and produced a new level of national consensus favoring the peace process.
=== Election of Netanyahu ===
In February 1996 Rabin's successor, [[Shimon Peres]], called early elections. [[Israel legislative election, 1996|Those elections]] were held in May 1996 and were the first featuring direct election of the prime minister, resulted in a narrow election victory for [[Likud Party]] leader [[Binyamin Netanyahu|Binyamin (Bibi) Netanyahu]] and his center-right National Coalition and the defeat of Peres and his left-of-center Labor/Meretz government.
Despite his stated differences with the [[Oslo Accords]], Prime Minister Netanyahu claimed to continue their implementation, but his Prime Ministership saw a marked slow-down in the Peace Process. (Netanyahu supporters argue that this slow-down was in response to Palestinian terrorism.)
=== Hebron and Wye River agreements ===
Minister Netanyahu signed the [[Hebron Protocol]] with the [[Palestinian Authority]] on [[January 15]], [[1997]]. The Protocol resulted in the redeployment of Israeli forces in [[Hebron]] and the turnover of civilian authority in much of the area to the [[Palestinian Authority]]. Since that agreement, there has been little progress in the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations. A crisis of confidence developed between the parties as the parties had difficulty responding to each other and addressing each other's concerns. Israel and the Palestinians did agree, however, in September 1997, to a four-part agenda to guide further negotiations: security cooperation in the fight against terror; further redeployments of Israeli forces; a "time-out" on unilateral actions that may prejudge the outcome of the permanent status talks; and acceleration of these talks. The U.S. sought to marry continued implementation of the 1995 Interim Agreement with the start of the accelerated permanent status talks. In order to overcome the crisis of confidence and break the negotiating impasse, President Clinton presented U.S. ideas for getting the peace process back on track to Prime Minister Netanyahu and Chairman Arafat in Washington in January 1998. Those ideas included all aspects of the September 1997 four-part agenda and would allow for the start of accelerated permanent status negotiations. The Palestinians agreed in principle to the U.S. ideas.
The U.S. continued working intensively with the parties to reach agreement on the basis of U.S. ideas. After a 9-day session at the [[Wye River Conference Center]] in [[Maryland]], agreement was reached on [[October 23]], [[1998]]. The [[Wye Agreement]] is based on the principle of reciprocity and meets the essential requirements of both the parties, including unprecedented security measures on the part of the Palestinians and the further redeployment of Israeli troops in the West Bank. The agreement also permits the launching of the permanent status negotiations as the [[May 4]], 1999 expiration of the period of the Interim Agreement.
=== Visit of the Pope===
On [[March 21]] [[2000]] [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] arrived in Israel for a historic visit [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/anti-semitism/jp.html].
===Withdrawal from Lebanon===
In 2000, Israel unilaterally withdrew its remaining forces from the "security zone" in southern Lebanon. Lebanon claims that Israel continues to occupy Lebanese territory called "Sheeba Farms"; but the UN insists that Sheeba Farms is Syrian, not Lebanese, territory. Further information from pro-Israel source:
[http://www.us-israel.org/Peace/lebwith.html]
===Second Intifada===
Israeli opposition leader [[Ariel Sharon]] visited the [[Temple Mount]] on [[September 28]], 2000, sparking Palestinian riots. This marked the beginning of the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]]. Israel claims that the Palestinians had been planning violence far in advance of Sharon's visit, and that his visit was used as an excuse for the planned violence to be launched. In his book ''The High Cost of Peace'', [[Yossef Bodansky]] des |
nt>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dualism]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>DaoDeJing</title>
<id>7871</id>
<revision>
<id>15905915</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-26T06:33:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tao Te Ching]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>DualisticInteractionism</title>
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<title>Dance</title>
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{{otheruses}}
[[Image:dancer-in-motion.png|thumb|right|229px|A contemporary dancer rehearsing]]
'''''Dance''''' (from [[Old French]] ''dancier'', perhaps from [[Old Frankish language|Frankish]]) generally refers to [[human]] [[movement]] either used as a form of [[expression]] (see also ''[[body language]]'') or presented in a [[social]], [[spirituality|spiritual]] or [[performance]] setting.
'''''Dance''''' is also used to describe methods of [[non-verbal communication]] between [[human]]s or [[animal]]s ([[Bee learning and communication#Dance language|bee dance]], mating dance), [[motion]] in inanimate objects (''the [[leaves]] danced in the [[wind]]''), and certain [[dance (music)|musical form]]s or [[music|genre]]s. People who dance are called [[dancer]]s and the act of dance is known as '''dancing'''. An event where dancing takes place may be called '''a dance'''. [[Choreography]] is the art of making dances, and the person who does this is called a choreographer.
Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on [[Society|social]], [[Culture|cultural]], [[aesthetic]] [[artistic]] and [[moral]] constraints and range from functional movement (such as [[Folk dance]]) to codified, [[virtuoso]] techniques such as [[ballet]]. In [[sport]]s, [[gymnastics]], [[figure skating]] and [[synchronized swimming]] there are ''dance'' disciplines while [[Martial arts]] '[[Kata (martial arts)|kata]]' are often compared to dances. In 1926, William Butler Yeats wrote, in "Among School Children": ''How can we know the dancer from the dance?''
== History of dance ==
''Main article:'' [[History of dance]]
Whitley Locks is by far the best dancer in the history of not only Rocklin highschool...as a freshman...but in the entire world (as ranked by the National Sportscaster Association for ESPN). We love her her but Rosie does especially even more than her boyfriend James.
== Dance and music ==
Although dance and [[music]] can be traced back to [[prehistoric]] times it is unclear which artform came ''first''. However, as [[rhythm]] and [[sound]] are the result of movement, and music can inspire movement, the relationship between the two forms has always been [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]]. This relationship serves as the basis for [[Eurhythmics]] devised by [[Emile Jaques-Dalcroze]] which was influential to the development of [[Modern dance]] and modern [[ballet]] through artists such as [[Marie Rambert]].
Many early forms of music and dance were created and performed together. This paired development has continued through the ages with dance/music forms such as: [[Jig]], [[Waltz]], [[Tango music|Tango]], [[Disco]], [[Salsa]], [[Electronica]] and [[Hip-Hop]]. Some [[musical genre]] also have a parallel dance form such as [[Baroque music]] and [[Baroque dance]] where as others developed separately: [[Classical music era|Classical music]], [[Classical ballet]].
Although dance is often accompanied by [[music]], it can also be presented alone ([[Postmodern dance]]) or provide its own accompaniment ([[tap dance]]). Dance presented with music may or may not be performed ''in time'' to the music depending on the style of dance. Dance performed without music is said to be ''danced to its own rhythm''.
''See also'': [[List of dances]] | [[:Category:Musical genres]]
smallpenis=shane
== Dance studies ==
[[Image:Roanoke.JPG|thumb|right|200px|John White's eye-witness interpretation of a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] dance at [[Roanoke, Virginia]], [[1585]], is affected by his knowledge of [[Elizabethan]] [[court dance]]]]
In the early [[1920s]] dance studies (dance [[practice]], [[critical theory]], [[analysis]] and [[history]]) began to be considered a serious [[academic discipline]]. Today these studies are an integral part of many [[universities]]' [[The Arts|arts]] and [[humanities]] programs. By the late [[20th century]] the recognition of practical [[knowledge]] as equal to academic knowledge lead to the emergence of ''practice-based research'' and ''practice as research''. A large range of dance courses are available including:
* Professional practice: performance and technical skills
* Practice-based research: choreography and performance
* [[Ethnochoreology]], encompassing the dance-related aspects of [[Anthropology]], [[Cultural Studies]], [[Gender Studies]], [[Area studies]], [[Postcolonial theory]], [[Ethnography]], etc.
* Dance and technology: [[new media]] and performance [[technologies]].
* Laban Movement Analysis and [[Somatic]] studies
* [[Community Dance]].
* [[Dance therapy|Dance-Movement Therapy]].
A full range of [[Academic degree]]s are available from [[Bachelor of Arts|BA (Hons)]] to [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] and other [[postdoctoral]] fellowships, with many dance [[scholar]]s taking up their studies as ''mature students'' after a [[professional]] dance career.
== Categories of dance ==
Dance can be divided into two main categories that each have several subcategories into which most dance styles can be placed. They are:
* '''[[Concert dance]] / [[Performance dance]]'''
** [[20th century concert dance]]
** [[Competitive dance]]
* '''[[Social dance]] / [[Participation dance]]'''
** [[Ceremonial dance]]
** [[Traditional dance]]
These categories are not mutually exclusive and are context-dependent; a particular dance style may belong to several categories.
''See al |
is often used without careful consideration of the various meanings it has acquired.
== Information as a message ==
'''Information''' is the state of a system of interest (curiosity). Message is the information materialized.
'''Information''' is a [[message]] from a [[sender]] to one or more receivers. If information is viewed in this manner, it does not have to be accurate. It may be a truth or a lie, or just the sound of a kiss. Even a disruptive noise used to inhibit the flow of communication and create misunderstanding would in this view be a form of information. This model assumes there is a definite sender and at least one receiver. Many refinements of the model assume the existence of a common language understood by the sender and at least one of the receivers. An important variation identifies information as that which would be [[communication|communicated]] by a message if it was sent from a sender to a receiver capable of understanding the message. However, in requiring the existence of a definite sender, the "information as a message" model does not attach any significance to the idea that information is something that can be extracted from an environment, e.g., through observation, reading or measurement.
=== Measuring information ===
The view of information as a message came into prominence with the publication in 1948 of an influential paper by [[Claude Shannon]], "[[A Mathematical Theory of Communication]]." This paper provides the foundations of [[information theory]] and endows the word ''information'' not only with a technical meaning but also a measure. If the sending device is equally likely to send any one of a set of <math>N</math> messages, then the preferred measure of "the information produced when one message is chosen from the set" is the base two [[logarithm]] of <math>N</math> (This measure is called '''[[self-information]]'''). In this paper, Shannon continues:
:''The choice of a logarithmic base corresponds to the choice of a unit for measuring information. If the base 2 is used the resulting units may be called binary digits, or more briefly [[bit]]s, a word suggested by [[John Tukey|J. W. Tukey]]. A device with two stable positions, such as a relay or a flip-flop circuit, can store one bit of information. N such devices can store N bits ...'' [The Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 27, p. 379, (July 1948).]
A complementary way of measuring information is provided by [[Algorithmic information theory]]. In brief, this measures the information content of a list of symbols based on how predictable they are, or more specifically how easy it is to generate the list. The sequence below would have a very low algorithmic information measurement since it is a very predictable pattern, and as the pattern continues the measurement would not change. Shannon information would give the same information measurement for each symbol, since they are [[statistical randomness|statistically random]], and each new symbol would increase the measurement.
: 123456789101112131415161718192021
It is important to recognise the limitations of Shannon's work from the perspective of human meaning. When referring to the meaning content of a message Shannon noted ''“Frequently the messages have '''meaning”…''' these semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem. The significant aspect is that the actual message is one selected '''from a set of possible messages'''”'' (emphasis in original).
In Information Theory signals are part of a process, not a substance, they do something, they do not contain any specific meaning. Combining [[Algorithmic information theory]] and Information Theory we can conclude that the most random signal contains the most information as it can be interpreted in any way and cannot be compressed.
Micheal Reddy noted that ''“signals” of the mathematical theory are “patterns that can be exchanged”. There is no message contained in the signal, the signals covey the ability to select from a set of possible messages.”'' In information theory “the system must be designed to operate for each possible selection, not just the one which will actually be chosen since this is unknown at the time of design.”
See also [[lexicographic information cost]].
== Information as a pattern ==
Information is any represented [[pattern]]. This view assumes neither accuracy nor directly communicating parties, but instead assumes a separation between an object and its representation, as well as the involvement of someone capable of understanding this relationship. This view seems therefore to require a conscious [[mind]]. Consider the following example: [[economic statistics]] represent an [[Economics|economy]], however inaccurately. What are commonly referred to as [[data]] in [[computing]], [[statistics]], and other fields, are forms of information in this sense. The [[electromagnetism|electro-magnetic]] patterns in a [[computer network]] and connected [[device]]s are related to something other than the pattern itself, such as [[text]] to be displayed and [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]] input. [[Signal (information theory)|Signal]]s, [[sign]]s, and [[symbol]]s are also in this category. On the other hand, according to [[semiotics]], data is symbols with certain syntax and information is data with a certain semantic. [[Painting]] and [[drawing]] contain information to the extent that they represent something such as an assortment of objects on a table, a [[profile]], or a [[landscape]]. In other words, when a pattern of something is transposed to a pattern of something else, the latter is information. This type of information still assumes some involvement of conscious mind, of either the entity constructing the representation, or the entity interpreting it.
If you accept that information can be defined merely as a pattern, does it not follow that neither [[utility]] nor meaning are necessary components of information? Surely a distinction must be made between raw unprocessed data and information which possesses utility, [[value]] or some quantum of [[meaning]]. Information may indeed be characterised as a pattern; it is a [[necessary]] condition, but not [[sufficient]]. For example a telephone book follows a specific pattern: name, address , telephone number.
An individual entry does not become "informative" in some sense unless and until it possesses some degree of utility, value or meaning. For example, someone might look up a girlfriend's number, might order a take away etc. The vast majority of numbers will never be construed as "information" in any meaningful sense. The gap between data and information is only closed by a behavioural bridge whereby some value, utility or meaning is added to transform mere data or pattern into information.
When one constructs a representation of an object, one can selectively extract from the object ([[sampling]]) or use a [[system]] of signs to replace ([[encode|encoding]]), or both. The sampling and encoding result in representation. An example of the former is a "sample" of a product; an example of the latter is "verbal description" of a product. Both contain information of the product, however inaccurate. When one interprets representation, one can predict a broader pattern from a limited number of observations (inference) or understand the relation between patterns of two different things ([[decode|decoding]]). One example of the former is to sip a [[soup]] to know if it is spoiled; an example of the latter is examining footprints to determine the animal and its condition. In both cases, information sources are not constructed or presented by some "sender" of information. To repeat, information in this sense does not assume direct communication, but it assumes involvement of some conscious mind.
Regardless, information is dependent upon, but usually unrelated to and separate from, the medium or media used to express it. In other words, the position of a theoretical series of bits, or even the output once interpreted by a computer or similar device, is unimportant, except when someone or something is present to interpret the information. Therefore, a quantity of information is totally distinct from its medium.
== Information as sensory input ==
Often information is viewed as a type of [[input]] to an [[organism]] or designed [[device]]. Inputs are of two kinds. Some inputs are important to the function of the organism (for example, food) or device ([[energy]]) by themselves. In his book ''Sensory Ecology,'' Dusenbery<!-- who? --> called these causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time (and perhaps another place). Some information is important because of association with other information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input. In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or device. For example, light is often a causal input to plants but provides information to animals. The colored light reflected from a flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work but the visual system of the bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, which are causal inputs, serving a nutritional function.
Information is any type of sensory input. When an [[organism]] with a [[nervous system]] receives an input, it transforms the input into an electrical signal. This is regarded information by some. The idea of representation is still relevant, but in a slightly different manner. That is, while [[abstract painting]] does not repr |
pport of the MPLA in October 1975, enabling them to control the capital, [[Luanda]], and hold off the South African forces. The MPLA declared itself to be the de facto government of the country when independence was formally declared in November, with [[Agostinho Neto]] as the first President.
In 1976, the FNLA was defeated by a combination of MPLA and [[Cuba|Cuban]] troops, leaving the Marxist MPLA and UNITA (backed by the United States and South Africa) to fight for power.
The conflict raged on, fuelled by the geopolitics of the Cold War and by the ability of both parties to access Angola's natural resources. The MPLA drew upon the revenues of off-shore oil resources, while UNITA accessed alluvial diamonds that were easily smuggled through the region's very porous borders (LeBillon, 1999).
In 1991, the factions agreed to turn Angola into a multiparty state, but after the current president [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] of MPLA won UN supervised elections, UNITA claimed there was fraud and fighting broke out again.
A 1994 peace accord ([[Lusaka]] protocol) between the government and UNITA provided for the integration of former UNITA [[insurgent]]s into the government. A national unity government was installed in 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late 1998, rendering hundreds of thousands of people homeless. President José Eduardo dos Santos suspended the regular functioning of democratic instances due to the conflict.
On [[February 22]] [[2002]], Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, was shot dead and a cease-fire was reached by the two factions. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country seems to be normalizing, president dos Santos still hasn't allowed regular democratic processes to take place. Among Angola's major problems are a serious humanitarian crisis (a result of the prolonged war), the abundance of [[minefield]]s, and the actions of guerrilla movements fighting for the independence of the northern exclave of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] ([[Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda]]).
Angola, like many sub-Saharan nations, is subject to periodic outbreaks of infectious diseases. In April 2005, Angola was in the midst of an [[Marburg virus#2004-2005 outbreak in Angola|outbreak]] of the [[Marburg virus]] which was rapidly becoming the worst outbreak of a haemorrhagic fever in recorded history, with over 237 deaths recorded out of 261 reported cases, and having spread to 7 out of the 18 provinces as of [[April 19]], [[2005]].
==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Angola]]''
The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Prime Minister (currently [[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos]]) and Council of Ministers. Currently, political power is concentrated in the Presidency. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization.
The 27 year long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 4 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.
The president has announced the government's intention to hold elections in 2006. These elections would be the first since 1992 and would serve to elect both a new president and a new National Assembly.
* [[List of political parties in Angola]]
== Administrative Divisions ==
[[Image:Angola Provinces numbered 300px.png|right|200px|Map of Angola with the provinces numbered]]
''Main Article: [[Provinces of Angola]]''
Angola is divided into 18 provinces:-
{| border=0
|- valign="top"
|
*<small>1</small> [[Bengo (province)|Bengo]]
*<small>2</small> [[Benguela Province|Benguela]]
*<small>3</small> [[Bié (province)|Bié]]
*<small>4</small> [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]]
*<small>5</small> [[Cuando Cubango]]
*<small>6</small> [[Cuanza Norte]]
|
*<small>7</small> [[Cuanza Sul]]
*<small>8</small> [[Cunene (province)|Cunene]]
*<small>9</small> [[Huambo Province|Huambo]]
*<small>10</small> [[Huila Province|Huila]]
*<small>11</small> [[Luanda Province|Luanda]]
*<small>12</small> [[Lunda Norte]]
|
*<small>13</small> [[Lunda Sul]]
*<small>14</small> [[Malanje Province|Malanje]]
*<small>15</small> [[Moxico (province)|Moxico]]
*<small>16</small> [[Namibe Province|Namibe]]
*<small>17</small> [[Uige Province|Uige]]
*<small>18</small> [[Zaire Province|Zaire]]
|}
==Geography==
[[Image:Angola map.png|thumb|300px|Map of Angola]]
[[Image:LuandaJuin2005-1-br.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Luanda]], the Angolan capital]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Angola]]''
Angola is bordered by [[Namibia]] to the south, [[Zambia]] to the east, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the north-east, and the [[South Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. The [[exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] also borders the [[Republic of the Congo]] to the north. Angola's capital, [[Luanda]], lies on the Atlantic coast in the north-west of the country.
Angola is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to Luanda; a wet, interior highland; a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast; and rain forest in the north and in Cabinda. The [[Zambezi River]] and several tributaries of the Congo River have their sources in Angola.
===Exclaves and enclaves===
The [[exclave]] province of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] borders with both the [[Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. The latter's only oceanic access, 60 kilometres (37 [[mile|mi]]) in width, divides Angola from Cabinda. The population stands at around 300,000, two-thirds of which inhabit the surroundings in a generally stable state on Congolese and Zairian territory. The Angolan central government has yet to put a definitive end to the Cabindese secessionist movement.
==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Angola]]''
Angola is an economy in disarray because of a quarter century of nearly continuous warfare. Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in [[Sonangol Group]], a conglomerate which is owned by the Angolan government. Notwithstanding the signing of a peace accord in November 1994, millions of land mines remain, rural violence is a possibility, and many farmers are reluctant to return to their fields. As a result, much of the country's food must still be imported. Despite the increase in the pace of civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note. Expanded oil production brightens prospects for 2000, but internal strife discourages investment outside of the petroleum sector. With the advent of peace in 2002 a strategic partnership with China is set in motion, so huge investments by Chinese companies are now in place, especially in the construction sector and more recently in the metallurgical sector.
==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Angola]]''
Angola has three main ethnic groups, each speaking a Bantu language: [[Ovimbundu]] 37%, [[Kimbundu]] 25%, and [[Bakongo]] 13%. Other groups include [[Chokwe]] (or [[Lunda]]), [[Ganguela]], [[Nhaneca-Humbe]], [[Ambo]], [[Herero]], and [[Xindunga]]. In addition, ''[[mestiço]]s'' (Angolans of mixed European and African family origins) amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population, with at least 30,000 (though many native-born Angolans can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law). In [[1975]], 250,000 [[Cuba]]n soldiers settled Angola to help the MPLA forces to fight for its independence. These Cubans are of European and [[Asia]]n (mostly [[Chinese Cuban| Chinese]] descent, while others include those of pure [[Afro-Cuban|African]] and [[mulatto]] descent, who has ancestors in Angola. But in [[1989]], almost all Cubans went out of the country after a peace agreement has been signed between Angola, Cuba, and [[South Africa]]. Portuguese is both the official and predominant language, spoken in the homes of about two-thirds of the population, and as a secondary language by many more. Cubans speak [[Spanish language]], but almost none of their descendants speak it.
The great majority of the inhabitants are of Bantu stock with some admixture in the Congo district. In the south-east are various tribes of Bushme |
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<comment>fr:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Antigua and Barbuda]]'s [[economics|economy]]''' is service-based, with [[tourism]] and government services representing the key sources of employment and income. Tourism accounts directly or indirectly for more than half of [[gross domestic product|GDP]] and is also the principal earner of foreign exchange in Antigua and Barbuda. However, a series of violent [[hurricane]]s since 1995 resulted in serious damage to tourist [[infrastructure]] and periods of sharp reductions in visitor numbers. In 1999 the budding offshore financial sector was seriously hurt by financial sanctions imposed by the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]] as a result of the loosening of its money-laundering controls. The government has made efforts to comply with international demands in order to get the sanctions lifted. The dual island nation's agricultural production is mainly directed to the domestic market; the sector is constrained by the limited water supply and labor shortages that reflect the pull of higher wages in tourism and construction. Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialized world, especially in the US, which accounts for about one-third of all tourist arrivals. Estimated overall economic growth for 2000 was 2.5%. Inflation has trended down going from above 2 percent in the 1995-99 period and estimated at 0 percent in 2000.
To lessen its vulnerability to natural disasters, Antigua has been diversifying its economy. Transportation, communications and financial services are becoming important.
Antigua is a member of the [[Eastern Caribbean Currency Union]] (ECCU). The [[Eastern Caribbean Central Bank]] (ECCB) issues a common currency (the [[East Caribbean Dollar]]) for all members of the ECCU. The ECCB also manages monetary policy, and regulates and supervises commercial banking activities in its member countries.
Antigua and Barbuda is a beneficiary of the U.S. [[Caribbean Basin Initiative]]. Its 1998 exports to the U.S. were valued at aboutUS $3 million and its U.S. imports totaled about US $84 million. It also belongs to the predominantly English-speaking [[Caribbean_Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM]]).
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $524 million (1999 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
2.8% (1999 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $8,200 (1999 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
4%
<br>''industry:''
12.5%
<br>''services:''
83.5% (1996 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
1.6% (1999 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
30,000
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
commerce and services 82%, agriculture 11%, industry 7% (1983)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
7% (1999 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$122.6 million
<br>''expenditures:''
$141.2 million, including capital expenditures of $17.3 million (1997 est.)
'''Industries:'''
tourism, construction, light manufacturing (clothing, [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], household appliances)
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
6% (1997 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
90 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
100%
<br>''hydro:''
0%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
84 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[cotton]], [[fruit]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[banana]]s, [[coconut]]s, [[cucumber]]s, [[mango]]es, [[sugarcane]]; livestock
'''Exports:'''
$38 million (1998)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[petroleum]] products 48%, manufactures 23%, food and live [[animal]]s 4%, machinery and transport equipment 17%
'''Exports - partners:'''
OECS 26%, [[Barbados]] 15%, [[Guyana]] 4%, [[Trinidad and Tobago]] 2%, [[United States|US]] 0.3%
'''Imports:'''
$330 million (1998)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
food and live [[animal]]s, machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, [[Petroleum]]
'''Imports - partners:'''
[[United States|US]] 27%, [[United Kingdom|UK]] 16%, [[Canada]] 4%, OECS 3%
'''Debt - external:'''
$357 million (1998)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$2.3 million (1995)
'''Currency:'''
1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
'''Exchange rates:'''
East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976)
'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 April]] - [[31 March]]
== References ==
* {{CIAfb}}{{-}}
* {{StateDept}}
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Antigua and Barbuda|*]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Antigua and Barbuda]]
[[Category:WTO members|Antigua and Barbuda]]
[[fr:Économie d'Antigua-et-Barbuda]]
[[he:כלכלת אנטיגואה וברבודה]]
[[pt:Economia da Antígua e Barbuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antigua and Barbuda/Communications</title>
<id>1072</id>
<revision>
<id>15899577</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:55:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Communications in Antigua and Barbuda]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antigua and Barbuda/Transportation</title>
<id>1073</id>
<revision>
<id>36641445</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T13:58:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Transport in Antigua and Barbuda" +"Transportation in Antigua and Barbuda"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antigua and Barbuda/Military</title>
<id>1074</id>
<revision>
<id>15899579</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-27T12:03:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antigua and Barbuda/Transnational issues</title>
<id>1075</id>
<revision>
<id>15899580</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:56:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antigua and Barbuda/History</title>
<id>1076</id>
<revision>
<id>15899581</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda</title>
<id>1077</id>
<revision>
<id>35300309</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T19:26:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Antigua and Barbuda}}
[[Antigua and Barbuda]] maintains diplomatic relations with the [[United States]], [[Canada]] the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[People's Republic of China]], as well as with many Latin American countries and neighboring Eastern Caribbean states. It is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[Organization of American States]], the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]], and the Eastern Caribbean's [[Regional Security System]] (RSS).
As a member of [[CARICOM]], Antigua and Barbuda supported efforts by the |
RR
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</pre>
==See also==
===Protocols===
<!-- international -->
*[[DSS1]] ([[ETSI]] "[[Europe|Euro]]-ISDN", also used in many non-European countries)
*[[DSS2]] (Digital Subscriber Signalling System No. 2)
<!-- US -->
*[[NI-1]] ([[United States|US]] National ISDN Phase 1)
*[[NI-2]] ([[United States|US]] National ISDN Phase 2)
<!-- other -->
*[[INS-NET]] 64/1500 ([[Japan]]ese national/[[NTT]] carrier-specific protocol)
* [[DACS]] used in the [[UK]] by [[British Telecom]] it uses non standard D channel signalling for [[Pair gain]]
<!-- obsolete -->
*[[FTZ 1 TR 6]] (obsolete [[Germany|German]] national protocol)
*[[TS.013]]/[[TS.014]] (obsolete [[Australia]]n national protocol)
*[[VN2]]/[[VN3]]/[[VN4]] (obsolete [[France|French]] national protocols)
Specifications defining the physical layer and part of the data link layers of ISDN:
*'''ISDN BRI''': [[ITU-T]] I.430.
*'''ISDN PRI''': [[ITU-T]] I.431.
From the point of view of the OSI architecture, a ISDN line has a stack of three protocols
* physical layer
* data link layer
* network layer (the ISDN protocol, properly)
===Other===
*[[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]]
*[[Asynchronous Transfer Mode|ATM]]
*[[B-ISDN]]
*[[Internet]]
*[[H.320]]
==External links==
* http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/isdn.htm
* http://hea-www.harvard.edu/~fine/ISDN/
* http://www.itu.org
* http://www.ralphb.net/ISDN/
* http://www.concito.net/isdn.php
{{Internet Access}}
[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
[[Category:telephony]]
[[Category:Network access]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[bs:ISDN]]
[[cs:ISDN]]
[[da:ISDN]]
[[de:Integrated Services Digital Network]]
[[es:RDSI]]
[[fr:Réseau numérique à intégration de services]]
[[gl:RDSI]]
[[ko:ISDN]]
[[hr:ISDN]]
[[it:Integrated Services Digital Network]]
[[lt:ISDN]]
[[nl:Integrated Services Digital Network]]
[[ja:ISDN]]
[[no:ISDN]]
[[pl:ISDN]]
[[pt:RDIS]]
[[ru:ISDN]]
[[sl:ISDN]]
[[fi:ISDN]]
[[sv:ISDN]]
[[tr:ISDN]]
[[zh:综合业务数字网]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iambic Pentameter</title>
<id>15233</id>
<revision>
<id>15912719</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Iambic pentameter]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Imprinting (genetics)</title>
<id>15235</id>
<revision>
<id>40122885</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T08:03:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timothyarnold85</username>
<id>413969</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wikify}}
'''Genomic imprinting''' is the phenomenon whereby a small subset of all the [[genes]] in the [[genome]] are expressed according to their parent of origin. Some imprinted genes are expressed from a maternally inherited [[chromosome]] and silenced on the paternal chromosome; while other imprinted genes show the opposite expression pattern and are only expressed from a paternally inherited chromosome. Contrary to expectation, 'imprints' can act as a silencer or an activator for imprinted genes.
Normally, a healthy child inherits two sets of chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father. A living child (this applies to all mammals) cannot be produced when both sets of chromosomes come from the same parent because imprinted gene expression will be unbalanced. Because of the way imprints work, a fetus that has two maternal sets of chromosomes will have twice the normal level of some imprinted genes, and completely lack expression of other imprinted genes. No naturally occurring cases of [[parthenogenesis]] exist in mammals because of imprinted genes. Experimental manipulation of a paternal methylation imprint controlling the Igf2 gene has, however, recently allowed the creation of rare individual mice with two maternal sets of chromosomes - but this is not a true parthenogenote.
A process known as [[reprogramming]] occurs in the parent female or male when the egg or sperm is maturing. In many instances this is achieved through [[methylation]] of the DNA of genes or [[regulatory sequence]]s, which results in the gene not being expressed. In other instances, [[phosphorylation]] or other chemical modification of [[histone]] proteins appears to lead to silencing.
Imprinting is known to cause problems in [[cloning]], with clones having DNA that is not [[methylation|methylated]] in the right places. Some scientists think this is due to there not being enough time for reprogramming to be properly achieved. When a [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] is added to an egg during [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]], the egg starts dividing in minutes, as compared to the days or months it takes for reprogramming during [[embryo|embryonic]] development. If time is the responsible factor, it may be possible to delay cell division in clones, giving time for proper reprogramming to occur.
Several [[genetic disorder|genetic diseases]] that map to 15q13 (locus 3 of section 1 of the long arm of chromosome 15) in humans are due to abnormal imprinting. The [[Prader-Willi syndrome]] is due to 2 copies of the chromosome 15 being inherited from the mother, and the locus is imprinted; the [[Angelman syndrome]] gene is due to 2 copies of the chromosome 15 inherited from the father and the locus is similarly imprinted. Thus, someone who inherits both chromosomes 15 from one parent (called [[uniparental disomy]]) has Prader-Willi or Angelman syndrome, depending on which parent they come from. But more common is the deletion of the region, 15q13, and when this deletion is inherited depending on from whom the affected person gets this deletion from, the disease varies, if it's the mother who transfers the deletion then the child will have [[Angelman syndrome]] and if it's the father who gives the deletion then the child will get [[Prader-Willi syndrome]].
An allele of the "callipyge" (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] for "beautiful buttocks"), or CLPG, gene in [[sheep]] produces large buttocks consisting of muscle with very little fat. The large-buttocked phenotype only occurs when the allele is present on the copy of chromosome 18 inherited from a sheep's father and is ''not'' on the copy of chromosome 18 inherited from that sheep's mother.[http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/05_01/Callipyge_sheep_imprinting.shtml]
[[Category:Molecular genetics]]
[[Category:Gene expression]]
[[Category:Epigenetics]]
[[de:Imprinting]]
[[ja:&#12466;&#12494;&#12512;&#12452;&am |
eal drug''' is any [[medication]] which provides symptomatic relief for [[Diarrhea|diarrhoea]].
[[Electrolyte]] solutions are used to replace lost fluids and [[salt]]s in acute cases. Bulking agents like [[methylcellulose]], [[guar gum]] or plant [[dietary fiber|fibre]] ([[bran]], [[sterculia]], [[ispaghul]], etc.) are used for diarrhoea in functional bowel disease and to control [[ileostomy]] output. Absorbents absorb toxic substances that cause infective diarrhoea, methylcellulose is an absorbent as well. [[Opiate]]s slow intestinal transit, but [[Loperamide]] is most commonly used, since it doesn't have the usual narcotic side-effects.
[[Category:Antidiarrhoeals|*]]
[[fr:Antidiarrhéique]]
[[th:ยาแก้ท้องร่วง]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aed of Scotland</title>
<id>2691</id>
<revision>
<id>38306108</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T12:59:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mais oui!</username>
<id>394460</id>
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<comment>rv supercats</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aed''' (''c.'' [[840]]&ndash;[[878]]), sometimes spelt ''Aedh'' or ''Aodh'', became [[King of Scots]] in [[877]] when he succeeded his brother [[Constantine I of Scotland]].
He was killed shortly after taking the throne by [[Giric of Scotland]], also known as Gregory the Great, who had conspired with Aedh's nephew, [[Eochaid of Scotland]].
Not much is known of Aedh, or even if he was actually the one named by Constantine to hold the throne. Both Giric and Eochaid ruled jointly following Aedh's death.
Aedh did marry at some point in his life, but the details, including the date and place of the marriage, and the name of his wife are not known. One son, [[Constantine II of Scotland]], ruled later (900&ndash;942/43), while another son, [[Donald mac Aed]], became [[King of Strathclyde]] in [[908]].
Aedh died violently in [[878]] at [[Strathallan]], [[Perth and Kinross]]. He may have been buried at [[Maiden Stone]] in [[Aberdeenshire (unitary)|Aberdeenshire]]. He was succeeded under the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[tanistry]] system by his nephew, Eochaid.
== See also ==
*[[Kingdom of Scotland]]
*[[Alba]]
{{Scotland-bio-stub}}
{{euro-royal-stub}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
title=[[King of Scots]] |
before=[[Constantine I of Scotland|Constantine I]] |
after=[[Eochaid of Scotland|Eochaid]]''' and '''[[Giric of Scotland|Giric]] |
years=877&ndash;878
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:840s births]]
[[Category:878 deaths]]
[[Category:Scottish monarchs]]
[[Category:Scottish murder victims]]
[[Category:Murdered kings]]
[[Category:Medieval_Gaels]]
[[de:Aedh (Schottland)]]
[[fr:Aed Ier d'Écosse]]
[[no:Aedh av Skottland]]
[[pl:Aedh]]
[[sv:Aed av Skottland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abdul Hamid I</title>
<id>2692</id>
<revision>
<id>39934632</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T22:52:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TimBentley</username>
<id>531594</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Corrected link to disambiguation page. ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
[[Image:Abdulhamid I.jpg|thumb|180px|Sultan Abdul Hamid I]]
'''Abd-ul-Hamid I''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عبد الحميد الأول) (alternate spellings include '''Abdulhamid''', '''Abdul Hamid''' or '''Abdul-Hamid''') ([[March 20]], [[1725]] &ndash; [[April 7]], [[1789]]), was the 27th [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. He was the son of sultan [[Ahmed III]] and succeeded his brother [[Mustafa III]] on [[January 21]], [[1774]].
Abdul Hamid was imprisoned for the first forty-three years of his life by his older brother Mustafa as was custom and received his early education from his mother Rabia Semi Sultana, where he studied history and learned calligraphy.
His imprisonment had made him aloof in regards to state affairs as malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was also very religious and a [[pacifism|pacifist]] by nature. At his accession the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the [[Janissary|janissaries]]. War was, however, forced on him, and less than a year after his accession the complete defeat of the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] at [[Battle of Kozluja]] led to the [[treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji]] on [[July 21]] [[1774]].
[[Image:Jean-Jecques-Frances Le Barbier c1780 scanned Constantinopole (1996)-Procession of the sultan to the Sultanahmed mosque.png|thumb|180px|left|Coronation]]
In spite of his failures, Sultan Abdul Hamid I was regarded as the most gracious sultan of the Ottomans. He administrated the [[fire brigade]] during the fire in 1782. In Istanbul, he won the admiration of his people as he was so religious that he was called a "Veli" (saint). He also traced a reform policy, followed the governmental administrations closely and worked with statesmen. When he came to the throne, the army asked for gratuity, and the Sultan claimed that; "There is no longer, gratuities in our treasury, all of our soldier sons should learn". He also began the restoration of the military system. He is credited with better education standards. He tried to renovate the yeniceri corps and the naval forces. He established a new artillery troop. He made a census in the yeniceri corps.
Slight successes against rebellious outbreaks in [[Syria]] and the [[Morea]] could not compensate for the loss of the [[Crimea]], which Russia greatly coveted. War was evident once more in [[1787]], when war was again declared against Russia, joined in the following year by [[Austria]]. The Swedes also joined the conflict on the side of the Ottomans. While the Ottomans held their own in the conflict, they ultimately lost, with [[Ochakov]] falling in [[1788]] to the Russians.
The sultan died four months later at the age of sixty-four. He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had built for himself.
His wives were: Ayse Sine-perver Mother Sultana, Naksh-i Dil Mother Sultana, Hatice Ruh-shah, Huma Shah, Ayse, Binnaz, Dilpezir, Mehtabe, Misl-i Na-yab, Mu'teber, Nevres, Mihriban
His sons were: [[Mustafa IV]], [[Mahmud II]], Murad, Nusret, Mehmed, Ahmed, Suleyman
His daughters were: Esma, Emine, Rabia, Saliha, Alimsah, Durusehvar, Fatma, Meliksah, Hibetullah Zekiye
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abd-ul-Hamid I}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Ottoman Sultan]]|before=[[Mustafa III]]|after=[[Selim III]]|years=1774&ndash;1789}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1725 births]]
[[Category:1789 deaths]]
[[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]]
[[ar:عبدالحميد الأول]]
[[ba:Абдул-Гамид I]]
[[de:Abdülhamid I.]]
[[hr:Abdul Hamid I.]]
[[hu:I. Abdul-Hamid]]
[[nl:Abdülhamit I]]
[[ja:アブデュルハミト1世]]
[[pl:Abdulhamid I]]
[[ru:Абдул-Гамид I]]
[[sr:Абдул Хамид I]]
[[sv:Abd ül-Hamid I]]
[[tr:I. Abdülhamit]]
[[uk:Абдул-Гамід І]]
[[zh:阿卜杜勒·哈米德一世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abdul Hamid II</title>
<id>2693</id>
<revision>
<id>41612228</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:36:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ugur Basak Bot</username>
<id>735354</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ca</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sultan abdul-hamid II.jpg|thumb|Sultan Abdul Hamid II]]
'''Abd-ul-Hamid II''' also '''Abdulhamid''', '''Abdülhamit''', '''Abdul Hamid''', '''Abd al-Hamid II''', or '''Abdul-Hamid''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عبد الحميد الثاني) ([[September 21]], [[1842]] &ndash; [[February 10]], [[1918]]) was the last real Sultan of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. He ruled from [[August 31]], [[1876]] till he was deposed on [[April 27]], [[1909]].
==Early years==
He was the son of Sultan [[Abd-ul-Mejid]], and succeeded to the [[throne]] on the deposition of his brother [[Murad V]] on [[August 31]] [[1876]]. He himself was deposed in favor of his brother, [[Mehmed V]] in 1909.
Unlike many other Ottoman rulers, Abdul Hamid II, actually traveled. Nine years before he took the throne he accompanied his uncle [[Sultan]] [[Abd-ul-Aziz]] on his visit to [[England]] and [[France]] in 1867. At his accession some commentators were impressed by the fact that he rode practically unattended to the [[Eyup Sultan Mosque]] where he was given the sword of [[Osman I|Osman]]. He was supposed to have liberal ideas, and some conservatives were inclined to regard him with suspicion as a dangerous reformer. In the event, like many other would-be reformers of the Ottoman Empire, change proved to be nearly impossible. [[Default (finance)|Default]] in the public funds, an empty treasury, the [[Herzegovinian rebellion|1875 insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina]], the war with [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]] and the feeling aroused throughout Europe by the cruelty used in stamping out the [[Bulgarian]] rebellion all proved good reasons not to undertake any significant changes.
The international conference which met at [[Istanbul]] towards the end of 1876 was surprised by the promulgation of a constitution, but the demands of European powers at the conference were rejected. [[Midhat Pasha]], the author of the constitution, was exiled and soon afterwards the constitution was suspended. Early in 1877 the Ottoman Empire went to war with the Russian Empire.
{{main|Russo-Turkish_War%2C_1877-78}} <br />
The war was a disaster for the Ottomans and the government in Istanbul had to sign a hard treaty (see the [[Treaty of San Stefano]]). However, the terms of the treaty were changed - in favor of the Ottoman government - at [[Berlin]], thanks in the main to British diplomacy.
==Thirty years of failed reform==
The Ottoman government of Sultan Hamid now viewed the united Germany as a possible friend of the empire. German officers (like [[Colmar_Freiherr_von_der_Goltz|Baron von der Goltz]]) w |
ckbenchers include a greater right of appeal of a detained person, and the case to be considered on the basis of merit, rather than points of law.
The proposed [[Federal Anti-Terrorism Bill 2005]] is considered contrary to habeas corpus because it allows people to be imprisoned by a decision of the [[executive branch of government]] rather than the [[judiciary]], to be imprisoned indefinitely without [[charge]] or [[trial (law)|trial]], and it makes it an [[offence]] to even talk about somebody being imprisoned. One of the more controversial aspects of the legislation is the requirement that a parent, if informed of their child's detention, may not inform any further person, including the other parent. This clause also applies to detention of adults.
===Republic of Ireland===
In the [[Republic of Ireland]] the principle of ''habeas corpus'' is guaranteed by Article 40, Section 4 of the [[Constitution of Ireland|Irish constitution]]. This guarantees each individual "personal liberty" and outlines a detailed ''habeas corpus'' procedure, without actually mentioning the Latin term. However it also provides that ''habeas corpus'' is not binding on the [[Irish Defence Forces|Defence Forces]] during a state of war or armed rebellion.
The state inherited ''habeas corpus'' as part of the common law when it seceeded from the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1922]], but the principle was also guaranteed by Article 6 of the [[Constitution of the Irish Free State]] in force from 1922 to [[1937]]. A similar provision was included when the current constitution was adopted in 1937. Since that date ''habeas corpus'' has been restricted by two [[constitutional amendment]]s, the [[Second Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland|Second Amendment]] in [[1941]] and the [[Sixteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland|Sixteenth Amendment]] in [[1996]].
Before the Second Amendment an individual detained had the constitutional right to apply to any [[High Court of the Republic of Ireland|High Court]] judge for a writ of ''habeas corpus'' and to as many High Court judges as they wished. Since the Second Amendment a prisoner only has a right to apply to one judge and, once a writ has been issued, the President of the High Court has authority to choose the judge or panel of three judges who will decide the case. The amendment also added a requirement that, where the High Court believed someone's detention to be invalid due to the unconstitutionality of a law, it must refer the matter to the [[Irish Supreme Court]] and may only release the individual on bail in the interim.
In [[1965]] the Supreme Court ruled in the ''O'Callaghan'' case that the provisions of the constitution meant that an individual charged with a crime could only be refused bail if they were likely to flee or to interfere with witnesses or evidence. Since the Sixteenth Amendment it has been possible for a court to take into account whether or not a person has committed serious crimes while on bail in the past.
==Pop Culture==
This phrase is used in lyric's of "[[Harvey Birdman: Attorney at Law]]"
==Other ''habeas corpus'' writs==
* '''''Habeas corpus ad deliberandum et recipiendum'''''''([That] you may have/hold the body to deliberate and retire)''
* '''''Habeas corpus ad faciendum et recipiendum''''', a.k.a. '''''habeas corpus cum causa'''''''([That] you may have/hold the body when there is a case at law)''
* '''''Habeas corpus ad prosequendum'''''''([That] you may have/hold the body to prosecute)''
* '''''Habeas corpus ad respondendum'''''''([That] you may have/hold the body to answer)''
* '''''Habeas corpus ad satisfaciendum'''''''([That] you may have/hold the body until it is sufficient [to let him/her go])''
* '''''Habeas corpus ad testificandum'''''''([That] you may have/hold the body )''
==Further reading on historical background==
* A.H. Carpenter. "Habeas Corpus in the Colonies." ''[[The American Historical Review]]''. Vol. 8., No. 1 (October 1902), pages 18-27.
* Louis Fisher. 2003. ''Nazi Saboteurs on Trial: A Military Tribunal and American Law.'' University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700612386.
* Michael Dobbs. 2004. ''Saboteurs: The Nazi Raid on America''. Vintage. ISBN 1400030420.
* Peter Irons. 1999. ''A People's History of the Supreme Court''. Viking. ISBN 0670870064. Political context for ''Ex Parte Milligan'' explained on Pp. 186-189.
* Helen A. Nutting. "The Most Wholesome Law--The Habeas Corpus Act of 1679." ''[[The American Historical Review]]''. Vol. 65., No. 3 (April 1960), pages 527-543.
* Geoffrey R. Stone. 2004. ''Perilous Times, Free Speech in Wartime From the Sedition Act to the War on Terrorism''. Norton. ISBN 0-393-05880-8.
== See also ==
* [[Neminem captivabimus]]
* [[Asha Bandele]] "Habeas Corpus is a legal Entitlement," a poem in ''Absence in the Palms of My Hands & Other Poems''. New York: [[Harlem River Press]]. 1996.
==References==
*Bazelon, Emily (Nov. 28, 2005). [http://www.slate.com/id/2131127/?nav=tap3 "The Formerly Great Writ"]. ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]''.
==External links==
*[http://www.lectlaw.com/def/h001.htm LectLaw.com]
[[Category:Constitutional law]]
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[[Category:Legal terms]]
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[[Category:Liberalism]]
[[Category:Prerogative writs]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Philosophy of law]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
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<page>
<title>Henry the Navigator</title>
<id>14092</id>
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<username>Khajja</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Fixed a typo.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{BioCOTWnow}}
{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=Henry, the Navigator
|image_name= Heinrich der Seefahrer.jpg
|image_caption=[[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] ''[[infante]]'' and [[Portugal in the Age of Discovery|patron of the Portuguese exploration]]
|date_of_birth=[[March 4]], [[1394]]
|place_of_birth=[[Oporto]], [[Portugal]]
|date_of_death=[[November 13]], [[1460]]
|place_of_death=[[Sagres]], [[Algarve]], [[Portugal]]}}
{{House of Aviz}}
<br>
'''Henrique, Duke of Viseu''' ([[March 4]], [[1394]]&ndash;[[November 13]], [[1460]]; [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]]: /{{IPA|e&#771;.'ʁi.k(ɨ)}}/), was an ''[[infante]]'' ([[prince]]) of the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[House of Aviz]] and an important figure in the early days of the [[Portuguese Empire]]. He is known in [[English language|English]] as '''Prince Henry the Navigator''' or '''the Seafarer''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''o Navegador''). He promoted early Portugese efforts to explore an African route to Asia.
Henry the Navigator was the third son of [[John I of Portugal]], the founder of the [[House of Aviz|Aviz]] dynasty; and of [[Philippa of Lancaster]], the daughter of [[John of Gaunt]]. Henry reportedly inspired his father's [[Battle of Ceuta|successful conquest]] ([[1414]]-[[1415|15]]) of the [[Muslim]] port of [[Ceuta]], on the [[North Africa]]n coast across the [[Straits of Gibraltar]] from the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] peninsula, with profound consequences on Henry's worldview: Henry saw the fruits of the [[Sahara]]n trade routes that terminated there and became fascinated with [[Africa]] in general, with the legend of [[Prester John]], and with expanding Portuguese trade.
To this end, at his ''Vila do Infante'' ("Prince's Town") at [[Sagres]], Henry gathered around him a school of [[navigator]]s and [[mapmaking|map-makers]] and became the patron of the Portuguese [[Portugal in the Age of Discovery|voyages of discovery]], which commenced soon after the capture of Ceuta. The school at Sagres achieved several advances in the art of navigation, and their discoveries provided the groundwork for Portugal's colonial expansion in the reign of King [[John II of Portugal]], Henry's great-nephew, in 1481. Thus, Henry had a considerable impact on the course of history, arguably having sparked European interest in colonial exploration—and given Portugal a significant advantage against other nations—that would so transform the world for the next four centuries.
==Early Life==
==Resources and income==
On [[May 25]], [[1420]], Henry gained appointment as the governor of the very rich [[Order of Christ]], the Portuguese successor to the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]], which had set up its headquarters in 1413 at Sagres, near [[Cape St Vincent]] at the extreme southwestern tip of Portugal (Braudel 1985). Henry would hold this position for the remainder of his life, and as time passed he became more and more devoted to Christianity. For the purposes of his interest in exploration, however, the appointment proved important as a source of funds through the 1440s.
Henry also had other resources. When [[John I of Portugal|John I]] died in 1433, Henry's eldest brother [[Edward of Portugal|Duarte]] became king, and granted Henry a "royal fifth" of all profits from trading within the areas discovered as well as the sole right to authorize expeditions beyond [[Cape Bojador]] (in present-day [[Western Sahara]]). When Duarte died five years later, Henry supported his brother [[Peter, Duke of Coimbra|Pedro]] for the regency during [[Alphonso V of Portugal]]'s minority, and in return received a confirmation of this tax. Henry also arranged for the colonization of the [[Azores]] during Pedro's regency (1439&ndash;1448).
==Vila do Infante, patron of Portuguese exploration==
At his Vila do Infante ( |
nstraint satisfaction problem]]s, [[0-1 integer programming]], and [[maximum satisfiability problem]].
Many other decision problems, such as [[graph colouring problem]]s, [[planning problem]]s, and [[scheduling problem]]s can be rather easily encoded into SAT.
== External links ==
* http://www.satlib.org
* http://www.satlive.org/index.jsp
* [http://www.nlsde.buaa.edu.cn/~kexu/benchmarks/benchmarks.htm Forced Satisfiable SAT Benchmarks]
* http://www.satisfiability.org
* [http://jsat.ewi.tudelft.nl Journal on Satisfiability, Boolean Modeling and Computation]
* [http://www.haifa.il.ibm.com/projects/verification/RB_Homepage/bmcbenchmarks.html IBM Formal Verification SAT Benchmarks]
* [http://www.ictp.trieste.it/~zecchina/SP/ Survey Propagation]
== References ==
* {{cite book|author = [[Michael R. Garey]] and [[David S. Johnson]] | year = 1979 | title = [[Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness]] | publisher = W.H. Freeman | id = ISBN 0716710455}} A9.1: LO1&ndash;LO7, pp.259&ndash;260.
[[de:Erfüllbarkeitsproblem der Aussagenlogik]]
[[es:Problema de satisfacibilidad booleana]]
[[fr:Problème SAT]]
[[ja:充足可能性問題]]
[[th:ปัญหาความสอดคล้องแบบบูล]]
[[Category:NP-complete problems]]
[[Category:Mathematical logic]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bohemian</title>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses see [[Bohemian (disambiguation)]]''
'''Bohemians''' are inhabitants of [[Bohemia]], [[Czech Republic]]. The term used to designate inhabitants of the former [[monarchy|kingdom]] of Bohemia, located in the west of the modern day [[Czech Republic]]. The name derived from the [[Latin]] term for the [[Celt]]ic tribe ([[Boii]]) inhabiting that area (Tacitus: Boiohaemum). The word "Bohemians" was never used by the local Czech population. In Czech, the region was since early Middle Ages called only "Čechy" - Bohemia or "Království české" - Kingdom of Bohemia, and its mainly Czech-speaking inhabitants "Češi".
In other European vernaculars and in Latin (Bohemi) the word "Bohemian" or its derivates was used to designate all inhabitants of Bohemia. If the Czech ethnic origin was to be stressed, combinations like "Bohemian of Bohemian language", "a real Bohemian" etc. were used.
It was not until the 19th century when other European languages started to use the word "Czechs" (in English), "Tschechen" (in German) or tchéques (in French) in a deliberate (and successful) attempt to distinguish between ethnic Czechs and other inhabitants of Bohemia. Nowadays "Bohemians" is still used when there is need to distinguish between inhabitants of the western part of the Czech Republic (Bohemia) and the eastern part ([[Moravia]]).
It is not clear how the word acquired its secondary meaning (see [[Bohemianism]] or [[Bohemian (disambiguation)]]), but it is believed that it comes from the French idea that [[Roma people|Gypsies]] originated from Bohemia (while they were travelling from there).
== See also ==
* [[History of the Czechs]]
[[Category:Slavic ethnic groups]]
[[zh:波希米亞人]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bob Jones University</title>
<id>4717</id>
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<id>42108168</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:54:12Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Benefactors */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- THIS IS THE TABLE. TO EDIT THE ARTICLE, SCROLL DOWN. -->
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<font style="font: inherit; font-size: 100%; font-weight: bold; text-align: center; border: none; margin: 0; padding: 0; color: #6a6c76;">Bob Jones University</font>
<p style="margin: 1em 0;">
[[Image:Bju_logo.JPG||Bob Jones University Logo (Trademark of BJU)]]<br>
<center>
<table style="background: transparent; text-align: left; table-layout: auto; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; font-size: 100%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr><th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Motto</th><td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">Petimus Credimus.</td></tr>
<tr><th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Established</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">1927</td></tr>
<tr><th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">School type</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[Private school|Private]]</td></tr>
<tr><th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">President</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[Stephen Jones (BJU)| Stephen Jones]]</td></tr>
<tr><th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Location</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[Greenville, South Carolina| Greenville]], [[South Carolina|SC]], [[United States|USA]]</td></tr>
<tr><th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Enrollment</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">3,592+ undergraduate<br>600+ graduate</td></tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Faculty/Staff</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">1,800</td></tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Campus</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[Suburban]]<br> 225 [[acre]]s (911,000 [[square metre|m&sup2;]])</td></tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Sports teams</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">intramural</td></tr>
<tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Website</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[http://www.bju.edu/ www.bju.edu]</td></tr>
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'''Bob Jones University''' ('''BJU''') is a [[private university|private]], [[school accreditation|unaccredited]], non-denominational, [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Protestant]] [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Fundamentalist]], [[liberal arts]] [[university]] located in [[Greenville, South Carolina|Greenville]], [[South Carolina]]. Founded in 1927 by [[Bob Jones, Sr.]], an [[evangelist]] and revival-preacher, it is the largest private liberal arts university in South Carolina. The university is a candidate for accreditation with the [[Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools]]. The University has a reputation as one of the most strongly conservative and religious schools in the [[United States|USA]].
The current president of the University is [[Stephen Jones (BJU)|Stephen Jones]], son of previous school president [[Bob Jones III]] and the first president of the University not named "Bob Jones." The university enrolls approximately 5000 students representing every state and 43 foreign countries, and employs a staff of 1,800. It offers degrees in 126 majors, plus additional schools from [[kindergarten]] through 12th grade.
Its mission statement reads as follows: ''Within the cultural and academic soil of liberal arts education, Bob Jones University exists to grow Christlike character that is Scripturally disciplined; others-serving; God-loving; Christ-proclaiming; and focused Above.''
The school is also known for its strong connection to the [[anti-Catholic]]ism movement in [[Northern Ireland]], and anti-Catholic movements in general.
[[Interracial dating]] was prohibited at the university starting in the 1950's, but the ban was lifted in 2000 after Dr. [[Bob Jones III]], following a national uproar prompted by the visit of presidential candidate [[George W. Bush]], announced its nullification on [[Larry Ki |
/11" although its meaning would be instantly understood. Apart from normally referring to 9th November, dates are not usually abbreviated in this manner in speech in the UK. Londoners would generally refer to the "the seventh of July bombings" and not 7/7. On the BBC "September the 11th" is generally used in preference to 9/11.
When writing long-form dates, the format "December&nbsp;25, 2000" is generally encountered in the U.S., and widely encountered in the UK. However, the British are more likely than Americans to use the format "25&nbsp;December 2000" although it is acceptable in the U.S., and the American grammarians [[Strunk and White]], among others, recommend it. American military usage follows the British model: "25&nbsp;December 2005" and "25/12/05." It is common in the UK, and somewhat less so in the U.S., to add a superscripted 'st, nd, rd' or 'th' to the day number in informal writing (thus "25<sup>th</sup>&nbsp;December 2000" or "December&nbsp;25<sup>th</sup>, 2000"), but this is generally regarded as superfluous and avoided in formal use.
Similarly, in American speech, "December twenty-fifth" is the most likely form, though "the twenty-fifth of December" is also not uncommon. In the UK the latter is more likely, and even when the month is presented first the definite article is usually inserted in speech, thus "December ''the'' twenty-fifth".
==Keyboards==
:''See: [[British and American keyboards]]''
==See also==
* [[American English]]
* [[British English]]
* [[Commonwealth English]]
===Other varieties===
* [[Australian English]]
* [[Canadian English]]
* [[New Zealand English]]
* [[Hiberno-English]]
* [[Scottish English]]
* [[Caribbean English]]
* [[South African English]]
* [[Jamaican English]]
* [[Liberian English]]
====English in Asia====
* [[Hong Kong English]]
* [[Indian English]]
* [[Malaysian English]]
* [[Philippine English]]
* [[Singapore English]]
===Other linguistic topics===
* [[Germanic_languages#Classification|Classification of Germanic Languages]]
* [[Anglic languages]]
* [[Scots language]]
* [[Yinglish]]
* [[Regional accents of English speakers]]
* [[Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style|Manual of Style]]
==References==
* Peters, Pam (2004). ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052162181X.
==External links==
* [http://www.digitas.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/wiki/ken/BritishVsAmerican Proper Treatment: British vs. American] (Harvard University)
* [http://www.peak.org/~jeremy/dictionary/ The American•British British•American Dictionary]
* [http://english2american.com/ The English-to-American Dictionary]
* [http://www.translatebritish.com British to American Translator]
* [http://www.hps.com/~tpg/ukdict/ United Kingdom English for the American Novice]
* [http://www.askoxford.com/betterwriting/us/?view=uk List of American and British spelling differences]
* [http://www.zmaxmiez-jpn.net/Links_page.html British English vis American English with Portuguese/Japanese translation]
* [http://www.economist.com/research/styleGuide/index.cfm?page=673931 Americanisms] (from [[The Economist]]'s style guide)
* [http://home.comcast.net/~helenajole/Harry.html Differences between British and American editions of a published novel] (example is [[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]])
* [http://canadianenglish1.narod.ru American Canadian British English lexical differences in one table]
* [http://www.onestopenglish.com/english_grammar/british_american.htm Grammatical differences between American and British English]
[[Category:American and British English differences]]
[[ko:영국과 미국 영어의 차이]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Atomic semantics</title>
<id>2014</id>
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<timestamp>2006-01-14T17:33:07Z</timestamp>
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<username>TimBentley</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Corrected link to disambiguation page. ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Atomic Semantics''' is a term which describes the guarantees provided by a [[data register]] shared by several [[central processing unit|processor]]s in a [[parallel machine]] or in a network of computers working together.
Atomic semantics are defined for a variable with a single writer but multiple readers. These
semantics are very strong: they guarantee that the read and write operations to the variable behave exactly as if they happened instantaneously in some point in time which is within the actual time where the operation took place.
==Reference==
Atomic semantics are defined formally in Lamport's "On Interprocess Communication" Distributed Computing 1, 2 (1986), 77-101. (Also appeared as SRC Research Report 8).
==See also==
*[[Regular semantics]]
*[[Safe semantics]]
[[Category:Concurrency control]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Antarctic Circumpolar Current</title>
<id>2015</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-01T07:01:24Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current */ ncrease -> increase</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Antarctic Circumpolar Current''' (ACC) is an [[ocean current]] that flows from west to east around [[Antarctica]]. An alternate name for the ACC is the West Wind Drift. The ACC is the dominant circulation feature of the [[Southern Ocean]]. The ACC has been known to sailors for many years, the author [[Jack London]]'s story "Make Westing" poignantly illustrated the difficulty it caused for mariners seeking to round [[Cape Horn]] on the clipper ship route between New York and California.
==Structure of the Circumpolar Current==
The ACC connects the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] and [[Indian Ocean]] basins and as such serves as a principal pathway of exchange between these basins. The current is strongly constrained by [[topography|topographic]] features. Starting at [[South America]], it flows through the [[Drake Passage]] between South America and the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] and then is split by the [[Scotia Arc]] to the east, with a shallow warm branch flowing to the north in the [[Falklands Current]] and a deeper branch passing through the Arc more to the east before also turning to the north. Passing through the Indian Ocean, the current is split by the [[Kerguelen Plateau]] in the Indian Ocean, with most of the transport passing to the north. South of [[New Zealand]], it follows the contours of the [[Campbell Plateau]] first deflecting far to the south and then moving northward again. Deflection is also seen as it passes over the [[mid-ocean ridge]] in the Southeast Pacific.
The current consists of a number of fronts. The northern boundary of the ACC is defined by the Subtropical Front. This marks the boundary between warm, salty subtropical waters (generally with a [[salinity]] of greater than 34.9 parts per thousand) and fresher, cooler subpolar waters. Moving southward we find the Subantarctic Front, along which much of the ACC transport is carried. Further south still lies the Polar Front, which is marked by a transition to very cold, relatively fresh, Antarctic Surface Water at the surface. Further south still we find Southern Boundary front, which is determined as the point where very dense abyssal waters upwell to within a few hundred meters of the surface. The bulk of the transport is carried in the middle two fronts. The total transport of the ACC at Drake Passage is estimated to be around 135 [[Sverdrup]], or about 135 times the transport of all the world's rivers combined. There is a relatively small addition of flow in the Indian Ocean, with the transport south of [[Tasmania]] reaching around 147 Sv, at which point the current is probably the largest on the planet.
==Dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current ==
There is general agreement that the large transport of the Circumpolar Current is linked to the strong westerly winds which are found in the Southern Ocean and to the fact that these winds blow over a band of open latitudes. In latitudes where there are continents, winds blowing on light surface water can simply pile up light water against these continents. But in the Southern Ocean, the momentum imparted to the surface waters cannot be balanced in this way.
Different theories of the Circumpolar Current balance the momentum imparted by the winds in different ways. The increasing eastward momentum imparted by the winds causes water parcels to drift outwards from the axis of the earth's rotation (in other words, northward) as a result of the [[Coriolis force]]. This northward transport is balanced by a southward, pressure-driven flow below the depths of the major ridge systems. Some theories connect these flows, implying that there is significant upwelling of dense deep waters within the Southern Ocean, transformation of these waters into light surface waters, and a transformation of waters in the opposite direction to the north. This theory links the magnitude of the Circumpolar Current with the global [[thermohaline circulation]], particularly the properties of the [[North Atlantic]]. A contrary view, however, suggests that eddies, the oceanic equivalent of atmospheric storms, transport momentum downwards in the water column, so that while the deep waters are set into motion, this motion simply involves southward flow in troughs and northward flow over ridges with no transformation into light surface waters required.
Recently much attention has been paid to the fact that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current may vary with time. One aspect of this variability is |
nded in June 1747 when he was assassinated. Some believe that [[Ahmad Shah]] had something to do with his death, but the evidence remains somewhat circumstantial. Regardless, Ahmad Shah took the opportunity to move towards the creation of a separate state in the eastern Persian Empire in what is today Afghanistan and western Pakistan. In 1747 Ahmad Shah and his Abdali horsemen joined the chiefs of the [[Durrani|Abdali]] tribes and clans near [[Kandahar]] at a [[loya jirga]] to choose a leader. Despite being younger than other claimants, Ahmad had several overriding factors in his favor. He was a direct descendant of [[Sado]], [[eponym]] of the [[Sadozai]], the most prominent tribe amongst the Pashtuns at the time; he was unquestionably a charismatic leader and seasoned warrior who had at his disposal a trained, mobile force of several thousand cavalrymen; and he possessed part of Nadir Shah's treasury.
One of Ahmad Shah's first acts as chief was to adopt the title "Durr-i-Durrani" ("pearl of pearls" or "pearl of the age"), which may have come from a dream or from the pearl earrings worn by the royal guard of Nadir Shah. The Abdali Pashtuns were known thereafter as the [[Durrani]].
Ahmad Shah began his rule by capturing [[Ghazni]] from the [[Ghilzai|Ghilzai Pashtuns]], and then wresting [[Kabul]] from the local ruler. In 1749 the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] ruler ceded sovereignty over [[Sindh]] Province and the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] west of the [[Indus River]] to Ahmad Shah in order to save his capital from Afghan attack. Ahmad Shah then set out westward to take possession of [[Herat]], which was ruled by Nadir Shah's grandson, [[Shah Rukh of Persia]]. Herat fell to Ahmad after almost a year of siege and bloody conflict, as did [[Mashhad]] (in present-day [[Iran]]). Ahmad next sent an army to subdue the areas north of the Hindu Kush. In short order, the powerful army brought under its control the [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]], [[Uzbek]], [[Tajiks|Tajik]], and [[Hazara]] tribes of northern Afghanistan. Ahmad invaded the remanants of the [[Mughal Empire]] a third, then a fourth, time, consolidating control of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Kashmir]]. Then, early in 1757, he sacked [[Delhi]], but permitted the Mughal Dynasty to remain in nominal control as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad's suzerainty over the Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir. Leaving his second son [[Timur Shah]] to safeguard his interests, Ahmad left India to return to Afghanistan.
The collapse of Mughal control in India, however, also facilitated the rise of rulers other than Ahmad Shah. In the Punjab, the [[Sikhs]] emerged as a potent force. From their capital at [[Pune]], the [[Marathas]], [[Hindu|Hindus]] who controlled much of western and central India, were beginning to look northward to the decaying Mughal empire, which Ahmad Shah now claimed by conquest. Upon his return to Kandahar in [[1757]], Ahmad was forced to return to India and face the formidable attacks of the Maratha Confederacy, which succeeded in ousting Timur and his court in India.
Ahmad Shah declared a [[jihad]] (or [[Islam]]ic holy war) against the Marathas, and warriors from various Pashtun tribes, as well as other tribes such as the [[Baloch]], [[Tajiks]], and Muslims in India, answered his call. Early skirmishes ended in victory for the Afghans, and by [[1759]] Ahmad and his army had reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. By [[1760]] the Maratha groups had coalesced into a great army that probably outnumbered Ahmad Shah's forces. Once again [[Panipat]] was the scene of a confrontation between two warring contenders for control of northern India. The [[Third Battle of Panipat|Battle of Panipat]] in [[1761]] between largely [[Islam|Muslim]] and [[Hinduism|Hindu]] armies who numbered as many as 100,000 troops each was fought along a twelve-kilometer front. Despite decisively defeating the Marathas, what might have been Ahmad Shah's peaceful control of his domains was disrupted by other challenges.
The victory at Panipat was the high point of Ahmad Shah's--and Afghan--power. His Durrani Empire was one of the largest Islamic empires in the world at that time. However, even prior to his death, the empire began to unravel. By the end of 1761, the Sikhs had gained power and taken control of much of the Punjab. In [[1762]] Ahmad Shah crossed the passes from Afghanistan for the sixth time to subdue the Sikhs. He assaulted Lahore and, after taking their holy city of [[Amritsar]], massacred thousands of Sikh inhabitants, destroying their temples and desecrating their holy places with cow's blood. Within two years the Sikhs rebelled again. Ahmad Shah tried several more times to subjugate the Sikhs permanently, but failed. By the time of his death, he had lost all but nominal control of the Punjab to the Sikhs, who remained in charge of the area until defeated by the [[British Empire|British]] in the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] in [[1846]].
Ahmad Shah also faced other rebellions in the north, and eventually he and the Uzbek Emir of [[Bukhara]] agreed that the [[Amu Darya]] would mark the division of their lands. In [[1772]] Ahmad Shah retired to his home in the mountains east of Kandahar, where he died. Ahmad Shah had succeeded to a remarkable degree in balancing tribal alliances and hostilities and in directing tribal energies away from rebellion. He earned recognition as Ahmad Shah Baba, or "Father" of Afghanistan.
By the time of Ahmad Shah's ascendancy, the Pashtuns included many groups whose origins were obscure; most were believed to have descended from ancient [[Aryan]] tribes, but some, such as the Ghilzai, may have intermingled with [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], while others such as the Durrani became persianized due to their contacts with the Tajiks. They had in common, however, their Pashtu language and belief in common ancestry that sometimes united them. To the east, the [[Waziri|Waziris]] and their close relatives, the [[Mahsud|Mahsuds]], had lived in the hills of the central [[Sulaiman Mountains]] since the fourteenth century. By the end of the sixteenth century and the final Turkish-[[Mongol]] invasions, tribes such as the [[Shinwari|Shinwaris]], [[Yousafzai|Yusufzais]], and [[Mohmand|Mohmands]] had moved from the upper [[Kabul River]] valley into the valleys and plains west, north, and northeast of [[Peshawar]]. The [[Afridi|Afridis]] had long been established in the hills and mountain ranges south of the [[Khyber Pass]]. By the end of the [[18th Century|eighteenth century]], the Durranis had blanketed the area west and north of Kandahar and were to be found as far east as [[Quetta]], [[Baluchistan]].
== Reign of Timur Shah ([[1772]]-[[1793]]) ==
[[Timur Shah]] had 24 sons, several of whom became kings.
[[Ahmad Shah]]'s successors governed so ineptly during a period of profound unrest that within fifty years of his death, [[Afghanistan]] was embroiled in a civil war. Many of the territories conquered with the help of Ahmad Shah's military skill fell to others in this half century. By [[1818]] the Sadozai rulers who succeeded Ahmad Shah controlled little more than [[Kabul]] and the surrounding territory within a 160-kilometer radius. They not only lost the outlying territories but also alienated other tribes and lineages among the Durrani [[Pashtuns]].
== Reign of Zaman Shah ([[1793]]-[[1801]])==
After the death of Timur Shah, the three strongest contenders for the position of shah were Timur's sons, the governors of [[Kandahar]], [[Herat]], and [[Kabul]]. [[Zaman Shah]], governor of Kabul, was in the most commanding position and became shah at the age of twenty-three. His half-brothers accepted this only by force majeure--upon being imprisoned on their arrival in the capital for the purpose, ironically, of electing a new shah. The quarrels among Timur's descendants that threw Afghanistan into turmoil also provided the pretext for the intervention of outside forces.
The efforts of the Sadozai heirs of Timur to impose a true monarchy on the truculent [[Pashtun]] tribes and to rule absolutely and without the advice of the other, larger Pashtun tribes' leaders were ultimately unsuccessful. The [[Sikhs]] too, were particularly troublesome, and after several unsuccessful efforts to subdue them, Zaman made the mistake of appointing a forceful young Sikh chief, [[Ranjit Singh]], as his governor in the Punjab. The "one-eyed" warrior would later become an implacable enemy of Pashtun rulers in Afghanistan.
Zaman's downfall was triggered by his attempts to consolidate power. Although it had been through the support of the [[Muhammadzai]] chief, [[Painda Khan]], that he had come to the throne, Zaman soon began to remove prominent Muhammadzai leaders from positions of power and replacing them with men of his own lineage, the [[Sadozai]]. This upset the delicate balance of Durrani tribal politics that Ahmad Shah had established and may have prompted Painda Khan and other Durrani chiefs to plot against the shah. Painda Khan and the chiefs of the [[Nurzai]] and the [[Alizai]] Durrani clans were executed, as was the chief of the [[Qizilbash]] clan. Painda Khan's son fled to [[Iran]] and pledged the substantial support of his Muhammadzai followers to a rival claimant to the throne, Zaman's older brother, [[Mahmud Shah]]. The clans of the chiefs Zaman had executed joined forces with the rebels, and they took Kandahar without bloodshed.
== First Reign of Mahmud Shah ([[1801]]-[[1803]]) ==
Zeman Shah's overthrow in [[1801]] was not the end of civil strife in [[Afghanistan]] but the beginning of even greater violence. [[Mahmud Shah (ruler of Afghanistan)|Mahmud Shah]]'s first reign lasted only for two years before he was replaced by [[Shuja Shah]].
== Reign of Shuja Shah ([[1803]]-[[1809]]) ==
Yet another of Timur Shah's sons, [[Shuja Shah]], ruled for only six years. On [[June 7]], [[1809]], Shoja signed a [[Tr |
parsha)|Terumah]], [[Tetzaveh]], [[Ki Tisa]], [[Vayakhel]], and [[Pekudei]]
==References==
* Colin J. Humphreys, ''The Miracles of Exodus: A Scientist’s Discovery of the Extraordinary Natural Causes of the Biblical Stories'' 2003, HarperSanFrancisco
* W. F. Albright ''From the Stone Age to Christianity'' (2nd edition) Doubleday/Anchor
* W. F. Albright ''Archaeology and the Religion of Israel'' (5th edition) 1969, Doubleday/Anchor
* ''Encyclopedia Judaica'', Keter Publishing, entry on "Population", volume 13, column 866.
* Y. Shiloh, "The Population of Iron Age [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] in the Light of a Sample Analysis of Urban Plans, Areas and Population Density." ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'' (BASOR), 1980, 239:25-35
* ''Exploring Exodus: The Origins of Biblical Israel'' [[Nahum Sarna]], Shocken Books, 1986 (first edition), 1996 (reprint edition), chapter 5, "Six hundred thousand men on foot".
* "[http://www.infidels.org/library/magazines/tsr/1995/1/1num95.html Those Amazing Biblical Numbers: Taking Stock of the Armies of Ancient Israel]" William Sierichs, Jr.
* "The Rise of Ancient Israel : Symposium at the Smithsonian Institution October 26, 1991" by Hershel Shanks, William G. Dever, Baruch Halpern and P. Kyle McCarter, Biblical Archaeological Society, 1992.
* ''The Biblical Exodus in the Light of Recent Research: Is There Any Archaeological or Extra-Biblical Evidence?'', Hershel Shanks, Editor, Biblical Archaeological Society, 1997
==External links==
===Online versions and translations of Exodus===
*[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0201.htm ''Shmot''] (Original [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
*[http://st-takla.org/pub_oldtest/01_gen.html Exodus in Arabic language]) from http://St-Takla.org
===Jewish translations===
*[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0201.htm Exodus at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
*[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=2&CHAPTER=1 Exodus (The Living Torah)] Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]'s translation and commentary at Ort.org
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=8161 Shemot - Exodus (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
===Christian translations===
*[http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/02_exodus.htm ''Exodus'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
*{{biblegateway||Exodus}}
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Exodus ''Exodus'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
==Translations identifying sources==
*[[Wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Exodus|Exodus with sources highlighted, at Wikisource]]
===Related articles===
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=551&letter=E&search=Exodus ''Book of Exodus'' article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)
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<page>
<title>Electronics</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:17:23Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The field of '''electronics''' is the study and use of systems that operate by controlling the flow of [[electron]]s or other [[electric charge|electrically charged]] particles in devices such as [[thermionic valve]]s and [[semiconductor]]s. The design and construction of [[electronic circuit]]s to solve practical problems is part of the field of [[electronics engineering]], and includes the hardware design side of [[computer engineering]].
The study of new semiconductor devices and their technology is sometimes considered as a branch of [[physics]]. This page focuses on engineering aspects of electronics.
== Overview of electronic systems and circuits==
[[Image:Voltmeter.jpg|thumb|left|Commercial digital voltmeter checking a prototype]]
Electronic systems are used to perform a wide variety of tasks. The main uses of electronic circuits are the controlling, processing and distribution of [[information]], and the conversion and distribution of [[electric power]]. Both of these uses involve the creation or detection of [[electromagnetic field]]s and [[electric current]]s. While electrical energy had been used for some time to transmit data over [[Telegraphy|telegraphs]] and [[Telephone|telephones]], the development of electronics truly began in earnest with the advent of [[radio]].
One way of looking at an electronic system is to divide it into the following parts:
*[[Input]]s &ndash; Electronic or mechanical [[sensor]]s (or [[transducer]]s), which take signals from outside sources such as antennae or networks, (or signals which represent values of temperature, pressure, etc.) from the physical world and convert them into current/voltage or digital signals.
*[[Signal processing]] circuits &ndash; These consist of electronic components connected together to manipulate, interpret and transform the signals. Recently, complex processing has been accomplished with the use of [[Digital_signal_processor|Digital Signal Processors]].
*[[Output]]s &ndash; Actuators or other devices such as transducers that transform current/voltage signals back into useful physical form.
One example is a [[television]] set. Its input is a broadcast signal received by an antenna or fed in through a cable. Signal processing circuits inside the television extract the [[brightness]], [[colour]] and [[sound]] information from this signal. The output devices are a [[cathode ray tube]] that converts electronic signals into a visible [[image]] on a screen and magnet driven audio speakers.
==Electronic devices and components ==
{{Main|Electronic component}}
An electronic component is any indivisible electronic building block packaged in a discrete form with two or more connecting leads or metallic pads. Components are intended to be connected together, usually by soldering to a printed circuit board, to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged singly (resistor, capacitor, transistor, diode etc) or in more or less complex groups as integrated circuits (operational amplifier, resistor array, logic gate etc).
[[Active]] components are more usually called 'devices' as opposed to components.
== Analog circuits ==
{{main|analog circuits}}
[[Image:HitachiJ100A.jpg|right|thumb|250px]]
Most [[analog signal|analog]] electronic appliances, such as [[radio]] receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits.
The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge., especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components.
Analogue circuits are sometimes called [[linear circuits]] although many non linear effects are used in analoge circuits such as mixers, modulators etc. Good examples of analog circuits are valve or transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators.
Some analog circuitry these days may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve upon the basic performance of the circuit. This type of circuits is usually called 'mixed signal'.
Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non linear operation. An example is the comparator that takes in a continuouse range of voltage but puts out only one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, a transistor amplifier overdriven can take on the characteristics of a controlled [[switch]] having substantially only two levels of output.
== Digital circuits ==
{{Main|digital circuits}}
Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common mechanical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits.
In most cases the number of different states is two, and these states are represented by two voltage levels: one near to zero volts and one at a higher level depending on the supply voltage in use. These two levels are often represented as "Low" and "High."
[[Computer]]s, electronic [[quartz clock|clock]]s, and [[programmable logic controller]]s (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of [[digital]] circuits. [[Digital Signal Processor]]s are another example.
Building-blocks:
* [[logic gate]]s
* [[flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]]s
* [[counter]]s
* [[processor register|register]]s
* [[multiplexer]]s
* [[Schmitt trigger]]s
Highly integrated devices:
* [[microprocessor]]s
* [[microcontroller]]s
* [[Digital signal processor]] (DSP)
* [[FPGA| Field Programmable Gate Array]] (FPGA)
== Mixed-signal circuits ==
{{Main|Mixed-signal circuit}}
Mixed-signal circuits refers to integrated circuits (ICs) which have both analog circuits and digital circuits combined on a single semiconductor die or on the same circuit board.
[[Mixed-signal |
irships in peacetime. Helium use following [[World War II]] was depressed but the reserve was expanded in the [[1950s]] to ensure a supply liquid helium as a coolant to create oxygen/hydrogen [[rocket fuel]] (among other uses) during the [[Space Race]] and [[Cold War]]. Helium use in the United States in [[1965]] was more than eight times the peak wartime consumption.
After the "Helium Acts Amendments of 1960" (Public Law 86-777), the [[United States Bureau of Mines|U.S. Bureau of Mines]] arranged for five private plants to recover helium from natural gas. For this ''helium conservation'' program, the Bureau built a 425-mile pipeline from [[Bushton, Kansas]] to connect those plants with the government's [[Cliffside Gas Field|Cliffside]] partially depleted gasfield, near [[Amarillo, Texas]]. This helium-nitrogen mixture was injected and stored in the Cliffside Gas Field until needed, when it then was further purified.
By [[1995]] 32 billion ft³ (1 billion m³) of the gas had been collected and the reserve was US$ 1.4 billion in debt, prompting the [[Congress of the United States]] to phase out the reserve starting the next year<!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 179; and ''Guide to the Elements'', page 24 -->. The resulting "Helium Privatization Act of 1996" (P.L. 104-273) directed the [[United States Department of the Interior]] to start liquidating the reserve by [[2005]]. <!-- ref: http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309070384/html/index.html Executive Summary -->
Helium produced before [[1945]] was about 98% pure (2% [[nitrogen]]), which was adequate for airships. In [[1945]] a small amount of 99.9% helium was produced for welding use. By [[1949]] commercial quantities of Grade A 99.995% helium were available.
For many years the United States produced over 90% of commercially usable helium in the world. Extraction plants created in [[Canada]], [[Poland]], [[Russia]], and other nations produced the remaining helium. In the early [[2000s]], [[Algeria]] and [[Qatar]] were added as well. Algeria quickly became the second leading producer of helium (16% of total in 2002<!-- ref: minerals.usgs.gov -->). Through this time helium consumption has increased, as well as costs.
== Occurrence and production ==
===Abundance===
Helium is the second most abundant element in the known [[Universe]] after [[hydrogen]] and constitutes 23% of all elemental [[matter]] measured by [[mass]] ('elemental matter' does not include [[dark matter]] or [[dark energy]], which together may account for 96% of the Universe<!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 175 -->). It is concentrated in [[star]]s, where it is formed from hydrogen by the [[nuclear fusion]] of the [[proton-proton chain reaction]] and [[CNO cycle]]. This so-called 'hydrogen burning' process provides the energy stars need to shine. According to the [[Big Bang]] model of the early development of the Universe, the vast majority of helium was formed in the first three minutes after the Big Bang. Its widespread abundance is seen as part of the evidence that supports this [[theory]].
However, in the [[Earth's atmosphere]], the concentration of helium by volume is only 5.2 parts per million at [[sea level]] and up to 15 miles (24 km), largely because most helium in the Earth's atmosphere escapes into [[space]] due to its inertness and low mass. There is a layer in the [[heterosphere]] (a part of the Earth's upper atmosphere) at 600 miles (about 1000 km) where helium is the dominant gas (although the total pressure is very low)<!-- http://www.oma.be/BIRA-IASB/Public/Research/Thermo/Thermotxt.en.html -->. Helium is the 71st most abundant element in the [[Crust (geology)|Earth's crust]] where it is found in 8 parts per billion (10<sup>9</sup>). Helium only makes up 4 parts per trillion (10<sup>12</sup>) in [[seawater]]<!-- refs: ''The Elements'', page 95; ''Nature's Building Blocks'', pages 177-178; and ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 257 -->.
Essentially all helium on Earth is a result of [[radioactive decay]] of elements such as [[uranium]] and [[radon]]. A type of [[Alpha radiation|radiation]] called [[alpha particle]]s are made of two [[proton]]s and two [[neutron]]s, which also makes them helium-4 nuclei. These +2 positive [[ion]]s easily gain the two [[electron]]s needed to make complete helium atoms. In this way an estimated 0.5 ft³ of helium is produced from every cubic mile of the Earth's crust (3.4 L/km<sup>3</sup>) per year <!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 257 -->. This [[decay product]] is found in minerals of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]], including [[cleveite]]s, [[uraninite|pitchblende]], [[carnotite]], [[monazite]] and [[beryl]]. There are also small amounts in mineral [[spring (water)|springs]], [[volcano| volcanic]] gas and meteoric [[iron]].
===Production===
Helium in the crust is produced by the radioactive decay of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] which are present in varying concentrations throughout the crust<!--http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html-->, but helium migrates and can collect in certain areas when conditions are right. Thus the greatest concentrations (trace amounts up to 7% by volume) of helium on the planet are in [[natural gas]] fields, from which most commercial helium is derived. As of 2002, over 100 million m³ (3.5 billion ft³) were produced annually with 80% of production from the [[United States]], 16% from [[Algeria]], and most of the rest from [[Russia]]<!-- ref: minerals.usgs.gov -->. The principal source for U.S. production is the natural gas wells of the [[U.S. state]]s of [[Texas]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Arizona]] and [[Kansas]]. Helium is also produced in [[Canada]], [[Poland]], the [[People's Republic of China]], and [[Qatar]].
Since helium has a lower boiling point than any other element, low temperature and high pressure are used to liquefy nearly all the other gases (mostly [[nitrogen]] and [[hydrocarbon]]s such as [[methane]]) from natural gas in order to extract gaseous helium (the general process is called [[fractional distillation]]). The resulting crude helium gas is subjected to a process of purification in which almost all of the remaining nitrogen and other gases are precipitated out of the mixture through successive exposures to lowering temperatures. [[Activated charcoal]] is used as a final purification step, usually resulting in 99.995% pure Grade A helium<!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 258 -->. The principal impurity in Grade A helium is [[neon]].
Diffusion of crude natural gas through special semi-[[permeability|permeable]] membranes and other barriers is another method to recover and/or purify helium. Helium can also be synthesized by bombardment of [[lithium]]-6 or [[boron]] with high-velocity [[neutron]]s in a [[nuclear reactor]] to produce He-4 and [[tritium]]. The tritium decays with a [[half life]] of 12.5 years to produce He-3. This method of production, however, is not economically viable&mdash;at least for making normal commercial-grade helium. Fusion in exploding [[hydrogen bomb]]s creates helium as well.
== Isotopes ==
Although there are eight known [[isotope]]s of helium, only [[helium-3]] and [[helium-4]] are [[stable isotope| stable]]. In the Earth's atmosphere, there is one He-3 atom for every million He-4<!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 178 -->. However, helium is unusual in that its isotopic abundance varies greatly depending on its origin. In the [[interstellar medium]], the proportion of He-3 is around a hundred times higher<!-- http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/asys/2002/00000045/00000002/00378626 -->. Rocks from the Earth's crust have isotope ratios varying by as much as a factor of ten; this is used in [[geology]] to study the origin of such rocks.
The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced on Earth by [[alpha decay]] of heavier radioactive elements; the [[alpha particle]]s that emerge are fully ionized helium-4 nuclei. Helium-4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its [[nucleon]]s are arranged into [[shell model|complete shells]]. It was also formed in enormous quantities during [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]], and its abundance serves as a test of cosmological models.
Equal mixtures of liquid helium-3 and helium-4 below 0.8 K will separate into two immiscible phases due to their dissimilarity (they follow different [[quantum statistics]]: helium-4 atoms are [[boson]]s while helium-3 atoms are [[fermion]]s).<!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 264 -->[[Dilution refrigerator]]s take advantage of the immiscibility of these two isotopes to achieve temperatures of a few mK. There is only a trace amount of helium-3 on Earth, primarily present since the formation of the Earth, although some falls to Earth trapped in cosmic dust<!--http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html-->. Trace amounts are also produced by the [[beta decay]] of [[tritium]]<!--http://environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/periodic/Li-pg2.html-->. In [[star]]s, however, helium-3 is more abundant, a product of [[nuclear fusion]]. Extraplanetary material, such as [[Moon| lunar]] and [[asteroid]] [[regolith]], have trace amounts of helium-3 from being bombarded by [[solar wind]]s.
The different formation processes of the two stable isotopes of helium produce the differing isotope abundances. These differing isotope abundances can be used to investigate the origin of rocks and the composition of the Earth's [[mantle]]<!--http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html-->.
It is possible to produce [[exotic helium isotopes]], which rapidly decay into other substances. The shortest-lived isotope is helium-5 with a [[half-life]] of 7.6×10<sup>&minus;22</sup> second. Helium-6 decays by emitting |
go are protected in the [[National Park of the Tuscan Archipelago]].
The island is divided into eight communes: the capital [[Portoferraio]], [[Campo nell'Elba]], [[Capoliveri]], [[Marciana]], [[Marciana Marina]], [[Porto Azzurro]], [[Rio Marina]] and [[Rio nell'Elba]].
==History==
Following the [[Treaty of Fontainebleau]], [[France|French]] emperor [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] was exiled to Elba when overthrown (the first time), inspiring the famous [[palindrome]]: "Able was I ere I saw Elba." Napoleon stayed on Elba for 9 months and 21 days, being given the title "Emperor." Although he was nominally sovereign of Elba, the island was watched (more or less) by British naval patrols. During these months, partly to pass the time and partly out of a genuine concern for the well-being of the people, he carried out a series of economic and social reforms to improve the quality of life on Elba. Napoleon eventually escaped Elba and returned to France on [[February 26]] for a [[Hundred Days]] before being exiled again this time to the [[South Atlantic]] island of [[Saint Helena]], where he died. French troops landed on Elba on [[June 17]] [[1944]].
More recently, the island has become famed for its [[wine]].
[[Free-diving|Free-diver]] [[Jacques Mayol]] committed suicide here on [[December 22]], [[2001]].
{{italy-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Islands of Italy]]
[[Category:Wine regions of Italy]]
[[Category:Tuscany]]
[[bg:Елба (остров)]]
[[ca:Illa d'Elba]]
[[de:Elba (Insel)]]
[[et:Elba]]
[[es:Elba (Isla)]]
[[fr:Île d'Elbe]]
[[gl:Illa de Elba]]
[[ko:엘바 섬]]
[[id:Elba]]
[[it:Isola d'Elba]]
[[he:אלבה (אי)]]
[[la:Elba]]
[[nl:Elba]]
[[ja:エルバ島]]
[[no:Elba]]
[[pl:Elba]]
[[pt:Ilha de Elba]]
[[ro:Elba]]
[[sv:Elba]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Etna (disambiguation)</title>
<id>10480</id>
<revision>
<id>38780277</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T16:37:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Percy Snoodle</username>
<id>163840</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[computer role playing game|role-playing game]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*'''[[Mount Etna]]''' (or ''Ætna'') is an active [[volcano]] on the east coast of [[Sicily]] (Italian ''Sicilia''), close to [[Messina, Italy|Messina]] and [[Catania]]. It is 3,340 m (10,958 ft) high. On the safe part of its hills a famous [[wine]] is produced. It is the highest active volcano in Europe.
*In [[Greek mythology]], '''Etna''' is the goddess of the volcano of the same name in Sicily. She was considered a daughter of [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] and [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. The dragon [[Typhon]] lived underneath the volcano and caused the destructive eruptions. Sicily, a land of volcanoes and grain, was the subject of argument between [[Hephaestus]] and [[Demeter]], gods of fire and the harvest, respectively. Etna stepped in and arbitrated. She was sometimes thought of as the mother of the [[Palici]].
*'''Etna''' is a brand of Italian [[wine]].
*'''Etna''' is a character in the [[computer role playing game|role-playing game]] ''[[Disgaea: Hour of Darkness]]'' for the [[PlayStation 2]].
*An '''etna''' is a device for heating liquids in a saucer of burning [[alcohol]].
*'''Etna''' is the name of a number of places in the [[United States|United States of America]]:-
**[[Etna, California]]
**[[Etna, Georgia]]
**[[Etna, Illinois]]
**[[Etna, Indiana]]
**[[Etna, Kentucky]]
**[[Etna, Maine]]
**[[Etna, Minnesota]]
**[[Etna, Missouri]]
**[[Etna, Nebraska]]
**[[Etna, Nevada]]
**[[Etna, New Hampshire]]
**[[Etna, New York]]
**[[Etna, Ohio]]
**[[Etna, Oklahoma]]
**[[Etna, Pennsylvania]]
**[[Etna, Utah]]
**[[Etna, Washington]]
**[[Etna, Wisconsin]]
**[[Etna, Wyoming]]
*[[Etna (river)|Etna]] is a river in the landscape of [[Valdres]], [[Norway]].
{{disambig}}
[[de:Etna]]
[[id:Etna (disambiguasi)]]
[[it:Etna]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enki</title>
<id>10481</id>
<revision>
<id>41821724</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:37:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pixie921</username>
<id>277142</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Enki's Influence */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Mesopotamian myth (7)}}
'''Enki''' was a deity in [[Sumerian mythology]], later known as '''Ea''' in [[Babylonian mythology]]. The name '''Ea''' is of [[Sumerian]] origin and was written by means of two signs signifying "house" (E) and "water" (A/Ab).
==His attributes==
[[Image:Enki4.jpg|thumb|left|Enki as portaryed in various cylendar seals, by Courtesy of the Trustees of the Brisith Museum]] Enki was the deity of [[water]], [[intelligence]] and [[creation]]. The main temple of Enki was the so-called ''é-engur-a'', the "house of the lord of deep waters"; it was in [[Eridu]], which was then located in the wetlands of the [[Euphrates]] valley not far from the [[Persian Gulf]]. He was the keeper of the holy powers called ''[[Me (mythology)|Me]]'', the gifts of [[civilization|civilised]] living. Enki is also the master shaper of the world, God of [[wisdom]] and of all [[magic]]. The exact meaning of his name is not sure: the common translation is "Lord of the Earth": the [[Sumerian]] ''en'' is translated as "lord", was originally a title given to the High Priest; ''ki'' means "earth"; but there are theories that ''ki'' in this name has another origin, possibly ''kur'' (= mound). In this way it is just possible that in origin Enki was a divinitized human, high priest of the mound of Eridu, on which the first Sumerian temple was built.
He is the lord of the [[Apsu]] (Akkadian, Abzu in Sumerian, hence Greek and English ''Abyss'') , the fresh-water ocean of [[groundwater]] under the [[earth]]. His name is possibly an epithet bestowed on him for the creation of the first man, [[Adamah]] or [[Adapa]]. His symbols included a [[goat]] and a [[fish]], symbols at the opposite ends of the year ([[Pisces]] and Capricorn) which later combined into a single beast, the [[Capricorn]], which became one of the signs of the [[zodiac]]. Enki in Sumerian astronomy also represented the planet [[Mercury]], known for its ability to shift rapidly, and its proximity to the [[Sun]], Sumerian [[Utu]], Akkadian [[Shamash]], the God of [[Justice]].
In [[Moral character|character]] Enki is not a [[joker]] or [[trickster]] God, he is never a [[cheat]], a [[fool]] nor a [[shapeshifter]]. Enki uses his magic for the good of others when called upon to help either a God, a Goddess or a Human. Enki is always true to his own essence as a [[masculinity|masculine]] nurturer. He is fundamentally a trouble-shooter God, and avoids or disarms those who bring conflict and death to the world. He is the mediator whose [[compassion]] and sense of humour breaks and disarms the wrath of his stern half-brother, [[Enlil]], king of the Gods. He is the Challenger who tests the limits of [[Inanna]] in the myth ''Enki and Inanna and the Me'' and then concedes graciously his defeat by the young goddess of Love and War, by strengthening the bonds between [[Eridu]] and her city of [[Uruk]]. So he becomes the [[Empower]]er of Inanna.
Enki is always direct and upfront. Enki does not hide, or have any hidden agenda.
Enki has been said to be:
:''"The most complete and modern mirror of masculine wholeness in Mesopotamia and world religion. His values and attributes are timeless, and it is not surprising to see that He is one of the most beloved gods of Mesopotamia. How can He be so whole? Because in Him the passionate and joyous Lover, the Mystic, the Strategist, the Sorcerer, the Divine Manager, the Keeper of World Order and Rescuer of Humankind and Gods alike are all One.''
:''Enki is ... the gallant, impetuous, energetic Lord of Wisdom, the Seeker after truth, and Master Adept in sorcery, enchantment and seduction."'' [[http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/gods/lords/lordenki.html]]
==Enki, the creator of Humankind==
In [[Sumerian]] and later [[Akkadian]] or [[Babylonian]] [[Cosmology]] there were six generations of Gods that led to the creation of the Younger ([[Igigi]]) [[divinity|divinities]] of the [[Anunaki]] (Anu = heaven, Na = And, Ki = Earth). In the seventh generation (Akkadian "Shappatu" hence the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Shabbat]]h => [[English language|English]] [[Sabbath]]), the younger Gods went on strike, put down their tools and refused to keep the creation working. In the Babylonian creation myth the ''[[Enuma Elish]]'', Abzu, the water lord, threatens to take back the creation with a universal flood, but Enki averts the threat by imprisonning Abzu beneath the Earth. [[Kingu]], his son, informs his mother, Abzu's wife, the serpentine [[Tiamat]] (Ti = Life, Ama = mother, Biblical ''[[tehwom]]'' = the deeps), and in anger she threatens to take back the whole of creation. The Gods gather in terror, but Enlil (his place in the Enuma Elish is later taken by Enki's son [[Marduk]]) subdues and slays Tiamat with the arrows of his winds which he shoots down her throat. The Bible refers indirectly to this in Genesis 1:3 ''"And the breath of God moved across the face of the waters"''.
But the problem created by the "strike of the Gods" remains, how is creation to continue? Enki proposes that the Gods make humankind as their servant, and give humans the task of keeping creation going. It is agreed, and Enki wroughts humanity out of the red earth (Hebrew [[Adamah]]), mingled with the red blood of the God Kingu, slain for his part in Tiamat's attack. Enlil fills his lungs with air (Hebrew [[ruach]], Greek [[pneuma]], Latin [[spirit|spiritus]]), and humans are alive. In this way, Humanity is given the task of maintaining the balance of nature and keeping the created order in place. We are at once both in body of the earth bu |
bacterial growth by binding to the bacterial [[ribosome]] (blocking peptidyl transferase) and inhibiting [[Translation (genetics)|protein synthesis]].
Resistance to chloramphenicol is conferred by the ''cat''-gene. This [[gene]] codes for an [[enzyme]] called "[[chloramphenicol acetyltransferase]]" which inactivates chloramphenicol by covalently linking one or two [[acetyl]] groups, derived from acetyl-S-coenzyme A, to the [[hydroxyl]] groups on the chloramphenicol. The acetylation prevents chloramphenicol from binding to the ribosome.
==Codes==
It has many different codings in the [[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System]]:
* {{ATC|D06|AX02}}
* {{ATC|D10|AF03}}
* {{ATC|G01|AA05}}
* {{ATC|J01|BA01}}
* {{ATC|S01|AA01}}
* {{ATC|S02|AA01}}
* {{ATC|S03|AA08}}
==External links==
* [http://www.merck.com/mrkshared/mmanual/section13/chapter153/153f.jsp Merck]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202125.html NLM/Medline]
* [http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/bugdrug/antibiotic_manual/chloro.htm University of Pennsylvania]
[[Category:Antibiotics]]
[[de:Chloramphenicol]]
[[es:Cloranfenicol]]
[[fr:Chloramphénicol]]
[[it:Cloramfenicolo]]
[[ja:クロラムフェニコール]]
[[nl:Chlooramfenicol]]
[[pl:Chloramfenikol]]
[[pt:Cloranfenicol]]
[[th:คลอแรมเฟนิคอล]]
[[tr:Kloramfenikol]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cut-up technique</title>
<id>6347</id>
<revision>
<id>39424048</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T01:22:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>154.20.112.133</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''cut-up technique''' is a [[aleatory]] [[literary technique]] or [[literary genre|genre]] in which a [[text]] is cut up at [[random]] and rearranged to create a new text.
==Technique==
The '''cut-up''' and the closely associated '''fold-in''' techniques are literary writing styles that tries to break the [[linearity]] of common literature. They are designed to be used with common [[typewriter]]s.
*''Cut-up'' is performed by taking a finished and fully linear text (printed on paper) and cutting it in pieces with a few or single words on each piece. The resulting pieces are then rearranged into a new text. The rearranging work often result in surprisingly innovative new phrases. A common way is to cut a sheet in four rectangular sections, rearranging them and then typing down the mingled prose while compensating for the haphazard word breaks by improvising and innovating along the way.
*''Fold-in'' is the technique of taking two different sheets of linear text (with the same linespacing), cutting each sheet in half and combining with the other, then reading across the resulting page. The resulting text is often a blend of the two themes, somewhat hard to read.
==History==
The first recorded instance of a cut-up dates from a [[Dada]] rally in the [[1920s]]: [[Tristan Tzara]] offered to create a [[poem]] on the spot by pulling words at [[random]] from a hat. A riot ensued and [[André Breton]] expelled Tzara from the movement.
In the [[1950s]] painter and writer [[Brion Gysin]] more fully developed the cut-up method after accidentally discovering it. He had placed layers of [[newspaper]]s as a matt to protect a tabletop from being scratched while he cut papers with a [[razor blade]]. Upon cutting through the newspapers, Gysin noticed that the sliced layers offered interesting [[juxtaposition]]s. He began deliberately cutting newspaper articles into sections, which he randomly rearranged. ''[[Minutes to Go]]'' resulted from his initial cut-up experiment: unedited and unchanged cut-ups which emerged as coherent and meaningful prose.
Gysin introduced writer [[William S. Burroughs]] to the technique at the [[Beat Hotel]]. The pair later applied the technique to printed media and [[audio recording]]s in an effort to decode the material's implicit content, [[Hypothesis|hypothesizing]] that such a technique could be used to discover the true meaning of a given [[text]]. Burroughs also suggested cut-ups may be effective as a form of [[divination]] saying, ''Perhaps events are pre-written and pre-recorded and when you cut word lines the future leaks out.'' Burroughs further developed the ''fold-in'' technique.
Burroughs has cited earlier works as proto-cut-ups: [[T.S. Eliot]]'s long poem, ''[[The Waste Land]]'', and portions of [[John Dos Passos]]' works.
==Literary influence==
[[William S. Burroughs|Burroughs]] taught cut-up technique to [[Genesis P-Orridge]] in [[1971]] as a method for &quot;altering reality&quot;. Burroughs' explanation was that everything is recorded, and if it is recorded, then it can be edited (P-Orridge, [[2003]]). P-Orridge has long employed cut-ups as an applied [[philosophy]], a way of creating [[art]] and [[music]], and of conducting one's life.
==Musical influence and similarities==
From at least the early [[1970s]], [[David Bowie]] has used cut-ups to create some of his [[lyric]]s. It is a technique which came to influence [[Kurt Cobain]]'s songwriting.
Other musicians working in [[sampling (music)|sample]]-based [[music genre]]s, such as [[hip hop music|hip hop]] and [[electronic music]], employ a similar technique. [[Disc jockey|DJs]] may spend hours in record stores looking (&quot;digging&quot;) for [[Vinyl record|LP records]] featuring obscure or interesting [[breaks]], vocals, and other fragments to meld together in new compositions. Some have suggested these practices are a form of cut-ups, but most such musicians are probably unaware of Tzara, Burroughs or Gysin ([[DJ Spooky]] being an exception). [[Musique concrète]] had introduced such techniques &mdash; cutting, re-arranging and re-editing sounds &mdash; much earlier in a musical (as opposed to literary) context.
[[Jeff Noon]] uses a similar ''remixing'' technique in his writing based on the practices prevalent in [[Dub music]]. He expanded upon his remixing with his [[Cobralingus]] system, which breaks down a piece of writing, going as far as turning individual words into anagrams, then melding the results into a narrative.
And to return to Tzara's Dadaist example, [[Thom Yorke]] applied a similar method in [[Radiohead]]'s ''[[Kid A]]'' (2000) album, writing single lines, putting them into a hat, and drawing them out at random while the band rehearsed the songs.
An online subculture of [[bastard pop]] resembles the fold-in technique by for example taking instrumentals from one artist and combining it with the vocals of another artist.
==Email cut-ups==
A recent phenomenon is an [[e-mail spam]] tactic in which randomly-generated text passages are used to thwart [[Bayesian filtering|Bayesian filters]]. For example,
:''The first question of course was, how to get dry again: they me as I walked, the remembrance of my churlishness and that I must confidence between himself and Mrs. Micawber. After which, he for his dagger till his hand gripped it. Then he spoke. I kissed her, and my baby brother, and was very sorry then; but not''
Even grammatically consistent sentences can be formed, such as
:''Then, from sea to shining sea, the God-King sang the praises of teflon, and with his face to the sunshine, he churned lots of butter.''
Such text is called spamoetry (spam poetry) or [[spam art]]. Since the text is often derived from actual books, this is effectively a cut-up method (though the perpetrators may be unaware of this).
==References==
*[[Genesis P-Orridge|P-Orridge, Genesis]]. &quot;Magick Squares and Future Beats.&quot; ''Book of Lies: The Disinformation Guide to Magick and the Occult''. [[Disinfo|The Disinformation Company]], [[2003]]: 103-118 ISBN 0-9713942-7-X
*[http://www.gorgeaway.blogspot.com/ Conversations with William S. Burroughs] - Interviews from various publications assembled in a [[weblog]]
==See also==
*[[Industrial Records]]
*[[Markov chain]]
*[[Plunderphonics]]
*[[Surrealist techniques]]
*[[Bastard pop]]
==External links==
*General Information
**[http://www.fluctuation.co.uk/articles/01poetry.html Fluctuation] An example of the cut-up technique applied to the creation of poetry.
**[http://www.ubu.com/sound/burroughs.html UbuWeb: William S. Burroughs] featuring a cut-up, ''K-9 Was in Combat with the Alien Mind-Screens'' ([[1965]]), made with [[Ian Sommerville]]
*Online Cut-Up Tools
**[http://www.lazaruscorporation.co.uk/v4/cutup Lazarus Corporation Text Mixing Desk] is online software that manipulates text using the cut-up technique.
**[http://www.godsrudewireless.co.uk/cutup/cutup.htm God's Rude Wireless] hosts a simple, [[JavaScript]]-based cut-up engine, as well as some other language manipulation tools.
**[http://openwound.mbutler.org/ Open Wound 1.0] utilizing grammatical parts of speech
**[http://cutnmix.com/ Cut 'n' Mix 4.0] 4-track text cut-up and mixing software
**[http://web.ukonline.co.uk/gary.leeming/burroughs/cutup_machine.htm Grazulis' Cut-Up Machine] (choose specified or random increments of words to cut, rub out words)
**[http://www.languageisavirus.com/ Language Is A Virus] Cut-Up Machine, Slice-n-Dice, Cut-Up techniques explained
**[http://www.aduaneirossemfronteiras.org/blog.php?id=70 Gerador Automático de Poesia Galega] - a [[Galician language|Galician]] cut-up poetry generator
[[Category:Surrealist techniques]]
[[Category:Dada]]
[[Category:William S. Burroughs]]
[[Category:Literary concepts]]
[[de:Cut-up]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Congressional Medal of Honour</title>
<id>6348</id>
<revision>
<id>15904498</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-08T21:51:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rmhermen</username>
<id>835</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Medal of Honor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Css</title>
<id>6351</id>
<revision>
<id>15904500</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-04T00:45:44Z</t |
a harmonic series. This interpolation finally made the horn a true melodic instrument, not simply limited to a harmonic series, and some of the great composers started to write concerti for this new instrument. The [[Mozart Horn Concerti]], for example, were written for this type of horn, called the [[natural horn]] in the modern literature.
Around [[1815]], the horn took on a new form, as valves were introduced, which allowed the player to switch between crooks without the effort of manually removing one from the horn and inserting a new one. At this same time, the standard horn came to be the horn on the F harmonic series, and there were then three valves added to it. Using these three valves, the player could play all the notes reachable in the horn's range.
== Types of horns ==
<!--[[Image:French horn.jpg|frame|right|A double horn]]-->
[[Image:French horn detail.jpg|frame|right|The valves of a [[Kruspe]]-style double horn]]
Despite this improvement, the single F horn had a rather irksome flaw. As the player played higher and higher notes, the distinctions a player had to make with his or her [[embouchure]] from note to note became increasingly precise. An early solution was simply to use a horn of higher pitch -- usually B-flat. The relative merits of F versus B-flat were a hotbed of debate between horn players of the late nineteenth century, until the German horn maker [[Kruspe]] produced a prototype of the "'''double horn'''" in 1897.
The double horn combines two instruments into a single frame: the original horn in F, and a second, higher horn keyed in B-flat. By using a fourth valve operated by the thumb, the horn player can quickly switch from the deep, warm tones of the F horn to the higher, brighter tones of the B-flat horn. The two sets of tones are commonly called "sides" of the horn. In the words of [[Reginald Morley-Pegge]], the invention of the double horn "revolutionized horn playing technique almost as much as did the invention of the valve." [Morley-Pegge, "Orchestral," 195]
The two most common styles ("wraps") of double horns are named [[Kruspe]] and [[Geyer]] (also known as [[Knopf]]), after the first instrument makers to develop and standardize them. The Kruspe wrap locates the Bb change valve above the first valve, near the thumb. The Geyer wrap has the change valve behind the third valve, near the pinky finger. In effect, the air flows in a completely different direction on the other model. Both models have their own strengths and weaknesses, and are a matter of personal choice among horn players.
=== Specialized horns ===
While most modern instruments are of the F/B-flat double horn variety, various special-purpose instruments are available (usually at a very high price).
* The most common is the '''descant horn''', which is a single horn pitched in F alto, one octave higher than the traditional F horn. The descant is used largely for extended playing in the high register, such as in [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach's]] [[Brandenburg Concerti]]. Double horns in B-flat/High F (or High E-flat) are increasingly popular for works that only use the upper and upper-middle registers of the instrument.
* Single horns in F or B-flat still see use, notably in operatic settings. Their lighter weight renders them much more suitable for the extended and strenuous playing required of Wagnerian operas. Most beginners are started on a single horn for the sake of simplicity.
* Some horns have been produced as keyed in E-flat, and, not surprisingly, are known as '''E-flat horns'''. These instruments are rare and not generally produced today, but found more popular use in concert or marching band music between the [[1930s]] and [[1950s]]. Often, music-publishing companies would print the parts for an F horn (that is, a normal F/B-flat double horn) on one side of a sheet and the E-flat horn on the reverse. The E-flat horn part would sometimes be the same as the F horn, but written with the same key signature as that of an E-flat alto saxophone and thus transcribed up a whole step from the F horn part. Because in many pieces of marching/concert band music the F hornist and alto saxophonist play virtually the same part (differing only in the actual notes they play on their respectively differently-keyed instruments), the E-flat horn might literally use the exact same part as the E-flat alto saxophone.
* The [[natural horn]] is still used by many horn players. It is helpful for understanding the context for pieces written before valves as it sounds and feels different than the modern horn.
* The '''triple horn''' is the result of merging an F/B-flat double horn with an F-alto descant, adding a fifth valve and an additional set of valve slides. Early models had problems such as uneven intonation, a difficult lower range, and added weight that made it less than optimal. However, current triple horns are suitable for work in nearly every register of horn literature. While the double horn remains the most popular instrument, in recent years the triple horn has been gaining more widespread acceptance.
* The '''[[Viennese Horn]]''' is a horn traditionally played in the Vienna Philharmonic. It is a standard single horn with a dual piston mechanism for each valve. [http://iwk.mdw.ac.at/Forschung/english/wrinst/vhorn.htm This page] shows a bit more about the differences between this and the other horns listed above.
[[Image:Viennese horn.jpg|thumbnail|350px|A standard viennese horn.]]
* The '''[[Wagner tuba]]''' is an instrument generally played by the horn players of the orchestra which resembles a mix of a horn and a [[tuba]].
* The '''[[mellophone]]''' is, in appearance, very different from any of the above types of horn, but it is nevertheless used in place of the horn in [[marching band]]s. In fact marching band is the only connection between the horn and the mellophone. This instrument is harmonically much more similar to an elongated trumpet, and is shaped as such. The upside to a mellophone is that it is much easier to march with, but the downside is that the insturment is harder to play in tune due to the fact that the hand cannot be put into the bell.
==See also==
*[[:Category:Horn players]]
*[[List of Horn Players]]
*[[List of compositions for horn]]
*[[List of Horn Techniques]]
*[[List of Horn Makers]]
*[[Cornu (horn)]]
==External links==
{{wikibooks}} <!-- COMMENT: The {{wikibookspar|horn}} template was screwed up as of the date of this edit. Redirecting [[Wikibooks:Horn (instrument)]] to [[Wikibooks:Horn]] for the time being -->
*[http://www.hornsociety.org The International Horn Society]
*[http://www.british-horn.org British Horn Society]
*[http://www.hornplayer.net hornplayer.net]
*http://www.brass-forum.co.uk UK brass discussion forum
*[http://www.public.asu.edu/~jqerics/horn_links.htm Professor John Q. Ericson's Horn Links]
*[http://www.public.asu.edu/~jqerics/articles_online.htm Some online horn articles]
*[http://www.boerger.org/horn Ron Boerger's "Horn Players' FAQ"]
*[http://www.hornexcerpts.org/ An online collection of horn orchestral excerpts]
*[http://www.cosmos-club.org/journals/1999/bowles.html How the valved horn emerged from the early Industrial Revolution]
*[http://www.hornroller.com HornRoller.com, News from the Hornosphere]
*[http://www.brassmusic.ru Brassmusic.Ru — Russian brass community]
*[http://www.french-horn.be French-horn.be, belgian horn community]
[[Category:Brass instruments]]
[[Category:Musical instruments]]
[[bg:Валдхорна]]
[[ca:Trompa (instrument)]]
[[de:Horn (Instrument)]]
[[es:Trompa (instrumento musical)]]
[[fr:Cor d'harmonie]]
[[hr:Francuski rog]]
[[it:Corno (strumento musicale)]]
[[he:קרן יער]]
[[nl:Hoorn (muziekinstrument)]]
[[ja:ホルン]]
[[nn:Valthorn]]
[[pl:Róg (instrument muzyczny)]]
[[pt:Trompa]]
[[ru:Валторна]]
[[sl:Rog]]
[[sr:Хорна]]
[[sv:Valthorn]]
[[vi:French Horn]]
[[zh:法國號]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fra Angelico</title>
<id>11457</id>
<revision>
<id>42063441</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:34:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cantara</username>
<id>40343</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Biography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Il Beato Fra Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole''' ("the Beatified Friar John the Angelic of Fiesole") ([[Vicchio di Mugello]], [[Florence]] [[1395]] &ndash; [[Rome]] [[February 18]] [[1455]]), better known in the English-speaking world as '''Fra Angelico''' ("the Angelic [[Friar]]"), or in [[Continental Europe]] as '''Beato Angelico''' ("the Blessed Angelic One") was a famous painter of the [[Florentine]] state in the [[15th century]], the most famous representative of [[pietistic]] painting. He is often, but not accurately, termed simply "Fiesole," which is merely the name of the town where he first took the vows. His life was described in [[Giorgio Vasari]]'s ''Vite''.
[[image:fra.angelico.church.750pix.jpg|thumb|200px|'''[[Saint Lawrence]] receives<br> the treasures of the Church''', painted [[1447]].]]
== Biography ==
He was born '''Guido di Pietro''', at Vicchio, in the [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] province of [[Mugello]], near [[Fiesole]] towards the end of the [[14th century]], of unknown but seemingly well-to-do parentage, and was baptized Guido or Guidolino (friars used to change their name when entering the orders). Still a young boy he asked for admittance at the convent of San Domenico in [[Florence]], where [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friars were known for their rigid rules (and were called "the Observers"). He completed his [[novitiate]] in [[Cortona]] in [[1408]] and became a full Dominican monk in [[Florence]] about [[1418]] with the name of "Fra Giovanni da Fiesole"; "The Angelic" is a laudatory term which was assigned to him |
[Agave pacifica]]''
*''[[Agave pallida]]''
*''[[Agave palmaris]]''
*''[[Agave palmeri]]'' Engelm. &ndash; Maguey de tlalcoyote, Palmer Agave, Palmer Century Plant, Palmer's Century Plant
*''[[Agave pampaniniana]]''
*''[[Agave panamana]]''
*''[[Agave papyriocarpa]]''
*''[[Agave parryi]]'' Engelm. &ndash; Mezcal yapavai, Parry Agave, Parry's Agave
**''Agave parryi'' var. ''truncata''
*''[[Agave parvidentata]]''
*''[[Agave parviflora]]'' Torr. &ndash; Maguey sbari, Smallflower Agave, Smallflower Century Plant, Little Princess Agave
**''Agave parviflora'' subsp. ''flexiflora''
*''[[Agave patonii]]''
*''[[Agave paucifolia]]''
*''[[Agave paupera]]''
*''[[Agave pavoliniana]]''
*''[[Agave peacockii]]''
*''[[Agave pedrosana]]''
*''[[Agave pedunculifera]]''
*''[[Agave pelona]]'' &ndash; Bald Agave
*''[[Agave perplexans]]''
*''[[Agave pes-mulae]]''
*''[[Agave petiolata]]''
*''[[Agave petrophila]]''
*''[[Agave phillipsiana]]''
*''[[Agave picta]]''
*''[[Agave planera]]''
*''[[Agave polianthiflora]]''
*''[[Agave polianthoides]]''
*''[[Agave portoricensis]]'' Trel. &ndash; Puerto Rico Century Plant
*''[[Agave potatorum]]'' &ndash; Drunkard Agave[[Image:agave.potatorum.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Agave potatorum at Kew Gardens, London, England]]
*''[[Agave potosina]]''
*''[[Agave potrerana]]''
*''[[Agave prainiana]]''
*''[[Agave promontorii]]''
*''[[Agave prostrata]]''
*''[[Agave protuberans]]''
*''[[Agave pruinosa]]''
*''[[Agave pseudotequilana]]''
*''[[Agave pugioniformis]]''
*''[[Agave pulcherrima]]''
*''[[Agave pulchra]]''
*''[[Agave pumila]]''
*''[[Agave punctata]]''
*''[[Agave purpurea]]''
*''[[Agave purpusorum]]''
*''[[Agave pygmae]]''
*''[[Agave quadrata]]''
*''[[Agave quiotifera]]''
*''[[Agave ragusae]]''
*''[[Agave rasconensis]]''
*''[[Agave regia]]''
*''[[Agave revoluta]]''
*''[[Agave rhodacantha]]''
*''[[Agave rigida]]''
*''[[Agave roezliana]]''
*''[[Agave rudis]]''
*''[[Agave rupicola]]''
**''Agave rupicola'' var. ''brevifolia''
**''Agave rupicola'' var. ''longifolia''
**''Agave rupicola'' var. ''rubridentata''
*''[[Agave rutteniae]]''
*''[[Agave rzedowskiana]]''
*''[[Agave salmdyckii]]''
*''[[Agave salmiana]]'' &ndash; Pulque, Maguey, Maguey de montaña (syn. ''Agave atrovirens'')
**''Agave salmiana'' var. ''angustifolia''
**''Agave salmiana'' var. ''cochlearis''
*''[[Agave samalana]]''
*''[[Agave sartorii]]''
*''[[Agave scaphoidea]]''
*''[[Agave scaposa]]''
*''[[Agave scheuermaniana]]''
*''[[Agave schildigera]]''
*''[[Agave schneideriana]]''
*''[[Agave schottii]]'' Engelm. &ndash; Maguey puercoesp n, Schott Agave, Schott's Century Plant, Shindagger, Leather Agave
**''Agave schottii'' var. ''serrulata''
*''[[Agave scolymus]]''
**''Agave scolymus'' var. ''polymorpha''
*''[[Agave sebastiana]]''
*''[[Agave seemanniana]]''
**''Agave seemanniana'' var. ''perscabra''
*''[[Agave serrulata]]''
*''[[Agave sessiliflora]]''
*''[[Agave shaferi]]''
*''[[Agave shawii]]'' Engelm. &ndash; Coastal Agave, Maguey primavera
*''[[Agave shrevei]]''
**''Agave shrevei'' ssp. ''magna''
**''Agave shrevei'' ssp. ''matapensis''
*''[[Agave sicaefolia]]''
*''[[Agave simoni]]''
*''[[Agave sisalana]]'' Perrine &ndash; Maguey de Sisal, Sisal, Sisal Hemp (syn. ''Furcraea sisaliana'')
*''[[Agave sleviniana]]''
*''[[Agave smithiana]]''
*''[[Agave sobolifera]]''
**''Agave sobolifera'' f. ''spinidentata''
*''[[Agave sobria]]''
**''Agave sobria'' ssp. ''frailensis''
*''[[Agave sordida]]''
*''[[Agave striata]]''
**''Agave striata'' var. ''mesae''
*''[[Agave stricta]]''
*''[[Agave stringens]]''
*''[[Agave subinermis]]''
*''[[Agave subsimplex]]''
*''[[Agave subtilis]]''
*''[[Agave subzonata]]''
*''[[Agave sullivani]]''
*''[[Agave tecta]]''
*''[[Agave tenuifolia]]''
*''[[Agave tenuispina]]''
*''[[Agave teopiscana]]''
*''[[Agave tequilana]]'' A. Weber &ndash; Mezcal azul tequilero, Tequila Agave, Weber Blue Agave (gives [[tequila]])
*''[[Agave terraccianoi]]''
*''[[Agave theometel]]''
*''[[Agave thomasae]]''
*''[[Agave thomsoniana]]''
*''[[Agave tigrina]]''
*''[[Agave titanota]]''
*''[[Agave todaroi]]''
*''[[Agave toneliana]]''
*''[[Agave tortispina]]''
*''[[Agave toumeyana]]'' Trel. &ndash; Toumey Agave, Toumey's Century Plant
**''Agave toumeyana'' var. ''bella''
*''[[Agave trankeera]]''
*''[[Agave troubetskoyana]]''
*''[[Agave tubulata]]''
**''Agave tubulata'' ssp. ''brevituba''
*''[[Agave underwoodii]]''
*''[[Agave unguiculata]]''
*''[[Agave utahensis]]'' Engelm. &ndash; Utah Agave
**''Agave utahensis'' var. ''discreta''
*''[[Agave van-grolae]]''
*''[[Agave vandervinneni]]''
*''[[Agave ventum-versa]]''
*''[[Agave vernae]]''
*''[[Agave verschaffeltii]]''
*''[[Agave vestita]]''
*''[[Agave vicina]]''
*''[[Agave victoriae-reginae]]'' &ndash; Queen Victoria's Agave
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''dentata''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''latifolia''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''longifolia''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''longispina''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''ornata''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''stolonifera''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''viridis''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' ssp. ''swobodae''
*''[[Agave vilmoriniana]]'' Berger &ndash; Octopus Agave
*''[[Agave viridissima]]''
*''[[Agave vivipara]]''
**''Agave vivipara'' var. ''cabaiensis''
**''Agave vivipara'' var. ''cuebensis''
*''[[Agave vizcainoensis]]''
*''[[Agave wallisii]]''
*''[[Agave warelliana]]''
*''[[Agave washingtonensis]]''
*''[[Agave watsoni]]''
*''[[Agave weberi]]'' Cels ex Poisson &ndash; Maguey liso, Weber's Century Plant, Weber Agave
*''[[Agave weingartii]]''
*''[[Agave wendtii]]''
*''[[Agave wercklei]]''
*''[[Agave wiesenbergensis]]''
*''[[Agave wightii]]''
*''[[Agave wildingii]]''
*''[[Agave winteriana]]''
*''[[Agave wislizeni]]'' [[Image:Agave parrasana.jpg|thumb|''Agave parrasana'' synonym ''Agave wislizeni'']]
*''[[Agave wocomahi]]''
*''[[Agave woodrowi]]''
*''[[Agave wrightii]]''
*''[[Agave xylonacantha]]'' Salm-Dyck &ndash; Century Plant, Maguey diente de tiburn
*''[[Agave yaquiana]]''
*''[[Agave yuccaefolia]]''
**''Agave yuccifolia'' var. ''caespitosa''
*''[[Agave zapupe]]''
*''[[Agave zebra]]''
*''[[Agave zonata]]''
*''[[Agave zuccarinii]]''
==References==
* [[Howard Scott Gentry]], ''Agaves of Continental North America'' (University of Arizona Press, 1982), the standard work, with accounts of 136 species
*[http://www.ipni.org/index.html IPNI : The International Plant Name Index]
==External links==
* [http://www.desert-tropicals.com/Plants/Agavaceae/Agave.html Desert Tropicals ''Agave'' list]
* [http://www.shakeoffthesugar.net/article1042.html Agave Nectar or Syrup]
* [http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/agave-virg.html Agave virginica (False Aloe)] King's American Dispensatory @ Henriette's Herbal
*[http://bodd.cf.ac.uk/BotDermFolder/BotDermA/AGAV.html Botanical Dermatology Database] Information on agave contact dermatitis
[[Category:Agavaceae]]
[[Category:Poisonous_plants]]
[[Category:Dermatology]]
[[da:Agave]]
[[de:Agaven]]
[[es:Agave (planta)]]
[[fr:Agave]]
[[it:Agave (botanica)]]
[[la:Agave (planta)]]
[[nl:Agave]]
[[ja:リュウゼツラン]]
[[pl:Agawa]]
[[fi:Agaavet]]
[[zh:龍舌蘭草]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amaltheia</title>
<id>686</id>
<revision>
<id>15899212</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-06T00:57:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wetman</username>
<id>21492</id>
</contributor>
<comment>eliminating secondary redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Amalthea (mythology)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Analysis of Variance</title>
<id>687</id>
<revision>
<id>15899213</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asia</title>
<id>689</id>
<revision>
<id>42122541</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:42:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jaxl</username>
<id>309415</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.137.245.207|72.137.245.207]] ([[User talk:72.137.245.207|talk]]) to last version by Dcsohl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
{{otheruses}}
{{seealso|Asian|Eurasian}}
'''Asia''' is the largest and most populous region or [[continent]] depending on the definition. It is traditionally defined as part of the [[landmass]] of [[Africa]]-[[Eurasia]] lying east of the [[Suez Canal]], east of the [[Ural Mountains]], and south of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] and the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Black Sea]]s. About 60% of the world's [[human population]] lives in Asia, of whom only 2% live in the northern and interior half ([[Siberia]], [[Mongolia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Xinjiang]], [[Tibet]], [[Qinghai]], western [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Turkmenistan]]); the other 98% live in the remaining half.
[[Image:LocationAsia.png|thumb|250px|World map showing Asia.]]
==Etymology==
The word ''Asia'' entered English, via [[Latin]], from [[Ancient Greek]] Ασία (''Asia''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]). This name is first attested in [[Herodotus]] (c. 440 BC), where it refers to [[Asia Minor]]; or, for the purposes of describing the [[Persian Wars]], to the [[Persian Empire]], as opposed to [[Greece]] and [[Egypt]]. Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three different women's names are used to describe a single land-mass ([[Europa]], Asia and [[Libya]], referring to Africa) stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of [[Prometheus]] but that the [[Lydians]] say it was named after [[Asias]], son of [[Cotys]] who passed the name on to a tribe in [[Sardis]].
Even before Herodotus, [[Homer |
cn:Blues]]
[[sv:Blues]]
[[vi:Nhạc Blues]]
[[wa:Blouze]]
[[zh:布鲁斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bluegrass</title>
<id>3353</id>
<revision>
<id>41525924</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:14:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Elf</username>
<id>40082</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fmt more like [[MoS:DP]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bluegrass''' refers to several species of grasses of the genus ''[[Poa]]'', native to the American midwest. The term has also been applied to various things that relate to the region in which the grass grows:
*[[Bluegrass region]]
*[[Bluegrass music]]
*[[Bluegrass (Monon)]], a passenger train that operated between Chicago, Illinois and Louisville, Kentucky.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Berlin</title>
<id>3354</id>
<revision>
<id>41832669</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:05:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ksenon</username>
<id>541820</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */ 1920s Berlin link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city in [[Germany]]. For other uses, see [[Berlin (disambiguation)]].''
{| align=right border=0 style="float:right;"
|
[[Image:Brandenburger_Tor1.JPG|thumb|400px|right|The Brandenburg Gate, one of Berlin's best-known landmarks]]
|-
|
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" style="float:right; empty-cells:show; margin-right:0em; margin-left:1em; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:#FFDEAD;"
|+<font size="+1">'''State of Berlin'''</font><br />
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | State and Service Flag
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#EFEFEF" |[[Image:Flag of Berlin.svg|150px|State flag of Berlin]]<br />
|- bgcolor="#FFDEAD"
! Coat of arms !! Map of Berlin in Germany
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
! align="center" | [[Image:Coat of arms Germany Berlin.png|center|80px|Coat of Arms of Berlin]] || [[Image:Germany Laender Berlin.png|center|140px|Map of Berlin in Germany]]
|-
!colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffdead" | Basic Information
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Area]]: || 891.75&nbsp;[[kilometer|km]]² (344.31&nbsp;[[square mile|mi²]])
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Population]]: || 3,393,933 <small>(estimate, [[30 September]] [[2005]])</small>
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Population density]]: || 3,806 residents/km² (9,857/mi²)
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Elevation]]: || 34 m (112 ft) above [[sea level]]
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Postal code]]s: || 10001-14199
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Area code]]: || 030
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|td valign="top" | [[Latitude]] and [[Longitude]]: || {{coor dm|52|31|N|13|24|E|type:city(3,390,444)}}
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[License plate]] prefix: || B
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|Organisation: || [[Boroughs of Berlin|12 Bezirke (boroughs),<br> 96 Stadtteile (localities)]]
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[ISO 3166-2:DE|ISO 3166-2]]: || DE-BE
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|Website: || [http://www.berlin.de/english/index.html www.berlin.de]
|-
!colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffdead" | Politics
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|[[Mayor]]: || [[Klaus Wowereit]] ([[Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands|SPD]])
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|Governing [[political party|political parties]]: || [[Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands|SPD]] and [[Left Party (Germany)|Left Party]]
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|td valign="top" | Seat distribution in<br> the State Parliament<br />(141 seats total): || td valign="top" | [[Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands|SPD]] 45<br />[[CDU]] 35<br />[[Left Party (Germany)|Left Party]] 33<br />[[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|FDP]] 12<br />[[Bündnis 90/Die Grünen|B90/Grüne]] 14
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|last election: || [[21 October]] [[2001]]
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
|next election: || 2006
|-
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffdead" | Parliamentary representation
|-bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| Votes in the [[Bundesrat (Germany)|Bundesrat]]: || 4
|}
|}
{{Audio|DE Berlin2.ogg|'''Berlin'''}}, [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[bɛɐˈliːn]]}}, is the [[capital city]] as well as a [[states of Germany|state]] of [[Germany]], and also the country's largest city.
Berlin is the political and cultural centre of Germany and, due to its division into [[West Berlin]] and [[East Berlin]] from [[1949]] - [[1989]], one of the most diverse cities in the [[European Union]]. Berlin is an important crossroads for the states of the expanding European Union, as well as the home of many of the national economic, cultural, and educational institutions of Germany. Berlin hosts some of the most prominent universities, research faculties, theatres, and museums in Europe. Berlin has also gained an international reputation for its festivals, nightlife and contemporary architecture.
Berlin is located in northeastern Germany, on the [[River]]s [[Spree]] and [[Havel]], completely surrounded by the German federal state of [[Brandenburg]]. Founded in the early [[13th century]], Berlin was the capital of the March of [[Brandenburg]] and, after [[1701]], capital of the Kingdom of [[Prussia]]. In [[1871]], Berlin became capital of the [[German Empire]] and a focal point for the nation's [[History of Germany|history]].
Since the reunification of Germany on [[3 October]] [[1990]], Berlin has again been the capital of Germany. Berlin is also the seat of most of the executive and legislative branches of the German government.
==History==
{{main|History of Berlin}}
Early in the 13th century, the twin cities of Berlin and [[Cölln]] were founded as part of the German expansion into the formerly Slavic lands east of the River Elbe. Each of the twin cities was built on an island in the River Spree. Cölln lay on what is now known as the Spree Island (Spreeinsel), while the original Berlin lay across an arm of the Spree on an island to the northeast, where the medieval churches of St. Mary (Marienkirche) and St. Nicholas (Nikolaikirche) now stand. Another arm of the Spree, since filled in, separated the original Berlin from the mainland to the northeast.
The first written mention of the city of Cölln dates to [[1237]], and that of Berlin dates to [[1244]]. From the beginning, the two cities formed an economic and social unit. In [[1307]], the two cities were united politically. Over time, the twin cities came to be known simply as Berlin, the larger of the pair. The name Berlin probably stems from the Slavic root <i>berl</i> (swamp, marshy ground).
In [[1415]] [[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg|Frederick I]] became the [[prince-elector|elector]] of the Margravate of [[Brandenburg]], which he ruled until [[1440]]. Subsequent members of the [[Hohenzollern]] family ruled until [[1918]] in Berlin, first as electors of Brandenburg, then as kings of [[Prussia]], and finally as German emperors. The inhabitants of Berlin did not always welcome these changes.
In [[1448]] they rebelled in the “Berlin Indignation” against the construction of a new royal palace by Elector [[Frederick II, Margrave of Brandenburg|Frederick II Irontooth]]. This protest was not successful, however, and the citizenry lost many of its political and economic privileges. In [[1451]] Berlin became the royal residence of the Brandenburg electors, and Berlin had to give up its status as a free [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] city. In [[1539]] the electors and the city officially became [[Protestant]].
The [[Thirty Years War]] between [[1618]] and [[1648]] had devastating consequences for Berlin. A third of the houses were damaged, and the city lost half of its population. [[Frederick William]], known as the “Great Elector”, succeeded his father as ruler in 1640. He initiated a policy of promoting [[immigration]] and religious tolerance. Over the following decades, Berlin expanded greatly in area and population with the founding of the new suburbs of Friedrichswerder, Dorotheenstadt, and Friedrichstadt, today the site of many government offices.
[[Image:Map de berlin 1789.jpg|thumb|400px|Berlin in 1789]]In 1671, fifty Jewish families from Austria were given a home in Berlin. With the Edict of Potsdam in [[1685]], Frederick William invited the French [[Huguenots]] to Brandenburg. More than 15,000 Huguenots came, of whom 6,000 settled in Berlin. Around [[1700]], approximately twenty percent of Berlin's residents were French, and their cultural influence was great. Many other immigrants came from [[Bohemia]], [[Poland]], and [[Salzburg]].
With coronation of Frederick I in [[1701]] as king of [[Prussia]], Berlin became the capital of Prussia. On [[1 January]] [[1710]], the cities of Berlin, Cölln, Friedrichswerder, Dorotheenstadt, and Friedrichstadt were united as the “Royal Capital and Residence of Berlin.” The [[Industrial Revolution]] transformed Berlin during the 19th century; the city's economy and population expanded dramatically, and it became the main rail hub and economic centre of Germany. Additional suburbs soon developed and increased the area and population of Berlin. In [[1861]], outlying suburbs including [[Wedding, Berlin|Wedding]], [[Moabit]], and several others were incorporated into Berlin. In [[1871]], Berlin became capital of the newly founded German Empire.
At the end of [[World War I]] in [[1918]], the [[Weimar Republic]] was proclaimed in Berlin. In [[1920]], the Greater Berlin Act united dozens of suburban cities, villages, and estates around Berlin into a greatly expanded city. After this expansion, Berlin had a popul |
ados''. The ''Senado'' has 30 seats, and its members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The ''Cámara de Diputados'' has 149 seats, and its members are also elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms.
===Elections===
Legislative elections were last held [[16 May]] 2002). After the 1998 election, the PRD held 24 seats in the ''Senado'', and the PLD and PRSC held three seats each.In the 2002 elections the PRD got 29 of the 32 seats, the PRSC got 2 (LA Altagracia and San Pedro de Macoris) and PLD got 1 representing the National District. In the 1998 elections ''Cámara de Diputados'', the PRD held 83, the PLD 49, and the PRSC 17. Next elections will be held on May 16, 2006.
==Judicial branch==
The top level of the judicial branch is the Supreme Court, or ''Corte Suprema''. Its judges are elected by a Council made up of legislative and executive members with the President presiding.
==Political parties and leaders==
{{main|List of political parties in the Dominican Republic}}
*Alliance for Democracy Party, or APD (Maximilano Rabelais Puig Miller, Nelsida Marmolejos, Vicente Bengoa)
*Anti-Imperialist Patriotic Union, or UPA (Ignacio Rodriguez Chiappini)
*Democratic Quisqueyan Party, or PQD (Elias Wessin Chavez)
*Democratic Union, or UD (Fernando Alvarez Bogaert)
*Revolutionary Front, or FR (Narciso Isa Conde)
*[[Dominican Liberation Party]], or PLD (Jose Tomas Perez)
*[[Dominican Revolutionary Party]], or PRD (Rafael Albuquerque)
*Dominican Worker's Party, or PTD (Ivan Rodriguez)
*Independent Revolutionary Party, or PRI (leader NA)
*Liberal Party of the Dominican Republic, or PLRD (Andres Van Der Horst)
*National Progressive Force, or FNP (Pelegrin Castillo)
*National Veterans and Civilian Party, or PNVC (Juan Rene Beauchamps Javier)
*Popular Christian Party, or PPC (Rogelio Delgado Bogaert)
*[[Social Christian Reformist Party]], or PRSC (Quique Antun)
In 1983, several leftist parties, including the PCD, joined to form the Dominican Leftist Front, or FID. However, they still retain individual party structures.
See also: [[List of Presidents of the Dominican Republic]]
===Political pressure groups and leaders===
*Collective of Popular Organizations or COP
==International organization participation==
ACP, [[Caricom]] (observer), ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, [[Interpol]], IOC, IOM, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM (observer), OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
==Flag description==
A centered white cross that extends to the edges divides the flag into four rectangles - the top ones are blue (hoist side) and red, and the bottom ones are red (hoist side) and blue; a small coat of arms is at the center of the cross. ''See:'' [[Flag of the Dominican Republic]].
[[Category:Politics of the Dominican Republic|*]]
[[es:Política de la República Dominicana]]
[[fr:Politique de la République dominicaine]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of the Dominican Republic</title>
<id>8067</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Dominican Republic]] is a middle-income [[developing country]] primarily dependent on [[agriculture]], trade, and services, especially [[tourism]]. Although the service sector has recently overtaken agriculture as the leading employer of Dominicans (due principally to growth in tourism and Free Trade Zones), agriculture remains the most important sector in terms of domestic consumption and is in second place (behind mining) in terms of export earnings. Tourism accounts for more than $1 billion in annual earnings. Free Trade Zone earnings and tourism are the fastest-growing export sectors. [[Remittance]]s from Dominicans living in the [[United States]], are estimated to be about $1.5 billion per year.
==Overview==
Following economic turmoil in the late 1980s and 1990, during which the GDP fell by up to 5% and consumer price inflation reached an unprecedented 100%, the Dominican Republic entered a period of moderate growth and declining inflation until 2002 after which the economy entered a recession, after the second commercial bank of the country collapsed, caused by a major fraud. GDP dropped by 1% in 2003 while inflation balooned by over 27%.
Despite a widening merchandise trade deficit, tourism earnings and remittances have helped build foreign exchange reserves. The Dominican Republic is current on foreign private debt, and has agreed to pay arrears of about $130 million to the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Commodity Credit Corporation.
The government faces several economic policy challenges--high real interest rates, fiscal imbalances caused by money-losing public enterprises and poor tax-collection rates, and reducing dependence on taxes on international trade. Years of tariff protection for domestic production have left the economy vulnerable in a rapidly integrating global economy. The deteriorating non-free trade zone merchandise trade balance is in part due to the failure of the exchange rate to reflect inflationary trends in the 1993-1995 period.
In December 1996, incoming President Fernandez presented a bold reform package for this Caribbean economy - including the devaluation of the peso, income tax cuts, a 50% increase in sales taxes, reduced import tariffs, and increased gasoline prices - in an attempt to create a market-oriented economy that can compete internationally. Even though most reforms are stalled in the legislature - including the intellectual property rights bill, social security reform, and a new electricity law first submitted in 1993 - the economy has grown vigorously under Fernandez's administration. Construction, tourism and telecommunications are leading the advance. The government is working to increase electric generating capacity, a key to continued economic growth; the state electricity company was finally privatized following numerous delays. The continuation of this vigorous growth in 2000 will depend on the policies adopted by the new administration.
''===Statistics===''
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $52.71 billion (2003 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
-0.7% (2003 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $6,000 (2003 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
''agriculture:''
10.7%
''industry:''
31.5%
''services:''
57.8% (2003)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
19.9% (2003)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
''lowest 10%:''
2.1%
''highest 10%:''
37.9% (2003)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
27.5% (2003)
'''Labor force:'''
2.3 million to 2.6 million (2000 est.)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
services and government 58.7%, industry 24.3%, agriculture 17% (1998 est.)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
16.5% (2003 est.)
'''Budget:'''
''revenues:''
$2.601 billion
''expenditures:''
$3.353 billion, including capital expenditures of $1.1 billion (2003 est.)
'''Industries:'''
tourism, sugar processing, ferronickel and gold mining, textiles, cement, tobacco
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2% (2001 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
9,186 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
''fossil fuel:''
72.04%
''hydro:''
27.62%
''nuclear:''
0%
''other:''
0.34% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
8,543 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
sugarcane, coffee, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, rice, beans, potatoes, corn, bananas; cattle, pigs, dairy products, beef, eggs
'''Exports:'''
$5.524 billion (f.o.b., 2003 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
ferronickel, sugar, gold, silver, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, meats
'''Exports - partners:'''
US 84.4%, Canada 1.7%, Haiti 1.5% (2003 est.)
'''Imports:'''
$7.911 billion (f.o.b., 2003)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton and fabrics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals
'''Imports - partners:'''
US 49.5%, Venezuela 11.3%, Mexico 4.4%, Colombia 4% (2003 est.)
'''Debt - external:'''
$6.567 billion (2003 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$239.6 million (1995)
'''Currency:'''
1 Dominican peso (RD$) = 100 centavos
'''Exchange rates:'''
Dominican pesos (RD$) per US$1 - 46.151 (February 2004), 18.609 (2002), 16.161 (January 2000), 16.033 (1999), 15.267 (1998), 14.265 (1997), 13.775 (1996), 13.597 (1995)
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
===See also===
*[[Dominican Republic]]
*[[List of Dominican companies]]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Dominican Republic, the]]
[[Category:Economy of the Dominican Republic| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Dominican Republic, the]]
[[de:Wirtschaft der Dominikanischen Republik]]
[[es:Economía de la República Dominicana]]
[[pt:Economia da República Dominicana]]
[[zh:多米尼加共和国经济]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Communications in the Dominican Republic</title>
<id>8068</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
938,392 (2005)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2,789,196 (2005)
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''domestic:''
very efficient system based on islandwide microwave radio relay network and fiber optics lines that cover many of the main cities
<br>''international:''
connected to the [[ARCOS]] (America's Region Caribbean Optical-ring System); 1 coaxial submarine cable; satellite earth station - 1; [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
''' |
lumbian]] and [[Christian]] symbols in their [[worship]]. About half of the people speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]] as their [[first language]], although the Aymara and Quechua languages are also common. Approximately 90% of the children attend primary school but often for a year or less. The literacy rate is low in many rural areas. The cultural development of what is present-day Bolivia is divided into three distinct periods: pre-Columbian, colonial, and republican. Important [[Archaeology|archaeological]] ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, [[ceramics]], and [[weaving]]s remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include [[Tiwanaku]], [[Samaipata]], [[Incallajta]], and [[Iskanwaya]]. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.
The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of local indigenous and [[mestizo]] builders and [[artisan]]s, developed into a rich and distinctive style of [[architecture]], [[painting]], and [[sculpture]] known as "Mestizo Baroque". The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Pérez de Holguín, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown [[stonecutter]]s, [[woodcarver]]s, [[goldsmith]]s, and [[silversmith]]s. An important body of native baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered in recent years and has been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1993.
Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century include, among others, Guzmán de Rojas, Arturo Borda, María Luisa Pacheco, and Marina Núñez del Prado. Bolivia has rich [[folklore]]. Its regional [[folk music]] is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at the annual [[carnival]] of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at [[Tarabuco]].
== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Bolivia]]''
Bolivian culture has many [[Inca]], [[Aymara]] and other indigenous influences in religion, music and clothing, depending upon the region of the country, isolation of the cultures and contact with European (Spanish) culture. The best known fiesta is the [[UNESCO]] heritage "El [[carnaval]] de Oruro". Entertainment includes [[Football (soccer)|football]], which is the national sport, played in many street corners. Also, zoos are a popular attraction with a diverse population of interesting creatures. Also, Bolivia is full of a variety of festivals, including special dance celebrations, such as the Carnaval de Oruro.
''See'' [[Music of Bolivia]]
== Literature ==
*Herbert S. Klein, "A Concise History of Bolivia", Cambridge 2003
==Footnotes==
:<sup>1</sup> Jennifer Hattam, "[http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/200109/lol1.asp Who Owns Water]?" ''Sierra'', Sept 2001, v.86, iss.5, p.16.
:<sup>2</sup> PBS Frontline/World "[http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bolivia/ Leasing the Rain]" Video, June 2002
[[Military of Bolivia]]
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Bolivia}}
'''Government'''
* [http://www.congreso.gov.bo/ Bolivian National Congress]
'''General information'''
* [http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/index.cfm/fuseaction/searchSimpleResults/iw/1/keyword/bolivia Public Opinion in Bolivia]
* [http://www.angus-reid.com/tracker/index.cfm/fuseaction/viewItem/itemID/8124 Election Tracker-Bolivia]
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Bolivia Open Directory Project - Bolivia] directory category
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bl.html Bolivia information at the CIA World Factbook]
* [http://www.boliviaweb.com Bolivia Web]
* [http://www.citizenshipbolivia.com Information on Bolivian Citizenship]
* [http://www.labairlines.co.uk LAB Airlines UK Site - The National Airline of Bolivia]
'''Media'''
* [http://www.bolpress.com Independent Press site]
'''Other'''
* [http://street-children.org.uk/bolivia.htm Bolivian Street Children]
* [http://www.boliviatoday.org Bolivia Today] Travel information in English
* [http://photo.goliathus.com/bolivia/ Bolivia Photography] of [http://www.goliathus.com insect] trip in 2004.
* [http://www.bolivia.sudamerica.it Portale Bolivia]
* [http://www.biblioworks.org BiblioWorks literacy non-profit working in Bolivia]
{{South_America}}
[[Category:Bolivia|Bolivia]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[Category:South American countries]]
[[af:Bolivia]]
[[an:Bolibia]]
[[ar:بوليفيا]]
[[ast:Bolivia]]
[[ay:Wuliwya]]
[[bg:Боливия]]
[[bs:Bolivija]]
[[ca:Bolívia]]
[[cs:Bolívie]]
[[cy:Bolivia]]
[[da:Bolivia]]
[[de:Bolivien]]
[[el:Βολιβία]]
[[eo:Bolivio]]
[[es:Bolivia]]
[[et:Boliivia]]
[[eu:Bolivia]]
[[fi:Bolivia]]
[[fr:Bolivie]]
[[gd:Bolivia]]
[[gl:Bolivia]]
[[he:בוליביה]]
[[hr:Bolivija]]
[[ht:Bolivi]]
[[hu:Bolívia]]
[[id:Bolivia]]
[[ilo:Bolivia]]
[[io:Bolivia]]
[[is:Bólivía]]
[[it:Bolivia]]
[[ja:ボリビア]]
[[ko:볼리비아]]
[[ks:बोलिविया]]
[[la:Bolivia]]
[[li:Bolivia]]
[[lt:Bolivija]]
[[lv:Bolīvija]]
[[mk:Боливија]]
[[ms:Bolivia]]
[[na:Bolivia]]
[[nah:Bolivia]]
[[nds:Bolivien]]
[[nl:Bolivia]]
[[nn:Bolivia]]
[[no:Bolivia]]
[[pl:Boliwia]]
[[pt:Bolívia]]
[[qu:Bulibiya]]
[[ro:Bolivia]]
[[ru:Боливия]]
[[sa:बोलिविया]]
[[simple:Bolivia]]
[[sk:Bolívia]]
[[sl:Bolivija]]
[[sq:Bolivia]]
[[sr:Боливија]]
[[sv:Bolivia]]
[[ta:பொலிவியா]]
[[th:ประเทศโบลิเวีย]]
[[tl:Bolivia]]
[[tr:Bolivya]]
[[uk:Болівія]]
[[zh:玻利維亞]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bolivia]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
<id>3463</id>
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<id>42158805</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:14:15Z</timestamp>
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<username>Guanaco</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = Bosna i Hercegovina<br/>Босна и Херцеговина
|common_name = Bosnia and Herzegovina
|image_flag = Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg
|image_coat = Bosnia coa.PNG
|image_map = LocationBosniaAndHerzegovina.png
|national_motto = none
|national_anthem = [[Intermeco]]
|official_languages = [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]]
|capital = [[Sarajevo]]
|latd=43 |latm=52 |latNS=N |longd=18 |longm=25 |longEW=E
|largest_city = [[Sarajevo]]
|government_type = [[Federal republic]]
|leader_titles = [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Presidents]]<br><br><br>[[Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Prime Minister]]<br>
|leader_names =[[Sulejman Tihić]]<sup>1 ([[Bosniak]])</sup><br>[[Borislav Paravac]] <sup>([[Serb]])</sup><br>[[Ivo Miro Jović]] <sup>([[Croat]])</sup>
[[Adnan Terzic]]
|area_rank = 124th
|area_magnitude = 1_E12
|area= 51,129
|areami²= 19,741 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|percent_water = Negligible
|population_estimate = 4,025,476<sup>2</sup>
|population_estimate_rank = 120th
|population_estimate_year = July 2005
|population_census = 4,354,911
|population_census_year = 1991
|population_density =79
|population_densitymi² =205 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|population_density_rank = 90th
|GDP_PPP = $28.26 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 90th
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6,800
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 101st
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = From [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]
|established_dates = [[5 April]] [[1992]]
|HDI = 0.786
|HDI_rank = 68th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>
|currency = [[Convertible Mark]]
|currency_code = BAM
|country_code =
|time_zone = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|utc_offset_DST = +1
|cctld = [[.ba]]
|calling_code = 387
|footnotes = <small><sup>1</sup>Current chairman of three-member rotating presidency.<br><sup>2</sup>Population estimates vary greatly as no official census has been taken since 1991.
}}
'''Bosnia and Herzegovina''' (locally: ''Bosna i Hercegovina/Босна и Херцеговина'', most commonly abbreviated as ''BiH/БиХ'') is a country in south-east [[Europe]] with an estimated population of four million people. The country is the homeland of its three ethnic [[Nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina|constituent peoples]]: [[Bosniaks]], [[Serbs]], and [[Croats]]. Other communities that live there are not given the status of being "constituent"[http://www.oscebih.org/documents/54-eng.pdf]. A citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is usually identified as a [[Bosnians|Bosnian]].
The country borders with [[Croatia]] in the west and [[Serbia and Montenegro]] in the east. It is virtually landlocked save for a small strip of land (about 12&nbsp; or 20&nbsp;km) on the [[Adriatic sea]], centered around the city of [[Neum]]. The interior of the country is heavily mountainous and divided by various rivers, most of which are nonnavigable. The nation's capital is [[Sarajevo]], which is also its largest city.
Bosnia and Herzegovina was formerly one of the six federal units constituting [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. The republic gained its independence in the [[Yugoslav wars]] of the 1990s and, due to the [[Dayton Accords]], is currently administered in a supervisory role by a [[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina|High Representative]] selected by the [[UN Security Council]]. It is also decentralized and administratively divided into two entities, the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Republika Srpska]].
[[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]] itself is the chief geographic region of the modern state, and forms its historical backbone. [[Herzegovina]] is the most notable among several ot |
for on an explicitly voluntary basis. According to Molinari, "Under a regime of liberty, the natural organization of the security industry would not be different from that of other industries."<ref name=Molinari-1849>Molinari, Gustave de (1849) [http://www.gustavedemolinari.org/GM-PS.htm The Production of Security] ''(trans. J. Huston McCulloch)'' Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref> Proponents point out that private systems of justice and defense ''already'' exist, naturally forming where the market is allowed to compensate for the failure of the state: private arbitration, security guards, neighborhood watch groups, and so on.<ref name=Friedman-1973>[[David Friedman|Friedman, David D.]] (1973) ''[[The Machinery of Freedom|The Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism]]'' Harper & Row ISBN 0060910100 [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Libertarian/Machinery_of_Freedom/MofF_Chapter_29.html ch29]</ref> These private courts and police are sometimes referred to generically as Private Defense Agencies ([[PDA]]s.)
The defense of those unable to pay for such protection might be financed by charitable organizations relying on voluntary donation rather than by state institutions relying on coercive taxation, or by cooperative self-help by groups of individuals.
[[Retributive justice]], meaning retaliatory force, is often a component of the contracts imagined for an anarcho-capitalist society. Some believe [[prison]]s or [[indentured servitude]] would be justifiable institutions to deal with those who violate anarcho-capitalist property relations, while others believe [[exile]] or forced [[restitution]] are sufficient.<ref>O'Keeffe, Matthew (1989) [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/legan/legan005.pdf "Retribution versus Restitution"] Legal Notes No.5, Libertarian Alliance ISBN 1870614224 Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref>
===The use of force===
[[Image:Bunkertrumbull.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Many anarcho-capitalists admire the American Revolution and believe it is the only U.S. war that can be justified.]]
The axiom of nonaggression is not necessarily a [[pacifism|pacifist]] doctrine; it is a prohibition against the '''initiation''' of (interpersonal) force. Like classical liberalism, anarcho-capitalism permits the use of force, as long as it is in the defense of persons or property.
However, the permissible extent of this defensive use of force is an arguable point among anarcho-capitalists. Some argue that the initiator of any aggressive act should be subject to a retributive counterattack beyond what is solely necessary to repel the aggression. The counterargument is that such a counterattack is only legitimate insofar as it was defined in an agreement between the parties.
Another controversial application of "defensive" aggression is the act of revolutionary violence against tyrannical regimes. Many anarcho-capitalists admire [[the American Revolution]] as the legitimate act of individuals working together to fight against [[tyranny|tyrannical]] restrictions of their liberties. In fact, according to Murray Rothbard, the American Revolutionary War was the only war involving the United States that could be justified.<ref>Rothbard, Murray N. (1973) [http://www.antiwar.com/orig/rothbard_on_war.html Interview] ''Reason'' Feb 1973, Retrieved [[10 August]] [[2005]]</ref> But, illustrating their general ambivalence toward war, these same people also sharply criticize the revolutionaries for the means used — taxes, [[conscription]], [[inflation|inflationary money]] — and the inadequacy of the result: a state.
While some anarcho-capitalists believe forceful resistance and revolutionary violence against the state is legitimate, most believe the use of force is a dangerous tool at best, and that violent [[insurrection]] should be a last resort.
==Conflicts within anarcho-capitalist theory==
There is dispute on whether anarcho-capitalism is properly justifiable on [[deontological]] or [[consequentialist]] grounds. Natural-law anarcho-capitalism (such as that advocated by Rothbard) holds that rights can be determined through natural law and that consequences are not relevant to their determination. Consequentialists such as Friedman disagree, maintaining that rights are merely human constructs that rational humans create through contract as a result of concluding what sort of system leads to the best consequences. Many anarcho-capitalists also hold a subjective theory of rights, maintaining that the lack of a [[positive right]] to aggress is sufficient to hold up the derivative claims of the nonaggression principle.
Friedman describes an economic approach to anarcho-capitalism. His description differs with Rothbard's because it does not use moral arguments — i.e., it does not appeal to a theory of [[natural rights]] to justify itself. In Friedman's work, the economic argument is sufficient to derive the principles of anarcho-capitalism. Private defense or protection agencies and courts not only defend legal rights but supply the actual content of these rights and all claims on the free market. People will have the law system they pay for, and because of [[economic efficiency]] considerations resulting from individuals' utility functions, such law will tend to be libertarian in nature but will differ from place to place and from agency to agency depending on the tastes of the people who buy the law. Also unlike other anarcho-capitalists, most notably Rothbard, Friedman has never tried to deny the theoretical cogency of the neoclassical literature on "market failure," nor has he been inclined to attack economic efficiency as a normative benchmark.<ref name=Friedman-1973/>
==Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism==
{{main|Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism}}
===Dispute over the name "anarchism"===
Many anarchists strongly argue that anarcho-capitalism is not a form of anarchism, since they believe capitalism to be inherently authoritarian. [[Joe Peacott]] has explicitly stated that individualist anarchism is anti-capitalist, and contrasts it to anarcho-capitalism.<ref>[[Joe Peacott|Peacott, Joe]] (2003), [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/econn/econn097.htm] Libertarian Alliance ISBN 1856375641</ref> Individualist anarchist Daniel Burton says that anarcho-capitalism is a "type of individualist anarchism", but that most individualists are class-war anti-capitalists<ref>[http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/ac-vs-ia.html ''Individualist anarchists vs. Anarcho-capitalism'']</ref>. However, many individualists do not see their philosophy as a "class war" but a war against government repression of ''individual'' liberty.{{fact}} Murray Rothbard argues that an "anarchist society [is] one where there is no legal possibility for coercive aggression against the person or property of any individual." Whether anarcho-capitalism is a true form of anarchism may depend on the meaning of the words "anarchism" and "capitalism".
Adherents of the traditional schools of anarchism reject the term "anarcho-capitalism". They oppose both the [[anti-statist|state]] and [[anti-capitalist|capitalism]] as coercive institutions, since "αναρχία" in Greek means "without rulers". Conversely, many, including capitalist [[libertarians]] and anarcho-capitalists, use the term "anarchism" with a definition that simply means "without the State".
Also, there is some terminological disagreement regarding "capitalism". <!-- *** SOURCE GIVEN IS IRRELEVANT, DOES NOT MATCH CLAIM *** According to individualist anarchist Larry Gambone, when the traditional anarchists use the term "capitalism", they are referring to those who have "gained wealth from the use of governmental power or from privileges granted by government."<ref>Gambone, Larry (1998) [http://www.spunk.org/texts/pubs/tl/sp001872.html "What is Anarchism?"] ''Total Liberty'' Volume 1 Number 3 Autumn 1998, Retrieved [[10 August]] [[2005]]</ref> --> According to Wendy McElroy, when traditional individualist anarchists referred to "capitalism" they "meant ''state capitalism'', the alliance of government and business."<ref>McElroy, Wendy (1999) [http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=348&id=74 Anarchism: Two Kinds]</ref> However, modern individualist anarchists like Gambone believe that capitalism, as they define it, requires the presence of the state in order to function. Therefore, for the individualist anarchist, the concept of rejecting "state capitalism" would be equivalent to rejection of all capitalism.
Hence, anarcho-capitalists depart from individualist anarchists on what constitutes concepts such as the "state", "capitalism", and a "free market". Jamal Hannah says that most anarchists and capitalists agree with the individualists in believing that capitalist economics require a state to defend private wealth.<ref>''Anarchy list", Hannah, Jamal (Dec 1999)</ref> Despite disagreeing on whether or not anti-state capitalism is a coherent concept, most anarchists oppose a state and support private defence of wealth.
Morever, the common definition of capitalism has changed over time. Anarchist movements of early origin operated with a definition unlike contemporary definitions. For example, the 1909 [[Century Dictionary]] defined capitalism as "1. The state of having capital or property; possession of capital. 2. The concentration or massing of capital in the hands of a few; also, the power or influence of large or combined capital." In contrast, the contemporary [[Merriam-Webster]] Dictionary (unabridged) refers to capitalism as "an economic system characterized by private or corporation ow |
Wyoming]], destroying nearly 100 homes and killing two people.
*2005 - [[2005 Maldives civil unrest|Civil unrest]] provoked in the [[Maldives]]
*2005 - An F-1 [[tornado]] strikes [[Glen Cove, New York]], a rare event on [[Long Island]]
==Births==
*[[1503]] - [[Christian III of Denmark and Norway]] (d. [[1559]])
*[[1566]] - [[Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain]] (d. [[1633]])
*[[1604]] - [[Tokugawa Iemitsu]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1651]])
*[[1626]] - [[Giovanni Legrenzi]], Italian composer (d. [[1690]])
*[[1629]] - Tsar [[Alexei I of Russia]] (d. [[1676]])
*[[1643]] - King [[Afonso VI of Portugal]] (d. [[1683]])
*[[1644]] - [[Heinrich Ignaz Biber]], Bohemian composer (d. [[1704]])
*[[1647]] - [[Johann Heinrich Acker]], German writer (d. [[1719]])
*[[1686]] - [[John Balguy]], English philosopher (d. [[1748]])
*[[1696]] - [[Maurice Greene (composer)|Maurice Greene]], English composer (d. [[1755]])
*[[1720]] - [[Konrad Ekhof]], German actor (d. [[1778]])
*[[1762]] - King [[George IV of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1830]])
*[[1774]] - [[Robert Southey]], English poet and biographer (d. [[1843]])
*[[1831]] - [[Helena Blavatsky]], Ukrainian-born author (d. [[1891]])
*[[1856]] - [["Diamond Jim" Brady]], American financier (d. [[1917]])
*[[1859]] - [[Katharine Lee Bates]], American poet (d. [[1929]])
*[[1866]] - [[Jacinto Benavente]], Spanish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1954]])
*[[1867]] - [[Edith Hamilton]], German classicist (d. [[1963]])
*[[1876]] - [[Mary Roberts Rinehart]], American author (d. [[1958]])
*[[1880]] - [[Radclyffe Hall]], British author (d. [[1943]])
*1880 - [[Christy Mathewson]], baseball player (d. [[1925]])
*[[1881]] - [[Cecil B. DeMille]], American director (d. [[1959]])
*[[1883]] - [[Pauline Frederick]], American actress (d. [[1938]])
*[[1885]] - [[Jean Cabannes]], French physicist (d. [[1959]])
*[[1886]] - Sir [[Keith Murdoch]], Australian journalist and newspaper owner (d. [[1952]])
*[[1887]] - [[Erwin Schrödinger]], Austrian physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1961]])
*[[1892]] - [[Alfred Lunt]], American actor (d. [[1977]])
*[[1902]] - [[Mohammad Hatta]], Vice President of Indonesia 1945-1956 (d. [[1980]])
*[[1904]] - [[Alexei Nikolaevich Romanov]], Tsarevich (d. [[1918]])
*[[1906]] - [[Harry Hopman]], Australian-born tennis player and coach (d. [[1985]])
*1906 - [[Tedd Pierce]], American animator (d. [[1972]])
*[[1907]] - [[Joe Besser]], American actor and comedian (d. [[1988]])
*[[1911]] - [[Cantinflas]], Mexican actor (d. [[1993]])
*1911 - [[Jane Wyatt]], American actress
*[[1919]] - [[Vikram Sarabhai]], Indian physicist (d. [[1971]])
*[[1924]] - [[Derek Shackleton]], English cricketer
*1924 - [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]], leader of Pakistan (d. [[1988]])
*[[1925]] - [[Norris McWhirter]], Scottish co-founder of the ''Guinness Book of Records'' (d. [[2004]])
*1925 - [[Ross McWhirter]], Scottish co-founder of the ''Guinness Book of Records'' (d. [[1975]])
*[[1926]] - [[John Derek]], American actor (d. [[1998]])
*1926 - [[Joe Jones (R&B singer)|Joe "Boogaloo" Jones]], American R&B singer (d. [[2005]])
*[[1927]] - [[Mstislav Rostropovich]], Russian cellist and conductor
*1927 - [[Porter Wagoner]], American singer
*[[1928]] - [[Bob Buhl]], baseball player (d. [[2001]])
*1928 - [[Dan Curtis]], film and television producer and director
*1928 - [[Charles Blackman]], Australian artist
*[[1929]] - [[Buck Owens]], American singer
*[[1930]] - [[George Soros]] American businessman
*[[1931]] - [[William Goldman]], American screenwriter
*[[1932]] - [[Sirikit Rajini|Somdej Phra Nangchao Sirikit Phra Boromarajininat]] HM Queen Sirikit of Thailand
*[[1933]] - [[Parnelli Jones]], American race car driver
*[[1939]] - [[George Hamilton (actor)|George Hamilton]], American actor
*[[1943]] - [[Deborah Walley]], American actress (d. [[2001]])
*[[1945]] - [[Ann M. Martin]], American author
*[[1949]] - [[Mark Knopfler]], British guitarist
*[[1951]] - [[Willie Horton]], American murderer and rapist
*[[1954]] - [[Pat Metheny]], American guitarist
*1954 - [[Sam J. Jones]], American actor
*[[1956]] - [[Bruce Greenwood]], Canadian actor
*[[1962]] - [[Miss Cleo]], American psychic
*[[1965]] - [[Peter Krause]], American actor
*[[1967]] - [[Regilio Tuur]], Dutch boxer
*[[1971]] - [[Michael Ian Black]], American comedian
*1971 - [[Pete Sampras]], American tennis player
*[[1972]] - [[Rebecca Gayheart]], American actress
*[[1973]] - [[Richard Reid (terrorist)|Richard Reid]], English terrorist
*[[1974]] - [[Matt Clement]], baseball pitcher
*[[1976]] - [[Antoine Walker]], American basketball player
*[[1977]] - [[Plaxico Burress]], American football player
*1977 - [[Jesper Grønkjær]], Danish soccer player
*[[1980]] - [[Dominique Swain]], American actress
*1980 - [[Matt Thiessen]], Canadian-born singer ([[Reliant K]])
*[[1981]] - [[Djibril Cisse]], French footballer
==Deaths==
*[[30 BC]] - [[Cleopatra]] (b. [[69 BC]])
*[[875]] - [[Louis II Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[825]])
*[[1424]] - [[Yongle]], [[Emperor of China]] (b. [[1460]])
*[[1484]] - [[George of Trebizond]], Greek philosopher (b. [[1395]])
*1484 - [[Pope Sixtus IV]] (b. [[1414]])
*[[1512]] - [[Alessandro Achillini]], Italian philosopher (b. [[1463]])
*[[1577]] - [[Thomas Smith (diplomat)|Thomas Smith]], English diplomat and scholar (b. [[1513]])
*[[1588]] - [[Alfonso Ferrabosco (I)]], Italian composer (b. [[1543]])
*[[1612]] - [[Giovanni Gabrieli]], Italian composer
*[[1633]] - [[Jacopo Peri]], Italian composer (b. [[1561]])
*[[1648]] - [[Ibrahim I]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1615]])
*[[1674]] - [[Philippe de Champaigne]], French painter (b. [[1602]])
*[[1689]] - [[Pope Innocent XI]] (b. [[1611]])
*[[1778]] - [[Peregrine Bertie, 3rd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven]], British general and politician (b. [[1714]])
*[[1810]] - [[Etienne Louis Geoffroy]], French pharmacist and entomologist (b. [[1725]])
*[[1848]] - [[George Stephenson]], British locomotive designer (b. [[1781]])
*[[1864]] - [[Sakuma Shozan|Sakuma Sh&#333;zan]], Japanese reformer (b. [[1811]])
*[[1865]] - [[William Jackson Hooker]], English botanist (b. [[1785]])
*[[1891]] - [[James Russell Lowell]], American poet and essayist (b. [[1819]])
*[[1900]] - [[Wilhelm Steinitz]], Austrian chess player (b. [[1836]])
*[[1901]] - [[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]], Finnish-Swedish explorer (b. [[1832]])
*[[1914]] - [[John Philip Holland]], Irish submarine designer (b. [[1840]])
*[[1918]] - [[Anna Held]], Polish-born actress and singer (b. [[1872]])
*[[1922]] - [[Arthur Griffith]], [[President of Ireland]] (b. [[1871]])
*[[1928]] - [[Leos Janacek]], Czech composer (b. [[1854]])
*[[1934]] - [[Hendrik Petrus Berlage]], Dutch architect (b. [[1856]])
*[[1943]] - [[Bobby Peel]], English cricketer (b. [[1857]])
*[[1948]] - [[Harry Brearley]], English inventor (b. [[1871]])
*[[1955]] - [[Thomas Mann]], German writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1875]])
*1955 - [[James B. Sumner]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1887]])
*[[1964]] - [[Ian Fleming]], English novelist (b. [[1908]])
*[[1973]] - [[Walter Rudolf Hess]], Swiss physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1881]])
*[[1979]] - [[Ernst Boris Chain]], German-born biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1906]])
*[[1982]] - [[Henry Fonda]], American actor (b. [[1905]])
*1982 - [[Salvador Sanchez]], Mexican boxer (b. [[1959]])
*1982 - [[Varlam Shalamov]], Russian writer (b. [[1907]])
*1982 - [[Joe Tex]], American singer (b. [[1933]])
*[[1985]] - [[Kyu Sakamoto]], Japanese singer (plane crash) (b. [[1941]])
*1985 - [[Manfred Winkelhock]], German race car driver (b. [[1951]])
*[[1988]] - [[Bhakti Raksaka Sridhara Deva Gosvami Maharaja]], religious Guru from India (b. [[1895]])
*[[1989]] - [[William Shockley]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1910]])
*[[1992]] - [[John Cage]], American composer (b. [[1912]])
*[[1997]] - [[Luther Allison]], American musician (b. [[1939]])
*[[2000]] - [[Loretta Young]], American actress (b. [[1913]])
*[[2002]] - [[Enos Slaughter]], baseball player (b. [[1916]])
*[[2004]] - Sir [[Godfrey Hounsfield]], English electrical engineer and inventor, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1919]])
*2004 - [[Peter Woodthorpe]], British actor (b. [[1931]])
*[[2005]] - [[John Loder]], co founder of the anarcho punk band [[CRASS]] (b. [[1946]])
==Holidays and observations==
*[[International observance|United Nations]] - International Youth Day (since [[1999]])
*[[Glorious Twelfth]] at the [[Yorkshire Dales]]
*[[Thailand]] - The [[Sirikit Kitiyakara|Queen]]'s Birthday, [[Mother's Day]]
*Zaraday ([[Discordianism]])
*[[Zimbabwe]] - Defence Force Day
*International [[Ponce de Leon]] day
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/12 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[August 11]] - [[August 13]] - [[July 12]] - [[September 12]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:12 Augustus]]
[[an:12 d'agosto]]
[[ar:12 أغسطس]]
[[ast:12 d'agostu]]
[[be:12 жніўня]]
[[bg:12 август]]
[[bs:12. avgust]]
[[ca:12 d'agost]]
[[co:12 d'aostu]]
[[cs:12. srpen]]
[[csb:12 zélnika]]
[[cy:12 Awst]]
[[da:12. august]]
[[de:12. August]]
[[el:12 Αυγούστου]]
[[eo:12-a de aŭgusto]]
[[es:12 de agosto]]
[[et:12. august]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 12]]
[[fi:12. elokuuta]]
[[fo:12. august]]
[[fr:12 août]]
[[fy:12 augustus]]
[[ga:12 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:12 de agosto]]
[[he:12 באוגוסט]]
[[hr:12. kolovoza]]
[[hu:Augusztus 12]]
[[ia:12 de augusto]]
[[id:12 Agustus]]
[[ie:12 august]]
[[io:12 di agosto]]
[[is:12. ágúst]]
[[it:12 agosto]]
[[ja:8月12日]]
[[jv:12 Agustus]]
[[ka:12 აგვისტო]]
[[ko:8월 12일]]
[[ku:12'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lb:12. August]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 12]]
[[mk:12 август]]
[[nl:12 augustus]]
[[nn:12. august]]
[[no:12. august]]
[[oc:12 d'agost]]
[[pl:12 sierpnia]]
[[pt: |
e".
These labels have proven useful for upcoming artists looking to find a genre name for their own music, influenced by Aphex Twin and Warp Records. In Aphex Twin's words on the 'Intelligent Dance Music' label: "I just think it's really funny to have terms like that. It's basically saying 'this is intelligent and everything else is stupid.' It's really nasty to everyone else's music. (laughs) It makes me laugh, things like that. I don't use names. I just say that I like something or I don't."
Aphex Twin tends to distance himself from rock/pop music, yet he has still had an influence on the rock bands like [[Radiohead]], [[Nine Inch Nails]] and [[Peace Burial at Sea]]. Aphex Twin dismissed going on tour with Radiohead: "I wouldn't play with them since I don't like them."[http://www.kludgemagazine.com/interviews.php?id=82]
==Aphex Twin's press==
Aphex Twin press interviews are generally entertaining, eccentric, and confusing.
Aphex Twin has a reputation for lying in interviews, which he has [http://www.guardian.co.uk/friday_review/story/0,3605,563163,00.html admitted] to the Guardian newspaper. It is now been confirmed that Richard does own a tank (actually a 1950s armoured scout car, the [[Daimler]] Ferret Mark 3), a [[submarine]] bought from Russia, composing ambient techno at age 13 (contradicting most music history), having "over 100 hours" of unreleased music (including songs on his [[answering machine]] that could be wiped away by leaving a message), being able to incorporate [[lucid dreaming]] into the process of making music.
He lives in a converted bank in SE16 London, which was formerly the Bank of Cyprus and then HSBC.
It has now been confirmed by Richard`s close friends that he has built his own synthesizers and samplers from scratch in his early years. Richard once built a sampler box for his degree in microelectronics, and a photograph and article of it was taken for a UK electronic music magazine Future music. Richard is experienced in electronics and electricity, and has modified and [[circuit bending|circuit bent]] his equipment from a young age.
He has made his own software to compose with, including algorithmic processes which automatically generate beats and melodies.
[[Image:Richard_d_james_album_cover.jpg|frame|right|The cover to the ''[[Richard D. James Album]]''.]]
== Discography under Aphex Twin ==
===Albums===
* ''[[Selected Ambient Works 85-92]]'' ([[1992]])
* ''[[Selected Ambient Works Volume II]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[I Care Because You Do|...I Care Because You Do]]'' ([[1995]])
* ''[[Richard D. James Album]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Drukqs]]'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[Analord|Chosen Lords]]'' ([[2006]])
===EPs and Singles===
* ''[[Digeridoo (single)|Digeridoo]]'' ([[1992]])
* ''[[Xylem Tube EP]]'' ([[1992]])
* ''[[On]]/On Remixes'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Ventolin (music)|Ventolin]]/Ventolin Remixes'' [[EP (format)|EP]] ([[1995]])
* ''[[Donkey Rhubarb (single)|Donkey Rhubarb]]'' ([[1995]])
* ''[[Girl/Boy EP]]'' (1996)
* ''[[Come to Daddy]] [[EP (format)|EP]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[Windowlicker]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''Analord 10'' in the ''[[Analord]]'' Series (2004)
===Promos and Compilations===
* ''Words & Music'' (1994) (Interview and tracks from ''[[Selected Ambient Works Volume II]]'')
* ''[[Classics (Aphex Twin album)|Classics]]'' (1995) (Compilation of early singles, rare and live tracks)
* ''51/13 Singles Collection'' (1996) ([[Australia]] and [[Japan]] -only release)
* ''Cock 10/54 Cymru beats'' ([[drukqs]] promo)
* ''[[26 Mixes for Cash]]'' ([[2003]]), Compilation of material "remixed" for other artists (plus four original tracks)
* ''2 Mixes on a 12" for Cash'' (2003), a ''[[26 Mixes for Cash|26 Mixes]]'' promo
* ''Falling Free, Curve Remix'' (2005), a ''[[26 Mixes for Cash|26 Mixes]]'' LP
== Discography under various aliases ==
'''AFX'''
* ''[[Analogue Bubblebath]]'' ([[1991]])
* ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 2]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 3]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 4]]'' (1994)
* ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 5]]'' (1995 unreleased)
* ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 3.1]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Hangable Auto Bulb]]'' (1995 EP, 2005 CD)
* ''[[Hangable Auto Bulb|Hangable Auto Bulb 2]]'' (1995 EP, 2005 CD)
* ''2 Remixes By AFX'' (2001)
* ''Smojphace EP'' (2003)
* "Mangle 11 (Circuit Bent V.I.P. Mix)" (appears on ''Rephlexions'' compilation album (2003))
* ''[[Analord]]'' (EP series, mostly as AFX) (2005)
* ''AFX/[[LFO (British group)|LFO]]'' (split 12" between AFX/LFO) (2005) <!--http://www.warprecords.com/?mart=WAP195-->
'''Bradley Strider'''
* ''Bradley's Beat'' (1991)/(1995 re-issue)
* ''Bradley's Robot'' (1993)
'''Caustic Window'''
* ''Joyrex J4'' (1992)
* ''Joyrex J5'' (1992)
* ''Joyrex J9'' (1993)
* ''CAT 023'' (unreleased, only 4 copies pressed)
* ''[[Compilation (album)|Compilation]]'' ([[1998]])
'''Gak'''
* ''GAK'' (1994)
'''[[Universal Indicator (music)|Universal Indicator]]''' series with [[Mike Dred]]:
* Universal Indicator: ''Red'' ([[1992]])
* Universal Indicator: ''Green'' ([[1993]])
* Universal Indicator "Blue" ([[1992]]) & "Yellow" ([[1992]]) are by [[Mike Dred]]
'''Polygon Window'''
* ''[[(Surfing On Sine Waves)]]'' (1993, re-released 2001)
* ''(Quoth)'' (1993)
'''Power Pill'''
* ''Pac-Man'' (1992)
'''Q-Chastic'''
* ''Q-Chastic EP'' (1992 unreleased)
'''Various others'''
* ''[[Melodies From Mars]]'' (1995, this is an unreleased RDJ album that was given to friends at Rephlex and Warp Records on C-90 cassettes) This release supposedly includes selections from over 200 tracks James offered video game companies to use as soundtracks.
* With [[Squarepusher]], contributed "Freeman Hardy & Willis Acid" to the [[Warp Records|Warp]] compilation ''WAP100''.
* As "Rich" of "Mike and Rich" on the album ''[[Mike & Rich]]'' ("Mike" being [[Mike Paradinas]], also known as ''µ-ziq'')
* A remixed version of ''afx237 v7'' from the album ''drukqs'' was used as the soundtrack to the short film "[[Rubber Johnny]]", directed by [[Chris Cunningham]].
* The AFX logo was featured in the video games '[[Worms Armageddon]]' and '[[Worms World Party]]'.
* "The Diceman" - Polygon Window (Track 1) - Artificial Intelligence - (Warp 6) - Compilation released by Warp Records in 1992
* ''[[Acoustica: Alarm Will Sound Performs Aphex Twin]]'' (2005), performed by [[Alarm Will Sound]]
== See also ==
* [[Snare Rush]]
* [[Rephlex Records]]
* [[Warp Records]]
== External links ==
* [http://xltronic.com/discography/artist/1/aphex-twin Complete Aphex Twin discography] at xltronic.com
* [http://xltronic.com/nostalgia/aphextwin.nu/v4/ The Aphex Twin Community] at xltronic.com
* [http://www.discogs.com/artist/Aphex+Twin Aphex Twin discography] at [[Discogs]]
* [http://cl4.org/music/lyrics/aphex.php Complete Aphex Twin lyrics] at CL4.org
* [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Music/Bands_and_Artists/A/Aphex_Twin/ Aphex Twin links] at [[Open Directory Project]]
* [http://www.bastwood.com/aphex.php The Aphex Face] - [[spectrogram]] screenshots of spectral analyses, including that of "Windowlicker"
[[Category:Electronic musicians|Aphex Twin]]
[[Category:IDM musicians|Aphex Twin]]
[[Category:Remixers|Aphex Twin]]
[[Category:Cornish people]]
[[Category:1971 births|Aphex Twin]]
[[Category:Living people|Aphex Twin]]
<!-- In other languages, alphabetically by language (not code) name -->
[[da:Aphex Twin]]
[[de:Aphex Twin]]
[[es:Aphex Twin]]
[[fr:Aphex Twin]]
[[hu:Aphex Twin]]
[[nl:Aphex Twin]]
[[he:אפקס טווין]]
[[ja:エイフェックス・ツイン]]
[[pl:Aphex Twin]]
[[ru:Афекс Твин]]
[[simple:Aphex Twin]]
[[fi:Richard D. James]]
[[sv:Aphex Twin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfred Nobel</title>
<id>851</id>
<revision>
<id>41383827</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:55:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.0.192.101</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Personal background */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlfredNobel.jpg|thumb|200px|Alfred Nobel]]
{{Audio|sv-Alfred_Nobel.ogg|'''Alfred Bernhard Nobel'''}} ([[October 21]], [[1833]], [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]] &ndash; [[December 10]], [[1896]], [[San Remo, Italy]]) was a [[Sweden|Swedish]] chemist, engineer, pacifist, innovator, armaments manufacturer and the [[inventor]] of [[dynamite]]. He owned [[Bofors]], a major armaments manufacturer, that he had redirected from its previous role as an iron and steel mill. In his last will, he used his enormous fortune to institute the [[Nobel Prize]]s. The [[synthetic element]] [[Nobelium]] was named after him.
==Personal background==
Alfred Nobel, a descendant of the 17th century scientist, [[Olaus Rudbeck]] (1630-1702), was the third son of [[Immanuel Nobel]] (1801-1872). Born in [[Stockholm]], he went with his family at an early age to [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], where his father (who had invented modern [[plywood]]) started a [[naval mine|"torpedo"]] works. In 1859 this was left to the care of the second son, [[Ludvig Nobel|Ludvig Emmanuel]] (1831-1888), by whom it was greatly enlarged, and Alfred, returning to Sweden with his father after the bankruptcy of their family business, devoted himself to the study of [[explosives]], and especially to the safe manufacture and use of [[nitroglycerine]] (discovered in 1847 by [[Ascanio Sobrero]], one of his fellow-students under [[Théophile-Jules Pelouze]] at the [[University of Torino]]). Several explosions were reported at their family-owned factory in [[Heleneborg, Sweden|Heleneborg]], and a disastrous one in 1864 killed Alfred's younger brother Emil and several other workers.
Less well known is that Alfred Nobel was also a playwright. His only play, ''[[Nemesis (Nobel)|Nemesis]]'', a prose tragedy in four acts about [[Beatrice Cenci]], partly inspired by [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]]'s blank verse tragedy in five acts [[The Cenci]], wa |
mb|250px|right|The [[lion]] is a well known truly carnivorous member of the order [[Carnivora]].]]
A '''carnivore''' (KAR-nih-vohr) meaning "meat eater" ([[Latin]] ''carn'' = flesh + ''vorare'' = to devour) is an [[animal]] that [[eat]]s a [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] consisting solely of [[meat]], whether it comes from live animals or dead ([[scavenger|scavenging]]). Some animals are considered carnivores even if their diets contain a very small amount of meat. Those animals that subsist on a truly meat diet are refered to as obligate carnivores,
The word also refers to the [[Mammalia|mammals]] of the Order [[Carnivora]], many (but not all) of which fit the first definition. [[Bear]]s are an example of members of ''Carnivora'' that are not true carnivores. Carnivores that eat primarily (or only) [[insect]]s are called [[insectivore]]s.
There are also several species of [[carnivorous plant]]s. Though most are primarily [[insectivorous]], some digest [[nematode]]s and other small [[invertebrate]]s.
Many [[dinosaur]]s were obligate carnivores, namely most &ndash;if not all&ndash; [[theropod]]s, like ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]''. [[Sauropod]]s and [[ornithischia]]ns were herbivorous.
=== Characteristics of Carnivores ===
[[Image:Emperor penguins.jpg|thumb|250px|right|In contrast to the lion, these [[Emperor penguin]]s show that teeth and claws aren't necessary to be a carnivore. They feed on crustaceans, fish, squid, and other small marine life.]]
Many characteristis associated with carnivores include teeth, claws, and status as a [[hunter]]. In truth, these assumptions are misleading as many carnivores do not hunt and are [[scavengers]]. Thus they do not have the characteristis associated wiht carnivores and hunters.
=== Obligate carnivores===
An ''obligate'' or ''true carnivore'' is an animal that subsists on a diet consisting ''only'' of meat. They may consume other products presented to them, especially [[animal product]]s like [[cheese]] and [[bone marrow]], or sweet sugary substances like [[honey]] and [[syrup]], but, as these products are not essential, they do not need to consume these on a regular basis. True carnivores lack the [[physiology]] required for the efficient [[digestion]] of vegetable matter, and in fact some carnivorous mammals eat vegetation specifically as an [[emetic]].
Domesticated carnivores are often recommended to have vegetable supplements (or such containing processed pet foods) as meats designed for human consumption may be lacking in vital nutrients.
== List of Carnivores ==
*[[Felidae|Felines]], ranging from [[cat|domestic cat]]s to [[lion]]s, [[tiger]]s, and other large predators.
*Some [[Canidae|canines]], such the [[Grey wolf]] but not the [[Red wolf]] or [[coyote]]. [[dog|Domestic dogs]] are broadly considered carnivorous but the classification is often debated.
*[[Hyena]]s
*Some [[Mustelidae|mustelid]]s, including [[ferret]]s
*[[Polar Bear]]s
*[[Pinniped]]s ([[pinniped|seal]]s, [[sea lion]]s, [[walrus]]es, etc.)
*[[Birds of prey]], including [[hawk]]s, [[eagle]]s, [[falcon]]s and [[owl]]s
*Scavenger birds, like [[vulture]]s
*Several species of [[waterfowl]] including [[gull]]s, [[penguin]]s, [[pelican]]s, [[stork]]s, and [[heron]]s
*[[Anura]]ns ([[frog]]s and [[toad]]s)
*[[Snake]]s
*Some [[lizard]]s
*[[Crocodilia]]ns
*[[Shark]]s and many other species of [[fish]]
*[[Toothed whale]]s
*[[Octopus]]es<!--this is the correct plural!!--> and [[squid]]
*[[Spider]]s and [[scorpions]]
*[[Mantophasmatodea]], [[Reduviidae]] and other insects
*[[Cnidarian]]s
<!--order mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish & whales, arthropods and other invertebrates-->
==See also==
*[[Cannibalism]]
*[[Insectivore]]
*[[Carnivorous plant]]
===Compare and contrast===
*[[Herbivore]]
*[[Omnivore]]
*[[List of vores]]
{{Biological_interaction-footer}}
[[Category:Eating behaviors]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chia̍h-bah tōng-bu̍t]]
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[[he:טורפים (ביולוגיה)]]
[[la:Carnivora]]
[[ms:Maging]]
[[nl:Carnivoor]]
[[ja:肉食動物]]
[[pl:Drapieżne]]
[[pt:Carnivora]]
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[[sv:Köttätare]]
[[ta:ஊனுண்ணி]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Celtic Mythology</title>
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<title>Celt</title>
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<td>This article needs to be '''[[Wikipedia:Cleanup|cleaned up]]''' to conform to a [[:Category:Wikipedia style guidelines|higher standard]] of quality.<br />
This article has been tagged since 17:04, [[22 December]] [[2005]] (UTC).<br />
The reason given is: ''"Too many irrelevant links in bulk of article (repeated links to countries, etc)."''<br />
<small>See [[Help:Editing]] and [[:Category:Wikipedia help]] for help, or this article's '''[[Talk:Celt#If this bugs people I'm sorry|talk page]]'''.</small></td>
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:''This article is about the European people. For the tool, see [[celt (tool)]].''
[[Image:Ccross.png|thumb|right|170px|A [[Celtic cross]].]]
The term '''''Celts''''', pronounced /{{IPA|kɛlt}}/, <ref>"<cite>The pronunciation of the word remains ambiguous, however, a conflict between its Greek root, ''keltoi'', and its path through French, where ''celtique'' is pronounced with a soft ''c'': 'sell-TEEK'. Although many dictionaries, including the OED, prefer the soft ''c'' pronunciation, most students of Celtic culture prefer the hard ''c'': 'KELL-tik', in acknowledgement of its Greek origin.</cite>" MacKillop, J. ''"Dictionary of Celtic Mythology."'' New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0198691572</ref>
refers to any of a number of ancient peoples in Europe using the [[Celtic languages]], which form a branch of [[Indo-European languages]], as well as others whose language is unknown but where associated cultural traits such as [[Celtic art]] are found in [[archaeological]] evidence. Historical theories were developed that these factors were indicative of a common origin, but later theories of culture spreading to differing indigenous peoples have recently been supported by genetic studies.
Though the spread of the [[Roman empire]] led to continental Celts adopting [[Roman culture]], the development of [[Celtic Christianity]] in [[Ireland]] and [[Great Britain|Britain]] brought an early [[medieval]] renaissance of Celtic art between [[400]] and [[1200]]. [[Antiquarian]] interest from the [[17th century]] led to the term '''Celt''' being developed, and rising [[nationalism]] brought Celtic revivals from the [[19th century]] in areas where the use of Celtic languages had continued.
Today, '''"Celtic"''' is often used to describe the languages and respective cultures of '''[[Ireland]]''', '''[[Scotland]]''', '''[[Wales]]''', '''[[Cornwall]]''', the '''[[Isle of Man]]''' and the [[France|French]] region of '''[[Brittany]]''' (see the ''[[Modern Celts]]'' article), but correctly corresponds to the [[Celtic language]] family - in which are still spoken: Scottish, Irish and [[Manx]] ([[Gaelic]] languages) and [[Welsh people|Welsh]], [[Breton language|Breton]] and [[Cornish]] ([[Brythonic language]]s).
==Development of the term "Celt"==
The first literary reference to the Celtic people, as ''keltoi'' or hidden people, is by the [[Greece|Greek]] [[historian]] [[Hecataeus]] in [[517 BC]]. He locates the ''Keltoi'' tribe in Rhenania (West/Southwest Germany). According to [[Greek mythology]], ''[[Celtus]]'' was the son of [[Heracles]] and ''[[Celtine]]'', the daughter of ''[[Bretannus]]''. Celtus became the primogenitor of Celts <ref>"<cite>Celtine, daughter of Bretannus, fell in love with Heracles 1 and hid away his kine (the cattle of Geryon) refusing to give them back to him unless he would first content her. From Celtus 1 the Celtic race derived their name.</cite>" {{cite web | title= (Ref.: Parth. 30.1-2) | url=http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Heracles1.html | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>. In Latin ''Celta'', in turn from [[Herodotus]]' word for the Gauls, ''Keltoi''. The Romans used ''Celtae'' to refer to continental Gauls, but apparently not to insular Celts, which were divided into [[Goidelic|Goidhels]] and [[Britons]], and possibly other peoples. This is likely due to the possibility that, at those times, the term "Celta/Keltos" was tied to those cultures or people descendant from the Central Europe Celts, while no ties were known to the insular people (especially the [[Gael|Gaels]] whose language was extremely different from that of [[Brythonic]] Celts).
The English word is modern, attested from [[1707]] (Lhuyd, p. 290). <ref>Lhuyd, E. ''"Archaeologia Britannica; An account of the languages, histories, and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain."'' (reprint ed.) Irish University Press, 1971. ISBN 0716500310</ref>
In the late [[17th century]] the work of scholars such as [[Edward Lhuyd]] brought academic attention, then in the [[18th century]] the interest in "[[primitivism]]" which led to the idea of the "[[noble savage]]" brought a wave |
ot to see it.
In Princeton in [[1934]] Wigner introduced his sister Manci to the physicist Paul Dirac. They married, and the ties between Wigner and Dirac deepened. Wigner also spent time with Einstein, who had come to Princeton to join the [[Institute For Advanced Study]].
In [[1936]], Princeton did not rehire Wigner, and he moved to the [[University of Wisconsin]]. There he met his first wife, a lovely physics student named Amelia Frank. But Ms. Frank died in [[1937]], and Wigner, in his grief, wanted to leave [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]]. On [[January 8]], [[1937]], Wigner became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States. Princeton had done a careful search for a superb young physicist, and the name they kept hearing from people was... Eugene Wigner. They invited him back and he accepted. He rejoined the Princeton faculty in the fall of [[1938]].
Though a professed political amateur, in [[1939]] and [[1940]], Dr. Wigner played a major role in agitating for a [[Manhattan Project]], which built the atomic bomb to defend the world against Hitler. Wigner was sorry to see atomic bombs dropped on [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]]. Nevertheless, he remained a solid defender of the U.S. military, a patriot in his adopted country. Dr. Wigner always thought of his work on the atomic bomb as essentially defensive, and he would later become a major figure in the field of civil defense.
In [[1946]], Wigner accepted a job as director of research and development at Clinton Laboratory (now [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]) in [[Oak Ridge, Tennessee|Oak Ridge]], [[Tennessee]]. Not an administrator by background or temperament, Wigner left after a year and returned to teaching and research at Princeton University.
In the [[1950s]], he grieved the deaths of [[Enrico Fermi]], Einstein and Von Neumann. In [[1954]], he was troubled by the infamous case in which [[Robert Oppenheimer]] lost his security clearance. A major witness against Oppenheimer was Wigner's old friend, Edward Teller.
In [[1960]], already known as one of deep thinkers in the field of [[mathematical physics]], Wigner gave a thought-provoking insight into the power of mathematics in his best-known essay outside physics, now a classic paper, "[[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences]]", in which he argued that biology and cognition could be the origin of physical concepts, as we humans perceive them, and that the happy coincidence that mathematics and physics were so well matched, seemed to be "unreasonable" and hard to explain. The distinguished mathematician Andrew M. Gleason (see his interview in ''More Mathematical People: Contemporary Conversations'' by Donald J. Albers, Gerald L. Alexanderson, Constance Reid, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990), on the other hand, thought that Wigner's view was itself unreasonable: Mathematics is the science of order and patterns, so why should it be a mystery that given some order in the universe we should be able to select (or construct) a mathematical structure to fit the facts?
In [[1963]], Wigner received the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]]. He professed never to have even considered the possibility that this might occur, and added: "I never expected to get my name in the newspapers without doing something wicked."
Wigner was famous for his gentleness and elaborate courtesy to others. Once as a young man, he was lying on the lawn near the municipal swimming pool at Göttingen with a German astronomer named Heckman. Heckman observed a line of ants crawling across Wigner's right leg and biting him.
Heckman asked Wigner why he didn't kill the ants.
"Because I don't know which are the ones biting me," Wigner replied.
Once, following a lecture by Wigner, a member of the audience came up to ask him a question. Wigner listened, then replied, "I am Mr. Wigner." (He pronounced his surname with an English "W" and the hint of a third syllable in the middle.) The questioner, confused, asked the question again. Again came the response, "I am Mr. Wigner." Finally, someone broke the stalemate by pointing out that Wigner was feeling at a loss because he didn't know the man's name. Too polite to ask, he had introduced himself in hopes of learning it.
In scientific meetings, both formal and informal, when someone proposed something, Wigner often answered simply "I don't understand." He was never pretentious, never afraid to seem foolish.
For a man of science, Wigner was oddly superstitious, hating to have 13 bills in his pocket, anxious to knock on a real piece of wood when he heard some good news.
In [[1992]], at the age of 90, he published a memoir, ''The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner'' (assisted by Andrew Szanton). Wigner died three years later in Princeton.
Near the end of his life his thought turned more philosophical. In his memoir, Wigner said: "The full meaning of life, the collective meaning of all human desires, is fundamentally a mystery beyond our grasp. As a young man, I chafed at this state of affairs. But by now I have made peace with it. I even feel a certain honor to be associated with such a mystery."
== Wigner's friend paradox ==
[[Wigner's friend]] paradox is a [[thought experiment]] proposed by Wigner, and may be seen as an extension of the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment.
The Wigner's friend experiment asks the question: at what stage does a "measurement" take place? Wigner designed the experiment to highlight how he believed consciousness is necessary to the quantum mechanical measurement process.
==References==
* Eugene P. Wigner. ''Symmetries and Reflections: Scientific Essays of Eugene P. Wigner.''
*Alvin M. Weinberg, Eugene P. Wigner ''Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors''
*Eugene Paul Wigner, et al. ''Philosophical Reflections and Syntheses''
==See also==
* [[Wigner semicircle distribution]]
* [[Wigner quasi-probability distribution]]
* [[Particle physics and representation theory]]
==External links==
* [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/eugene_paul_wigner.html Eugene Wigner]
* [http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/ewigner.html National Academy of Sciences biography]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Wigner}}
* [http://geratorp.bravehost.com/dmx/wigner-bio.html his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles ]
* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Wigner,+Eugene Annotated bibliography for Eugene Wigner from the Alsos Digital Library]
[[Category:1902 births|Wigner, Eugene Paul]]
[[Category:1995 deaths|Wigner, Eugene Paul]]
[[Category:Manhattan Project|Wigner, Eugene]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physics winners|Wigner, Eugene]]
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[[Category:Hungarian mathematicians|Wigner, Eugene]]
[[Category:Jewish scientists|Wigner, Eugene]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Wigner, Eugene]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Wigner, Eugene]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Wigner]]
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<page>
<title>Electroweak interaction</title>
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<comment>renaming in summary</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[particle physics]], the '''electroweak interaction''' is the unified description of two of the four [[fundamental interaction]]s of nature: [[electromagnetism]] and the [[weak interaction]]. Although these two forces appear very different at everyday low energies, the theory models them as two different aspects of the same force. Above the unification energy, on the order of 10<sup>2</sup>&nbsp;[[GeV]], they would merge into a single '''electroweak force'''.
Mathematically, the unification is accomplished under an [[SU(2)|''SU''(2)]] &times; [[U(1)|''U''(1)]] [[gauge theory|gauge group]]. The corresponding gauge [[bosons]] are the [[photon]] of electromagnetism and the [[W and Z bosons]] of the weak force. In the [[Standard Model]], the weak gauge bosons get their [[mass]] from the [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]] of the '''electroweak symmetry''' from ''SU''(2) &times; ''U''(1)<sub>''Y''</sub> to ''U''(1)<sub>em</sub>, caused by the [[Higgs boson|Higgs mechanism]]. The subscripts are used to indicate that these are different copies of ''U''(1); the generator of ''U''(1)<sub>em</sub> is given by ''Q'' = ''Y''/2 + ''I''<sub>3</sub>, where ''Y'' is the generator of ''U''(1)<sub>''Y''</sub> (called the [[hypercharge]]), and ''I''<sub>3</sub> is one of the ''SU''(2) generators (a component of [[isospin]]). The distinction between electromagnetism and the weak force arises because there is a (nontrivial) linear combination of ''Y'' and ''I''<sub>3</sub> that vanishes for the Higgs boson (it is an eigenstate of both ''Y'' and ''I''<sub>3</sub>, so the coefficients may be
taken as &minus;''I''<sub>3</sub> and ''Y''): ''U''(1)<SUB>em</sub> is defined to be the group generated by this linear combination, and is unbroken because it doesn't interact with the Higgs.
For contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between [[particle physics|elementary particles]] [[Sheldon Lee Glashow|Sheldon Glashow]], [[Abdus Salam]], and [[Steven Weinberg]] were awarded the [[Nobel Prize in |
Much of the early research was based on how young humans learn.<br><br><br><br><br>
== Xerox PARC ==
[[Image:Xerox_star_desktop.jpg|thumb|right|[[Xerox PARC]]]]
Engelbart's work directly led to the advances at [[Xerox]] [[PARC]]. Several people went from SRI to [[Xerox PARC]] in the early [[1970]]'s. The Xerox PARC team with Merzouga Wilberts, codified the [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]] (windows, icons, menus and pointers) paradigm, first pioneered on the [[Xerox Alto]] experimental computer, but which eventually appeared commercially in the [[Xerox Star|Xerox 8010]] ('Star') system in [[1981]]. </font><br><br><br><br><br>
== Apple Lisa and Macintosh ==
[[Image:Apple_Macintosh_Desktop.png|thumb|right|[[Mac OS|Macintosh]] Desktop (1984)]]
{{main article|[[Mac OS history]]}}
Beginning in [[1979]], started by [[Steve Jobs]] and led by [[Jef Raskin]], the [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]] and [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] teams at [[Apple Computer]] (which included former members of the Xerox PARC group) continued to develop such ideas. The Macintosh, released in 1984, was the first commercially successful product to use a GUI. A [[desktop metaphor]] was used, in which files looked like pieces of paper; directories looked like file folders; there were a set of [[Desk Accessory|desk accessories]] like a calculator, notepad, and alarm clock that the user could place around the screen as desired; and the user could delete files and folders by dragging them to a trash can on the screen. Drop down menus were also introduced.
There is still some controversy over the amount of influence that Xerox's [[PARC]] work, as opposed to previous academic research, had on the GUIs of Apple's [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]] and [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], but it is clear that the influence was extensive, because first versions of Lisa GUIs even lacked icons. These prototype GUIs are at least mouse driven, but ignored completely WIMP concept. Rare screenshots of first GUIs of Apple Lisa prototypes are shown [http://www.pegasus3d.com/apple_screens.html here]. Note also that Apple was invited by PARC to view their research, and a number of PARC employees subsequently moved to Apple to work on the Lisa and Macintosh GUI. However, the Apple work extended PARC's considerably, adding windows that can be overlapped, manipulable icons and a fixed menu bar and direct manipulation of objects in the file system (see [[Macintosh Finder]]) for example. The modern GUI as we know it owes as much or more to Apple as it does to PARC - it is incorrect to claim that Apple "copied" or "stole" PARC's work. A good article pointing out many of the significant improvements that Apple brought to the GUI over PARC's implementation can be read [http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?project=Macintosh&story=On_Xerox,_Apple_and_Progress.txt&topic=Software%20Design&sortOrder=Sort%20by%20Date here] (folklore.org)
The Macintosh's GUI has been frequently revised with time since 1984, with major updates including [[System 7 (Macintosh)|System 7]], and underwent its largest revision with the introduction of the "Aqua" interface in 2001's [[Mac OS X]].
== DESQview ==
[[DESQview]] was a [[text mode]] multitasking program introduced in July 1985. Running on top of MS DOS, it allowed users to run multiple DOS programs concurrently in windows. It was the first program to bring multitasking and windowing capabilities to a DOS environment in which existing DOS programs could be used. DESQview was not a true GUI but offered certain components of one, such as resizable, overlapping windows and mouse pointing.
== GEM ==
[[Image:Atari_TOS_1_0.png|thumb|right|[[Graphical Environment Manager|GEM]] on the [[Atari ST]] (1985)]]
At the same time Microsoft was developing Windows in the [[1980]]s, [[Digital Research]] developed the [[GEM Desktop]] GUI system. GEM was created as an alternative window system to run on IBM PC systems, either on top of MS-DOS (like Microsoft Windows) or on top of [[CPM-86]], DR's own operating system that MS-DOS was patterned after. GEM achieved minimal success in the PC world, but was later used as the native GUI on the [[Atari ST]] machines. Gem provoked and succumbed to the first "look and feel" lawsuit by [[Apple Computer]].
<br clear="all" />
== Amiga Intuition ==
[[Image:Amiga_Workbench_1_3_large.png|thumb|[[Amiga]] [[AmigaOS|Workbench]] (1985)]]
The [[Amiga]] computer was launched by [[Commodore International|Commodore]] in [[1985]] with a GUI called [[Workbench]] based on an internal engine which drives all the input events called [[Intuition (amiga)|Intuition]], and developed almost entirely by [[RJ Mical]]. Users may remember the initial releases for their garish blue/orange/white/black palettes, selected for high contrast. The Amiga team chose it, basing their job on direct experiences made to obtain better contrast solution using even the worst televisions the team could find. [[Workbench]] presented directories as "drawers" because the idea was to present them as drawers of a virtual desktop just called ''Work... bench''.
Intuition was the widget and graphics library that made the whole thing work. It was driven by user events through the mouse, keyboard, and other input devices. Intuition also arbitrated collisions of mousepointer and icons, controlled the "animated icons" in Amiga, etcetera.
Due to a mistake made by the Commodore sales department, the first floppies of AmigaOS which were released with Amiga1000 named the whole OS "Workbench". Since then, users and CBM itself referred to "Workbench" as the nickname for the whole AmigaOS (including Amiga DOS, Extras, etc.). This common consent ended with release of version 2.0 of AmigaOS, which re-introduced proper names to the installation floppies of AmigaDOS, Workbench, Extras, etc.).
Workbench is also used on the Amiga as a metaphor for their own standard of "[[desktop metaphor|desktop]]" as opposed to others, such as "[[Macintosh Finder|Macintosh Finder]]". Workbench itself is another library or process. Rumors said that this concept of modularity was invented by Commodore to treat Workbench as a window amongst the others in the desktop, in order to avoid reprisal from Apple. But this can only be considered a rumor, as all patents on windowed GUIs were property of [[Xerox]] at that time.
Early versions of AmigaOS did treat the Workbench as just another window on top of a blank screen; but this is due to the ability of AmigaOS to have invisible screens with a [[chromakey]] or a [[genlock]] -- one of the best features of Amiga platform -- even without losing the visibility of Workbench itself. In later AmigaOS versions Workbench could be set as a borderless desktop.
Amiga users were also able to boot their computer into a [[CLI]] (aka. [[Shell (computing)|shell]]). This was a keyboard-based environment without the Workbench GUI. Later they could invoke it with the CLI/SHELL command '''LoadWB''' which performs the task to load Workbench GUI.
Like most GUIs of the day, Amiga's Intuition followed Xerox, and sometimes also Apple's lead anteceding solutions, but pragmatically, a [[Command line interface|CLI]] was also included and it extended dramatically the functionality of the platform. Later releases added more improvements, like support for high-color Workbenchs screens, 3D aspect, etcetera. Often Amiga users preferred alternative interfaces to standard Workbench, such as [[Directory Opus]], or [[ScalOS]] interface. An interesting article about these replacements is available [http://abalaban.free.fr/wb.html here] (in french language).
The use of improved, third party GUI engines became common amongst users who preferred more attractive interfaces -- such as [[MUI]] (Magic User Interface), and [[Reaction]]. [[Image:AmigaOS_3_9_Workbench.jpg|thumb|AmigaWB (2000). Use of O.O. graphic engines (Reaction) dramaticaly changes look&feel of a GUI to match actual styleguides.]] These Object Oriented graphic engines driven by "classes" of graphic objects and functions were then standardized into the Amiga environment and changed Amiga Workbench to a complete and modern guided interface, with new standard gadgets, animated buttons, true 24bit-color icons, increased use of wallpapers for screens and windows, alpha channel, transparencies and shadows as any modern GUI requires.
Heirs of Workbench are nowadays: [[Ambient]] for [[MorphOS]], ScalOS, Workbench for [[AmigaOS 4.0]] and [[Wanderer]] for [[AROS]].
There is a brief article on ambient and descriptions of MUI icons, menus and gadget [http://www.aps.fr/article/ambient.html here] (aps.fr) and images of Zune stay at main [http://aros.sourceforge.net/pictures/screenshots/ AROS site].
As from 2005 Amiga O.O. graphic engines entered a new stage in its history with [[Feelin]] an O.O.S. available for all Amiga-like systems (AmigaOS, MorphOS, AROS) which accomplishes exetensively with [[XML]] guidelines, it handles a memory management system of its own and its memory-pools system share embedded OS semaphores. Also this O.O. system features a non centralized ID allocation system, a crash-free object invocation mechanism, and even an advanced logging system. Images of this O.O.S. can be found at its [http://www.gofromiel.com/feelin/screens.php main site].
== Microsoft Windows ==
[[Image:Microsoft_Windows_1_01_screen.gif|thumb|right|[[Windows 1.0]] (1985)]]
[[Image:Windows_3.11_workspace.png|thumb|right|[[Windows 3.11]] (1990)]]
[[Microsoft]] modeled the first version of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], released in [[1985]], on the GUI of the [[Mac OS]]. [[Windows 1.0]] was a GUI (graphic user interface) for the [[MS-DOS]] [[operating system]] that had been the OS of choice for [[IBM PC]] and compatible computers since [[1981]]. [[Windows 2.0]] followed, but it |
of [[Helmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke|Helmuth von Moltke]].
==North German Confederation==
''Main article: [[North German Confederation]]''
[[Image:Battle of Königgrätz by Georg Bleibtreu.jpg|thumb|350px|left|At the [[Battle of Königgrätz]], the Austro-Prussian rivalry for the leadership of Germany was ultimately decided in favour of Prussia]]
In 1867 the German Confederation was dissolved. In its place the [[North German Confederation]] (German ''Norddeutscher Bund'') was established, under the leadership of Prussia. Austria was excluded, and would remain outside German affairs for most of the remaining 19th and the 20th centuries.
The North German Confederation was a transitory group that existed from 1867 to 1871, between the dissolution of the German Confederation and the founding of the German Empire. With it, Prussia established control over the 22 states of northern Germany and, via the ''Zollverein'', southern Germany.
==German Empire==
''Main article: [[German Empire]]''
===Age of Bismarck===
[[Image:Reichsgruendung2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|On [[18 January]] [[1871]], the German Empire is proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. Bismarck appears in white.]]
[[Image:Map-deutsches-kaiserreich.png|thumb|250px|right|The German Empire of 1871. By excluding Austria, Bismarck chose a "little German" solution.]]
Differences between France and Prussia over the accession to the [[Spain|Spanish]] throne of a German candidate - whom France opposed - led to the [[Franco-Prussian War]] (1870-71). Following a French declaration of war, joint southern-German and Prussian troops, under the command of Moltke, invaded France in 1870. The French army was finally forced to capitulate by the [[Battle of Sedan|fortress of Sedan]]. [[Napoleon III of France|French Emperor Napoleon III]] was taken prisoner and the Second French Empire collapsed. Following the [[Siege of Paris|capitulation of Paris]], the Peace of Frankfurt am Main was signed: France was obliged to cede [[Alsace]] and the German-speaking part of [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] to Germany. The territorial cessions deeply hurt the French national feeling, creating an obstacle to Franco-German understanding.
On [[January 18]], 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors of the [[Palace of Versailles]], the [[Wilhelm I of Germany|Prussian King Wilhelm I]] was proclaimed "Emperor of Germany". The [[German Empire]] was founded, with 25 states, three of which were Hanseatic cities. It was a "Little German" solution, since Austria had been excluded.
Bismarck's domestic policies as Chancellor of Germany were characterized by his fight against perceived enemies of the Protestant Prussian state. In the so-called [[Kulturkampf]] (1872-1878), he tried to limit the influence of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] and of its political arm, the [[Catholic Centre Party]], through various measures - like the introduction of civil marriage - but without much success. Non-German sections of the population in the German Empire, like the [[Poland|Polish]], [[Danmark|Danish]] and [[France|French]] minorities, were discriminated and policy of [[Germanization]] was implemented.
The other perceived threat was the rise of the Socialist Workers' Party (later known as the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]]), the declared aim of which was the establishment of a new socialist order through the transformation of the existing political and social conditions. From 1878, Bismarck tried to repress the social democratic movement by outlawing the party's organisation, its assemblies and most of its newspapers. Through the introduction of a social insurance system, on the other hand, he hoped to win the support of the working classes for the Empire.
Bismarck's priority was to protect Germany's expanding power through a system of alliances and an attempt to contain crises until Germany was fully prepared to initiate them. Of particular importance, in this context, was the containment and isolation of France, because Bismarck feared that France would form an alliance with Russia and take revenge for its loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.
The Three Emperor's League was signed in 1872 by Russia, Austria and Germany. It stated that republicanism and socialism were common enemies and that the three powers would discuss any matters concerning foreign policy. Bismarck needed good relations with Russia in order to keep France isolated.
In 1879, Bismarck formed a Dual Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, with the aim of mutual military assistance in the case of an attack from Russia, which was not satisfied with the agreement reached at the Congress of Berlin.
The establishment of the Dual Alliance led Russia to take a more conciliatory stance, and in 1887, the so-called [[Reinsurance Treaty]] was signed between Germany and Russia: in it, the two powers agreed on mutual military support in the case that France attacked Germany, or in case of an Austrian attack on Russia.
In 1882, [[Italy]] joined the Dual Alliance to form a [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]]. Italy wanted to defend its interests in [[North Africa]] against France's colonial policy. In return for German and Austrian support, Italy committed itself to assisting Germany in the case of a French military attack.
For a long time, Bismarck had refused to give in to Emperor Wilhelm I's aspirations of making Germany a world power through the acquisition of German colonies ("a place in the sun"). Bismarck wanted at all cost to avoid tensions between the European great powers that would threaten the security of Germany. But when, between 1880 and 1885, the foreign situation proved auspicious, Bismarck gave way, and a number of colonies were established overseas: in [[Africa]], these were [[Togo]], the [[Cameroons]], [[German South-West Africa]] and [[German East Africa]]; in [[Oceania]], they were [[German New Guinea]], the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] and the [[Marshall Islands]].
In 1888 Kaiser Wilhelm I died, his son [[Friedrich III, German Emperor|Friedrich III]] ruled for only 99 days before his death. The young and ambitious [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]], Friedrich's son, acceded to the throne. Political and personal differences between Bismarck and the new monarch, who wanted to be "his own chancellor", eventually caused Bismarck to resign in 1890.
===Wilhelminian Era===
[[Image:Karolinen-stamp.jpg|thumb|right|A postage stamp from the [[Caroline Islands|Carolines]], dating back to the time when the islands were ruled by the German Empire. The new ''Weltpolitik'' of Kaiser Wilhelm II led to frictions with other imperialist powers.]]
When Bismarck resigned, Wilhelm II had declared that he would continue the foreign policy of the old chancellor. But soon, a new course was taken, with the aim of increasing Germany's influence in the world (''Weltpolitik''). The Reinsurance Treaty with Russia was not renewed. Instead, France formed an alliance with Russia, against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The Triple Alliance itself was undermined by differences between Austria and Italy.
From 1898, German colonial expansion in [[East Asia]] ([[Jiaozhou Bay]], the [[Mariana Islands|Marianas]], the [[Caroline Islands]], [[Samoa]]) led to frictions with the United Kingdom, Russia, [[Japan]] and the [[United States]]. The construction of the Baghdad Railway, financed by German banks and heavy industry, and aimed at connecting the [[North Sea]] with the [[Persian Gulf]] via the [[Bosporus]], also collided with British and Russian geopolitical and economic interests.
To protect Germany's overseas trade and colonies, [[Alfred von Tirpitz|Admiral von Tirpitz]] started a programme of warship construction in 1898. This posed a direct threat to British hegemony on the seas, with the result that negotiations for an alliance between Germany and Britain broke down. Germany was increasingly isolated.
:''Main article: [[History of Germany during World War I]].''
Imperialist power politics and the determined pursuit of national interests ultimately led to the outbreak in 1914 of the [[World War I|First World War]], sparked by the assassination, on [[June 28]], [[1914]], of the Austrian heir-apparent [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]] and his wife at [[Sarajevo]], the capital of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] by a [[Serbia]]n nationalist. The theorized underlying causes have included the opposing policies of the European states, the armaments race, German-British rivalry, the difficulties of the Austro-Hungarian multinational state, Russia's Balkan policy and overhasty mobilisations and ultimatums (the underlying belief being that the war would be short). Germany fought on the side of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire against Russia, France, Great Britain, Italy, and several other smaller states. Fighting also spread to the Near East and the German colonies.
In the west, Germany fought a war of attrition with bloody battles. After a quick march through [[Belgium]], German troops were halted on the [[Marne]], north of [[Paris]]. The frontlines in France changed little until the end of the war. In the east, no decisive victories against the Russian army. The British naval blockade in the [[North Sea]] had crippling effects on Germany's supplies of raw materials and foodstuffs. The entry of the United States into the war in 1917 following Germanys declaration of ''unrestricted submarine warfare'' marked a decisive turning-point against Germany.
At the end of October, units of the German Navy in [[Kiel]], in northern Germany, refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost. On [[November 3]], the [[German Revolution|uprising]] spread to other cities. So-called workers' and soldiers' councils were established.
Kaiser Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated. O |
and killed the consul.
==Invading Gaul==
Now the road to Italy was open, but they turned west towards [[Gaul]]. They came into frequent conflict with the [[Roman Republic|Romans]], who usually came out the losers. In [[109 BC]], they defeated a Roman army under the consul [[Marcus Junius Silanus]], who was the commander of [[Gallia Narbonensis]]. The same year, they defeated another Roman army under the consul [[Gaius Cassius Longinus, consul 124 BC|Gaius Cassius Longinus]], who was killed at Burdigala (modern day [[Bordeaux]]). In [[107 BC]], the Romans once again lost against the [[Tigurines]], who were allies of the Cimbri.
==Attacking the Roman Republic==
It was not until [[105 BC]] that they planned an attack on the Roman Empire itself. At the [[Rhône River]], the Cimbri clashed with the Roman armies. The Roman commanders, the proconsul [[Quintus Servilius Caepio]] and the consul [[Gnaeus Mallius Maximus]], hindered Roman coordination and so the Cimbri succeeded in first defeating the legate [[Marcus Aurelius Scaurus]] and later cause a devastating defeat on Caepio and Maximus at the [[Battle of Arausio]]. The Romans lost as many as 80,000 men not including the lost auxiliary cavalry and the non-combatants which would have made a total loss of about 112,000 men.
Rome was in panic, and the ''terror cimbricus'' became a proverb. Everyone expected soon to see the ''new Gauls'' outside of the gates of Rome. In their desperation new measures were undertaken. Against the constitution, [[Marius]], who had defeated [[Jugurtha]], was elected consul and supreme commander for four years in a row ([[104 BC]]&ndash;[[101 BC]]).
==Defeat==
[[Image:The defeat of the Cimbri.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Defeat of the Cimbri, by [[Alexandre Gabriel Décamps]].]]
However, in [[103 BC]], the Cimbri and their Proto-Germanic allies, the [[Teutons]], had turned to Spain where they pillaged far and wide. During this time C. Marius had the time to prepare and, in [[102 BC]], he was ready to meet the [[Teutons]] and the [[Ambrones]] at the [[Rhône River]]. These two tribes intended to pass into Italy through the western passes, while the Cimbri and the Tigurines were to take the northern route across the [[Rhine]] and later across the [[Tyrol]]ian [[Alps]].
At the estuary of the [[Isère River]], the Teutons and the Ambrones met Marius, whose well-defended camp they did not manage to overrun. Instead, they pursued their route, and Marius followed them. At [[Battle of Aquae Sextiae|Aquae Sextiae]], the Romans won two battles and took the Teuton king [[Teutobod]] prisoner.
The Cimbri, however, had penetrated through the Alps into northern Italy. However, the consul [[Quintus Lutatius Catulus]] had not dared to fortify the passes, but instead he had retreated behind the [[Po River]], and so the land was open to the invaders. However, the Cimbri did not hurry, and the victors of Aquae
Sextiae had the time to arrive with reinforcements. At the [[Battle of Vercellae]], at the confluence of the [[Sesia River]] with the [[Po River]], in [[101 BC]], the long voyage of the Cimbri also came to an end.
It was a devastating defeat and both the chieftains [[Lugius]] and [[Boiorix]] died. The women killed both themselves and their children in order to avoid slavery. The Cimbri were annihilated, with the exception of a small remaining population of Cimbri which still remained in northern [[Jutland]] in the [[1st century]] AD.
==Culture==
The Cimbri are depicted as ferocious warriors who did not fear death. The host was followed by women and children on carts. Aged women dressed in white (see [[Völva]]) sacrificed the prisoners of war and sprinkled their blood (see [[Blót]]), the nature of which allowed them to see what was to come.
==See also==
*[[Cimmerians]]
*[[Sugambri]]
[[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:Pre-Roman Iron Age]]
[[da:Kimbrer]]
[[de:Kimbern]]
[[fr:Cimbres]]
[[lt:Kimbrai]]
[[nl:Cimbren]]
[[pl:Cymbrowie]]
[[ru:Кимвры]]
[[fi:Kimbrit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cimbri/Waid</title>
<id>6573</id>
<revision>
<id>15904706</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JHK</username>
<id>29</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Widewuto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cleveland Browns</title>
<id>6576</id>
<revision>
<id>42138178</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:52:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phbasketball6</username>
<id>851404</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Not to be forgotten */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Browns}}
{{NFL team | name = Cleveland Browns
| founded = 1946
| city = Cleveland, Ohio
| colors = Brown, Orange, and White
| coach = [[Romeo Crennel]]
| owner = [[Randy Lerner]]
| general manager = [[Phil Savage]]
| mascot = CB, Chomps, TD, and Trapper
| stations = [[WMMS]] (100.7) and [[WTAM]] (1100 AM)
| announcers = Doug Dieken, Jim Donovan, Mike Snyder, Casey Coleman, and Andre Knot
| hist_yr = 1999
| hist_misc =
* Cleveland Browns (1946-1995)
* ''Suspended operations'' (1996-1998)
| affiliate_old =
[[All-America Football Conference]] (1946-1949)
*Western Division (1946-1948)
| NFL_start_yr = 1950
| division_hist =
*American Conference (1950-1952)
*Eastern Conference (1953-1969)
**Century Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[AFC Central]] (1970-1995; 1999-2001)
**'''[[AFC North]] (2002-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 8
| no_conf_champs = 11
| no_div_champs = 10
| league_champs =
*'''[[All-America Football Conference|AAFC Championships]] (4)'''<br>1946, 1947, 1948, 1949
*'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (4)'''<br>1950, 1954, 1955, 1964
| conf_champs =
*'''NFL American:''' 1950, 1951, 1952
*'''NFL Eastern:''' 1953, 1954, 1955, 1957, 1964, 1965, 1968, 1969
| div_champs =
*'''NFL Century:''' 1967, 1968, 1969
*'''AFC Central:''' 1971, 1980, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1989
| stadium_years =
*[[Cleveland Stadium|Cleveland Municipal Stadium]] (1946-1995)
*'''[[Cleveland Browns Stadium]] (1999-present)'''
}}
The '''Cleveland Browns''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Cleveland, Ohio]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC North|Northern Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Browns began play in 1946 as a charter member of the [[All-America Football Conference]] and joined the NFL in 1950 after the AAFC merged into the older league. The team has won 4 AAFC titles and 4 [[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]].
In some accounts, there may be confusion regarding the team's history due to unusual and unprecedented actions taken by the city of Cleveland and the NFL in 1996. On [[November 6]], [[1995]], then-Browns owner [[Art Modell]] announced his intention to move the team to Baltimore, citing the inadequacy of [[Cleveland Stadium]] and the lack of a sufficient replacement along with his heavy debt. The decision triggered a flurry of legal activity that ended when representatives of Cleveland and the NFL reached a settlement on [[February 8]], [[1996]]. It stipulated that the Browns' name, colors, and history of the franchise were to remain in Cleveland. A reactivated Cleveland Browns team would then begin play in 1999 in the AFC Central Division, while the relocated club would technically and legally be a new [[expansion team]], the [[Baltimore Ravens]].{{ref|baltsun}}
For that reason, past records and [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]] players are attributed to the Browns and not to the Ravens. However, some incorrectly consider the Ravens and the pre-1995 Browns organization as one continuous entity since Art Modell retained the player and personnel contracts for his franchise, using terms like "The Modell organization" or "Art Modell's franchise" to denote it. {{ref|Modellorg}} (See the Franchise History section below for full details of the move.)
:'''Uniform colors:''' Brown (officially "Seal Brown") and Orange
:'''Helmet design:''' Orange helmet with brown and white center stripe. No logo (for one preseason game in 1965 the initials "CB" in brown appeared on each side).
==Franchise history==
===Early days in the AAFC===
[[Image:ClevelandBrowns_100.png|left|frame|The Browns are the only team in the [[NFL]] that does not have a logo on their helmet]]
The Cleveland Browns were founded in 1946 under owner [[Arthur McBride|Arthur 'Mickey' McBride]]. The team was to be named the Cleveland Panthers, but a semi-pro team was using that name and threatened to sue if the AAFC club used it as well. McBride then named the team after its first head coach, [[Paul Brown]]. Brown was uncomfortable with the idea of having the team named after him, stating publicly that the team was named after [[boxing]] champion [[Joe Louis]] who was known as the "Brown Bomber."
In either event, the Browns were extremely successful in the early part of their existence, dominating the new [[All-America Football Conference]], winning all four of its championships including with a landmark 1948 season in which they went unbeaten and untied - 24 years before the NFL's 'first' perfect team, the 1972 [[Miami Dolphins]]. Cleveland's undefeated streak (including ties) reached 29 games including 18 straight wins.
===1950-56: NFL dominance===
After the 1949 season the [[All-America Football Conference|AAFC]] merged with the rival [[National Football League]], with the Browns joining the [[San Francisco 49ers]] and [[Baltimore Colts]] as members of the older circuit.
Despite the change in leagues and what many football fans saw as a graduation to "the big league," the Browns continued their d |
been established. [[Central nervous system]] damage is also associated with irreversible [[tardive akathisia]] and [[tardive dementia]].
Another serious side effect is [[neuroleptic malignant syndrome]], in which the drugs appear to cause the temperature regulation centers to fail, resulting in a medical emergency as the patient's temperature suddenly increases to dangerous levels.
Another problematic side effect of antipsychotics is [[dysphoria]], meaning that it just makes the patient feel bad. This side-effect is a major problem for patients with schizophrenia in that it causes them to discontinue medication, and this produces a relapse of psychotic symptoms.
Whilst this may seem a daunting list, it must be noted that many people suffer few of the obvious side effects from taking antipsychotic medication. Some side effects, such as subtle cognitive problems, foot rocking, or drooling, in the case of akinesia go unnoticed.
Other symptoms of akinesia of antipsychotics include deterioration of teeth due to a lack of saliva. These symptoms are hard to spot and are often dismissed.
== History and design ==
The original antipsychotic drugs were happened upon largely by chance and were tested empirically for their effectiveness.
The first antipsychotic was [[chlorpromazine]], which was developed as a surgical [[anesthetic]]. It was first used on psychiatric patients in the belief that it would have a calming effect. However, the drug soon appeared to reduce psychosis beyond this calming effect, and now some believe that it causes a reduction of psychosis unrelated to the sedating effect of the medication. It was introduced for the treatment of psychosis during the period when [[lobotomy]] was a common treatment and was hailed as a "cure" for schizophrenia. It was then touted to provide a "chemical lobotomy," causing similar neurological effects without requiring surgery.
The newer atypical antipsychotics are supposedly [[rational drug design|rationally designed drugs]] in which a theoretical understanding of both the condition to be treated and the effect of certain molecules on the body is used to develop potential new drug candidates.
== See also ==
* [[Dopamine]]
* [[Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia]]
* [[Psychosis]]
* [[Schizophrenia]]
== References ==
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12356650&dopt=Abstract Jones, H. M., & Pilowsky, L. S. (2002)] Dopamine and antipsychotic drug action revisited. ''British Journal of Psychiatry'', 181, 271-275.
[[Category:Antipsychotics|*]]
[[de:Antipsychotikum]]
[[es:Neuroléptico]]
[[fr:Neuroleptique]]
[[io:Neuroleptiko]]
[[nl:Antipsychoticum]]
[[ja:抗精神病薬]]
[[pt:Antipsicótico]]
[[ru:Антипсихотические препараты]]
[[sv:Neuroleptika]]
[[zh:抗精神病药]]
==External links==
* [http://www.mcmanweb.com/article-178.htm Bipolar Meds - The Antipsychotics]
* [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2005/ANS01350.html FDA Public Health Advisory] - Public Health Advisory for Antipsychotic Drugs used for Treatment of Behavioral Disorders in Elderly Patients
{{Antipsychotics}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Akita</title>
<id>2871</id>
<revision>
<id>40737629</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T18:06:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: pt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Akita''' (秋田; Japanese for "autumn ricefield") is a Japanese name.
'''Akita''' may refer to:
In '''places''':
* [[Akita Prefecture]] (秋田県), a northern Japanese prefecture on the island of Honshu
* [[Akita, Akita]] (秋田市), the capital of Akita Prefecture
In '''people''':
* [[Masami Akita]] (秋田昌美; born 1956), musician, also known as Merzbow
* [[Akita Sanesue]] (秋田実季; 1576–1660), daimyo (feudal ruler)
* [[Akita Toshisue]] (秋田俊季), son of Sanesue
'''Akita''' may also refer to:
* [[Akita Shinkansen]] (秋田新幹線), a high speed train line between Tokyo and Akita City
* [[Akita Inu]] (秋田犬), a breed of dog from Akita Prefecture
==See also==
* [[Japanese name]]
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Japanese surnames]]
[[es:Akita]]
[[eo:Akita]]
[[ko:아키타]]
[[ja:秋田]]
[[pt:Akita (desambiguação)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arthur Tudor</title>
<id>2872</id>
<revision>
<id>15901255</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-04T08:07:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arthur, Prince of Wales]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Afghan/Tunisian Crochet</title>
<id>2873</id>
<revision>
<id>15901256</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-20T23:02:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Tunisian crochet]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Tunisian crochet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Archduke Charles</title>
<id>2875</id>
<revision>
<id>41356185</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T20:46:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Biederman</username>
<id>210118</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revert - vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:archdukecharles1.jpg|thumb|right|Archduke Charles]]
'''Archduke Charles of Austria, Duke of Teschen''' ([[de]]: ''Erzherzog Karl von Österreich, Herzog von Teschen'', also known as ''Karl von Österreich-Teschen'') ([[September 5]],[[1771]] &ndash; [[April 30]], [[1847]]) was a son of [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1747 &ndash; 1792) and his wife Maria Luisa of [[Spain]] (1745 &ndash; 1792). He was also a younger brother of [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]]. Despite being epileptic, Charles achieved respect both as a commander and as a reformer of Austria's army.
==Youth and early career==
In a generous act by his father, Charles was adopted and raised in Vienna by his childless aunt [[Marie Christine of Austria]] and her husband [[Albert of Saxe-Teschen]]. His youth was spent in [[Tuscany]], at [[Vienna]] and in the Austrian Netherlands, where he began his career of military service in the war of the [[French Revolution]]. He commanded a brigade at the [[Battle of Jemappes]], and in the campaign of 1793 distinguished himself at the [[Battle of Aldenhoven|Action of Aldenhoven]] and the [[Battle of Neerwinden (1793)|Battle of Neerwinden]]. In this year he became Statthalter in [[Belgium]] and received the army rank of lieutenant field marshal, which promotion was soon followed by that to Feldzeugmeister. In the remainder of the war in the [[Low Countries]] he held high commands, and he was present at [[Battle of Fleurus (1794)|Battle of Fleurus]].
In 1795 he served on the Rhine, and in the following year was entrusted with the chief control of all the Austrian forces on that river. His conduct of the operations against [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan|Jourdan]] and [[Jean Victor Marie Moreau|Moreau]] in [[1796]] marked him out at once as one of the greatest generals in Europe. At first falling back carefully and avoiding a decision, he finally marched away, leaving a mere screen in front of Moreau. Falling upon Jourdan he beat him in the battles of [[Battle of Amberg (1796)|Amberg]] and [[Battle of Würzburg|Würzburg]], and drove him over the Rhine with great loss. He then turned upon Moreau's army, which he defeated and forced out of Germany.
==Napoleonic Wars==
[[Image:Archduke_Charles_Picture.jpg|thumb|300px|Victorious Archduke Charles of Austria during the [[Battle of Aspern-Essling]] (May 21-22, [[1809]])]]
In [[1797]] he was sent to arrest the victorious march of [[Napoleon I of France|General Bonaparte]] in [[Italy]], and he conducted the retreat of the over-matched Austrians with the highest skill. In the campaign of 1799 he was once more opposed to Jourdan, whom he defeated in the battles of [[Battle of Osterach|Osterach]] and [[Battle of Stockash (1800)|Stokasch]], following up his success by invading [[Switzerland]] and defeating [[André Masséna|Masséna]] in the [[First Battle of Zürich]], after which he re-entered Germany and drove the French once more over the Rhine.
Serving with distinction against [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] in [[1796]], Charles then beat lesser opponents such as [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan|General Jourdan]] and [[André Masséna|General Massena]] at the [[First Battle of Zurich]] June [[1799]].
Ill-health, however, forced him to retire to [[Bohemia]], whence he was soon recalled to undertake the task of checking Moreau's advance on Vienna. The result of the [[Battle of Hohenlinden]] had, however, foredoomed the attempt, and the archduke had to make the armistice of [[Steyr]]. His popularity was now such that the diet of Regensburg, which met in 1802, resolved to erect a statue in his honour and to give him the title of saviour of his country, but Charles refused both distinctions.
In the short and disastrous war of 1805 Archduke Charles commanded what was intended to be the main army in Italy, but events made Germany the decisive theatre of operations, and the defeats sustained on the [[Danube]] neutralized the success obtained by the archduke over Massena in the desperately fought [[Battle of Caldiero]]. With the conclusion of peace began his active work of army reorganization, which was first tested on the field in [[1809]]. As ''generalissimo'' of the army he had been made [[Generalfeldmarschall|field marshal]] some years before.
In 1806 Francis II (now Francis I of Austria) named the Archduke Charles Commander in Chief of the Austrian army as well as Head of the Council of War. Supported by the prestige of being the only general who had proved capable of defeating t |
1, as well as [[New Testament]] passages concerning both Jesus and [[John the Baptist]] while they were ''in utero''. Also, the [[Didache]], an early Church document, explicitly forbids abortion along with [[infanticide]], both common practices in the [[Roman Empire]], as murder. The view that abortion is 'equivalent to murder' is not actually widely held outside fundamentalist Protestantism in the United States. The Roman Catholic church, for example, permits medical procedures to be carried out on a mother for the purpose of saving her life, even if doing so would put the foetus at risk. Many Protestant Christians claim that the [[Ten Commandments]] prohibit abortion under the heading of "Do not murder". Others reject this view, as they hold that the context of the entire set of Biblical laws includes those laws which restrict them to already born human beings.
== War, violence and pacifism ==
Jews and Christians accept as valid and binding many of the same moral principles taught in the [[Torah]]. There is a great deal of overlap between the ethical systems of these two faiths. Nonetheless, there are some highly significant doctrinal differences.
Judaism has a great many teachings about peace and compromise, and its teachings make physical violence the last possible option. Nonetheless, the [[Talmud]] teaches that "If someone comes with the intention to murder you, then one is obligated to kill in self-defense [rather than be killed]". The clear implication is that to bare one's throat would be tantamount to suicide (which Jewish law forbids) and it would also be considered helping a murderer kill someone and "placing an obstacle in front of a blind man" (making it easier for another person to falter in their ways). The tension between the laws dealing with peace, and the obligation to self-defense, has led to a set of Jewish teachings that have been described as tactical-pacifism. This is the avoidance of force and violence whenever possible, but the use of force when necessary to save the lives of one's self and one's people.
Under extreme circumstances, although killing oneself is forbidden under normal Jewish law as being a denial of God's goodness in the world, Jews have committed [[suicide]] or mass suicide as a final resort, with religious approval, when there has seemed no choice but to either be killed or forced to betray their religion (see [[Masada]], [[History of the Jews in France#First Persecution of the Jews|First French persecution of the Jews]], and [[York Castle]] for examples). As a grim reminder of those times, there is even a prayer in the Jewish liturgy for "when the knife is at the throat", for those dying "to sanctify God's Name". (See: ''[[Martyrdom]]'')
Because Judaism focusses on this life, many questions to do with survival and conflict (such as the classic [[morality|moral]] [[dilemma]] of two people in a desert with only enough water for one to survive) were analysed in great depth by the rabbis within the Talmud, in the attempt to understand the principles a godly person should draw upon in such a circumstance.
The [[Sermon on the Mount]] records that Jesus taught that if someone comes to harm you, then one must [[turn the other cheek]]. This has led four fairly sizable Protestant Christian denominations to develop a theology of [[pacifism]], the avoidance of force and violence at all times. They are known historically as the ''[[peace churches]]'', and have incorporated Christ's teachings on [[Nonviolent resistance|nonviolence]] into their theology so as to apply it to participation in the use of violent force; those denominations are the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]], [[Mennonites]], [[Amish]], and the [[Church of the Brethren]]. Many other churches have people who hold to the doctrine without making it a part of their doctrines, or who apply it to individuals but not to governments. The vast majority of Christian nations and groups have not adopted this theology, nor have they followed it in practice.
==Judgement==
Both Christianity and Judaism believe in some form of judgement.
The Christian view is very well defined - every human is a sinner, and nothing but being saved by God's grace (and not through any merit of ones own actions) can change the damnatory sentence to salvation. There is a [[Last Judgment|judgement after death]], and Christ will return to judge the living and dead. Those positively judged will be saved and live in God's presence in heaven, those who are negatively judged will be cast to eternal hell (or in some versions, annihilated).
Jewish teaching is somewhat ambivalent on Judgement. Initially indeed there was no such concept in Judaism, however over time, and especially as exposed to other cultures' concept that every wrong must be somehow balanced by punishment in the end, and vice versa, a mixture of concepts and philosophies entered Judaism. At heart though, Jews do not look for an afterlife as a reward or motivation. The reward for a good life is simply the pleasure it gives God, and the rightness of doing ones duty and living a holy life in his ways. Little emphasis is given in Jewish life to the struggle for a place in the afterlife.
That said, in Jewish liturgy there is significant prayer and talk of a "book of life" that one is written into, a metaphorical allusion that God judges each person each year and possibly after death. Many Jewish sages understand this to be metaphorical. For example - one Day of Atonement prayer says it will be decided ''"who will be made strong, and who weak, who will have good health, who poor, who will be at peace and who not at peace... but prayer pentitence and charity avert a stern decree"''. However others translate this to mean, by ones decisions to change oneself (or otherwise), it will become inevitable who will do good and create peace in the coming year, and who will do ill and create lack of peace, and so on.
==Capital punishment==
Although the Jewish bible has many references to capital punishment, in fact very early on, the Jewish sages and rabbis used their authority, and the demands for [[justice]] emphasized in the bible, to make it all but impossible for a Jewish court to impose a death sentence. Even when such a sentence might have been imposed, the "cities of refuge" and other sanctuaries, were at hand for those [[manslaughter|unintentionally guilty]] of capital offences.
In this manner, the Talmud seriously limits the use of the death penalty to only be applicable to those criminals who were warned not to commit a capital crime in the presence of two witnesses, and persisted in committing the crime also in front of at least two witnesses. It was said in the Talmud about the death penalty in Judaism, that if a court killed one person in seventy years, it was a barbarous (or "bloody") court and should be condemned as such.
Although many people have died as a result of Christian actions, such as the [[crusade]]s, these were not capital punishment as such. In fact, Christianity has usually reserved the death penalty for [[heresy]], the denial of the orthodox view of God's view, and [[witchcraft]] or similar non-Christian practices, which struck at the roots of Christianity as practiced. For example, in [[Spain]], unrepentant Jews were exiled, and it was only those [[Crypto-Judaism|crypto-Jews]] who had accepted [[baptism]] under pressure but retained Jewish customs in private, who were punished in this way.
At a time when belief in a literal judgement and eternal hell was widespread, capital punishment in this sense was seen as appropriate for two reasons:
:* It kept the faith pure and removed harmful influences that might corrupt or mislead others.
:* It was considered better that a person confessed (by torture if necessary), and was punished and suffered briefly on earth, than that they were punished by eternal damnation in the life after.
== Heaven and Hell ==
Judaism is largely unconcerned with the problem of death or an afterlife; the Biblical book of [[Ecclesiastes]] states that death is final; the place of the dead is called ''sheol,'' which means "the grave." Aside from the ghostly apparition of Samuel, called up by a witch at King Saul's command, the Hebrew Bible does not mention an afterlife. According to critical scholars, Biblical Jews first believed that God always punished evil, but always during a person's life &mdash; or, if the person is repentant, in the life of one of that persons' descendants. Towards the end of the Biblical period, Jews began questioning whether God's punishments and rewards were always executed during a person's life. A belief in an afterlife only developed in the Second Temple period, but was contested by various Jewish sects. The [[Pharisees]] believed that upon death people rested in their graves until they would be physically resurrected with the coming of the messiah (in other words, they did not believe in an eternal soul independent of the body). The [[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbis]] adopted this as a core belief, and it is the thirteenth of [[Maimonides|Maimonides']] [[Jewish principles of faith|Thirteen Principles of Faith]].
There is very little Jewish literature on heaven or hell as human destinations. "Heaven" typically refers to a place where God debates [[Talmuds|Talmudic laws]] with the angels; "hell," in Hebrew [[Gehenna]], refers to the Valley of Hinnom, southwest of [[Jerusalem]], abhorrent to Jews who believed that it used to be the place where children were sacrificed to [[Moloch]]; in Biblical times it was a garbage dump, and the place to which the [[scapegoat]] was sent on [[Yom Kippur]].
Jewish depictions of heaven as a place where humans go upon death are few, and depict it as a place where Jews spend eternity studying the Written and Oral [[Torah]].
Jewish depictions of hell as |
[[Category:Lists of sportspeople|Tennis players, female]]
[[Category:Lists of women|Tennis players]]
[[Category:Tennis players|Tennis players]]
[[de:Liste von Tennisspielern]]
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[[ja:テニス選手一覧 (女子)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fundamental Theorem of Calculus</title>
<id>10621</id>
<revision>
<id>15908421</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-08T19:30:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Fundamental theorem of calculus]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Fundamental theorem of calculus]]
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<page>
<title>Flugelhorn</title>
<id>10622</id>
<revision>
<id>40363398</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:50:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Brass instruments]]
[[image:Flugel-lhside-large.jpg|thumb|250px|A standard 3-valved Bb flugelhorn.]]
The '''flugelhorn''' (also spelled '''fluegelhorn''' or '''flügelhorn''') is a [[brass instrument]] resembling a [[cornet]] but with a wider, conical [[bore]]. It is thought by some to be a member of the [[saxhorn]] family developed by [[Adolphe Sax]] (who also developed the [[saxophone]]); however, other historians assert that it is a member of the keyed bugle family, long predating Adolphe Sax's innovative work [http://www.rickcarlson.com/brass/fluegelhorn.html].
The original German spelling of ''Flügelhorn'' translates into english as ''wing horn''. One possible [[etymology]] is that the instrument was used on the battlefield to summon the flanks, or wings, of an army into battle [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=flugelhorn].
The flugelhorn is built in the same B-flat pitch as many [[trumpet]]s and [[cornet]]s. It usually has three piston valves and employs the same fingering system as other brass instruments. Four valve and rotary valve variants also exist. It can thus be played without too much trouble by trumpet and cornet players, though some adaptation may be needed to their playing style. It is usually played with a more deeply conical [[mouthpiece]] than either trumpets or cornets (though not as conical as that on a [[horn (instrument)|horn]]).
The tone is fatter and usually regarded as more "mellow" and "dark" than that of the trumpet or cornet. It has a similar level of agility to the cornet but is more difficult to control in the high register where in general it "slots" or locks on to notes less easily. It is not generally used for aggressive or bright displays as both trumpet and cornet can be, but tends more towards a softer and more reflective role. Its main areas of use are in [[jazz]] and in the [[brass band]], though it does get occasional use in orchestral writing. The flugelhorn is the melody-instrument of a [[fanfare]]-orchestra.
[[Miles Davis]] was a pioneer in the use of the flugelhorn in jazz on the ''[[Miles Ahead]]'' project arranged by [[Gil Evans]], although he did not use it much on later projects. Other prominent practioners include [[Clark Terry]], [[Freddie Hubbard]], [[Art Farmer]], [[Jimmy Owens]], [[Chet Baker]], [[Chuck Mangione]], [[Woody Shaw]] and [[Tom Harrell]].
Some modern flugels are built with a fourth valve which takes them down in pitch an extra fourth, adding a useful area of low range which when coupled with the dark sound gives an interesting extension to the instrument's abilities. More often, however, the fourth valve is used in place of the first and third valve combination, which is somewhat sharp (and which is flattened on trumpets and cornets and some three-valve flugelhorns by a "kicker" slide on the first and/or third valve.)
==External links==
*[http://www.dallasmusic.org/gearhead/Flugelhorn%20Guide.html An enthusiast's flugelhorn guide] with many details of individual makes etc.
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<page>
<title>Folk music</title>
<id>10623</id>
<revision>
<id>41868927</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:33:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>60.228.47.12</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Defining folk song */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Folk music''', in the original sense of the term, is [[music]] by and of the common people.
==Overview==
Folk music arose, and best survives, in societies not yet affected by mass communication and the commercialization of culture. It normally was shared by the entire community (and its performance not strictly limited to a special class of expert performers), and was transmitted by word of mouth.
During the 20th and 21st century, the term ''folk music'' took on a second meaning: it describes a particular kind of [[popular music]] which is culturally descended from or otherwise influenced by traditional folk music. Like other popular music, this kind of folk music is most often performed by experts and is transmitted in organized performances and commercially distributed recordings. However, popular music has filled some of the roles and purposes of the folk music it has replaced.
''Folk music'' is somewhat synonymous with '''''traditional music'''''. Both terms are used semi-interchangeably amongst the general population; however, some musical communities that actively play living folkloric musics (see [[Irish traditional music]] for a specific example), have adopted the term ''traditional music'' as a means of distinguishing their music from the popular music called "folk music," especially the post-1960s "[[singer-songwriter]]" genre. See also: [[World music]].
==Defining folk song==
[[image:Musicians.jpg|350px|thumb|Armenian folk musicians]]
"Folk song is usually seen as the [[wiktionary:authentic|authentic]] expression of a way of life now, past or about to disappear (or in some cases, to be preserved or somehow revived). Unfortunately, despite the assembly of an enormous body of work over some two centuries, there is still no unanimity on what folk music (or folklore, or the folk) 'is'" (Middleton 1990, p.127).
[[Gene Shay]], co-founder and host of the [[Philadelphia Folk Festival]], defined ''folk music'' in an April 2003 interview by saying: "In the strictest sense, it's music that is rarely written for [[profit]]. It's music that has endured and been passed down by [[oral tradition]]. [...] And folk music is participatory&mdash;you don't have to be a great musician to be a folk singer. [...] And finally, it brings a sense of community. It's the people's music."
The English term ''folk,'' which gained usage in the [[18th century]] (during the Romantic period) to refer to peasants or non-literate peoples, is related to the [[German language|German]] word ''Volk'' (meaning ''people'' or ''[[nation]]''). The term is used to emphasize that folk music emerges spontaneously from communities of ordinary people. "As the complexity of social stratification and interaction became clearer and increased, various conditioning criteria, such as 'continuity', 'tradition', 'oral transmission', 'anonymity' and uncommercial origins, became more important than simple social categories themselves."
Charles Seeger (1980) describes three contemporary defining criteria of folk music (Middleton 1990, p.127-8):
# A "schema comprising four musical types: 'primitive' or 'tribal'; 'elite' or 'art'; 'folk'; and 'popular'. Usually...folk music is associated with a lower class in societies which are culturally and socially stratified, that is, which have developed an elite, and possibly also a popular, musical culture." Cecil Sharp (1972), A.L. Lloyd ().
# "Cultural processes rather than abstract musical types...''continuity'' and ''oral transmission''...seen as characterizing one side of a cultural dichotomy, the other side of which is found not only in the lower layers of feudal, capitalist and some oriental societies but also in 'primitive' societies and in parts of 'popular cultures'." Redfield (1947) and Dundes (1965).
# Less prominent, "a rejection of rigid boundaries, preferring a conception, simply of varying practice within ''one'' field, that of 'music'."
[[David Harker]] (1985) argues that "folk music" is, in [[Peter van der Merwe]]'s words, "a meaningless term invented by 'bourgeois' commentators". Jazz musician [[Louis Armstrong]] and blues musician [[Big Bill Broonzy]] have both been attributed the remark "All music is folk music. I ain't never heard a horse sing a song."
==Subjects of folk music==
Apart from [[instrumental music]] that forms a part of folk music, especially [[dance music]] traditions, much folk music is [[vocal music]], since the instrument that makes such music is usually handy. As such, most folk music has [[lyric]]s, and is about something.
[[Narrative verse]] looms large in the folk music of many cultures. This encompasses such forms as traditional [[epic poetry]], much of which was meant originally for oral performance, sometimes accompanied by instruments. Many epic poems of various cultures were pieced together from shorter pieces of traditional narrative verse, which explains their episodic structure and often their ''[[in medias res]]'' plot developments. Other forms of traditional narrative verse relate the outcomes of [[battle]]s and other tragedies or natural disasters. Sometimes, as in the triumphant |
istry)|saturated]]. If additional solute is added to a saturated solution, it will not dissolve. Instead, [[Phase (matter)#Phase separation|phase separation]] will occur, leading to either coexisting phases or a [[suspension (chemistry)|suspension]]. The point of saturation depends on many variables such as ambient temperature and the precise chemical nature of the solvent and solute.
Concentration may be expressed both [[qualitative|qualitatively]] ('informally') or [[quantitative|quantitatively]] ('numerically').
== Qualitative notation ==
Qualitatively, solutions of relatively low concentration are described using adjectives such as "dilute," or "weak," while solutions of relatively high concentration are described as "concentrated," or "strong." As a rule, the more concentrated a [[color|chromatic]] solution is, the more intensely coloured it is.
[[Image:Dilution-concentration simple example.jpg|frame|none|These glasses containing red dye demonstrate qualitative changes in concentration. The solutions on the left are "weaker" (or more dilute), compared to the "stronger" (or more concentrated) solutions on the right.]]
== Quantitative notation ==
Quantitative notation of concentration is far more informative and useful from a scientific point of view. There are a number of different ways to quantitatively express concentration; the most common are listed below.
''Note: Many units of concentration require measurement of a substance's volume, which is variable depending on ambient temperature and pressure. Unless otherwise stated, all the following measurements are assumed to be at [[standard state]] temperature and pressure (that is, 25 degrees [[Celsius]] at 1 [[atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]] or 101.325'' kPa'').''
===Mass percentage===
''Mass percentage'' denotes the [[mass]] of a substance in a mixture as a [[percentage]] of the mass of the entire mixture. For instance: if a bottle contains 40 [[gram]]s of [[ethanol]] and 60 grams of [[water]], then it contains 40% ethanol by mass. Commercial concentrated aqueous reagents such as acid and bases are often labeled in concentrations of ''weight percentage'' with the [[specific gravity]] also listed. In older texts and references this is sometimes referred to as ''weight-weight percentage'' (abbreviated as ''w/w'').
===Mass-volume percentage===
''Mass-volume percentage'', (sometimes referred to as weight-volume percentage and often abbreviated as % m/v or % w/v) denotes the mass of a substance in a mixture as a percentage of the volume of the entire mixture. Mass-volume percentage is often used for solutions made from
solid reagents. It is the mass of the solute in grams multiplied by one hundred divided by the volume of solution in millilitres.
===Volume-volume percentage===
''Volume-volume percentage'' or % (v/v) describes the volume of the solute in mL per 100 mL of the resulting solution. This is most useful when a liquid - liquid solution is being prepared. For example, beer is about 5% ethanol by volume. This means every 100 mL beer contains 5 mL
ethanol (ethyl alcohol).
===Molarity===
''Molarity'' (M) denotes the number of [[mole (unit)|mole]]s of a given substance per [[litre]] of solution. For instance: 4.0 litres of liquid, containing 2.0 moles of dissolved particles, constitutes a solution of 0.5 M. Such a solution may be described as "0.5 molar." (Working with moles can be highly advantageous, as they enable measurement of the absolute number of particles in a solution, irrespective of their weight and volume. This is often more useful when performing [[stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] calculations.). See [[molar solution]] for further information.
===Molality===
''Molality'' (m) denotes the number of moles of a given substance per kilogram of solvent. For instance: 2.0 kilograms of solvent, containing 1.0 moles of dissolved particles, constitutes a molality of 0.5 mol/kg. Such a solution may be described as "0.5 molal."
The advantage of molality is that it does not change with the temperature as it deals with the mass of solvent, rather than the volume of solution. Volume typically increases with increase in temperature resulting in decrease in molarity. Molality of a solution is always constant irrespective of the physical conditions like temperature and pressure.
===Molinity===
''Molinity'' is a rarely-used term that denotes the number of moles of a given substance per [[kilogram]] of solution. For instance: imagine 2.0 kg of solvent, plus 1.0 mol of dissolved particles, weighs a total of 2.5 kg. The molinity of the solution is therefore 1 mol / 2.5 kg = 0.4 mol/kg.
:''Note: molarity and molinity are calculated using the volume of the entire solution, but molality is calculated using the mass of solvent only.''
:
===Normality===
''Normality'' is a concept related to ''molarity'', usually applied to [[acid]]-[[base (chemistry)|base]] solutions and reactions. For acid-base reactions, the equivalent is the mass of acid or base that can accept or donate exactly one mole of protons (H<sup>+</sup> ions). Normality is also used for [[redox]] reactions. In this case the equivalent is the quantity of oxidizing or reducing agent that can accept or furnish one mole of [[electron]]s.
Whereas molarity measures the number of particles per litre of solution, normality measures the number of [[equivalent weight (chemistry)|equivalents]] per litre of solution.
In practice, this simply means one multiplies the molarity of a solution by the [[valence]] of the ionic solute. A bit more complex for redox reactions.
''Note: The normality is always equal to, or greater than the molarity for acid-base reactions. However, for redox reactions the normality is typically equal to or less than the molarity.''
===Mole fraction===
The ''[[mole fraction]]'' &chi;, chi (also called ''molar fraction'') denotes the number of moles of solute as a proportion of the total number of moles in a solution. For instance: 1 mole of solute dissolved in 9 moles of solvent would have a mole fraction of 1/10 or 0.1.
===Formal===
The ''formal'' (F) is yet another measure of concentration similar to molarity. It is used rarely. It is calculated based on the formula weights of chemicals per litre of solution. The difference between formal and molar concentrations is that the formal concentration indicates moles of the original chemical formula in solution, without regard for the species that actually exist in solution. Molar concentration, on the other hand, is the concentration of species in solution.
For example: if one dissolves sodium carbonate (Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>) in a litre of water, the compound dissociates into the Na<sup>+</sup> and CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup> ions. Some of the CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup> reacts with the water to form HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> and H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>. If the pH of the solution is low, there is practically no Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> left in the solution. So, although we have added 1 mol of Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> to the solution, it does not contain 1 M of that substance. (Rather, it contains a molarity based on the other constituents of the solution.) However, one can still say that the solution contains 1 F of Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>.
==="Parts-per" notation===
The ''parts-per'' notation is used for extremely low concentrations. This is often used to denote the relative abundance of trace [[chemical element|elements]] in the Earth's crust, trace elements in forensics or other analyses, or levels of [[pollutant]]s in the [[natural environment|environment]].
*''Parts per [[hundred]]'' (denoted by '%' and very rarely 'pph') - denotes one particle of a given substance for every 99 other particles. This is the common percent. 1 part in 10<sup>2</sup>.
*''Parts per [[1000 (number)|thousand]]'' (denoted by '&#137;' [the per mil symbol], and occasionally 'ppt') denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999 other particles. This is roughly equivalent to one drop of ink in a cup of water, or one second per 17 minutes. 'Parts per thousand' is often used to record the [[salinity]] of [[seawater]]. 1 part in 10<sup>3</sup>.
*''[[Parts per million]]'' ('ppm') denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999,999 other particles. This is roughly equivalent to one drop of ink in a 40 gallon drum of water, or one second per 280 hours. 1 part in 10<sup>6</sup>.
*''Parts per [[billion]]'' ('[[ppb]]') denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999,999,999 other particles. This is roughly equivalent to one drop of ink in a [[canal lock]] full of water, or one second per 32 years. 1 part in 10<sup>9</sup>.
*''Parts per [[trillion]]'' ('ppt') denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999,999,999,999 other particles. This is roughly equivalent to one drop of ink in an Olympic-sized swimming pool, or one second every 320 centuries. 1 part in 10<sup>12</sup>.
*''Parts per [[quadrillion]]'' ('ppq') denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999,999,999,999,999 other particles. This is roughly equivalent to a drop of ink in a medium-sized lake, or one second every 32,000 [[millennium|millennia]]. There are a few analytical techniques that can measure ppq concentrations; and it is used in some mathematical models of [[toxicology]] and [[epidemiology]]. 1 part in 10<sup>15</sup>. Some contaminants such as methylmercury can be present in lakes at ppq concentrations and are biomagnified such that fish contain ppm concentrations of mercury.
Warning: although 'ppt' is usually used to denote 'par |
[[military rank]] used in some [[navy|navies]] for officers whose position exceeds that of a Captain, but is less than that of a [[flag officer]].
==History==
The rank of Commodore derives from the [[French language|French]] ''commandeur'', which was one of the highest ranks in orders of [[knight]]hood, and in military orders the title of the knight in charge of a ''commenda'' (a local part of the order's territorial possessions).
The [[Royal Netherlands Navy]] also used the rank of ''[[commandeur]]'' from the end of the [[16th century]] for a variety of temporary positions, until it became a conventional permanent rank in [[1955]].
The [[Royal Netherlands Air Force]] has adopted the English spelling of ''commodore'' for an equivalent rank.
The rank of Commodore was at first a position created as a temporary title to be bestowed upon Captains who commanded [[squadron]]s of more than one vessel. In many navies, the rank of Commodore was merely viewed as a [[Senior Captain]] position, whereas other naval services bestowed upon the rank of Commodore the prestige of [[flag officer]] status.
==Naval rank==
The following articles deal with the rank of Commodore (or its equivalent) as it is employed in various countries.
* [[Commodore (RN)|Commodore]] ([[United Kingdom]] / [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]])
* [[Commodore (USN)|Commodore]] ([[United States]])
* [[Kommodore]] ([[Germany]])
==Merchant and boating rank==
Commodore is also a title held by the senior captain within a shipping company. It is also a title held by the senior officer of many yacht clubs and boating associations.
==Other uses==
In the [[Church of Scientology]], "The Commodore" was one of the many titles (and some critics would say, the least grandiose among them) held by the church's founder, [[L. Ron Hubbard]]. As the head of [[Sea Org]], a pseudo naval branch of Scientology, Hubbard awarded himself this title. In fact, Hubbard never earned an actual rank higher than [[Lieutenant]] in his [[U.S. Navy]] service during [[World War II]].
In the [[United States Coast Guard Auxiliary]], the senior elected officer of the organization is the National Commodore, while there are Commodores elected for the Atlantic and Pacific regions.
[[Vanderbilt University]]'s intercollegiate athletics teams are nicknamed the Commodores, a reference to [[Cornelius Vanderbilt]]'s self-appointed title (he was the master of a large shipping fleet).
==The rank of commodore in fiction==
*In the [[video game]] [[StarCraft]], a [[Terran]] battlecruiser (presumably its commander) holds the rank of commodore.
==See also==
*[[Air Commodore]]
*[[Commodore (Star Trek)]]
==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/commentariat/emperor.htm ''The Emperor's New Clothes'']
[[Category:Military ranks]]
[[de:Kommodore]]
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[[sv:Kommendörkapten]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Chlorinated fluorocarbons</title>
<id>7582</id>
<revision>
<id>18756821</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-13T17:47:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Irishxpride</username>
<id>305238</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Haloalkane]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cauchy-Riemann equations</title>
<id>7583</id>
<revision>
<id>39620563</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T18:50:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.74.10.192</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Formulation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Cauchy-Riemann differential equations''' in [[complex analysis]], named after [[Augustin Cauchy]] and [[Bernhard Riemann]], are two [[partial differential equation]]s which provide a necessary ''but not necessarily sufficient'' condition for a function to be [[holomorphic function|holomorphic]] (it is a sufficient condition if, for example, the functions ''u'' and ''v'' have continuous partial derivatives). This system of equations was first published in [[1814]] by Cauchy, in his paper ''Sur les intégrales définies''.
==Formulation==
Let ''f''(''x'' + ''iy'') = ''u'' + ''iv'' be a [[function (mathematics)|function]] from an [[open subset]] of the [[complex number]]s '''C''' to '''C''', where ''x'', ''y'', ''u'', and ''v'' are [[real number|real]], and regard ''u'' and ''v'' as [[real number|real]]-valued functions defined on an open subset of '''R'''<sup>2</sup>. Then ''f'' is holomorphic if and only if ''u'' and ''v'' are continuously differentiable and their partial derivatives satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations, which are:
:<math>{ \partial u \over \partial x } = { \partial v \over \partial y}</math>
and
:<math>{ \partial u \over \partial y } = -{ \partial v \over \partial x}.</math>
The equations correspond structurally to the condition that the [[Jacobian]] matrix is of the form
:<math>
\begin{pmatrix}
a & -b \\
b & \;\; a
\end{pmatrix},
</math>
the [[Complex_number#Matrix_representation_of_complex_numbers|matrix representation of a complex number]]. Geometrically, this expresses the [[conformal]] nature by a combination of [[rotation]] and [[enlargement]], for any analytic function at a point where its derivative isn't zero. It does so by a first-order picture (small discs are rotated and enlarged to other small approximate discs).
It follows from the equations, if they can be differentiated twice, that ''u'' and ''v'' must be [[harmonic function]]s since they satisfy [[Laplace's equation]]. The equations can therefore be seen as the conditions on a given pair of harmonic functions to come as real and imaginary parts of a complex-analytic function. For a given harmonic function ''u'' a corresponding harmonic function ''v'' is called a [[harmonic conjugate]]. If it exists it is unique up to a constant term.
== Example ==
The equations give a direct insight into [[antiholomorphic function]]s.
Suppose a complex function ''f'' analytic on an open set ''D''. Then ''f'' satisfies Cauchy-Riemann equations; that is, if <math>f(x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)</math>, then:
:<math>{\partial u \over \partial x} = {\partial v \over \partial y}</math> and <math>{\partial v \over \partial x} = - {\partial u \over \partial y}</math>.
Now suppose <math>\bar f</math> is also analytic on ''D''. Then since <math>f(x + iy) = u(x, y) - iv(x, y)</math>,
:<math>{\partial u \over \partial x} = -{\partial v \over \partial y}</math> and <math>{\partial v \over \partial x} = {\partial u \over \partial y}</math>.
Combining this with the early equations, we get:
:<math>{\partial u \over \partial x} = {\partial u \over \partial y} = {\partial v \over \partial x} ={\partial v \over \partial y} = 0</math>.
This shows that ''f'' is [[locally constant]] on ''D'', and constant if ''D'' is connected.
==Derivation==
Consider a function ''f''(''z'') = ''u''(''x'', ''y'') + i ''v''(''x'', ''y'') over '''C''', and we wish to calculate its derivative at some point, ''z''<sub>0</sub>. We can essentially approach ''z''<sub>0</sub> along the real axis towards 0, or down the imaginary axis towards 0.
If we take the first path:
:{|
|-
|<math>f'(z)\,</math>
|<math>=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0} {f(z+h)-f(z) \over h}</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{u(x+h,y)+iv(x+h,y)-[u(x,y)+iv(x,y)]\over h}</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{[u(x+h,y)-u(x,y)]+i[v(x+h,y)-v(x,y)]\over h}</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{\left[\frac{u(x+h,y)-u(x,y)}{h}+i\frac{v(x+h,y)-v(x,y)}{h}\right]}.</math>
|}
This is now in the form of two [[difference quotient]]s, so now
:<math>f'(z)={\partial u \over \partial x} + i {\partial v \over \partial x}.</math>
Taking the second path:
:{|
|-
|<math>f'(z)\,</math>
|<math>=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0} {f(z+ih)-f(z) \over ih}</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{u(x,y+h)+iv(x,y+h)-[u(x,y)+iv(x,y)]\over ih}</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{\left[\frac{u(x,y+h)-u(x,y)}{ih} +i\frac{v(x,y+h)-v(x,y)}{ih}\right]}</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{\left[-i\frac{u(x,y+h)-u(x,y)}{h}+\frac{v(x,y+h)-v(x,y)}{h}\right]}</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{\left[\frac{v(x,y+h)-v(x,y)}{h}-i\frac{u(x,y+h)-u(x,y)}{h}\right]}.</math>
|}
Again, this is now in the form of two [[difference quotient]]s, so
:<math>f'(z)={\partial v \over \partial y} - i {\partial u \over \partial y}.</math>
Equating these two we get
:<math>{\partial u \over \partial x} + i {\partial v \over \partial x} = {\partial v \over \partial y} - i {\partial u \over \partial y}.</math>
Equating real and imaginary parts, then
:<math>{\partial u \over \partial x} = {\partial v \over \partial y}</math>
:<math>{\partial u \over \partial y} = - {\partial v \over \partial x}. \quad\square</math>
== Alternative formulation ==
Suppose <math>z = x + iy</math> for real variables ''x'' and ''y''. Then we can write <math>x = (z + \bar z)/2</math> and <math>y = (z - \bar z)/(2i)</math>. Now <math>\mathit{x}</math> and <math>\mathit{y}</math> can be thought of as ''real'' functions of ''complex'' independent variables <math>\mathit{z}</math> and <math>\bar z</math>. Differentiating <math>\mathit{x}</math> and <math>\mathit{y}</math> gives:
:<math>{\partial x \over \partial z} = {1 \over 2}\ \mathrm{and}\ {\partial y \over \partial z} = {1 \over 2i}</math>
as well as
:<math>{\partial x \over \partial \bar z} = {1 \over 2}\ \mathrm{and}\ {\partial y \over |
ly major freeway is [[Interstate 80]]. Each day there is an influx of thousands of cars into the city by commuting UC faculty, staff and students, making parking for more than a few hours an expensive proposition.
Berkeley has one of the highest rates of [[bicycle]] and pedestrian commuting in the nation. Berkeley is the safest city of its size for pedestrians and cyclists, a fact attributed to a [http://www.tsc.berkeley.edu/html/newsletter/Spring04/syntax.html| safety in numbers] effect, according to recent research.
Berkeley has modified its original grid roadway structure through use of diverters and barriers, moving most traffic out of neighborhoods and onto arterial streets (visitors often find this confusing, because the diverters are not shown on all maps). Berkeley maintains a separate grid of arterial streets for bicycles, called [[Bicycle Boulevards]], with bike lanes and lower amounts of car traffic than the major streets to which they often run parallel.
Berkeley hosts a [[car sharing]] network run by [http://www.citycarshare.org/ City CarShare]. Rather than owning (and parking) their own cars, members share a group of cars parked nearby. Online reservation systems keep track of hours and charges.
* '''Transportation Past'''
The first commuter service to San Francisco was provided by the [[Central Pacific]]'s Berkeley Branch Railroad, a standard gauge [[steam railroad]] which ran from the Oakland ferry pier to downtown Berkeley starting in 1876. This line was extended from Shattuck and University to Vine Street ("Berryman's Station") in 1878. In the 1880's, [[Southern Pacific]] assumed operations of the Berkeley Branch. In [[1911]], Southern Pacific electrified this line and the several others it constructed in Berkeley, creating its [[East Bay Electric Lines]] division. The huge and heavy cars specially built for these lines came to be called the "Big Red Trains". The Shattuck line was extended and connected with two other Berkeley lines (the Ninth Street Line and the California Street line) at Solano and Colusa (the "Colusa Wye"). It was at this time that the Northbrae Tunnel and the Rose Street Undercrossing were constructed, both of which still exist. The last Red Trains ran in 1941.
The first electric rail service in Berkeley was provided by several small [[streetcar]] companies starting in the late 1800's. Most of these were eventually bought up by the [[Key System]] of [["Borax" Smith]] who added lines and improved equipment. The Key System's streetcars were operated by its East Bay Street Railways division. Principal lines in Berkeley ran on Euclid, The Arlington, College, Telegraph, Shattuck, and Grove (today's Martin Luther King Jr. Way). The last streetcars ran in [[1948]].
The first electric commuter interurban-type trains to San Francisco from Berkeley were put in operation by the Key System in [[1910]], a year before the Southern Pacific electrified its steam commuter lines. Like the SP, Key trains ran to a pier serviced by the Key's own fleet of ferryboats which also docked at the Ferry Building in San Francisco. After the [[Bay Bridge]] was built, the Key trains ran to the [[Transbay Terminal]] in San Francisco, sharing tracks on the lower deck of the Bay Bridge with the SP's red trains and the [[Sacramento Northern]] Railroad. It was at this time that the Key trains acquired their letter designations, which were later preserved by Key's public successor, AC Transit. Today's F bus is the successor of the F train. Likewise, the E, G and the H. Before the Bridge, these lines were simply the Shattuck Avenue Line, the Claremont Line, the Westbrae Line, and the Sacramento Street Line, respectively.
After the Southern Pacific abandoned transbay service in 1941, the Key System acquired the rights to use its tracks and overhead on Shattuck north of University and through the Northbrae Tunnel to The Alameda for the F-train, and also the tracks along Monterey Avenue as far as Colusa for the H-train. The Key System trains stopped running in April of 1958.
The Northbrae Tunnel was opened to auto traffic four years later in [[1962]].
== Mayors ==
[http://www.cityofberkeley.info/mayor/ City of Berkeley Mayor's Office]
* [[Tom Bates]], Mayor of Berkeley (elected 2002), married to California State Assemblymember and former Berkeley Mayor Loni Hancock
* [[Shirley Dean]], mayor 1994-2002
* [[Loni Hancock]], mayor 1986-1994, currently representing [http://democrats.assembly.ca.gov/members/a14/ California State Assembly District 14], the East Bay Area, married to Berkeley Mayor and former California State Assemblymember of District 14 [[Tom Bates]]
== Sister Cities ==
Berkeley has declared the following [[Sister City]] relationships:
*Blackfeet Nation, California, United States
*Haidian District, Beijing, China
*Jena, Thueringen, Germany
*Ulan-Ude, Buryatiya (Ulan-Ude), Russia
*Yurok Tribe, California, United States
*Uma-Bawang, Malaysia
*Sakai, Osaka, Japan
*San Antonio Los Ranchos, Chalatenango, El Salvador
*Oukasie, South Africa
*Yondó, Antioquia, Colombia
*Palma Soriano, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba
*Leon, Leon, Nicaragua
== Notable Berkeley residents past and present ==
*[[Ben Affleck]] - actor
*[[Tim Armstrong]] - member of [[punk rock]] bands [[Rancid]] and [[Operation Ivy band|Operation Ivy]]
*[[Les Blank]] - documentary filmmaker
*[[David Brower]] - environmentalist
*[[Michael Chabon]] - author
*[[Francis Ford Coppola]] - [[filmmaker]] and [[vintner]]
*[[Robert Crumb]] - cartoonist
*[[Robert Culp]] - actor
*[[Philip K. Dick]] - author
*[[Adam Duritz]] - musician
*[[Daniel Ellsberg]] - military analyst
*[[John Fogerty]] - singer/songwriter
*[[Matt Freeman]] - member of [[punk rock]] bands [[Rancid]] and [[Operation Ivy band|Operation Ivy]]
*[[Terry Garthwaite]] - singer/songwriter and founding member of folk-rock band [[Joy of Cooking band|Joy of Cooking]]
*[[Allen Ginsberg]] - poet
*[[Whoopi Goldberg]] - actress and comedian
*[[Wavy Gravy]] - activist and 1960s [[counterculture]] icon
*[[Davey Havok]] - singer for [[AFI band|AFI]]
*[[Patty Hearst]] - newspaper heiress and kidnap victim
*[[Gregory Hoblit]] - film and television director
*[[Ken Hom]] - chef
*[[David Horowitz]] - 1960s radical turned [[conservative]] activist
*[[Ishi]], last of the [[Yahi]]
*[[Pauline Kael]] - movie critic
*[[Theodore Kaczynski]] - ''aka'' the [[Unabomber]]
*[[Ursula K. Le Guin]] - author
*[[Marion Zimmer Bradley]] - author
*[[Phil Lesh]] - former [[Grateful Dead]] bassist
*[[George Lucas]] - [[filmmaker]]
*[[Andrew Martinez]] - social activist
*[[Country Joe McDonald]] - [[Singer-songwriter|Singer/Songwriter]]
*[[Roger Montgomery]] - urban designer, city planner, architect, Dean [[University of California, Berkeley]]
*[[Norman Mineta]] - U.S. [[Transportation Secretary]]
*[[Gordon Moore]] - co-founder of [[Intel]]
*[[Huey P. Newton]] - [[Black Panther Party]]
*[[Frank Norris]] - author of ''The Octopus''
*[[Chester Nimitz|Adm. Chester Nimitz]] - WWII commander of U.S. Pacific forces
*[[Robert Oppenheimer]] - scientist and head of the [[Manhattan Project]]
*[[John Linton Roberson]] - underground writer/cartoonist
*[[Freddie Roulette]] - blues guitarist, lap steel
*[[Andy Samberg]] - [[SNL]] comedian
*[[Mario Savio]] - 1960s Free Speech Movement icon
*[[George R. Stewart]] - author of the novels ''Earth Abides'' and ''Storm''
*[[Edward Teller]] - nuclear physicist, thermonuclear weapons
*[[Lars Ullrich]] - [[Metallica]] drummer
*[[Alice Waters]] -[[restaurateur]]
*[[Pete Wilson]] - former [[governor]] of [[California]]
*[[Saul Zaentz]] - film producer
*[[Billie Joe Armstrong]]- lead singer and guitarist of [[Green Day]]
See also these lists of notable people associated with the University:
* [[List of Nobel laureates associated with University of California, Berkeley|List of Nobel laureates associated with UC Berkeley]]
* [[List of University of California, Berkeley faculty|List of UC Berkeley faculty]]
* [[List of University of California, Berkeley alumni|List of UC Berkeley alumni]]
==Places==
===Streets===
Main streets include: Shattuck Avenue, home to the downtown business district and the Gourmet Ghetto to the north; [[Telegraph Avenue]]; University Avenue, including the Indian business districts;
[[San Pablo Avenue]]; College Avenue; Martin Luther King Junior Way; and [[Solano Avenue]].
===Bicycle and Pedestrian Paths===
*[[Ohlone Greenway]]
*[[San Francisco Bay Trail]]
*I-80 Bridge - opened in 2002, a green, arch-suspension bridge spanning Interstate 80, for bikes and pedestrians only, giving access from the city at the foot of Addison Street to the San Francisco Bay Trail and the Berkeley Marina.
*Berkeley's Network of Historic Pathways - Berkeley has a network of charming and historic pathways that link the winding neighborhoods found in the hills. If you have the stamina, you can look out over the panoramic landscape that makes the East Bay so unique. Some sets of stairs are quite challenging, and are falling prey to time and weather, so use caution when picking a path. You can find a complete guide to the pathways at [http://www.berkeleypaths.org/paths/stories/discover.htm Berkeley Path Wanderers Association]
=== Districts and neighborhoods ===
*The [[Berkeley Hills]] - Roughly bounded by Cedar Street, Spruce Street, Eunice Street, Sutter Street, and Arlington Avenue on the west, and [[Tilden Regional Park]] on the east.
**Buena Vista Hill / Nut Hill - Roughly bounded by Euclid Avenue on the west and the main University of California campus on the south.
**Cragmont
**North Cragmont
**Southampton - Roughly bounded by Arlington Avenue on the west, Tilden Regional Park on the east, and Marin Avenue on the south.
*[[Claremont (East Bay, California)|Claremont]] - Centered around the intersection of Claremont Avenue, Ashby Avenue, and Claremont Boulevard. Parts of the Claremont district are in the City of |
pulling up, turning, and diving back down through the wind gradient close to the surface of the ocean.
A rare phenomenon known as [[Morning glory cloud|Morning Glory]] has also been used by sailplane pilots in Australia.
A good visual and interactive explanation of how a glider functions and the types of lift can be found at http://www.yorksoaring.com/whatissoaring.html .
==Badges==
Achievements in gliding have been marked by the awarding of badges since the 1920s. For the lower badges national glider federations set their own criteria. For example, in the United States an "A" badge is issued for the first solo, while "B" and "C" require longer flights and more training. A bronze badge shows preparation for cross-country work, including spot landings and a pair of two hour flights.
The higher badges follow the standards set down by the [[Federation Aeronautique Internationale]]. Earning the Silver Badge shows that a glider pilot has achieved an altitude gain of at least 1000m, made a five-hour duration flight, and has flown cross-country for a straight-line distance of at least 50km: usually, but not invariably, in separate flights. The [http://www.fai.org/sporting_code/sc3.asp FAI Sporting Code] defines the rules for observers and recording devices to validate the claims for badges. In the United States alone, over 6000 Silver Badges have been issued.
The Gold and Diamond Badges require pilots to fly higher and farther. A pilot with the three "Diamonds" has flown 300km to a pre-defined goal, has flown 500km in one flight (but not necessarily to a pre-defined goal) and gained 5000m in height. The FAI also issues diplomas for 1000km and thereafter in increments of 250km. The ultimate challenge is to add a 2000 km diploma for a single flight exceeding that distance. Only a few people have ever achieved it.
National federations also issue other badges. For example, The [[Soaring Society of America]] also issues badges for going above 25,000 feet (7,620 m) and for enough cross-country flying to circle the world. The [[British Gliding Association]] issues a 750km diploma, because only two flights over 1000km have ever been possible in the UK's climate.
==Launch methods==
[[Image:PAW0002.jpg|thumb|right|A Piper Pawnee, a fomer agricultural aicraft now commonly used as an aerotow tug.]]
[[Image:AT0134.jpg|thumb|right|A Pawnee aerotowing a glider.]]
[[Image:V20001.jpg|thumb|right|A Ventus 2a being winch-launched.]]
[[Image:Bungee1.jpg|thumb|right|A bungee launch]]
Gliders are initially launched into the air by one of several methods, the most common are "aerotowing" and "winching".
Aerotows normally use single engined light aircraft, but lately, powerful self-launching motor gliders and microlight planes have also been permitted to tow gliders. The tow aircraft takes the glider to the desired height and place and the pilot releases the rope. Aerotow ropes are typically made of polypropylene rope and are between 50 and 60 metres in length. At the tow plane end, a weak link is fitted to the rope to ensure that any sudden loads imposed by the glider getting out of station do not damage the airframe of the tow plane.
During the aerotow, the glider pilot keeps the glider "in station" behind the tow plane. This can either be the "low tow" position, just below the slipstream of the tow plane propellor, or the "high tow" position just above the slipstream. Over the years there has been great debate about which of these two positions is the safest, and there has been no universal agreement. In Australia the convention is to fly in low tow, whereas in the United States the high tow prevails.
One interesting aerotow variation is to perform a "dual tow" in which two gliders are attached to the one tow plane, using ropes of different lengths. This certainly looks spectacular, but requires skill and precise flying by all concerned.
Gliders are often launched using a stationary ground-based winch, sometimes mounted on a heavy vehicle. This method is widely used in many European countries, often in addition to aerotowing. The engine is usually from a large car or a diesel truck (sometimes using LPG), though hydraulic fluid engines and electrical motors are sometimes used. The winch pulls in a 1000 to 1600 m long cable made of steel wire or a synthetic fibre which is attached to the glider. The glider releases the cable at a height of about 400 to 500m after a very short and steep ride. A winch launch costs between EUR 3 and EUR 10, which is much less than an aero-tow. One disadvantage of winch launching is that the launch height is variable with the wind strength and cable run length, which could mean that the duration of flights is slightly shorter unless the pilot is fortunate enough to make contact with a thermal or other source of lift within a few minutes of releasing the cable.
Gliders can also be launched from the top of a hill into a stiff breeze using a rubber band, or "bungee". For this launch method, the glider's main wheel rests in a small concrete trough. The hook that is normally used for winch-launching is used instead to attach the middle of the bungee. Each end of the bungee is then pulled by 3 or 4 people. One group runs slightly to the left, the other to the right of the glider. Once the tension in the bungee is high enough, the pilot releases the wheel brake and the glider's wheel pops out of the trough. The glider gains just enough energy to leave the ground and fly away from the hill.
Another launch method, now rarely used, is the "autotow". This needs a long runway, a large pick-up truck and a length of cable. After gently taking up slack in the cable, the driver accelerates hard and the glider rises like a kite to as much as 400 metres if there is a good headwind and a 1.5 km runway. A variation on this is the "reverse pulley" method in which the car drives towards the glider that it is launching; the cable connecting the car and glider passes around a pulley at the far end of the airfield.
==Cross-country==
Gliders can stay airborne for hours if the conditions are good. This enables gliders to fly long distances at surprisingly high speeds. Although Klaus Ohlmann's world record is obviously not a typical flight, even in less favourable places in Europe, good pilots usually have flights over 500 kilometres every year at average speeds of 80 km/h or faster.
In addition to just trying to fly further, gliders also race each other. As the performance of gliders improved in the 1960s, the concept of flying as far away as possible became unpopular with the crews who had to retrieve the gliders. Pilots now win contests by being the fastest around a pre-defined course back to the starting point, or, if the weather is not as good as expected, the furthest round the course. Originally proof of getting to the turning points was by observing the gliders from the ground. Later the pilots took photographs of the turn-points but nowadays gliders carry secure devices that record the position every few seconds from GPS satellites. National competitions generally last one week but international championships are normally over two weeks. The winner is the pilot who has amassed the greatest number of points over all the contest days. Because it would be unsafe for many gliders to cross a start line at the same time, pilots can choose their own start time. Gliders are not visible to spectators for long periods of each day's contest and scoring is complex, so gliding has been a difficult sport to televise. This means that soaring is a sport in which most contestants are still amateurs. However, a new format contest has been introduced [http://www.cnvv.net/wsgp/en/accueil-en.htm see Sailplane Grand Prix]. Also gaining popularity in recent years is an informal online contest called the [http://www.onlinecontest.org OLC] where pilots upload their GPS data files and are automatically scored based on distance flown. Nearly 9,000 pilots worldwide participate.
Soaring pioneer [[Paul MacCready]] developed a mathematical theory for optimizing cross country soaring speeds. His theory allows one to compute the optimal cruising speed between thermals, accounting for thermal strength, sailplane performance and other variables. The theory accounts for the fact that if a pilot flies faster between thermals, the next thermal is reached sooner. However the glider also sinks faster, requiring the pilot to spend more time circling to regain the altitude. The MacCready speed represents the optimal tradeoff between cruising and circling. Most competition pilots make use of MacCready theory to optimize their flight speeds, and have the necessary calculations programmed in their flight computers.
==Outlandings==
[[Image:OL0026.jpg|thumb|right|Pilot and crew about to de-rig a glider]]
Sometimes a pilot on a cross-country flight finds that the weather is not as good as expected. In these circumstances, the pilot must choose a field and 'land-out'. Landing out is a routine event in cross-country gliding, though they are often mistaken for 'emergency landings'. They are entirely normal, although they are an inconvenience. The pilot has to choose from the air a field that is safe to land in and which does not cause damage to the property.
The glider and pilot can be retrieved by pilot's ground crew using a purpose-built trailer which can easily be towed by a car. Alternatively, if the glider has landed in a suitable field, a tow plane can be summoned to re-launch the aircraft (with the permission of the field's owner of course).
To avoid the inconvenience of landing out, some gliders have a small engine and a retractable propeller. Some of these engines are not powerful enough to launch the glider, but they can provide enough power to allow gliders to stay airborne and so to return to their home air |
rapher]] [[Peter Guralnick]], Gladys Presley said that by the age of two her son was already trying to sing along in the church. A Pentecostal preacher would typically lead the congregation in prayer and both singing and prayer were accompanied by the waving of hands, the swaying of bodies and dancing about in the [[Holy Spirit]]. As it almost always did in those settings, "when the Spirit strikes" the body would jerk as though hit by a bolt of lightning and frequently the worshipper would fall to the floor, rolling around and praying aloud (this is why outsiders referred to church members as "[[Holy Roller]]s" and their services as a "religious frenzy"). For instrumentation, these church services used a [[guitar]], a [[tambourine]] or two and if they could afford one, a well-worn [[piano]] and perhaps a used [[accordion|piano accordion]]. Church services lasting three hours and held several times a week were filled with music as Pentecostals gyrated their hips, shook their legs, clapped and waved their arms while belting out pounding, rhythmic songs such as ''Down By the Riverside'', ''When The Saints Go Marching In'' and ''Standing On The Promises''. There were also more serene songs sung with great emotion like ''The Old Rugged Cross'' and ''Softly and Tenderly (Jesus is calling)''.
In 1948 the Presley family left Tupelo, moving 110 miles northwest to Memphis, Tennessee. Here too, thirteen-year-old Elvis lived in the city's poorer section of town and attended a Pentecostal church. At this time, Presley was very much influenced by the [[Memphis blues]].
While Elvis Presley was a teen cataclysm with millions of American girls screaming at the sight of him, his own church viewed Presley's gyrations on stage as an affront, labelling it the [[Devil]]'s work and a mocking of the [[Baptism of the Holy Spirit]]. Presley records were condemned as [[sin|wicked]] and Pentecostal preachers thumped their [[pulpit]]s with [[Bible]]s, warning congregations to keep [[heathen]] rock and roll music out of their homes and away from their children's ears (especially the music of "that backslidden Pentecostal pup, ''Elvis Presley''"). People who decades later would be considered part of the [[religious right]] spoke out vigorously against Presley including [[Francis Cardinal Spellman|Cardinal Spellman]]. In its weekly periodical, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] added to the criticism in an article titled "Beware Elvis Presley."
In August, 1956 in [[Jacksonville, Florida]] a local [[Juvenile Court]] judge called Presley a "[[Barbarian|savage]]" and threatened to arrest him if he shook his body while performing at Jacksonville's Florida Theatre, justifying the restrictions by saying his music was undermining the youth of America. Throughout the performance Presley stood still as ordered but poked fun at the judge by wiggling a finger. Similar attempts to stop his "sinful gyrations" continued for more than a year and included his often noted January 6, 1957 appearance on [[The Ed Sullivan Show]] (during which he performed the spiritual number "Peace in the Valley") when he was seen only from the waist up.
''His Hand In Mine'' (1960) was the title of Elvis' first gospel album. During his [[Elvis Presley's '68 Comeback Special|'68 Comeback Special]] Elvis said his music came from gospel. As heard in the 2005 televised special, Presley told a reporter that he "knew every gospel song there is." Despite his church's attitude, gospel music was a prominent part of Presley's repertoire throughout his life. From 1971 to his death in 1977 Presley employed the [[Stamps Quartet]], a gospel group, for his backup vocals. He recorded several gospel albums, earning three [[Grammy Award]]s for his gospel music. In his later years Presley's live stage performances almost always included a rendition of "How Great Thou Art," the 19th century gospel song made famous by [[George Beverly Shea]]. More than forty-five years later (and twenty-four years after his death) the [[Gospel Music Association]] finally inducted him into their [[Gospel Music Hall of Fame]] (2001).
Well-Known Gospel Songs:
* How Great Thou Art
* [[He Touched Me]]
* Peace In The Valley
* He Is My Everything
* Help Me
* Why Me, Lord?
* [[Amazing Grace]]
* Swing Down Sweet Chariot
==Voice characteristics==
As noted by Henry Pleasants, in his book "The Great American Popular singers", Elvis Presley was a baritone whose voice had an extraordinary compass - the so-called register- and a very wide range of vocal color. The voice covered two octaves and a third, from the baritone low-G to the tenor high B, with an upward extension in falsetto to at least a D flat. Presley's best octave was in the middle, D-flat to D-flat. In ballads and country songs he was able to belt out full-voiced high G's and A's, showing a remarkable ability to naturally assimilative styles, and elliciting a multiplicity of voices.
Presley's range, albeit impressive in its own right, did not in itself make his voice that remarkable, at least in terms of how it measured against musical notation. What made it extraordinary, was where its center of gravity laid. By that measure, and according to Gregory Sandows, Music Professor at Columbia University, Elvis was all at once a bass, a baritone and a tenor, a most unique attribute amongst singers of any gender, both in the classical and popular music fields.
A more detailed account of Presley's vocal range, as noted by music analysts, and other entertainers, through several quotes, and citing song examples can be found in [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Elvis_Presley Wikiquote]
==Relationships==
[[Image:Elvis-JuneJuanico.jpg|thumb|150px|June Juanico & Elvis]]
No entertainer has ever had his life and intimate relationships examined in as much detail as has Elvis Presley. Even the [[FBI]] had a file on him of more than 600 pages. He has been the subject of over 718 books (and counting), including two by his only wife, [[Priscilla Presley|Priscilla Beaulieu Presley]] (whom he married on May 1, 1967) and several others by former girlfriends including June Juanico. Since his death many claims to relationships have been made by women who were no more than acquaintances or had short term affairs which were exaggerated for personal gain.
===High school and early stardom===
According to interviews with teachers and former fellow students at Milam Junior High school in Tupelo, Mississippi, noted Presley biographer [[Elaine Dundy]] in her book ''[[Elvis and Gladys]]'' wrote (p.124) that beginning in his early teens, Elvis embarked upon the "indefatigable pursuit of girls", but was totally rebuffed. This may have contributed, at first, to his lifelong need for a beautiful woman to offset his feelings of inadequacy. However, from looking at the numerous pictures of Elvis Presley starting at the age of 14, what is also quite evident is that the teenage Elvis Presley, the one who was usually dismissed, and rebuffed by girls his age, was not the extraordinarily handsome young man he indeed became, by age 20. Therefore, it is not surprising that, between 1954 and 1956, the impoverished son of welfare recipients went from being shunned and even mocked by some of the popular girls from his junior and high school days, to be the subject of adulation and adoration of some of the most beautiful girls in Memphis, then of young Hollywood starlets such as [[Natalie Wood]] and [[Connie Stevens]]. Author Elaine Dundy wrote that actress [[Shelley Winters]] (usually considered a reliable source for Hollywood goings-on and who portrayed Gladys Presley in the 1979 made-for-TV movie ''Elvis'') claimed the relationship between Presley and Natalie Wood developed into something more serious than what was generally reported in the media.
[[Image:AnitaWoodElvis.jpg|thumb|150px|Anita Wood & Elvis]]
There were several significant relationships in Presley's life other than his one marriage to Priscilla Beaulieu. They included Dixie Locke, a high school sweetheart who he met at his [[Assemblies of God]] [[Pentecostal]] church and was part of his life before and during his Sun Records time. Locke was portrayed by actress Jennifer Rae Westley in the 2005 [[CBS]] [[miniseries|TV miniseries]] ''Elvis''. Anita Wood, another wholesome [[Christian]] girl whom Gladys Presley hoped he would eventually marry, was with Elvis as he rose to superstardom, served in the US military and returned home in 1960. Wood lived at [[Graceland]] for a time but moved out after confronting him over Priscilla Beaulieu, the "girl in Germany." Although rarely giving public statements, in 2005 Anita Wood was interviewed by renowned [[television]] [[talk show]] host [[Larry King]]. She told him that following media reports of a girlfriend in Germany, Elvis "had me believing that she (Priscilla Beaulieu) was just a friend and her daddy was in the Army with him, and there was nothing to it whatsoever." Presley used his charm to persuade Anita to move back into Graceland, but she remained only a few months before leaving permanently. Elvis immediately began a short-lived affair with [[Anne Helm]], his co-star from the film ''[[Follow That Dream]]''. Miss Helm came to Graceland for a short time but her quick exit allowed for the entrance of Priscilla Beaulieu, who moved to Memphis in 1962.
===Priscilla Beaulieu Presley and other relationships===
[[Image:PriscillaPresleybookcover.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Priscilla Presley]]]]
In her 1985 book ''[[Elvis and Me]]'', Priscilla Beaulieu Presley recounted how Elvis suffered from insomnia and would stay up all night and sleep most of the day. She described him as a very passionate man who was not overtly sexual towards her and condemned pre-marital sex as a sin. If he wanted to go out, he'd rent out the venue so no fans would bot |
3:33:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Latinus</username>
<id>800894</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] recat per [[Wikipedia:Categories_for_deletion|CFD]] of [[Wikipedia:Categories_for_deletion/Log/2006_February_9#Sports_in_the_United_States_by_state|9 February 2006]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wikify}}
'''Hoosier Hysteria''' is the state of excitment surrounding the state [[high school]] [[basketball]] tournament in [[Indiana]]. To some degree this excitement can be understood by watching the movie ''[[Hoosiers]]''. In part, the excitment stemmed from the inclusion of all Indiana high schools in the same tournament, where a small town's [[David]] might knock off a large city's [[Goliath]]. The most famous example occurred in [[1954]], when [[Milan, Indiana|Milan]] (enrollment 161) defeated [[Muncie, Indiana|Muncie]] Central (enrollment over 1,600) to win the state title. The plot of ''Hoosiers'' was very loosely based on the story of the 1954 Milan team.
However, after Milan, no school with an enrollment of less than 500 would win another boys' state title under the all-comers format. As school consolidation became more common and as more rural residents migrated to cities making large high schools grow even larger, smaller high schools had only a mismatch to look forward to come tournament time as success concentrated in Indiana's large urban and suburban schools. Finally, starting with the [[1997]]-[[1998|98]] season, Indiana established a controversial four-class system for its basketball championship. The state's move to this new system has, to some extent, diminished the phenomenon and public opinion is split on the merits of "class basketball."
Nonetheless, [[Hoosier]]s still have a traditional love for high school basketball equalled only by the love for high school football found in Texas and Western Pennsylvania, and Minnesotans' love for high school hockey. It is one of the state's cherished traditions.
Historically, the several hundred small towns of Indiana had its own small school system. Before consolidation of many of these rural school districts in the last half of the [[20th century]] (Milan itself is now a consolidated school whose enrollment is twice what it was in 1954), Indiana high schools had fewer students than those of most other states; basketball was a natural game for these schools since it only required five starters and a few reserves. Even one or two great basketball players can make a high school team a powerhouse, and nearly every Indiana town dreams of such glory.
Incidentally, two states still use an all-comers format. [[Delaware]] uses an all-comers format mainly because the state has only approximately 30 high schools. The closest parallel to Indiana's old-style all-comers tournament is in the neighboring [[US State|state]] of [[Kentucky]]. Like Indiana, Kentucky traditionally used an all-comers format, and several small rural and small-town schools have won over the years. Compared to Indiana, however, Kentucky has relatively few extremely large high schools and has continued the all-comers format for basketball. Schools comparable in size to Milan (and even smaller) have won Kentucky state titles since 1990.
[[Category:Basketball in the United States]]
[[Category:Sports in Indiana]]
[[Category:High school sports in the United States]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hardcore</title>
<id>14445</id>
<revision>
<id>41538890</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T00:50:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gflores</username>
<id>153556</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|hardcore}}
In music, '''hardcore''' may be used to refer to:
*[[Hardcore techno]], a subgenre of electronic dance music closely related to Gabber
**[[Happy hardcore]], a form of dance music typified by a very fast tempo, female vocals, and saccharine lyrics
**[[UK hardcore]], a genre found at the start of the 21st century in the United Kingdom
**[[Breakbeat hardcore]], which shares its rhythm lines with breakbeat
**[[Digital hardcore]], a gritty genre first defined by Alec Empire in the early 1990s
*[[Hardcore punk]], a more intense version of punk rock
**[[Hardcore Emo]], a style of music that existed primarily in the early-mid 90s, also known as Chaotic Emo
**[[Christian hardcore]], a form of hardcore punk music featuring evangelical Christian lyrics and themes
**[[Melodic hardcore]], a more melodic, less furious version of hardcore punk
**[[Post-hardcore]], a musical offshoot of hardcore punk
**[[Hardcore dancing]], a form of mosh dancing or slam dancing
*[[Hardcore hip hop]], a subgenre of hip hop characterized by confrontational lyrics and gritty beats
Other uses include:
*[[Hardcore pornography]], a form of pornography that features explicit sexual acts
**[[Max Hardcore]] (born Paul F. Little, 1956) a controversial American male porn star
*[[Hardcore wrestling]], a style of professional wrestling
**[[Forever Hardcore]], a professional wrestling documentary DVD
**[[Hardcore Homecoming]], a professional wrestling event in 2005
*''[[Hardcore (film)]]'', a 1979 film written and directed by Paul Schrader and starring George C. Scott.
*[[Hard-core predicate]], a mathematical term
*In nuclear physics, a potential (force) that forbids two nucleons to share the same space.
{{disambig}}
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[[de:Hardcore]]
[[es:Hardcore]]
[[fr:New York HardCore]]
[[id:Hardcore]]
[[nl:Hardcore]]
[[pt:Hardcore]]
[[fi:Hardcore]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis</title>
<id>14446</id>
<revision>
<id>41906032</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:50:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dabbler</username>
<id>139032</id>
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<comment>/* Governor General of Canada */ reduce excessive Tunis</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[The Right Honourable]] '''Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis,''' [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Order of St Michael and St George|GCMG]], [[Order of the Star of India|CSI]], [[Royal Victorian Order|GCVO]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]], [[Military Cross|MC]], [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada|PC]] ([[10 December]] [[1891]]&ndash;[[16 June]] [[1969]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] military commander and [[Field Marshal]], notably during the [[World War II|Second World War]] as the commander of the [[15th Army Group]]. He later served as the last British [[Governor General of Canada]].
{| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="2" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; float: right; border-collapse: collapse;"
|+ style="margin-left: inherit;" | '''Field Marshal The Earl Alexander of Tunis'''
|align="center" colspan="2"|<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:fieldmarshallalexander.jpg|200px]] -->
|-
| '''Rank:'''
| 17th [[Governor General of Canada]]
|-
| '''Term of Office:'''
| [[April 12]], [[1946]] - [[February 28]], [[1952]]
|-
| '''Predecessor:'''
| [[The Earl of Athlone]]
|-
| '''Successor:'''
| [[Vincent Massey]]
|-
| '''Birth:'''
| [[December 10]], [[1891]]
|-
| '''Place of Birth:'''
| [[London, England]]
|-
| '''Death:'''
| [[June 16]], [[1969]]
|-
| '''Spouse:'''
| Lady Margaret Alexander
|-
| '''[[Profession]]:'''
|[[Officer (armed forces)|Officer]]
|-
| '''[[Religion]]:'''
|[[Anglican]]
|-
|}
==Military career==
The third son of the [[James Alexander, 4th Earl of Caledon|4th Earl of Caledon]] and the former [[Elizabeth Alexander, Countess of Caledon|Lady Elizabeth Graham-Toler]], a daughter of the [[Hector Graham-Toler, 3rd Earl of Norbury|3rd Earl of Norbury]], he was educated at [[Harrow School]] and the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]]. He was commissioned into the [[Irish Guards]] in [[1911]]. During the [[World War I|First World War]] he served on the [[Western Front]] and was wounded twice. He received the [[Military Cross]] in [[1915]], the [[Distinguished Service Order]] in [[1916]], and the [[Legion of Honour]], and by [[1918]] was a [[Brigadier]].
Between the wars Alexander led the Baltic Landwehr in [[Latvia]] during the [[Russian Civil War]] and served in [[Turkey]] and [[Gibraltar]] before returning to England and the Staff College at [[Camberley]] and the Imperial Defence College. On [[14 October]] [[1931]], he married [[Margaret Alexander, Countess Alexander of Tunis|Lady Margaret Bingham]], second daughter of the [[George Bingham, 5th Earl of Lucan|5th Earl of Lucan]]. In [[1937]] he was promoted to [[Major-General]] and joined the [[British Expeditionary Force]] (BEF) in France in 1939.
He was instrumental in controlling the retreat of the BEF to [[Battle of Dunkirk|Dunkirk]], and was the last British soldier to leave. After that he was promoted and sent to [[Burma]] at the beginning of that disaster. In August [[1942]] [[Winston Churchill]] sent him, as Commander in Chief Middle East, and General [[Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|Bernard Montgomery]] as Commander Eighth Army, to North Africa to replace General [[Claude Auchinleck|Claude Auchinleck]] who had held both positions. He presided over Montgomery's victory at the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]]. After the Anglo-American forces from ''[[Operation Torch|Torch]]'' and the [[British Eighth Army|Eighth Army]] met in [[Tunisia]] in January [[1943]], he became deputy to [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and Supreme Allied Commander of [[Allied Armies in Italy]]. He was Eisenhower's preference to command [[Battle of Normandy|D-Day]] but Churchill pressured to keep him in [[Italy]]. An American general, [[Mark Wayne Clark|Mark Clark]], despite being ordered not to by Alexander, captured [[Rome]] in [[1944] |
l the goals set in national politics by the [[Parliament of Sweden|Parliament]] and the [[Government of Sweden|Government]], to coordinate the interests and promote the development of the county, to establish regional goals and safeguard the due process of law in the handling of each case. The County Administrative Board is nominally a [[Government agencies in Sweden|Government agency]] headed by a Governor. See [[List of Gotland Governors]].
Gotland is the only [[Counties of Sweden|Swedish county]] that does not have a [[County Councils of Sweden|county council]], as well as having only one [[Municipalities of Sweden|municipality]] and one [[area code]].
== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Gotland Municipality]]''
The County of Gotland consists of a single municipality and as there is no separate entity for a County Council, those tasks are handled by the [[Municipalities of Sweden|Municipality]] of Gotland. During a trial period the County Council provisions for Gotland has been evolved to provisions for a Regional Council, meaning that it has assumed certain tasks from the County Administrative Board. Similar provisions are applicable to the counties of [[Västra Götaland County|Västra Götaland]] and [[Skåne County|Skåne]] during the trial period.
== Heraldry ==
Gotland County inherited its coat of arms from the province of Gotland. When it is shown with a royal crown it represents the County Administrative Board.
== External links ==
*[http://www.i.lst.se/ Gotland County Administrative Board]
*[http://www.gotland.se/ Gotland Municipality]
{{län}}
[[Category:Counties of Sweden]]
[[Category:Gotland]]
[[de:Gotlands län]]
[[et:Ojamaa lään]]
[[es:Gotland]]
[[fr:Comté de Gotland]]
[[hu:Gotland megye]]
[[nl:Gotlands län]]
[[ja:ゴトランド県]]
[[no:Gotlands län]]
[[pl:Gotland]]
[[pt:Gotlands (condado)]]
[[ro:Gotlands län]]
[[ru:Лен Готланд]]
[[sv:Gotlands län]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Games of Chance</title>
<id>11864</id>
<revision>
<id>15909577</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-22T19:04:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Enchanter</username>
<id>1104</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Fixing redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Game of chance]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gene chip</title>
<id>11865</id>
<revision>
<id>15909578</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-03T15:59:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[DNA microarray]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Global Positioning System</title>
<id>11866</id>
<revision>
<id>41939824</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:41:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kmf164</username>
<id>94080</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.158.51.100|70.158.51.100]] ([[User talk:70.158.51.100|talk]]) to last version by 165.228.124.254</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|GPS satellite in orbit, image courtesy of [[NASA]]]]
:'''''GPS''' redirects here. For other uses of the acronym '''GPS''', see [[GPS (disambiguation)]].''
The '''Global Positioning System''', usually called '''GPS''', is the only fully-functional [[satellite navigation system|satellite&nbsp;navigation&nbsp;system]]. A constellation of more than two dozen GPS satellites broadcasts precise timing signals by [[radio]] to [[electronic]] GPS receivers which allow them to accurately determine their location ([[longitude]], [[latitude]], and [[altitude]]) in [[real time]], day or night, in any weather, anywhere on [[Earth]].
Since GPS was declared fully operational in 1993, it has become a vital global utility, indispensable for modern navigation on land, sea, and air around the world, as well as an important tool for [[cartography|map-making]], and [[surveying|land surveying]]. GPS also provides an extremely precise [[time transfer|time reference]], required for some scientific research, including the study of earthquakes.
The Wide-Area Augmentation System ([[WAAS]]), available since August 2000, increases the accuracy of GPS signals to within 2 meters (6 ft) [http://gps.faa.gov/Library/waas-f-text.htm] for compatible receivers. GPS accuracy can be improved further, to about 1 cm (half an inch) over short distances, using techniques such as Differential GPS ([[Differential GPS|DGPS]]).
[[United States Department of Defense]] developed the system, officially named '''NAVSTAR GPS''' ('''Nav'''igation '''S'''ignal '''T'''iming '''a'''nd '''R'''anging '''G'''lobal '''P'''ositioning '''S'''ystem). The satellite constellation is managed daily by the [[50th Space Wing]] <!-- [[2d Space Operations Squadron]] inactivated as of 1992 --> at [[Schriever Air Force Base]]. Although the cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$400 million per year, including the replacement of aging satellites, GPS is available for free use in civilian applications as a [[public good]].
{{ImageStackRight|300|
[[Image:Magellan GPS Blazer12.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Magellan GPS receiver in a marine application.]]
[[Image:Navstar.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|Over fifty '''GPS''' [[satellite]]s such as this [[NAVSTAR]] have been launched since 1978. ]]
}}
== Applications ==
[[Image:NAVSTAR_GPS_logo_shield-official.jpg|right|thumb|100 px]]
* '''Military Applications'''
GPS allows accurate targeting of [[cruise missile]]s and [[precision-guided munition]]s (or "smart bombs"), as well as improved command and control of forces through improved locational awareness. The satellites also carry nuclear detonation detectors, which form a major portion of the [[United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System]]. Commercial civilian GPS receivers are required to have limits on the velocities and altitudes at which they will report coordinates; this is to prevent them from being used to create improvised missiles.
* '''Navigation'''
[[Image:KyotoTaxiRide.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|This [[Taxicab|Taxi]] in [[Kyoto]], equipped with GPS navigation, is an example of how '''GPS''' technology can be applied in routine activities. ]]
{{main|Automotive navigation system}}
GPS is used by people around the world as a navigation aid in cars, airplanes, and ships. The system can also be used by computer controlled harvesters, mine trucks and other vehicles. Hand-held GPS receivers can be used by mountain climbers and hikers. Glider pilots use the logged signal to verify their arrival at turnpoints in competitions. Low cost GPS receivers are often combined in a bundle with a [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]], car computer, or [[vehicle tracking system]].
* '''Surveying'''
More costly and precise receivers are used by land [[surveyors]] to locate boundaries, structures, and survey markers, and for road construction.
* '''GPS for the visually impaired'''
For information about navigation systems for the visually impaired, including MoBIC, Drishti, Brunel Navigation System for the [[blindness|Blind]], NOPPA, BrailleNote GPS, and Trekker, refer to the main article [[GPS for the visually impaired]].
* '''Geocaching'''
[[Image:GPS Receivers.jpg|thumb|GPS receivers come in a variety of formats, from devices integrated into cars, phones, and watches, to dedicated devices such those shown here from manufacturers Trimble, Garmin and Leica (respectively, left to right).]]
The availability of hand-held GPS receivers for a cost of about $90 and up ([[as of 2005|as of March 2005]]) has led to recreational applications including [[Geocaching]]. Geocaching involves using a hand-held GPS unit to travel to a specific [[longitude]] and [[latitude]] to search for objects deliberately hidden there by other Geocachers. Geocaching often includes walking or hiking to natural locations, and is very popular.
* '''GPS on airplanes'''
Most airlines allow private use of ordinary GPS units on their flights, except during landing and take-off, like all other electronic devices. Additionally, some airline companies disallow use of hand-held receivers for security reasons, such as unwillingness to let ordinary passengers track the flight route. On the other extreme, some airlines integrate GPS tracking of the aircraft into their aircraft's seat-back television entertainment systems, available even during takeoff and landing to all passengers.
[[Image:GPS roof antenna dsc06160.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Even fixed systems may use GPS, in order to get precise time. This antenna is mounted on the roof of a hut containing a scientific experiment needing precise timing.]]
* '''Precise time reference'''
Many [[synchronization]] systems use GPS as a source of accurate time, hence one of the most common applications of this use is that of GPS as a reference clock for [[time code]] generators or [[Network Time Protocol|NTP]] clocks. For instance, when deploying [[sensor]]s (for [[seismology]] or other monitoring application), GPS may be used to provide each recording apparatus with some precise time source, so that the time of events may be recorded accurately.
The [[atomic clock]]s on the satellites are set to "GPS time", which is the number of seconds since [[midnight|00:00:00]] [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], [[January 6]], [[1980]]. Today, GPS time is 14 seconds ahead [http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/UTC_time_step_dec_2005.htm] of [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], because it does not follow [[leap second]]s. Receivers thus apply a clock-correction offset (which is periodically transmitted along with the other data) in order to display UTC correctly, and optionally adjust for a local time zone. New GPS units will initially show the incorrect time after achieving a GPS lock for the first ti |
owel]]s. Historically, the alphabet had several more consonants and vowels. (''See [[#Obsolete jamo|Obsolete Jamo]]''.) For a phonological description of the letters, ''see [[Korean language#Phonology|Phonology]]''.
==Names==
===Official names===
* The modern name ''Hangul'' (한글) is a term coined by [[Ju Si-gyeong]] in [[1912]] that simultaneously means “great script” in archaic Korean and “Korean script” in modern Korean. It cannot be written in [[Hanja]], though the first syllable, ''Han'' (한), if used in the sense of the word “[[Korea]]n”, may be written 韓. The syllable 글 is believed to have evolved from 契, but is never written like that, as it has been naturalized. 한글 is pronounced {{IPA|[hangɯl]}} ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]), and is usually [[romanize]]d in either of the following ways:
** '''Hangeul''' or ''Han-geul'' in the [[Revised Romanization of Korean]], which the [[South Korea]]n government uses in all English publications and encourages for all purposes. Many recent publications have adopted this spelling.
** '''Han'gŭl''' in [[McCune-Reischauer]]. When used as an English word, it is often rendered without the [[diacritic]]s: ''Hangul'', or sometimes without capitalization: ''hangul''. This is how it appears in many English dictionaries.
** '''Hankul''' in [[Yale Romanization]], another common spelling in English dictionaries.
* [[North Korea]]ns prefer to call it ''Chosŏn'gŭl'' (조선글), for reasons related to the different [[Names of Korea]].
* The original name was ''Hunmin Jeong-eum'' (훈민정음; 訓民正音; see [[#History|History]]). Due to objections against the names ''Hangeul'' and ''Chosŏn'gŭl'' on the side of some linguists of the Korean minority in [[Manchuria]], the short form '''Jeongeum''' may alternatively be used as a neutral name in international contexts.
===Other names===
* ''Urigeul'' (우리글) / ''Uri kŭl'' (우리 글), also ''Uri k'ŭl'' (우리 클) “our script” is used in both the North and South, but not by non-Koreans.
Until the early twentieth century, Hangul was often denigrated by those who preferred the traditional Hanja writing. They gave it names such as:
* ''Eonmun'' (언문 諺文 “vernacular script”).
* ''Amkeul'' (암클 “women's script”). 암-(probably derived from 陰) is a prefix that signifies a noun is feminine.
* ''Ahae(t)geul'' (아햇글 or 아해글 “children's script”).
However, the use of Hanja in writing has become rare in the past several decades in South Korea, and has been banned in North Korea, so these names are considered archaic.
==History==
[[Image:Hunmin_jeong-eum.jpg|thumb|212px|A page from the ''Hunmin Jeong-eum''. The Hangul-only column, 나랏말ㅆ̖미, has pitch-accent diacritics to the left of the syllable blocks.]]
Hangul was promulgated by the fourth king of the [[Joseon Dynasty]], [[King Sejong the Great of Joseon|Sejong the Great]]. Some people suspect that such a complex project must have been developed by a team of researchers, but historical records show that his staff of scholars actually strongly denounced the King for not having consulted with them. Of the many inventions attributed to King Sejong, Hangul is the only one recorded to have been "personally" created by King Sejong. There are some indications that King Sejong may have been assisted by his family members, who worked in secret because of the opposition by the educated elite.
The system was completed in 1443 or January 1444, and published in 1446 in a document entitled ''[[Hunmin Jeongeum (document)|Hunmin Jeong-eum]],'' after which the alphabet was named. The publication date of ''Hunmin Jeong-eum'', [[October 9]], is [[Hangul Day]] in [[South Korea]] and a national holiday. Its [[North Korea]]n equivalent is on [[January 15]].
An old legend holds that King Sejong visualized the written characters after studying an intricate lattice, but this speculation was put to rest by the discovery in 1940 of the 1446 ''[[Hunmin Jeongeum Haerye|Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye]]'' (Explanations and Examples of Hunmin Jeong-eum). This document details the rationale for the letter designs. (See [[#Jamo design|jamo design]].)
King Sejong explained that he created the new script because the Chinese characters used to write Korean speech were inaccurate and difficult to learn for the common people. (Hence the name ''Hunmin Jeong-eum,'' which means "Correct Sounds for the Education of the People" in [[Sino-Korean]]). At that time, only male members of the aristocracy ([[Yangban]]) learned to read and write [[Hanja]]. Since written material was only available in Hanja, most Koreans were effectively illiterate. Hangul faced heavy opposition by the literate elite, who believed Hanja to be the only legitimate writing system. The protest by [[Choe Manri]] and other [[Confucian]] scholars in 1444 is a typical example.
Later the government became apathetic to Hangul. [[Yeonsangun of Joseon|Yeonsangun]], the 10th king, forbade the study or use of Hangul and banned Hangul documents in 1504, and [[Jungjong of Joseon|King Jungjong]] abolished the Ministry of Eonmun in 1506. Until this time Hangul had been used by women and the uneducated.
In late 19th century, Korean nationalism increased as Japan attempted to sever Korea from China's sphere of influence. Hangul began to be considered as a national symbol by some reformists. As a result of the [[Gabo Reform]] (갑오 개혁) by pro-Japanese politicians, Hangul was adopted in official documents for the first time in 1894. After Korea was annexed by Japan in 1910, Hangul was briefly taught in schools, but later banned as Japan enforced a [[cultural assimilation]] policy. Further standardization took place under Japanese occupation such as the publication of the [[:wikisource:ko:한글 마춤법 통일안|standardized system of Hangul]] on October 29 1933, changing the number of vowels to 24. In 1940 the system for expressing foreign orthographies in Hangul was also published.
After regaining independence from Japan in 1945, Hangul has been extensively used as the offical writing of Korea. Some elites still have preferred mixed use of Hanja (mostly for nouns) in Hangul-written sentences, but generally the mixed use of Hanja has been ever-decreasing. Today, it is hard to find instances of Hanja use within Hangul sentences in normal written publications or documents, though newspapers often use hanja to avoid ambiguity in headlines.
==''Jamo''==
{{see also|Hangul consonant and vowel tables}}
'''''Jamo''''' (자모; [[Hanja|字母]]) or ''nassori'' (낱소리) are the letters that make up the Hangul alphabet. '''''Ja''''' means letter or character, and '''''mo''''' means mother, so the name signifies that the ''jamo'' are the building-blocks of the script.
There are 51 ''jamo'', of which 24 are equivalents to [[letter]]s of the [[Roman alphabet]]. The other 27 are clusters of two or sometimes three ''jamo''. Of the 24 simple ''jamo'', fourteen are [[consonant]]s (''ja-eum'' 자음, 子音: literally "child sounds") and ten are [[vowel]]s (''mo-eum'' 모음, 母音: literally "mother sounds"). Five of the simple consonants are doubled to form the five tense consonants (see below), while another eleven clusters are formed of two different consonants. The ten vowel ''jamo'' can be combined to form eleven [[diphthong]]s. Here is a summary:
* 14 simple [[consonant]]s: ㄱㄴㄷㄹㅁㅂㅅㅇㅈㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ, plus obsolete ㅿㆁㆆㅱㅸㆄ
* 5 double consonants: ㄲㄸㅃㅆㅉ, plus obsolete ㅥㆀㆅㅹ
* 11 [[consonant cluster]]s: ㄳㄵㄶㄺㄻㄼㄽㄾㄿㅀㅄ, plus obsolete ㅦㅧㅨㅪㅬㅭㅮㅯㅰㅲㅳㅶㅷㅺㅻㅼㅽㅾㆂㆃ, and obsolete triple clusters ㅩㅫㅴㅵ
* 6 simple [[vowel]]s: ㅏㅓㅗㅜㅡㅣ, plus obsolete ㆍ
* 4 [[iotation|iotized]] simple vowels: ㅑㅕㅛㅠ
* 11 [[diphthong]]s: ㅐㅒㅔㅖㅘㅙㅚㅝㅞㅟㅢ, plus obsolete ㆎㆇㆈㆉㆊㆋㆌ
Four of the simple vowel ''jamo'' are derived, with a short stroke that signifies iotation (a preceding ''i'' sound): ㅑ ''ya'', ㅕ ''yeo'', ㅛ ''yo'', and ㅠ ''yu''. These four are counted as part of the 24 simple ''jamo'' because the iotating stroke taken out of context does not represent ''y''. In fact, there is no separate ''jamo'' for ''y''.
Of the simple consonants, ㅊ ''chieut'', ㅋ ''kieuk'', ㅌ ''tieut'', and ㅍ ''pieup'' are aspirated derivatives of ㅈ ''jieut'', ㄱ ''giyeok'', ㄷ ''digeut'', and ㅂ ''bieup'', respectively, formed by combining the parent consonant with an extra stroke representing [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]].
The doubled consonants consist of two identical consonants placed beside each other horizontally. They are: ㄲ ''ssang-giyeok'' (kk: ''ssang-'' 쌍 "double"), ㄸ ''ssang-digeut'' (tt), ㅃ ''ssang-bieup'' (pp), ㅆ ''ssang-siot'' (ss), and ㅉ ''ssang-jieut'' (jj). Double ''jamo'' do not represent [[geminate]] consonants, but instead are tense.
The sounds represented by the single and double consonantal ''jamo'' cannot be pronounced alone in normal speech.
There are three formal categories of ''jamo'':
# Initial (초성, <span lang="ko">初聲</span> ''choseong''): The [[syllable onset]] of [[consonant]](s) before the [[vowel]](s). These include all five doubled ''jamo''. The lack of an initial is indicated by the silent placeholder ''jamo'' ᄋ.
#* Position: Placed at the top, left, or upper-left corner of the syllabic block.
#* See: [[Hangul consonant and vowel tables#Initials]]
# Medial (중성, <span lang="ko">中聲</span> ''jungseong''): The [[vowel]]s comprising the [[syllable nucleus]].
#* Position: The middle of the syllable block if there's a final, otherwise at the right or bottom.
#: For a list of the medials, see [[#Vowel jamo design]]
# Final (종성, <span lang="ko">終聲</span> ''jongseong''): The [[syllable coda]] of [[consonant]](s) after the [[vowel]](s). All basic ''jamo'' can occur as finals, and the silent initial ㅇ is pronounced ''ng'' in final position. However, the only doubled ''jamo'' that can occur finally are ᆻ (ss) and ᆩ (kk).
#* Position: Placed at the bottom, right or lower-right corner of the block.
#* See: [[Hangul consonant and vowel tables#Finals]]
<table cellpadding=5>
<t |
edge. Two common arguments are that these sorts of knowledge can only be derived from experience (as [[John Stuart Mill]] argued), and that they do not constitute "real" knowledge (as [[David Hume]] argued).
== Justification ==
Much of epistemology has been concerned with seeking ways to justify beliefs.
===Irrationalism===
Some approaches to justifying beliefs are not [[rationality|rational]] &mdash; that is, they reject the notion that justification must obey [[logic]] or reason. [[Nihilism]] started out as a materialistic political philosophy, but is sometimes redefined as the apparently absurd doctrine that there can be no justification for any claim &mdash; absurd because the doctrine implies that nihilism itself cannot be justified.
One definition of contemporary ''[[Mysticism]]'' is the use of non-rational methods to arrive at beliefs and the acceptance of such beliefs as knowledge. For example, believing that something is true based on emotion may be regarded as epistemological mysticism. An instance of this may be when one bases one's belief in the existence of something merely on one's ''desire'' that it should exist. Another example might be the use of a daisy's petals and the phrase "he loves me / he loves me not" while they are plucked to determine whether Romeo returns Juliet's affections. The mysticism in this example would be the assumption that such a method has predictive or indicative powers without rational evidence of this (this does not necessarily lessen its importance as a symbolic tool in human thought). In both of these examples, belief is not justified through rational means. Mysticism need not be an intentional process: one may engage in mystical thought without realizing it.
Contemporary Mysticism should not be confused with ''traditional'' Mysticism, which is a spiritual practice in many Eastern religions. It is the practice of focusing thought that is important to traditional mysticism, rather than the content of the thought. One difficulty precident in many forms of mysticism is the ''suspension of disbelief'' as conflicting beliefs are said to interfere with the supernatural spiritual or mental abilities. This can be criticized as not solely suspending disbelief, but in requiring an irrational belief of the possibility of the promised potential outcomes.
=== Rationality ===
[[Philosophical scepticism|Philosophical skeptics]] maintain that much of what we typically take to be knowledge is not in fact knowledge. In contrast to mystics, most skeptics attempt to present [[logical argument]]s for their claims.
For instance, the [[regress argument]] has it that one can ask for the justification for any belief. If that justification depends on another belief, one can also reasonably ask for the latter belief to be justified, and so forth. This appears to lead to an infinite regress, with each belief justified by some further belief. The apparent impossibility of completing an infinite chain of reasoning is thought by some to support skepticism.
Some philosophers, notably [[Peter Klein]], have argued that it is not impossible to have an infinite series of reasons and that such an infinite series could explain how we have knowledge. This position is known as ''[[infinitism]]''. Infinitists typically take the infinite series to be merely potential, in the sense that an individual may have indefinitely many reasons ''available'' to him, without having consciously thought through all of these reasons. The individual need only have the ability to bring forth the relevant reasons when the need arises. This position is motivated in part by the desire to avoid skepticism.
[[Foundationalism|Foundationalists]] respond to the regress argument by claiming that some beliefs that are fit to support other beliefs and knowledge do not themselves require justification. Sometimes these ''foundational'' beliefs are characterized as beliefs about what one is directly aware of, or as beliefs that are self-justifying, or as beliefs that are infallible. According to one particularly permissive form of foundationalism, a belief may count as foundational, in the sense that it may be presumed true until defeating evidence appears, as long as the belief ''appears'' to the subject to be true.
Another response to the regress problem is to reject the assumption that beliefs can only be justified by linear chains of reasoning. [[Coherentism]] holds that an individual belief is justified not by such linear reasoning but by the way the belief fits together ([[Truth#Coherence Theory|coheres]]) with the rest of one's belief system. This has the advantage of avoiding the infinite regress without claiming special status for some particular class of beliefs. But since a system can be coherent and yet still be wrong, coherentists face the difficulty of ensuring that the whole system [[correspondence theory of truth|corresponds]] in some way with reality.
=== Synthetic and analytic statements ===
Some statements are such that they appear not to need any justification once one understands their [[meaning]]. For example, consider: ''my father's brother is my uncle''. This statement is true in virtue of the meaning of the terms it contains, and so it seems frivolous to ask for a justification for saying it is true. Philosophers call such statements ''analytic''. More technically, a statement is analytic if the concept in the predicate is included in the concept in the subject. In the example, the concept of uncle (the predicate) is included in the concept of being my father's brother (the subject). Not all analytic statements are as trivial as this example. [[mathematics|Mathematical]] statements are often taken to be analytic.
Synthetic statements, on the other hand, have distinct subjects and [[predicate]]s. An example would be ''my father's brother is overweight''.
Although anticipated by [[David Hume]], this distinction was more clearly formulated by [[Immanuel Kant]], and later given a more formal shape by [[Frege]]. [[Wittgenstein]] noted in the ''[[Tractatus]]'' that analytic statements "express no thoughts", that is, that they tell us nothing new; although analytic statements do not require justification, they are singularly uninformative. [[W.V.O. Quine]], in his famous ''[[Two Dogmas of Empiricism]]'', challenged the legitimacy of the analytic-synthetic distinction altogether.
== Epistemological theories ==
It is common for epistemological theories to avoid skepticism by adopting a foundationalist approach. To do this, they argue that certain types of statements have a special epistemological status &mdash; that of not needing to be justified. So it is possible to classify epistemological theories according to the type of statement that each argues has this special status.
=== Empiricism ===
[[empiricism|Empiricists]] claim knowledge is a product of human [[experience]]. Statements of observations take pride of place in empiricist theory. [[Naïve empiricism]] holds simply that our ideas and theories need to be tested against [[realism|reality]], and accepted or rejected on the basis of how well they ''correspond'' to ''observed facts''. The central problem for epistemology then becomes explaining this [[correspondence theory of truth|correspondence]].
Empiricism is associated with [[science]]. While there can be little doubt about the effectiveness of science, there is much philosophical debate about how and why science works. The [[Scientific Method]] was once favoured as the reason for scientific success, but recent difficulties in the [[philosophy of science]] have led to a rise in [[coherentism]].
[[Empiricism]] is sometimes associated with a tradition called [[logical empiricism]], or [[positivism]], which places higher emphasis on ideas about reality rather than on experiences of reality.
=== Idealism ===
[[Idealism]] holds that what we refer to and perceive as the external world is in some way an artifice of the mind. Analytic statements (for example, mathematical truths), are held to be true without reference to the external world, and these are taken to be exemplary knowledge statements. [[George Berkeley]], [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[Georg Hegel]] held various idealist views. Idealism is itself a ''[[metaphysical]]'' thesis, but has important epistemological consequences.
==== Naïve realism ====
[[Naïve realism]], sometimes called Common Sense realism, is the belief that there is a real external world, and that our perceptions are caused directly by that world. It has its foundation in [[Causality|causation]] in that an object being there causes us to see it. Thus, it follows, the world remains as it is when it is perceived - when it is not being perceived - ''a room is still there once we exit''. The opposite theory to this is [[solipsism]]. Some argue that naïve realism fails to take into account the psychology of [[perception]], but naïve realists argue that viewing the psychology of [[perception]] as a problem for naïve realism requires begging the question in favor of idealism. (''See: [[G.E. Moore]]''.)
=== Phenomenalism ===
[[Phenomenalism]] is a development from [[George Berkeley]]'s claim that to be is to be perceived. According to phenomenalism, when you see a tree, you see a certain perception of a brown shape, when you touch it, you get a perception of pressure against your palm. On this view, one shouldn't think of objects as distinct substances, which interact with our senses so that we may perceive them; rather we should conclude that the perception itself is all that really exists.
=== Pragmatism ===
[[Pragmatism]] about knowledge holds that what is important about knowledge is that it solves certain problems that are constrained both by the world and by human purposes. The place of knowledge in human activity is to resolve the problems that arise in conflicts between belief and action. Pragmatists are also typically commit |
freedom to change a religion or belief, and to manifest a religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance, subject to certain restrictions that are "in accordance with law" and "necessary in a democratic society".
===Article 10 - right to freedom of expression===
Article 10 provides the right to [[freedom of expression]], subject to certain restrictions that are "in accordance with law" and "necessary in a democratic society". This right includes the freedom to hold opinions, and to receive and impart information and ideas.
===Article 11 - right to freedom of assembly and association===
Article 11 protects the right to [[freedom of assembly]] and association, including the right to form [[trade union]]s, subject to certain restrictions that are "in accordance with law" and "necessary in a democratic society".
===Article 12 - right to marry===
Article 12 provides a right for men and women of [[marriage]]able age to marry and establish a family.
Despite a number of invitations, the Court has so far refused to apply the protections of this article to [[same-sex marriage]]. The Court has defended this on the grounds that the article was intended to apply only to traditional marriage, and that a wide margin of appreciation must be granted to parties in this area.
The court has held that to prohibit transsexuals from marrying persons who are of the gender opposite to the person's new gender is a breach of Article 12.
===Article 13 - right to an effective remedy===
Article 13 provides for the right for an effective remedy before national authorities for violations of rights under the Convention. The inability to obtain a remedy before a national court for an infringement of a Convention right is thus a free-standing and separately actionable infringement of the Convention.
===Article 14 - prohibition of discrimination===
Article 14 contains a prohibition of [[discrimination]]. This prohibition is broad in some ways, and narrow in others. On the one hand, the article protects against discrimination based on any of a wide range of grounds. The article provides a list of such grounds, including sex, race, colour, language, religion and several other criteria, and most significantly providing that this list is non-exhaustive. On the other hand, the article's scope is limited only to discrimination with respect to rights under the Convention. Thus, an applicant must prove discrimination in the enjoyment of a specific right that is guaranteed elsewhere in the Convention (e.g. discrimination based on sex - Article 14 - in the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression - Article 10). Protocol 12 extends this prohibition to cover discrimination in any legal right, even when that legal right is not protected under the Convention, so long as it is provided for in national law.
===Article 15 - derogations===
Article 15 allows contracting states to derogate from the rights guaranteed by the Convention in time of emergency. This ability has been used, for example, by the UK to pass a law allowing certain prisoners to be held without trial (BBC [[4 August]], [[2004]]).
===Article 16 - exemption for political activities of aliens===
Article 16 exempts restrictions on the political activities of aliens from the Convention.
===Article 17 - prohibition of abuse of rights===
Article 17 provides that no one may use the rights guaranteed by the Convention to seek the abolition or limitation of rights guaranteed in the Convention. This addresses instances where States seek to restrict a human right in the name of another human right, or where individuals rely on a human right to undermine other human rights (see e.g. [[Holocaust denial]]).
===Article 18 - limitations on permitted restrictions of rights===
Article 18 provides that any limitations on the rights provided for in the Convention may be used only for the purpose for which they are provided. For example, Article 5, which guarantees the right to personal freedom, may be explicitly limited in order to bring a suspect before a judge. To use pre-trial detention as a means of intimidation of a person under a false pretext is therefore a limitation of right (to freedom) which does not serve an explicitly provided purpose (to be brought before a judge), and is therefore contrary to Article 18.
===Substantive protocols===
====Protocol 1 - property, education, elections====
Article 1 provides for the protection of private property. Article 2 provides for the right to an education, and the right for parents to have their children educated in accordance with their religious and other views. Article 3 provides for the right to regular, free and fair elections.
====Protocol 4 - civil imprisonment, movement, expulsion====
Article 1 prohibits the imprisonment of people due to "inability to fulfil a contractual obligation". Article 2 allows people to move freely within their nation, as well as the right to leave one's own nation. Article 3 prohibits the expulsion of nationals. Article 4 prohibits collective expulsion of aliens.
====Protocol 6 - death penalty====
Requires parties to restrict the application of the [[death penalty]] to times of war or national emergency.
====Protocol 7 - expulsion, criminal appeals, compensation, double jeopardy, spousal equality====
Article 1 prohibits "lawfully resident aliens" from being expelled unless the decision was reached according to the law, and grants the right to have the reason of their expulsion presented to them and to have their cases reviewed. Article 2 grants the right to [[appeal]] in all criminal matters. Article 3 grants compensation for wrongful convictions. Article 4 prohibits [[double jeopardy]]. Article 5 affirms the equality between spouses.
====Protocol 12 - discrimination====
Prohibits discrimination on any ground, such as: "sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status", for any legally prescribed rights or obligations.
It is wider in its ambit than Article 14 - Article 14 prohibits discrimination only in the enjoyment of any Convention right, whereas Protocol 12 prohibits discrimination in the enjoyment of any provisions of national law.
The Protocol entered into force [[1 April]] [[2004]], presently ([[as of 2006]]) ratified by 11 member states. Several member states have not signed this Protocol, viz., [[Andorra]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Denmark]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Poland]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], and the [[United Kingdom]].
The Blair Government opposes Protocol 12, on the grounds that (they claim) it does not respect the distinction under UK law between
international law and domestic law; on [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldhansrd/vo001023/text/01023w04.htm [[23 October]] [[2000]]], Lord Bassam of Brighton stated in the House of Lords that "The Government's concern is that the European Court of Human Rights might hold that a right set out in an international agreement, but not incorporated into United Kingdom law is covered by Protocol 12." Lord Bassam cited as causes for concern international provisions such as the [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]], which the UK has signed but has not incorporated into domestic law -- they fear that the Protocol might be used by the ECHR to incorporate these provisions into UK domestic law by stealth. In summary, Lord Bassam stated ([http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldhansrd/vo001109/text/01109w03.htm [[9 November]] [[2000]]]) that "The Government did not sign Protocol 12 when it was opened for signature in Rome on [[4 November]] and have no present plans to do so, but they have not indefinitely ruled out signature and ratification. They will keep their position under consideration in the light of the interpretation of the Protocol by the European Court of Human Rights."
[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=177&CM=8&DF=19/02/2006&CL=ENG Council of Europe information page on the Protocol]
[http://www.humanrights.gov.uk/ngo/reviews/appendix6.pdf 2004 Update on UK position]
====Protocol 13 - death penalty====
"The death penalty shall be abolished. No one shall be condemned to such penalty or executed."
Requires parties to abolish the death penalty completely.
==See also==
*[[Human rights in Europe]]
*[[Human Rights Act 1998]] for how the Convention has been incorporated into the law of the United Kingdom.
==Note==
The [[Council of Europe]] should not be confused with the [[Council of the European Union|Council]] of the [[European Union]], which is not a party to the Convention and has no role in the administration of the [[European Court of Human Rights]].
==External links==
* [http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/Treaties/Html/005.htm Full text of the European Convention on Human Rights]
* [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/CadreListeTraites.htm List of all treaties and protocols]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3534274.stm Terror detention law 'must go']; BBC; [[4 August]] [[2004]]
[[Category:Human rights instruments]]
[[Category:Council of Europe|Convention on Human Rights]]
[[Category:1950 in law]]
[[da:Den Europæiske Menneskerettighedskonvention]]
[[de:Europäische Menschenrechtskonvention]]
[[es:Convención Europea de Derechos Humanos]]
[[fr:Convention de sauvegarde des Droits de l'Homme et des Libertés fondamentales]]
[[nl:Europees Verdrag voor de Rechten van de Mens]]
[[pl:Europejska Konwencja Praw Człowieka]]
[[pt:Convenção Européia dos Direitos Humanos]]
[[ru:Европейская Конвенция по защите прав человека и основных свобод]]
[[sv:Europakonventionen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ecclesia</title>
<id>9831</id>
<revision>
<id>40817173</id>
|
ll ''jamo'' in North Korea, and all but three in the more traditional nomenclature used in South Korea, have names of the format of ''letter'' + ''i'' + ''eu'' + ''letter''. For example, Choi wrote ''bieup'' with the ''hanja'' 非 (''bi'') 邑 (''eup''). The names of ''g'', ''d'', and ''s'' are exceptions because there are no ''hanja'' for ''euk'', ''eut'', and ''eus''. 役 ''yeok'' is used in place of ''euk''. Since there is no ''hanja'' that ends in ''t'' or ''s'', Choi chose two ''hanja'' to be read in their Korean gloss, 末 ''kkeut'' ("end") and 衣 ''os'' ("clothes").
Originally, Choi gave ''j'', ''ch'', ''k'', ''t'', ''p'', and ''h'' the irregular one-syllable names of ''ji'', ''chi'', ''ki'', ''ti'', ''pi'', and ''hi'', because they should not be used as final consonants, as specified in ''Hunmin jeong-eum''. But after the establishment of the new orthography in 1933, which allowed all consonsants to be placed as the final consonants, the names were changed to the present forms.
The double ''jamo'' precede the parent consonant's name with the word 쌍 ''ssang'', meaning "twin" or "double", or with 된 ''doen'' in North Korea, meaning "strong". Thus:
{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse"
|-
! Letter !! South Korean Name !! North Korean name
|-
| ㄲ || ''ssanggiyeok'' (쌍기역) || ''doengieuk'' (된기윽)
|-
| ㄸ || ''ssangdigeut'' (쌍디귿) || ''doendieut'' (된디읃)
|-
| ㅃ || ''ssangbieup'' (쌍비읍) || ''doenbieup'' (된비읍)
|-
| ㅆ || ''ssangsiot'' (쌍시옷) || ''doensieut'' (된시읏)
|-
| ㅉ || ''ssangjieut'' (쌍지읒) || ''doenjieut'' (된지읒)
|}
In North Korea, an alternate way to refer to the ''jamo'' is by the name ''letter'' + ''eu'' (ㅡ), for example, 그 ''geu'' for the ''jamo'' ㄱ, 쓰 ''sseu'' for the ''jamo'' ㅆ, etc.
====Vocalic ''jamo'' names====
The vocalic ''jamo'' names are simply the vowel itself, written with the null initial ㅇ ''ieung'' and the vowel being named. Thus:
{|
! Letter !! Name
|-
| ㅏ || ''a'' (아)
|-
| ㅐ || ''ae'' (애)
|-
| ㅑ || ''ya'' (야)
|-
| ㅒ || ''yae'' (얘)
|-
| ㅓ || ''eo'' (어)
|-
| ㅔ || ''e'' (에)
|-
| ㅕ || ''yeo'' (여)
|-
| ㅖ || ''ye'' (예)
|-
| ㅗ || ''o'' (오)
|-
| ㅘ || ''wa'' (와)
|-
| ㅙ || ''wae'' (왜)
|-
| ㅚ || ''oe'' (외)
|-
| ㅛ || ''yo'' (요)
|-
| ㅜ || ''u'' (우)
|-
| ㅝ || ''wo'' (워)
|-
| ㅞ || ''we'' (웨)
|-
| ㅟ || ''wi'' (위)
|-
| ㅠ || ''yu'' (유)
|-
| ㅡ || ''eu'' (으)
|-
| ㅢ || ''ui'' (의)
|-
| ㅣ || ''i'' (이)
|}
===Obsolete ''jamo''===
Several ''jamo'' are obsolete. These include several that represent Korean sounds that have since disappeared from the standard language, as well as a larger number used to represent the sounds of the Chinese [[rime table]]s that were never used in Korean at all. The most frequently encountered of these archaic letters are:
* ㆍ or 丶 ''ə'' (''arae-a'' 아래아 "lower ''a''"): Pronounced as [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]] {{IPA|[ʌ]}}, similar to modern ''eo''.
*:''Ə'' formed a medial of its own, or was found as the diphthong ㆎ ''area-ae''. The word ''ahə'' ("child"), which was originally written using this letter, has been changed to ''ai'' (아이).
* ㅿ ''z'' (''bansios'' 반시옷): A rather unusual sound, perhaps IPA {{IPA|[ʝ͂]}} (a [[nasalized]] [[Voiced palatal fricative|palatal fricative]]). (If your browser doesn't show it, the ''jamo'' looks like an equilateral triangle.)
* ㆆ ’ (''yeorin hieuh'' 여린 히읗 "light hieuh" or ''doen ieung'' 된 이응 "strong ieung"): A [[glottal stop]], "lighter than ㅎ and harsher than ㅇ".
* ㆁ ''ng'' (''yet-ieung'' 옛이응): The original ''jamo'' for {{IPA|[ŋ]}}; now conflated with ㅇ ''ieung''. (With some computer [[typeface|fonts]], ''yet-ieung'' is shown as a flattened version of ''ieung'', but the correct form is with a long peak, longer than what you would see on a [[serif]] version of ''ieung''.)
* ㅸ ''β'' (''gabyeoun bieup'' 가벼운 비읍): IPA {{IPA|[f]}}. This letter appears to be a digraph of ''bieup'' and ''ieung'', but it may be more complicated than that. There were three other less common ''jamo'' for sounds in this section of the Chinese rhyme tables, ᇢ ''w'' (IPA [w] or [m]), a theoretical ᇴ ''f'', and ㅹ ''ff'' {{IPA|[v̤]}}.
There were two other now-obsolete double ''jamo'',
* ㆅ ''x'' (''ssanghieuh'' 쌍히읗 "double ''hieuh''"): IPA {{IPA|[ɣ̈ʲ]}} or {{IPA|[ɣ̈]}}.
* ㆀ (''ssang-ieung'' 쌍이응 "double ''ieung''"): Another ''jamo'' used to represent the rime tables.
In the original Hangul system, double ''jamo'' were used to represent Chinese voiced (濁音) consonants (which survive in the [[Shanghainese (dialect)|Shanghainese]] [[slack voice|slack]] consonants), and were not used for Korean words. It was only later that a similar convention was used to represent the modern "tense" ([[Faucalized voice|faucalized]]) consonants of Korean.
The sibilant ("dental") consonants were modified to represent the two series of Chinese sibilants, [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] and [[Retroflex consonants|retroflex]], a "round vs. sharp" distinction which was never made in Korean, and which was even being lost from northern Chinese. The alveolar ''jamo'' had longer left stems, while retroflexes had longer right stems:
{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse"
|-
! Original consonants
| ㅅ || ㅆ || ㅈ || ㅉ || ㅊ
|-
! ''Chidu-eum'' (alveolar sibilant)
| ᄼ || ᄽ || ᅎ || ᅏ || ᅔ
|-
! ''Jeongchi-eum'' (retroflex sibilant)
| ᄾ || ᄿ || ᅐ || ᅑ || ᅕ
|}
There were also [[consonant cluster]]s that have since dropped out of the language, such as ㅴ ''bsg'' and ㅵ ''bsd'', as well as [[diphthong]]s that were only used to represent Chinese medials, such as ㆇ, ㆈ, ㆊ, ㆋ.
Some of the sounds represented by these ''jamo'' for "obsolete" Korean (as opposed to for Chinese) still exist in some dialects of Korean.
==Syllabic blocks==
Except for a few grammatical morphemes in the early days of Hangul, no ''jamo'' may stand alone to represent the Korean language. Instead, ''jamo'' are grouped into [[syllable|syllabic]] blocks containing, at minimum, an initial ([[syllable onset|syllabic onset]]) and a medial ([[syllable nucleus|syllabic nucleus]]). When a syllable has no initial consonant, the null initial ㅇ''ieung'' is used as a placeholder. No placeholder is needed when there is no final ([[syllable coda|syllabic coda]]).
The null initial was originally just that, null, but since it was only used in initial position, and the consonant ''ng'' was silent when initial as well as having a similar shape to the null character, the two came to be seen as the same letter.
Syllabic blocks may be composed of two or three ''jamo'':
# Two ''jamo'': an initial (a consonant or [[consonant cluster]], or the null ㅇ) + a medial (a vowel or [[diphthong]])
# Three jamo: an initial + a medial + a final (a consonant or consonant cluster)
The placement, or "stacking", of ''jamo'' in the block follows set patterns:
# The components of a complex ''jamo'' are written left to right. The most complex are two: ㅄ, ㅝ, etc. (Obsolete combinations are more complex: ㅵ, ㆋ, etc.)
# All modern Hangul vowels have either a vertical or horizontal axis.
#*''Vertical'' vowel ''jamo'' are written to the ''right'' of the initial: ㅣ ''i''.
#*''Horizontal'' vowel ''jamo'' are written ''under'' the initial: ㅡ ''eu''.
#*When a vowel ''jamo'' has both horizontal and vertical components, it ''wraps'' around the intitial from the bottom to the right: ㅢ ''ui''.
# A final ''jamo'', if there is one, is added at the bottom. This is called 받침 ''batchim'' "supporting floor".
# Blocks are always written in phonetic order, initial-medial-final. Therefore,
#*Syllables with a horizontal vowel ''jamo'' are written downward: 읍 ''eup''.
#*Syllables with a vertical vowel ''jamo'' and simple final are written clockwise: 쌍 ''ssang''.
#*Syllables with a wrapping vowel ''jamo'' switch direction (down-right-down): 된 ''doen''.
#*Syllables with a complex final are written left to right at the bottom: 밟 ''balp''.
The resulting block is written within a rectangle of the same size and shape as a ''[[hanja]]'', so to a naive eye syllabic blocks may be confused with ''hanja''.
Not including obsolete ''jamo'', there are some 11,571 possible Hangul blocks.
There was a very minor movement in the [[twentieth century]] to abolish syllabic blocks and write the ''jamo'' individually and in a row, in the fashion of the Western alphabets: ㄱㅡㄷ ''geut''. However, the blocks make Hangul very efficient to read, as each syllable has a unique shape. Now that Hangul orthography is [[Morphophonology|morphophonemic]] (see below), this means that Hangul ''words'' have easily recognizable shapes. This is a great help to the reader; a similar word-recognition advantage has kept the Semitic [[abjad]]s vowel-free for millennia. Indeed, people raised reading Chinese or Korean often report that reading the strings of letters in an alphabet like English is like trying to read [[Morse code]], and the Korean linear writing movement has never gained much support.
==Orthography==
Until the 20th century, no official orthography of Hangul had been established. Due to liaison, heavy consonant assimilation, dialectical variants and other reasons, a Korean word can potentially be spelled in various ways. King Sejong seemed to prefer [[Morphophonology|morphophonemic]] spelling (representing the underlying morphology) rather than a [[phoneme|phonemic]] one (representing the actual sounds). However, early in its history, Hangul was dominated by phonemic spelling. Over the centuries the orthography became partially morphophonemic, first in nouns, and later in verbs. Today it is as morphophonemic as is practical.
*Pronunciation and translation:
:{{IPA|[mo.tʰa.nɯn.sa.ɾa.mi]}}
:''a person who cannot do it''
*Phonemic orthography:
:모타는사라미
:{{IPA|/mo.tʰa.nɯn.sa.la.mi/}}
*Morphophonemic orthography:
:못하는사람이
:{{IPA|<nowiki>|mos.ha.nɯn.sa.lam.i |</nowiki>}}
Morpheme-by-morpheme [[glos |
>yet another botswana pic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Botswana-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Botswana, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organisation|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
[[Image:Botswanahouse.jpg|thumb|right|250px]]
[[Botswana]], like many nations in southern [[Africa]], suffers from a high [[AIDS]] infection rate, which was 38.8% for adults in 2002. In 2003, the government began a comprehensive program involving free or cheap generic anti-retroviral drugs as well as an information campaign designed to stop the spread of the virus.
==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==
===Population===
:1,640,115
:''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)
===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 38.8% (male 322,916/female 312,735)
:15-64 years: 57.5% (male 455,183/female 487,236)
:65 years and over: 3.8% (male 23,914/female 38,131) (2005 est.)
===Median age===
:Total: 19.29 years
:Male: 18.64 years
:Female: 19.93 years (2005 est.)
===Population growth rate===
:0% (2005 est.)
===Birth rate===
:23.33 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Death rate===
:29.36 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Net migration rate===
:6.07 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.63 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 54.58 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 55.97 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 53.14 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 33.87 years
:Male: 33.89 years
:Female: 33.84 years (2005 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:2.85 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 37.3% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 350,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 33,000 (2003 est.)
===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne disease: malaria (2004)
===Nationality===
:Noun: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
:Adjective: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
===Ethnic groups===
:Tswana 98%, White 2%
===Religions===
:Christian 80%, Traditional Beliefs 20%
===Languages===
:English (official), Setswana
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 80%
:Male: 77%
:Female: 82%
==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Botswana]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Botswana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Botswana</title>
<id>3615</id>
<revision>
<id>39919507</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T20:53:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{election botswana}}
[[Botswana]] has a flourishing multiparty constitutional democracy. Each of the elections since independence has been freely and fairly contested and has been held on schedule. The country's small white minority and other minorities participate freely in the political process. There are two main rival parties and a number of smaller parties. In national elections in [[1999]], the [[Botswana Democratic Party]] (BDP) won 33 of 40 contested National Assembly seats, the [[Botswana National Front]] (BNF) won 6, and the [[Botswana Congress Party]] (BCP) won 1 seat. An additional 4 seats are held by individuals appointed by the President; all 4 are currently held by the ruling BDP. The opposition out-polled the ruling BDP in most urban areas. The openness of the country's political system has been a significant factor in Botswana's stability and economic growth. General elections are held at least every 5 years.
The president has executive power and is chosen by the National Assembly following countrywide legislative elections. The cabinet is selected by the president from the National Assembly; it consists of a vice president and a flexible number of ministers and assistant ministers, currently 12 and 3, respectively. The National Assembly has 40 elected and 4 appointed members; it is expanded following each census (every 10 years).
The advisory House of Chiefs represents the eight principal subgroups of the [[Batswana]] people, and four other members are elected by the subchiefs of four of the districts. A draft of any National Assembly bill of tribal concern must be referred to the House of Chiefs for advisory opinion. Chiefs and other leaders preside over customary, traditional courts, though all persons have the right to request that their case be considered under the formal British-based legal system.
The roots of Botswana's democracy lie in [[Setswana]] traditions, exemplified by the [[Kgotla]], or village council, in which the powers of traditional leaders are limited by custom and law. Botswana's High Court has general civil and criminal jurisdiction. Judges are appointed by the president and may be removed only for cause and after a hearing. The constitution has a code of fundamental human rights enforced by the courts, and Botswana has a good human rights record.
Local government is administered by nine district councils and five town councils. District commissioners have executive authority and are appointed by the central government and assisted by elected and nominated district councilors and district development committees. There has been ongoing debate about the political, social, and economic marginalization of the [[Bushmen|San]] (indigenous tribal population). The government's policies for remote area dwellers continue to spark controversy and to be revised in response to domestic and donor concerns.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Botswana|Elections in Botswana}}
{{main|Botswana general election, 2004}}
{{Botswana general election, 2004}}
{{CIA}}
'''Principal Government Officials'''<br>
President--[[Festus Mogae]]<br>
Vice President--Lt. Gen. [[Seretse Ian Khama]]<br>
Ambassador to the United States--Kgosi Seepapitso<br>
Ambassador to the United Nations--L.J.M.J. Legwaila
Botswana maintains a [[U.S.]] embassy at 1531-1533 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington DC 20036 (tel. 202-244-4990; fax 202-244-4164). Its mission to the United Nations is at 103 E. 37th Street, New York NY 10017 (tel. 212-889-2277; fax 212-725-5061).
'''Country name:'''
<br>''conventional long form:''
Republic of Botswana
<br>''conventional short form:''
Botswana
<br>''former:''
[[Bechuanaland]]
'''Data code:'''
BC
'''Government type:'''
parliamentary republic
'''Capital:'''
[[Gaborone]]
'''Administrative divisions:'''
10 districts and four town councils*; Central, Chobe, Francistown*, Gaborone*, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi, Kgatleng, Kweneng, Lobatse*, Ngamiland, North-East, Selebi-Pikwe*, South-East, Southern
'''Independence:'''
[[30 September]] [[1966]] (from [[United Kingdom|UK]])
'''National holiday:'''
Independence Day, [[30 September]] ([[1966]])
'''Constitution:'''
March 1965, effective [[30 September]] [[1966]]
'''Legal system:'''
based on Roman-Dutch law and local customary law; judicial review limited to matters of interpretation; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal
'''Executive branch:'''
<br>''chief of state:''
President Festus MOGAE (since [[1 April]] [[1998]]) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since [[13 July]] [[1998]]); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
<br>''head of government:''
President Festus MOGAE (since [[1 April]] [[1998]]) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since [[13 July]] [[1998]]); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
<br>''cabinet:''
Cabinet appointed by the president
<br>''elections:''
president elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term; election last held [[16 October]] [[1999]] (next to be held NA October 2004); vice president appointed by the president
<br>''election results:''
Festus MOGAE elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - 54.3%
'''Legislative branch:'''
bicameral Parliament consists of the House of Chiefs (a largely advisory 15-member body consisting of the chiefs of the eight principal tribes, four elected subchiefs, and three members selected by the other 12 members) and the National Assembly (44 seats, 40 members are directly elected by popular vote and 4 are appointed by the majority party; members serve five-year terms)
<br>''elections:''
National Assembly elections last held [[16 October]] [[1999]] (next to be held NA October [[2004]])
'''Judicial branch:'''
High Court; Court of Appeal; Magistrates' Courts (one in each district)
'''International organization participation:'''
ACP, AfDB, C, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, [[ICCt]], ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
'''Flag description:'''
light blue with a horizontal white-edged black stripe in the center
:''See also :'' [[Botswana]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Botswana|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Botswana</title>
<id>3616</id>
<revision>
<id>39631909</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T20:33:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.63.100.162</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of |
er than his daughter, [[Sheila Copps]].
===Provincial politics===
New Hamilton has historically been represented by four to six MPPs or MLAs in the [[Legislative Assembly of Ontario|Ontario legislature]]. Old Hamilton was always suspicious of its larger neighbour and provincial capital, [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]] and had a reputation for being highly [[trade unions|unionized]]. These factors combined to electing working class and left wing MPPs, often from the [[New Democratic Party|New Democratic]] and [[Liberal Party of Ontario|Liberal]] parties, who frequently achieved notoriety if not power outside Hamilton.
Liberal MPP [[Lily Munro]] was caught in the [[Patti Starr]] scandal which contributed to Premier [[David Peterson|David Peterson's]] electoral defeat in [[1990]]. So often under- or unrepresented in at Queen's Park, the old city of Hamilton boasted that each of its three MPPs were ministers in the [[New Democratic Party|NDP]] government of [[Bob Rae]] in the [[1990s]].
In contrast, the former suburbs and rural precincts of old Hamilton voted for less radical and less noteworthy [[Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario|Conservative]] representatives, including government backbenchers for Rae's successor, [[Mike Harris]]. The Harris government's forced amalgamation of Hamilton was highly controversial among suburban and urban Hamilton voters. It also made provincial riding boundaries and names automatically coincide with those at the federal level, reducing new Hamilton's representation at Queen's Park, the Provincial Legislature, in Toronto, by one member.
===Federal politics===
Progressive Conservative Prime Minister [[John Diefenbaker]] appointed the late [[Ellen Fairclough]] as Secretary of State, making her Canada's first female [[Cabinet of Canada|cabinet minister]], in [[1957]]. A downtown provincial office building is named in her honour.
[[John Munro]], a [[Pierre Trudeau|Trudeau]] era Liberal cabinet minister and a sometime husband of [[Lily Munro]], was the subject of political innuendo and criminal allegations dismissed after an [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police|RCMP]] probe. He came in fourth in the first mayoral election for amalgamated Hamilton. The Hamilton International Airport was renamed in his honour.
Progressive Conservative Prime Minister [[Joe Clark]] appointed [[Lincoln Alexander|Lincoln "Linc" Alexander]], the first [[Black Canadian]] [[Parliament of Canada|MP]], as Minister of Labour in his short-lived government. Alexander later became [[Lieutenant Governor of Ontario]], another first for blacks in Ontario and Canada. Ironically for a man who never learned to drive, Linc was honoured by having the long-awaited Mountain east-west expressway named after him.
[[Sheila Copps]], daughter of Victor and Geraldine, was a [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] candidate, first for the Ontario legislature and then for the House of Commons, where she represented Hamilton East from [[1984]] until [[2004]]. She was a leading and vociferous member of the [[Liberal Party of Canada Rat Pack]] while the Liberals were in opposition until [[1993]]. An early and strong supporter of the leadership of [[Jean Chrétien]], she served in several posts including [[Deputy Prime Minister of Canada|Deputy Prime Minister]]. When [[Paul Martin Jr.|Paul Martin]] assumed the prime ministership, Copps' star waned as she was excluded from cabinet and lost her bitter nomination campaign to [[Tony Valeri]] in her re-districted riding.
In the [[Canadian federal election, 2006|2006 federal election]], all three of Hamilton's main urban ridings were won by the [[New Democratic Party of Canada|New Democratic Party]] candidates, [[Wayne Marston]], [[David Christopherson]] and [[Chris Charlton]]. The two predominantly rural ridings were both won by [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservatives]], [[David Sweet]] and [[Dean Allison]].
==History==
''This section summarizes the full entry found at'' [[History of Hamilton, Ontario]]'', and stops in 1945.''
===History to 1913===
The [[Iroquois]] Confederacy or Five (later Six) Nations first occupied the land now covered by Hamilton. French explorers made transient visits to the area, but major European settlement did not begin until [[United Empire Loyalists]] arrived around the [[American Revolution]] and [[War of 1812]]. In the latter conflict, Britain defeated American invaders at the [[Battle of Stoney Creek]] in what is now Hamilton.
Immediately after the war, in 1815, [[George Hamilton (1788-1836)|George Hamilton]] laid out a townsite in Barton Township which eventually outstripped close rivals like [[Dundas, Ontario|Dundas]]. Hamilton was incorporated as a [[police village]] in [[1833]] and as a city in [[1846]].
Hamilton was part of (and served as seat for) [[Wentworth County, Ontario|Wentworth County]] since its creation in 1816. By 1851, the county acquired its final composition of townships: [[Ancaster, Ontario|Ancaster]], Barton, [[Flamborough, Ontario|Beverly]], [[Glanbrook|Binbrook]], [[Flamborough, Ontario|East Flamborough]], [[Flamborough, Ontario|West Flamborough]], [[Glanbrook|Glanford]] and [[Stoney Creek|Saltfleet]].
In the second half of the [[1800s]], Hamilton became identified and self-identified with [http://collections.ic.gc.ca/industrial/ heavy industry], billing itself as the Ambitious City and the [[Birmingham, England|Birmingham]] of Canada. It became a hotbed of working class activism, and in 1872 the cradle of the Nine Hour Movement which urged the universal limitation of working hours to nine per day.
The easy access to [[limestone]] from the [[Niagara Escarpment]], coal mined in [[Appalachia]], iron ore mined from the [[Canadian Shield]] and export markets through the [[Great Lakes]]-[[St. Lawrence River|St. Lawrence]] system made Hamilton an important [[iron]] and [[steel]] producing city. Diverse steel works combined to form the [[Stelco|Steel Company of Canada]] in 1910 and the [[Dofasco|Dominion Steel Casting Company]] in 1912.
===History 1914&ndash;1945===
Hamiltonians participated in the [[First World War]] as combatants, but due to [[Sam Hughes|Col. Sir Sam Hughes]]' mobilization plans for the [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]], there were no major battles associated purely with Hamiltonians. Heavy industry boomed as the Canadian and British governments' war-driven demands for steel, arms, munitions and textiles increased. War profiteering by manufacturers dampened some of the mood, but generally Hamiltonians pulled together.
After the Great War the school-building boom continued, including Memorial School, [[Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|Allenby School]] and [[Horatio Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum|Earl Kitchener School]]. In the [[Roaring Twenties]] hundreds of low-rise apartment buildings, of three to four stories and six to ten units, grew up across the city, especially in the east end. The [[Great Depression]] of the [[1930s]] hit Hamilton hard, with the simultaneous and prolonged decline in domestic consumption and [[international trade]] in finished industrial goods and building supplies dried up.
When the [[Second World War]] began, Hamiltonians like most Canadians welcomed the spike of economic demand but not its cause. In this war, the [[Canadian Army]] mobilized its territorially recruited militia units. As a consequence, Hamilton lost hundreds of its young men on a single day in 1942, when the [[Royal Hamilton Light Infantry]] [http://www.rhli.ca/] was effectively wiped out at [[Dieppe Raid|Dieppe]]. Read more of [http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/intro_e.html The Hamilton Spectator's] coverage of the war. Hamilton also gave [[The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada (Princess Louise's)]] to the cause.
==Media==
===Radio===
* AM 820 - [[CHAM (AM)|CHAM]], [[country music|country]]
* AM 900 - [[CHML (AM)|CHML]], [[news]]/[[talk radio|talk]]
* AM 1150 - [[CKOC (AM)|CKOC]], [[oldies]]
* FM 93.3 - [[CFMU-FM|CFMU]], [[McMaster University]] [[campus radio]]
* FM 94.7 - [[CIWV-FM|CIWV]], ("The Wave"), [[smooth jazz]]
* FM 95.3 - [[CING-FM|CING]], ("Country 95.3"), [[country music|country]]
* FM 101.5 - [[CIOI-FM|CIOI]], [[Mohawk College]] [[campus radio]]
* FM 102.9 - [[CKLH-FM|CKLH]], ("K-Lite FM"), [[adult contemporary]]
* FM 107.9 - [[CJXY-FM|CJXY]], ("Y108"), [[classic rock]] (licensed to [[Burlington, Ontario|Burlington]] but marketed toward Hamilton)
===Television===
* Channel 11: [[CHCH-TV|CHCH]], [[CH (television system)|CH]]
* Channel 14: "Cable 14"
* Channel 45: [[CKXT-TV|CKXT-1]], "Sun TV" (from [[Toronto]])
[[CTV television network|CTV]], [[CBC Television|CBC]], [[Télévision de Radio-Canada|SRC]] and [[TVOntario]] service is received directly from the network's [[Toronto]] transmitters; [[Global Television Network|Global]] service is received from [[CIII-TV|CIII]]'s rebroadcaster in [[Paris, Ontario|Paris]].
===Print===
The city's main daily newspaper is the ''[[Hamilton Spectator]]''.
==Sports==
Over the years and into the present, Hamilton has been prominent in several fields of sporting ventures and venues.
The [[Hamilton Tiger-Cats|Tiger-Cats]] of the [[Canadian Football League]] play at [[Ivor Wynne Stadium]] in the east end. Notable residents and former players include [[Angelo Mosca]]. The CFL's annual Eastern Division [[Labor Day|Labour Day]] classic pits the Hamilton Tiger-Cats against perennial rivals the [[Toronto Argonauts]]. Oddly, for many years before his death, [[Harold Ballard]] owned both the Tiger-Cats and the [[Toronto Maple Leafs]], the [[NHL]] franchise in rival city [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]]. The team's prowess has fallen dramatically from its glory days in the 1960s and early '70s, when it was a powerhouse.
In recent decades, Hamilton has yearned and lobbied for a [[National Hockey League]] franchise. It has been continually disappointed, despite bu |
nes within larger [[temple]]s, usually set on a base, surmounted by a pediment and surrounded by columns. In the Roman architecture the aedicula has except this a representiv funcion in the society. They're applied at public buildings like the [[Triumphal arch]] or [[City gate]] or [[Therm]]es. The [[Celsus]]-Library in [[Ephesus]] (2. c. AD) is their a good example.
In the [[Greek religion]] is a similar small shrine the [[Naiskos]]. But it's determineted exclusively religious.
In the [[Cemeteries]] as a part of the funeral architecture the aedicula exists today yet. The aedicula is to meet in public buildings like the Entrance to the subway.
==References==
*Adkins, Lesley & Adkins, Roy A. (1996). ''Dictionary of Roman Religion''. Facts on File, inc. ISBN 0-8160-3005-7.
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Religious buildings]]
[[de:Ädikula]]
[[fr:Édicule]]
[[it:Edicola]]
[[nl:Aedicula]]
[[pl:Aedicula]]
[[sk:Edikula]]
[[sv:Ädikula]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aedui</title>
<id>2622</id>
<revision>
<id>35995708</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T20:04:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ca, fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Map Gaul.gif|thumb|A map of [[Gaul]] showing the relative position of the [[Aedui]] tribe.]]
'''Aedui''', Haedui or Hedui (Gr. ''Aidouoi''), are [[Gallic]] people of [[Gallia Lugdunensis]], who inhabited the country between the Arar ([[Saone]]) and Liger ([[Loire]]), in today's [[France]].
The statement in [[Strabo]] (ii. 3. 192) that they dwelt between the Arar and Dubis ([[Doubs]]) is incorrect. Their territory thus included the greater part of the modern departments of [[Saône-et-Loire]], [[Côte-d'Or]] and [[Nièvre]]. According to [[Livy]] (v. 34), they took part in the expedition of [[Bellovesus]] into [[Italy]] in the [[6th century BC]].
Before [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]'s time they had attached themselves to the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people. When the [[Sequani]], their neighbours on the other side of the [[Arar]], with whom they were continually quarrelling, invaded their country and subjugated them with the assistance of a [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] chieftain named [[Ariovistus]], the Aedui sent [[Divitiacus]], the [[Druidry|druid]], to [[Rome]] to appeal to the [[Roman Senate|senate]] for help, but his mission was unsuccessful.
On his arrival in [[Gaul]] ([[58 BC]]), Caesar restored their independence. In spite of this, the Aedui joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (''B. G.'' vii. 42), but after the surrender of [[Vercingetorix]] at [[Alesia]] were glad to return to their allegiance. [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] dismantled their native capital [[Bibracte]] on [[Mont Beuvray]], and substituted a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augustodunum (modern [[Autun]]).
In [[21]], during the reign of [[Tiberius]], they revolted under [[Julius Sacrovir]], and seized [[Augustudunum]], but were soon put down by Gaius Silius ([[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Ann.]]'' iii. 43-46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from the emperor [[Claudius]] the distinction of ''[[jus honorum]]''. The oration of [[Eumenius]], in which he pleaded for the restoration of the schools of his native place Augustodunum, shows that the district was neglected. The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar's time was called [[Vergobretus]] (according to [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]], "judgment-worker"), who was elected annually, possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go beyond the frontier. Certain clientes, or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui.
==See also==
* [[List of peoples of Gaul]]
==References==
* A. E. Desjardins, ''Geographie de la Gaule,'' ii. ([[1876]]-[[1893]])
* T. R. Holmes, ''Caesar's Conquest of Gaul'' ([[1899]]).
{{1911}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aegadian Islands</title>
<id>2623</id>
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<timestamp>2006-01-14T11:42:37Z</timestamp>
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<username>Bjs-en</username>
<id>731867</id>
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<comment>area</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aegadian Islands map.png|thumb|right|A map showing the Aegadian Islands.]]
The '''Aegadian Islands ''' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Isole Egadi''; [[Latin language|Latin]]: ''Aegates Insulae''), are a group of small mountainous islands in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] off the northwest coast of [[Sicily]], [[Italy]], near the city of [[Trapani]], with a total area of 37,45 km².
[[Favignana]] (''Aegusa''), the largest, lies 10 miles south west of [[Trapani]]; [[Levanzo]] (''Phorbantia'') 8 miles west; while [[Marettimo]], the ancient ''Iera Nesos'', 15 miles west of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group. There are also some minor islands between Favignana and Sicily.
The overall population in 1987 was estimated at about 5,000. The main occupation of the islanders is fishing and this is where the largest [[tuna]] fishery in Sicily can be found.
[[Image:Erice-bjs-6.jpg|thumb|right|A view from Trapani to Favignana and Marettimo.]]
There is evidence of [[Neolithic]] and even [[Paleolithic]] paintings in caves on Favigana and on Levanzo.
They are the scene of the [[Battle of the Aegates Islands|defeat]] of the [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] fleet by [[Gaius Lutatius Catulus|C. Lutatius Catulus]] in [[241 BC]], which ended the [[First Punic War]].
They belonged to the Pallavicini family of [[Genoa]] until [[1874]], when they were bought by [[Florio]] family of [[Palermo]].
[[Category:Islands of Sicily]]
[[de:Ägadische Inseln]]
[[it:Isole Egadi]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aegean civilization</title>
<id>2624</id>
<revision>
<id>41195546</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T18:32:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Demoscn</username>
<id>989534</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Greece}}
'''Aegean civilization''' is the general term for the prehistoric [[civilization]]s in [[Greece]] and the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]]. It was formerly called "Mycenaean" because its existence was first brought to popular notice by [[Heinrich Schliemann]]'s excavations at [[Mycenae]] starting in [[1876]]. However, subsequent discoveries have made it clear that Mycenae was not the chief center of Aegean civilization in its earlier stages (or perhaps at any period), and accordingly it is more usual now to use the more general geographical title.
==Distinctive features==
The uniqueness of Aegean civilization has never been in doubt, since its remains came to be studied seriously.
For a time the surviving remains were thought to have originated with Egyptians or Phoenicians, but with more remains uncovered this was shown to be untrue. The Aegean civilization developed three distinctive features.
===Art===
Aegean Art is distinguishable from those of other early periods and areas. Its borrowings from other contemporary arts are clear, especially in its later stages, but received an essential modification at the hands of the Aegean craftsman, and the product is stamped with a new character, namely [[realism (arts)|realism]] and is a precursor of Hellenic art. The fresco-paintings, ceramic motifs, reliefs, free sculpture and toreutic handiwork of [[Crete]] have supplied the clearest proof of it, confirming the impression already created by the goldsmiths' and painters' work of the Greek mainland ([[Mycenae]], [[Vaphio]], [[Tiryns]]).
===Architecture===
The arrangement of Aegean palaces is of two main types.
First (and perhaps earliest in time), the chambers are grouped around a central court, being linked one with the other in a labyrinthine complexity, and the greater oblongs are entered from a long side and divided longitudinally by pillars.
Second, the main chamber is of what is known as the [[megaron]] type, i.e. it stands free, isolated from the rest of the plan by corridors, is entered from a vestibule on a short side, and has a central hearth, surrounded by pillars and perhaps open to the sky; there is no central court, and other apartments form distinct blocks. For possible geographical reasons for this duality of type see [[Crete]]. In spite of many comparisons made with [[Ancient Egyptian|Egyptian]], [[Babylonian]] and [[Hittites|Hittite]] plans, both these arrangements remain out of keeping with any remains of earlier or contemporary structures elsewhere.
A type of tomb, the dome or "bee-hive," of which the grandest examples known are at Mycenae. The Cretan 'larnax' coffins, also, have no parallels outside the Aegean.
==History of Aegean Civilization==
In the absence of written records, only a summary history can be derived from monuments and archaeological remains. But the decipherment of writings in recent times has added much new knowledge.
===Origin and continuity===
A great deal of evidence has been uncovered by archaeology which answers the question how much the Aegean civilization, which existed for at least three thousand years, can be regarded as continuous. Aegean civilization had its roots in a long-lasting primitive [[Neolithic]] period. This period is represented by a [[stratum]], at [[Knossos]] in places nearly 20 ft (6 m) thick, which contains stone implements and shards of handmade and hand-polished vessels, showing a progressive development in technique from bottom to top.
This [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] stratum is seemingly earlier |
of Bamberg]], was consecrated in [[1111]], and in the [[13th century]] received its present late-Romanesque form.
The cathedral is about 94 m long, 28 m broad, 26 m high, and the four towers are each about 81 m high. Of its many works of art may be mentioned the magnificent marble tomb of the founder and his wife, the empress Cunigunde, considered the masterpiece of the sculptor [[Tilman Riemenschneider]], and carved between [[1499]] and [[1513]]. Another treasure of the cathedral is an [[equestrian statue]] known as the [[Bamberg Horseman]] ([[German language|germ.]] ''Der Bamberger Reiter''). This statue, possibly belonging to the emperor [[Conrad III]], most likely dates to approximately 1200.
===Neue Residenz===
The ''Neue Residenz'' (New Palace) ([[1698]]-[[1704]]) was initially occupied by the prince-bishops, and from [[1864]] to [[1867]] by the deposed King [[Otto of Greece]].
===Other sights===
Other noteworthy [[church]]es are the Jakobskirche, an [[11th century|11th-century]] Romanesque [[basilica]]; the St Martinskirche; the Marienkirche or Obere Pfarrkirche (1320-1387), which has now been restored to its original pure [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style. The Michaelskirche, [[12th century|12th-century]] Romanesque (restored), on the Michaelsberg, was formerly the church of a [[Benedictine]] [[monastery]] secularized in [[1803]], which now contains the Burgerspital, or [[almshouse]], and the [[museum]] and municipal art collections.
Of the [[bridge]]s connecting the sections of the lower town the most interesting is the Obere Brücke, completed in [[1455]]. Halfway across this, on an artificial island, is the ''Rathaus'' or City Hall (rebuilt 1744-1756). The royal lyceum, formerly a [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] college, contains notable collections and the royal library of over 300,000 volumes. The picturesque Old Palace (Alte Residenz) was built in [[1591]] on the site of an old residence of the counts of [[Babenberg]]. Noteworthy among the monuments of the town is the Maximilian fountain (1880), with statues of [[Maximilian I of Bavaria]], the emperor Henry II and his wife, [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad III]] and [[St Otto]], bishop of Bamberg. At a short distance from the town is the Altenburg (386 m), a castle occupied from [[1251]] onwards by the bishops of Bamberg. It was destroyed in [[1553]] by [[Albert, margrave of Brandenburg]], but has been partly restored.
== Beer ==
[[Image:Klosterbrau hotelview.jpg|thumb|250px|The Klosterbräu brewery and the rooftops of Bamberg.]]
Bamberg is also known for [[smoked beer]] (or ''Rauchbier'' in German). The most famous being [[Schlenkerla]] "[[Aecht Schlenkerla Rauchbier]]" from the Heller [[brewery]] and which can be enjoyed fresh at the Schlenkerla tavern on the Dominikaner Strasse in the old town.
Bamberg is currently ([[2005]]) home to 9 breweries (Brauerei Fässla, Brauerei Greifenklau, Brauerei Heller-Trum ("Schlenkerla"), Brauerei Kaiserdom, Keesmann Bräu, Klosterbräu, Mahrs Bräu, Maisel Bräu and Brauerei Spezial) and one [[microbrewery]] (Ambräusianum) which is unprecedented in a city of only 70,000 people.
==Education==
The University of Bamberg, named [[Otto-Friedrich University]], offers higher education in the areas of [[social science]], [[business studies]] and the [[humanities]], and is attended by more than 8,000 students.
Bamberg is also home to eight secondary schools called [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasien]]:
* Clavius-Gymnasium
* Dientzenhofer-Gymnasium
* Eichendorff-Gymnasium
* E.T.A.-Hoffmann-Gymnasium
* Franz-Ludwig-Gymnasium
* Kaiser-Heinrich-Gymnasium
* Maria-Ward-Gymnasium
* Theresianum
There are also numerous other institutes for primary, secondary, technical, vocational and adult education.
== Born in Bamberg ==
* [[Conrad III of Germany]] (*1093), king of Germany
* [[Ulrich of Bamberg]] (*c1100), German religious historian
* [[Hans Pleydenwurff]] (*1420), German painter
* [[Johann Lukas Schönlein]] (*1793), German physician
* [[Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllinger]] (*1799), German theologian
* [[Theodor Boveri]] (*1862), German biologist
* [[August von Wassermann]] (*1866), German bacteriologist
* [[Hans Ehard]] (*1887), German politician
* [[Karlheinz Deschner]] (*1924), German author
* [[Günter Faltin]] (*1940), German economist
* [[Thomas Gottschalk]] (*1950), German TV host
* [[Bernd Feustel]] (*1954), German professional chess player
* [[Amber Michaels]] (*1968), German porn actress
== Famous Denizens ==
* [[Pope Clement II]] (*1005), bishop of Bamberg from 1040 to 1046
* [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] (*1770), German philosopher
* [[E.T.A. Hoffmann]] (*1776), German author and composer
* [[Willy Messerschmitt]] (*1898), German aircraft designer
* [[Paul Maar]] (*1937), German writer and illustrator
== See also ==
* [[Bamberger Symphoniker]] ([[:de:Bamberger Symphoniker|*]]) &ndash; founded in 1946 by [[Bohemia]]n WWII refugees, including former members of the German Philarmonic Orchestra in [[Prague]], and promoted to a Bavarian State Philharmonic Orchestra (''Staatsphilharmonie'') in 2003.
== External links ==
* [http://www.bamberg.de Official Website] (German, English)
* [http://www.bamberg.info Bamberg info for visitors] (English, German, French, Italian, Russian, Japanese, Chinese, Spanish)
* [http://www.schlenkerla.de Schlenkerla brewery Website] (German, English)
* [http://www.BambergBeerGuide.com Bamberg Beer Guide] (English)
* [http://www.bamberg.army.mil/sites/local US Army Garrison Bamberg] (English)
* [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=624&l=en Description on the UNESCO World Heritage Website] {English}
'''[[Bamberg (disambiguation)|Bamberg]]''' and '''[[Bamberger]]''' is also an [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] [[Jewish surname]], including:
::[[Ludwig Bamberger]]
::[[Ármin Vámbéry]]
::[[Israel of Bamberg]], Tosafist
::[[Felix Bamberg]], publicist
::[[Samuel Bamberg]]
==References==
*{{1911}}
*{{Catholic}} - See article at [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02242c.htm Bamberg]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=188&letter=B JewishEncyclopedia]
{{Germany_districts_bavaria}}
[[Category:Cities in Bavaria]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Germany]]
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[[zh:班貝克]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Banana daikiri</title>
<id>4897</id>
<revision>
<id>15903146</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Banana daiquiri]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Black cow</title>
<id>4898</id>
<revision>
<id>15903147</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-22T01:06:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dr.frog</username>
<id>75480</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to better duplicate article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[root beer float]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Black Panthers</title>
<id>4899</id>
<revision>
<id>15903148</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-05T13:52:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DanKeshet</username>
<id>170</id>
</contributor>
<comment>flip-flopping redirects</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black Panther Party]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bloody Mary</title>
<id>4900</id>
<revision>
<id>42148478</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:28:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DreamGuy</username>
<id>134756</id>
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<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bloody Mary''' may refer to:
* [[Bloody Mary (cocktail)]], made with vodka and tomato juice
* [[Mary I of England]], notorious for persecution of Protestants
* A folkloric ghost, witch, or child murderer who is said to appear in a mirror when summoned; see [[Bloody Mary (person)#In folklore |Bloody Mary (person)]]
* A fictional trader in the musical ''[[South Pacific (musical)|South Pacific]]''; see [[Bloody Mary (person)#In South Pacific |Bloody Mary (person)]]
* A DC Comics super villain character, member of the [[Female Furies]]
* A controversial South Park episode, [[Bloody Mary (South Park)|Bloody Mary]]
* [[Bloody Mary (DC Helix)]], a fictional american female assassin in the [[Helix (comics)|DC Helix]] comic miniseries of the same name by [[Garth Ennis]] and [[Carlos Ezquerra]]
* [[Bloody Mary (band)]], Gothic Rock band from Milan, Italy. Currently signed to [[Sixsixsix Records]]. Released debut album '''Blood 'n' Roll''' in 2005.
{{disambig}}
[[nl:Bloody Mary]]
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<page>
<title>Banana daiquiri</title>
<id>4901</id>
<revision>
<id>23109367</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-12T17:02:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AmosWolfe</username>
<id>99342</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Correct style of incoming links. You can help at [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Discworld]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''banana daiquiri''' is a [[cocktail]] made of
* two parts light [[rum]]
* one part banana [[liqueur]] ([[Pisang Ambon]])
* one part lime juice
* half a [[banana]]
* crushed ice
Mix the rum, banana liquor, lime juice, the banana and the ice in a blender. Strain into a [[cocktail glass]].
The banana daiquiri is known to be a favourite drink of [[Terry Pratchett]], and appears in some of his ''[[Discworld]]'' novels.
In one well-known scene in [[The Godfather II]], [[Fredo Corleone]] orders a Banana Daiquiri in Cuba. Asking his brother [[Michael Corleone|Michael |
ed securely between the customer and merchant through independent [[payment gateway|payment gateways]], such as [[authorize.net]].
#Providing reliability and [[security]]. [[Parallel computing | Parallel server]]s, [[hardware]] [[redundancy]], [[fail safe | fail-safe]] [[technology]], information [[encryption]], and [[Firewall (networking)|firewalls]] can enhance this requirement.
#Providing a 360-degree view of the customer [[relationship]], defined as ensuring that all employees, suppliers, and partners have a complete view, and the same view, of the customer. However, customers may not appreciate the [[big brother]] experience.
#Constructing a commercially sound [[business model]]. If this key success factor had appeared in textbooks in 2000, many of the [[dot-com | dot.com]]s might not have gone bust.
#Engineering an electronic [[value chain]] in which one focuses on a "limited" number of [[core competency|core competencies]] -- the opposite of a one-stop shop. (Electronic stores can appear either specialist or generalist if properly programmed.)
#Operating on or near the [[cutting edge]] of [[technology]] and staying there as technology changes (but remembering that the fundamentals of commerce remain indifferent to technology).
#Setting up an [[organization]] of sufficient alertness and agility to respond quickly to any changes in the economic, social and physical [[natural environment|environment]].
#Providing an attractive website. The tasteful use of colour, graphics, [[animation]], photographs, fonts, and white-space percentage may aid success in this respect.
#Streamlining [[business process]]es, possibly through [[reengineering | re-engineering]] and [[information technology | information technologies]].
Naturally, the E-commerce vendor must also perform such mundane tasks as being truthful about its product and its availability, shipping reliably, and handling complaints promptly and effectively. An unique property of the Internet environment is that individual customers have access to far more information about the seller than they would find in a brick-and-mortar situation.
===Customer-Oriented===
A successful e-commerce organization must also provide an enjoyable and rewarding experience to its customers. Many factors go into making this possible. Such factors include:
#Providing value to [[customer]]s. [[Vendor]]s can achieve this by offering a product or product-line that attracts potential customers at a competitive price, as in non-electronic commerce.
#Providing [[service]] and [[performance]]. Offering a responsive, user-friendly [[purchasing]] experience, just like a flesh-and-blood retailer, may go some way to achieving these goals.
#Providing an incentive for [[customer]]s to buy and to return. [[Sales promotion]]s to this end can involve [[coupon]]s, special offers, and [[discounts and allowances | discount]]s. Cross-linked websites and [[affiliate marketing|advertising affiliate program]]s can also help.
#Providing personal attention. Personalized web sites, purchase suggestions, and personalized special offers may go some of the way to substituting for the face-to-face human interaction found at a traditional [[point of sale]].
#Providing a sense of [[community]]. [[Chat room]]s, [[Internet forum|discussion boards]], soliciting customer input and [[loyalty program]]s (sometimes called affinity programs) can help in this respect.
#Owning the customer's total experience. E-tailers foster this by treating any contacts with a customer as part of a total experience, an experience that becomes synonymous with the [[brand]].
#Letting customers help themselves. Provision of a self-serve site, easy to use without assistance, can help in this respect.
#Helping customers do their job of [[consumerism | consuming]]. [[E-tailer]]s and [[online shopping directories]] can provide such help through ample comparative information and good [[search engine|search facilities]]. Provision of [[component]] information and [[safety]]-and-[[health]] comments may assist e-tailers to define the customers' job.
==E-commerce problems==
Even if a provider of E-commerce goods and services rigorously follows these seventeen "key factors" to devise an exemplary e-commerce strategy, problems can still arise. Sources of such problems include:
#Failure to understand [[customer]]s, why they buy and how they buy. Even a product with a sound value proposition can fail if producers and retailers do not understand customer habits, expectations, and motivations. E-commerce could potentially mitigate this potential problem with proactive and focused marketing research, just as traditional retailers may do.
#Failure to hire the right people. (??) Most companies hire people that don't even know how to use the internet correctly. They didn't know what could be done, what couldn't. They came up with crazy ideas that technologically impossible to do in the web. If you look closely, the successful dotcom has internet-junkies behind it, not some MBA copy-cat successful-dot-commers wannabe.
#Failure to consider the [[competition|competitive]] situation. One may have the capability to construct a viable book e-tailing [[business model]], but lack the will to compete with [[Amazon.com]].
#Inability to predict environmental reaction. What will competitors do? Will they introduce competitive [[brand]]s or competitive web sites? Will they supplement their service offerings? Will they try to sabotage a competitor's site? Will [[price war]]s break out? What will the [[government]] do? Research into competitors, industries and markets may mitigate some consequences here, just as in non-electronic commerce.
#Over-estimation of resource competence. Can staff, hardware, software, and processes handle the proposed strategy? Have e-tailers failed to develop employee and management [[skill]]s? These issues may call for thorough resource planning and employee training.
#Failure to coordinate. If existing reporting and control relationships do not suffice, one can move towards a flat, accountable, and flexible [[organizational structure]], which may or may not aid coordination.
#Failure to obtain senior management commitment. This often results in a failure to gain sufficient corporate resources to accomplish a task. It may help to get top management involved right from the start.
#Failure to obtain employee commitment. If planners do not explain their strategy well to employees, or fail to give employees the whole picture, then training and setting up incentives for workers to embrace the strategy may assist.
#Under-estimation of time requirements. Setting up an e-commerce venture can take considerable time and money, and failure to understand the timing and sequencing of tasks can lead to significant cost overruns. Basic project planning, [[critical path]], [[critical chain]], or [[PERT]] analysis may mitigate such failings. [[Profit]]ability may have to wait for the achievement of [[market share]].
#Failure to follow a [[plan]]. Poor follow-through after the initial planning, and insufficient tracking of progress against a plan can result in problems. One may mitigate such problems with standard tools: benchmarking, milestones, variance tracking, and penalties and rewards for variances.
#Becoming the victim of [[organized crime]]. Many syndicates have caught on to the potential of the Internet as a new revenue stream. Two main methods are as follows: (1) Using [[identity theft]] techniques like [[phishing]] to order expensive goods and bill them to some innocent person, then liquidating the goods for quick cash; (2) [[Extortion]] by using a network of compromised "zombie" computers to engage in [[Denial-of-service attack|distributed denial of service attacks]] against the target Web site until it starts paying protection money.
==Product suitability==
Certain products/services appear more suitable for online sales; others remain more suitable for offline sales. Many successful purely virtual companies deal with digital products, including information storage, retrieval, and modification, music, movies, education, communication, software, photography, and financial transactions. Examples of this type of company include: [[Google]], [[eBay]] and [[Paypal]].
Virtual marketers can sell some non-digital products and services successfully. Such products generally have a high value-to-weight ratio, they may involve embarrassing purchases, they may typically go to people in remote locations, and they may have shut-ins as their typical purchasers. Items which can fit through a standard [[letterbox]] - such as music CDs, DVDs and books - are particularly suitable for a virtual marketer, and indeed [[Amazon.com]], one of the few enduring [[dot-com]] companies, has historically concentrated on this field.
Products such as spare parts, both for consumer items like washing machines and for industrial equipment like centrifugal pumps, also seem good candidates for selling online. Retailers often need to order spare parts specially, since they typically do not stock them at consumer outlets -- in such cases, e-commerce solutions in spares do not compete with retail stores, only with other ordering systems. A factor for success in this niche can consist of providing customers with exact, reliable information about which part number their particular version of a product needs, for example by providing parts lists keyed by serial number.
Purchases of [[pornography]] and of other [[sex]]-related products and services fulfil the requirements of both virtuality (or if non-virtual, generally high-value) and potential embarrassment; unsurprisingly, provision of such services has become the most profitable segment of e-commerce.
Products unsuitable for e-commerce include products that have a low value-to-weight ratio, products that have a smell, taste, or touch component, products that need trial fittings - most notably c |
970s Lockheed constructed one C-130 with [[Turbofan engine|turbofan engines]] rather than turboprops, but the US Air Force preferred the takeoff performance of the existing aircraft. In the 1980s the C-130 was intended to be replaced by the [[Advanced Medium STOL Transport]] project. However, the project was cancelled and the C-130 has remained in production.
The '''C-130J''' is the newest version of the Hercules and the only model still produced. Externally similar to the classic Hercules, the J model is a radically different aircraft under the exterior. These differences include new [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls-Royce]] [[Allison AE2100]] turboprops with six-bladed [[composite material|composite]] [[Scimitar propeller|scimitar propellers]], digital avionics (including [[Head-Up Display|head-up displays]] for each pilot), reduced manpower requirements (2 pilots&mdash;no navigator or flight engineer), increased reliability and up to 27% lower operating costs. The C-130J is also available in a standard-length or stretched C-130J-30 version. Lockheed received the launch order for J model from the RAF, who ordered 25 aircraft, with first deliveries beginning in [[1999 in aviation|1999]]. The RAF calls the C-130J the '''Hercules C.5''' and the stretched C-130J-30 the '''Hercules C.4'''.
The largest operator of the new model will be the USAF, who are ordering the aircraft in increasing numbers, although as of [[2005 in aviation|2005]] the [[United States Congress|US Congress]] announced that C-130J acquisition would be dramatically cut back. Current operators of the C-130J are the USAF, USMC (KC-130J tanker), [[Air National Guard|US Air National Guard]], [[United States Coast Guard|US Coast Guard]], RAF, [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (but will be phased out for the [[C-17]]), [[Danish Air Force]] and the [[Italian Air Force]].
Lockheed also offered leasing of four C-130J to the German [[Luftwaffe]], who is in need for a [[Transall]]-Replacement until the [[Airbus]] [[A400M]] is available in 2010.
==Significant operational use==
[[Image:Hercules Duxford.JPG|thumb|left|250px|A Hercules C.5 at the [[Imperial War Museum Duxford]], [[England]]]]
While the C-130 is involved in cargo and resupply operations daily, it has been a part of some notable operations. One of the most famous events involving the Hercules was the [[1976]] [[Entebbe raid]] in which [[Israel|Israeli]] [[commando]] forces carried a surprise assault to rescue 103 passengers of an airliner Hijacked by [[Palestinian]] and [[Germany|German]] [[terrorists]] at [[Entebbe Airport]], [[Uganda]]. The rescue force — 200 soldiers, jeeps, and a black [[Mercedes-Benz]] (intended to resemble Ugandan [[Dictator]] [[Idi Amin]]'s vehicle of state) — was flown 4,000km from Israel to Entebbe by five [[Israeli Air Force]] ([[IAF]]) Hercules aircraft without mid-air refueling (on the way back, the planes refueled in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]]).
The Hercules also holds the record of the largest and heaviest airplane to land on an [[aircraft carrier]]. In November [[1963]], a C-130 landed without using the ship's arresting gear on the [[USS Forrestal (CVA-59)]]. The pilot, Lt. James Flatley III, was awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] for his participation. The tests were highly successful, but the idea was considered too risky for routine "[[Carrier onboard delivery|Carrier On-board Delivery]]") (COD) operations. Instead, the [[C-2 Greyhound]] was developed as a dedicated COD aircraft.
The '''MC-130''' variant carries and deploys what are currently the world's largest conventional [[bomb]]s, the [[BLU-82]] "daisy cutter" and [[GBU-43/B]] [[Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb]]. Daisy cutters were used during the [[Vietnam War]] to clear landing zones for [[Helicopter|helicopters]] and to eliminate [[land mine|minefields]] and have recently even been proposed for anti-personnel use. The weight and size of the weapons make existing [[bomber aircraft]] impossible or impractical for operational use.
A prominent C-130T aircraft is '''Fat Albert''', the support aircraft for the US Navy [[Blue Angels]] flight demonstration team. Although Fat Albert supports a Navy squadron, its crew consists solely of USMC personnel. At some [[Air Show|air shows]] featuring the flight team, Fat Albert takes part, performing flyovers and sometimes demonstrating its jet-assisted take off capabilities.
===Notable crashes===
[[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]], the [[President of Pakistan|president]] of [[Pakistan]] from [[1978]], was killed on [[August 17]] [[1988]], when the C-130 he was in wobbled shortly after take off from [[Bahawalpur]] and then crashed. The then-US ambassador to Pakistan and a US [[general]] were also killed, alongside everyone else on-board.
On [[January 30]] [[2005]], an [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] Hercules with 10 crew on board was hit by insurgent fire while taking off from Baghdad airport for Balad. Less than 24 minutes later, it crashed, as fire triggered by the hit induced an explosion in the right hand wing fuel tank, leaving the plane uncontrollable.
On [[December 6]] [[2005]], an [[Iranian Air Force]] C-130 military [[transport aircraft]] [[Iranian Air Force C-130 crash in Tehran|crashed into a ten-floor apartment building]], home to a number of air force personnel, in a residential area of [[Tehran]], the capital city of [[Iran]]. Bound for [[Bandar Abbas]] on the Persian Gulf, the aeroplane was carrying 84 passengers (68 of whom were journalists due to watch military exercises off the country's south coast) and 10 crew members. In total 116 people were confirmed dead, (as of [[December 8]] 2005).
==Variants==
[[Image:USCG C130 Hercules.jpg|right|thumb|250px|US Coast Guard C-130 Hercules]]
Significant variants of the C-130 include:
* [[AC-130 gunship]]
* [[DC-130]] and GC-130 drone control
* [[EC-130 Commando Solo]] command and control, and electronic warfare
* EC-130 Compass Call, electronic warfare and electronic spoofing
* EC-130E ABCCC
* [[HC-130]]P/N special operations refueling, long-range surveillance, search and rescue
* JC-130 and NC-130 space and missile operations
* KC-130 tactical refueling tanker
* [[LC-130 Hercules|LC-130]] Arctic & Antarctic support
* [[MC-130]]E/H Combat Talon I/II (special operations)
* MC-130P Combat Shadow (special operations)
* YMC-130H three modified for planned [[Iran hostage crisis]] rescue attempt under project [[Credible Sport]]
* PC-130 maritime patrol
* RC-130 reconnaissance
* SC-130 search and rescue
* VC-130 VIP transport
* [[WC-130]] weather reconnaissance
==Units using the Hercules==
:''Main article: [[List of units using the C-130 Hercules]]'' <br /> <!-- main -->
Major operators of the C-130 include the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Romania]], [[South Africa]], [[Pakistan]], [[Portugal]], [[Australia]], [[Aeronautica Militare Italiana|Italy]], [[Israel]], [[Japan]], [[Taiwan]], [[New Zealand]] and [[France]].
==Specifications (C-130H)==
[[Image:C-130-3-view.png|right|300px]]
{{Airtemp|
|jet or prop?=prop
|plane or copter?=plane
|include 'armament' field?=no
|include 'capacity' field?=yes
|switch order of units?=no
<!-- please include units. if something doesn't apply, leave it blank. -->
|crew=4-6{{ref|avzone}}
|capacity=45,000 lb (20,000 kg) of cargo
** 92 passengers or 64 airborne troops
** 74 litter patients
|length main=97 ft 9 in
|length alt=29.8 m
|span main=132 ft 7 in
|span alt=40.4 m
|height main=38 ft 3 in
|height alt=11.6 m
|area main=1,745 ft&sup2;
|area alt=162.1 m&sup2;
|empty weight main=83,000 lb
|empty weight alt=37,650 kg
|loaded weight main=
|loaded weight alt=
|useful load main=72,000 lb
|useful load alt=32,650 kg
|max takeoff weight main=155,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=70,300 kg
|engine (prop)=[[Allison T56|Allison T56-A-15]]
|type of prop=[[turboprop]]s
|number of props=4
|power main=4,300 shp
|power alt=3,210 kW
|max speed main=329 knots
|max speed alt=610 km/h
|cruise speed main=292 knots
|cruise speed alt=540 km/h
|range main=2,050 nm
|range alt=3,800 km
|ceiling main=33,000 ft
|ceiling alt=10,000 m
|climb rate main= ft/min
|climb rate alt= m/s
|loading main= lb/ft&sup2;
|loading alt= kg/m&sup2;
|thrust/weight=
|power/mass main= hp/lb
|power/mass alt= kW/kg
}}
==References==
# {{note|rhodes}}Rhodes, Jeff, "Willis Hawkins and the Genesis of the Hercules", ''Code One Magazine,'' http://www.codeonemagazine.com/archives/2004/articles/aug_04/hawkins/
# {{note|boyne}}Boyne, Walter J., ''Beyond the Horizons: The Lockheed Story''. St. Martin's Press: New York, 1998.
# {{note|dabney}}Dabney, Joseph E., "A Mating of the Jeep, the Truck, and the Airplane," excerpted from ''HERK: Hero of the Skies'' in ''Lockheed Martin Service News,'' vol. 29, no. 2. http://www.lockheedmartin.com/data/assets/7317.pdf
# {{note|afm}}[http://www.afa.org/magazine/aug2004/0804herc.asp "The Immortal Hercules" article from the Air Force Magazine]
# {{note|avzone}}[http://www.theaviationzone.com/factsheets/c130.asp C-130 article on The Aviation Zone]
==External links==
* [http://pak-defence.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=34&Itemid=46 C-130]
* [http://www.check-six.com/lib/Coast_Guard_Aviation_Casualties.htm Fatal Coast Guard Crashes]
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/planes/c-130.pdf Navy.mil - Standard Aircraft Characteristics: C-130G]
* [http://pakistaniforces.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=34&Itemid=46 Information regarding C-130]
* [http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=1100&tid=500&ct=1 The US Navy Factfile Entry]
* [http://www.aircraft.co.za/Encyclopedia/L/46.php Aircraft.co.za - The Complete Aviation Reference]
==Related content==
{{aircontent|
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|sequence=
*[[Boeing C-127|C-12 |
as Lamp Open-Air Museum, adjacent to S-Bahnhof Tiergarten (see section on Street lighting)[http://www.dtmb.de/Aktuelles/Kooperationen/Laternen/body.html]
*Gay Museum (Schwules Museum) [http://www.schwulesmuseum.de/]
*German Film Museum [http://www.berlin-tourist-information.de/english/veranstaltungen/e_ve_filmmuseum.html]
*[[German Museum of Technology (Berlin)|German Museum of Technology]] in [[Kreuzberg]], located at the site of an old freight railyard [http://www.dtmb.de/index_en.html]
*Hamburger Bahnhof: Museum of the Present, with exhibits of contemporary art [http://www.hamburgerbahnhof.de/cont/conte/]
*[[Humboldt Museum|Museum of Natural History]] [http://www.museum.hu-berlin.de/home.asp?lang=1]
*Kaethe Kollwitz Museum [http://www.dhm.de/museen/kollwitz/english/home.htm]
*Museum of Mail and Telecommunication [http://www.museumsstiftung.de/stiftung/e011_willkommen.asp]
*Museum of Medical History [http://www.charite.de/kompakt/english/p8.00_frame.html]
*Prussian Palaces and Gardens in Berlin [http://www.spsg.de/index.php?id=1&sessionLanguage=en]
*Subway/Underground Museum [http://www.ag-berliner-u-bahn.de/]
*Vitra Design Museum [http://www.design-museum.de/berlin.php]
===Theatres===
*[[Schaubühne]] [http://www.schaubuehne.de]
*[[Volksbühne]] [http://www.volksbuehne-berlin.de]
*[[Deutsches Theater]] [http://www.deutsches-theater.de]
*[[Berliner Ensemble]] [http://www.berliner-ensemble.de]
*[[Theater des Westens]] [http://www.theater-des-westens.de]
*[[Grips-Theater]]
*[[Theater am Potsdamer Platz]] [http://www.stageholding.de/6307.htm]
*[[Maxim Gorki Theater]] [http://www.gorki.de]
*[[Renaissance Theater]]
*[[Mehringhof Theater]] [http://www.mehringhoftheater.de/]
===Opera houses===
*[[Deutsche Oper]]
*[[Staatsoper Unter den Linden]]
*[[Komische Oper]]
===Sports===
*Berlin hosted the [[1936 Summer Olympics|1936 Olympics]].
*Berlin will be one of the host cities for the {{Wc|2006}}, to be held in Germany.
*Berlin will be hosting the 2009 athletics world championships.
*Berlin is home to [[Hertha BSC Berlin]], a [[football (soccer)|football]] team in the [[Bundesliga (football)|Bundesliga]].
*Berlin is home to [[Berlin Thunder]] of [[NFL Europe]].
===Zoos and botanical gardens===
*[[Zoologischer Garten Berlin]], Berlin's oldest [[zoo]], founded in [[1844]]; the most species-rich zoo in world
*[[Tierpark Friedrichsfelde]], founded in [[Friedrichsfelde]] (part of [[Lichtenberg]] in East-Berlin) in [[1955]] in the manor of Schloss Friedrichsfelde, largest zoo in Europe (by space)
*[[Botanischer Garten und Botanisches Museum Berlin-Dahlem|Botanic Garden and Botanic Museum Berlin]], one of the most important [[botanical gardens]] of the world and the largest in Europe
===Other tourist attractions===
[[Image:Potsdamer Platz.JPG|thumb|240px|left|[[Potsdamer Platz]] in Berlin]]
Even though Berlin does have a number of impressive buildings from earlier centuries, the city's appearance today is mainly shaped by the key role it played in Germany's history in the [[20th century]]. Each of the national governments based in Berlin &mdash; the 1871 [[German Empire]], the [[Weimar Republic]], [[Nazi Germany]], [[East Germany]], and now the reunified [[Germany]] &mdash; initiated ambitious [[construction]] programmes, each with its own distinctive character. Berlin was devastated by bombing raids during [[World War II]], and many of the old buildings that escaped the bombs were eradicated in the 1950s and 1960s in both West and East. Much of this destruction was caused by overambitious [[architecture]] programmes, especially to build new residential or business quarters and main roads. It would not be an exaggeration to say that no other city in the world offers Berlin's unusual mix of architecture, especially 20th-century architecture. The city's tense and unique recent history has left it with a distinctive array of sights.
Not much is left of the [[Berlin Wall]]. The [[East Side Gallery]] in [[Friedrichshain]] near the ''Oberbaumbrücke'' ("Upper Turnpike Bridge") over the [[Spree]] preserves a portion of the Wall. Architectural styles still sometimes reveal whether one is in the former eastern or western part of the city. In the eastern part, many ''[[Plattenbau]]ten'' can be found, reminders of [[Eastern Bloc]] ambitions to create complete residential areas with fixed ratios of [[shop]]s, [[kindergarten]]s and [[school]]s. Another difference between former east and west is in the design of little red and green men on pedestrian crossing lights (''[[Ampelmännchen]]'' in German); the eastern versions received an opt-out during the standardisation of road traffic signs after re-unification, and have survived to become a popular icon in tourist products. They are however starting to appear in western Berlin too.
===Historical sights in the city centre===
[[Image:berlin-brandenburg-gate.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Brandenburg Gate]] (June 2003)]]
[[Image:Reichstag2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Reichstag (building)|Reichstag]] (Summer 2000)]]
[[Image:Berliner dom and spree.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The [[Berliner Dom]] along the [[Spree]]]]
*The [[Brandenburg Gate]] and [[Unter den Linden]], symbols of Berlin, [[Prussia]], and now [[Germany]]. The Brandenburg Gate appears on German [[Euro]] coins.
*[[Reichstag (building)|Reichstag building]], the old and new seat of the German parliament, renovated by [[Norman Foster|Sir Norman Foster]]. Features a glass dome in which you can walk around and watch the parliamentarians from above.
*[[Gendarmenmarkt]], arguably the most beautiful square in Berlin, surrounded by two famous cathedrals and the concert hall.
*[[Berlin victory column]], monument to Prussia's victories.
*The [[Berliner Dom]], an historic [[cathedral]]. A large crypt houses the remains of the [[Prussia]]n royal family.
*[[Cathedral of St. Hedwig]] (St.-Hedwigs-Kathedrale)
*[[Nikolaiviertel]] with the [[Nikolaikirche]] an historical city core, founded in the 13th century.
* [[Schloss Bellevue]], now the residence of the German President
* [[Schloss Charlottenburg]], the largest surviving historical palace in Berlin
*The [[Neptunbrunnen (Berlin)|Neptunbrunnen]], a famous fountain in Berlin [[Mitte]].
*[[Tiergarten]] is Berlin's largest [[park]] and a masterpiece of park design.
===Cold War and sightseeing in the former East Berlin===
[[Image:Berlin Neue Synagoge 2005.jpg|thumb|Synagogue in the Oranienburger Straße]]
*The [[Palast der Republik]] ("Palace of the Republic"), the former East German parliament building and civic centre. It is seen by some as ugly, although former East Berliners remember with affection restaurants, shops, clubs, and the concerts that took place there in the 1980s. Although it has some significance as a historical tourist attraction, the German Parliament voted for its demolition which started in February of 2006.
The Palast der Republik is built on the site of the [[Berlin City Palace]], which was demolished in 1950 by the [[history of East Germany|Communists]]. The Palace Square was renamed Marx-Engels-Platz at the same time.
*The [[Fernsehturm]] (TV tower), the highest building in the city at 368 m (1207 ft), and the second largest structure in [[Europe]] (after [[Moscow]]'s [[Ostankino Tower]]). The Fernsehturm is easily visible throughout most of the central districts of Berlin, and boasts one of the fastest lifts in Europe, at 45 metres per minute (148 ft/min)
*[[Alexanderplatz]], formerly [[East Berlin]]'s major shopping center, and home to the Centrum-Warenhaus, which was the [[Deutsche Demokratische Republik|DDR]]'s department store. It is now a thoroughly Westernized shopping centre, belonging to the Kaufhof chain.
*[[East Side Gallery]] a memorial for freedom based on the last parts of the [[Berlin Wall]]
*[[Rotes Rathaus]] (the Red City Hall), historic town hall famous for its distinctive red-brick architecture
*[[Rathaus Schöneberg]] with [[John-F.-Kennedy-Platz]], whence [[John F. Kennedy]] made his famous "[[Ich bin ein Berliner]]!" speech.
*[[Checkpoint Charlie]], remains and a [[museum]] about one of the crossing points (albeit restricted to Allied forces) in the [[Berlin Wall]]. The museum, which is a private venture, exhibits interesting material about people who devised ingenious plans to leave the East, but is controversial in the city for its propagandistic [[Cold War]] didactics and publicity stunts that many consider tasteless.
===Sights of modern Berlin===
[[Image:Siegessäule 2.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Berlin Victory Column]]
*[[Potsdamer Platz]], an entire quarter built from scratch after 1995. The historic Potsdamer Platz was not rebuilt as it was divided by the Wall. A must-see for people who like modern [[city planning]]. Just to the West of Potsdamer Platz is the [[Kulturforum (Berlin)|Kulturforum]], which houses the [[Gemäldegalerie (Berlin)|Gemäldegalerie]], and is flanked by the [[Neue Nationalgalerie]] and the [[Berliner Philharmoniker|Philharmonie]].
*[[Hackescher Markt]], [[Spandauer Vorstadt]] and [[Scheunenviertel]], the home to fashionable culture, with countless small clothing shops, clubs, bars, and galleries. This includes the [[New Synagogue]] area in Oranienburger Straße (originally built in the 1860s in Moorish style with a large golden dome and reconstructed in 1993), and the [[Hackesche Höfe]], a conglomeration of several buildings around several courtyards, nicely reconstructed after 1996. This area was a centre of [[Jewish]] culture up until the 1930s.
**[[Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe]], a [[Holocaust]] memorial opened in May 2005.
===Panoramic viewing points===
[[Image:Berlin television tower.jpg|thumb|150px|The Berlin Television Tower]]
[[Image:Berlinski_Aleksandar_plac.JPG|thumb|150px|View from Alexanderplatz]]
*[[Funkturm Berlin|Berliner Funkturm]]&mdash; the only observation tower in the world which stands on insulators. Its open-air observation deck is popular for photography.
*[[Berliner |
advised to give way to faster traffic approaching.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Red.svg|25px|Red flag]]
|The race is stopped—all cars must halt on the track or return to pit lane.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing White.svg|25px|White flag]]
|One lap remains.
|A slow vehicle is on the track.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Chequered.svg|25px|Chequered flag]]
|The race has concluded.
|}
==Accidents==
For the worst accident in racing history see [[Pierre Levegh]].
==See also==
* [[Engine tuning]]
* [[Import scene]]
* [[List of Auto Racing tracks]]
* [[Race track]]
* [[Racing game]]
* [[Reading spark plugs for racing]]
* [[Sim racing]]
==External links==
* [http://www.nascarup.com Nascarup.com - NASCAR news on the Nextel Cup, Busch, and Craftsman Truck Series]
* [http://www.formula1.com The Official Formula One Website with news, results and stats]
* [http://www.grandamerican.com The official web site of the Grand American Road Racing Association]
* http://www.trackbytes.com Full coverage of SPEED World Challenge and American Le Mans Series
* http://www.autosport.com AutoSport Magazine
* http://www.speedtv.com SPEED TV Network
* http://www.motorstv.com Motors TV Network
* [http://www.sportscarcup.com Sports Cars] Sports car pictures and specifications
* http://www.rennleitung.de: Rennleitung
* http://www.motorsport.com: Covering All Forms of Auto Racing
* http://www.britishmotorracingsafetyfund.org Promoting safety and raising money for the Sport in the UK
* [http://NHRA.com NHRA]
* [http://IHRA.com IHRA]
* [http://www.automotive.com/features/36/auto-racing/ Auto Racing News]
* http://www.racerweek.com: F1, NASCAR & Rally racing forums
* http://www.formula1review.com: F1 news, results, statistics, motorsports forum
* [http://www.rinehartsracing.com Drag Racing Photos]
* [http://www.inforally.sibiul.ro Rally News and Photo]
*[http://www.the-paddock.net The-Paddock.net] covers a wide range of Sportscar-Racing series , including ALMS & Grand-AM
* [http://www.F1Talk.org/ F1Talk] — F1 Talking
* [http://www.f1stockcars.co.uk/ BriSCA F1 Stock Cars]
<!-- interwiki -->
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[[fr:Compétition automobile]]
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[[ja:モータースポーツ]]
[[ko:자동차 경주]]
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[[zh:賽車]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anarcho-capitalism</title>
<id>1023</id>
<revision>
<id>41906789</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:58:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.27.55.166</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Criticisms by other radical capitalists */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Libertatis Aequilibritas GFDL.jpg|150px|thumb|left|The ''Libertatis Æquilibritas'' is one [[Anarcho-capitalist_terminology_and_symbolism|symbol]] used by anarcho-capitalists {{fact}}]]
{{Libertarianism}}
'''Anarcho-capitalism''' (aka '''free market anarchism''') is a [[philosophy]] based on the idea of [[individual sovereignty]], and a prohibition against initiatory [[coercion]] and [[fraud]]. It sees the only just basis for [[law]] as arising from [[private property]] norms and an unlimited right of [[contract]] between sovereign individuals. From this basis, anarcho-capitalism rejects the [[state]] as an unjustified monopolist and systematic aggressor against sovereign individuals, and embraces [[anti-statist]] [[laissez-faire]] [[capitalism]]. Anarcho-capitalists would aim to protect [[individual liberty]] and [[property]] by replacing a government monopoly, which is involuntarily funded through [[taxation]], with private, competing businesses that use physical force only in defense of liberty and property against aggressors. Hence, they believe that all goods and services, including law, order, and security, should be supplied through the mechanism of a [[free market]].
The philosophy embraces [[anti-statism|stateless]] capitalism as one of its foundational principles. The first well-known version of anarcho-capitalism to identify itself thus was developed by economists of the [[Austrian School]] and [[libertarians]] [[Murray Rothbard]] and [[Walter Block]] in the mid-20th century, synthesizing elements from Austrian School [[economics]], [[classical liberalism]] and [[19th century|19th-century]] [[American individualist anarchism]]. While Rothbard bases his philosophy on [[natural law]], others, such as [[David Friedman]], take a pragmatic [[consequentialist]] approach by arguing that anarcho-capitalism should be implemented because such a system would have consequences superior to alternatives.
Because of this embrace of capitalism, there is considerable tension between anarcho-capitalists and [[anarchist]]s who see the [[anti-capitalism|rejection of capitalism]] as being just as essential to anarchist philosophy as rejection of the state. Despite this tension, many anarcho-capitalists have identified their philosophy as evolving from the tradition of American individualist anarchists such as [[Benjamin Tucker]] and [[Lysander Spooner]].
Anarcho-capitalism can be considered a radical development of [[classical liberalism]]. Its grounding in liberalism stems from [[Gustave de Molinari]]. Many proponents of anarcho-capitalism, including Rothbard, argue that Molinari was the first anarcho-capitalist. However, Rothbard admitted that "Molinari did not use the terminology, and probably would have balked at the name" anarcho-capitalist. Nonetheless, Molinari did argue for a free market, privatization of security, and did not oppose profit. His thoughts were influential on Rothbard and his contemporaries.
==Philosophy==
===The nonaggression axiom===
{| align="right" class="box" style="margin-left: 15px; text-align: left; border: 3px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 2px; font-size: 80%; width: 25%;"
|bgcolor="#dbeaff"|
The term ''anarcho-capitalism'' was most likely coined in the mid-1950s by the economist [[Murray Rothbard]].<ref>Rothbard, Murray N. (1988) "What's Wrong with Liberty Poll; or, How I Became a Libertarian", Liberty, July 1988, p.53</ref> Other terms used for this philosophy include:
*capitalist anarchism
*anti-state capitalism
*anarcho-liberalism
*stateless capitalism
*the private-law society<ref name=Hoppe-2001>[[Hans-Hermann Hoppe|Hoppe, Hans-Hermann]] (2001) [http://www.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe5.html "Anarcho-Capitalism: An Annotated Bibliography"] Retrieved [[23 May]] [[2005]]</ref>
*radical capitalism<ref name=Hoppe-2001/>
*right-anarchism<ref>Wall, Richard (2004) [http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/20040817.htm "Who's Afraid of Noam Chomsky?"] Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref>
*[[market anarchism]]
*free market anarchism
*private-property anarchy<ref name=Hoppe-2001/>
*stateless liberalism
*[[voluntaryism]]
|}
[[Image:Althing-stamp.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A postage stamp celebrating the thousand-year anniversary of the [[Althing|Icelandic parliament]]. According to a theory associated with the economist [[David Friedman]], [[Icelandic Commonwealth|medieval Icelandic society]] was anarcho-capitalist. Chieftancies could be bought and sold, and were not geographical monopolies; individuals could voluntarily choose membership in any chieftan's clan.]]
{{main|non-aggression axiom}}
Anarcho-capitalism, as formulated by Rothbard and others, holds strongly to the central [[libertarian]] ''nonaggression axiom'':
:[...] The basic axiom of libertarian political theory holds that every man is a [[self-ownership|selfowner]], having absolute jurisdiction over his own body. In effect, this means that no one else may justly invade, or aggress against, another's person. It follows then that each person justly owns whatever previously unowned resources he appropriates or "mixes his labor with." From these twin axioms — self-ownership and "homesteading" — stem the justification for the entire system of property rights titles in a free-market society. This system establishes the right of every man to his own person, the right of donation, of bequest (and, concomitantly, the right to receive the bequest or inheritance), and the right of contractual exchange of property titles.<ref>Rothbard, Murray N. (1982) [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/lawproperty.pdf "Law, Property Rights, and Air Pollution"] Cato Journal 2, No. 1 (Spring 1982): pp. 55-99. Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]</ref>
In general, the nonaggression axiom can be said to be a prohibition against the initiation of force, or the threat of force, against persons (i.e., direct violence, [[assault]], [[murder]]) or property (i.e., fraud, [[burglary]], theft, taxation).<ref>Rothbard, Murray N. (1973) [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/newliberty.asp ''For a new Liberty''] Collier Books, A Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York: pp.24-25. Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]</ref> The initiation of force is usually referred to as [[aggression]] or [[coercion]]. The difference between anarcho-capitalists and other libertarians is largely one of the degree to which they take this axiom. [[Minarchist]] libertarians, such as most people involved in [[Libertarian Party|Libertarian political parties]], would retain the state in some smaller and less invasive form, retaining public [[police]], [[courts]] and [[military]]. In contrast, anarcho-capitalists reject any level of state intervention, defining the state as a coercive monopoly and, as the only entity in human society that derives its income from legal aggression, an entity that inherently violates the central axiom of libertarianism.<ref name=Rothbard-1 |
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fethry Duck''' is a [[fictional character]] who appears in [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]] stories. He was created by [[Dick Kinney]] and [[Al Hubbard (artist)|Al Hubbard]] and was first used in the story "The Health Nut", published on [[August 2]], [[1964]]. Since then, he has mostly appeared in [[European]] and [[Brazilian]] stories.
In Brazilian stories, Fethry has had a fairly strong presence; in those stories, he is depicted in various occupations, including as a reporter (alongside his cousin [[Donald Duck]] and, sometimes, [[Daisy Duck]]) and a [[comic strip]] artist for [[Scrooge McDuck]]'s [[newspaper]]. He also gained a [[superhero|superheroic]] [[alter ego]], [[The Red Bat]], and a number of supporting characters, among them his nephew [[Dugan Duck]]. Fethry often tries to pursue various new lifestyles, based on books he reads. He is also noted for being a blunderer.
According to [[Don Rosa]]'s [[Duck Family Tree]], Fethry is the son of [[Eider Duck]] and [[Lulubelle Loon]], the [[cousin]] of [[Donald Duck]], and has a [[sibling|brother]] named [[Abner Duck]].
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<title>Fuel-air explosive</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Thermobaric weapon]]
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<title>Fascist</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fascism]]</text>
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<title>Fantasy Games Unlimited</title>
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==History==
'''Fantasy Games Unlimited''' is a [[role-playing game]] company mostly active during the late [[1970s]] and [[1980s]].
Founded in 1975 by Scott Bizar the firsts publications were '''Gladiators''' and '''Royal Armies of the Hyborean Age'''. The company then published role playing games from freelancers.
FGU stopped its activities in 1987 but keep the copyright over its publications.
A reasonable generalization would be to say that although a lot of FGU's output mirrored more mainstream Role playing games by bigger companies (usually TSR) they were almost inevitably more detailed and complicated e.g. [[Aftermath!]] vs TSR's [[Gamma World]] or [[Space_Opera_(game)|Space Opera]] vs [[Traveller_(role-playing_game)|Traveller]]. Despite/because of their complexity they are remembered with affection by many.
==Publications==
* ''[[Aftermath!]]''
* ''[[Bushido (role-playing game)|Bushido]]''
* ''[[Bunnies and Burrows]]''
* ''[[Chivalry & Sorcery]]'' (1st & 2nd editions)
* ''[[Daredevils]]''
* [[Down Styphon]]
* [[Fire, Hack & Run]]
* [[Flash Gordon & the Warriors of Mongo]]
* ''[[Flashing Blades]]''
* [[Frederick the Great]]
* [[Freedom Fighters]]
* [[Gangster!]]
* [[Gladiators]]
* [[Land of the Rising Sun]]
* [[Lands of Adventure]]
* [[Merc]]
* [[Odysseus]]
* [[Other Suns]]
* [[Privateers & Gentlemen]]
* ''[[Psi World]]''
* [[Royal Armies of the Hyborean Age]]
* [[Skull & Crossbones]]
* ''[[Space Opera (game)|Space Opera]]''
* [[Star Explorer]]
* [[Starships & Spacemen]]
* [[Swordbearer]]
* [[Tyrannosaurus wrecks]]
* ''[[Villains & Vigilantes]]''
* [[Wargaming magazine]]
* ''[[Wild West]]''
* [[Wizards' World]]
* [[Year of the Phoenix]]
==External links==
* [http://www.space-opera.org/GB/interviews/scott.htm interview of Scott Bizar].
* [http://www.space-opera.org/mirror/fgu/default.htm FGU website] : mirror page before the closing of the official site.
[[Category:Role-playing game publishing companies]]
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<page>
<title>Functional decomposition</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Functional decomposition of engineering''' is a method for analyzing engineered systems. The basic idea is to try to divide a system in such a way that each block of the block diagram can be described without an "and" or "or" in the description.
This exercise forces each part of the system to have a pure [[role|function]]. When a system is composed of pure functions, they can be reused, or replaced. A usual side-effect is that the interfaces between blocks become simple and generic. Since the interfaces usually become simple, it is easier to replace a pure function with a related, similar function.
For example, say that one needs to make a [[boombox|stereo]] system. One might functionally decompose this into [[loudspeaker|speakers]], [[amplifier]], a [[tape deck]] and a front panel. Later, when a different model needs an audio [[CD]], it can probably fit the same interfaces.
This process is powerful when applied to [[software engineering]].</text>
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<title>First International Bahá'í Council</title>
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<comment>all information in this article in in [[International Bahá'í Council]]</comment>
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<page>
<title>Five Good Emperors</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve"><!--No Source Information: [[Image:Five Good Emperors.jpg|thumb|right|290px|The Five Good Emperors. From left: [[Nerva]], [[Trajan]], [[Hadrian]], [[Antoninus Pius]], and [[Marcus Aurelius]]]]-->
The "'''Five Good Emperors'''" (sometimes called the Nervan-Antonian Dynasty) were a series of five emperors of the [[Roman Empire]] who ruled from [[96]] to [[180]]. They were known for their moderate policies, in contrast to their more tyrannical and oppressive successors.
These emperors were [[Nerva]], [[Trajan]], [[Hadrian]], [[Antoninus Pius]], and [[Marcus Aurelius]]. Among the Roman emperors, the period of the five good emperors was particularly notable for the peaceful method of succession. Each emperor chose his successor by [[adoption|adopting]] an heir, thus preventing the political turmoil associated with the succession both before and after this period. The naming by [[Marcus Aurelius]] of his son [[Commodus]] as heir proved to be an unfortunate choice, and the end of the [[Pax Romana]].
This opinion of well-being is best expressed by the historian [[Edward Gibbon]]:
:If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the world during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of [[Domitian]] to the accession of [[Commodus]]. The vast extent of the Roman Empire was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of virtue and wisdom. The armies were restrained by the firm but gentle hand of four successive emperors, whose characters and authority commanded respect. The forms of the civil administration were carefully preserved by Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, who delighted in the image of liberty, and were pleased with considering themselves as the accountable ministers of the laws. Such princes deserved the honour of restoring the republic had the Romans of their days been capable of enjoying a rational freedom. — ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]''
However, more recent historians, while agreeing with many of the details of this analysis, would not entirely agree with Gibbon's praise of this period. There were more people under the rule of these emperors than the few affluent individuals whose lives are mentioned or recorded in the historical record. A large fraction of the rest were [[farmer]]s or their dependents, who lived their lives always at the whim of avaricious government officials, or unrestrained [[bandit]]s, no less du |
the text, latter-day saints accept these passages as obvious quotations from Isaiah by Nephi, the ancient author of that portion of the Book of Mormon. The footnotes and chapter headings acknowledge this and encourage comparisons between Isaiah and 2 Nephi. There are differences in more than half of the 433 verses of Isaiah that are quoted in the Book of Mormon; most are very minor, but some are significant, which may show that Joseph Smith did not copy the KJV word-for-word. Some think he referred to it during the translation, and a few errors in the King James text also exist in the Book of Mormon. It should be noted that this translation from the plates was made into the 1611 KJV literary and linguistic style, which was no longer commonly used when the translation occurred.
===Alternative explanations===
Alternative explanations for the authorship of the Book of Mormon have arisen, all of which are disputed by the Church. Most of these explanations attack the notion of Joseph Smith receiving divine [[revelation]]s.
An incomplete list of alternative origins of The Book of Mormon is given below. (See Dr. Jeff Lindsay's website for additional scholarly [http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/FQ_BMProb3.shtml analysis] in defense of these allegations.)
====Smith as author====
According to this view, [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] simply wrote the Book of Mormon and later claimed to have translated it. This position tends to be the most commonly-held among Smith's critics and non-Mormons in general. Some [[Latter-day Saint]] scholars, such as [[Hugh Nibley]], addressed this viewpoint, claiming that it is nearly impossible to write such a book within such a period of time, particularly given that Smith was an unlearned man with little or no knowledge of Hebrew peoples. Forensic evidence is equally debated and remains inconclusive; many of Smith's writings have been preserved, a comparative analysis does not show that Smith or any close to him authored the manuscript. However, some believe there is evidence to indicate that Joseph Smith had both the capability and resources to accomplish this task (Vogel 2004).
Another way Smith could have written the Book of Mormon was by means of automatic, or spirit writing. This theory was suggested by Scott C. Dunn and others. Automatic writing refers to the ability to write or dictate text in a relatively rapid, seemingly effortless and fluent manner with no sense of control over the content. The content of automatic texts is often similar to that of the Book of Mormon: Examples include multiple authorship, use of archaic language, accounts of bygone historical figures, descriptions of times and places apparently unfamiliar to the writer, narratives with well-developed characters and plot, accounts of various ministries of Jesus Christ, poetics, occasionally impressive literary quality, doctrinal, theological, and cosmological discussions, and even discourses by deity. More importantly, the manner in which Joseph Smith produced the Book of Mormon, and apparently many revelations and other scriptures as well, bears strong resemblance to the process of automatic writing. For example, there is no indication that Smith used notes or outlines or conducted major reworkings of his materials prior to their initial publication. While such conditions are characteristic of a relatively simple translation task, they are also typical of automatic writing. There are many other characteristics of automatic writing shown in the circumstances surrounding the coming forth of the Book of Mormon (American Apocrypha, Signature Books, pg. 17-46).
====Smith as a plagiarist of contemporaries====
In the early 20th century LDS Apostle [[B.H. Roberts]] authored a manuscript entitled ''[http://www.signaturebooks.com/studies.htm Studies of the Book of Mormon]'', in which he critically examined the claims and origins of ''The Book of Mormon''. In his manuscript, Roberts compared the content of ''The Book of Mormon'' with ''View of the Hebrews'', a book written by Ethan Smith (no relation to Joseph), pastor of a church in [[Poultney, Vermont]]. ''View of the Hebrews'' was published in [[1825]], some five years before ''The Book of Mormon'' and called for recognition of Native Americans as the [[ten lost tribes|lost tribes]] of Israel and for bringing them back into the [[Christian]] fold. Speculation regarding the possible origins of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] was common in the era.
David Persuitte, in his book, ''Joseph Smith and the Origins of The Book of Mormon'', shows extensive parallels between passages in ''View of the Hebrews'' and in ''The Book of Mormon'', but notes no instances of direct copying, nor does he demonstrate that Smith ever read or even encountered the book. Had he owned a copy, Smith could be said to have been inspired by ''View of the Hebrews''. However, it is known that Ethan Smith had visited Palmyra in support of his book, so the idea of Joseph Smith being exposed to ''View of the Hebrews'' is plausible. However, if such plagarism did exist, most blame would have to be placed on the shoulders of [[Oliver Cowdery]]. Cowdery was educated and trained as a typesetter/printers assistant in the 1800s and worked at the ''Poultney Gazette'' in the summer of 1823 (the paper became the ''Northern Spectator'' in December of 1823) when Ethan Smith brought the ''View of the Hebrews'' manuscript to be published. Soon thereafter Cowdery left the paper and within a few months [[Joseph Smith]] had reported the first divine visitation on the equinox ([[September 21]] [[1823]]). The obvious connection being that Oliver Cowdery and Joseph Smith were related and often associated together. This employment at the ''Poultney Gazette'' would not have been Cowderys first exposure to ''View of the Hebrews'', his family, including father William and stepmother Keziah, were noted as being longstanding members of Ethan Smiths congregation in Poultney when he arrived and assumed leadership in November 1821. Ethan Smith made no secret of his theories presented in ''View of the Hebrews'' during sermons.
Some claim Smith plagiarized material from the manuscript for an unpublished novel by [[Solomon Spaulding]]. Spaulding's romantic novel has very little in common with the Book of Mormon. Even the story, which revolves around a group of seafaring Romans who sail to the New World around two millennia ago is not relatable to the Book of Mormon.
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Recently, non-Mormon researcher Thomas Donofrio claims to have found hundreds of parallels between peculiar wordings in the Book of Mormon and the writings of well-known historical and religious figures of the 18th and 19th centuries. Some difficulty is seen with this hypothesis given Joseph Smith's lack of formal education. It is additionally complicated by the two simple facts: first, on the surface the two writings appear to have little in common making thematic plagarism unlikely; second, the Spaulding manuscript is shorter than thirty pages, while the first edition of the Book of Mormon was nearly six hundred pages, making large-scale passage plagarims impossible.
====One of Smith's colleagues as author====
According to this theory, someone else (either [[Sidney Rigdon]] or some other close friend of Smith) wrote the book and allowed Smith to take credit for it. Given that Smith had only basic literacy at the time, some consider this theory more probable than the view that Smith wrote the book himself. Both Sidney Rigdon and [[Oliver Cowdery]] were better educated and could have helped Smith author the book. According to one theory invented by Richard Bushman (2005), after dictating the primary text, Smith and his scribes would spend the evenings poring over the text, editing and making adjustments. In this case, the Book of Mormon would be considered a collaboration between Smith and his scribes, primarily Oliver Cowdery.
Sidney Rigdon and Oliver Cowdery both denied having written the book, and in fact Cowdery was one of the [[Three Witnesses]] to the Book of Mormon. Even though he became disaffected with Joseph Smith's leadership and with the church and was excommunicated in 1838, Cowdery never denied his testimony of having seen the golden plates and a decade later returned to the church. There is also no evidence that Joseph Smith knew of or was in contact with Sidney Rigdon until after the Book of Mormon was published. Most histories state that [[Parley P. Pratt]], a member of Rigdon's congregation near [[Kirtland, Ohio]], was baptized around September 1830 in [[Palmyra, New York|Palmyra]]. Soon after, Pratt returned to Ohio, which is when Rigdon learned of Smith and the Book of Mormon and was baptized. According to these accounts, Rigdon first met Smith in December 1830, nine months after the Book of Mormon's publication.
==Views of the Faithful==
{{main|Archaeology and the Book of Mormon}}
===Latter Day Saint views===
The dominant and widely accepted view among [[Latter Day Saints]] is that the Book of Mormon is a true account of the people whose history it documents.
Since the time of its publication, it has been common among Latter Day Saints to view and explain the ''Book of Mormon'' as a comprehensive history of all [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] (Mauss 2004); this understanding of the Book of Mormon is referred to as the "hemispheric model." However, belief in the hemispheric model is an assumption not based on a close reading of the text, nor on the teachings of Joseph Smith, who stated repeatedly that he believed the events in the Book of Mormon took place in Central America. Critics claim that recent DNA studies (disputed by church members |
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<title>BE</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''BE''' (''B.E.'' or ''Be'' or ''be'') may stand for: {{Wiktionarypar|be}}
*The verb ''to be'', see [[Indo-European copula]].
*[[Bachelor of Engineering]] (B.E.)
*[[BE (album)]], an album by Swedish band Pain of Salvation.
*[[Be (album)]], an album by rapper Common.
*[[Be (band)]], a band that existed in 1997.
*The Buddhist Era of the [[Thai solar calendar]]
In '''linguistics''':
*[[Be (Cyrillic)]], a letter of the Cyrillic alphabet.
*[[British English]]
*''Black English'', see [[African American Vernacular English]].
*[[Belarusian language]], ISO 639 alpha-2 code.
In '''science''':
*[[Beryllium]] (Be), a chemical element.
*[[Bejan number]], used in thermodynamics or fluid mechanics.
*[[bladder exstrophy]], the congenital urological condition.
The '''companies''':
*[[Be Unlimited]], an ISP in the United Kingdom
*[[Be Incorporated]], the software company that developed the [[BeOS|BeOS operating system]]
*[[Beriev]] (Be), the Russian design bureau.
*[[flybe]], IATA code for the U.K.-based airline.
'''Places''':
*[[Belgium]], the ISO and obsolete NATO 2-letter country code
*[[Canton of Berne]], canton of Switzerland
'''''See also: [[.be]]''' (the ccTLD for Belgium).''
{{2LCdisambig}}
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<page>
<title>Bell</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|bell|Bell}}
{{TOCright}}
'''Bell''' may refer to:
==Sound-making devices==
* [[Bell (instrument)]], a simple sound-making device
** [[Altar bell]], a bell rung during the Catholic Mass
** [[Church bell]], a bell hanging in a church tower
** [[Handbell]], a handheld bell, often designed to be rung in tuned sets
** [[School bell]], a bell that signals transitions during a school day
** [[Ship's bells]], bells which mark time on a ship
** [[Slave bell]], used to regulate [[slavery]]
** [[Tubular bell]], a chime
** Electronic bell, such as a [[doorbell]] or [[buzzer]]
** Orchestra bell, better known as [[Glockenspiel]]
* [[Bell character]], a character that produces an audible signal at a terminal
* [[Bell effect]], a musical technique similar to an arpeggio
==Bell-shaped items==
* [[Diving bell]], a hollow inverted vessel for diving below water
* [[Bell (wind)]], the round, flared opening of a [[wind instrument]] opposite the mouthpiece
* The ''bell'' of a flower is properly called the [[corolla]]
* [[Normal distribution|Bell curve]], illustrates ''normal distribution'' in statistics
** [[Bell curve grading]], a use of the bell curve in comparing student achievement
* [[Bell barrow]], a burial mound
* [[Bell beaker]], prehistoric pottery
* [[Bell bottoms]], a style of trousers
* [[Bell housing]], part of an automotive transmission
* [[Bell pit]], a type of coal mine
* [[Bell (fictional currency)]], a fictional currency in several Nintendo video games.
* [[The Bell]], a supposed [[anti-gravity]] experiment by [[Nazi]] scientists ([http://www.salon.com/books/review/2002/08/05/zero_gravity/index.html], [http://www.gaiaguys.net/NAZI.disks.htm])
* Bells (currency in the video game [[Animal Crossing]])
==Bell Telephone System==
* [[Alexander Graham Bell]], telephony inventor
* [[Bell System]], North America's telephone system from the 1880s to the 1980s
* [[Regional Bell operating company]], sometimes known as "Baby Bells"
** [[Bell Canada]]
** [[BellSouth]]
** [[Cincinnati Bell]]
* [[Bell Labs]], a research & development laboratory
* [[The Bell Telephone Hour]], a television show
* [[Bell (typeface)]], a typeface developed for use in phone books
==Companies==
* [[Bell & Howell]], a camera and film company
* [[Bell Aircraft Corporation]], later [[Bell Helicopter Textron]]
* [[Bell Records]], one of four record labels
* [[Bell Shakespeare Company]], Australian theatre company
* [[Bell Sports]], a maker of [[bicycle helmet]]s
* [[Packard Bell]], a defense contractor and manufacturer of other consumer electronics
* [[The Bell Tea Company]], New Zealand tea packer
* [[Taco Bell]], a fast food company
==Places==
A '''city or town''':
* [[Bell, California]]
* [[Bell, Florida]]
* [[Bell, New South Wales]]
* [[Bell, Queensland]]
* [[Bell Acres, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Bell Buckle, Tennessee]]
* [[Bell Center, Wisconsin]]
* [[Bell City, Missouri]]
* [[Bell Gardens, California]]
* [[Bell Hill, Washington]]
* [[Bell Island]], off the coast of Newfoundland
* [[Bell Park, Victoria]]
* [[Bell Township, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Bells Corners, Ontario]]
* [[Bellville]], [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]] named after [[Charles Bell]]
A '''county''':
* [[Bell County, Kentucky]]
* [[Bell County, Texas]]
'''Other''':
* [[Bell railway station, Melbourne]]
* [[Bell (crater)]], a crater on Earth's moon
* [[Bell High School]], one of several schools
* [[Bell Centre]], a stadium in Montreal
* [[USS Bell|USS ''Bell'']], one of two ships in the United States Navy
==Animals and plants==
* [[Bellbird]]
* [[Bell Miner]]
* [[Bell pepper]]
* [[Diving bell spider]]
* In [[jellyfish]], the bell is the umbrella-shaped, non-stinging part of [[medusa (biology)|medusas]].
==Others==
* [[Bell number|Bell numbers (mathematics)]]
==See also==
* [[List of people by name: Bel#People named Bell|List of people by name: Bell]]
* [[Bel]]
* [[Belle]]
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<title>Bell Labs</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}
{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. |
company_logo = [[Image:Belllabs96.gif|200px]] |
company_type = Holding of [[Lucent Technologies]]|
company_slogan = |
foundation = [[1925]]|
location = [[Murray Hill, New Jersey]], [[USA]]|
key_people = |
industry = [[Telecommunications|Telecom Research]]|
num_employees = |
products = |
revenue = |
homepage = [http://www.bell-labs.com/ www.bell-labs.com]
}}
'''Bell Telephone Laboratories Inc.''', also known as '''Bell Labs''' and '''AT&T Bell Laboratories''', was the [[Research and development|research and development]] arm of the [[United States|US]] [[Bell System]].
At its peak, Bell Labs was the premier facility of its type, developing a range of revolutionary technologies including the [[transistor]], [[Laser]], and the [[UNIX]] operating system. Bell Labs had research and development facilities throughout the [[USA]], with the greatest concentration of facilities located in [[New Jersey]]. Among the locations in New Jersey were [[Crawford Hill, New Jersey|Crawford Hill]], [[Freehold, New Jersey|Freehold]], [[Holmdel, New Jersey|Holmdel]], [[Lincroft, New Jersey|Lincroft]], [[Long Branch, New Jersey|Long Branch]], [[Middletown, New Jersey|Middletown]], [[Murray Hill, New Jersey|Murray Hill]], [[Piscataway, New Jersey|Piscataway]], [[Red Bank, New Jersey|Red Bank]] and [[Whippany, New Jersey|Whippany]]. The largest facility in the country was at [[Naperville]]-[[Lisle, Illinois|Lisle]], which had the single largest concentration of employees (about 11,000) prior to the telecomm bust of 2000. There were also facilities in [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio, [[Allentown, Pennsylvania|Allentown]] and [[Breinigsville, Pennsylvania|Breinigsville]] in Pennsylvania, and [[Westminster, Colorado|Westminster]], Colorado. Since 2000, many of the former Bell Labs locations have been scaled back or shut down entirely.
There have been 6 [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Prizes]] awarded for work done at Bell Labs [http://www.bell-labs.com/about/awards.html#nobel].
== Timeline ==
The timeline of achievement at Bell Labs continued at a breathtaking pace since its inception since their inception in 1925.
*1925: [[Walter Gifford]], then president of [[AT&T]], established Bell Telephone Laboratories Inc as a separate entity which took over work previously conducted by the research division of [[Western Electric]]'s engineering department. Half of Bell Labs was owned by Western Electric, the other half being owned by AT&T.
*1926: first [[synchronous-sound motion picture]] system [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9015241].
*1925: [[Facsimile]] (fax) transmission first demonstrated publicly.
*1927: Long-distance [[television]] transmission, of images of [[Herbert Hoover]], from Washington to New York.
*1928: [[Thermal noise]] in a resistor is measured by [[J.B. Johnson]]; [[Harry Nyquist]] provides a theoretical analysis.
*1920s: The [[one-time pad]] [[cipher]] invented by [[Gilbert Vernam]] and [[Joseph Mauborgne]]; Bell's Claude Shannon later proved that it was unbreakable.
*1933: Foundation of [[radio astronomy]] laid by [[Karl Jansky]]; in his work investigating the origins of static on long distance communications, he discovered tha |
nization. Its leader, Béla Kovács was arrested and sent to Siberia. Other opposition leaders such as Anna Kéthly, Ferenc Nagy and István Szabó were imprisoned or sent into exile.
Mátyás Rákosi also demanded complete obedience from fellow members of the Hungarian Communist Party. His main rival for power was László Rajk, who was now foreign secretary. Rajk was arrested and at his trial in September 1949 he made the forced confession to be an agent of Miklós Horthy, [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Josip Broz Tito]] and Western imperialism and admitted that he had taken part in a murder plot against Mátyás Rákosi and Ernő Gerő. László Rajk was found guilty and executed. Despite their help to Rákosi to liquidate Rajk, [[János Kádár]] and other dissidents were also purged from the party during this period.
Mátyás Rákosi now attempted to impose authoritarian rule on Hungary. An estimated 2,000 people were executed and over 100,000 were imprisoned. These policies were opposed by some members of the Hungarian Workers Party and around 200,000 were expelled by Rákosi from the organization.
Rákosi rapidly expanded the education system in Hungary. This was an attempt to replace the educated class of the past by what Rákosi called a new "working intelligentsia". In addition to effects such as better education for the poor, more opportunities for working class children and increased literacy in general, this measure also included the dissemination of communist ideology in schools and universities. Also, as part of an effort to [[separation of church and state|separate the Church from the State]], religious instruction was denounced as propaganda and was gradually eliminated from schools.
Ironically, Cardinal [[József Mindszenty]], who had bravely opposed the German Nazis and the Hungarian Fascists during the Second World War, was arrested in December, 1948, and accused of treason. After five weeks under arrest (which may have included torture), he confessed to the charges made against him and he was condemned to life imprisonment. The [[protestant]] churches were also purged and their leaders were replaced by those willing to remain loyal to Rákosi's government.
The new Hungarian military hastily staged public, pre-arranged trials to purge "Nazi remnants and imperialist saboteurs". Several officers were sentenced to death and executed in 1951, including [[Lajos Toth]], a 28 victory-scoring [[fighter ace]] of the WWII [[Royal Hungarian Air Force]], who had voluntarily returned from US captivity to help revive Hungarian aviation. The victims were cleared posthumously following the fall of [[communism]].
Rákosi had difficulty managing the economy and the people of Hungary saw living standards fall. His government became increasingly unpopular, and when Joseph Stalin died in 1953, Mátyás Rákosi was replaced as prime minister by [[Imre Nagy]]. However, he retained his position as general secretary of the Hungarian Workers Party and over the next three years the two men became involved in a bitter struggle for power.
As Hungary's new leader, Imre Nagy removed state control of the mass media and encouraged public discussion on political and economic reform. This included a promise to increase the production and distribution of consumer goods. Nagy also released anti-communists from prison and talked about holding free elections and withdrawing Hungary from the Warsaw Pact.
Mátyás Rákosi led the attacks on Nagy. On [[9 March]] [[1955]], the Central Committee of the Hungarian Workers Party condemned Nagy for "rightist deviation". Hungarian newspapers joined the attacks and Nagy was accused of being responsible for the country's economic problems and on [[18 April]] he was dismissed from his post by a unanimous vote of the National Assembly. Rákosi once again became the leader of Hungary.
Rákosi's power was undermined by a speech made by Nikita Khrushchev in February 1956. He denounced the policies of Joseph Stalin and his followers in Eastern Europe. He also claimed that the trial of László Rajk had been a "miscarriage of justice". On [[18 July]] [[1956]], Rákosi was forced from power as a result of orders from the Soviet Union. However, he did manage to secure the appointment of his close friend, Ernő Gerő, as his successor.
On 3rd October 1956, the Central Committee of the reorganized [[Hungarian Socialist Workers Party]] announced that it had decided that László Rajk, György Pálffy, Tibor Szőnyi and András Szalai had wrongly been convicted of treason in 1949. At the same time it was announced that Imre Nagy had been reinstated as a member of the party.
==1956 Revolution==
:''Main article: '''[[1956 Hungarian Revolution]]'''''
The Hungarian Uprising began on [[October 23]] by a peaceful manifestation of students in [[Budapest]]. The students demanded an end to Soviet occupation and the implementation of "true socialism". The police made some arrests and tried to disperse the crowd with tear gas. When the students attempted to free those people who had been arrested, the police opened fire on the crowd.
The following day commissioned officers and soldiers joined the students on the streets of Budapest. Stalin's statue was brought down and the protesters chanted "Russians go home", "Away with [[Erno Gero|Gerő]]" and "Long Live [[Imre Nagy|Nagy]]". The Central Committee of the [[Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party|Hungarian Communist Party]] respond to these developments by deciding that [[Imre Nagy]] should become head of a new government.
On [[October 25]] Soviet tanks opened fire on protesters in Parliament Square. One journalist at the scene saw 12 dead bodies and estimated that 170 had been wounded. Shocked by these events the Central Committee of the Communist Party forced [[Erno Gero|Ernő Gerő]] to resign from office and replaced him with [[János Kádár]].
Imre Nagy now went on Radio Kossuth and announced he had taken over the leadership of the Government as Chairman of the Council of Ministers." He also promised "the far-reaching democratization of Hungarian public life, the realisation of a Hungarian road to socialism in accord with our own national characteristics, and the realisation of our lofty national aim: the radical improvement of the workers' living conditions."
On [[October 28]], Nagy and a group of his supporters, including János Kádár, Géza Losonczy, Antal Apró, Károly Kiss, Ferenc Münnich and Zoltán Szabó, manage to take control of the Hungarian Communist Party. At the same time revolutionary workers' councils and local national committees are formed all over Hungary.
The new leadership of the party is reflected in the comments made in its newspaper, ''Szabad Nép'' (i.e. Free People). On [[October 29]] the newspaper defends the change in the government and openly criticises Soviet attempts to influence the political situation in Hungary. This view is supported by Radio Miskolc and it calls for the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country.
On [[October 30]], Imre Nagy announced that he was freeing Cardinal [[József Mindszenty]] and other political prisoners. He also informs the people that his government intends to abolish the one-party state. This is followed by statements by Zoltán Tildy, Anna Kéthly and Ferenc Farkas concerning the reconstitution of the Smallholders Party, the Social Democratic Party and the Petőfi Peasants Party.
Nagy's most controversial decision took place on [[1 November]] when he announced that Hungary intended to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact. as well as proclaiming Hungarian neutrality he asked the [[United Nations]] to become involved in the country's dispute with the Soviet Union.
On 3rd November, Nagy announced details of his coalition government. It included communists (János Kádár, [[Georg Lukács]], Géza Losonczy), three members of the Smallholders Party (Zoltán Tildy, Béla Kovács and István Szabó), three Social Democrats (Anna Kéthly, Gyula Keleman, Joseph Fischer), and two Petőfi Peasants (István Bibó and Ferenc Farkas). [[Pál Maléter]] was appointed minister of defence.
[[Nikita Khrushchev]], the leader of the Soviet Union, became increasingly concerned about these developments and on [[November 4]] [[1956]] he sent the Red Army into Hungary. Soviet tanks immediately captured Hungary's airfields, highway junctions and bridges. Fighting took place all over the country but the Hungarian forces were quickly defeated.
During the Hungarian Uprising an estimated 20,000 people were killed, nearly all during the Soviet intervention. Imre Nagy was arrested and replaced by the Soviet loyalist, [[János Kádár]]. Nagy was imprisoned until being executed in 1958. Other government ministers or supporters who were either executed or died in captivity included Pál Maléter, Géza Losonczy, Attila Szigethy and Miklós Gimes.
== Changes under Kádár ==
First Kádár led a wild terror against revolutioners. 21 600 mavericks (democrats, liberals, communists alike) have been imprisoned, 13 000 been interned, and 400 killed. But in the early 1960s, Kádár announced a new policy under the motto of "He who is not against us is with us." (he changed Rákosi's quote 'He who is not with us is against us'). He declared a general amnesty, gradually curbed some of the excesses of the secret police, and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the post-1956 hostility toward him and his regime. In 1966, the Central Committee approved the "New Economic Mechanism," through which it sought to rehaul the economy, increase productivity, make Hungary more competitive in world markets, and create prosperity to ensure political stability. Over the next two decades of relative domestic quiet, Kádár's government responded to pressure for political and economic reform and to counter pressures from reform opponents, By the early 1980s, it ha |
uchia|modern crocodilians]]; and [[mosasaur]]s and modern sharks appear in the sea. Primitive [[Aves|birds]] gradually replace pterosaurs. [[Monotremes]], [[marsupial]]s and [[placental]] mammals appear. Break up of [[Gondwana]].
| style="background:#DEF197" | 99.6±0.9 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#B3DF7F" | [[Early Cretaceous|Lower/Early]]
| style="background:#B3DF7F" | 145.5 ± 4.0
|-
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="background:#4DB47E" | [[Jurassic]]
| style="background:#CCEBC5" | [[Late Jurassic|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan="3" | Gymnosperms (especially [[conifer]]s, [[Bennettitales]] and [[cycad]]s) and [[fern]]s common. Many types of [[dinosaur]]s, such as [[sauropod]]s, [[carnosaur]]s, and [[stegosaur]]s. Mammals common but small. First [[bird]]s and [[Squamata|lizards]]. [[Ichthyosaur]]s and [[plesiosaur]]s diverse. [[Bivalve]]s, [[Ammonite]]s and [[Belemnoidea|belemnites]] abundant. [[Echinoidea|Echinoid]]s very common, also [[crinoid]]s, starfish, [[Porifera|sponges]], and [[Terebratulida|terebratulid]] and [[Rhynchonellida|rhynchonellid]] [[brachiopod]]s. Breakup of [[Pangea]] into [[Gondwana]] and [[Laurasia]].
| style="background:#CCEBC5" | 161.2 ± 4.0
|-
| style="background:#7FCA93" | [[Middle Jurassic|Middle]]
| style="background:#7FCA93" | 175.6 ± 2.0 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#66C292" | [[Early Jurassic|Lower/Early]]
| style="background:#66C292" | 199.6 ± 0.6
|-
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="background:#67C3B7" | [[Triassic]]
| style="background:#CCECE1" | [[Late Triassic|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan="3" | [[Archosaur]]s dominant and diverse on land, include many large forms; [[cynodont]]s become smaller and more mammal-like. First [[dinosaur]]s, [[mammal]]s, [[pterosaur]]s, and [[crocodilia]]. ''[[Dicrodium]]'' flora common on land. Many large aquatic [[temnospondyli|temnospondyl]] amphibians. [[Ichthyosaur]]s and [[nothosaur]]s common in the seas. [[Ammonite|Ceratitic ammonoids]] extremely common. [[Scleractinia|Modern corals]] and [[teleost]] fish appear, as do many modern [[insect]] clades.
| style="background:#CCECE1" | 228.0 ± 2.0
|-
| style="background:#99D7BE" | [[Middle Triassic|Middle]]
| style="background:#99D7BE" | 245.0 ± 1.5
|-
| style="background:#67B39F" | [[Early Triassic|Lower/Early]]
| style="background:#67B39F" | 251.0 ± 0.4 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| rowspan="22" style="background:#80B5D5" | [[Paleozoic]]
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="background:#67C6DE" | [[Permian]]
| style="background:#B3E3EE" | [[Lopingian]]
| rowspan="3"| Landmass unites in the supercontinent of [[Pangea]]. [[Synapsid]] [[reptile]]s become common ([[Pelycosaur]]s and [[Therapsid]]s), [[parareptile]]s and [[temnospondyli|temnospondyl]] amphibians also remain common. Carboniferous flora replaced by gymnosperms in the middle of the period. [[Coleoptera|Beetles]] and [[Diptera|flies]] evolve. Marine life flourishes in the warm shallow reefs. [[Productida|Productid]] and [[Spiriferida|spiriferid]] brachiopods, bivalves, [[foraminifera]], and ammonoids all abundant. End of Permo-carboniferous ice age. At the end of the period the [[Permian extinction]] event- 95% of life on Earth becomes extinct
| style="background:#B3E3EE" | 260.4 ± 0.7 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#99D8D8" | [[Guadalupian]]
| style="background:#99D8D8" | 270.6 ± 0.7 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#80CEC9" | [[Cisuralian]]
| style="background:#80CEC9" | 299.0 ± 0.8 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="background:#689FCA" | [[Carboniferous|Carbon-<br>iferous]]<sup>4</sup> '''/'''<br>[[Pennsylvanian|Pennsyl-<br>vanian]]
| style="background:#689FCA" | [[Late Pennsylvanian|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan="3" | [[Pterygota|Winged insects]] appear and are abundant, some (esp. [[Protodonata]] and [[Palaeodictyoptera]]) growing to large size. [[Amphibian]]s common and diverse. First [[reptile]]s, [[coal]] forests (''[[Lepidodendron]]'', ''[[Sigillaria]]'', ''[[Calamites]]'', ''[[Cordaites]]'', etc), very high atmospheric [[oxygen]] content. In the seas, Goniatites, brachiopods, bryozoa, bivalves, corals, etc all common.
| style="background:#689FCA" | 306.5 ± 1.0
|-
| style="background:#689FCA" | [[Middle Pennsylvanian|Middle]]
| style="background:#689FCA" | 311.7 ± 1.1
|-
| style="background:#689FCA" | [[Early Pennsylvanian|Lower/Early]]
| style="background:#689FCA" | 318.1 ± 1.3 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="background:#8091AD" | [[Carboniferous|Carbon-<br>iferous]]<sup>4</sup> '''/'''<br>[[Mississippian|Missis-<br>sippian]]
| style="background:#8091AD" | [[Late Mississippian|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan="3" | Large primitive [[tree]]s, first [[tetrapod|land vertebrates]], brackish water and amphibious [[eurypterid]]s; [[rhizodont]]s dominant fresh-water predators. In the seas primitive [[Chondrichthyes|sharks]] common and very diverse, [[echinoderm]]s (especially [[crinoid]]s and [[blastoid]]s) abundant, [[Coral]]s, [[bryozoa]], and brachiopods ([[Productida]], [[Spriferida]], etc) very common; [[Goniatite]]s common, [[trilobite]]s and [[nautiloid]]s in decline. [[Glaciation]] in East [[Gondwana]].
| style="background:#8091AD" | 326.4 ± 1.6
|-
| style="background:#8091AD" | [[Middle Mississippian|Middle]]
| style="background:#8091AD" | 345.3 ± 2.1
|-
| style="background:#8091AD" | [[Early Mississippian|Lower/Early]]
| style="background:#8091AD" | 359.2 ± 2.5 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="background:#9999C9" | [[Devonian]]
| style="background:#CBBDDC" | [[Late Devonian|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan="3"| First [[clubmoss]]es and [[horsetail]]s appear, [[progymnosperm]]s (first seed bearing plants) appear, first trees ([[Archaeopteris]]). First (wingless) insects. In the sea [[Strophomenida|strophomenid]] and [[Atrypida|atrypid]] [[brachiopod]]s, [[Rugosa|rugose]] and [[Tabulata|tabulate]] corals, and [[crinoid]]s are abundant. Goniatitic [[ammonoid]]s are common, and [[Coleoidea|coleoids]] appear. Trilobites reduced in numbers. Armoured agnaths decline; Jawed fish ([[Placodermi|Placoderm]]s, [[Sarcopterygii|lobe-finned]] and [[Osteichthyes|ray-finned]] fish, and early [[Chondrichthyes|sharks]]) important life in the sea. First [[Tetrapod|amphibian]]s (but still aquatic). "Old Red Continent" ([[Euramerica]])
| style="background:#CBBDDC" | 385.3 ± 2.6 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#9983BE" | [[Middle Devonian|Middle]]
| style="background:#9983BE" | 397.5 ± 2.7 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#807DBA" | [[Early Devonian|Lower/Early]]
| style="background:#807DBA" | 416.0 ± 2.8 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| rowspan="4" colspan="2" style="background:#B172B6" | [[Silurian]]
| style="background:#E9C7E2" | [[Pridoli]]
| rowspan="4"| First vascular land [[plant]]s, [[millipede]]s and [[Arthropleurida|arthropleurids]], first jawed [[fish]], as well as many types of [[ostracoderm|armoured]] [[agnatha|jawless forms]]. [[Eurypterid|sea-scorpions]] reach large size. [[Tabulata|tabulate]] and [[Rugosa|rugose]] corals, [[brachiopod]]s ([[Pentamerida]], [[Rhynchonellida]], etc), and [[crinoid]]s all abundant; [[trilobite]]s and [[mollusc]]s diverse. [[Graptolite]]s not as varied.
| style="background:#E9C7E2" | 418.7 ± 2.7 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#CAA7D1" | [[Ludlow epoch|Ludlow]]
| style="background:#CAA7D1" | 422.9 ± 2.5 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#B189B3" | [[Wenlock epoch|Wenlock]]
| style="background:#B189B3" | 428.2 ± 2.3 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#9858A8" | [[Llandovery epoch|Llandovery]]
| style="background:#9858A8" | 443.7 ± 1.5 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="background:#F981A6" | [[Ordovician]]
| style="background:#FBB4BD" | [[Late Ordovician|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan="3" | [[Invertebrate]]s very diverse and include many new types. Early corals, [[Brachiopod]]s ([[Orthida]], [[Strophomenida]], etc), [[bivalve]]s, [[nautiloid]]s, [[trilobite]]s, [[ostracod]]s, [[bryozoa]], many types of [[echinoderms]] ([[Cystoidea|cystoids]], [[crinoid]]s, starfish, etc), branched [[graptolite]]s, and other taxa all common. [[Conodont]]s were [[plankton]]ic primitive [[vertebrate]]s that appear at the start of the Ordovician. Ice age at the end of the period. First very primitive land [[plant]]s.
| style="background:#FBB4BD" | 460.9 ± 1.6 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| style="background:#FA9AB1" | [[Middle Ordovician|Middle]]
| style="background:#FA9AB1" | 471.8 ± 1.6
|-
| style="background:#E67DA4" | [[Early Ordovician|Lower/Early]]
| style="background:#E67DA4" | 488.3 ± 1.7 <sup>*</sup>
|-
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="background:#FB805F" | [[Cambrian]]
| style="background:#FDCDB8" | [[Furongian]]
| rowspan="3" | Major diversification of life in the [[Cambrian Explosion]]; more than half of modern animal [[Phylum (biology)|phyla]] appear, along with a number of extinct and probl |
omania]])
Russia:
*[[Yelena Davydova]] ([[USSR]]/ [[Russia]],[[1961]]-)
*[[Elena Dolgopolova]] ([[Russia]], [[1980]]- )
*[[Rozalia Galiyeva]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]]/[[Uzbekistan]], [[1977]]-)
*[[Ksenia Kekkonen]] ([[Russia]], [[1983]] - )
*[[Svetlana Khorkina]] ([[Russia]], [[1979]] -)
*[[Anastasia Kolesnikova]] ([[Russia]], [[1984]] - )
*[[Dina Kotchetkova]] ([[Russia]], [[1977]] - )
*[[Anna Kovalyova]] ([[Russia]], [[1983]] - )
*[[Yekaterina Lobazyuk]] ([[Russia]]), ([[1983]]- )
*[[Anna Pavlova (gymnast)|Anna Pavlova]] ([[Russia]], [[1987]] - )
*[[Nataliya Shaposhnikova]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1961]] -)
*[[Elena Zamolodchikova]] ([[Russia]], [[1982]] -)
Ukraine:
*[[Polina Astakhova]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1936]] - [[2005]])
*[[Maria Gorokhovskaya]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1921]] - [[2001]])
*[[Tatyana Gutsu]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1976]] - )
*[[Larissa Latynina]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1934]] - )
*[[Tatiana Lysenko]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]])
*[[Oksana Omelyanchik]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]])
*[[Lilia Podkopayeva]] ([[Ukraine]], [[1978]] - )
*[[Lyudmila Turishcheva]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1952]] - )
USA:
*[[Vanessa Atler]] ([[USA]]) [[1982]] - )
*[[Mohini Bhardwaj]] ([[USA]], [[1978]] - )
*[[Amanda Borden]] ([[USA]], [[1977]] -)
*[[Amy Chow]] ([[USA]], [[1978]] - )
*[[Jamie Dantzscher]] ([[USA]], [[1982]] -)
*[[Dominique Dawes]] ([[USA]], [[1976]] - )
*[[Julissa Gomez]] ([[USA]]), [[1972]] - [[1991]])
*[[Hilary Grivich]] ([[USA]]), [[1977]] - [[1997]])
*[[Katie Heenan]] ([[USA]], [[1985]] - )
*[[Christy Henrich]] ([[USA]])
*[[Terin Humphrey]] ([[USA]], [[1986]] - )
*[[Carly Janiga]] ([[USA]], [[1988]] - )
*[[Brandy Johnson]] ([[USA]])
*[[Kathy Johnson]] ([[USA]])
*[[Courtney Kupets]] ([[USA]], [[1986]]-)
*[[Kristen Maloney]] ([[USA]], [[1981]] - )
*[[Julianne McNamara]] ([[USA]], [[1965]] - )
*[[Chellsie Memmel]] ([[United States]], [[1988]]-)
*[[Shannon Miller]] ([[USA]], [[1977]] - )
*[[Phoebe Mills]] ([[USA]])
*[[Dominique Moceanu]] ([[USA]], [[1981]] - )
*[[Betty Okino]] ([[USA]])
*[[Carly Patterson]] ([[USA]], [[1988]] - )
*[[Jaycie Phelps]] ([[USA]], [[1979]] - )
*[[Elise Ray]] ([[USA]], [[1982]] - )
*[[Mary Lou Retton]] ([[USA]], [[1968]] - )
*[[Cathy Rigby]] ([[USA]], [[1952]] - )
*[[Kerri Strug]] ([[USA]], [[1977]] - )
*[[Kim Zmeskal]] ([[USA]], [[1976]] -)
USSR:
*[[Polina Astakhova]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1936]] - [[2005]])
*[[Svetlana Boguinskaya]] ([[USSR]] / [[Belarus]], [[1973]] - )
*[[Oksana Chusovitina]] ([[USSR]]/[[Uzbekistan]], [[1975]] - )
*[[Yelena Davydova]] ([[USSR]]/ [[Russia]],[[1961]]-)
*[[Maria Filatova]] ([[USSR]])
*[[Maria Gorokhovskaya]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1921]] - [[2001]])
*[[Natalia Ilienko]] ([[USSR]], [[1967]] - )
*[[Nellie Kim]] ([[USSR]], [[1957]] - )
*[[Larissa Latynina]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1934]] - )
*[[Elena Mukhina]] ([[USSR]])
*[[Oksana Omelyanchik]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]])
*[[Nataliya Shaposhnikova]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1961]] -)
*[[Elena Shushunova]] ([[USSR]], [[1969]] - )
*[[Lyudmila Turishcheva]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1952]] - )
*[[Natalia Yurchenko]] ([[USSR]])
Uzebekistan:
*[[Oksana Chusovitina]] ([[Soviet Union]]/[[Uzbekistan]], [[1975]] - )
===Male artistic===
Belarus:
*[[Ivan Ivankov]] ([[Belarus]])
*[[Vitaly Scherbo]] ([[Belarus]], [[1972]] - )
Brazil:
*[[Diego Hypolito]] ([[Brazil]])
*[[Mosiah Rodrigues]] ([[Brazil]])
Bulgaria:
*[[Jordan Jovtchev]] ([[Bulgaria]], [[1973]] - )
Canada:*[[http://gymbrooke.com/Canadian_Results_since_1956.pdf]]
*"[[Robert Tait Mackenzie]]" ([[Canada]], [[1885]] - )
*[[Ed Garnier]] ([[Canada]], [[]] - )*[[http://www.umich.edu/~bhl/athdept/gymmen/gymmen.htm]]
*[[Edourd Monpetit]] ([[Canada]], [[]] - )*[[http://www.umich.edu/~bhl/athdept/gymmen/gymmen.htm]]
*[[Gilbert Larose]] ([[Canada]], [[]] - )*[[http://www.umich.edu/~bhl/athdept/gymmen/gymmen.htm]]
*[[Sid Jensen]] ([[Canada]], [[]] - )*[[http://www.umich.edu/~bhl/athdept/gymmen/gymmen.htm]]
*"[[Andre Simard]]" ([[Canada]], [[1967]] - )
*[[Jean Gagnon]] ([[Canada]], [[1970]] - )*[[http://www.umich.edu/~bhl/athdept/gymmen/gymmen.htm]]
*[[Philip Delasalle]] ([[Canada]], [[]] - )
*[[Jean Choquette]] ([[Canada]], [[1972]] - )
*[[Philip Chartrand]] ([[Canada]], [[1976]] - )
*[[Kyle Shewfelt]] ([[Canada]], [[1982]] - )
China:
*[[Li Ning]] ([[China]], [[1963]] - )
*[[Yang Wei (gymnast)|Yang Wei]] ([[China]], [[1980]] - )
*[[Li Xiaopeng (gymnast)|Li Xiaopeng]] ([[China]], [[1981]] - )
Germany:
*[[Sylvio Kroll]] ([[Germany]])
*[[Sven Tippelt]] ([[Germany]])
*[[Andreas Wecker]] ([[Germany]])
Greece:
*[[Vlasios Maras]] ([[Greece]], [[1983]] - )
Hungary:
*[[Szilveszter Csollányi]] ([[Hungary]])
*[[Zoltán Supola]] ([[Hungary]])
Italy:
*[[Yuri Chechi]] ([[Italy]], [[1969]] - )
Japan:
*[[Yoshihiro Saito]] ([[Japan]], [[1976]] - )
*[[Mitsuo Tsukahara]] ([[Japan]])
*[[Naoya Tsukahara]] ([[Japan]])
Latvia:
*[[Evgeni Sapronenko]] ([[Latvia]], [[1978]] - )
Netherlands:
*[[Yuri van Gelder]] ([[Netherlands]])
*[[Jeffrey Wammes]] ([[Netherlands]])
Puerto Rico:
*[[Hector Tanco]] ([[Puerto Rico]])
Romania:
*[[Marian Dragulescu]] ([[Romania]], [[1980]] - )
*[[Ioan Suciu]] ([[Romania]])
*[[Marius Urzica]] ([[Romania]], [[1975]] - )
Russia:
*[[Nikolai Andrianov]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1952]] - )
*[[Dmitry Bilozerchev]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1966]] - )
*[[Alexei Bondarenko]] ([[Russia]], [[1978]] - )
*[[Nikolai Krukov]] ([[Russia]])
*[[Yevgeny Krylov]] ([[Russia]])
*[[Alexei Nemov]] ([[Russia]], [[1976]] - )
*[[Boris Shakhlin]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1932]] - )
*[[Yuri Titov]] ([[Russia]])
*[[Alexandr Tkachyov]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1957]] - )
*[[Mikhail Voronin]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1945]] - [[2004]])
Slovenia:
*[[Miro Cerar]] ([[Slovenia]], [[1939]] - )
*[[Leon Štukelj]] ([[Slovenia]], [[1898]] - [[1999]])
Spain:
*[[Joaquín Blume]] ([[Spain]], [[1959]] - )
Ukraine:
*[[Alexander Beresch]] ([[Ukraine]])
*[[Roman Zozulya]] ([[Ukraine]])
USA:
*[[Bart Conner]] ([[United States]])
*[[Tim Daggett]] ([[United States]])
*[[Mitch Gaylord]] ([[United States]], [[1961]] - )
*[[Morgan Hamm]] ([[United States]], [[1982]] - )
*[[Paul Hamm]] ([[United States]], [[1982]] - )
*[[Peter Vidmar]] ([[United States]], [[1961]] - )
*[[Blaine Wilson]] ([[United States]], [[1974]] - )
USSR:
*[[Nikolai Andrianov]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1952]] - )
*[[Dmitry Bilozerchev]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1966]] - )
*[[Boris Shakhlin]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1932]] - )
*[[Yuri Titov]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]])
*[[Alexandr Tkachyov]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1957]] - )
*[[Mikhail Voronin]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1945]] - [[2004]])
===Female rhythmic===
Australia:
*[[Penelope Blackmore]] ([[1984]] - )
*[[Danielle LeRay]] ([[1982]] - )
*[[Kasumi Takahashi]] ([[1980]] - )
Belarus:
*[[Larissa Loukianenko]] ([[1973]] - )
*[[Yulia Raskina]] ([[1982]] - )
*[[Inna Zhukova]] ([[1986]] - )
Bulgaria:
*[[Teodora Alexandrova]] ([[1981]] - )
*[[Neshka Robeva]] ([[1946]] - )
*[[Maria Gigova]] ([[1947]] - )
*[[Bianka Panova]] ([[1970]] - )
*[[Maria Petrova (rhythmic gymnast)|Maria Petrova]] ([[1975]] - )
*[[Simona Peycheva]] ([[1985]] - )
Canada:
*[[Lori Fung]] ([[1963]] - )
*[[Mary Sanders]] ([[1985]] - )
China:
*[[Ling Zhong]] ([[1983]] - )
France:
*[[Eva Serrano]] ([[1978]] - )
Germany:
*[[Lisa Ingildeeva]] ([[1988]] - )
Greece:
*[[Eleni Andriola]] ([[1986]] - )
Israel:
*[[Katia Pisetsky]] ([[1986]] - )
Kazakhstan:
*[[Aliya Yussupova]] ([[1984]] - )
Poland:
*[[Aleksandra Szutenberg]] ([[1988]] - )
Romania:
*[[Irina Deleanu]] ([[1975]] - )
Russia:
*[[Yulia Barsukova]] ([[1978]] - )
*[[Alina Kabaeva]] ([[1983]] - )
*[[Irina Tchachina]] ([[1982]] - )
*[[Vera Sessina]] ([[1986]] - )
Spain:
*[[Almudena Cid]] ([[1980]] - )
*[[Carolina Pascual]] ([[1976]] - )
Ukraine:
*[[Anna Bessonova]] ([[1984]] - )
*[[Natalia Godunko]] ([[1984]] - )
*[[Ekaterina Serebrianskaya]] ([[1977]] - )
*[[Oxana Skaldina]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1972]] - )
*[[Alexandra Timoshenko]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1972]] - )
*[[Elena Vitrichenko]] ([[1976]] - )
*[[Tamara Yerofeeva]] ([[1982]] - )
USA:
*[[Mary Sanders]] ([[1985]] - )
USSR:
*[[Irina Deriugina]] ([[1958]] - )
*[[Marina Lobatch]] ([[1970]] - )
*[[Galina Shugurova]] ([[1955]] - )
*[[Oxana Skaldina]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1972]] - )
*[[Alexandra Timoshenko]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1972]] - )
Yugoslavia:
*[[Milena Reljin]] ([[1967]] - )
===Male rhythmic===
Spain:
*[[Ruben Orihuela]] ([[Spain]], ? - )
===References===
*[[http://www.umich.edu/~bhl/athdept/gymmen/gymmen.htm]] (University of Michigan - )
*[[http://www.worldgymrank.com/Archive.html]] ( World Ranking )
*[[http://gymbrooke.com/Canadian_Results_since_1956.pdf]] ( Summary of Canadian Gymnastic Record)
[[Category:Gymnastics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greek Rap</title>
<id>12423</id>
<revision>
<id>15910110</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-19T09:34:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lorenzarius</username>
<id>4308</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Greek hip hop]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genetic programming</title>
<id>12424</id>
<revision>
<id>39299431</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T04:39:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.125.24.165</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>I (Michael Gospatrick) wrote the meta-gp paragraph, and was trying to give proper credit. But you're right, it does look self promoting and adds no useful information so I took it out.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Genetic programming''' ('''GP''') is an automated methodology inspired by [[biological evolution]] to find [[computer programs]] that best perform a user-defined task. It is therefore a particular [[machine learning]] technique that uses an [[evolutionary algorithm]] to optimize a population of computer programs according to a [[fi |
lants.org/ National Inhalant Prevention Coalition]
* [http://inhalants.drugabuse.gov/ Inhalants.Drugabuse.gov] (National Institute on Drug Abuse)
* [http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/Inhalants.html NIDA InfoFacts - Inhalants] (National Institute on Drug Abuse)
* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/inhalants/index.html Inhalants - Facts and Figures] (Office of National Drug Control Policy)
* [http://ncadi.samhsa.gov/govpubs/phd631/ Tips for Teens: The Truth About Inhalants] (SAMHSA's National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information)
* [http://www.drgreene.com/21_180.html DrGreene.com - What Parents Should Know About "Huffing"]
* [http://www.caresproject.org/docs/ed/drug/inhalants.htm Inhalants and Solvent Abuse] (Martin J. Smilkstein, M.D.)
* [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/0721051gold1.html Mugshot and Police Report from The Smoking Gun (1)]
[[es:Inhalante]]
[[ms:inhalan]]
[[Category:Drugs]]
[[Category:Substance-related disorders]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Incubus film</title>
<id>15503</id>
<revision>
<id>24908573</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-06T18:06:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tedernst</username>
<id>3700</id>
</contributor>
<comment>eliminate double re-direct</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Incubus (film)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iceman (comics)</title>
<id>15505</id>
<revision>
<id>42044441</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:17:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>HoneyBee</username>
<id>318365</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Superherobox|
|image=[[Image:Iceman (comics).png|250px]]
|caption=Iceman<br>Art by [[Salvador Larroca]]
|comic_color=background:#ff8080
|character_name=Iceman
|real_name=Robert "Bobby" Louis Drake
|publisher=[[Marvel Comics]]
|debut=''X-Men'' #1
|creators=[[Stan Lee]]<br>[[Jack Kirby]]
|alliance_color=background:#ffc0c0
|status=Active
|alliances=[[X-Men]]
|previous_alliances=[[X-Factor]], [[Defenders (comics)|Defenders]], [[The Champions (comics)|Champions]], [[X-Terminators]], [[The Twelve (comics)|The Twelve]], [[Cataclysm Keys]]
|aliases=Drake Roberts
|relatives=William Robert Drake (father), Madeline Beatrice Bass-Drake (mother), Anne (aunt), Mary, Joel (cousins)
|powers=Local and body temperature reduction,<br>Water manipulation,<br>Thermal vision
|}}
'''Iceman''' (Robert Louis "Bobby" Drake) is a [[comic book]] [[superhero]] in the [[Marvel Comics]] [[Marvel Universe|universe]] and an original and current member of the [[X-Men]]. Created by [[Stan Lee]] and [[Jack Kirby]], he first appeared in ''X-Men'' volume 1 #1 (September, 1963).
==Character biography==
Iceman is a [[Mutant (fictional)|mutant]] with the ability to emanate intense [[cold]] which manifests as [[ice]] formations and the mental ability to shape those ice formations into whatever structure he can imagine. He is often seen to project cold from his hands in the form of "ice blasts" which can cause an enemy to be completely engulfed in ice in a matter of seconds. Perhaps his most ingenious use of his abilities is the creation of a sort of ice slide along which he can slide very quickly. This can occasionally lead to him being confused with the Silver Surfer, as the two characters are visually quite similar. It is also worth noting he is the only original X-Man to stay with the team throughout its entire run (except for when he departed with the original X-Men to form the first incarnation of [[X-Factor (comics)|X-Factor]], and a very short stint with [[Excalibur (comics)]].
He was born in [[Floral Park]], [[New York]], [[United States]] to William Robert Drake and his wife Madeline Beatrice Bass. As a teenager, Drake was recruited to [[Professor Charles Xavier]]'s "school for gifted youngsters", where he joined other young mutants as a charter member of the X-Men. Drake was sometimes self-conscious that he was the youngest member of the original team. For a short while, he moved to Los Angeles and became a founding member of [[The Champions (comics)|The Champions]]
Iceman's appearance has changed significantly over the years. In the early X-Men stories, his appearance was more reminiscent of a snowman. The explanation that was given in those days was that when he used his abilities, he became so cold that frost formed on his skin. In ''X-Men'' #7 (1964), at the prompting of team leader [[Cyclops (comics)|Cyclops]], he learned to cover his body with hardened-but-flexible ice and adopted the hard crystalline appearance familiar to modern readers. Even more recently, Iceman developed the ability to not only cover his body with ice, but to actually become organic ice. Though the appearance is similar, Iceman is now actually translucent in his ice form. Iceman is virtually indestructible in this form: he can reform his shattered body and even if the rest of his body is completely destroyed, his head can form a new body from frozen liquids. Most recently, Iceman has been trapped in his ice form to the degree that he cannot return to his human form. Iceman is now considered an [[Omega-Level Mutant]] with his current power level.
Iceman suffers from a chronic poor [[self image]] and is a classic under-achiever. Bobby's use of his powers has often been lazy and undisciplined. Iceman often played the part of the joker, which annoyed Professor Xavier and Cyclops. Iceman has never realized the true potential of his abilities and even went through a period of deep depression after [[Emma Frost]], the former [[White Queen (comics)|White Queen]] of the [[Hellfire Club (comics)|Hellfire Club]], took over his body and used his powers at levels which Iceman himself had generally been unable to reach. The White Queen believed that Iceman had the potential to be one of the most powerful mutants on Earth.
[[Polaris (comics)|Polaris]] broke up with [[Havok]] and Iceman admitted that he still had feelings for her. The two have engaged in mild flirtation, but nothing serious has happened yet. They do seem to be beginning a small relationship, however.
==Powers and abilities==
[[Image:X-Factor 27.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Iceman creates an ice slide on the cover of ''X-Factor'' #27, 1988]]
Iceman's powers have evolved considerably over the years. Originally he had a normal human and an ice-form. In normal human form, he had the strength, agility and durability of a typical [[athletic]] male of his size. In his ice-form, his strength and durability was enhanced.
Iceman is able to lower his body temperature without harm to himself, reaching -105F within a few seconds. He is able to freeze any moisture in the air around him into unusually hard ice to form ice-slides and various projectiles and shields. Iceman is immune to sub-zero temperatures. Iceman has [[thermal]] vision: the ability to detect objects visually by how much heat the objects generate.
Over the years, his mutant [[physiology]] has gone through radical changes. First, he was able to fashion an [[armor]] of densely packed [[snow]] around his human form when lowering his temperature; later, this became armor of solid ice. Eventually, he was actually able to transform his body into organic ice in which his strength and endurance were augmented to enhanced levels, but when he turned his body back to normal, he would be an ordinary human.
For a time, Iceman could no longer revert to a human form as part of a [[secondary mutation]]. He was constantly in a [[translucent]] organic ice-form. Iceman is also able to reconstitute his ice-form if any part of it is damaged or even if it is completely shattered, without permanent harm to himself. He is able to temporarily add the mass of a body of water to his own to increase his mass, size and physical power. His strength and durability in his ice-form are enhanced beyond normal human levels. He can survive not only as [[sentient]] ice but as sentient water and [[vapor]]. He has the capacity to manipulate all forms of moisture. He has all of the abilities to generate [[projectile| projectiles]], slides and [[shield| shields]] that he always has had but they have been augmented greatly. Under the [[mind control]] of [[Emma Frost]] he was able to deposit his bodily mass into a river and reconstitute his entire mass a great distance away in a matter of minutes.
Writers have implied that Iceman's lack of personal initiative has prevented him from discovering the deeper facets of his abilities and has led him instead to focus only on what might be the easiest manifestation of his abilities, the creation of ice.
In ''House of M'' #8, it appeared that Iceman was among the many thousands of mutants who lost their powers due to the magic of the Scarlet Witch, having returned to his normal human form and noticeably sweating. However, at the end of ''X-Men'' #178, while repelling an attack of anti-mutant protesters, Iceman's powers reactivated. In ''X-Men'' #179, it was revealed Iceman didn't lose his powers, but had subconsicously shut them down out of fear due to the aftermath of the [[House of M]].
In [[X-Men: Evolution]], he has the ability to create an ice statue of himself on the spot by moving, similar to [[Sub-Zero]] in [[Mortal Kombat]].
==Alternate versions==
===[[Ultimate X-Men| Ultimate Iceman]]===
[[Image:ultimatexmen68.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Cover of ''The Ultimate X-Men #68'', featuring Iceman and Rogue. Art by [[Tom Raney]].]]
In the [[Ultimate Marvel]] continuity, Bobby Drake is 15 years old and the youngest founding member of the [[Ultimate X-Men|X-Men]]. He ran away from his family at the peak of government-supported [[Sentinels (comics)|Sentinel]] attacks, fearing they would kill them if they found out he was a [[mutant (fictional)|mutant]].
Bobby established him |
her territories traditionally under the Bosnian political unit, and has been officially included in the country's name since the mid-nineteenth century.
==Etymology==
The first preserved mention of the name "Bosnia" lies in the ''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'', a politico-geographical handbook written by [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine emperor]] [[Constantine VII]] in [[958]]. The [[Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja]] from [[1172]]-[[1196]] also names Bosnia, and references an earlier source from the year [[753]]. The exact meaning and origin of the word is unclear. The most popular theory holds that Bosnia comes from the name of the [[Bosna]] river around which it has been historically based. Philologist Anton Mayer proposed a connection with the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] root ''*bos'' or ''*bogh'', meaning "running water". Certain [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] sources similarly mention ''Bathinus flumen'', or the [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian]] word ''Bosona'', both of which would mean "running water" as well. Other theories involve the rare [[Latin]] term ''Bosina'', meaning boundary, and possible [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] origins.
The origins of the word "Herzegovina" can be identified with more precision and certainty. During the [[Middle Ages#The Early Middle Ages|Early Middle Ages]] the region was known as [[Zahumlje|Hum or Zahumlje]], named after the ''Zachlumoi'' tribe of Slavs which inhabited it. In the [[1440s]], the region was ruled by powerful nobleman Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. In a document sent to [[Friedrich III, Elector of Saxony|Friedrich III]] on [[January 20]], [[1448]], Stjepan Vukčić Kosača called himself ''Herzog of [[Saint Sava]], lord of Hum and Primorje, great duke of the Bosnian kingdom'' (''Herzog'' means [[duke]] in [[German language|German]]) and so the lands he controlled would later become known as ''Herzog's lands'' or ''Herzegovina''.
==History==
{{Main|History of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
===Pre-Slavic period===
Bosnia has been inhabited at least since [[Neolithic]] times. In the early [[Bronze Age]], the Neolithic population was replaced by more warlike [[Indo-European]] tribes known as the Illyres or [[Illyrians]]. [[Celts|Celtic]] migrations in the [[4th century BC|4th]] and [[3rd century BC|3rd century BCE]] displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. Conflict between the Illyrians and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] started in [[229 BC|229 BCE]], but Rome wouldn't complete its annexation of the region until [[9 AD|9 CE]]. In the Roman period, latin-speaking settlers from all over the [[Roman empire]] settled among the Illyrians and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region.
[[Christianity]] had already arrived in the region by the end of the [[1st century]], and numerous artifacts and objects from the time testify to this. Following events from the years [[337]] and [[395]] when the Empire split, Dalmatia and Pannonia were included in the [[Western Roman Empire]]. The region was conquered by the [[Ostrogoths]] in [[455]], and further exchanged hands between the [[Alans]] and [[Huns]] in the years to follow. By the 6th century, Emperor [[Justinian]] had re-conquered the area for the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The Slavs, a migratory people from northeastern Europe, were subjugated by the [[Eurasian Avars]] in the [[6th century]], and together they invaded the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th and [[7th centuries]], settling in what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina and the surrounding lands. The Serbs and Croats came in a second wave, invited by Emperor [[Heraclius]] to drive the Avars from Dalmatia.
===Medieval Bosnia===
[[Image:Bosna.jpg|thumb|250px|right|<small><font color="#EE7CA3">Bosnia in 10th century</font><br>
<font color="#EF6E30">Bosnian state during Ban Kulin 1180-1204</font><br>
<font color="#2859A3">Bosnian state during king Tvrtko 1353-1391</font><br>
<font color="#FBF066">Borders of Bosnian state in second part of 15th century</font><br>
<font color="#30925F">Bosnia and Herzegovina in second part of 19th century</font><br></small>]]
Modern knowledge of the political situation in the west Balkans during the [[dark ages]] is patchy and confusing. Upon their arrival, the Slavs brought with them a tribal social structure, which probably fell apart and gave way to [[feudalism]] only with [[Franks|Frankish]] penetration into the region in the late [[9th century]] (Bosnia probably originated as one such pre-feudal Slavic entity). It was also around this time that the south Slavs were Christianized. Bosnia, due to its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the [[Dalmatia|Dalmatian]] coast. The kingdoms of [[Serbia]] and [[Croatia]] split control of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 9th and [[10th century]], but by the [[high middle ages]] political circumstance led to the area being contested between the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] and the Byzantine empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the late [[12th century]], Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as an independent state under the rule of local [[ban (title)|bans]].
The first notable Bosnian monarch, [[Ban Kulin]], presided over nearly three decades of peace and stability during which he strengthened the country's economy through treaties with [[Dubrovnik]] and [[Venice]]. His rule also marked the start of a controversy with the [[Bosnian Church]], an indigenous Christian sect considered heretical by both the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] churches. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy in [[1203]]. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in [[1204]], waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in [[1254]].
Bosnian history from then until the early [[14th century]] was marked by the power struggle between the [[Šubić]] and [[House of Kotromanić|Kotromanić]] families. This conflict came to an end in [[1322]], when [[Stephen II Kotromanić]] became ban. By the time of his death in [[1353]], he had succeeded in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew [[Tvrtko]] who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in [[1367]]. Under Tvrtko, Bosnia grew in both size and power, finally becoming an independent kingdom in [[1377]]. Following his death in [[1391]] however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The [[Ottoman Empire]] had already started its [[Ottoman wars in Europe|conquest of Europe]] and posed a major threat to the [[Balkans]] throughout the first half of the [[15th century]]. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, Bosnia oficially fell in [[1463]]. Herzegovina would follow in [[1482]], with a Hungarian-backed reinstated "Bosnian Kingdom" being the last to succumb in [[1527]].
===Ottoman era===
[[Image:Ottomanbosnia.PNG|thumb|250px|right|The Ottoman province of Bosnia.]]
The [[Ottomans]] under [[sultan]] Mehmed Fatih conquered the region in [[1463]], although parts of the country held out until late 15th century. The Ottoman rule introduced a number of key changes in political and social administration of the country, namely a new landholding system (see [[timariots|timar]]), a reorganization of administrative units (see [[sancak|sandžak]] and [[vilayet]], and a complex system of social differentiation by [[Social class|class]] (see [[askeri]] and [[reaya]]) and [[religious affiliation]]. Over four centuries of Ottoman rule, the population make-up of Bosnia drastically changed several times as a result of Ottoman conquests, frequent wars with the [[Habsburgs]], migrations, and [[epidemic]]s. Furthermore, a native bosnian speaking [[Bosnian Muslim]] community emerged during the long Ottoman rule mainly as a result of gradually rising number of conversions to [[Islam]], while a significant number of [[Sephardi]] [[Jew]]s settled in Sarajevo after their expulsion from [[Spain]] in late 15th century. The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian [[Franciscans]] (and the [[Catholic]] population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decree, but on the ground these guarantees were often disregarded; the [[Orthodox]] community in Bosnia initially prospered under Ottoman rule, but was later dominated by the [[Greek Orthodox]] [[patriarchs]]; and the little-known [[Bosnian Church]] disappeared altogether. The agrarian unrest in the province in the 19th century eventually sparked a widespread peasant uprising in [[1875]]; the conflict rapidly spread and involved several [[Balkan]] states and [[Great Powers]], which eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary in [[1878]], thus ending over four centuries of Ottoman rule over Bosnia.
===Austrio-Hungarian rule===
{{Sectstub}}
From [[1878]] to [[1918]], Bosnia was administered and from the [[1908]] annexation directly ruled by [[Austria-Hungary]]. [[Habsburg]] rule over the region did much to codify laws and introduce new political practices and modernization measures, in the hope of keeping Bosnia a stable and model [[South Slav]] province that would resist the forces of [[nationalism]]. How |
hance of heart attack, the FDA might find this acceptable. However if "drug a" was already out, and it had a 2.5 percent chance of heart attack, then the FDA would be reluctant to approve "b". Only people who were ignorant of that higher risk would take drug b -- unless it were significantly cheaper, and the purchaser preferred the price savings of "b" to the relative safety of "a".
This phenomenon is at the center of a present controversy over the recall of [[Vioxx]], which is causing more attention to be brought to the FDA. David J. Graham, a scientist with the FDA, says he was pressured by his supervisors not to warn the public about dangers of drugs like Vioxx, and so recommended to congress that a separate agency be created which is dedicated to continuously monitoring drug safety.
The FDA charges fees to pharmaceutical companies that wish to "expedite" the drug approval process. This is considered by many to be a conflict of interest, as the companies who are supposed to be regulated by the FDA are those who are paying them to speed up approvals. They reason that this "pay-off" to expedite the process may sacrifice the quality of studies. These concerns are based on an inadequate understanding of the process, however. Several options exist for bringing additional focus to the review and approval of a drug. All of these options require the drug company to show that the proposed drug meets several criteria, all designed to ensure the priority or expedited review is in the interest of the public health. The user fees charged by FDA are meant to offset FDA staff costs and expenses related to the review and approval. These fees are charged regardless of the priority or expedited status of the review. This process is governed by the [http://www.fda.gov/oc/pdufa/overview.html Prescription Drug User Fees Act].
===Regarding incentive to delay approval of new drugs===
Many economists who study the FDA are critical.{{ref|Review}} Their views; however, are controversial. Economists [[Milton Friedman]], Daniel B. Klein and Alexander Tabarrok are three economists who argue that the FDA causes a ''net'' harm.
Friedman (1979) notes that the FDA can make two types of errors.{{ref|Friedman}} '''Type 1''' is to approve a drug that has deadly or harmful side effects in a large number of people. If you make this error, like approving a [[thalidomide]], you will be blasted by the news media, and your reputation will be ruined.
'''Type 2''' is refusing approval of a drug that is capable of saving many lives or relieving great distress and that has no untoward side effects. If you make a type 2 error, few will know it, as the people whose lives might have been saved will not be around to protest, and their families will have no way of knowing that their loved ones lost their lives because of the caution of an unknown FDA official.
The following table from http://www.fdareview.org/incentives.shtml illustrates the two types of error and the reason for systematic bias toward type 2 errors.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!
! Drug is beneficial
! Drug is harmful
|-
! FDA allows the drug
| Correct decision
|
'''Type 1 error:'''<br />
Allowing a harmful drug.<br />
Victims are presumably identifiable and traceable.<br />
''Error is self-correcting''
|-
! FDA does not allow the drug
|
'''Type 2 error:'''<br />
Disallowing a beneficial drug. Victims are not identifiable.<br />
''Error is not self-correcting''
| Correct decision
|}
This dichotomy was brought to the fore in the early days of AIDS. Noted AIDS author [[Randy Shilts]] published a future timeline analysis in the San Francisco Chronicle showing a minimum delay of 20 years to approve the new AIDS drugs and get them to patients.
Standard industrial project expediting techniques of identifying critical paths and starting tasks in parallel were foreign to the medical bureaucracy. A massive demonstration by [[ACT UP]] and other groups occupied FDA headquarters, hanging a "Silence = Death" banner over the entrance. Afterwards, the "[[Pert chart]]" for approval of [[protease inhibitors]] and other drugs was given a major rework and procedures introduced for expediting timelines for both normal and compassionate/experimental drug introduction.
Friedman theorizes that the harm the FDA causes results from the nature of the bureaucracy and would happen even with the best intentioned and benevolent individuals in charge: "With the best will in the world, you or I, if we were in that position, would be led to reject or postpone approval of many a good drug in order to avoid even a remote possibility of approving a drug that will have newsworthy side effects." Friedman recommends that the FDA be abolished to remedy the problem. [http://www.uncommonknowledge.org/99winter/324.html]
===Regarding Wilhelm Reich===
The early reputation of the FDA was tarnished by directing one of the few government book-burnings ever to take place in the United States. Acting against the interstate shipment of "[[orgone accumulator]]s", an experimental device built by an aging Dr. [[Wilhelm Reich]] the FDA went to court in 1956. Reich refused to appear in court to debate scientific matters, writing to the court:
"My factual position in the case as well as in the world of science of today does not permit me to enter the case against the Food and Drug Administration, since such action would, in my mind, imply admission of the authority of this special branch of the government to pass judgment on primordial, pre-atomic cosmic [[orgone]] energy."
The FDA and the court responded by jailing Reich and ordering the burning of his published works, including those that had no reference to the orgone accumulator, at the [[Gansevoort Destructor Plant]] in Manhattan.
===Regarding Blood Donation===
In the past, it was the practice in America and other countries to separate blood donations on the basis of race, ethnicity, or religion, or to exclude certain groups from the donor pool on those bases. Currently, in the US, these practices have been eliminated, although [[American Red Cross]] and [[Food & Drug Administration]] policies prohibit accepting blood donations from gay men, specifically from any "male who has had sex with another male since 1977, even once," [http://www.harbus.org/main.cfm?include=detail&storyid=171199&page=2] or from IV drug users or recent immigrants from certain nations with high rates of HIV infection. While the inclusion of gay men on the prohibited list has created some controversy, the FDA & Red Cross cite the public policy need to protect the blood supply from HIV & similar diseases as justification for the ban.
===Censorship===
====Regarding Nutritional Supplements====
The FDA has been criticized for engaging in censorship because it prohibits dietary supplement manufacturers from making drug claims. Supplements manufacturers are only allowed to make limited claims regarding how the supplement affects the structure or function of the body, i.e., [[structure/function claims]] and are prohibited by law from making drug claims that the supplement could prevent, cure, or mitigate a disease or condition, which are drug claims.
A bill was introduced in the US House of Representatives on May 12, 2005 by Congressman [[Ron Paul]] to prevent the FDA from censoring this information. It is currently pending. [http://www.oklahomahealthfreedom.org/CAHIA.html] Julian Walker, M.D. of the [[Health Freedom Action Network]] says: "This rogue agency illegally prohibits manufacturers of food and dietary supplements from giving accurate information about their products' health benefits." [http://www.lef.org/featured-articles/consumer_alert_100605.htm] Life Extension Foundation claims that the prohibitions are a violation of the Constitutional Right to Free Speech. [http://www.lef.org/featured-articles/consumer_alert_091905.htm] On November 10, 2005, [[Ron Paul]] introduce a bill for the Health Freedom Protection act (H.R. 4284) to stop "the FDA from censoring truthful claims about the curative, mitigative, or preventative effects of dietary supplements, and adopts the federal court’s suggested use of disclaimers as an alternative to censorship.from censoring consumer information ([http://www.lewrockwell.com/paul/paul288.html ''Free Speech and Dietary Supplements''])
The FDA was also criticized for banning the essential amino acid [[Tryptophan]] after a manufacturing incident in Japan contaminated one batch. Regardless of the origin of the toxicity, Trp was banned from sale in the US, and other countries followed suit. Critics claim that such bureaucratic action neglects that Trp is an essential amino acid that humans cannot live without eating, and have led some to renewed questioning as to whether the FDA was a science based or political agency.
The FDA prohibits information on health benefits for substances for which there is ample scientific evidence. For example, those who sell [[calcium]] are prohibited from mentioning that it reduces the risk of bone fractures. ([http://www.vrp.com/pdf/Emord-Editorial.pdf ''FDA and FTC Censorship of Health Information Must End''] by Jonathan W. Emord (pdf))
The FDA has also been criticized for intervening in the controversial [[nutritional supplement]] business. A raid against one supplement company, the "[[Life Extension Foundation]]," garnered criticism from critics for their entrance into a store by smashing through a glass doors with a battering ram [http://www.lef.org/fda/victory.htm]. After a costly and lengthy legal battle, the Life Extension Foundation was cleared of all charges.
====Food====
The FDA censors providers of foods from providing information on health benefits. For example, the FDA has |
er and the Holy Ghost." [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm#III], though the term is not frequently used by Catholics. This is also the belief held by [[Eastern Christianity]], [[Anglicanism]], and [[Lutheranism]], among other Christian traditions. However, the term itself is most frequently used by Fundamentalist, Pentecostal, and Evangelical Protestants, where it is often associated with an intense ''conversion experience'' and an encounter of the individual with the power of God. Many Christians who are "born again" in this sense deny that those without such an experience are true Christians.
The idea of being ''born again'' carries with it the theological idea that a Christian is a ''new creation'', given a fresh start by the action of God, freed from a sinful past life and able to begin a ''new life'' in relationship with Christ via the Holy Spirit. [[John Wesley]] and Christians associated with early [[Methodism]] referred to the ''born again'' experience as "the ''[[New Birth]]''".
In recent history, ''born again'' is a term that has been associated with evangelical renewal since the late 1960s, first in the United States and then later around the world. Associated perhaps initially with [[Jesus movement|Jesus People]] and the Christian counterculture, ''born again'' came to refer to an intense conversion experience, and was increasingly used as a term to identify devout believers. By the mid 1970s, ''born again'' Christians were increasingly referred to in the mainstream media as part of the Born Again Movement. The term became so prevalent that by the 1976 Presidential campaign, [[Jimmy Carter]] used the term to refer to his own faith experience.
==See also==
* [[baptism]]
* [[sin]]
* [[evangelism]]
* [[Holy Spirit]]
* [[List of born-again Christian laypeople]]
* [[Altar call]]
==External links==
* [http://gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/serm-045.stm Sermon #45: The New Birth] by [[John Wesley]]
* [http://gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/serm-018.stm Sermon #18: The Marks of the New Birth] by [[John Wesley]]
* [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/regeneration.html The Calvinist View of the Doctrine of Regeneration or The New Birth]
* [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/onsite/monergism_short.html What is Monergistic Regeneration?] (Calvinist/Reformed)
* [http://www.zyworld.com/jamus/Regeneration.htm Rosicrucians: Regeneration] by Charles Weber, 2003
[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Christian evangelicalism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian fundamentalism]]
[[de:Wiedergeburt]]
[[hu:Újjászületés]]
[[nl:Wedergeboorte (christendom)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>B-1 Lancer</title>
<id>4952</id>
<revision>
<id>42141477</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:23:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.30.131.24</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Specifications (B-1B Lancer) */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. -->
[[Image:B1s.jpg|thumb|300px|The B-1 Lancer]]
The [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems|Boeing IDS]] (formerly [[North American Aviation|Rockwell]]) '''B-1B Lancer''' is a long-range [[strategic bomber]] in service with the [[United States Air Force]] (USAF). Together with the [[B-52 Stratofortress]] and the [[B-2 Spirit]], it is the backbone of the [[United States]]'s long-range bomber force.
==Development==
The B-1 was conceived as the '''Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft''' (AMSA) program circa [[1965 in aviation|1965]]. After a prolonged development period, the contract was awarded in [[1970 in aviation|1970]] to [[Rockwell International]]. The first of four prototype '''B-1A''' models flew on [[December 23]] [[1974 in aviation|1974]]. Intended as a high-speed, long-range bomber capable of a supersonic low-level dash and Mach 2.5 at altitude, the B-1A never went into production. The program was cancelled by decision of President [[Jimmy Carter]] in [[1977 in aviation|1977]], although flight tests of the four B-1A models continued through [[1981 in aviation|1981]]. One of these aircraft is now at the [[Strategic Air and Space Museum]] in [[Ashland, Nebraska]] (moved there after having been on display at the [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]] near [[Dayton, Ohio]] for many years), another at [[Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum|Wings Over the Rockies]], in [[Denver, Colorado]], and one was converted for use in the B-1B program, then crashed during flight testing on [[August 29]], [[1984]].
The [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration restarted the B-1 program in 1981 as part of its overall military buildup. The B-1 was by then intended to serve as an interim bomber in anticipation of the [[stealth aircraft|stealthy]] Advanced Technology Bomber (which emerged as the [[B-2 Spirit]]). Cynics noted that the Air Force very astutely spread production subcontracts across many congressional districts, making the aircraft very popular on [[Capitol Hill]].
The first production model of the revised '''B-1B''' first flew in October [[1984 in aviation|1984]], and the first B-1B, "The Star of Abilene," was delivered to [[Dyess Air Force Base]], [[Abilene, Texas]], in June [[1985 in aviation|1985]], with initial operational capability on [[October 1]], [[1986]]. The final B-1B was delivered [[May 2]], [[1988]]. "The Star of Abilene" was recently retired and is now on display at the front gate of [[Dyess AFB]].
The B-1B did not have a popular name during its early USAF service. By the time it was given the official popular name "Lancer" in [[1990 in aviation|1990]], it had already become known to its crews as the "Bone" (a contraction of "B one," also said to be inspired by its somewhat eerie shape).
===Partial retirement===
A total of 100 front-line aircraft were produced at a cost of over $200 million each. After several write-offs, 93 remained by the turn of the century. In [[2003 in aviation|2003]] the USAF decided to retire 33 of the B-1Bs to concentrate its budget on maintaining availability of the remaining aircraft, although in 2004 a new appropriations bill called for some of the retired aircraft to return to service. In 2004, the USAF returned seven of the mothballed bombers to service, giving a total force of 67 aircraft, with the rest cannibalized for spares. Five of the seven that were brought back to service went to [[Dyess AFB]] in Texas, one to [[Ellsworth Air Force Base|Ellsworth AFB]] in [[South Dakota]], and another to [[Edwards AFB]] in California. In 2005, [[The Pentagon]] announced the closing of Ellsworth AFB and the transfer of all operational B-1s to [[Dyess AFB]]. However, on [[August 26]], [[2005]], it was announced that Ellsworth AFB would remain open thus no transfer of Ellsworth's B-1s would occur.
==Technology==
The B-1B has a blended wing and body configuration, along with [[swing-wing|variable-geometry]] design and [[jet engine|turbofan engine]]s, to improve range and speed with enhanced [[survivability]]. Forward wing settings are used for takeoff, landings and high-altitude maximum cruise. Aft wing settings are used in high subsonic and supersonic flight, enhancing the B-1B's performance. The wings of the B-1B originally were cleared for use at settings of 15, 25, 55, and 67.5 degrees; 45-degree settings were cleared in [[1998 in aviation|1998&ndash;1999]]. When moving wings between those points, pilots must now observe strict maneuvering limits and transition the wings without stopping.
Unlike the B-1A, the B-1B made no attempt at Mach 2+ speeds, although its [[General Electric F101|F101-GE-102]] engines are somewhat more powerful than those of the B-1A. Its maximum speed at altitude is Mach 1.2 (about 950&nbsp;mph or&nbsp;1,330 km/h), although its low-level speed, Mach 0.95 (about 700&nbsp;mph/1,118&nbsp;km/h) is superior to the B-1A's Mach 0.85.
The B-1B's offensive [[avionics]] include the [[Westinghouse Electronic Systems|Westinghouse]] (now [[Northrop Grumman]]) AN/APQ-164 forward-looking offensive [[radar]] set, based on the [[AN/APG-66]] of the [[F-16]], but with electronic beam steering (and a fixed antenna pointed downward for reduced radar observability), [[synthetic aperture radar]], ground moving target indicator (MTI), and terrain-following radar modes, Doppler navigation, radar [[altimeter]], and an [[inertial navigation]] suite. From [[1995 in aviation|1995]] on, the B-1B Block D upgrade added a [[Global Positioning System]] receiver. These features were intended to provide accurate navigation without reliance on ground-based navigation aids.
The B-1B's defensive electronics include the [[Eaton]] '''AN/ALQ-161''' radar warning and defensive [[jamming]] equipment, linked to a total of eight chaff/flare dispensers and managed by the AN/ASQ-184 defensive management system. The ALQ-161 has proved to be extremely troublesome in service, earning the B-1B an unfortunate reputation as the "world's first self-jamming bomber." Even the current ALQ-161A upgrade is seen as inadequate, although plans for a defensive systems upgrade program (DSUP) were cancelled for budgetary reasons. The B-1B has also been equipped to carry the [[ALE-50 Towed Decoy System]]. The Lancer has an additional Doppler tail-warning radar to detect aircraft or missiles approaching from the rear, although the use of the radar raises the risk of detection through its emissions.
Also aiding the B-1B's survivability is its relatively low [[radar cross section|radar cross-section]] (RCS). Although not technically a [[stealth aircraft]] in a comprehensive sense, thanks to the aircraft's structure, serpentine intak |
ed '''P700''', and the one from photosystem II is designated '''P680'''. The P is short for pigment, and the number is the specific [[absorption peak]] in [[nanometers]] for the chlorophyll molecules in each reaction center.
Chlorophyll ''α'' is common to all eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms, and, due to its central role in the reaction center, is essential for photosynthesis. The accessory pigments such as chlorophyll ''b'' and carotenoids are not essential. Some [[algae]], such as brown algae and diatoms, use '''chlorophyll ''c''''' as a substitute for chlorophyll ''b''. Historically, red algae have been assumed to have '''chlorophyll ''d''''', although it could not be isolated from all species. This puzzle has recently been resolved, since the chlorophyll ''d'' is actually from an [[epiphytic]] [[cyanobacteria|cyanobacterium]] (''Acaryochloris marina'') that lives on the red algae. These cyanobacteria have a ratio of chlorophyll ''d'': chlorophyll ''α'' of approximately 30:1, and represent a rare example of a photosystem with chlorophyll ''d'' at the reaction center of the photosystem. All other known eukaryotes and cyanobacteria use chlorophyll ''α''.
Other chemical variations of chlorophyll are found in photosynthetic bacteria, other than cyanobacteria. Purple bacteria use '''[[bacteriochlorophyll]]''', which absorbs [[infrared]] light between 800nm - 900nm, and the green sulphur bacteria '''chlorobium chlorophyll'''.
==Chemical structure==
Chlorophyll is a [[chlorin]] pigment, which is structurally similar to [[porphyrin]] pigments such as [[heme]]. At the center of the porphyrin ring is a [[magnesium]] ion. This has various side chains, usually including a long [[phytyl]] chain. There are a few different forms that occur naturally:
{| class="wikitable"
|
! Chlorophyll ''α''
! Chlorophyll ''b''
! Chlorophyll ''c1''
! Chlorophyll ''c2''
! Chlorophyll ''d''
|-
| Molecular formula
| C<sub>55</sub>H<sub>72</sub>O<sub>5</sub>N<sub>4</sub>Mg
| C<sub>55</sub>H<sub>70</sub>O<sub>6</sub>N<sub>4</sub>Mg
| C<sub>35</sub>H<sub>30</sub>O<sub>5</sub>N<sub>4</sub>Mg
| C<sub>35</sub>H<sub>28</sub>O<sub>5</sub>N<sub>4</sub>Mg
| C<sub>54</sub>H<sub>70</sub>O<sub>6</sub>N<sub>4</sub>Mg
|-
| C3 group
| -CH=CH<sub>2</sub>
| -CH=CH<sub>2</sub>
| -CH=CH<sub>2</sub>
| -CH=CH<sub>2</sub>
| -CHO
|-
| C7 group
| -CH<sub>3</sub>
| -CHO
| -CH<sub>3</sub>
| -CH<sub>3</sub>
| -CH<sub>3</sub>
|-
| C8 group
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>
| -CH=CH<sub>2</sub>
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>
|-
| C17 group
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>COO-Phytyl
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>COO-Phytyl
| -CH=CHCOOH
| -CH=CHCOOH
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>COO-Phytyl
|-
| C17-C18 bond
| Single
| Single
| Double
| Double
| Single
|-
| Occurrence
| Universal
| Mostly in land plants
| Various algae
| Various algae
| cyanobacteria
|}
{|
| [[Image:chlorophyll_structure.png|thumb|left|200px|Common structure of chlorophyll ''α'', ''b'' and ''d'']]
|| [[Image:Chlorophyll c.png|thumb|left|200px|Common structure of chlorophyll ''c1'', and ''c2'']]
|}
==Evidence for chlorophyll==
[[Image:chlorophyll_ab_spectra.png|thumbnail|200px|right|Absorbance spectra of by chlorophyll ''α'' (<font color=green>green</font>) and ''b'' (<font color=red>red</font>)]]
Chlorophyll can be shown to be vital for photosynthesis by destarching a leaf from a [[variegated plant]] and exposing it to [[light]] for several hours. (Variegated leaves have green areas that contain chlorophyll and white areas that have none.) When tested with [[iodine]] solution, a color change revealing the presence of [[starch]] occurs only in regions of the leaf that were green and therefore contained chlorophyll. This shows that photosynthesis does not occur in areas where chlorophyll is absent, and constitutes evidence that the presence of chlorophyll is a requirement for photosynthesis.
== References ==
# Speer, Brian R. (1997). [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss3/pigments.html "Photosynthetic Pigments"] in ''[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/ UCMP Glossary (online)]''. University of California, Berkeley Museum of Paleontology. Verified availability August 4, 2005.
# [http://www.mbl.ku.dk/mkuhl/pages/PDF/Larkum&Kuhl_2005.pdf PDF review-Chlorophyll d: the puzzle resolved]
[[Category:Photosynthetic pigments]]
[[ar:كلوروفيل]]
[[cs:Chlorofyl]]
[[da:Klorofyl]]
[[de:Chlorophyll]]
[[es:Clorofila]]
[[eo:Klorofilo]]
[[fa:سبزینه]]
[[fr:Chlorophylle]]
[[gl:Clorofila]]
[[ko:엽록소]]
[[it:Clorofilla]]
[[he:כלורופיל]]
[[lt:Chlorofilas]]
[[mk:Хлорофил]]
[[ms:Klorofil]]
[[nl:Bladgroen]]
[[ja:葉緑素]]
[[no:Klorofyll]]
[[pl:Chlorofil]]
[[pt:Clorofila]]
[[ru:Хлорофилл]]
[[fi:Lehtivihreä]]
[[sv:Klorofyll]]
[[ta:பச்சையம்]]
[[wa:Clorofile]]
[[zh:叶绿素]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carotene</title>
<id>6986</id>
<revision>
<id>40336135</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T22:18:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cunningman86</username>
<id>848058</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* &beta;-carotene */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Carotene''' is an [[orange (color)|orange]] [[photosynthetic pigment]] important for [[photosynthesis]].
It is responsible for the orange colour of the [[carrot]] and many other fruits and vegetables. It contributes to photosynthesis by transmitting the light energy it absorbs to [[chlorophyll]].
Chemically, carotene is a [[terpene]]. It is the [[dimer]] of [[retinol]] (vitamin A) and comes in two primary forms: &alpha; and &beta;-carotene. &gamma;, &delta; and &epsilon;-carotene also exist. Carotene can be stored in the [[liver]] and converted to vitamin A as needed.
==Carotenemia==
{{main|Carotenodermia}}
Carotenemia or hypercarotenemia is excess carotene, and unlike excess Vitamin A is non-toxic. Although hypercarotenemia is not particularly dangerous, it can lead to a yellowing of the skin (carotenodermia). It is most commonly associated with consumption of an abundance of [[carrot]]s, but it also can be an [[medical sign]] of more dangerous conditions.
A randomised trial into the use of beta carotene and Vitamin A for treatment of lung cancer had to be stopped early due to the apparent increase in the incidence of lung cancer{{ref|fn1}}.
==The two forms==
===&alpha;-carotene===
[[Image:alpha-carotene.png|center|&alpha;-carotene]]
===&beta;-carotene===
[[Image:beta_carotene.gif]]
&beta;-carotene can be found in [[yellow]], [[Orange (colour)|orange]], and [[green]] [[leaf]]y [[fruit]]s and [[vegetable]]s. These can be carrots, [[spinach]], [[lettuce]], [[tomato]]es, [[sweet potato]]es, [[broccoli]], [[cantaloupe]], [[Orange (fruit)|orange]], and [[squash_(fruit)|winter squash]]. As a [[rule of thumb]], the greater the intensity of the color of the fruit or vegetable, the more beta-carotene it contains.
&beta;-carotene is an [[anti-oxidant]] and such can be useful for curbing the excess of damaging [[free radicals]] in the body. However, the usefulness of &beta;-carotene as a [[dietary supplement]] (i.e. taken as a pill) is still subject to debate{{ref|fn1}}. &beta;-carotene is [[fat]]-[[solubility|soluble]], so a small amount of fat is needed to absorb it into the body.
==Carotenoids==
Carotenes are un-oxidized [[carotenoids]]. Carotenoids in which some of the double bonds have been oxidized
are known as [[xanthophyll]]s.
==Production==
Most of the world's synthetic supply comes from a manufacturing complex located in [[Freeport, Texas]] and owned by the DSM corporation.
==Nomenclature==
The two ends of the &beta;-carotene molecule are structurally identical, and are called '''&beta;-rings'''. Specifically, the group of nine carbon atoms at each end form a &beta;-ring.
The &alpha;-carotene molecule has a &beta;-ring at one end; the other end is called an '''&epsilon;-ring'''. There are no "&alpha;-rings".
These and similar names for the ends of the carotenoid molecules form the basis of a systematic naming scheme, according to which:
* &alpha;-carotene is '''&beta;,&epsilon;-carotene''';
* &beta;-carotene is '''&beta;,&beta;-carotene''';
* &gamma;-carotene (with one &beta; ring and one uncyclized end that is labelled ''[[Psi (letter)|psi]]'') is '''&beta;,&psi;-carotene''';
* &delta;-carotene (with one &epsilon; ring and one uncyclized end) is '''&epsilon;,&psi;-carotene''';
* &epsilon;-carotene is '''&epsilon;,&epsilon;-carotene''',
==References==
# {{note|fn1}} [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/334/18/1150 Effects of a Combination of Beta Carotene and Vitamin A on Lung Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease]
# {{note|fn2}} [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Prevention/betacarotene Questions and Answers About Beta Carotene Chemoprevention Trials]
==External links==
*[http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/carotene/beta-carotene_home.html Beta-carotene website by Martha Evens, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol]
*[http://www.berkeleywellness.com/html/ds/dsBetaCarotene.php Berkeley Wellness Guide to Dietary Supplements]
*[http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsSupplements/BetaCarotenecs.html Beta-caroten on University of Maryland]
*[http://www.herbalchem.net/Carotenoids_Advanced.htm Car |
le are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics first, not vocational topics.
A particular strategy with modern perennialists is to teach scientific reasoning, not facts. They may illustrate the reasoning with original accounts of famous experiments. This gives the students a human side to the science, and shows the reasoning in action. Most importantly, it shows the uncertainty and false steps of real science.
Although perennialism may seem similar to [[educational essentialism|essentialism]], perennialism focuses first on personal development, while essentialism focuses first on essential skills. Essentialist curricula thus tend to be much more vocational and fact-based, and far less liberal and principle-based.
Perennialism has two major divisions: secular and religious, and their goals and methods differ somewhat.
==Secular perennialism==
Secular perennialism is a relatively new philosophy dating from only the mid-19th century. It has been supported by [[Mortimer Adler]] and [[Robert Hutchins]].
Secular perennialists emphasize the importance of learning to reason. They argue that accurate, independent reasoning is the greatest difference between a developed mind and an undeveloped mind. Thus, it should be a major goal of education.
They advocate teaching reasoning by means of a directed reading list of [http://thecommonreview.org/gbf/ great books] of the [[Western canon]], supplemented with minimally-directed discussions using the [[socratic method]].
The great books normally include those that originally advocated the major ideas of western civilization.
In this doctrine, a skilled teacher would keep discussions on topic, without classical reasoning errors, but the class, not the teacher, would come to a conclusion. In particular, the teacher would not direct or lead the class to a conclusion. The teacher's role may include accurately formulating the problem pointed out by some great book's reading.
Secular perennialists also advocate the use of original works, perhaps translated, rather than textbooks. Their basic argument is that the original work is the work of genius. Since we need not settle for less, why should we?
The standard argument for a modern text is to make the information relevant to modern society. Perennialists argue that the topics of the great books describe any society, at any time, and thus the great books already suit our society and our time.
They freely acknowledge that any selection of [http://thecommonreview.org/gbf/ great books] will disagree about many topics, but see this as an advantage. They believe that the student must learn to recognize such disagreements, which often reflect real disagreements between persons. Then, hardest of all, the student must actually think about the disagreements and reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion. This is a major goal of the socratic discussions. They do not advocate teaching a settled scholarly interpretation of the great books, because this cheats the student of an opportunity to learn rational criticism and to know his own mind. Also, possibly it cheats humanity of brilliant insights brought by new minds.
==Religious perennialism==
Religious perennialism is the original form, developed first by [[Thomas Aquinas]] in the 13th century in his work [http://www.atheneum.org/demagis.html De Magistro], (The Teacher). It is also focused on the personal development of the student, because Christian philosophy is concerned with love (not sex, but a perfected ideal of love).
Aquinas was a Christian philosopher and theologian. He argued that God loves us, and therefore wants us to be all we can be. In particular, "You shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free." ([[Matthew 5:48]]), and "Love the Lord...with all your mind..." (Luke 10:27). Thus human development glorifies God, and is a worthy project.
He argued against two fallacies. First he argued that all learning could not come from within, because it always had to be provided as sensed signs that the student must perceive. He also argued that education is not mere manipulation of a mind from outside, but that rather some essential spark (from God) remade the knowledge in the student's mind.
He advocated a middle path, between these two extremes (in line with [[Aristotle]]'s [[Nicomachean Ethics]]). That is, the teacher could guide the student to the great truths. This would save the student much [[trial and error]], and permit greater development at a younger age.
Aquinas clearly considered Christian ethics, salvation and doctrine to be items of first importance, because they concerned human access to the universal God and eternal life. He considered reasoning and philosophy to be important, but of clearly secondary importance.
An interesting teaching was that he considered God to be the great, perhaps only Teacher, because only God could form ideas directly in men's minds from mere senses.
For a discussion of other educational philosophies, see [[educational philosophies]] and [[education reform]]. For more information about the great books, see [[Mortimer Adler]] or http://thecommonreview.org/gbf/
== Colleges exemplifying this philosophy ==
Some colleges in the United States use "a [[Great Books]] curriculum" and represent a fairly pure application of this educational philosophy:
*[[St. John's College, U. S.]] is a well-known secular liberal-arts college with an undergraduate program described as "an all-required course of study based on the great books of the Western tradition."
*[http://www.thomasaquinas.edu Thomas Aquinas College] in [[Santa Paula, California]] is a Catholic Christian college with a Great Books curriculum.
*[http://mckenziestudycenter.org/guten/ Gutenberg College] in [[Eugene, Oregon]] provides "a broad-based liberal arts education in a Protestant Christian environment", with a "great books" curriculum emphasizing "the development of basic learning skills (reading, writing, mathematics, and critical thinking) and the application of these skills to profound writings of the past"
*[[Shimer College]] in [[Waukegan, Illinois]] grants a Bachelor of Arts to students who complete a program composed of humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, integrative studies and a capstone senior thesis.
*[http://www.biola.edu/academics/torrey The Torrey Honors Institute] at [[Biola University]] is a Christian Great Books program.
[[Category:Educational philosophy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E.163</title>
<id>10022</id>
<revision>
<id>38355344</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T20:28:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>88.104.93.85</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Changed 1997 to 1991 source = http://www.itu.int/publications/pdfcatalogue/Itut-e.pdf</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''E.163''' was an [[ITU-T]] standard for describing [[telephone]] numbers for the public voice network ([[PSTN]]). In the United states this was formerly refered to as a 'Directory number'. This standard has been superseded by [[E.164]] in 1991
{{Com-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Methylenedioxymethamphetamine</title>
<id>10024</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42137932</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:50:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.255.49.104</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| id="synChemInfoBox" class="wikitable" width="300px" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 .5em .5em;"
|-
|bgcolor="#ffffff" align="center" colspan="2"|
[[Image:MDMA.png|center|MDMA chemical structure]]<br/>
''MDMA''
|-
|align="center" colspan="2"|
''1-(benzo[''d''][1,3]dioxol-5-yl)-''N''-methylpropan-2-amine''
|-
!valign="top" align="center"|[[CAS number]]
|
42542-10-9<br/>
66142-89-0<br/>
69610-10-2<br/>
81262-70-6
|-
![[Chemical formula]]
|C<sub>11</sub>H<sub>15</sub>NO<sub>2</sub>
|-
![[Molecular weight]]
|193.25 g/mol
|-
![[Melting point]]
|148 - 153 °C ([[hydrochloride]])
|-
![[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
|CC(NC)CC1=CC=C(OCO2)C2=C1
|-
![[half life|Elimination half life]]
|The [[Enantiomer|"S" form]] has a shorter half life (about 4 hours), whereas the [[Enantiomer|"R" form]] has a much greater half life. (about 14hours)
|-
![[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status]]
|Schedule I ([[United States|USA]])<br /> Class A ([[United Kingdom|UK]])<br /> Schedule III ([[Canada]])
|-
!Delivery
|75-120 mg tablets<br>100 mg sublingual
|-
|colspan="2"|'''Indicated for:'''<br/>
:* [[Post traumatic stress disorder|PTSD]]
|-
|colspan="2"|'''[[Recreational drug use|Recreational]] uses:'''<br/>
:*[[euphoria]]
|-
|colspan="2"|'''Other uses:'''<br/>
:*[[Marriage counseling]]
:*[[Anxiety]]
:*[[PTSD]]
:*[[Palliative care|End of Life Care]]
|-
|colspan="2"|'''[[Contraindication]]s:'''<br/>
:*Not for use in combination with stimulants (amphetamines, large doses of caffeine, etc).
:*Not for use in combination with diuretics.
:*Not for use in individuals with high blood pressure, hypertension, or blood clotting disorders.
:*Not for use in individuals who have displayed allergies to amphetamine drugs.
:*Must never be used in combination with MAOI (Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitor) drugs.
|-
!colspan="2"|'''[[Side effect]]s:'''
|-
|colspan="2"|'''''[[Endocrine]]:'''''<br/>
:*[[hyponatremia]]
|-
|colspan="2"|'''''[[Eye]]:'''''<br/>
:*dilated pupils
|-
|colspan="2"|'''''[[Psychologica |
of literary genres, and in addition to his celebrated ghost and war stories he published several volumes of [[poetry]] and [[verse]]. His ''Fantastic Fables'' anticipated the ironic style of grotesquerie that turned into a genre in the [[20th century]].
One of Bierce's most famous works is his much-quoted book, ''[[The Devil's Dictionary]]'', originally a newspaper serialization which was first published in book form in 1906 as ''The Cynic's Word Book.'' It offers an interesting reinterpretation of the English language in which [[cant]] and political double-talk are neatly lampooned.
Bierce's twelve-volume ''Collected Works'' were published in [[1909]], the seventh volume of which consists solely of "[[The Devil's Dictionary]]," the title Bierce himself preferred to "The Cynic's Word Book."
==Disappearance==
In October [[1913]], the [[Ageing#Dividing the lifespan|septuagenarian]] Bierce departed Washington on a tour to revisit his old [[American Civil War|Civil War]] battlefields. By December, he had proceeded on through [[Louisiana]] and [[Texas]], crossing by way of [[El Paso, Texas|El Paso]] into [[Mexico]], which was then in the throes of [[Mexican Revolution|revolution]]. In [[Ciudad Juárez]], he joined the army of [[Pancho Villa]] as an observer, in which role he participated in the battle of [[Tierra Blanca]]. He is known to have accompanied Villa's army as far as the city of [[Chihuahua, Chihuahua]]. After a last letter to a close friend, sent from that city on [[December 26]], [[1913]], he vanished without a trace, becoming one of the most famous disappearances in American literary history. Subsequent investigations to ascertain his fate were fruitless and, despite many decades of speculation, his [[List of people who have disappeared|disappearance]] remains a mystery.
In one of his last letters, Bierce wrote:
:Good-by &mdash; if you hear of my being stood up against a Mexican stone wall and shot to rags please know that I think that a pretty good way to depart this life. It beats old age, disease, or falling down the cellar stairs. To be a [[Gringo]] in Mexico &mdash; ah, that is euthanasia
==Bierce in popular culture==
[[Robert W. Chambers]] borrowed several terms and fictional locations (including, for instance, [[Carcosa]] and [[Hastur]]) from Bierce, for use in his book of horror short stories, [[The King in Yellow]]. The horror writer [[H.P. Lovecraft]] later incorporated these into his own work, as did other authors who later extended Lovecraft's characters and themes, collectively creating the [[Cthulhu Mythos]].
[[Robert Bloch]]'s short story "I Like Blondes" (published in [[Playboy]], [[1956]]) is constructed around a group of alien bodysnatchers frequenting Earth. The narrator's host body's "name was Beers...Ambrose Beers, I believe. He [[Ambrose Bierce#Disappearance|picked it up in Mexico a long time ago]]."
At least three films have been made of Bierce's story ''An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge''. A silent movie version was made in the [[1920s]]. A French version called ''La Rivière du Hibou'', directed by Robert Enrico, was released in [[1962]] (available as of 2005). This is a black and white film, faithfully recounting the original narrative using voice-over. Another version, directed by Brian James Egan, was released in 2005. The story was also used for an episode of the [[television series]] ''[[The Twilight Zone]]'': ''[[An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (The Twilight Zone)|An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge]]''. A copy of ''An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge'' appeared in the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] television series ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'' (ep. "[[Episodes_of_Lost_%28season_2%29#The_Long_Con|The Long Con]]" - airdate [[February 8]], [[2006]]).
[[Mexico|Mexican]] [[novelist]] [[Carlos Fuentes]] wrote [[Old Gringo|''Gringo Viejo'']] (''The Old Gringo''), a fictionalized account of Bierce's disappearance. Fuentes's keenly observed novel was later adapted as a [[film|motion picture]], with [[Gregory Peck]] in the title role.
Bierce appears as a character in the [[2000]] movie ''From Dusk Till Dawn 3: The Hangman's Daughter'' (set in [[1913]], a [[prequel]] to the original ''[[From Dusk Till Dawn]]''). While traveling to join up with Villa, Bierce is first attacked by bandits, and then trapped in a bar filled with vampires bent on killing all the humans inside. This clearly fictional adventure also portrayed Bierce as an alcoholic. In that movie Ambrose Bierce was played by [[Michael Parks]].
Bierce appears as a character in [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s novella ''[[Lost Legacy]]'', (published in the short story collection ''[[Assignment in Eternity]]''). In the story, Bierce is one of a league of humans who have learned to use the unused portions of their brains and have advanced mental powers.
Bierce appears as the main character and narrator in the story ''The Oxoxoco Bottle'' by [[Gerald Kersh]]. The bulk of the story purports to be a manuscript written by Bierce on his last journey in Mexico, and relates a very strange adventure. The manner of his death, however, remains a mystery at the end.
Bierce is depicted as a detective in series of mystery novels by [[Oakley Hall]], including ''Ambrose Bierce and the Queen of Spades'' and ''Ambrose Bierce and the Death of Kings''.
In [[DC Comics]]'s miniseries ''[[Stanley and His Monster]]'', Bierce (or at least a character claiming to be Bierce) appears as a sardonic trenchcoat-clad adventurer into the supernatual, very similar to [[John Constantine]]; although Bierce derides Constantine as a "clown," he admits that he and Constantine are but two of several trenchcoated occult adventurers at large in the world, perhaps an implication by the writer that the archetype of the sarcastic commentator on the occult, exemplified by Constantine, can be traced back to Bierce as narrator of his own horror stories. When the comic book Bierce learns that the boy Stanley's friend, the nameless Monster, is a demon, he considers vanquishing him but soon realizes that the Monster is a benevolent demon and instead helps Stanley and his friend against other demons.
== Primary books ==
* Tales of Soldiers and Civilians (a.k.a., In the Midst of Life) (1892)
* Can Such Things Be? (1893)
* Collected Works (1909)
== External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://donswaim.com/ The Ambrose Bierce Site]
* [http://www.biercephile.com The Ambrose Bierce Appreciation Society]
* [http://www.ambrosebierce.org The Ambrose Bierce Project]
* [http://ojinaga.com/bierce/ "Ambrose Bierce, 'the Old Gringo': Fact, Fiction and Fantasy"]
* [http://www.rjgeib.com/thoughts/bierce/ambrose-bierce.html One of Bierce's last letters]
* [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Bierce_e.htm Biography and quotes of Ambrose Bierce]
* [http://bitterbierce.blogspot.com Waking Ambrose: Modern Adjustments of the Devil's Dictionary]
* [http://alangullette.com/lit/bierce/ Ambrose Bierce]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Ambrose_Bierce|name=Ambrose Bierce}}
* [http://librivox.org/the-parenticide-club-by-ambrose-bierce/ Free audiobook of ''The Parenticide Club''] from [http://librivox.org LibriVox]
* [http://librivox.org/present-at-a-hanging-by-ambrose-bierce/ Free audiobook of ''Present at a Hanging and Other Ghost Stories''] from [http://librivox.org LibriVox]
* [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-002/ Free audiobook of ''Baby Tramp''] from [http://www.librivox.org Librivox]
* [http://www.authorsden.com/visit/viewarticle.asp?AuthorID=6714&id=19053 The Malignancy of Nature in Bierce's Horror Stories ]
* [http://wiredforbooks.org/bierce/ A reading of "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge" and a discussion of the life and writing of Ambrose Bierce - RealAudio]
*[http://www.cosmoetica.com/B313-DES253.htm Essay on Bierce's short stories]
*[http://alangullette.com/lit/bierce/ Alan Gulette's Bierce page]
[[Category:1842 births|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:American poets|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:American journalists|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:American columnists|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:American satirists|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:American horror writers|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:Disappeared people|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:Hearst Corporation people|Bierce, Ambroce]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[da:Ambrose Bierce]]
[[de:Ambrose Bierce]]
[[es:Ambrose Bierce]]
[[eo:Ambrose BIERCE]]
[[fr:Ambrose Bierce]]
[[it:Ambrose Bierce]]
[[hu:Ambrose Bierce]]
[[nl:Ambrose Bierce]]
[[ja:アンブローズ・ビアス]]
[[pl:Ambrose Bierce]]
[[pt:Ambrose Bierce]]
[[ru:Бирс, Амброуз Гуиннетт]]
[[th:แอมโบรส เบียร์ซ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexis Carrel</title>
<id>1051</id>
<revision>
<id>41982130</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:58:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.151.66.33</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Alleged influence on the rise of Islamism */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{POV-check}}
[[image:Alexis_Carrel.jpg|thumb|right|Alexis Carrel]]
'''Alexis Carrel''' ([[June 28]] [[1873]] &ndash; [[November 5]] [[1944]]) was a French surgeon and biologist. He was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1912]]. Born and educated in [[Lyon, France]]. He practiced in France and the United States (University of Chicago and the Rockefeller Institute). He developed new techniques in vascular sutures and was a pioneer in [[transplantology]] and [[thoracic surgery]]. He was a member of [[learned societies]] in the [[United States|United States of America]], [[Spain]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Vatican City]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[Greece]] and received honorary doctorates from the Universities of [[Belfast]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]], [[California]], [[New York]], [[B |
]], were also supplanted in other areas.
There are two basic theories of Bantu origins. The first was advanced by [[Joseph Greenberg]] in [[1963]]. He had analyzed and compared several hundred African languages and found that a group of languages spoken in Southeastern [[Nigeria]] were the most closely related to Bantu. He theorized that Bantu was one of these languages that spread south and east over hundreds of years.
This was quickly challenged by [[Malcolm Guthrie]] who analyzed each Bantu language and found that the most stereotypical were those spoken in [[Zambia]] and in the southern [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (DRC). This provided the alternate theory that Bantu speakers had spread from this location in all directions.
[[Image:Bantu_expansion.png|thumb|200px|right|One common hypothesis of the [[Bantu expansion]]]]
Today the accepted truth is a synthesis of these theories. The Bantu first originated around the [[Benue River|Benue]]-[[Cross River|Cross]] rivers area in southeastern Nigeria and spread over Africa to the Zambia area. Sometime in the [[2nd millennium BC|second millennium BC]], perhaps triggered by the drying of the [[Sahara]] and pressure from the migration of Saharans into the region, they were forced to expand into the [[rainforest]]s of central Africa (phase I). About 1000 years later they began a more rapid second phase of expansion beyond the forests into southern and eastern Africa. Then sometime in the first millennium new agricultural techniques and plants were developed in Zambia, likely imported from [[South East Asia]] via [[Malay language|Malay]] speaking [[Madagascar]]. With these techniques another Bantu expansion occurred centered on this new location (phase III).
By about 1,000 AD it had reached modern day [[Zimbabwe]] and [[South Africa]]. In Zimbabwe the first major southern hemisphere empire was established, with its capital at [[Great Zimbabwe]]. It controlled trading routes from South Africa to north of the [[Zambezi]], trading gold, copper, precious stones, animal hides, ivory and metal goods with the Arab traders of the [[Swahili]] coast. By the 14th or 15th centuries the Empire had surpassed its resources and had collapsed, with the city of Great Zimbabwe being abandoned.
==Bantu in South Africa==
===Usage===
Black [[South Africa]]ns were at times officially called "Bantus" by the [[apartheid]] [[regime]]. Nowadays in [[Southern Africa]], the term "Bantu" is no longer used to refer to a people. The more common and polite term is "Black" and in fact legislation and documents from the South African government replaced "Bantu" with "Black". In Southern African contexts, the term Bantu in reference to people is considered offensive due to its tie with apartheid, and its linguistic connotation prevails. Outside Southern Africa however it is still widely used as a term for the Bantu-speaking peoples.
=== History ===
When [[Jan van Riebeeck]] went around the coast of South Africa in [[1652]], very few Bantu speakers were found there, and the predominant indigenous population around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] was made up of [[Khoisan]] people. European settlers following Van Riebeeck, mostly from Holland, French [[Huguenot]]s and [[Germany|German]] settlers, known in the past as [[Boer]]s (but the most commonly accepted term today is [[Afrikaner|Afrikaners]]), moved in over a period of 100 years, from the middle of the 1700s. Only around [[1770]] did the Boers discover the Bantu, although in 1700s they were the main inhabitants of [[Southern Africa]]. During the 1800s many battles were fought between these ethnic peoples and the white settlers, now including the British.
By the time [[Great Zimbabwe]] had ceased being the capital of a large trading empire Bantu peoples had completed their colonization of southern Africa, with only the western and northern areas of the Cape not dominated by them. Two main groups developed, the [[Nguni]] ([[Xhosa]], [[Zulu]], [[Swazi]]), who occupied the eastern coastal plains, and the [[Sotho-Tswana]] who lived on the interior plateau.
In the late 18th and early 19th century two major events occurred. The Xhosa, the most southerly tribe, who had been gradually migrating south west made the first tentative contact with the Dutch Trek, gradually trekking northeast from the Cape colony.
At the same time major events were taking place further north in modern day [[KwaZulu]]. At that time the area was populated by dozens of small clans, one of which was the Zulu, then a particularly small clan of no local distinction whatsoever.
In 1816 [[Shaka]] acceded to the Zulu throne. Within a year he had conquered the neighboring clans, and had made the Zulu into the most important ally of the large [[Mthethwa]] clan, which was in competition with the [[Ndwandwe]] clan for domination of the northern part of modern day [[KwaZulu-Natal]].
He also initiated many military, social, cultural and political reforms, creating a well organized centralized Zulu state. The most important of these were the transformation of the army, thanks to innovative tactics and weapons he conceived, and a showdown with the spiritual leadership, clipping the wings, claws and fangs of the witchdoctors, effectively ensuring the subservience of the "Zulu church" to the state.
Another important reform was to integrate defeated clans into the Zulu, on a basis of full equality, with promotions in the army and civil service being a matter of merit rather than circumstance of birth.
After the death of Mthethwa king [[Dingiswayo]] around 1818, at the hands of [[Zwide]] king of the Ndwandwe, Shaka assumed leadership of the entire Mtetwa alliance. The alliance under his leadership survived Zwide's first assault at the [[Battle of Gqokli Hill]]. Within two years he had defeated Zwide at the [[Battle of Mhlatuze River]] and broken up the Ndwandwe alliance, some of whom in turn began a murderous campaign against other Nguni tribes and clans, setting in motion what has come to be known as Defecane or [[Mfecane]], a mass migration of tribes fleeing the Zulu. By 1825 he had conquered a huge empire covering a vast area from the sea in the east to the Drakensberg mountains in the west, and from the [[Pongola River]] in the north to the Bashee river in the south, not far from the modern day city of East London.
An offshoot of the Zulu, the Khumalos, better known to history as the [[Matabele]] created under their king, [[Mzilikazi]] an even larger empire, including large parts of the highveld and modern day [[Zimbabwe]].
Shaka, who had had contacts with English explorers realized that the white man posed a threat to local populations, and had planned to begin an intensive program of education to enable the Nguni people to catch up with the Europeans. However in 1828 he was assassinated by his half brother [[Dingane]], who succeeded him. A weak leader, Dingane was defeated by the Boers, however under his successors [[Mpande]] (another half-brother) and Mpande's son [[Cetshwayo]] the Zulu were able to rebuff Boer attempts to conquer them. He handed the British army the worst defeat it ever suffered at the hands of a non-European fighting force at the [[Battle of Isandlwana]], at great cost to his [[impi]]s, before succumbing to modern European military technology.
Black [[South Africa]]ns were at times officially called "Bantus" by the [[apartheid]] [[regime]]. Nowadays in [[Southern Africa]], the term "Bantu" is no longer used to refer to a people. The more common and polite term is "Black" and in fact legislation and documents from the South African government replaced "Bantu" with "Black". In Southern African contexts, the term Bantu in reference to people is considered offensive due to its tie with apartheid, and its linguistic connotation prevails. Outside Southern Africa however it is still widely used as a term for the Bantu-speaking peoples.
===Social organization===
The Bantu were divided into different [[clan]]s, not around [[national]] [[federation]]s, but independent groups from some hundreds to thousands of individuals.
The smallest unit of the Bantu organisational structure was the [[household]], or [[Kraal]], consisting of a man, woman or women, and their children, as well as other relatives living in the same household. The man was the head of the household and often had many wives; he had complete authority over the family. The household and close relations generally played an important role. Households which lived in the same valley or on the same hill were also an organisational unit, managed by a sub-chief.
The chief was [[hereditary]]. With most clans the eldest son inherited the office of his father. With some clans the office was left to the oldest brother of the deceased chief, and after his death again the next oldest brother. This repeated until the last brother died. Next was the eldest son of the original chieftain; then the oldest one of the brothers as the leader. The chief was surrounded with a number of trusted friends or advisors, usually relatives like uncles and brothers, rather than influential Headmen or personal friends. The degree of the [[democracy]] depended on the strength of the [[chieftain]]. The more powerful and more influential a chieftain was, the lesser the influence of his people. Although the leader had much power, he was not above the [[law]]. He could be criticized both by advisors as well as by his people, and compensation could be demanded.
===Ethnic partitioning===
The Bantu peoples of South Africa are ''roughly'' "divided" into four main groups: [[Nguni]], [[Sotho]], [[Venda|Vhavenda]] and [[Shangana Tsonga]], with the Nguni representing the largest group. These are divided as follows:
* [[Nguni]]
** Northern Nguni
*** [[Swazi|maSwati]]
*** [[Zulu|amaZulu]]
*** [[Ngoni people|Ngoni]] |
ssing the left mouse button, or to invoke ROMWack by pressing the right mouse button. (ROMWack is a minimalist debugger built into the operating system which is accessible by connecting a 9600 bit/s terminal to the [[serial port]]).
[[Image:Guru_meditation.gif|frame|center|A simulation of the Guru Meditation error message]]
The alert itself appears as a black rectangular box located in the upper portion of the screen. Its border and text is red for a normal Guru Meditation, or green/yellow for a [[Recoverable Alert]], another kind of Guru Meditation. The screen goes black, and the power and disk-activity [[LED]]s may blink immediately before the alert appears. In [[AmigaOS]] 1.x, programmed in [[Read-only memory|ROM]]s known as Kickstart 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3, the errors are always red. In AmigaOS 2.x and 3.x, recoverable alerts are yellow, except for some very early versions of 2.x where they were green. Dead-end alerts are red in all OS versions.
This error is sometimes referred to colloquially as a "trip to [[India]]" or just "alert".
The alert occurred when there was a fatal problem with the system. If the system had no means of recovery, it could display the alert, even in systems with numerous critical flaws. In extreme cases, the alert could even be displayed if the system's memory was completely exhausted.
The error is displayed as two fields, separated by a period.
The first field is either the [[Motorola_68000#Interrupts|Motorola 68000 exception]] number that occurred or an internal error identifier
(such as an 'Out of Memory' code). The second can be the address of a ''Task'' structure, a special error code, or a meaningless value. It is never the address of the code that caused the error.
The text of the alert messages was completely baffling to most users. Only highly technically adept Amiga users would know, for example, that exception 3 was an address error, and meant the program was accessing a word on an unaligned boundary. Users without this specialized knowledge would have no recourse but to look for a "Guru" or to simply reboot the machine and hope for the best.
== Origins ==
The term comes from the early days of the [[Amiga|Amiga corporation]], and is partly an in-house joke. One of the early products produced by Amiga was the ''[[joyboard]]'', a game controller much like a [[joystick]] but supposed to be operated by one's feet. It was sold with the skiing game ''Mogul Maniac'' for the [[Atari 2600]] game computer. When the Amiga OS crashed, the programmer working with it would sit down cross-legged on the joyboard, trying to keep it in balance thus resembling an Indian [[guru]].
The Guru Meditation error was removed from subsequent versions of the Amiga ROM (Kickstart), but some users chose to patch it back in.
== Trivia ==
The blinking border of the original guru meditation number
was created by writing the border in black 6,809 times and then
writing it in red 6,809 times. This was in honor of the [[Motorola 6809]],
a popular CPU that was a favorite of the system designers.
== Later versions of AmigaOS ==
Since version 4.0 (Beta) of the OS, many alerts are replaced by an error handler known as
"The Grim Reaper". The Grim Reaper displays the task which caused an error and the
nature of the error (illegal memory access etc.), whereupon it presents the user with
several options such as suspending/killing the task, displaying more information such
as a register dump or attaching a debugger (gdb).
== See also ==
*[[Black screen of death]]
*[[Blue Screen of Death]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.atariage.com/controller_page.html?SystemID=2600&ControllerID=11 Joyboard Controller]
*[http://www.guru-meditation.net Guru Meditation] (the introduction page contains an image of the effect)
[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]
[[Category:Screens of death]]
[[de:Guru-Meditation]]
[[fr:Guru Meditation]]
[[fi:Guru Meditation]]
[[sv:Guru meditation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gnumeric</title>
<id>13051</id>
<revision>
<id>41266694</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T04:23:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.68.231.48</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software|
name = Gnumeric
|screenshot = [[Image:Gnumeric 1.4.2 Ubuntu.png|250px]]
|caption = Gnumeric 1.4.2 under [[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]]
|developer = GNOME Office team
|latest_release_version = 1.6.2
|latest_release_date = [[February]], [[2006]]
|operating_system = [[Cross-platform]]
|genre = [[Spreadsheet]]
|license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]
|website = [http://gnome.org/projects/gnumeric/ gnome.org/projects/gnumeric/]
}}
'''Gnumeric''' is a [[free software|free]] [[spreadsheet]] program that is part of the [[GNOME]] desktop. It is intended to be a free replacement for [[proprietary software|proprietary]] spreadsheet programs such as [[Microsoft Excel]], which it broadly and openly emulates. Gnumeric was created and developed by [[Miguel de Icaza]], but he has since moved on to other projects. Gnumeric is currently maintained by [[Jody Goldberg]][http://www.gnome.org/~jody/blog].
Gnumeric has the ability to import and export data in several file formats, including Excel, [[Open Office]], [[XML]], [[HTML]], [[Applix]], [[Quattro Pro]], [[PlanPerfect]], [[Sylk]], [[DIF]] ([[Data Interchange Format]]), [[Oleo (spreadsheet)|Oleo]], [[SC (spreadsheet)|SC]], [[StarOffice]], and [[Lotus 1-2-3]]. Its native format is XML, compressed with [[gzip]].
Other popular spreadsheet programs are limited to 256 columns and 65,536 rows, but Gnumeric can be [[Compiler|compiled]] from source code that allow users to change these limits (as [[RAM]] permits).
Gnumeric includes all the spreadsheet functions of the North American version of [[Microsoft Excel]] and many more functions unique to Gnumeric. [[Pivot table]]s are not yet supported but are planned for future versions.
The Gnumeric developers pride themselves on the accuracy of their software; Gnumeric has established a niche among people using it for [[statistical analysis]] and other [[scientific]] tasks. For improving the accuracy of Gnumeric the developers are cooperating with the [[R programming language|R Project]].
==Versions==
[[Gnumeric]] is released under the terms of the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL).
*Gnumeric versions up to and including version 1.0.x use [[GTK+]]1. Gnumeric version 1.0 was released [[December 31]] [[2001]]
*Gnumeric versions from 1.1 up to and including version 1.4 use GTK+2.
*Gnumeric version 1.4 was the first version available for [[Microsoft Windows]]
*Gnumeric version 1.6 was also available for the [[ARM architecture]], used in handheld device such as Nokia770[http://etrunko.blogspot.com/2005/12/gnumeric-package-for-nokia-770.html].
== See also ==
*[[Microsoft_Excel#Excel_file_format_information|Excel file format information]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.gnome.org/projects/gnumeric/ Gnumeric homepage]
*[http://www.gnome.org/projects/gnumeric/doc/index.html Gnumeric manual]
*GNOMEDesktop.org: [http://gnomedesktop.org/taxonomy/term/39 Gnumeric news feed]
===Study and Articles===
*[http://www.csdassn.org/reportdetail.cfm?ID=508 Fixing Statistical Errors in Spreadsheet Software: The Cases of Gnumeric and Excel]
*[http://desktoplinux.com/articles/AT3642020036.html DesktopLinux.com interviews Gnumeric project leader Jody Goldberg]
*[http://software.newsforge.com/article.pl?sid=05/05/05/1538249 FOSS spreadsheet hands-on comparison] by [http://members.axion.net/~bbyfield/ Bruce Byfield]
[[Category:Domain-specific programming languages]]
[[Category:Numerical programming languages]]
[[Category:Free spreadsheets]]
[[Category:GNOME]]
[[cs:Gnumeric]]
[[de:Gnumeric]]
[[es:Gnumeric]]
[[fr:Gnumeric]]
[[nl:Gnumeric]]
[[ja:Gnumeric]]
[[pl:Gnumeric]]
[[sv:Gnumeric]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU Debugger</title>
<id>13052</id>
<revision>
<id>41431624</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T07:10:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adrian</username>
<id>103917</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguating from [[John Gilmore]] to [[John Gilmore (advocate)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''GNU Debugger''', usually called just '''GDB''', is the standard [[debugger]] for the [[GNU]] software system. It is a portable debugger that runs on many [[Unix-like]] systems and works for many [[programming language]]s, including [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]], and [[Fortran programming language|FORTRAN]].
==History==
Originally written by [[Richard Stallman]] in [[1988]], GDB is [[free software]] released under the [[GNU General Public License]].
From 1990 to 1993 it was maintained by [[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]] while he worked for [[Cygnus Solutions]].
==Technical details==
===Features===
GDB offers extensive facilities for tracing and altering the execution of [[computer program]]s. The user can monitor and modify the values of programs' internal [[variable]]s, and even call [[function (programming)|functions]] independently of the program's normal behavior.
GDB target processors (as of [[2003]]) include:
[[DEC Alpha|Alpha]], [[ARM architecture|ARM]], [[Hitachi H8|H8/300]], [[System/370]], [[System 390]], [[X86]] and [[X86-64]], [[Itanium|IA-64]] "Itanium", [[Motorola 68000]], [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]],[[PA-RISC]], [[PowerPC]], [[SuperH]], [[SPARC]], [[VAX]].
Lesser-known target processors supported in the standard release have included [[A29K]], [[Advanced RISC Computing|ARC]], [[AVR]], [[CRIS]], [[D10V]], [[D30V]], [[FR-30]], [[FR-V]], [[Intel i960]], [[M32R]], [[Motorola 68HC11|68HC11]], [[Motorola 88000]], [[MCORE]], [[MN10200]], [[MN10300]], [[320xx microprocessor|NS32K]], [[Stormy16]], [[V850]], [[VAX]], and [[Zilog Z8000|Z8000]]. (Newer releases will likely not include some of these.)
|
d hopes that Berlin would resume a role as Germany’s financial centre; most banks established headquarters in [[Frankfurt]]. In East Berlin, central planners rebuilt a manufacturing sector, but one that was not competitive internationally or responsive to market demand. West Berlin’s economy grew increasingly dependent on state subsidies and on its role as an educational and research centre.
Berlin’s and Germany’s unification brought the collapse of many of East Berlin’s producers, which could not compete with market-disciplined Western competitors. Massive unemployment was only partly compensated by the growth of jobs in the construction and infrastructural sectors involved in rebuilding and upgrading East Berlin’s infrastructure. The arrival of the federal government in 1999 brought some economic stimulus to Berlin. Berlin’s service sectors have also benefited from improved transportation and communications links to the surrounding region. The service sectors have become the city’s economic mainstay.
[[Image:Sony_Center_Berlin.jpg |250px|thumb|left|Berlin’s Sony Center and newly built corporate offices, 2005]]
===Economic structure and trends===
Berlin's economy has shrunk over the past decade. The gross state product totaled €77.9 billion in 2004. This compares with €77.4 billion in 1995. Correcting for the effects of inflation, however, this represents an 11% reduction in the size of Berlin's economy over 9 years.
The biggest declines came in the construction and manufacturing sectors. Construction registered a real decline of 64.2% between 1995 and 2004, a decline that coincides with the completion of a range of projects for modernizing the eastern boroughs' infrastructure, improving links between the western boroughs and their neighbours, and building new government and corporate offices. Meanwhile, the city’s manufacturing sector continued a gradual decline, shrinking by 24.3% in real terms over the 9-year period.
Berlin’s service sectors were somewhat more robust, growing 7.4% in nominal terms from 1995 to 2004, but declining by 5.0% over the same period after adjusting for inflation. Tourism, transport, and communications each showed substantial declines of more than 10% in real terms over this period. In fact, the only sector of Berlin’s economy to grow in inflation-adjusted terms between 1995 and 2004 was the real estate sector, which grew by 3.5% over the 9-year period. Other service sectors showed modest declines in inflation-adjusted terms.
In terms of composition, Berlin's gross state product in 2004 was dominated by the service sectors, which made up 76.9% of the economy. The largest service sectors were real estate (29.2%) and government services (28.3%). Goods-producing sectors accounted for 16.2% of the economy, with manufacturing alone accounting for 10.5% and construction for 2.9%. Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries made up 0.1% of the economy. Imputed banking fees made up 3.0% of the city’s economy. Net government transfers and subsidies accounted for the remainder (9.7%) of Berlin's gross state product.
Before the reunification of Germany and the two Berlins in 1990, West Berlin received substantial subsidies from the West German state to compensate for its geographic isolation from West Germany. Many of those subsidies were phased out after 1990. The reduced financial support for the city and its gradual economic decline have produced fiscal difficulties for Berlin's city government and forced it to cut funding for various programs.
==Infrastructure==
As Germany's largest city, and one of the largest cities in Europe, Berlin developed a complex transportation and energy-supply infrastructure before World War II. After the war, West Berlin was cut off from the surrounding territory and had to develop independent infrastructures. Meanwhile, the government of East Germany built rail lines and highways that allowed traffic between East Berlin and the western part of East Germany to bypass West Berlin. The political reunification of East and West Berlin has led to the reintegration of Berlin's transportation and energy-supply with the infrastructures of the surrounding region.
===Public transport and rail lines===
{{commons|Berlin U-Bahn|Berlin U-Bahn}}
{{commons|Berlin S-Bahn|Berlin S-Bahn}}
[[Image:Karte sbahn berlin.png|thumb|400px|Berlin's S-Bahn network]]Public transport within Berlin is provided by the [[Berlin S-Bahn|S-Bahn]]—operated by the firm S-Bahn Berlin—and by the [[Berlin U-Bahn|U-Bahn]], [[Berlin Straßenbahn|Straßenbahn]], [[Berlin Bus|bus]], and ferries—operated by the [[Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe]], or BVG. The S-Bahn is a mostly aboveground urban railway system. The U-Bahn is the city's mainly underground metro or subway system. The Straßenbahn is a tram (trolley) system that operates mainly in eastern Berlin. Buses provide extensive service linking outlying districts with the city centre and the U-Bahn and S-Bahn. Almost all means of public transport—U- & S- Bahn, trams, buses and most ferries—can be accessed with the same ticket.
As the network map at the right shows, the inner city is crossed from east to west by the elevated main line (''Stadtbahn''), which carries S-Bahn trains as well as regional and long-distance trains. This main line passes through most of the city's long-distance and regional train stations, including Charlottenburg, Zoologischer Garten (Zoo), [[Berlin Lehrter Bahnhof|Lehrter Bahnhof–Hauptbahnhof]], Friedrichstrasse, Alexanderplatz, and Ostbahnhof. Along the north-south axis, the U-Bahn 9 line carries the largest passenger volume, supplemented by the north-south line of the S-Bahn. The north-south and east-west lines of the S-Bahn cross at Friedrichstrasse.
The last key component of Berlin's rail network is the S-Bahn ring (''Ringbahn'') that forms a circle around the inner city and crosses the main line at Westkreuz (“west crossing”) and Ostkreuz (“east crossing”). A number of regional and regional express lines connect Berlin with the surrounding region. The city is also served by the freight railyard at Seddin, south of Potsdam.
There are useful online resources for getting around Berlin using public transport, such as the [http://www.fahrinfo-berlin.de/fahrinfo/bin/query.bin/en?L=bvg&ld=bvg4&L=bvg&seqnr=1 route planner] or a map of the current [http://www.bvg.de/index.php/de/Common/Document/field/file/id/68 public transport network]. See also [[List of Berlin metro stations]].
[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin Gleisdreieck.JPG|thumb|left|400px|The U-Bahn station at Gleisdreieck]]Long-distance rail lines connect Berlin with all of the major cities of Germany and with many cities in neighbouring European countries. Regional rail lines provide access to the surrounding region of Brandenburg and eastern Germany.
Berlin was, pre-1945, the hub of the central European [[railway]] network. [[World War Two]] and the political division of Germany disrupted Berlin's railway network. Today only two pre-1945 long-distance stations, [[Berlin Ostbahnhof|Ostbahnhof]] and [[Berlin-Zoologischer Garten station|Zoologischer Garten]], remain in service. In the early 1950s, in an effort by the East German government to isolate West Berlin, railway services were diverted away from termini in West Berlin . The following stations became disused and were demolished during the 1950s and 1960s.
*[[Berlin Anhalter Bahnhof|Anhalter Bahnhof]]
*[[Berlin Stettiner Bahnhof|Stettiner Bahnhof]]
*[[Berlin Görlitzer Bahnhof|Görlitzer Bahnhof]]
*[[Berlin Potsdamer Bahnhof|Potsdamer Bahnhof]]
*[[Berlin Lehrter Bahnhof|Lehrter Bahnhof]]
===Motorways===
Berlin's inner city is partly surrounded by a [[motorway]] (superhighway, expressway, or [[freeway]]), the A 100, that forms a half circle to the west of the centre. There are plans to extend this motorway to form a full circle around the inner city. The A 10 motorway forms a full circle around the exterior of Berlin.
From the A 100, within the city, the following motorways extend outward to the A 10 and beyond:
* A 111 to the northwest (toward [[Hamburg]] and [[Rostock]])
* A 113 to the southeast (toward [[Dresden]] and [[Cottbus]]). This motorway currently begins in the far southeastern part of Berlin. By 2007, the connection to the A 100, currently under construction, should be complete.
* A 115 to the southwest (toward [[Hannover]] and [[Leipzig]]). The segment of this motorway inside the A 10 is still commonly known as the Avus.
In addition, in the northern part of the city, the A 114 runs from [[Pankow]] to and beyond the A 10 toward [[Szczecin]] in Poland.
===Airports===
Berlin has three commercial airports—[[Tegel International Airport]] (TXL), [[Tempelhof International Airport]] (THF), and [[Schönefeld International Airport]] (SXF). Schönefeld lies just outside Berlin's southeastern border in the state of Brandenburg, while the other two airports lie within the city. Tempelhof handles only short-distance and commuter flights, and there are plans to close the airport and transfer its traffic to Berlin's other two airports. There are longer-term plans to close Tegel as well. Schönefeld is currently undergoing expansion. Berlin's airport authority aims to transfer all of Berlin's air traffic sometime after 2010 to a greatly expanded airport at Schönefeld, to be renamed [[Berlin Brandenburg International Airport]]. However, some residents of Berlin and Brandenburg oppose the planned expansion of service at Schönefeld. For more information on Berlin's airports, see the website of [http://www.berlin-airport.de/PubEnglish/index.php Berlin Airports].
===Canals and ports===
Berlin is linked to the [[Baltic Sea]], the [[North Sea]], and the River [[Rhine]] by an extensive network of rivers and canals. The Elbe-Havel Kanal links the River Havel, flowing from Berlin, both with the River [[Elbe]]—which flows into the North Sea at Hamburg—and with the [[Mittellandkanal]], which stretches across Germany |
ore heirs, these never came to anything. On his death in 1509, he was succeeded by his second, more famous son, [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] (1509&ndash;47).
==Descendants==
Henry VII's elder daughter [[Margaret Tudor|Margaret]] was married first to [[James IV of Scotland]] (1488&ndash;1513), and their son became [[James V of Scotland]] (1513&ndash;42), whose daughter became [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]]. By means of this marriage, Henry VII hoped to break the [[Auld Alliance]] between Scotland and France. Margaret Tudor's second marriage was to Archibald Douglas; their grandson, [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]] married [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]]. Their son, [[James VI of Scotland]] (1567&ndash;1625), inherited the throne of England as [[James I of England|James I]] (1603&ndash;25) after the death of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. Henry VII's other surviving daughter, [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary]], married first King [[Louis XII of France]] (1498&ndash;1515) and then, when he died of too much honeymooning, [[Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk]]. Their daughter Frances married Henry Grey, and her children included [[Lady Jane Grey]], in whose name her parents and in-laws tried to seize the throne after [[Edward VI of England]] (1547&ndash;53) died.
King Henry VII is buried at [[Westminster Abbey]].
== Bibliography ==
* ''Henry VII'' by S. B. Chrimes & George Bernard ([[1972]])
* ''Henry VII'' by Jocelyn Hunt & Carolyn Towle ([[1998]])
* ''Henry VII'' by Roger Turvey & Caroline Steinsberg ([[2000]])
* ''The Son of Prophecy: Henry Tudor's Road to Bosworth'' ([[1985]]) by David Rees (ISBN 0851590055) is a discussion of how Henry's return to [[Wales]] was regarded by some as the fulfillment of a Messianic prophecy.
==External links==
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Henry-VII-England.biog.html Henry VII World History Database]
==See also==
*[[List of monarchs in the British Isles]]
{{start box}}
{{succession box two to two|
before=[[Richard III of England|Richard III]]|
title1=[[List of British monarchs|King of England]]|
years1=[[1485]]&ndash;[[1509]]|
title2=[[Lordship of Ireland|Lord of Ireland]]|
years2=[[1485]]&ndash;[[1509]]|
after=[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1457 births]]
[[Category:1509 deaths]]
[[Category:Welsh people]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
[[Category:History of Wales]]
[[Category:Wars of the Roses]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of England]]
[[Category:House of Tudor]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic monarchs]]
[[Category:Historical figures portrayed by Shakespeare]]
[[ar:هنري السابع من إنكلترا]]
[[cs:Jindřich VII.]]
[[cy:Harri VII o Loegr]]
[[de:Heinrich VII. (England)]]
[[es:Enrique VII de Inglaterra]]
[[fr:Henri VII d'Angleterre]]
[[he:הנרי השביעי מלך אנגליה]]
[[kw:Henry VII a Bow Sows]]
[[la:Henricus VII Angliae Rex]]
[[mr:हेन्री सातवा]]
[[nl:Hendrik VII van Engeland]]
[[ja:ヘンリー7世 (イングランド王)]]
[[no:Henrik VII av England]]
[[pl:Henryk VII Tudor]]
[[pt:Henrique VII de Inglaterra]]
[[ru:Генрих VII (король Англии)]]
[[simple:Henry VII of England]]
[[fi:Henrik VII (Englanti)]]
[[sv:Henrik VII av England]]
[[uk:Генріх VІІ (король Англії)]]
[[zh:亨利七世 (英格兰)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry VIII of England</title>
<id>14187</id>
<revision>
<id>42093586</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:03:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.96.69.118</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
|
{| class="infobox" style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;font-size:90%;clear:right;" cellspacing="5"
|+ style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | '''His Majesty King Henry VIII'''
|-
| colspan="2" style="padding-bottom:1em;text-align:center;" | [[Image:Hans Holbein d. J. 049.jpg|200px]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Reign'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[22 April]][[1509]] - [[28 January]][[1547]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Predecessor'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Successor'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Spouses'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[Catherine of Aragon]]<br>[[Anne Boleyn]]<br>[[Jane Seymour]]<br>[[Anne of Cleves]]<br>[[Catherine Howard]]<br>[[Catherine Parr]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Issue'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[Mary I of England|Mary I]]<br>[[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]<br>[[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Royal House'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[House of Tudor|Tudor]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Father'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Mother'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[Elizabeth of York]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Born'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[28 June]], [[1491]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Died'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[28 January]], [[1547]]
|}
|-
|{{House of Tudor}}
|}
'''Henry VIII''' ([[28 June]] [[1491]] &ndash; [[28 January]] [[1547]]) was [[Kingdom of England|King of England]] and [[Lordship of Ireland|Lord of Ireland]] (later [[King of Ireland]]) from [[22 April]] [[1509]] until his death. He was the second monarch of the [[Tudor dynasty]], succeeding his father, [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]. He is famous for having been [[Wives of Henry VIII|married six times]] and for wielding the most untrammeled power of any British monarch. Notable events during his reign included the break with [[Roman Catholic Church|Rome]] and the subsequent establishment of the independent [[Church of England]], the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], and the union of [[England]] and [[Wales]].
Several significant pieces of legislation were enacted during Henry VIII's reign. They included the several Acts which severed the English Church from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] <!--He broke with ROMAN Catholicism but not with Catholicism. Edward VI broke with Catholicism.--> and established Henry as the supreme head of the Church in England, the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]] (which united England and Wales into one nation), the [[Buggery Act 1533]], the first anti-[[sodomy]] enactment in England; and the [[Witchcraft Act|Witchcraft Act 1542]], which punished 'invoking or conjuring an evil spirit' with death.
Henry VIII is known to have been an avid [[gambling|gambler]] and [[dice]] player. He excelled at sport, especially jousting, hunting, and [[real tennis|royal tennis]], during his youth. He was also an accomplished musician, author, and [[poetry|poet]]; his best known piece of music is ''[[Pastyme With Good Company]]'' (The Kynges Ballade). Henry VIII was also involved in the construction-from-scratch and improvement of several significant buildings, including [[Nonsuch Palace]], [[King's College, Cambridge|King's College Chapel]] and [[Westminster Abbey]] - the existing buildings improved were often properties confiscated from [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey|Wolsey]] (such as [[Christ Church, Oxford]], [[Hampton Court Palace]] and [[palace of Whitehall]]).
==Early life==
[[Image:The Palace of Placentia.jpg|thumb|left|<small>The future Henry VIII was born at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich in 1491.</small>]]
Born at the [[Palace of Placentia]] at [[Greenwich]], Henry VIII was the third child of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] and [[Elizabeth of York]]. Only three of Henry VII's six siblings: [[Arthur, Prince of Wales|Arthur]] (the [[Prince of Wales]]), [[Margaret Tudor|Margaret]] and [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary]], survived infancy. His [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrian]] father acquired the throne by [[right of conquest]], his army defeating and killing the last [[Plantagenet]] king [[Richard III of England|Richard III]], but further solidified his hold by marrying Elizabeth, the daughter of the [[Yorkist]] king [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]]. In 1493, the young Henry was appointed Constable of [[Dover Castle]] and Lord Warden of the [[Cinque Ports]]. In 1494, he was created [[Duke of York]]. He was subsequently appointed [[Earl Marshal]] of England and [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]], though still a child.
In 1501 he attended the wedding of his elder brother Arthur and [[Catherine of Aragon]], who were at the time only about fifteen and sixteen years old, respectively. The two were sent to spend time in [[Wales]], as was customary for the heir-apparent and his wife, but Arthur caught an infection and died. Consequently, at the age of eleven, Henry, Duke of York, found himself heir-apparent to the Throne. Soon thereafter, he was created [[Prince of Wales]].
Henry VII was still eager to maintain the marital alliance between England and [[Spain]] through a marriage between Henry, Prince of Wales, and Catherine. Since the Prince of Wales sought to marry his brother's widow, he first had to obtain a dispensation from the [[Pope]] from the impediment of affinity. Catherine maintained that her first marriage was n |
igh Speed, has higher sustained data transfer rates, a feature especially important for audio and video editors.
However, the small royalty that Apple Computer and other [[patent]] holders have initially demanded from users of FireWire (US$0.25 per [[end-user]] system) and the more expensive hardware needed to implement it (US$1&ndash;$2) has prevented FireWire from displacing USB in low-end mass-market computer peripherals where cost of product is a major constraint.
[[Image:Firewire4-pin.jpg|thumb|A 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector. This connector is not powered.]]
FireWire can connect together up to 63 [[computer peripheral|peripherals]] in an [[directed acyclic graph|acyclic]] network structure (hubs, as opposed to [[SCSI]]'s linear structure). It allows [[peer-to-peer]] device communication, such as communication between a [[scanner (computing)|scanner]] and a [[computer printer|printer]], to take place without using system memory or the [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. FireWire also supports multiple [[host]]s per bus. USB requires a special [[chipset]] to perform the same function, effectively resulting in the need for a unique and expensive cable, whereas FireWire requires only a cable with the correct number of pins on either end - (normally 6). It is designed to support [[plug-and-play]] and [[hot swap]]ping. Its six-wire cable is not only more convenient than SCSI cables but can supply up to 45 [[watt|watts]] of power per port at 30 volt typically, allowing moderate-consumption devices to operate without a separate power cord. The Sony-branded i.Link usually omits the power part of the cable/connector system and uses a 4-pin connector. Power is provided by a separate power adaptor.
FireWire 400 can transfer data between devices at 100, 200, or 400 [[SI prefix|Mbit/s]] data rates (actually 98.304, 196.608, or 393.216 [[SI prefix|Mbit/s]], but commonly referred to as S100, S200, and S400). Although USB2 claims to be capable of higher speeds (480Mbit/s), FireWire is, in practice, faster. Cable length is limited to 4.5 [[metre]]s but up to 16 cables can be [[daisy chain]]ed yielding a total length of 72 meters under the specification.
FireWire 800 (Apple's name for the 9-pin "S800 bilingual" version of the IEEE1394b standard) was introduced commercially by Apple in [[2003]]. This newer 1394 specification and corresponding products allow a transfer rate of 786.432 [[SI prefix|Mbit/s]] with backwards compatibility to the slower rates and 6-pin connectors of FireWire 400.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:99plug_400.jpg|thumb|A 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector]] -->
The full IEEE 1394b specification supports optical connections up to 100 [[metre|metres]] in length and data rates all the way to 3.2 [[SI prefix|Gbit/s]]. Standard category-5 unshielded twisted pair supports 100 [[metre|metres]] at S100, and the new p1394c technology goes all the way to S800. The original 1394 and 1394a standards used [[Data strobe encoding|data/strobe (D/S) encoding]] (called ''legacy mode'') on the signal wires, while 1394b adds a data encoding scheme called [[8B10B]] (also referred to as ''beta mode''). With this new technology, FireWire, which was arguably already slightly faster, is now substantially faster than Hi-Speed [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]].
FireWire devices implement the [[ISO/IEC 13213]] "configuration ROM" model for device configuration and identification, to provide [[plug-and-play]] capability. All FireWire devices are identified by an IEEE [[EUI-64]] unique identifier (an extension of the 48-bit [[Ethernet]] [[MAC address]] format) in addition to well-known codes indicating the type of device and [[Protocol (computing)|protocols]] it supports.
==Networking over FireWire==
FireWire, with the help of software, is well-suited for creating ad-hoc (terminals only, no routers) networks.
[[Linux]], [[Windows XP]] and [[Mac OS X]] are popular [[operating system]]s that include support for networking over FireWire. A network between two computers can be created without a hub, much like the scanner to printer example above. Using one FireWire cable, data can be transferred quickly between the two computers with minimal networking configuration.
==Security issues==
Devices on a FireWire bus can communicate by [[direct memory access]], where a device can use hardware to map internal memory to FireWire's "Physical Memory Space". The SBP (serial bus protocol) used by FireWire disk drives use this capability to minimize interrupts and buffer copies. In SBP, the initiator (controlling device) sends a request by remotely writing a command into a specified area of the target's FireWire address space. This command usually includes buffer addresses in the initiator's FireWire "Physical Address Space", which the target is supposed to use for moving I/O data to and from the initiator.
On many implementations, particularly those like PCs and Macintoshes using the popular [[OHCI]] interface, the mapping between the FireWire "Physical Memory Space" and device physical memory is done in hardware, without operating system intervention. While this enables extremely high-speed and low-latency communication between data sources and sinks without unnecessary copying (such as between a video camera and a software video recording application, or between a disk drive and the application buffers), this can also be a security risk if untrustworthy devices are attached to the bus. For this reason, high-security installations will typically either purchase newer machines that map a [[virtual memory]] space to the FireWire "Physical Memory Space" (such as a G5 Macintosh, or any Sun workstation), disable the [[OHCI]] hardware mapping between FireWire and device memory, physically disable the entire FireWire interface, or do not have FireWire at all.
This feature can also be used to [[debug]] a machine whose operating system has crashed, and in some systems for remote-console operations.
==Node hierarchy==
FireWire devices are organized on the bus in a tree topology. Each device has a unique self-id. One of the nodes is elected root node and always has the highest id. The self-ids are assigned during the self-id process that happens after each bus-reset. The order in which the self-ids are assigned is equivalent to traversing the tree in a [[Depth-first search|depth-first]], post-order manner.
==Hot swap precautions==
Although FireWire devices can be [[Hot swap|hot-swapped]] without powering down equipment, there have been a few reports of cameras being damaged if the pins of the FireWire port are accidentally shorted while swapping. This was especially true for some early Firewire devices. However, modern Firewire devices have eliminated this problem. Furthermore, Firewire 800 ensures even greater safety when hot-swapping.
Because any hot-swappable computer device has a risk of [[short circuit]]ing, a user may wish to power off both the camcorder and computer before connecting a Firewire cable. Commercial grade equipment is less sensitive to being hot-plugged, although care should still be taken with any electronic device.
==History==
According to [[Michael Johas Teener]], original chair and editor of the IEEE 1394 standards document, and technical lead for Apple's FireWire team from [[1990]] until [[1996]]:
The original FireWire project name was "Chefcat", the name of Michael Teener's favorite coffee cup. The standard connectors used for FireWire are related to the connectors on the venerable [[Nintendo]] [[Game Boy]]. While not especially glamorous, the Game Boy connectors have proven reliable, solid, easy to use and immune to assault by small children.
FireWire is a trademark of Apple Computer, Inc. The trademark was filed in [[1993]]. The "FireWire" name was chosen by a group of engineers socializing before [[Comdex]] 1993, just before the project was about to go public. [[IBM]], Apple, [[Texas Instruments]], [[Western Digital]], [[Maxtor]] and [[Seagate]] were all showing drives, systems and other various FireWire support technology. The marketing forces behind the FireWire project had originally considered a name like "Performa".
FireWire won the "most significant new technology" award from [[Byte Magazine]] at the Comdex 1993 show.
During the period they participated with the IEEE p1394 working group, Apple proposed licensing all of their blocking patents for US$3,000, a one time fee only for "the point of first use" or the [[integrated circuits]] that implement the protocols. Furthermore, there was a discount if a contribution was made to the IEEE undergraduate scholarship fund. Under that agreement, the IEEE agreed to include the appropriate patents in the standard.
Apple never intended to charge for the use of the name "FireWire". It could be used by any party signing an agreement to use the name for a product that was compliant with IEEE 1394-1995, the original version of the standard. [[Steve Jobs]] was convinced that Apple should ask for US$1 per port for the patents that became part of the standard. The argument was that it was consistent with the [[MPEG]] patent fees.
The fallout from charging US$1 per FireWire port was significant, particularly from [[Intel]]. Intel had sunk a great deal of effort into the standard with the improved 1394a-2000 standard being partially based on work contributed by Intel. A group within Intel used this as a reason to drop 1394 support and bring out the improved [[USB 2.0]] instead.
Simultaneously, [[Sony]] and the other backers of the technology noted to Apple that they all had patents too and were entitled to per-port [[royalties]]. Under these circumstances, Apple would have to pay roughly US$15 per port to the other FireWire technology developers. The end result was the creation of the "1394 Licensing Authority", a body which charges |
t is the same God worshipped by [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]] and other [[prophets of Islam]]. In Islam, there is only one God and Muhammad is the last messenger.
The emphasis in Islamic culture on reciting the [[Qur'an]] in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] has resulted in ''Allāh'' often being used by [[Muslim]]s world-wide as the word for ''God'', regardless of their [[native language]]. Out of 114 [[Sura]]s in the [[Qur'an]], 113 begin with the [[Basmala]] ("Bismi 'llāhi 'r-rahmāni 'r-rahīm" بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم) which means "In the name of God, the most kind, the most merciful".
[[Muslim]]s, when referring to the name, often add the words "Subhanahu wa Ta`ala" after it, meaning "Glorified and Exalted is He" as a sign of reverence, or "`Azza wa Jalla" (عز و جل). The entire religion of [[Islam]] is based on the idea of getting closer to God. Although commonly referred to as a "He", God is considered genderless, but there is no [[neuter gender]] to express this in the Arabic language. When Greek or other [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] deities are discussed in Arabic, it is customary to use the expression ''ilāh'', a "deity" or lower-case "god"; sometimes the word ''ma`būd'', literally meaning "worshipped [entity]", is used instead.
===Uses of "Allāh" in phrases===
There are many [[List of Arabic phrases#Phrases with Allah's name|phrases]] that contain the word Allāh:
*[[Allahu Akbar|Allāhu Akbar]] (الله أكبر) (God is the greatest)
*[[A'uzu billahi minashaitanir rajim]] (I seek refuge in Allah from Shaitan, the damned)
*[[Basmala|Bismi-llāh]] (بسم الله) (In the name of God)
*[[Insha'Allah|Inshā'Allāh]] (إن شاء الله) (God-willing)
:also the origin of the common [[Spanish language|Spanish]] [[interjection]] "Ojalá", which shares a similar meaning.
:probably also the origin of the [[Portuguese (language)|Portuguese]] interjection ''Oxalá'', "let's hope for it" or "let's hope that...".
*[[Yā Allāh]] (يا الله)(Oh God)
:may be the origin of the Spanish and Portuguese [[exclamation]] "Olé!".
*[[Masha Allah|Mā shā' Allāh]] (ما شاء الله) ([Look at] what God has willed!)
*[[Subhan'allah|Subhān Allāh]] (سبحان الله) (Glory be to God)
*[[alhamdulillah|al-Hamdu li-llāh]] (الحمد لله) (All praise be to God)
*[[Allāhu A`alam]] (الله أعلم) (God knows best)
*[[Jazaka Allāhu khayran]] (جزاك الله خيراً) (May God reward you for your deeds)
"Allāh" appears in a stylized form on the [[flag of Iran]], in the phrase "Allāhu Akbar" on the [[flag of Iraq]], and as part of the [[shahadah|shahādah]] on the [[flag of Saudi Arabia]].
"Allah" is not correctly used as a man's name. See [[Arabic name#Mistakes made by Europeans and other non-Arabs]].
==Islamic concept of God==
{{main|Islamic concept of God}}
The Islamic concept of mankind's place in the universe hinges on the notion that '''[[Allāh]]''', or '''[[God]]''', is the only true [[reality]]. There is nothing permanent other than Him. God is considered eternal and "uncreated", whereas everything else in the universe is "created." The Qur'an describes Him in [[Sura 112]]: "Say: He is Allāh, [[Singular]]. Allāh, the Absolute. He begetteth not nor was begotten. And to Him have never been one equal." (see [[Tawhid]] for more). The Qur'an condemns and mocks the pre-Islamic Arabs for attributing daughters to Allāh ([[sura 53]]:19.)
Muslims believe that Allāh, or [[God]], is the only true God who deserves to be worshipped. This belief must be accompanied by the acknowledgement that Mohammad was a true prophet of God who was chosen to guide people to believing and worshipping God in the correct manner. God is considered eternal and uncreated; with no beginning, whereas everything else in the universe is created with a beginning. The Qur'an mentions, (approximated in English) [[Sura 112]]: "Say: He is Allāh, Without partner. Allāh, the Absolute. He begetteth not nor was begotten. And to Him have never been one equal." (see [[Tawhid]] for more).
God is considered by Muslims to be [[Omnipotence|omnipotent]], [[Omnipresence|omnipresent]], and [[Omniscience|omniscient]]. In the Qur'an, God is described as being fully aware of everything that happens in the universe, and knows all things. God also knows what is in people's hearts and minds at all times. It is mentioned in the Qur'an (approximately), "And He it is Who takes your souls at night (in sleep), and He knows what you acquire in the day, then He raises you up therein that an appointed term may be fulfilled; then to Him is your return, then He will inform you of what you were doing. ([[sura 6]]:60)"
Placing God inside his creation, or suggesting that nature or creation simultaneously co-exist in God or vice versa, as in other religious traditions, completely compromises exclusive Islamic monotheism. Attributing a partner, spouse, father, son, daughter, mother or other relation(s) to Allah, literally or metaphorically, partially or completely, is considered unquestionably blasphemous by Muslims.
Therefore, Muslims consider it blasphemous to describe Jesus (or another man, woman child etc) as 'Son of God' whether literally or metaphorically. Similarly, Muslims do not believe that God resembles a man (old or young), woman, half man half woman, half man half animal , bird, elephant or other animal or other creation. It is forbidden for Muslims to view God [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphically]].
Allah does not resemble any of his creations in any way whatsoever. Allah is not attributed with shape, colour, size, position, location, direction and indeed all of these attributes are found in the creatures Allah created.
Further, Muslims do not believe that Allah is located in a place, whether on Earth, below the Earth, in the Sky, above the Sky, on a Throne above the Sky or all of these places at once or anywhere else or everywhere, but rather, God exists without a place (given he created all places and locations) and the perfectness of his existence is not compromised by his existence not being bound to a created (by Allah) place or location.
God is attributed with complete perfection in his attributes and is free from any defects or any imperfections. Allah is attributed (amongst other attributes) with oneness (without a partner in God's self or attributes), non-beginningness, eternalness, complete freedom from needing others (i.e. each or any of his creations), complete power to do all things, Will (to do as he wills, as and when God decides without any obstruction), knowledge, (of all things simultaneously, past, present and future) hearing (of all sounds without needing any implement or organ to hear), sight (without needing eyes or any other organ or instrument nor light rays to illuminate an area or an object), life (unlike the human or other life which is created and limited, but that which befits him with no beginning or end), speech (unlike the human, created speech which is constituted of languages, letters and sounds but rather an eternal speech which is not a creation but an attribute of God) and the complete non-resemblence of any creation in his self or attributes.
==History==
It was used in pre-Islamic times by Pagans within the Arabian peninsula to signify the supreme creator. Pre-Islamic Jews referred to their supreme creator as [[Yahweh]] or [[Elohim]]. The pagan Arabs recognized "Allāh" as the supreme God in their [[Pre-Islamic mythology|pantheon]]; along with Allah, however, the pre-Islamic Arabs believed in a host of other gods, such as [[Hubal]] and 'daughters of Allāh' (the three daughters associated were [[Al-lat|al-Lāt]], [[Al-Uzza|al-`Uzzah]], and [[Manah]]) (Encyclopedia of World Mythology and Legend, ''"The Facts on File"'', ed. Anthony Mercatante, [[New York]], [[1983]], I:61). This view of Allah by the pre-Islamic pagans is viewed by Muslims as a latter development having arisen as a result of moving away from Abrahamic monotheism over time. Some of the names of these pagan gods are said to be derived from the descendants of Noah, whom latter generations firstly revered as saints, and then transformed into gods (although non-Muslims often view polytheism as having come before monotheism). The pagan Arabians also used the word "Allāh" in the names of their children; [[Muhammad]]'s father, who was born into pagan society, was named "`Abdullāh", which translates "servant of Allāh". "`Abdullāh" is still used for names of Muslim and non-Muslim arabs.
The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for deity, [[Names of God in Judaism#El|El]] (אל) or [[Names of God in Judaism#Elohim|Elōah]] (אלוה), was used as an [[Old Testament]] synonym for [[Yahweh]] (יהוה), which is the proper name for the Jewish God according to the [[Tanakh]]. The [[Aramaic]] word for God is ''alôh-ô'' ([[Syriac]] dialect) or elâhâ (Biblical dialect), which comes from the same Proto-[[Semitic languages|Semitic]] word (''*ʾilâh-'') as the Arabic and Hebrew terms; [[Jesus]] is described in [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 15:34 as having used the word on the cross, with the ending meaning "my", when saying, "My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?" (transliterated in Greek as ''elō-i''). One of the earliest surviving translations of the word into a foreign language is in a [[Greek language|Greek]] translation of the [[Shahada]], from 86-96 AH ([[705]]-[[715]] AD), which translates it as ''ho theos monos''[http://www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Papyri/enlp1.html], literally "the one god". Also the cognate Aramaic term appears in the Aramaic version of the ''New Testament'', called the [[Pshitta]] (or Peshitta) as one of the words Jesus used to refer to God, e.g., in the sixth Beatitude, " |
cancelled after short runs due to poor ratings.
''[[Fox News Sunday]]'' currently airs on many Fox affiliates and is similar in format to other Sunday morning political discussion programs, and is rebroadcast on FNC at 6 p.m. ET Sundays.
==Fox News Radio==
[[Image:Ads_foxnews_radio.gif|thumb]]
In [[2003]], Fox News began syndicating one minute radio updates to radio stations. On June 1, 2005, ''[[Fox News Radio]]'' expanded to a full service news operation, employing sixty people and providing five minute newscasts at the top of the hour and one minute newscast at the bottom of the hour. ''[[Fox News Radio]]'' is hosted by both FNC television personalities and others working solely for radio. At launch, sixty stations participated in the network, with more joining under a deal struck between Fox and [[Clear Channel Communications]] converting many Clear Channel stations to carry Fox News Radio newscasts and allow Fox News Radio to use news content produced by Clear Channel and distribute it nationally.
==Personalities ==
{|
|- valign ="top"
|
*[[Alicia Acuna]]
*[[Jim Angle]]
*[[David Asman (Documentary Head at Fox News)|David Asman]]
*[[Rudi Bakhtiar]]
*[[Julie Banderas]]
*[[Fred Barnes (journalist)|Fred Barnes]]
*[[Bret Baier]]
*[[Lisa Bernhard]]
*[[Patti Ann Browne]]
*[[Eric Burns (journalist)|Eric Burns]]
*[[Brenda Buttner]]
*[[Gretchen Carlson]]
*[[Alyson Camerota]]
*[[Carl Cameron]]
*[[Neil Cavuto]]
*[[Kiran Chetry]]
*[[Jamie Colby]]
*[[Alan Colmes]]
*[[Janice Dean]]
*[[Laurie Dhue]]
*[[Steve Doocy]]
*[[Donna Fiducia]]
|
*[[David Folk Thomas]]
*[[Trace Gallagher]]
*[[John Gibson (media host)|John Gibson]]
*[[Wendell Goler]]
*[[Rebecca Gomez]]
*[[Lauren Green]]
*[[Jennifer Griffin]]
*[[Kimberly Guilfoyle Newsom| Kimberly Guilfoyle]]
*[[Sean Hannity]]
*[[Ellis Henican]]
*[[Molly Henneberg]]
*[[Catherine Herridge]]
*[[Bill Hemmer]]
*[[E.D. Hill]]
*[[Page Hopkins]]
*[[Juliet Huddy]]
*[[Brit Hume]]
*[[Carol Iovanna]]
*[[Alireza Jafarzadeh]]
*[[Greg Jarrett]]
*[[Mike Jerrick]]
*[[Marvin Kalb]]
|
*[[John Kasich]]
*[[Terry Keenan]]
*[[Amy Kellogg]]
*[[Greg Kelly]]
*[[Megyn Kendall]]
*[[Brian Kilmeade]]
*[[Mort Kondracke]]
*[[Charles Krauthammer]]
*[[Rick Leventhal]]
*[[Mara Liasson]]
*[[Martha MacCallum]]
*[[Michelle Malkin]]
*[[Bill McCuddy]]
*[[Dagen McDowell]]
*[[Carol McKinley]]
*[[Andrew Napolitano]]
*[[Oliver North]]
*[[Robert Novak]]
*[[Bill O'Reilly (journalist)|Bill O'Reilly]]
*[[Uma Pemmeraju]]
*[[James Pinkerton]]
*[[Brigitte Quinn]]
|
*[[Geraldo Rivera]]
*[[Jon Scott]]
*[[Eric Shawn]]
*[[Jane Skinner]]
*[[Shepard Smith]]
*[[Tony Snow]]
*[[Liz Trotta]]
*[[Cal Thomas]]
*[[Greta Van Susteren]]
*[[Stuart Varney]]
*[[Linda Vester]]
*[[Anita Vogel]]
*[[Chris Wallace (journalist)|Chris Wallace]]
*[[Lis Wiehl]]
*[[Juan Williams]]
*[[Brian Wilson (journalist)|Brian Wilson]]
*[[Dr. Georgia Witkin]]
*[[Kelly Wright]]
|}
=== Regular guests & contributors ===
*[[Ann Coulter]]
*[[Bob Beckel]]
*[[Charles Payne]]
*[[Dr. Manny Alvarez]]
*[[Dr. Michael Baden|Michael Baden]]
*[[Dr. Isadore Rosenfeld]]
*[[Ellis Henican]]
*[[Geraldine Ferraro]]
*[[Gary Kaltbaum]]
*[[Gary B. Smith]]
*[[Jonathan Hoenig]]
*[[Michael Reagan]]
*[[Mansoor Ijaz]]
*[[Mancow Muller]]
*[[Michelle Malkin]]
*[[Newt Gingrich]]
*[[Rich Lowry]]
*[[Scott Bleier]]
*[[Susan Estrich]]
*[[Tobin Smith]]
*[[William Kristol]]
=== Former personalities ===
*[[Dari Alexander]] (now at [[WNYW]])
*[[Rita Cosby]] (now at [[MSNBC]])
*[[Catherine Crier]] (now at [[CourtTV]])
*[[Matt Drudge]]
*[[Jon Du Pre]]
*[[Rick Folbaum]] (now at [[WNYW]])
*[[Kit Hoover]] (now at [[TV Guide Channel]])
*[[Dennis Miller]]
*[[Heather Nauert]] (now at [[ABC News]])
*[[Judith Regan]] former host of weekend late night show, ''Judith Regan Tonight''
*[[Pat Sajak]] ([[game show]] host, had short-lived interview show, ''Pat Sajak Weekend'')
*[[David Shuster]] (now at [[MSNBC]])
*[[Paula Zahn]] (now at [[CNN]])
== Ratings ==
Fox News currently leads the cable news market, earning higher points ratings than its chief competitors CNN and MSNBC combined by average viewership. Measured by unique viewers, however, CNN achieves 11% higher ratings than Fox News. Many commentators attribute this to Fox's somewhat longer duration "talk" programs interspersed with news updates which cause viewers to tune in for longer periods as compared to CNN's generally shorter news segments. Others claim that Fox News garners more loyal fans than CNN, MSNBC, and others due to being the sole network to appeal to conservatives by openly rejecting the supposed bias of the "mainstream liberal media".
The [[BBC]] reported that Fox News saw its profits double during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraq conflict]], due in part to what the report called [[patriotic]] coverage of the war. By some reports, at the height of the conflict they enjoyed as much as a 300% increase in viewership, averaging 3.3 million viewers daily {{ref|numveiw}}.
In 2004, the perceived gain in ratings began to become more apparent. Fox News' coverage of the [[2004 Democratic National Convention|Democratic National Convention]] in [[Boston]] ranked higher than that of its two closest cable competitors combined. In September, Fox News Channel's ratings for its broadcast of the [[2004 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]] beat those of all three broadcast networks. During President Bush's address, Fox News notched 7.3 million viewers nationally, while NBC, CBS, and ABC scored ratings of 5.9, 5.0, and 5.1, respectively.
In April 2005, however, CNN sent out a press release stating that Fox's viewership of adults between the ages of 25 and 54 had dropped over a period of six months since the peak of the November 2004 elections (to a total drop of over 58% [http://www.mediabistro.com/tvnewser/ratings/fncs_2554_prime_downward_spiral_20939.asp], [http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2005/narrative_cabletv_contentanalysis.asp?cat=2&media=5]). Fox still held eight of the ten most-watched nightly cable news shows, with ''The O'Reilly Factor'' and ''Hannity & Colmes'' coming in first and second places, respectively. Since then Fox's ratings have surged. [http://www.mediabistro.com/tvnewser/original/ranker_april05.pdf]
==Controversies and allegations of bias==
{{Main|Fox News Channel controversies and allegations of bias}}
{{seealso|Media bias|Propaganda model|Conservative bias}}
Since its conception, the network has been among one of the most heavily criticised media associations for its supposed conservative political bias. The network, however, prides itself for what it claims is its neutrality in reporting, while most personalities working for Fox News claim it to be the most objective news channel in the United States. Fox News has adopted the slogans "We Report, You Decide" , "[[Fair and Balanced|Fair & Balanced]]" and "Real Journalism", rejecting all allegations of bias. However, Bill O'Reilly has personally admitted that he believes "FOX does tilt right." [http://mediamatters.org/items/200407210007]
Some critics accuse Fox of "dumbing down" its news coverage by blurring the line between news and opinion.[http://cgi.omroep.nl/cgi-bin/streams?/tv/vpro/tegenlicht/bb.20041024.rm?title=Bekijk%20hier%20de%20uitzending%20OUTFOXED]
==Trademark disputes==
[[Image:Keither_olbermann_al_franken_faux_news_t_shirt.jpg|thumb|right|Keith Olbermann and Al Franken discuss Fox News' Trademark Dispute.]] In the late 1990s, as Fox News reached most major cable markets, a handful of observers began to use [[world wide web]] to mock FNC's putative bias, triggering the first publicly aired trademark disputes between Fox News and its critics. In late 2001, [http://www.fauxnewschannel.com Faux News Channel.com] created the "Faux" Fox News logo[http://www.fauxnewschannel.com/logo.html].
In 2003, [[Penguin Books]] published ''Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them: A Fair and Balanced Look at the Right'', by the liberal comedian and writer [[Al Franken]]. The book criticized many conservative individuals and institutions on grounds of inaccuracy; it included Fox News among the media outlets described as biased. Before the book was released, Fox brought a [[lawsuit]], alleging that the book's subtitle violated Fox's [[trademark]] in the promotional phrase "Fair and Balanced". On that basis, Fox moved for a preliminary [[injunction]] to block the publication of the book. The [[United States District Court]] Judge hearing the case denied the motion, characterizing Fox's claim as "wholly without merit, both factually and legally". Fox then withdrew the suit.
In December 2003, the [[Independent Media Institute]] brought a petition before the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] seeking the cancellation of Fox's trademark in the phrase "Fair & Balanced" for being deceptively misdescriptive.[http://ttabvue.uspto.gov/ttabvue/v?qt=adv&pno=92042790&qs=&propno=&propnameop=&propname=&pop=&pn=&pop2=&pn2=&cop=&cn=] After losing early procedural motions, the IMI withdrew its petition and the USPTO dismissed the case.[http://ttabvue.uspto.gov/ttabvue/v?pno=92042790&pty=CAN&eno=1]
== International transmission ==
The channel is now available internationally, though its world programming is the same as its American programming, unlike [[CNN International]], which airs regional programming that is largely independent of its U.S. broadcasts.
===United Kingdom ===
Fox News is also carried in the [[United Kingdom]] with global weather forecasts instead of most advertisements, by the [[British Sky Broadcasting]] (BSkyB) satellite television network, in which News Corporation holds a 38 percent stake. It is a sister channel to BSkyB's [[Sky News]], which is more popular in the region. Fox News is usually broadcast as an [[encrypted]] channel but during major news s |
commented upon by many scholars including Adi Shankara and Ramanuja, consists of 700 verses, there exists a recension of the text from Kashmir with additional 15 verses. The renowned philosopher [[Abhinavagupta]](10-11th century CE) has written a commentary on this recension called Gitartha-Samgraha. Other ancient and medieval scholars (like [[Vedanta Desika]] in the Tatparya-Chandrika) seem to be aware of such additional verses but prefer to comment on the popular 700 verses.
Among the great sages and philosophers who have drawn inspiration from the Bhagavad Gita is Sri [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]], who initiated public singing of the "Hare Krishna" mantra.
American physicist and director of the Manhattan Project J. Robert Oppenheimer, upon witnessing the world's first atomic blast in 1945, is reported to have misquoted "I have become Death, the shatterer of worlds," [12].
The dynamic [[Swami Vivekananda]], the follower of Sri [[Ramakrishna]] was known for his seminal commentaries on the four Yogas - Bhakti, Jnana, Karma and Raja Yoga. He drew from his knowledge of the Gita to expound on these Yogas. [[Swami Sivananda]] advises the aspiring Yogi to read verses from the Bhagavad Gita every day. [[Paramahamsa Yogananda]], writer of the famous "Autobiography of a Yogi", viewed the Bhagavad Gita as one of the world's most divine scriptures, along with the ''Four Gospels of Jesus''.
[[Mahatma Gandhi]] derived great moral strength from Bhagavad gita, which is evident in his words:
:"The Geeta is the universal mother. I find a solace in the Bhagavadgeeta that I miss even in the Sermon on the Mount. When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the Bhagavad Gita. I find a verse here and a verse there , and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies - and my life has been full of external tragedies - and if they have left no visible or indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of Bhagavad geeta."
==See also==
* [[Bhagavad Gita As It Is]]
* [[Mahabharata]]
==References==
* [http://wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE Full text in Sanskrit with Devanagari] (Wikisource)
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita_(en) English translation by Kâshinâth Trimbak Telang] (Wikisource)
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita_(en),_EA English translation by Sir Edwin Arnold] (Wikisource)
==External links: the text and translations==
{{Wikiquote}}
The Bhagavad Gita is quickly becoming one of the most popular religious texts in translation, with numerous readings and adaptations of its 700 verses being published in many languages, especially with its exposure to the world outside [[India]].
Traditionally the commentators belong to spiritual traditions or schools ([[sampradaya]]) and Guru lineages ([[parampara]]), which preserve the teaching in pure form. Thus traditions stemming from [[Krishna]] himself are considered the most faithful to the original message.
It should be kept in mind that different translators and commentators have widely differing views on what multi-layered [[Sanskrit]] words and passages truly signify, and their best possible presentation in English depending on the sampradaya they are affiliated to. Especially in modern times in the West, different authors have come up with a wealth of diverse interpretations that often do not agree with the traditional views, the reason being the background and intrinsic values of the interpreters and commentators, which may still be well rooted in Western culture.
Though overall the Gita features Sanskrit that is fairly easily comprehensible, translations of the original Sanskrit text may at times be inaccurate on account of the lack of appropriate corresponding terminology.
===English translations and commentaries===
* [http://www.bhagavad-gita.org Audio recitations of the Bhagavad-Gita] in MP3 spoken in 15 languages and sung in Sanskrit, plus introductions of the Bhagavad-Gita from the four authorised samparadayas.
* [http://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/index.htm Gita Supersite] Multilingual Bhagavadgita with translations, classical and contemporary commentaries and much more.
* [http://www.krishna.com/main.php?id=291 Bhagavad Gita As It Is] by [[A.C._Bhaktivedanta_Swami_Prabhupada]]
* [http://www.vedabase.net/bg/en Online Bhagavad Gita] by Srila Prabhupada
* [http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/Gita/intro.html Srimad Bhagavad-Gita Overview by Jagannath Das]
* [http://www.harekrishna.com/~ara/col/books/BG/tsem1.html Introduction]
* [http://www.chinmayauk.org/Resources/Downloads.htm Swami Chinmayananda translation and commentary]
* [http://www.yogamovement.com/texts/gita.html Sir Edwin Arnold translation]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/ Kashinath Trimbak Telang translation]
* [http://members.aol.com/jajnsn/ Mahatma Gandhi translation and interspersed commentary]
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/gi_bhagavad_gita_intro.asp Swami Nirmalananda Giri translation in metered verse for singing.]
* [http://eawc.evansville.edu/anthology/gita.htm Dr. Ramanand Prasad translation]
* [http://www.san.beck.org/Gita.html Sanderson Beck translation]
* [http://sss.vn.ua/bh_g_eng.htm Swami Tapasyananda translation]
* [http://www.theosociety.org/pasadena/gita/bg-eg-hp.htm William Quan translation]
====Commentaries====
* [http://www.granthamandira.org/search.php?search_keywords=Bhagavad Six commentaries - Adi Sankara, Ramanuja, Sridhara Swami, Madhusudana Sarasvati, Visvanatha Chakravarti and Baladeva Vidyabhusana] (Roman transliteration of Sanskrit)
* [http://www.prabhupadavani.org/Gita/web/text/001.html Bhagavad Gita introduction lecture by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/hi_gita_commentary_1.asp Commentary on the Gita] by Swami Nirmalananda Giri
* [http://swami-center.org/en/text/bhagavad_gita.html Bhagavad Gita with Commentaries by Vladimir Antonov]
====Audio====
* [http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/ Verses in Sanskrit, transliteration, Hare Krishna-influenced translations and accompanying chants in Realaudio]
* [http://www.vaisnava.cz/clanek_en.php3?no=24 Recitation of verses in Sanskrit ('''downloadable mp3s''')]
* [http://www.spiritual-happiness.com/scriptures.html Bhagavad Gita in streaming Realaudio]
====Selections====
* [http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/Gita/verse-01-01.html Devanagri Sanskrit transliterations and Hare Krishna-influenced Sanskrit-to-English translations for all 700 verses]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m06/m06025.htm Gita excerpt from the Mahabharata by Kisari Mohan Ganguly (published between 1883 and 1896), the most comprehensive English translation to date]
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/gi_bhagavad_gita_maharshi.asp Maharshi Gita] Verses from the Bhagavad Gita arranged by Ramana Maharshi to give its essential meaning.
* http://home.att.net/%7Es-prasad/geeta.htm
* [http://www.geocities.com/profvk/gohitvip/contentsbeach11.html Live Happily the Gita Way] a sequence of 12 lectures, by profvk
====Eknath Easwaran's poetic translation====
* [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=25 The Way of Love]
* [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=5 The Illumined Man]
* [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=63 What Is Real Never Ceases]
* [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=37 Whatever You Do]
* [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=46 Be Aware of Me Always]
====Miscellaneous====
* [http://www.geocities.com/neovedanta/gita.html Vedantic commentary on the Gita.]
* [http://www.gita-society.com/ International Gita Society]
* [http://www.gita4free.com/englishmenu.html Gita4free.com]
* [http://www.geeta-kavita.com/ Geeta Kavya Madhuri: Metered translation into Hindi verses by Prof. Rajiv Krishna Saxena]
====Gujarati====
* [http://www.SaralGita.com Saral Gita - translation of Bhagavad Gita alongwith sanskrit verses, mp3 audio of select chapters]
{{Hinduism}}
[[Category:Hindu texts]]
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[[zh:薄伽梵歌]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bigfoot</title>
<id>4009</id>
<revision>
<id>42159000</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:16:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Curps</username>
<id>44727</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.220.96.76|66.220.96.76]] ([[User talk:66.220.96.76|talk]]) to last version by Curps</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{originalresearch}}
{{cleanup}}
{{dablink|For other uses of Bigfoot, see [[Bigfoot (disambiguation)]]. For other uses of Sasquatch, see [[Sasquatch (disambiguation)]].}}
[[Image:Smalfut.jpg|thumb|Frame 352 from the Patterson-Gimlin film]]
'''Bigfoot''', also called '''Sasquatch''', is described as a large, [[biped]]al hairy [[humanoid]] creature living in remote wilderness areas of the [[North America]], such as those in southwestern Canada, the [[Great Lakes]] region, the [[Pacific Northwest]], the [[Rocky Mountains]], the forests of the [[U.S. Northeast]], and the [[U.S. Southern states]]. Some believe the same creature may be found around the world under different regional names, such as [[Yeti]]. Sightings of similarly-described, unconfirmed creatures have also allegedly occurred in [[China]], [[Russia]] |
ain line: Kings of Bohemia===
* [[Rudolph I of Bohemia|Rudolph I]], king of Bohemia 1306-1307
===Albertine line: Kings of Bohemia===
* [[Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert]], king of Bohemia 1437 - 1439
* [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus Posthumus]], king of Bohemia 1444 - 1457
===Austrian Habsburgs: Kings of Bohemia===
* [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], king of Bohemia 1526 - 1564
* [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], king of Bohemia 1563 - 1576
* [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolph II]], king of Bohemia 1572 - 1611
* [[Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor|Matthias]], king of Bohemia 1611 - 1618
* [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]], king of Bohemia 1621 - 1637
* [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III]], king of Bohemia 1625 - 1657
* [[Ferdinand IV of Germany|Ferdinand IV]], king of Bohemia 1647 - 1654
* [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]], king of Bohemia 1655 - 1705
* [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph I]], king of Bohemia 1687 - 1711
* [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles II]], king of Bohemia 1711 - 1740
===House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Kings of Bohemia===
From the accession of Maria Theresa, the kingship of Bohemia became united with the Austrian possessions.
* [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]], queen of Bohemia 1743 - 1780
* [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]], king of Bohemia 1780 - 1790
* [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]], king of Bohemia 1790 - 1792
* [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis]], king of Bohemia 1792 - 1835
* [[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand V]], king of Bohemia 1835 - 1848
* [[Francis Joseph of Austria|Francis Joseph I]], king of Bohemia 1848 - 1916
* [[Karl of Austria|Charles III]], king of Bohemia 1916 - 1918
== Habsburgs as Queens Consort of France ==
From the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries, the greatest non-Habsburg power in Europe was usually [[France]]. As a result, in usually futile attempts to either unite Europe under the Habsburg family or to prevent French enmity, Habsburg daughters were wed to successive kings of France.
===Austrian Habsburgs===
*[[Elisabeth of Austria (1554 - 1592)|Elisabeth of Austria]] ([[1554]] - [[1592]]), wife of King [[Charles IX of France]]
*[[Leonor of Austria, Infanta of Spain (1498-1558), wife of King Francis I.]]
===Spanish Habsburgs===
*[[Anne of Austria]], infanta of Spain, ([[1601]] - [[1666]]), wife of King [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]]
*[[Maria Theresa of Spain]] ([[1638]] - [[1683]]), wife of King [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]
===Habsburg-Lorraine===
*[[Marie Antoinette]] ([[1755]] - [[1793]]), wife of King [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]]
==See Also==
* [[List of rulers of Austria]]
* [[Habsburg Monarchy]]
* [[Austrian Empire]]
* [[Austria-Hungary]]
* [[Thirty Years' War]]
* [[Habsburg Family Tree]]
* [[Mandibular prognathism]] ("Habsburg lip")
==Further Reading==
*Brewer-Ward, Daniel A. ''The House of Habsburg: A Genealogy of the Descendants of Empress Maria Theresia''. Clearfield, 1996.
*Evans, Robert J. W. ''The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550-1700: An Interpretation''. Clarendon Press, 1979.
*McGuigan, Dorothy Gies. ''The Habsburgs''. Doubleday, 1966.
*Wandruszka, Adam. ''The House of Habsburg: Six Hundred Years of a European Dynasty''. Doubleday, 1964 (Greenwood Press, 1975).
==External Links==
* [http://otto.twschwarzer.de/ "Erzherzog Dr. Otto von Habsburg" (Autorisierte Ehrenseite)]
* [http://www.antiquesatoz.com/habsburg/ Habsburg Biographies]
* [http://www.surnameweb.org/registry/h/a/b/habsburg.shtml Habsburg Resource Centre on SurnameWeb]
* http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/Rulers/hapsburg3.html
* [http://www.chh.de.free.fr/archiv/Sonstiges/habsburg.php Genealogical tree of the house of Habsburg (till Maria Theresia)]
*[http://www.literature.at/elib/www/wiki/index.php/The_Hapsburg_Monarchy_%28Henry_Wickham_Steed%29 ''The Hapsburg Monarchy'' (Wickham Steed, 1913)]) eLibrary Austria Project full text (ebook)
[[Category:Habsburg|*]]
[[Category:Royal families]]
[[Category:Austrian nobility]]
[[Category:History of Austria]]
[[Category:German nobility]]
[[br:Habsbourged]]
[[cs:Habsburkové]]
[[da:Habsburg]]
[[de:Habsburg]]
[[et:Habsburgid]]
[[es:Casa de Austria]]
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[[it:Asburgo]]
[[he:בית הבסבורג]]
[[lt:Habsburgų dinastija]]
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[[ja:ハプスブルク家]]
[[no:Huset Habsburg]]
[[pl:Habsburgowie]]
[[pt:Casa de Habsburgo]]
[[ro:Habsburg]]
[[ru:Габсбурги]]
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[[sr:Хабзбуршка династија]]
[[fi:Habsburg-suku]]
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[[zh:哈布斯堡王朝]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hong Kong, city</title>
<id>13825</id>
<revision>
<id>15911413</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
</contributor>
<comment>content-free orphan, redirect to Hong_Kong</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hong_Kong]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hub</title>
<id>13826</id>
<revision>
<id>35787947</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T07:31:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Uncle G</username>
<id>164776</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Linked to specific dictionary articles</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|hub}}
'''Hub''' may refer to the following:
* The center of a [[wheel]].
* A [[node (networking)|node]] in a [[computer network|network]].
* [[Ethernet hub]], a [[computer networking device]] that connects multiple [[Ethernet]] segments together making them act as a single segment.
* [[USB hub]], a device that allows many [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] devices to be connected to a single USB [[port (computing)|port]].
* A nickname for the city of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], frequently used by the [[Boston Globe]] in headlines (from [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]]'s phrase ''Hub of the Solar System'').
* A set of [[level (computer and video games)|levels]] in [[computer game|computer games]] that a player can travel back and forth throughout.
* A [[transportation hub]] <!-- Translation from :de:Verkehrsknotenpunkt --> is where traffic is exchanged across several [[modes of transport]].
* An [[airline hub]] is an [[airport]] that serves as the base of operations for an [[airline]].
* On an [[aircraft]], a hub is a part around which [[propeller]]s are attached.
* [[Cultural capital]] [[website]] that provides a form of knowledge; skills; education.
* The [[Hetzel Union Building]] on the campus of [[Penn State]]
* A [[hub protein]] interacts with many other proteins in the network describing the interactions of proteins within a cell.
== See also ==
[[Spoke-hub distribution paradigm]]
{{disambig}}
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[[ru:Хаб]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harakiri</title>
<id>13827</id>
<revision>
<id>41764962</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:08:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LaurenMcMillan</username>
<id>474619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirect to Seppuku</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Seppuku]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British House of Commons</title>
<id>13828</id>
<revision>
<id>41668145</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:17:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.86.17.202</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Members and elections */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsUK}}
The '''House of Commons''' is the [[lower house]] of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]], and is now the dominant branch of Parliament. Parliament also includes the [[British monarchy|Sovereign]] and the [[upper house]], the [[House of Lords]]. The [[House of Commons]] is a democratically elected body, consisting of 646 members, who are known as "[[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]]" or "MPs." Members are elected by the [[first past the post]] system of election for limited terms, holding office until Parliament is dissolved (a maximum of five years). Each member is elected by, and represents, an electoral district known as a [[United Kingdom constituencies|constituency]]. The House of Commons is the source of the vast majority of [[political minister|government ministers]] and every [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] since [[1902]], with the very brief exception of [[Alec Douglas-Home|Sir Alec Douglas-Home]] in [[1963]]. (He was asked to form a government while the 14th [[Earl of Home]], but within days, he renounced his [[peerage]] and became an MP.)
The House of Commons evolved at some point during the fourteenth century and has been in continuous existence since. The House of Commons (the "Lower House") was once far less powerful than the House of Lords (the "Upper House"), but is now by far the dominant branch of Parliament. The House of Commons' legislative powers exceed those of the House of Lords; under the [[Parliament Act 1911]], the Upper House's power to reject most bills has been reduced to a mere delaying power. Moreover, the Government of the United Kingdom is answerable to the House of Commons; the Prime Minister stays in office only as long as he or she retains the support of the Lower House.
The full, formal style and title of the House of Commons is ''The Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled.'' The term "Commons" derives from the [[Norman French]] word ''communes'', meaning "localities." It is often misunderstood that "Commons" comes from the word "commoners", re |
uals pronounced certain words differently from others. He was arguing that there were many words that, even when repeated by the same speaker, varied considerably in their vocalization. Using evolutionary theory, Brinton argued that this pervasive inconsistency was a sign of linguistic inferiority, and evidence that Native Americans were at a low stage in their evolution.
Boas was familiar with what Brinton was talking about; he had experienced something similar during his research in Baffin Island and in the Pacific Northwest. Nevertheless, he argued that "alternating sounds" is not at all a feature of Native American languages &mdash; indeed, he argued, they do not really exist. Rather than take alternating sounds as objective proof of different stages in cultural evolution, Boas considered them in terms of his longstanding interest in the subjective perception of objective physical phenomena. He also considered his earlier critique of evolutionary museum displays. There, he pointed out that two things (artefacts of material culture) that appear to be similar may in fact be quite different. In this article he raises the possibility that two things (sounds) that appear to be different may in fact be the same.
In short, he shifted attention to the ''perception'' of different sounds. Boas begins by raising an empirical question: when people describe one sound in different ways, is it because they cannot perceive of the difference, or might there be another reason? He immediately establishes that he is not concerned with cases involving perceptual deficit &mdash; the aural equivalent of color-blindness. He points out that the question of people who describe one sound in different ways is comparable to that of people who describe different sounds in one way. This is crucial for research in descriptive [[linguistics]]: when studying a new language, how are we to note the pronunciation of different words? (in this point, Boas anticipates and lays the groundwork for the distinction between [[Phonemics]] and [[Phonetics]].) People may pronounce a word in a variety of ways and still recognize that they are using the same word. The issue, then, is not "that such sensations are not recognized in their individuality" (in other words, people recognize differences in pronunciations); rather, it is that sounds "are classified according to their similarity" (in other words, that people classify a variety of perceived sounds into one category). A comparable visual example would involve words for colors. The English word "green" can be used to refer to a variety of shades, hues, and tints. But there are some languages that have no word for "green." In such cases, people might classify what we would call "green" as either "yellow" or "blue." This is not an example of color-blindness &mdash; people can perceive differences in color, but they categorize similar colors in a different way than English speakers.
Boas applies these principles to studies of British Columbian Inuit languages. Researchers have reported a variety of spellings for a given word. In the past, researchers have interpreted this data in a number of ways &mdash; it could indicate local variations in the pronunciation of a word, or it could indicate different dialects. Boas argues an alternative explanation: that the difference is not in how Inuit pronounce the word, but rather in how English-speaking scholars perceive the pronunciation of the word. It is not that English speakers are physically incapable of perceiving the sound in question; rather, the phonetic system of English cannot accommodate the perceived sound.
Although Boas was making a very specific contribution to the methods of descriptive linguistics, his ultimate point is far reaching: observer bias need not be personal, it can be cultural. In other words, the perceptual categories of Western researchers may systematically cause a Westerner to misperceive or to fail to perceive entirely a meaningful element in another culture. As in his critique of Otis Mason's museum displays, Boas demonstrated that what appeared to be evidence of cultural evolution was really the consequence of unscientific methods, and a reflection of Westerners beliefs about their own cultural superiority. This point provides the methodological foundation for Boas's [[cultural relativism]]: elements of a culture are meaningful in that culture's terms, even if they may be meaningless (or take on a radically different meaning) in another culture.
===Cultural Anthropology===
The essence of Boas's approach to ethnography is found in his early essay on "The Study of Geography." There he argued for an approach that
:... considers every phenomena as worthy of being studied for its own sake. Its mere existence entitles it to a full share of our attention; and the knowledge of its existence and evolution in space and time fully satisfies the student.
When Boas's student [[Ruth Benedict]] gave her presidential address to the American Anthropological Association in 1947, she reminded anthropologists of the importance of this [[idiographic]] stance by quoting literary critic A.C. Bradley: "We watch ''what is'', seeing that so it happened and must have happened."
This orientation led Boas to promote a cultural anthropology characterized by a strong commitment to
* [[empiricism]] (with a resulting skepticism of attempts to formulate "scientific laws" of culture)
* a notion of [[culture]] as fluid and dynamic
* [[ethnography|ethnographic]] fieldwork, in which the anthropologist resides for an extended period among the people being researched, conducts research in the native language, and collaborates with native researchers, as a method of collecting data, and
* [[cultural relativism]] as a methodological tool while conducting fieldwork, and as heuristic tool while analyzing data.
Boas argued that in order to understand "what is" &mdash; in cultural anthropology, the specific cultural traits (behaviors, beliefs, and symbols) &ndash; one had to examine them in their local context. He also understood that as people migrate from one place to another, and as the cultural context changes over time, the elements of a culture, and their meanings, will change, which led him to emphasize the importance of local histories for an analysis of cultures.
Although other anthropologists at the time, such as [[Bronislaw Malinowski]] and [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] focused on the study of societies, which they understood to be clearly bounded, Boas's attention to history, which reveals the extent to which traits diffuse from one place to another, led him to view cultural boundaries as multiple and overlapping, and as highly permeable. Thus, Boas's student [[Robert Lowie]] once described culture as a thing of "shreds and patches." Boas and his students understood that as people try to make sense of their world they seek to integrate its disparate elements, with the result that different cultures could be characterized as having different configurations or patterns. But Boasians also understood that such integration was always in tensions with diffusion, and any appearance of a stable configuration is contingent (see Bashkow 2004: 445).
During Boas's lifetime, as today, many Westerners saw a fundamental difference between modern societies, which are characterized by dynamism and individualism, and traditional societies which are stable and homogeneous. Boas's empirical field research, however, led him to argue against this comparison. For example, his 1903 essay, "Decorative Designs of Alaskan Needlecases: A History of Conventional Designs, Based on Materials in a U.S. Museum," provides another example of how Boas made broad theoretical claims based on a detailed analysis of empirical data. After establishing formal similarities among the needlecases, Boas shows how certain formal features provide a vocabulary out of which individual artisans could create variations in design. Thus, his emphasis on culture as a context for meaningful action made him sensitive to individual variation within a society ([[William Henry Holmes]] suggested a similar point in an 1886 paper, "Origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art," although unlike Boas he did not develop the ethnographic and theoretical implications).
In a programmatic essay in 1920, "The Methods of Ethnology," Boas argued that instead of "the systematic enumeration of standardized beliefs and customs of a tribe," anthropology needs to document "the way in which the individual reacts to his whole social environment, and to the difference of opinion and of mode of action that occur in primitive society and which are the causes of far-reaching changes." Boas argued that attention to individual agency reveals that "the activities of the individual are determined to a great extent by his social environment, but in turn his own activities influence the society in which he lives, and may bring about modifications in form." Consequently, Boas thought of culture as fundamentally dynamic: "As soon as these methods are applied, primitive society loses the appearance of absolute stability.... All cultural forms rather appear in a constant state of flux...." (see Lewis 2001b)
Having argued against the relevance of the distinction between literate and non-literate societies as a way of defining anthropology's object of study, Boas argued that non-literate and literate societies should be analyzed in the same way. Nineteenth century historians had been applying the techniques of [[philology]] to reconstruct the histories of, and relationships between, literate societies. In order to apply these methods to non-literate societies, |
ll|1981]], Cincinnati had the best overall record in baseball, but after a mid-season players' [[1981 baseball strike|strike]], they finished second in the division in both of the half-seasons that were created. To commemorate this, a team photo was taken, accompanied by a banner that read "Baseball's Best Record 1981." By [[1982 in baseball|1982]], the Reds were a shell of the original Red Machine; they lost 100 games that year. Johnny Bench retired a year later.
===The 1980s and onwards===
[[Image:Eric_davis.jpg|thumb|left|225px|Eric Davis in 1990]]
In [[1984 in baseball|1984]] the Reds began to move up, depending on trades and some minor leaguers. In that season [[Dave Parker (baseball player)|Dave Parker]] [[Dave Concepción]] and [[Tony Pérez]] were in Cincinnati uniforms. By the end of 1984, [[Pete Rose]] was hired to be the Reds player-manager. From [[1985 in baseball|1985]]-[[1989 in baseball|89]] the Reds finished second four times. Among the highlights, Rose became the all-time hits leader, [[Tom Browning]] threw a [[perfect game]], and [[Chris Sabo]] was the [[MLB Rookie of the Year Award|1988 National League Rookie of the Year]]. In [[1989 in baseball|1989]], Rose was banned from baseball by [[Baseball commissioner|Commissioner]] [[A. Bartlett Giamatti|Bart Giamatti]], who declared Rose guilty of "conduct detrimental to baseball." Controversy also swirled around Reds owner [[Marge Schott]], who was accused several times of [[List of ethnic slurs|ethnic and racial slurs]].
In [[1990 in baseball|1990]] the Reds under new manager [[Lou Piniella]] shocked baseball by leading the NL West from wire-to-wire. They started off 35-12 and maintained their lead throughout the year. Led by Chris Sabo, [[Barry Larkin]], [[Eric Davis]], [[Paul O'Neill]] and [[Billy Hatcher]] in the field, and by [[José Rijo]], Tom Browning and the "Nasty Boys" of [[Rob Dibble]], [[Norm Charlton]] and [[Randy Myers]] on the mound, the Reds took out the [[Pittsburgh Pirates|Pirates]] in the [[National League Championship Series|NLCS]] and swept the heavily favored [[Oakland Athletics]] in four straight.
By [[1995 in baseball|1995]] the Reds were in the NLCS again, but lost to the [[Atlanta Braves]]. In [[1999 in baseball|1999]] they won 96 games, but lost to the [[New York Mets]] in a one game playoff. [[Riverfront Stadium]] was demolished in [[2002 in baseball|2002]] and ended an era marked by three world championships.
The [[Great American Ball Park]] opened in [[2003 in baseball|2003]] with high expectations for a team led by local favorites, including franchise [[outfielder]] [[Ken Griffey, Jr.]], [[shortstop]] [[Barry Larkin]], [[relief pitcher|reliever]] [[Danny Graves]] and [[first baseman]] [[Sean Casey]]. Although attendance improved considerably with the new ballpark, the team continued to lose, and in [[2003 in baseball|2003]] the father-son combo of manager [[Bob Boone]] and [[third baseman]] [[Aaron Boone]] was broken up as Bob was relieved and Aaron traded to the [[New York Yankees]].
The [[2004 in baseball|2004]] and [[2005 in baseball|2005]] seasons continued the trend of big hitting and poor pitching and ultimately poor records. Griffey, Jr. joined the 500-homerun club in 2004, but was again hampered by injuries. [[Adam Dunn]] emerged as formidable homerun hitter, hitting a 535-foot home run against [[Jose Lima]]. He also broke the major league record for [[strikeouts]] in 2004. Although a number of [[free agent|free-agents]] were signed before 2005, the Reds were quickly in last place and manager [[Dave Miley]] was forced out in the 2005 midseason and replaced by [[Jerry Narron]]. Like many other small market clubs, the Reds have dispatched some of their veteran players and are entrusting their future to a young nucleus that includes [[Felipe López]], [[Austin Kearns]], [[Ryan Freel]] and [[Aaron Harang]].
In 2006, a new era in Reds baseball began as Robert Castinelli took over as owner, assumming control of the team from Carl Linder. Castinelli promptly fired general manager Dan O'Brien. Wayne Krivsky, previously an assistant General Manager with the [[Minnesota Twins]], was appointed as the General Manager of the Reds after a protracted search.
==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1867]]/[[1869]]/[[1876]]/[[1882]]/[[1890]] (depending on the account). See below.
:'''Formerly known as:''' The Red Stockings in the [[19th century]]; the Redlegs
:'''Home ballpark:''' [[Great American Ball Park]], Cincinnati
:'''Uniform colors:''' Red and white, trim Black
:'''Logo design:''' a red wishbone "C" with the word "REDS" inside
:'''Playoff appearances''' (12): [[1919]], [[1939]], [[1940]], [[1961]], [[1970]], [[1972]], [[1973]], [[1975]], [[1976]], [[1979]], [[1990]], [[1995]]
:'''Other titles won''' (1): Had baseball's best overall record in [[1981]]
:'''American Association pennants won''' (1): [[1882]]
:'''Ownership''' Robert Castellini
==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
{|
|valign="top"|
*[[Sparky Anderson]] *
*[[Jake Beckley]]
*[[Johnny Bench]]
*[[Marty Brennaman]] **
*[[Jim Bottomley]]
*[[Mordecai Brown]]
*[[Charles Comiskey]]
*[[Sam Crawford]]
*[[Candy Cummings]]
*[[Kiki Cuyler]]
*[[Leo Durocher]]
*[[Buck Ewing]]
*[[Clark Griffith]]
|width="100"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
*[[Chick Hafey]]
*[[Jesse Haines]]
*[[Harry Heilmann]]
*[[Miller Huggins]]
*[[Joe Kelley]]
*[[George Kelly (baseball player)|George Kelly]]
*[[King Kelly]]
*[[Ernie Lombardi]]
*[[Rube Marquard]]
*[[Christy Mathewson]]
*[[Bill McKechnie]]
*[[Bid McPhee]]
|width="100"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
*[[Joe Morgan]]
*[[Tony Pérez]]
*[[Charles Radbourn]]
*[[Eppa Rixey]]
*[[Frank Robinson]]
*[[Edd Roush]]
*[[Amos Rusie]]
*[[Tom Seaver]]
*[[Al Simmons]]
*[[Joe Tinker]]
*[[Dazzy Vance]]
*[[Lloyd Waner]]
|}
'''&#42;''' Manager
'''&#42;&#42;''' Broadcaster
==Ineligible for the [[Hall of Fame]]==
*[[Pete Rose]]
==Retired Numbers==
* 1 [[Fred Hutchinson]], manager, 1959-64
* 5 [[Johnny Bench]], C-1B-3B, 1967-83
* 8 [[Joe Morgan]], 2B, 1972-79
* 10 [[Sparky Anderson]], manager, 1970-78
* 18 [[Ted Kluszewski]], 1B, 1947-57
* 20 [[Frank Robinson]], OF, 1956-65
* 24 [[Tony Perez]], 1B, 1964-76 & 1984-86; manager, 1993
Since [[Pete Rose]] [OF-3B-1B, 1963-78 and 1984-86, manager 1984-89] has been banned from baseball, the Reds have not retired his #14. However, they have not reissued it except for [[Pete Rose, Jr.]] in his 11 game tenure in [[1997]], and it is not likely that any Red will ever wear that jersey again.
The number 11 of [[Barry Larkin]] (SS, 1986-2004) was not issued in 2005, and it is a near certainty that it will be retired.
==Current roster==
{{:Cincinnati Reds roster}}
==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Louisville Bats]], [[International League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Chattanooga Lookouts]], [[Southern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Sarasota Reds]], [[Florida State League]]
* '''A:''' [[Dayton Dragons]], [[Midwest League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Billings Mustangs]], [[Pioneer League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[GCL Reds]], [[Gulf Coast League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[VSL Reds]], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]
==See also==
*[[Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame]]
*[[Cincinnati Reds/Award winners and league leaders|Reds award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Cincinnati Reds/Team records|Reds statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Cincinnati Reds/Players of note|Reds players of note]]
*[[Cincinnati Reds/Broadcasters|Reds broadcasters and media]]
*[[Cincinnati Reds/Managers and ownership|Reds managers and ownership]]
==External links==
*[http://cincinnati.reds.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/cin/homepage/cin_homepage.jsp Cincinnati Reds official web site]
{{MLB}}
[[Category:Sports in Cincinnati, Ohio]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]
[[de:Cincinnati Reds]]
[[fr:Reds de Cincinnati]]
[[ja:シンシナティ・レッズ]]
[[pt:Cincinnati Reds]]
[[sv:Cincinnati Reds]]
[[zh:辛辛那提紅人]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caribbean cuisine</title>
<id>6672</id>
<revision>
<id>40799817</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T02:26:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
<id>48742</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab [[creole]] --> [[Louisiana Creole cuisine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cuisine}}
'''Caribbean cuisine''' is a fusion of [[Spanish cuisine|Spanish]], [[French cuisine|French]], [[African cuisine|African]], [[Amerindian cuisine|Amerindian]] and [[Indian cuisine]]. These traditions were brought from the many homelands of this region's population. In addition, the population has created from this vast wealth of tradition many styles that are unique to the region.
A typical dish and one increasingly common outside of the area is "jerk" seasoned meats, commonly chicken. It is a unique, spicy flavor, reminiscent of [[Louisiana Creole cuisine]], but still quite distinct from it. [[Curry|Curried]] [[goat]] and [[chicken]] are eaten throughout the [[Anglophone Caribbean]] islands, penetrating much farther into the Caribbean than have the [[India]]ns who introduced them to the region over 150 years ago. [[Callaloo]] is a soup-like dish widely distributed in the Caribbean, with a distinctively mixed African and indigenous character.
Perhaps unique in [[Key West, Florida]] is the conch fritter. The meat from the conch shell, a type of [[mollusk]] is chopped and mixed with a spiced breading and deep fried. Also seen are [[alligator]] fritters, prepared similarly.
==See also==
{{cookbookpar|Caribbean cuisines}}
*[[Cuban cuisine]]
*[[Jamaican cuisine]]
*[[Cuisine of Puerto Rico]]
{{Caribbean-stub}}
{{cuisine-stub}}
[[Category:Caribbean cuisine|*]]
[[fr:Cuisine antillaise]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Central Powers</title>
<id>6673</id>
<revision>
<id>41353530</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T20:2 |
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