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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Enrico Fermi 1943-49.jpg|thumb|250px|Enrico Fermi in the 1940s.]]
'''Enrico Fermi''' ([[Rome]], [[September 29]], [[1901]] &ndash; [[Chicago]], [[November 28]], [[1954]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[physicist]] most noted for his work on [[beta decay]], the development of the first [[nuclear reactor]], and for the development of [[quantum theory]]. Fermi won the [[1938]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his work on induced radioactivity.
==Physics in Rome==
Fermi's PhD advisor was [[Luigi Puccianti]]. When he was only 24 years old, Fermi took a [[professor]]ship in [[University of Rome La Sapienza|Rome]] (the first for [[theoretical physics]] in Italy, created for him by professor [[OM Corbino|Orso Maria Corbino]], director of the Institute of Physics). [[OM Corbino|Corbino]] helped Fermi in selecting his team, which soon was joined by notable minds like [[Edoardo Amaldi]], [[Bruno Pontecorvo]], [[Franco Rasetti]] and [[Emilio Segrè]]. For the theoretical studies only, [[Ettore Majorana]] also took part in what was soon nicknamed "the [[Via Panisperna boys]]" (after the name of the road in which the Institute had its labs).
The group went on with its now famous experiments, but in [[1933]] Rasetti left Italy for [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], Pontecorvo went to [[France]] and Segrè left to teach in [[Palermo]].
During their time in Rome, Fermi and his group made important contributions to many practical and theoretical aspects of physics. Some of these include [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]], the theory of [[beta decay]], and the discovery of slow neutrons, which was to prove pivotal for the working of [[nuclear reactors]].
==Nobel prize and the Manhattan Project==
Fermi remained in Rome until [[1938]].
In [[1938]], Fermi won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his "demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons".
[[Image:ChicagoPileTeam.png|right|frame|Fermi (bottom left), Szilárd (second from right on bottom), and the rest of the pile team.]]
After Fermi received the prize in [[Stockholm]], he, his wife Laura, and their children emigrated to New York. By this time, the [[Fascist]] government in Italy had instituted [[anti-Semitic]] laws, and Fermi's wife, [[Laura Fermi|Laura Capon]], was Jewish. Soon after his arrival in New York, Fermi began working at [[Columbia University]].
At Columbia, Fermi verified the initial [[nuclear fission]] experiment of [[Otto Hahn|Hahn]] and [[Fritz Strassman]] (with the help of Booth and Dunning). Fermi then began studies that led to the construction of the first nuclear pile.
Fermi recalled the beginning of the project in a speech given in [[1954]] when he retired as President of the [[American Physical Society]]:
:"I remember very vividly the first month, January, [[1939]], that I started working at the Pupin Laboratories because things began happening very fast. In that period, [[Niels Bohr]] was on a lecture engagement at the [[Princeton University]] and I remember one afternoon [[Willis Lamb]] came back very excited and said that Bohr had leaked out great news. The great news that had leaked out was the discovery of [[nuclear fission|fission]] and at least the outline of its interpretation. Then, somewhat later that same month, there was a meeting in Washington where the possible importance of the newly discovered phenomenon of fission was first discussed in semi-jocular earnest as a possible source of [[nuclear power]]."
[[Image:Enrico Fermi ID badge.png|right|frame|Fermi's ID badge photo from [[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos]].]]
After the famous letter signed by [[Albert Einstein]] (transcribed by [[Leó Szilárd]]) to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in [[1939]], the Navy awarded [[Columbia University]] the first Atomic Energy funding of US$ 6,000. The money was used in studies which led to the first [[nuclear reactor]] — [[Chicago Pile-1]], a massive "pile" of [[graphite]] bricks and [[uranium]] fuel which went critical on [[December 2]], [[1942]], under the squash court at the [[University of Chicago]]. This experiment was a landmark in the quest for energy, and it was typical of Fermi's brilliance. Every step had been carefully planned, every calculation meticulously done by him. When man first achieved the first self sustained nuclear chain reaction, a coded phone call was made to one of the leaders of the Manhattan Project, [[James Bryant Conant|James Conant]]: 'The Italian navigator has landed in the new world... The natives were very friendly'. The chain-reacting pile was important not only for its help in assessing the properties of fission — needed for understanding the internal workings of an [[atomic bomb]] — but because it would serve as a pilot plant for the massive reactors which would be created in [[Hanford Site|Hanford, Washington]], which would then be used to "[[Fast breeder|breed]]" the [[plutonium]] needed for the bombs used at the [[Trinity site|Trinity test]] and [[Nagasaki]]. Eventually Fermi and Szilárd's reactor work was folded into the [[Manhattan Project]].
He became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States of America in [[1944]].
{{-}}
==Post-war work==
In Fermi's [[1954]] address to the APS he also said, "Well, this brings us to [[Pearl Harbor]]. That is the time when I left Columbia University, and after a few months of commuting between Chicago and New York, eventually moved to Chicago to keep up the work there, and from then on, with a few notable exceptions, the work at Columbia was concentrated on the [[isotope separation]] phase of the atomic energy project, initiated by Booth, Dunning and Urey about [[1940]]".
Fermi was widely regarded as the only physicist of the twentieth century who excelled both theoretically and experimentally (Snow, 1981) (see [http://www-news.uchicago.edu/fermi/resources.html link] below in 'References'). The well-known historian of physics, [[C. P. Snow]], says about him, "If Fermi had been born a few years earlier, one could well imagine him discovering [[Ernest Rutherford|Rutherford's]] atomic nucleus, and then developing [[Bohr]]'s [[Bohr model|theory]] of the hydrogen atom. If this sounds like hyperbole, anything about Fermi is likely to sound like hyperbole". Fermi's ability and success stemmed as much from his appraisal of the art of the possible, as from his innate skill and intelligence. He disliked complicated theories, and while he had great mathematical ability, he would never use it when the job could be done much more simply. He was famous for getting quick and accurate answers to problems which would stump other people. An instance of this was seen during the first atomic bomb test in [[New Mexico]] on July 16, 1945. As the blast wave reached him, Fermi dropped bits of paper. By measuring the distance they were blown, he could compare to a previously computed table and thus estimate the bomb energy yield. He estimated 10 kilotons of TNT, the measured result was 18.6. (Rhodes, page 674). Later on, this method of getting approximate and quick answers through back of the envelope calculations became informally known as the 'Fermi method'.
[[Image:Viaenricofermi.jpg|left|thumb|The ''Enrico Fermi'' street in Rome]]
Fermi's most disarming trait was his great modesty, and his ability to do any kind of work, whether creative or routine. It was this quality that made him popular and liked among people of all strata, from other Nobel Laureates to technicians. [[Henry DeWolf Smyth]], who was Chairman of the Princeton Physics department, had once invited Fermi over to do some experiments with the Princeton [[cyclotron]]. Walking into the lab one day, Smyth saw the distinguished scientist helping a graduate student move a table, under another student's directions. Another time, a [[Du Pont]] executive made a visit to see him at Columbia. Not finding him either in his lab or his office, the executive was surprised to find the Nobel Laureate in the machine shop, cutting sheets of tin with a big pair of shears.
When he submitted his famous paper on [[beta decay]] to the prestigious journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', the journal's [[editor]] turned it down because "it contained speculations which were too remote from reality". Thus, Fermi saw the theory published in [[Italian language|Italian]] and in [[German language|German]] before it was published in [[English language|English]].
He never forgot this experience of being ahead of his time, and used to tell his protégés: "Never be first; try to be second".
On [[November 28]], [[1954]], Fermi died at the age of 53 of [[stomach cancer]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]] and was interred there in [[Oak Woods Cemetery, Chicago|Oak Woods Cemetery]]. As [[Eugene Wigner]] wrote: "Ten days before Fermi had passed away he told me, 'I hope it won't take long.' He had reconciled himself perfectly to his fate".
==See also==
* [[Fermi paradox]]
* [[Fermi problem]]
* [[Fermion field]]
* [[Fermi's golden rule]]
* [[Scuola Normale Superiore]]
==References==
*[[Laura Fermi]], ''Atoms in the Family: My Life with Enrico Fermi'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954) ISBN 0226243672
* [[Richard Rhodes]], ''The Making of the Atomic Bomb'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986).
* [[C. P. Snow]], "The Physicists" (Toronto: Little, Brown, 1981)
* [[Emilio Segrè]], ''Enrico Fermi - Physicist''
* Fermi's audio biography at the University of Chicago website. (http://www-news.uchicago.edu/fermi/resources.html)
==External links==
{{Commons|Enrico Fermi}}
'''Information'''
* [http://www.phys.uniroma1.it/DOCS/MUSEO/albumweb/archiviofoto.htm A photographic archive of Fermi and "the Panisp |
ducer of cocoa, and its tropical forests continue to be a vital source of timber for the lumber industry.
===Akwapim-Togo Ranges===
The Akwapim-Togo Ranges in the eastern part of the country consist of a generally rugged complex of folded strata, with many prominent heights composed of volcanic rock. The ranges begin west of Accra and continue in a northeasterly direction, finally crossing the frontier into Togo.
In their southeastern part, the ranges are bisected by a deep, narrow gorge cut by the Volta River. The head of this gorge is the site of the Akosombo Dam, which impounds the river to form Lake Volta. The ranges south of the gorge form the Akwapim section of the mountains. The average elevation in this section is about 450 meters, and the valleys are generally deep and relatively narrow. North of the gorge, for about eighty kilometers, the Togo section has broader valleys and low ridges. Beyond this point, the folding becomes more complex and heights increase greatly, with several peaks rising more than 610 meters above sea level. The country's highest point, Mount Afadjato, is located in this area.
The ranges are largely covered with deciduous forests, and their higher elevation provides a relatively cooler, pleasant climate. Small-scale subsistence farming is typical in the ranges. In addition to the cultivation of rice and other staples, coffee plantations are found in the Togo section of the ranges.
===Volta Basin===
Occupying the central part of Ghana, the Volta Basin covers about 45 percent of the nation's total land surface. Its northern section, which lies above the upper part of Lake Volta, rises to a height of 150 to 215 meters above sea level. Elevations of the Konkori Scarp to the west and the Gambaga Scarp to the north reach from 300 to 460 meters. To the south and the southwest, the basin is less than 300 meters. The Kwahu Plateau marks the southern end of the basin, although it forms a natural part of the Ashanti Uplands.
The basin is characterized by poor soil, generally of Voltaian sandstone. Annual rainfall averages between 1,000 and 1,140 millimeters. The most widespread vegetation type is savanna, the woodlands of which, depending on local soil and climatic conditions, may contain such trees as Red Ironwood and Shea.
The basin's population, principally farmers, is low in density, especially in the central and northwestern areas of the basin, where tsetse flies are common. Archeological finds indicate, however, that the region was once more heavily populated. Periodic burning evidently occurred over extensive areas for perhaps more than a millennium, exposing the soil to excessive drying and erosion, rendering the area less attractive to cultivators.
In contrast with the rest of the region are the Afram Plains, located in the southeastern corner of the basin. Here the terrain is low, averaging 60 to 150 meters in elevation, and annual rainfall is between 1,140 and about 1,400 millimeters. Near the Afram River, much of the surrounding countryside is flooded or swampy during the rainy seasons. With the construction of Lake Volta (85.15 km² in area) in the mid-1960s, much of the Afram Plains was submerged. Despite the construction of roads to connect communities displaced by the lake, road transportation in the region remains poor. Renewed efforts to improve communications, to enhance agricultural production, and to improve standards of living began in earnest only in the mid-1980s.
===High plains===
The general terrain in the northern and northwestern part of Ghana outside the Volta Basin consists of a dissected plateau, which averages between 150 and 300 meters in elevation and, in some places, is even higher. Rainfall averages between 1,000 and 1,150 millimeters annually, although in the northwest it is closer to 1,350 millimeters. Soils in the high plains are more arable than those in the Volta Basin, and the population density is considerably higher. Grain and cattle production are the major economic activities in the high plains of the northern region. Since the mid-1980s, when former United States President Jimmy Carter's Global 2000 program (see Glossary) adopted Ghana as one of a select number of African countries whose local farmers were to be educated and financially supported to improve agricultural production, there has been a dramatic increase in grain production in northern Ghana. The virtual absence of tsetse flies in the region has led, moreover, to increased livestock raising as a major occupation in the north. In fact, the region is the country's largest producer of cattle.
==Rivers and lakes==
[[Image:Lake Volta, Ghana.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Lake Volta is one of the world's largest artificially created lakes.]]
Ghana is drained by a large number of streams and rivers. In addition, there are a number of coastal lagoons, the huge man-made Lake Volta, and [[Lake Bosumtwi]], southeast of [[Kumasi]] and which has no outlet to the sea. In the wetter south and southwest areas of Ghana, the river and stream pattern is denser, but in the area north of the Kwahu Plateau, the pattern is much more open, making access to water more difficult. Several streams and rivers also dry up or experience reduced flow during the dry seasons of the year, while flooding during the rainy seasons is common.
The major drainage divide runs from the southwest part of the Akwapim-Togo Ranges northwest through the [[Kwahu Plateau]] and then irregularly westward to the Côte d'Ivoire border. Almost all the rivers and streams north of this divide form part of the Volta system. Extending about 1,600 kilometers in length and draining an area of about 388,000 square kilometers, of which about 158,000 km² lie within Ghana, the Volta and its tributaries, such as the Afram River and the Oti River, drain more than twothirds of the country. To the south of the divide are several smaller, independent rivers. The most important of these are the Pra River, the Tano River, the Ankobra River, the Birim River, and the Densu River. With the exception of smaller streams that dry up in the dry seasons or rivers that empty into inland lakes, all the major rivers in the country flow into the Gulf of Guinea directly or as tributaries to other major rivers. The Ankobra and Tano are navigable for considerable distances in their lower reaches.
Navigation on the Volta River has changed significantly since 1964. Construction of the dam at Akosombo, about eighty kilometers upstream from the coast, created vast Lake Volta and the associated 768 megawatt hydroelectric project. Arms of the lake extended into the lower-lying areas, forcing the relocation of 78,000 people to newly created townships on the lake's higher banks. The Black Volta River and the White Volta River flow separately into the lake. Before their confluence was submerged, the rivers came together in the middle of the country to form the main Volta River. The Oti River and the Daka River, the principal tributaries of the Volta in the eastern part of the country, and the Pru River, the Sene River, and the Afram River, major tributaries to the north of the Kawhu Plateau, also empty into flooded extensions of the lake in their river valleys. Lake Volta is a rich source of fish, and its potential as a source for irrigation is reflected in agricultural mechanization agreement signed in the late 1980s to irrigate the Afram Plains. The lake is navigable from Akosombo through Yeji in the middle of the country; a 24 meter pontoon was commissioned in 1989 to link the Afram Plains to the west of the lake with the lower Volta region to the east. Hydroelectricity generated from Akosombo supplies Ghana, Togo, and Benin.
On the other side of the Kwahu Plateau from Lake Volta are several river systems, including the Pra, Ankobra, Tano and Densu. The Pra is the easternmost and the largest of the three principal rivers that drain the area south of the Volta divide. Rising south of the Kwahu Plateau and flowing southward, the Pra enters the Gulf of Guinea east of Takoradi. In the early part of the twentieth century, the Pra was used extensively to float timber to the coast for export. This trade is now carried by road and rail transportation.
The Ankobra, which flows to the west of the Pra, has a relatively small drainage basin. It rises in the hilly region of Bibiani and flows in a southerly direction to enter the gulf just west of Axim. Small craft can navigate approximately eighty kilometers inland from its mouth. At one time, the Ankobra helped transport machinery to the gold-mining areas in the vicinity of Tarkwa. The Tano, which is the westernmost of the three rivers, rises near Techiman in the center of the country. It also flows in a southerly direction, but it empties into a lagoon in the southeast corner of Côte d'Ivoire. Navigation by steam launch is possible on the southern sector of the Tano for about 70 kilometers.
A number of rivers are found to the east of the Pra. The two most important are the Densu and Ayensu, which are important as sources of water for Accra and Winneba, respectively. The country has one large natural lake, Lake Bosumtwi, located about 32 kilometers southeast of Kumasi. It occupies the steep-sided caldera of a former volcano and has an area of about 47 square kilometers. A number of small streams flow into Lake Bosumtwi, but there is no drainage from it. Apart from providing an opportunity for fishing for local inhabitants, the lake serves as a tourist attraction.
== Natural hazards ==
Dry, dusty, [[harmattan]] winds occur from January to March. The country is also prone to droughts.
== Environment ==
The recent drought in the north has had a severe effect on [[agriculture]]. Wildlife is threatened by [[poaching]] and [[habitat destruction]] threatens wildlife populations.
'''International agreements (ratified):'''
[[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertificati |
zation ===
After the dispersal of the Danish invaders Alfred turned his attention to the increase of the royal [[navy]], and ships were built according to the king's own designs, partly to repress the ravages of the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes on the coasts of Wessex, partly to prevent the landing of fresh hordes. This is not, as often asserted, the beginning of the English navy. There had been earlier naval operations under Alfred. One naval engagement was certainly fought under [[Aethelwulf|Æthelwulf]] (in [[851]]), and earlier ones, possibly in [[833]] and [[840]]. The partisan [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle|Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] credits Alfred with the construction of a new type of boat, 'swifter, steadier and also higher/more responsive (hierran) than the others'; but these new ships were not a great success, as we hear of them grounding in action and foundering in a storm. Nevertheless both the [[Royal Navy]] and the [[United States Navy]] claim Alfred as the founder of their traditions. The first vessel ever commissioned into the United States Navy was [[USS Alfred|USS ''Alfred'']].
Alfred's main fighting force was separated into two, 'so that there was always half at home and half out' ([[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]). The level of organisation required to mobilise his large army in two shifts of which one was feeding the other must have been considerable. The complexity which Alfred's administration had attained by [[892]] is demonstrated by a reasonably reliable charter whose witness list includes a ''thesaurius'', ''cellararius'' and ''pincerna''&mdash;treasurer, food-keeper and butler. Despite the irritation which Alfred must have felt in [[893]], when one division, which had 'completed their call-up (stemn)' gave up the siege of a Danish army even as Alfred was moving to relieve them, this system seems to have worked remarkably well on the whole.
One of the weaknesses of pre-Alfredian defences had been that, in the absence of a standing army, fortresses were largely left unoccupied, making it very possible for a Viking force quickly to secure a strong strategic position. Alfred substantially upgraded the state of many of Wessex's fortresses, as has been demonstrated by systematic excavation of four West Saxon boroughs (at [[Wareham]], [[Cricklade]], [[Lydford]] and [[Wallingford]]]) that "in every case the rampart associated by the excavators with the borough of the Alfredian period was the primary defence on the site" (N.P. Brooks ''The Development of Military Obligations in Eighth and Ninth Century England''). We know that such defences were not constructed by the occasional Danish occupiers, thanks to surviving transcripts of the formidable 11th Century administrative manuscript known as the Burghal Hidage, dated within 20 years of Alfred's death&mdash;it may well date to Alfred's reign, and it almost certainly reflects Alfredian policy. This documents the established position of these four [[burh]]s, among many others, as permanently garrisoned and maintained fortress-towns. By comparing town plans of Wallingford and Wareham with that of Winchester, one can see 'that they were laid out in the same scheme' (P. Wormald in J. Campbell, ed., ''The Anglo-Saxons''). This supports the proposition that these newly established burhs were planned as centres of habitation and trade as well as a place of safety in moments of immediate danger.
The "[[Tribal Hidage|Burghal Hidage]]" sets out the obligations for the upkeep and defence of these towns; in this way, the English population and its wealth was drawn into towns where it was not only safer from Viking soldiers, but also taxable by the King.
Alfred is thus credited with a significant degree of civil reorganization, especially in the districts ravaged by the Danes. Even if one rejects the thesis crediting the 'Burghal Hidage' to Alfred, what is undeniable is that, in the parts of Mercia acquired by Alfred from the Vikings, the [[shire]] system seems now to have been introduced for the first time. This is at least one grain of truth in the legend that Alfred was the inventor of shires, [[Hundred (division)|hundreds]] and [[tithing]]s. The finances also needed attention; but the subject is obscure, and we cannot accept Asser's description of Alfred's appropriation of his revenue as more than an ideal sketch. Alfred's care for the administration of justice is testified both by history and legend; and the title "protector of the poor" was his by unquestioned right. Of the action of the [[Witangemot]] we do not hear very much under Alfred. That he was anxious to respect its rights is conclusively proved, but both the circumstances of the time and the character of the king would tend to throw more power into his hands. The legislation of Alfred probably belongs to the later part of the reign, after the pressure of the Danes had relaxed.
=== Foreign relations ===
Asser speaks grandiosely of Alfred's relations with foreign powers, but little definite information is available. He certainly corresponded with [[Elias III]], the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|patriarch of Jerusalem]], and probably sent a mission to [[India]]. Embassies to Rome conveying the English alms to the [[Pope]] were fairly frequent; while Alfred's interest in foreign countries is shown by the insertions which he made in his translation of [[Orosius]].
Around 890 [[Wulfstan of Haithabu]] undertook a journey from [[Haithabu]] on [[Jutland]] along the [[Baltic Sea]] to the Prussian trading town [[Truso]]. Wulfstan reported details of his trip to Alfred the Great.
His relations to the [[Celt]]ic princes in the southern half of the island are clearer. Comparatively early in his reign the [[South Wales|Welsh]] princes, owing to the pressure on them of [[North Wales]] and Mercia, commended themselves to Alfred. Later in the reign the North Welsh followed their example, and the latter co-operated with the English in the campaign of 893 (or 894). That Alfred sent alms to [[Ireland|Irish]] as well as to European monasteries may be taken on Asser's authority; the visit of the three pilgrim "Scots" (i.e., Irish) to Alfred in 891 is undoubtedly authentic; the story that he himself in his childhood was sent to Ireland to be healed by [[St. Modwenna]], though mythical, may show Alfred's interest in that island.
=== Christianity and His Writings===
The history of the [[Christianity|church]] under Alfred is most obscure. The Danish inroads had told heavily upon it; the monasteries had been special points of attack, and though Alfred founded two or three monasteries and imported foreign monks, there was no general revival of monasticism under him.
To the ruin of learning and education wrought by the Danes, and the practical extinction of the knowledge of Latin even among the clergy, the preface to Alfred's translation into [[Old English language|Old English]] of [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory's]] ''[[Pastoral Care]]'' bears eloquent witness. It was to remedy these evils that he established a court school, after the example of [[Charlemagne]]; for this he imported scholars like [[Grimbald]] and [[John the Saxon]] from Europe and Asser from South Wales; for this, above all, he put himself to school, and made the series of translations for the instruction of his clergy and people, most of which yet survive. These belong unquestionably to the latter of his reign, likely to the last four years, during which the chronicles are almost silent.
Apart from the lost ''Handboc'' or ''Encheiridion,'' which seems to have been merely a commonplace-book kept by the king, the earliest work to be translated was the ''Dialogues of Gregory,'' a book greatly popular in the [[Middle Ages]]. In this case the translation was made by Alfred's great friend [[Werferth]], Bishop of [[Worcester, England|Worcester]], the king merely furnishing a foreword. The next work to be undertaken was Gregory's ''Pastoral Care,'' especially for the good of the parish clergy. In this Alfred keeps very close to his original; but the introduction which he prefixed to it is one of the most interesting documents of the reign, or indeed of English history. The next two works taken in hand were historical, the ''Universal History'' of Orosius and [[Bede|Bede's]] ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum|Ecclesiastical History of the English People]].'' The priority should likely be given to the Orosius, but the point has been much debated. In the Orosius, by omissions and additions, Alfred so remodels his original as to produce an almost new work; in the Bede the author's text is closely stuck to, no additions being made, though most of the documents and some other less interesting matters are omitted. Of late years doubts have been raised as to Alfred's authorship of the Bede translation. But the sceptics cannot be regarded as having proved their point.
We come now to what is in many ways the most interesting of Alfred's works, his translation of ''[[Consolation of Philosophy|The Consolation of Philosophy]]'' of [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]], the most popular philosophical handbook of the middle ages. Here again Alfred deals very freely with his original and though the late Dr. G. Schepss showed that many of the additions to the text are to be traced not to Alfred himself, but to the glosses and commentaries which he used, still there is much in the work which is solely Alfred's and highly characteristic of his genius. It is in the Boethius that the oft-quoted sentence occurs: "My will was to live worthily as long as I lived, and after my life to leave to them that should come after, my memory in good works." The book has come down to us in two manuscripts only. In one of these the writing is prose, in the other alliterating verse. The authorship of the latter has been much disputed; but likely they also are by Alfred. In fact, he writes in the prelude that |
rie Ackermann]], German athlete
*[[1953]] - [[Robert Bertrand]], Canadian politician
*[[1956]] - [[David E. Kelley]], American writer and television producer
*[[1957]] - [[Aki Kaurismäki]], Finnish film director
*1957 - [[Nobuyoshi Kuwano]], Japanese television performer and musician ([[Rats & Star]])
*[[1958]] - [[Mary-Margaret Humes]], American actress
*[[1960]] - [[Jane Eaglin]], English soprano
*1960 - [[Hugo Weaving]], Australian actor
*[[1963]] - [[Jack Del Rio]], American football player and coach
*1963 - [[Graham Norton]], Irish talk show host
*1963 - [[Dale Hawerchuk]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1965]] - [[Robert Downey Jr.]], American actor
*[[1968]] - [[Jennifer Lynch]], American director
*[[1970]] - [[Barry Pepper]], Canadian actor
*[[1973]] - [[David Blaine]], American illusionist
*[[1974]] - [[Dave Mirra]], American athlete
*[[1975]] - [[Scott Rolen]], baseball player
*1975 - [[Delphine Arnault]], billionaire French businesswoman
*[[1979]] - [[Heath Ledger]], Australian actor
*1979 - [[Natasha Lyonne]], American actress
*[[1980]] - [[Björn Wirdheim]], Swedish race car driver
*[[1991]] - [[Jamie Lynn Spears]], American television show host
==Deaths==
*[[397]] - [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]], Bishop of Milan
*[[896]] - [[Pope Formosus]] (b. [[816]])
*[[1284]] - King [[Alfonso X of Castile]] (b. [[1221]])
*[[1292]] - [[Pope Nicholas IV]] (b. [[1227]])
*[[1305]] - [[Jeanne of Navarre]], queen of [[Philip IV of France]]
*[[1536]] - [[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]] (b. [[1460]])
*[[1588]] - King [[Frederick II of Denmark]] (b. [[1534]]
*[[1609]] - [[Charles de L'Ecluse]], Flemish botanist (b. [[1526]])
*[[1617]] - [[John Napier]], Scottish mathematician (b. [[1550]])
*[[1643]] - [[Simon Episcopius]], Dutch theologian (b. [[1583]])
*[[1661]] - [[Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven]], Scottish soldier
*[[1701]] - [[Joseph Haines]], entertainer and author
*[[1743]] - [[Daniel Neal]], English historian (b. [[1678]])
*[[1761]] - [[Theodore Gardelle]], Swiss painter and enameler (b. [[1722]])
*[[1766]] - [[John Taylor (1704-1766)|John Taylor]], English classical scholar (b. [[1704]])
*[[1774]] - [[Oliver Goldsmith]], English writer (b. [[1728]])
*[[1792]] - [[James Sykes (1725-1792)|James Sykes]], American politician (b. [[1725]])
*[[1807]] - [[Joseph Jérôme Lefrançais de Lalande]], French astronomer (b. [[1732]])
*[[1817]] - [[André Masséna]], French marshal (b. [[1758]])
*[[1841]] - [[William Henry Harrison]], 9th [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1773]])
*[[1842]] - [[Jean Moufot]], French philosopher and mathematician (b. [[1784]])
*[[1846]] - [[Solomon Sibley]], Senator from Michigan Territory (b. [[1769]])
*[[1861]] - [[John McLean]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. [[1785]])
*[[1870]] - [[Heinrich Gustav Magnus]], German chemist and physicist (b. [[1802]])
*[[1874]] - [[Charles Ernest Beulé]], French archaelogist and politician (b. [[1826]])
*[[1879]] - [[Heinrich Wilhelm Dove]], German physicist (b. [[1803]])
*[[1884]] - [[Marie Bashkirtseff]], Russian artist and diarist (b. [[1860]])
*[[1890]] - [[Edmond Hébert]], French geologist (b. [[1812]])
*[[1919]] - Sir [[William Crookes]], English chemist and physicist (b. [[1832]])
*[[1923]] - [[John Venn]], British mathematician (b. [[1834]])
*[[1932]] - [[Wilhelm Ostwald]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1853]])
*[[1951]] - [[Al Christie]], Canadian film director and producer (b. [[1881]])
*1951 - [[George Albert Smith]], president of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (b. [[1870]])
*[[1953]] - King [[Carol II of Romania]] (b. [[1893]])
*[[1967]] - [[Héctor Scarone]], Uruguayan footballer (b. [[1898]])
*[[1968]] - Rev. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], American civil rights activist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (assassinated) (b. [[1929]])
*[[1972]] - [[Adam Clayton Powell Jr.]], American politician (b. [[1908]])
*1972 - [[Stefan Wolpe]], German-born composer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1979]] - [[Ali Bhutto]], President and [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]] (b. [[1928]])
*1979 - [[Edgar Buchanan]], American actor (b. [[1903]])
*[[1983]] - [[Gloria Swanson]], American actress (b. [[1897]])
*[[1984]] - [[Oleg Antonov]], Russian airplane engineer (b. [[1906]])
*[[1987]] - [[C.L. Moore]], American writer (b. [[1911]])
*[[1991]] - [[Max Frisch]], Swiss writer (b. [[1911]])
*1991 - [[H. John Heinz III]], U.S. Senator (plane crash) (b. [[1938]])
*1991 - [[Forrest Towns]], American hurdler (b. [[1914]])
*[[1995]] - [[Priscilla Lane]], American singer, actress
*[[1996]] - [[Barney Ewell]], American athlete (b. [[1918]])
*1996 - [[Larry LaPrise]], American songwriter (b. [[1913]])
*[[1999]] - [[Early Wynn]], baseball player (b. [[1920]])
*1999 - [[Faith Domergue]] American actor (b. [[1924]])
*[[2001]] - [[Ed Roth|Ed "Big Daddy" Roth]], American custom car designer (b. [[1932]])
*[[2002]] - [[Harry L. O'Connor]], Czech-born film stuntman
*[[2003]] - [[Resortes]], Mexican comedian (b. [[1916]])
*[[2004]] - [[Casey Sheehan]], American soldier, son of [[Cindy Sheehan]] (b. 1979)
*[[2005]] - [[Edward Bronfman]], Canadian Businessmen (b. [[1924]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Lesotho]] - Heroes' Day
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/4 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050404.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&day=04 On This Day in Canada]
-----
[[April 3]] - [[April 5]] - [[March 4]] - [[May 4]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:4 April]]
[[ang:4 Ēastermōnaþ]]
[[ar:4 إبريل]]
[[an:4 d'abril]]
[[ast:4 d'abril]]
[[bg:4 април]]
[[be:4 красавіка]]
[[bs:4. april]]
[[ca:4 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 4]]
[[cv:Ака, 4]]
[[co:4 d'aprile]]
[[cs:4. duben]]
[[cy:4 Ebrill]]
[[da:4. april]]
[[de:4. April]]
[[et:4. aprill]]
[[el:4 Απριλίου]]
[[es:4 de abril]]
[[eo:4-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 4]]
[[fo:4. apríl]]
[[fr:4 avril]]
[[fy:4 april]]
[[ga:4 Aibreán]]
[[gl:4 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 4일]]
[[hr:4. travnja]]
[[io:4 di aprilo]]
[[ilo:Abril 4]]
[[id:4 April]]
[[ia:4 de april]]
[[ie:4 april]]
[[is:4. apríl]]
[[it:4 aprile]]
[[he:4 באפריל]]
[[jv:4 April]]
[[ka:4 აპრილი]]
[[csb:4 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:4'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 4]]
[[lb:4. Abrëll]]
[[li:4 april]]
[[hu:Április 4]]
[[mk:4 април]]
[[ms:4 April]]
[[nap:4 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:4 april]]
[[ja:4月4日]]
[[no:4. april]]
[[nn:4. april]]
[[oc:4 d'abril]]
[[os:4 апрелы]]
[[pl:4 kwietnia]]
[[pt:4 de Abril]]
[[ro:4 aprilie]]
[[ru:4 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 4.]]
[[sco:4 Aprile]]
[[sq:4 Prill]]
[[scn:4 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 4]]
[[sk:4. apríl]]
[[sl:4. april]]
[[sr:4. април]]
[[fi:4. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:4 april]]
[[tl:Abril 4]]
[[tt:4. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 4]]
[[th:4 เมษายน]]
[[vi:4 tháng 4]]
[[tr:4 Nisan]]
[[uk:4 квітня]]
[[ur:4 اپریل]]
[[wa:4 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 4]]
[[zh:4月4日]]
[[pam:Abril 4]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 6</title>
<id>1008</id>
<revision>
<id>41651235</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:26:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Enochlau</username>
<id>36424</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.154.148.18|66.154.148.18]] ([[User talk:66.154.148.18|talk]]) to last version by Shanes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=6}}
|}
'''[[April 6]]''' is the 96th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (97th in [[leap year]]s). There are 269 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[648 BC]] - Earliest [[solar eclipse]] recorded by the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]].
*[[402]] - [[Stilicho]] stymies the [[Visigoths]] under [[Alaric I|Alaric]] in the [[Battle of Pollentia]]
*[[1320]] - The [[Scotland|Scots]] reaffirm their independence by signing the [[Declaration of Arbroath]].
*[[1327]] - The poet [[Petrarch]] first saw his idealized love Laura in the church of [[Saint Clare]] in [[Avignon]].
*[[1652]] - [[Netherlands|Dutch]] sailor [[Jan van Riebeeck]] establishes a resupply camp at the [[Cape of Good Hope]], which will eventually develop into [[Cape Town]].
*[[1782]] - [[Rama I]] succeeds King [[Taksin]] of [[Thailand]], who was overthrown in a [[coup d'état]].
*[[1808]] - [[John Jacob Astor]] incorporates the [[American Fur Company]].
*[[1830]] - [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] is formed by [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] at [[Fayette, New York]].
*[[1832]] - [[Indian Wars]]: [[Black Hawk War]] begins - The [[Sauk]] warrior [[Black Hawk]] enters into war with the [[United States]].
*[[1841]] - [[John Tyler]] is inaugurated as the 10th [[President of the United States]].
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Shiloh]] begins - In [[Tennessee]], forces under [[United States|Union]] General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] meet [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] troops led by General [[Albert Sidney Johnston]] at [[Shiloh, Tennessee|Shiloh]].
*[[1865]] - American Civil War: [[Battle of Sayler's Creek]] - Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s [[Army of Northern Virginia]] fights its last major battle while in retreat from [[Richmond, Virginia]].
*[[1869]] - [[Celluloid]] is patented.
*[[1886]] - [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] is incorporated as a city.
*[[1893]] - [[Salt Lake Temple]] of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]] dedicated by [[Wilford Woodruff]].
*[[1895]] - [[Oscar Wilde]] is arrested after losing a [[libel]] case against the [[John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry]].
*[[1896]] - In [[Athens]], the opening of the [[1896 Summer Olympics|first modern Olympic Games]] after 1,500 years after being banned by Roman Emperor [[Theodosius I]].
*[[1903]] - The [[Kishinev pogrom]] in Kishinev (Bessarabia) began, |
ID=4388 Internet Broadway Database - Complete list of Hopwood plays]
{{theat-stub}}
[[Category:1882 births|Hopwood, Avery]]
[[Category:1928 deaths|Hopwood, Avery]]
[[Category:American dramatists and playwrights|Hopwood, Avery]]
[[sv:Avery Hopwood]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antipope Felix II</title>
<id>2340</id>
<revision>
<id>40359776</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:21:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Felix II''' is generally considered an [[antipope]] rather than a [[pope]]. In [[356]] he was raised from the [[archdeacon]]ate of [[Rome]] to the Papal chair, when [[Pope Liberius|Liberius]] was banished by the [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Constantius II|Constantius]] for refusing to subscribe the sentence of condemnation against [[Athanasius]]. Felix's election was contrary to the wishes both of the [[clergy]] and of the people, and the [[consecration]] ceremony was performed by certain [[prelates]] belonging to the court. In [[357]], at the urgent request of an influential deputation of Roman ladies, Constantius agreed to the release of Liberius on the condition that he signed the semi-[[Arianism|Arian]] [[creed]]. Constantius also issued an edict to the effect that the two bishops should rule conjointly, but Liberius, on his entrance into Rome in the following year, was received by all classes with so much enthusiasm that Felix found it necessary to retire at once from Rome.
Regarding the remainder of his life, little is known, and the accounts handed down are contradictory, but he appears to have spent the most of it in retirement at his estate near [[Porto]]. He died in [[365]], and (on what grounds it is impossible to determine) was enrolled amongst the number of [[martyr]]s, his day being [[July 22]]. In the reign of [[Pope Gregory XIII|Gregory XIII]], the claim of Felix to rank among the popes was discussed, and in order to discover whether any miraculous help was to be found to aid in the decision of the question, his [[sarcophagus]] was opened. It was said the words "Pope and Martyr" were found inscribed on his body, but this [[supernatural]] testimony is in contradiction to that of the earlier authorities of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]].
''Text from the 9th edition ([[1879]]) of an unnamed encyclopedia.''
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06030a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity|Felix 2]]
[[Category:Antipopes|Felix 2]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs|Felix 2]]
[[Category:365 deaths|Felix 2]]
[[de:Felix II. (Gegenpapst)]]
[[fr:Félix II]]
[[it:Antipapa Felice II]]
[[hu:II. Félix ellenpápa]]
[[nl:Tegenpaus Felix II]]
[[pl:Antypapież Feliks II]]
[[pt:Antipapa Félix II]]
[[sv:Felix II]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alkaloid</title>
<id>2341</id>
<revision>
<id>39995996</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T10:37:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Heathhunnicutt</username>
<id>386638</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Adding link to sanguinarine</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''alkaloid''' is a [[nitrogen|nitrogenous]] organic [[molecule]] that has a [[pharmacology|pharmacological]] effect on [[human]]s and [[animal]]s. The name derives from the word [[alkaline]]; originally, the term was used to describe any nitrogen-containing [[base (chemistry)|base]] (an [[amine]] in modern terms). Alkaloids are found as [[Secondary metabolite|secondary metabolites]] in [[plant]]s (e.g., in [[potato]]es and [[tomato]]es), animals (e.g., in [[shellfish]]) and [[fungus|fungi]], and can be extracted from their sources by treatment with [[acid]]s (usually [[hydrochloric acid]] or [[sulfuric acid]], though organic acids such as [[maleic acid]] and [[citric acid]] are sometimes used).
Usually alkaloids are derivatives of amino acids.
Even though many alkaloids are [[poison]]ous (such as [[strychnine]] or [[coniine]]), some are used in medicine as [[analgesic]]s (pain relievers) or [[anaesthetic]]s, particularly [[morphine]] and [[codeine]]. Most alkaloids have a very bitter taste.
Although formally an alkaloid, the class of [[:Category:pyrazoles|pyrazoles]] contain two [[nitrogen]] atoms in the [[aromatic]] [[ring structure]] and are not found in nature. They must be produced synthetically.
== Alkaloid classifications ==
Alkaloids are usually classified by their common molecular precursors, based on the [[metabolic pathway]] used to construct the molecule. When not much was known about the [[biosynthesis]] of alkaloids, they were grouped under the names of known compounds, even some non-nitrogenous ones (since those molecules' structures appear in the finished product; the opium alkaloids are sometimes called "phenanthrenes", for example), or by the plants or animals they were isolated from. When more is learned about a certain alkaloid, the grouping is changed to reflect the new knowledge, usually taking the name of a biologically-important amine that stands out in the synthesis process.
* [[Pyrrolidine]] group: [[hygrine]], [[cuscohygrine]], [[nicotine]]
* [[Tropane]] group: [[atropine]], [[cocaine]], [[ecgonine]], [[scopolamine]]
* [[Quinoline]] group: [[quinine]], [[quinidine]], [[dihydroquinine]], [[dihydroquinidine]], [[strychnine]], [[brucine]], [[veratrine]], [[cevadine]]
* [[Isoquinoline]] group: The [[opium]] alkaloids ([[morphine]], [[codeine]], [[thebaine]], [[heroin]], [[papaverine]], [[narcotine]], [[sanguinarine]], [[narceine]], [[hydrastine]], [[berberine]])
* [[Phenethylamine]] group: [[MDMA]], [[methamphetamine]], [[mescaline]], [[ephedrine]]
* [[Indole]] group:
** [[Tryptamine]]s: [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], [[NMT_alkaloid|NMT]], [[psilocybin]], [[serotonin]], [[melatonin]]
** [[Ergoline]]s: the [[ergot]] alkaloids ([[ergine]], [[ergotamine]], [[lysergic acid]], etc.), [[LSD]]
** [[Beta-carboline]]s: [[harmine]], [[yohimbine]], [[reserpine]], [[emetine]]
* [[Purine]] group:
** [[Xanthine]]s: [[caffeine]], [[theobromine]], [[theophylline]]
* [[Terpenoid]] group:
** [[Aconite]] alkaloids: [[aconitine]]
** [[Steroid]]s: [[solanine]], [[samandarin]]
* [[Betaine]]s ([[ammonium|quaternary ammonium compound]]s): [[muscarine]], [[choline]], [[neurine]]
* [[:Category:pyrazoles|Pyrazole]] group: [[pyrazole]], [[fomepizole]]
{{Commons|Alkaloid}}
[[Category:Alkaloids|?]]
[[ca:Alcaloide]]
[[cs:Alkaloid]]
[[da:Alkaloid]]
[[de:Alkaloide]]
[[es:Alcaloide]]
[[eo:Alkaloido]]
[[fr:Alcaloïde]]
[[it:Alcaloidi]]
[[lt:Alkaloidas]]
[[nl:Alkaloïde]]
[[ja:アルカロイド]]
[[nn:Alkaloid]]
[[pl:Alkaloid]]
[[pt:Alcalóide]]
[[ru:Алкалоид]]
[[sk:Alkaloid]]
[[fi:Alkaloidi]]
[[sv:Alkaloid]]
[[uk:Алкалоїди]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adventist</title>
<id>2343</id>
<revision>
<id>38178788</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T19:10:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.67.51.231</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>for some reason 'dopemine' was part of this page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Adventist''' can refer to
* One who believes in the [[Second coming | Second Advent]] (usually known as the [[Second coming]]) of [[Jesus]].
* A member of the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]
* A member of one of the other Adventist<!--can I get a category link here?--> Churches, notably:
** [[Advent Christian Church]]
** [[Brethren | United Seventh Day Brethren]]
** [[Church of God General Conference (Abrahamic Faith)|Church of God General Conference]]
** [[Primitive Advent Christian Church]]
** [[Millerites]]
** [[United Seventh-Day Brethren]]
<!-- I'm not sure that splitting out the SDAs and other adventists is NPOV- but there is a huge size differential-->
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Adventist]]
[[de:Adventisten]]
[[no:Adventister]]
[[pl:Adwenty&#347;ci]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Archbishop of Canterbury</title>
<id>2345</id>
<revision>
<id>40305108</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T18:08:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.64.197.166</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Archbishcantarms.PNG|thumb|right|Arms of the [[episcopal see|see]] of Canterbury]]
The '''[[Archbishop]] of [[Canterbury]]''' is the senior clergyman of the established [[Church of England]] and symbolic head of the worldwide [[Anglican Communion]]. The present incumbent is [[Rowan Williams]].
Today the archbishop fills four main roles:
*he is the diocesan [[bishop]] of the [[Diocese of Canterbury]], which covers the east of the County of [[Kent]] and extreme north-east [[Surrey]]. Founded in [[597]], it is the oldest [[episcopal see|bishopric]] in the English church.
*he is the [[metropolitan bishop|metropolitan]] of the [[Province of Canterbury]], which covers the southern two-thirds of [[England]].
*as '''[[Primate (religion)|Primate]] of All England''', he is the chief ''religious'' figure in the Church of England (the [[British monarchy | British sovereign]] is the "[[Supreme governor]]" of the church). Power in the church is not highly centralised, so the archbishop (along with his "junior" colleague the [[Archbishop of York]]) must usually lead through persuasion. He plays an important part in national ceremonies such as [[coronation of the British monarch | coronations]]; thanks to his high public profile his opinions are often in demand by the [[news media]].
*as symbolic head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop is recognized as ''primus inter pares'' ("first among equals") of all [[Anglican]] [[primate (religion)|primates]]. Since [[1867]] he has convened more or less decennial meetings of worldwide Anglican bishops, the [[Lambeth Conferenc |
candidate Horacio Serpa in a run-off election marked by high voter turn-out and little political unrest. The new president's program was based on a commitment to bring about a peaceful resolution of Colombia's longstanding civil conflict and to cooperate fully with the United States to combat the trafficking of illegal drugs.
While early initiatives in the Colombian peace process gave reason for optimism, the Pastrana administration also has had to combat high unemployment and other economic problems, such as the fiscal deficit and the impact of global financial instability on Colombia. During his administration, unemployment has risen to over 20%. Additionally, the growing severity of countrywide guerrilla attacks by the FARC and ELN, and smaller movements, as well as the growth of drug production, corruption and the spread of even more violent paramilitary groups such as the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia ([[Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia|AUC]]) has made it difficult to solve the country's problems.
Although the FARC and ELN accepted participation in the peace process, they did not make explicit commitments to end the conflict. The FARC suspended talks in November [[2000]], to protest what it called "paramilitary terrorism" but returned to the negotiating table in February [[2001]], following 2 days of meetings between President Pastrana and FARC leader Manuel Marulanda. The Colombian Government and ELN in early 2001 continued discussions aimed at opening a formal peace process.
No single explanation fully addresses the deep roots of Colombia's present-day troubles, but they include limited government presence in large areas of the interior, the expansion of illicit drug cultivation, endemic violence, and social inequities. In order to confront these challenges, the Pastrana administration unveiled its [[Plan Colombia]] in late 1999, an integrated strategy to deal with these longstanding, mutually reinforcing problems.
The main stated objectives of the original Plan Colombia were to promote peace, combat the narcotics industry, revive the Colombian economy, improve respect for human rights, and strengthen the democratic and social institutions of the country. Colombia planned to finance $4 billion of the estimated $7.5 billion overall cost, most of which would go towards the social portion of the project, but was ultimately unable to do so due to the state's 1997-1998 economic crisis.
The United States approved a $1.3 billion assistance package, mostly of military and counternarcotics nature but also including a minority amount of social aid. The Colombian Government sought additional support from the IFIs, the [[European Union]], and other countries, with the intention of financing the social component of the original plan, but met with little cooperation as the would-be donors considered that the U.S. approved aid represented an undue military slant and additionally lacked the will to spend such amounts of money.
After the eventual breakup of the peace negotiations, which had been stalled numerous times and finally ended due to a guerrilla kidnapping of a congressman and other political figures, the Caguán demilitarized zone was terminated by the Pastrana administration.
Soon after that, in May [[2002]], the former liberal politician of conservative leanings [[Álvaro Uribe Vélez]], whose father had been killed by left-wing guerrillas, was sworn in as Colombian president. He immediately began taking action to crush the FARC, ELN, and AUC, including the employment of citizen informants to help the police and armed forces track down suspected members in all three armed groups.
In the fall of 2002, the administration released the much-awaited Colombian national security strategy, entitled Democratic Security and Defense Policy. The Plan fit within the broader social, economic, and political goals of Plan Colombia. Though much attention has been focused on the security and military aspects of Colombia's situation, the administration also is spending significant time on issues such as expanding international trade, supporting alternate means of development, and reforming Colombia's judicial system.
==Recent developments==
[[As of 2004]], two years after its implementation began, the security situation of inside Colombia has shown some measure of an improvement and the economy, while still fragile, has also shown some positive signs according to observers, but relatively little has yet to have been accomplished in structurally solving most of the country's other grave problems, possibly in part due to legislative and political conflicts between the administration and the Colombian Congress (including those over the controversial project to eventually re-elect Uribe), and a relative lack of freely allocated funds and credits.
Some critical observers consider that Uribe's policies, while admittedly reducing crime and guerrilla activity, might be too slanted in favor of a military solution to Colombia's internal war, neglecting grave social and human rights concerns to a certain extent. They ask for Uribe's government to change this position and make serious efforts towards improving the human rights situation inside the country, protecting civilians and reducing any abuses committed by the armed forces.
Uribe's supporters in turn believe that increased military action is a necessary prelude to any serious negotiation attempt with the guerrillas and that the increased security situation will help to, in the long term, focus more actively on reducing most wide-scale abuses and human rights violations on the part of both the armed groups and any rogue security forces that might have links to the paramilitaries. In short, that the security situation must be stabilized in favor of the government before any other social concerns can take precedence.
With such conflicting perspectives, it can be argued that a certain polarization between both supporters and opponents of President Uribe seems to be forming both inside and outside the country.
==See also==
* [[New Granada]]
* [[Gran Colombia]]
* [[Colombia]]
* [[Colombian Armed Conflict]]
==External links==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1831.htm U.S. State Department Background Note: Colombia]
{{South America in topic|History of}}
[[Category:History of Colombia|History of Colombia]]
[[Category:History of South America]]
[[bn:কলম্বিয়ার ইতিহাস]]
[[de:Geschichte Kolumbiens]]
[[es:Historia de Colombia]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Colombie]]
[[no:Colombias historie]]
[[pt:História da Colômbia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Colombia</title>
<id>5845</id>
<revision>
<id>40448636</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:02:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''The information in this article is mostly outdated and fails to reflect events occurring in the past half decade.'''''
{{Politics of Colombia}}
[[Colombia]] seeks diplomatic and commercial relations with all countries, regardless of their ideologies or [[politics|political]] or economic systems.
In [[1969]], it formed what is now the [[Andean Community]] along with [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Peru]] ([[Venezuela]] joined in 1973, and Chile left in 1976).
In the [[1980s]], Colombia broadened its bilateral and multilateral relations, joining the [[Contadora Group]], the [[Group of Eight]] (now the [[Rio Group]]), and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], which it chaired from 1994 until September 1998. In addition, it has signed free trade agreements with Chile, [[Mexico]], and Venezuela.
Colombia has traditionally played an active role in the [[United Nations]] and the Organization of American States and in their subsidiary agencies. Former President [[Cesar Gaviria]] became Secretary General of the OAS in September 1994 and was reelected in 1999. Colombia was a participant in the December 1994 and April 1998 Summits of the Americas and followed up on initiatives developed at the summit by hosting two post-summit, ministerial-level meetings on trade and science and technology.
Colombia regularly participates in international fora, including CICAD, the Organization of American States' body on [[money laundering]], chemical controls, and drug abuse prevention. Although the Colombian Government ratified the [[1988 UN Convention on Narcotics]] in 1994 -- the last of the Andean governments to do so--it took important reservations, notably to the anti-money-laundering measures, asset forfeiture and confiscation provisions, maritime interdiction, and extradition clauses. Colombia subsequently withdrew some of its reservations, most notably a reservation on extradition.
== Disputes - international ==
Maritime boundary dispute with Venezuela in the [[Gulf of Venezuela]]; territorial disputes with Nicaragua over Archipelago de San Andres y Providencia and Quita Sueno Bank
Colombia is in an ongoing mid-level dispute with Ireland over the return of three Irish citizens. The men were convicted of crimes surrounding their use of false passports. They escaped while on bail and the Irish government and media are aware of their presence in Ireland.
== Illicit drugs ==
illicit producer of [[coca]], [[opium]] poppies, and [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]]:
* world's leading coca cultivator (cultivation of coca in 1998 - 1015 km&sup2, a 28% increase over 1997)
* cultivation of opium in 1998 remained steady at 66 km&sup2;; potential production of opium in 1997 - 66 metric [[ton]]s, a 5% increase over 1996;
* the world's largest processor of coca derivatives into [[cocaine]]; supplier of cocaine to the US and other international drug markets, and an important supplier of [[heroin]] to the US market; active aerial eradication program
=== Narcot |
991-95)
*[[Robert Newhouse]] (RB 1972-83)
*[[Nate Newton]] (OL 1986-98)
*[[Dat Nguyen]] (LB 1999-2005)
*[[Jay Novacek]] (TE 1990-95)
*[[Ken Norton Jr.]] (LB 1988-93)
*[[Drew Pearson (football player)|Drew Pearson]] (WR 1973-1983)
*[[Jethro Pugh]] (DT 1965-78)
*[[Tom Rafferty]] (OL 1976-1990)
*[[Dan Reeves]] (FB 1965-72, asst coach/OC 1972,1974-81)
*[[Deion Sanders]] (CB 1995-1999)
*[[Herbert Scott]] (OL 1975-84)
*[[Kevin Smith]] (DB 1992-1998)
*[[Mark Stepnoski]] (OL 1989-1994, 1999-2000)
*[[Jerry Tubbs]] (LB 1960-67; LB coach 1967-89)
*[[Mark Tuinei]] (OL 1983-97)
*[[Herschel Walker]] (RB 1986-89, 1996-7)
*[[Everson Walls]] (DB 1981-89)
*[[Charlie Waters]] (DB 1970-81)
*[[Danny White]] (P/QB 1976-88)
*[[Erik Williams]] (OT 1991-2000)
*[[Darren Woodson]] (DB 1992-2004)
</div><br clear="all">
<p>
==Head coaches==
The following table shows each coach's record while with the Cowboys. (Since some coached other NFL teams, their overall record may differ.)
{|
|1960-1988
|[[Tom Landry]]
|(270-178-6) Ranked 3rd All-Time (5 Super Bowl appearances, 2 victories) 20 Straight winning seasons.
|-
|1989-1993
|[[Jimmy Johnson (football coach)|Jimmy Johnson]]
|(51-37) (2 Super Bowl appearances, 2 victories)
|-
|1994-1997
|[[Barry Switzer]]
|(45-26) (1 Super Bowl appearance, 1 victory)
|-
|1998-1999
|[[Chan Gailey]]
|(18-14)
|-
|2000-2002
|[[Dave Campo]]
|(15-33)
|-
|2003-Present
|[[Bill Parcells]]
|(25-24)
|}
===Current Staff===
*General Manager - [[Jerry Jones]]
*Head Coach - [[Bill Parcells]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[TBA]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Mike Zimmer]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Bruce DeHaven]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Chris Palmer (football coach)|Chris Palmer]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[TBA]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Todd Haley]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Paul Pasqualoni]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[TBA]]
*Offensive Assistant - [[TBA]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[TBA]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Joe Juraszek]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[TBA]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[TBA]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[David Lee]]
==Broadcasters==
The Cowboys franchise has a rich history of producing well-known sportscasters over the years: the most famous of which is [[Verne Lundquist]], who served as voice of the Cowboys from 1972 until 1984. [[Bill Mercer]] and [[Frank Glieber]] also were Cowboys announcers from the early days of the organization until Lundquist's arrival as a color analyst. Verne's new analyst, [[Brad Sham]], joined him in 1977, became the new play-by-play announcer in 1984 and has been with the Cowboys ever since, except for a three-year hiatus between 1995 and 1998 (when [[Dave Garrett]] was the play-by-play announcer). 2005 will be Brad Sham's 26th year with the organization; 18 of those years as play-by-play announcer. [[Babe Laufenberg]] is the color analyst, and [[Kristi Scales]] is the sideline reporter.
The Cowboys Radio Network for many years was on [[KRLD]]; today it is now on 98.7 KLUV.
Additionally, several former players and coaches for the Dallas Cowboys picked up the broadcast microphone:
*[[Don Meredith]] - became a [[color commentator]] for [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]'s ''[[Monday Night Football]]'' beginning in 1970. For years, he was paired alongside [[Frank Gifford]] and [[Howard Cosell]]. Meredith retired from sportscasting after the 1984 season, one year after Cosell's retirement.
*[[Drew Pearson (football player)|Drew Pearson]] - has worked exclusively as a [[sportscaster]] for such networks as [[CBS]] and [[HBO]] since his retirement in 1983. He currently hosts the KLUV Dallas Cowboys post-game show.
*[[Daryl Johnston]] - aka "Moose" is a color commentator for the [[NFL on Fox]] telecasts, teaming with [[Dick Stockton]] on the sidelines.
*[[Troy Aikman]] - joined Fox's [[National Football Conference|NFC]] telecasts as a color commentator for the 2001 season. A year later, he was named to the network's lead announcing crew, teaming with [[Joe Buck]] and [[Cris Collinsworth]]. Aikman received an [[Emmy Award]] nomination for his television work in 2004, and worked Fox's broadcast of [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] in January of 2005. Aikman also hosts a weekly sports radio show which airs on Thursday from 5 p.m.-6 p.m. ET on [[Sporting News Radio]].
*[[Michael Irvin]] - co-hosted NBC Sports studio coverage of Arena Football League games in 2003. He now co-anchors the widely-viewed Sunday football pre-game show Sunday NFL Countdown and Monday Night Countdown on [[ESPN]].
*[[Emmitt Smith]] - signed on to serve as a studio analyst on the [[NFL Network]] show, NFL Total Access in August 2005.
*[[Deion Sanders]] - worked as a sports pre-game commentator for [[CBS Sports|CBS]]' ''[[The NFL Today]]'' after retiring from the NFL in 2001. He remained with CBS until 2004 when contract negotiations failed. Sanders frequently made guest appearances on [[ESPN]], especially on the [[ESPN Radio]] [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] affiliate, and briefly hosted a show called ''The New American Sportsman''. In 2004, he returned to professional football, playing for the [[Baltimore Ravens]].
*[[Jimmy Johnson (football coach)|Jimmy Johnson]] - became a TV analyst for [[Fox Sports]] after retiring from coaching in 1999, and (as of 2005) he is part of their pregame show.
*[[Butch Davis]] - after a stint as head coach of the [[Cleveland Browns]], the former Defensive Coordinator and coach of the Dallas Cowboys Defensive Line is seen on NFL Playbook, an [[NFL Network]] program.
*[[Darren Woodson]] - worked as a color analyst for two NFL Europe games in the summer of 2004, before signing on as an occasional studio analyst with [[ESPN]].
==See also==
*[[Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders]]
==External links==
*[http://www.dallascowboys.com/ Dallas Cowboys - official web site]
*[http://www.dallascowboysfanclub.com/ Dallas Cowboys - independent fan club]
*[http://www.dallascowboyscentral.com/ Dallas Cowboys Central - Fan Forum]
*[http://www.bluestarboys.com/index.html Blue Star Boys - fansite]
*[http://www.dacowboys.com/ Da Cowboys - Dallas Cowboys News and Information]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/dallas/cowboys.html Sports E-Cyclopdia.com]
{{NFL}}
[[Category:Dallas Cowboys| ]]
[[Category:1960 establishments]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[de:Dallas Cowboys]]
[[fr:Cowboys de Dallas]]
[[it:Dallas Cowboys]]
[[sv:Dallas Cowboys]]
[[zh:达拉斯牛仔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Denver Broncos</title>
<id>8122</id>
<revision>
<id>41417403</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T04:34:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ralph McDonald</username>
<id>283134</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Not to be forgotten */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Denver Broncos
| logo = DenverBroncos_100.png
| founded = 1960
| city = Denver, Colorado
| colors = Broncos Navy Blue, Orange, and White
| coach = [[Mike Shanahan]]
| owner = [[Pat Bowlen]]
| general manager = [[Ted Sundquist]]
| mascot = Miles
| stations = KOA (850 AM)-English and KBNO (1280 AM)-Spanish
| announcers = David Diaz-Infante and Dave Logan-English; Luke Sandoval and Fernando Sergio-Spanish
| hist_yr = 1960
| affiliate_old =
[[American Football League]] (1960-1969)
*Western Division (1960-1969)
| NFL_start_yr = 1970
| division_hist =
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**'''[[AFC West]] (1970-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 2
| no_sb_champs = 2
| no_conf_champs = 6
| no_div_champs = 10
| sb_champs = 1997&nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXXII|XXXII]]), 1998&nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXXIII|XXXIII]])
| conf_champs =
*'''AFC:''' 1977, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1997, 1998
| div_champs =
*'''AFC West:''' 1977, 1978, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1996, 1998, 2005
| stadium_years =
*[[Mile High Stadium]] (1960-2000)
*'''[[INVESCO Field at Mile High]] (2001-present)'''
}}
The '''Denver Broncos''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]], [[Colorado]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC West|Western Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Broncos began play in 1960 as a charter member of the [[American Football League]] and joined the NFL as part of the [[AFL-NFL Merger]].
The Denver Broncos were a small-market team that met with little success in their early years but have since become one of the elite franchises of the league after having advanced to the [[Super Bowl]] six times. In their first four appearances, they suffered successively lopsided defeats, achieving near-legendary status as frustrated losers before winning back-to-back [[Super Bowl]] championships in 1998 and 1999 under [[quarterback]] [[John Elway]], running back [[Terrell Davis]] and coach [[Mike Shanahan]].
For most of their history they played in [[Mile High Stadium]], which became one of the shrines of professional football for its record unbroken string of sell-outs and its legendary home-field advantage (often regarded as the best in the NFL) for the Broncos, especially during the post-season. [[Mile High Stadium]] was one of the NFL's loudest stadiums, with [[steel]] flooring instead of [[concrete]], which may have given the Broncos an advantage over opponents. Since 2001, they have played at [[INVESCO Field at Mile High]], built next to the former site of Mile High Stadium.
:'''Uniform colors:''' "Broncos Navy Blue", Orange and White
:'''Helmet design:''' Navy Blue background with a white horse-head profile.
==Franchise history==
[[Image:DenverBroncosOld.png|left|framed|Broncos logo (1968-1996)]]
Although the [[Denver Broncos]]' 39-97-4 record was the worst of any of the original eight [[American Football League]] teams, the franchise had many proud moments and several AFL superstars, including [[Lionel Taylor]] and [[Floyd Little]]. The Broncos won the first-ever American Football League game over the [[New Engla |
[John Dryden|Dryden]], which introduces a triplet after two couplets:
:But satire needs not those, and wit will shine
:Through the harsh cadence of a rugged line:
:A noble error, and but seldom made,
:When poets are by too much force betrayed.
:Thy generous fruits, though gathered ere their prime,
:Still showed a quickness; and maturing time
:But mellows what we write to the dull sweets of rhyme.
==Origin==
There is some doubt as to the origin of the name; but most probably it is derived from a [[Alexander Romance|collection of Alexandrine romances]], collected in the 12th century, of which [[Alexander the Great|Alexander of Macedon]] was the hero, and in which he was represented, somewhat like the British [[King Arthur|Arthur]], as the pride and crown of chivalry. Before the publication of this work most of the [[trouvère]] romances appeared in octosyllabic verse. There is also a theory that the form was invented by a [[Alexander of Paris|poet named Alexander]]. The new work, which was henceforth to set the fashion to French literature, was written in lines of twelve syllables, but with a freedom of pause which was afterwards greatly curtailed. The new fashion, however, was not adopted all at once. The metre fell into disuse until the reign of [[Francis I of France|Francis I]], when it was revived by [[Jean-Antoine de Baïf]], one of the seven poets known as [[La Pléiade]].
==References==
*Robert Bridges, [[Milton's Prosody (book)]].
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Poetic form]]
[[cs:Alexandrín]]
[[de:Alexandriner (Verslehre)]]
[[es:Verso alejandrino]]
[[eo:Aleksandro]]
[[fr:Alexandrin]]
[[nl:Alexandrijn]]
[[sv:Alexandrin]]
[[wa:Zandrin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Analog computer</title>
<id>2428</id>
<revision>
<id>41900166</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:53:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cburnett</username>
<id>140084</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''analog(ue) computer''' is a form of [[computer]] that uses electrical or mechanical phenomena to model the problem being solved by using one kind of physical quantity to represent another. The central concept among all analog computers can be better understood by examining the definition of an [[analogy]]. The similarities of an analogy define the salient characteristics of the comparison. But the differences in an analogy are important too. Modeling a real physical system in a computer is called [[simulation]].
[[Image:ELWAT.jpg|thumb|300px|Polish Analog computer [[ELWAT]].]]
For example, the similarity between linear mechanical components, such as [[spring (device)|spring]]s and [[dashpot]]s, and electrical components, such as [[capacitor]]s, [[inductor]]s, and [[resistor]]s is striking in terms of mathematics, or even direct mapping (as in simulation). They can be modeled using equations that are of the same form. Or, by direct observation (without the aid of mathematics): e.g., water pressure can be simulated by voltage (electro-motive force), and water flow (gallons per minute) can be simulated by amperes (coulombs per second).
However, the difference between these systems is what makes analog computing useful. Consider a simple mass-spring system. To construct the physical system would require buying the springs and masses, attaching them to each other and an appropriate anchor, collecting test equipment with the appropriate input range, and finally, taking (somewhat difficult) measurements.
The electrical equivalent can be constructed with a few operational amplifiers ([[Op amp]]s) and some passive linear components; all measurements can be taken directly with an [[oscilloscope]]. In the circuit, the (simulated) 'mass of the spring' can be changed by adjusting a [[potentiometer]]. The electrical system is an '''analogy''' to the physical system, hence the name, but it is less expensive to construct, safer, and easier to modify. The all-electronic analog computer is also extremely fast, since a calculation is completed at the rate at which a signal traverses the circuit, which is generally an appreciable fraction of the speed of light.
The drawback of the mechanical-electrical analogy is that electronics are limited by the range over which the variables may vary. This is called [[dynamic range]]. They are also limited by [[noise (physics)|noise levels]].
There is a lack of understanding about electrical systems that sometimes leades to the terms ''analog'' and ''digital'' having seemingly confusing and somewhat dubious meanings. Analog systems are sometimes understood only as continuous, time variant electrical systems. From the above discussion ''this is not correct,'' since discontinuous functions may also be modeled. In fact, ''digital'' also has a precise technical definition. In the context of circuits, it refers to the use of binary electrical pulse codes for symbols and ''the manipulation of these '''symbols''''' in the operation of the digital computer. The electronic analog computer manipulates the physical quantities of (waveforms) of volts or amperes. Consequently, the precision of the analog computer readout (of rational numbers) is limited only by the [[quantization]] of the readout equipment used (generally three or four places). The digital computer precision is limited by the (necessarily finite) number of symbols which may be used in the calculation itself.
There is an intermediate device, a [[hybrid computer]], in which a [[digital computer]] is combined with an analog computer. Hybrid computers are used to obtain a very [[accurate]] but imprecise 'seed' value, using an analog computer front-end, which is then fed into a digital computer [[iterative]] process to achieve the final desired degree of [[precision]]. With a three or four digit, highly accurate numerical seed, the total digital computation time necessary to reach the desired precision is dramatically reduced, since many fewer iterations are required. Or, for example, the analog computer might be used to solve a non-analytic differential equation problem for use at some stage of an overall computation (where precision is not very important). In any case, the hybrid computer is usually substantially faster than a digital computer, but can supply a far more precise computation than an analog computer. It is useful for [[real-time]] applications requiring such a combination (e.g., a high frequency [[phased-array radar]] or a weather system computation).
Some examples:
* the [[abacus]] is a hand-operated digital computer (but not [[Binary numeral system|binary]]; it is [[biquinary]])
* the [[slide rule]] is a hand-operated analog computer
* early [[gun director]]s used mechanical analog computers to direct gunnery fire
== How analog computers work ==
Computations are often performed, in analog computers, by using properties of electrical resistance, voltages and so on. For example, a simple two variable adder can be created by two [[current source]]s in parallel. The first value is set by adjusting the first current source (to say ''x'' [[milli]][[ampere]]s), and the second value is set by adjusting the second current source (say ''y'' milliamperes). Measuring the current across the two at their junction to signal ground will give the sum as an current through a resistance to signal ground, i.e., ''x''+''y'' milliamperes. (See [[Kirchhoff's circuit laws|Kirchhoff's current law]]) Other calculations are performed similarly, using [[operational amplifier]]s and specially designed circuits for other tasks.
The use of electrical properties in analog computers means that calculations are normally performed in [[real time]] (or faster), at a significant fraction of the speed of light, without the relatively large calculation delays of digital computers. This property allows certain useful calculations that are comparatively "difficult" for digital computers to perform— for example numerical integration. These computers can integrate— essentially calculating the integral of a (nondiscrete) voltage waveform, usually by means of a [[capacitor]], which accumulates charge over time.
[[Nonlinear]] functions and calculations can be constructed to a limited precision (three or four digits) by designing [[function generator]]s— special circuits of various combinations of [[capacitance]], [[reactance]], [[electrical resistance|resistance]], and variable current (e.g., [[Zener diode|Zener]]) diodes. Generally, a nonlinear function is simulated by a nonlinear waveform whose shape varies with voltage (or current). For example, as voltage increases, the total [[impedance]] may change as the diodes successively permit current to flow.
Any physical process which models some computation can be interpreted as an analog computer. Some examples, invented for the purpose of illustrating the concept of analog computation, include using a bundle of [[spaghetti]] as a model of ''sorting numbers''; a board, a set of nails, and a rubber band as a model of finding the ''[[convex hull]] of a set of points;'' and strings tied together as a model of ''finding the shortest path in a network.'' These are all described ''in'' A.K. Dewdney (see [[#Reference|citation]] below).
== Analog computer components ==
Analog computers often have a complicated framework, but they have, at their core, a set of key electrical components which perform the calculations, which the operator manipulates through the computer's framework:
* [[potentiometer]]s
* [[operational amplifier]]s
* [[integrator]]s
* fixed-[[function generator]]s
The core mathematical operations used in an electric analog computer are:
* [[summation]]
* [[additive inverse|inversion]]
* [[exponentiation]]
* [[logarithm]]
* [[integration]] with respect to time
* [[differentiation]] with respect to time
* [[multiplication]] and [[division]]
Differentiation with respect to time is not freq |
se==
'''Natural resources:'''
timber, copper, zinc, iron ore, silver
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
8%
<br>''permanent crops:''
0%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
0%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
76%
<br>''other:''
16% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
640 km² (1993 est.)
==Environmental concerns==
'''Natural hazards:'''
NA
'''Environment - current issues:'''
air pollution from manufacturing and power plants contributing to acid rain; water pollution from industrial wastes, agricultural chemicals; habitat loss threatens wildlife populations
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
'''Geography - note:'''
long boundary with Russia; [[Helsinki]] is northernmost national capital on European continent; population concentrated on small southwestern coastal plain
== See also ==
*[[Extreme points of Finland]]
*[[Finland]]
*[[Population of Finland]]
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''
[[Category:Geography of Finland]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Finland]]
[[es:Geografía de Finlandia]]
[[fr:Géographie de la Finlande]]
[[pt:Geografia da Finlândia]]
[[fi:Suomen maantiede]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Finland</title>
<id>10710</id>
<revision>
<id>41199814</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T19:07:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.243.116.13</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Finland]]''' numbers some five million inhabitants and has an average population density of 17 inhabitants per square [[kilometre]]. This makes it, after [[Norway]] and [[Iceland]], the most sparsely populated country in [[Europe]]. Population distribution is very uneven, population is concentrated on small southwestern coastal plain. About 60 per cent live in towns and cities, with 1.2 million living in [[Helsinki Metropolitan Area]] alone. In arctic Lapland, on the other hand, there are only 2 people to every square kilometre. The original inhabitants of Finland are the [[Sami people|Sami]] (formerly known as the Lapps). There are 4,500 of them living in Finland today and they are recognised as a minority with their own language. They have been living north of the [[Arctic Circle]] for more than 7,000 years now. In the 1960's many Finns abandoned rural areas for [[Sweden]], while most immigrants into Finland itself come from other European countries. With 84 per cent of Finns in its congregation, the Lutheran church is the largest in the country. The official languages are [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], the latter being the native language of about six per cent of the Finnish population. There is a historical explanation for the status of Swedish as an official language: from the 13th to the 19th century Finland was part of the Kingdom of Sweden.
== Demographics ==
*Population: 5,223,442 (July 2005 est.)
*Life expectancy at birth: 78.35 years (2005 est.)
**male: 74.82 years
**female: 82.02 years
*Total fertility rate: 1.73 children born/woman (2005 est.)
== Age structure ==
*0-14 years: 17.3% (male 460,977; female 443,859)
*15-64 years:66.8% (male 1,764,874; female 1,723,385)
*65 years and over: 15.9% (male 328,952; female 501,395) (2005 est.)
*Population growth rate: 0.16% (2005 est.)
*Birth rate: 10.5 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
*Death rate: 9.79 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
*Net migration rate: 0.89 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
== Ethnic groups ==
*[[Ethnic Finn|Finnish]] 92 %
*[[Finland-Swedish]] 5.6 %
*[[Russians]] 0.6 %
*[[Roma and Sinti|Roma]] 0.12%
*[[Sami people|Sami]] 0.11%
*[[Finnish Tatars]] 0.02%
== Languages ==
*[[Finnish language]] 93.4 % (official)
*[[Swedish language]] 5.9 % (official)
*[[Russian language]] 0.6 %
*[[Sami languages|Sami language]] 0.03% (semi-official)
== Religions ==
*Evangelical [[Lutheran]] 84 % ([[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]], state church)
*Russian [[Orthodox]] 1 % ([[Finnish Orthodox Church]], second state church)
*other ca. 2 %
*none 13.1 %
== Literacy ==
*definition: age 15 and over can read and write
*total population: 100% (1980 est.)
== References ==
*[[CIA World Factbook]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Finland]]
[[Category:Demographics of Finland| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Finland</title>
<id>10711</id>
<revision>
<id>39743545</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T15:36:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.50.192.124</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Constitution */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Finland}}
[[Finland]] has primarily [[Parliamentarism|parliamentary system]], although the [[president]] also has some notable powers. The main executive power lies in the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] headed by the [[prime minister]]. Matters concerning [[national security]] are divided between the president and the cabinet. The cabinet shares responsibility of [[foreign affairs]] with the [[president]]. Before the constitutional rewrite, which was completed in [[2000]], the president enjoyed more power.
Finns enjoy individual and political freedoms, and [[suffrage]] is universal at 18. The country's population is ethnically homogeneous with no sizable immigrant population. Few tensions exist between the [[Finnish language|Finnish]]-speaking majority and the [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]]-speaking minority, although in certain circles there is an unending debate about the status of the [[Swedish language]].
==Constitution==
''Main article: [[Constitution of Finland]]''
The Constitution was rewritten on [[March 1]], [[2000]] after first being adopted in [[July 17]] [[1919]]. The civil law system is based on [[Sweden|Swedish]] law. The Supreme Court or ''Korkein oikeus'' may request legislation that interprets or modifies existing laws. Judges are appointed by the president.
==President==
''Main article: [[President of Finland]]''
Elected for a six year term, the president:
*Handles [[Foreign relations of Finland|Finland's foreign affairs]] in cooperation with the Cabinet, except for certain international agreements and decisions of [[peace]] or [[war]], which must be submitted to the parliament
*Is [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the armed forces;
*Has some decree and appointive powers
*May block legislation by pocket [[veto]], and call extraordinary parliamentary sessions
*Nominates and formally appoints the [[Prime Minister of Finland]], and appoints the rest of the [[cabinet]] (Council of State)
==Council of State==
''Main article: [[Cabinet of Finland]]''
The ''Council of State'' is made up of the prime minister and ministers for the various departments of the central government as well as an ex-officio member, the Chancellor of Justice. Ministers are not obliged to be members of the Eduskunta (Parliament) and need not be formally identified with any political party.
The president, after hearing the parliament, nominates a prime minister candidate for the parliament to approve in a vote. The prime minister chooses the rest of the cabinet, which is formally appointed by the president.
==Parliament==
''Main article: [[Parliament of Finland]]''
Constitutionally, the 200-member [[unicameral parliament|unicameral]] ''Eduskunta,'' the [[Parliament of Finland]], is the supreme authority in Finland. It may alter the constitution, bring about the resignation of the Council of State, and override presidential vetoes; its acts are not subject to judicial review. Legislation may be initiated by the Council of State, or one of the Eduskunta members.
The Eduskunta is elected on the basis of proportional representation. All persons 18 or older, except military personnel on active duty and a few high judicial officials, are eligible for election. The regular parliamentary term is four years; however, the president may dissolve the Eduskunta and order new elections at the request of the prime minister and after consulting the speaker of parliament.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|Political parties in Finland|Elections in Finland}}
Finland's proportional representation system encourages a multitude of [[political party|political parties]] and has resulted in many coalition-cabinets.
In the parliamentary elections of [[16 March]] [[2003]], there were two dominating parties: the [[Keskusta|Center Party (KESK)]] got 55 seats, and the [[Social Democratic Party of Finland|Social Democratic Party (SDP)]] got 53 seats, in the 200-seat Eduskunta. A new cabinet was formed by Center and Social Democrats together with the [[Svenska Folkpartiet i Finland|Swedish People's Party]].
Finland elects on national level a [[head of state]] - the [[president]] - and a [[legislature]]. The president is elected for a six year term by the people. The '''[[Parliament of Finland|Diet]]''' (''Eduskunta/Riksdag'') has 200 members, elected for a four year term by [[proportional representation]] in multi-seat [[constituency|constituencies]]. Finland has a [[multi-party]] system, with three strong parties, in which no one party often has a chance of gaining power alone, and [[political parties|parties]] must work with each other to form [[coalition government]]s.
In addition to the presidential and parlament |
of modern plastic shotshells, and the additional complexity of reloading fired shells, shotshell handloading is not as popular as cartridge handloading.
===Dies===
Dies are generally sold in sets of two or three dies, depending on the shape of the case. A three die set is needed for straight cases, while a two die set is used for bottlenecked cases. The first die of either set performs the sizing and decapping operation. The middle die in a three die set is used to expand the case mouth of straight cases, while in a two die set the entire neck is expanded as the case is extracted from the first die. The last die in the set seats the bullet and applies a crimp. Special crimping dies are often used to apply a stronger crimp after the bullet is seated, and progressive presses often use an additional "die" to meter powder into the case (though it is arguably not a real die as it does not shape the case).
Standard dies are made from [[hardened steel]], and require that the case be lubricated, for the resizing operation, which requires a large amount of force. Carbide dies have a ring of [[tungsten carbide]], which is far harder and slicker than tool steel, and so carbide dies do not require lubrication. Tapered carbide sizing dies such as the 9mm Luger and 30M1 Carbine require slight lubrication. Usually every fifth to tenth case as needed.
Reloading dies usually have 7/8-14 threads and are interchangeable with all common brands of presses. Dies for rifle bottle neck case usually are supplied in sets of 2 and sometimes 3. One manufacturer supplies a third die to apply a factory type crimp. This is an extra operation and is not needed unless the ammunition is used for hunting or the benefit of improved accuracy. The factory style crimp increases the shot start pressure causing a more uniform pressure curve.
Three dies are normally supplied for straight walled pistol cases. Most of these include a carbide sizing die. This is highly desirable because it eliminates the need to lubricate the case. A fourth die is becoming more popular for a factory style crimp and a post sizing operation. This greatly improves reliability.
===Shellholders===
A shellholder, generally sold separately, is needed to hold the case in place as it is forced into and out of the dies. The reason shellholders are sold separately is that many cartridges share the same base dimensions, and a single shellholder can service many different cases. Shellholders are also specialized, and will generally only fit a certain make of reloading press, while dies are more standardized and will fit a wide variety of presses.
===Scale===
A precision scale is a near necessity for reloading. While it is possible to load using nothing but a powder measure and a weight to volume conversion chart, that greatly limits the precision with which a load can be adjusted, and the variation inherent in measuring by volume means that maximum loads should be avoided. With a powder scale, an adjustable powder measure can be calibrated more precisely for the powder in question, and spot checks can be made during loading to make sure that the measure is not drifting. With a powder trickler, a charge can be measured directly into the scale, giving the most accurate measure. A scale also allows bullets and cases to be sorted by weight, which can increase consistency further. Sorting bullets by weight has obvious benefits, as each set of matched bullets will perform more consistently. Sorting cases by weight is done to group cases by case wall thickness, and match cases with similar interior volumes. Military cases, for example, tend to be thicker, while cases that have been reloaded numerous times will have thinner walls due to brass flowing forward under firing, and being later trimmed from the case mouth.
Both balance scales and electronic scales are available, and while electronic scales are easier to use (and generally have English to metric unit conversions) the balance scales can be more accurate for a skilled user, as they let the user discern differences of less than the stated accuracy of the scale. The simplicity of their construction is often reassuring when compared with the complexity of an electronic scale, which may not give any visible clues as to a defect or loss of calibration. Such reassurance is greatly valued when dealing with handloads, since the dangers posed by a badly-charged round are severe.
===Priming tool===
Single stage presses often don't provide an easy way to prime cases. Various add-on tools can be used for priming the case on the down-stroke, or a separate tool can be used. Since cases loaded with a single stage press are done in steps, with the die being changed between steps, a purpose made priming tool is often faster than trying to integrate a priming step to a press step.
===Powder measure===
Beginning reloading kits often include a weight to volume conversion chart for a selection of common powders, and a set of powder volume measures graduated in small increments. By adding the various measures of powder a desired charge can be measured out with a safe degree of accuracy. However, since multiple measures of powder are often needed, and since powder lots may vary slightly in density, a scale accurate to 0.1 grain (1/7000th of a pound, or .006 grams) is desirable.
===Bullet puller===
Like any complex process, mistakes in handloading are easy to make, and it's far better to be safe and re-do a questionable step than to hope thing will come out all right. A bullet puller is the answer to the question of what to do with the mistakes. Most pullers use [[inertia]] to pull the bullet; they are shaped like hammers, and the case is locked in place inside. A sharp blow on a hard surface will suddenly stop the case, and the inertia of the heavy bullet will pull it free of the case in a few blows. The bullet and powder are trapped in the bullet puller, and can be reused. Primers are a more problematic issue. If a primer is not seated deeply enough, the cartridge (if loaded) can be pulled, and the primer re-seated with the seating tool. Primers that must be removed are best deactivated first--either firing the primed case in the appropriate firearm, or soaking in oil will achieve this (oil is used because most primers are designed to be water resistant).
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Calipers (trim-to and OAL)
Micrometer (bullet diameter)
Case gauges
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==Safety/Caveats!==
*'''Wear eye protection.'''
*'''Avoid all distractions!''' This isn't the time to listen to the television in the next room!
*'''Arrange all components and stages in some logical order.'''
*Keep face clear when priming--primers can throw particles at high velocity and penetrate the skin.
*Unless using a progressive press, don't have powder out when priming.
*Keep heat sources away, and NEVER smoke when reloading
*Store powder in its original cardboard or plastic container. Unconfined powder burns, confined powder will explode.
*Dispose of unknown or contaminated powder.
*Damaged or contaminated primers should be soaked in oil to deactivate them before disposing.
*Store primers in factory packaging, to protect them from impact and reduce the risk of [[chain reaction]]s if one should detonate.
*Keep work area clean. A dirty reloading area means that dropped components can become contaminated with oil or dirt.
*Do not eat or drink while loading or handling components. Lead residues from bullets, smokeless powder and priming compounds are all poisonous.
==Accuracy tips==
Precision and consistency are key to developing accurate ammunition. Careful sorting of components is the first step to this; bullets should be sorted by weight, and each lot of matched bullets should be stored separately and marked with the exact weight. Each lot of cases should start new, purchased as a single lot, and stay together as they are reloaded. Powder for a lot of ammunition should come from a single can, and primers should come from the same box. If a powder measure is used, the same person should measure each load, using the same technique for every measure, since differences in technique can result in the powder packing slightly differently in the measure. If an analog scale is used, then the same person should perform all measurements, in the same light and from the same position--digital scales remove the variance in observation, but they also remove the ability to push the limits of the scale's precision. The positions of the dies and the adjustments of the powder measure should be checked periodically during loading, to make sure that the adjustments are not drifting. Carefully following these techniques will make each cartridge as much like every other as possible, and this is one of the fundamentals of accurate shooting.
Tuning load to gun can also yield great increases in accuracy, especially for standard, non [[accurize]]d rifles. Different rifles, even of the same make and model, will often react differently to the same ammunition. The handloader is afforded a wider selection of bullet weights than can readily be found in commercially loaded ammunition, and there are many different powders that can be used for any given cartridge. Trying a range of bullets and a variety of powders will determine what combination of bullet and powder gives the most consistent velocities. Careful adjustment of the amount of powder can give the velocity that best fits the natural harmonics of the barrel (see [[accurize]] and [[internal ballistics]]). For ultimate accuracy and performance, the handloader also has the option of using a [[wildcat cartridge]]; wildcats are the result of shaping the cartridge and chamber themselves to a specific end, and the results push the envelope of velocity, energy, and accuracy.
<!-- Addendum to Bullet Sorting (Rod C. Venger, Colorado Springs) -->
While bullet weight is the most common factor in sorting bullets, it is not the |
ose they are to the tackles, as long as they are on the line). A receiver who is on the line may not go in motion.
;[[forward pass]] :a pass that touches a person, object, or the ground closer to the opponent's end line than where it was released from, or is accidentally lost during a forward throwing motion.
;four-point stance: a down lineman's stance with four points on the ground, in other words, his two feet and his two hands
;free kick :a kick made to put the ball in play as a kickoff or following a safety (the score; "safety touch" in Canadian football) or fair catch.
;free safety (FS):a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[defensive team|defense]]. Free safeties typically play deep, or "center field", and often have the pass defense responsibility of assisting other defensive backs in deep coverage (compared to strong safeties, who usually have an assigned receiver and run support responsibilities).
;[[fullback#American_football|fullback]] (FB):a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[offensive team| offense]]. Originally, lined up deep behind the '''quarterback''' in the '''T formation'''. In modern formations this position may be varied, and this player has more blocking responsibilities in comparison to the '''halfback''' or '''tailback'''.
;[[fumble]] :a ball that a player accidentally lost possession of; in Canadian football the term includes muffs.
==G==
;[[Goal line|goal]] :a surface in space marked by a structure of two upright posts 18 feet 6 inches apart extending above a horizontal crossbar whose top edge is 10 feet off the ground. The goal is the surface above the bar and between the lines of the inner edges of the posts, extending infinitely upward, centered above each end line in American, and each goal line in Canadian football.
;goal area :the end zone in Canadian professional football.
;[[goal line]] :the front of the [[end zone]].
;gridiron :a football field, so called for its markings.
;[[Guard (American football)|guard]] :one of two player [[American and Canadian football position names|positions]] on [[offensive team| offense]] -- see '''linemen'''. A 5-player defensive line will have one, and a defensive line of 6 or more players, two guards, while a defensive line of fewer than 5 players has no guard.
==H==
;[[Hail Mary pass|Hail Mary]] :a long pass play, thrown towards a group of receivers near the '''end zone''' in hope of a '''touchdown'''. Used by a team as a last resort as time is running out in either of two halfs (usually by a team trailing in the second half). Refers to the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] prayer.
;halfback :a player [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] on [[offensive team| offense]]. Also known as a '''tailback'''.
;[[halfback option play]] :a trick play in which the halfback throws a pass.
;halo violation : From 1983 until the end of the 2002 season, in the NCAA (college football) the halo rule was a penalty for interference with the opportunity to catch a kick. The so called '''halo''' rule stated that no player of the kicking team may be within two yards of a receiving team player positioned to catch a punt or kickoff (before that person has touched the ball). The rule was abolished beginning in the 2003 season.
;hand-off :(also known as backward pass) a player's handing of a live ball to another player. The hand-off goes either backwards or laterally, as opposed to a forward pass. Sometimes called a "switch" in touch football. (Note different usage of term from its rugby meaning.)
;hash marks :lines between which the ball begins each play. The lines are parallel to and a distance in from the side lines and marked as broken lines.
;[[H-back]] :a player listed in a [[roster]] or [[depth chart]] as a [[fullback]] and playing as a ''h''ybrid of a fullback and a [[tight end]]
;[[Holder (American football)|holder]] :a player who holds the ball upright for a place kick. Often backup quarterbacks are used for their superior ball-handling ability
;holding :there are two kinds of holding: offensive holding, illegally blocking a player from the opposing team by grabbing and holding his uniform or body; and defensive holding, called against defensive players who impede receivers who are more than 5 yards from the line of scrimmage, but who are not actively making an attempt to catch the ball (if the defensive player were to impede an offensive player in the act of catching the ball, that would be the more severe penalty of pass interference)
;huddle :an on-field gathering of members of a team in order to secretly communicate instructions for the upcoming play.
==I==
;[[I formation]] :A formation that includes a '''fullback''' and '''tailback''' lined up with the fullback directly in front of the tailback. If a third back is in line, this is referred to as a "full house I". If the third back is lined up along side the fullback, it is referred to as a "Power I".
;[[incomplete pass]] :a forward pass of the ball which no player legally caught.
;inbounds lines :the hash marks.
;inside :
# of a player's path: relatively close (in reference to the sides of the field) to where the ball was snapped from. Thus, a ballcarrier's path in crossing the neutral zone may be said to be "inside" of an opponent, or an "inside run" in general, and a rushing defensive player may be said to put on an "inside move" or "inside rush".
# of the movement of the ball between players: directed toward a player who cuts between a player in the backfield who throws or hands the ball and the place from which it was snapped. Thus, an "inside pass" or "inside handoff". An "inside reverse" (sometimes called a scissors play) is a reverse play via an inside handoff.
;intentional grounding :An illegal forward pass thrown beyond the line of scrimmage without an intented reciever and no chance of completion to any offensive player. Intentional grounding is not called in the case of a '''spike''' or if the quarterback was outside the '''tackle box''' at the time of the pass.
;[[interception]] :the legal catching of a forward pass thrown by an opposing player.
==J==
;[[I formation#Common variations|Jumbo]] :an offensive package which includes two tight ends, a full back and a half back. Similar to '''heavy jumbo''', in which either the half back or the fullback is replaced by another tight end. Often one or more of the "tight ends" is actually a linebacker (The New England Patriots use Mike Vrabel this way - he has 6 career regular season TDs) or offensive linemen. In these cases, the player must report in as an eligible receiver, whereas a tight end is assumed to be one.
==K==
;kick :as a verb, to strike the ball deliberately with the foot; as a noun, such an action producing a [[Punt kick|punt]], [[place kick]], or [[drop kick]]
;[[Kickoff (American football)|kickoff]] :a free kick which starts each half, or restarts the game following a touchdown or field goal. The kickoff may be a place kick in American or Canadian football, or a drop kick in American football.
;kick returner :a player on the receiving team who specializes in fielding kicks and running them back.
;[[Quarterback kneel|kneel-down]] :a low risk play in which the quarterback kneels down after receiving the snap, ending the play. Used to run out the clock.
==L==
;[[lateral pass|lateral]] :a pass thrown to the side or backward. Also called "backward pass" in American football, "onside pass" in Canadian football.
;[[line of scrimmage]]/scrimmage line :one of two vertical planes parallel to the goal line when the ball is to be put in play by scrimmage. For each team in American football, the line of scrimmage is through the point of the ball closest to their end line. The two lines of scrimmage are called ''offensive line of scrimmage'' and ''defensive line of scrimmage''
:In [[Canadian football]], the line of scrimmage of the [[defensive team]] is one yard their side of the ball.
;line to gain :a line parallel to the goal lines, such that having the ball dead beyond it entitles the offense to a new series of downs, i.e. a new "first down". The line is 10 yards in advance of where the ball was to be snapped for the previous first down.
;[[linebacker]] :a player [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] on [[defensive team| defense]]. The linebackers typically play 1 to 3 yards behind the defensive '''linemen''' and have both run and pass defense responsibilities. However they are often called on to '''blitz''', and in some formations a linebacker may be designated as a "rush linebacker", rushing the passer on almost every play.
;[[lineman (football)|lineman]] :a [[defensive team|defensive]] or [[offensive team|offensive]] [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] on the line of scrimmage.
*On offense, the player snapping the ball is the '''center'''. The players on either side of him are the '''guard'''s, and the players to the outside of him are the '''tackle'''s. The players on the end of the line are the '''end'''s. This may be varied in an '''unbalanced line'''.
*On defense, the outside linemen are '''end'''s, and those inside are '''tackle'''s. If there are 5 or 6 linemen, the inner most linemen are known as '''guard'''s. This is rare in professional football except for goal-line defense, but is sometimes seen in high school or college.
;live ball :any ball that is in play, whether it is a player's possession or not. The ball is live during plays from scrimmage and free kicks, including kickoffs.
;[[long snapper]] :a center who specializes in the long, accurate [[snap (football)|snap]]s required for punts and field goal attempts. Most teams employ a specialist long snapper instead of requiring the normal center to |
ingly, the composers of the pieces analyzed in this dissertation have their own place in this history, which brings the history through the generations to the present day.
===Recording devices===
An important beginning to the history of electronic music is the ability to record sounds, which was not possible until 1867. It was then that [[Leon Scott deMartinville]] first recorded sound outlines onto cylinders coated with carbon (lampblack). This important discovery was the precursor to the phonograph.
Just a decade later, in 1878, [[Thomas A. Edison]] patented the phonograph, which uses cylinders as demonstrated first in deMartinville's device. Although cylinders continued to be used long after this, it was soon after the phonograph came into use that Emile Berliner developed the phonograph disc, in 1897. Also in this year, Berliner developed the telephone transmitter. [20]
In [[Copenhagen]] in 1898, [[Valdemar Poulsen]] patented the first magnetic recording machine, which used wire as the recording medium. This device was named the Telegraphone. It caused a sensation in 1900 when it was exhibited at the Exposition Universelle in Paris. Over the next couple of decades, many experimental devices were invented, some of which became obscure as the technology surpassed them.
===Telharmonium===
One such device was an instrument called the Telharmonium, which was created by [[Thaddeus Cahill]] in 1902. The Telharmonium was also known as the Dynamaphone, and was able to produce any combination of notes and overtones, at any dynamic level. This instrument was a predecessor of the famous [[RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer]] later installed at [[Computer_Music_Center|CPEMC]] in the 1950s. The major drawback of the Telharmonium was that it weighed over two hundred tons and was large. It soon fell into obscurity. [21]
===Audion===
A significant invention, which was later to have a profound effect on electronic music, was [[Lee DeForest]]'s triode [[audion]]—this was the first [[vacuum tube]]. Invented in 1906, this ultimately led to the amplification of electrical signals, electronic computation, and other endless electronic feats.
===Busoni===
Just a year later, another significant contribution was made to the advent of experimental music. This was the 1907 publication of [[Ferruccio Busoni]]'s ''Sketch for a New Aesthetic of Music'', which discussed the use of electrical and other new sound sources in future music. He wrote of the future of music:
:Only after a long and careful series of experiments, and a continued training of the ear, can render this unfamiliar material approachable and plastic for the coming generation, and for Art. [22]
Also in the ''Sketch for a New Aesthetic of Music'', Busoni states:
:Music as art, our so-called occidental music, is hardly four hundred years old; its state is one of development, perhaps the very first stage of a development beyond present conception. And we talk of 'classics' and 'hallowed traditions'! And we have talked of them for a long time!
:We have formulated rules, stated principles, laid down laws—we apply laws made for maturity to a child that knows nothing of responsibility! This child-music-it floats on air! It touches not the earth with its feet. It knows no law of gravitation. It is well nigh incorporeal. Its material is transparent. It is sonorous air. It is almost Nature herself. It is free!
:But freedom is something that mankind has never wholly comprehended, never realized to the full. Man can neither recognize nor acknowledge it. He disavows the mission of this child; he hangs weights upon it. This buoyant creature must walk decently, like anyone else. It may scarcely be allowed to leap—when it were its joy to follow the line of the rainbow, and to break sunbeams with the clouds! [23]
===Varèse===
Through this writing, as well as his personal contact, Busoni was to have a profound effect on many musicians and composers, perhaps most notably his pupil, [[Edgard Varèse]]. Varèse said of his experience:
:Together we used to discuss what direction the music of the future would, or rather, should take and could not take as long as the straitjacket of the tempered system. He deplored that his own keyboard instrument had conditioned our ears to accept only an infinitesimal part of the infinite gradations of sounds in nature. He was very much interested in the electrical instruments we began to hear about, and I remember particularly one he had read of called the Dynamophone. All through his writings one finds over and over again predictions about the music of the future which have since come true. In fact, there is hardly a development that he did not foresee, as for instance in this extraordinary prophecy: 'I almost think that in the new great music, machines will also be necessary and will be assigned a share in it. Perhaps industry, too, will bring forth her share in the artistic ascent. [24]
===Futurism===
In [[Italy]], the [[Futurist]]s were coming at the changing aesthetic from a different angle, but one that also affected the world of classical music. A major thrust of the Futurist philosophy was to value "noise," and to place artistic and expressive value on sounds that had previously not been considered even remotely musical. A quote from their manifesto states that their credo is:
:To present the musical soul of the masses, of the great factories, of the railways, of the transatlantic inters, of the battleships, of the automobiles and airplanes. To add to the great central themes of the musical poem the domain of the machine and the victorious kingdom of Electricity. [25]
In 1914, futurist [[Luigi Russolo]] held the first "art-of-noises" concert in Milan on April 21. This used his Intonarumori, described by Russolo as "acoustical noise-instruments, whose sounds (howls, roars, shuffles, gurgles, etc.) were hand-activated and projected by horns and megaphones." [26]
In June, similar concerts are held in Paris.
===Theremin===
Another development, which aroused the interest of many composers, occurred in 1919-1920. In Leningrad, Leon Theremin (actually [[Lev Termen]]) built and demonstrated his Etherophone, which was later renamed the [[Theremin]]. This led to the first compositions for electronic instruments, as opposed to noisemakers and re-purposed machines.
Composers who ultimately utilized the Theremin included [[Varèse]]—in his piece ''Ecuatorial'' (1934)—, [[Stokowski]], and others.
In 1929, [[Joseph Schillinger]] composed ''First Airphonic Suite for Theremin and Orchestra'', premiered with the [[Cleveland Orchestra]] with [[Leon Theremin]] as soloist.
===Ondes Martenot===
The 1920s have been called the apex of the Mechanical Age and the dawning of the Electrical Age. In 1922, in Paris, [[Darius Milhaud]] began experiments with "vocal transformation by phonograph speed change." [27] These continued over the next 5 years (to 1927).
This decade brought a wealth of early electronic instruments—along with the Theremin—, there is the presentation of the [[Ondes Martenot]], which was designed to reproduce the microtonal sounds found in Hindu music, and the [[Trautonium]].
Maurice Martenot invented the Ondes Martenot in 1928, and soon demonstrated it in Paris. Composers using the instrument ultimately include [[Messiaen]], [[Jolivet]], [[Honegger]], [[Milhaud]], [[Varese]], and [[Koechlin]]. In 1937, Messiaen wrote ''Fets des bells eaux for 6 ondes-martinot'', and featured the instrument as a soloist in ''Trois petites liturgies de la Presence Divine''.
===Trautonium===
The Trautonium was also invented in 1928, and in 1940, Richard Strauss used Trautonium in his ''Japanese Festival Music''. This new class of instruments, which are microtonal by nature, was adopted by composers slowly at first, but by the early 1930s there is clearly a burst of new works incorporating these and other electronic instruments.
In 1924, [[Ottorino Respighi]] composed ''The Pines of Rome'', which calls for the use of a phonograph recording of nightingales. This probably constitutes the first true "[[electroacoustic]]" composition/performance; that is, the first combination of acoustic instruments with an electronic device. However, this is actually more along the lines of using of a sound effect, as was occurring in radio or film at the time, and therefore should probably not really be considered a proper electroacoustic composition.
The following year, [[Antheil]] first composed for mechanical devices, electrical noisemakers, motors and amplifiers in his unfinished opera, ''[[Ulysses (Joyce)|Mr. Bloom]]'', as a response to the "art of noises" of [[Luigi Russolo]], [[Marinetti]] and the other Futurists. And just one year later in 1926, was the premiere of Antheil's ''[[Ballet Mécanique]]'', using car horns, airplane propellers, saws and anvils.
Recording of sounds made a leap in 1927, when American inventor [[J. A. O'Neill]] developed a recording device that used magnetically coated ribbon. Surprisingly, however, this failed to take off commercially. Two years later, [[Laurens Hammond]] established his company for the manufacture of electronic instruments. He went on to produce the [[Hammond organ]], which was based on the principals of the [[Telharmonium]], along with other developments including early reverberation units. [28]
===First synthesizer===
In that same year, A. Givelet and P. Coupleux develop an instrument utilizing oscillators controlled by punched paper rolls. This is arguably the first real "synthesizer". Just a few years later (in 1935), another significant development was made in Germany. Allgemeine Elektrizitäts Gesellschaft (AEG) demonstrated the first commercially produced [[magnetic tape recorder]], called the "[[Magnetophon]]". The tape itself was invented by Fritz Pfleumer, and manufactured by I.G. Farben AG. [[Audio tape]], which had the advantage of b |
he 5th century) they brought their language with them and Celtic and Latin were replaced by (ancient) [[Dutch language|Dutch]].
Around 650 [[Saint Amand]] founded two [[abbey]]s in Ghent the [[Saint Peter Abbeye]] and the [[Saint Bavo Abbeye]]. The city grew from several nuclei, the abbeys and a commercial centre. Around 800 [[Louis the Pious]], son of [[Charlemagne]], appointed [[Einhard]], the biographer of Charlemagne, as abbot of both abbeys. In 851 and 879 the city was however attacked and plundered twice by the vikings.
[[Image:BelfortGent.JPG|thumb|250px|left|[[Belfry (architecture)|Belfry]] of Ghent. Behind it the Saint Nicholas church is visible.]]
The city recovered and flourished from the 11th century on. Until the 13th century Ghent was the biggest city in Europe after Paris; it was bigger than [[London]], [[Cologne]] or [[Moscow]]. Within the city walls lived up to 65.000 people. Today, the center of the city still has several large towers, the [[belfry (architecture)|belfry]] and the towers of the Cathedral and Sint-Niklaas Church are just a few examples of what could be called the 'Manhattan of the Middle Ages'.
The rivers flowed in an area where a lot of land was periodically inundated. These richly grassed 'meersen' ("water-meadows": a word related to the English 'marsh', but not meaning exactly the same, a 'meers' is not permanently under water) were ideally suited for herding sheep, the wool of which was used for making cloth. In fact, Ghent was during the middle ages the most important city for cloth.
The wool-industry, originally established at [[Bruges]], created the first European industrialized zone in Ghent in the High Middle Ages. The mercantile zone was so highly-developed that wool had to be imported from England. This was one of the reasons for Flanders' good relationship with England. Ghent was the birthplace of [[John of Gaunt]], [[Duke of Lancaster]]. The trade with England suffered a lot in the hundred years war and in the 15th century other cities like [[Antwerp]] took over in economic prosperity.
In 1500 [[Juana of Castile]] gave birth to [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], who became [[Holy Roman Emperor]] and [[King of Spain]]. Although native to Ghent, he punished the city's rebellion severely in 1540 and obliged them to walk in front of the emperor barefoot with a noose (Dutch: ''strop'') around the neck. Since this incident the people of Ghent are called ''"Stroppendragers"'' (noose bearers).
The late 16th and the 17th century brought a lot of troubles because of the [[Religious wars]]. At one time Ghent was a calvinistic city, but eventually the Spanish army reinstated catholicism.
In the 18th and 19th century Ghent the textile industry flourished again in Ghent. [[Lieven Bauwens]] introduced the first mechanical weaving machine on the European continent, of which he smuggled the plans out of England.
Ghent was also the site of the signing of the [[Treaty of Ghent]] which formally ended the [[War of 1812]] between [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and the [[United States|United States of America]]. After the [[battle of Waterloo]] Ghent made part of the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] for 15 years. In this period Ghent got its own [[Ghent University|university]] (1817) and a [[Ghent-Terneuzen Canal|new connection to the sea]] (1824–27).
After the [[Belgian Revolution]], the first Belgian trade-union originated in Ghent. In 1913 there was a [[World exhibition]] in Ghent. As a preparation for these festivities the [[Sint-Pieters railway station]], was completed in 1912.
==Tourism==
[[Image:GravensteenCastle01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gravensteen Castle of Ghent]]
===Architecture===
Much of the city's [[medieval]] [[architecture]] remains intact and is remarkably well preserved and restored. Its center is the largest [[Auto-free zone|carfree area]] in Belgium. Interesting highlights are the [[Saint Bavo Cathedral]] with the [[Ghent Altarpiece]], the [[belfry (architecture)|belfry]], the [[Gravensteen]] [[castle]], and the splendid architecture along the old Graslei harbour. Ghent established a nice blend between comfort of living and history - it is not a city-museum. The city of Ghent houses also three [[béguinage]]s and numerous churches, among which the Saint-Jacobs church and the Saint-Nicolas Church are the most beautiful examples. There is an opera house and a few theatres. Highlights of modern architecture are the University buildings (the "[[Boekentoren]]" or Book Tower) by [[Henry Van de Velde]].
===Restaurants===
As most [[Belgian]] cities, [[Ghent]] offers a rich variety of local and foreign cuisine. Especially the quarter called "Patershol" has a concentration of restaurants. The "Sleepstraat" a little bit further north houses a bunch of Turkish restos and food bars.
===Festivities===
The city is host to some big cultural events such as the [[Gentse Feesten]], [[I Love Techno]], [[Flanders International Film Festival Ghent]] and [[Festival van Vlaanderen]]. In weekends, the city offers night bus services free of charge.
===Museums===
Important museums in Ghent are the [[Museum voor Schone Kunsten]] (Museum of Fine Arts), with paintings by [[Hieronymus Bosch]], [[Jean Fouquet]], and many Flemish masters; the [[SMAK]] or Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst (City Museum for Contemporary Art), with works of the 20th century, including [[Joseph Beuys]] and [[Panamarenko]]; and the [[Designmuseum]]. The Huis van Alijn (House of the Alijn family) was originally a [[beguinage]] and is now a museum for folk art. This museum often presents theatre and puppet shows for children. There is also a museum presenting the industrial strength of Ghent, the Museum voor Industriële Archeologie en Textiel or [[MIAT]]. Here you can find recreations of workshops and stores from the 1800s and can see the spinning and weaving machines that remain in this building what was once a weaving mill.
==Economy==
The [[port of Ghent]], in the north of the city, is the third largest [[port]] of Belgium. It is accessed by the [[Ghent-Terneuzen Canal]], which ends near the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[port]] of [[Terneuzen]] on the [[Western Scheldt]]. The port houses, among others, big companies like [[Arcelor|Sidmar]], [[Volvo Cars]], [[Volvo Trucks]], [[Volvo Parts]], [[Honda]], [[Stora Enso]].
The [[Ghent University]] and a number of reasearch oriented companies are situated in the centre and southern part.
As the biggest city of East-Flanders, Ghent has many hospitals, schools and shopping streets.
More and more tourism becomes a major segment of employment.
==Famous people==
[[Image:JacobVAGent.jpg|thumb|220px|Statue of [[Jacob van Artevelde]] on the Friday market in Ghent]]
Famous people that were born or lived in Ghent include
*[[Leo Baekeland]]
*[[Lieven Bauwens]]
*[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]]
*[[Johan Daisne]]
*[[Einhard]]
*[[John of Gaunt]]
*[[Jan Hoet]]
*[[Jodocus Hondius]]
*[[Victor Horta]]
*[[Maurice Maeterlinck]]
*[[Richard Minne]]
*[[Gerard Mortier]]
*[[Jacques Rogge]]
*[[Joseph Plateau]]
*[[Marc Sleen]]
*[[Piet Van Eeckhout]]
*[[Jacob van Artevelde]]
*[[Frits van den Berghe]]
*[[Hugo van der Goes]]
==See also==
*[[List of Mayors of Ghent]]
*[[Ghent University]]
*[[K.A.A. Gent]]
==External links==
{{commons|Ghent}}
* [http://www.gent.be Official website] - Information available in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]]
* [http://www.use-it.be/gent/eng/ Use-it.be] - Ghent for youngsters
* [http://www.urgent.fm Radio Urgent] - Local Radio Station run entirely by young people and it is often used by national radio [[Studio Brussel]] as a source for new trends in music.
* [http://www.beyondjazz.net/viewtopic.php?t=7012 Beyondjazz.net] - Beyondjazz.net Ghent Cityguide
* [http://gent.blogt.be/ Gent.blogt] - Blog about Ghent
* [http://hotel.eu.com/?showcity=Gent All hotels in Gent] - Directory of all hotels in Gent
==References==
<references/>
{{East_Flanders}}
[[Category:Cities and towns in Belgium]]
[[Category:Municipalities of East Flanders]]
{{Link FA|eo}}
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[[zh:根特]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guadeloupe</title>
<id>12343</id>
<revision>
<id>41813627</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:42:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox French Région|
native_name = Région Guadeloupe|
common_name = Guadeloupe|
image_flag = GuadFlag.png|
image_flag_size = 130px|
image_logo = GuadLogo1.gif|
image_logo_size = 110px|
flag = (Région flag)|
capital = [[Basse-Terre]] |
area = 1,702 | area_scale = 9 |
Regional president = [[Victorin Lurel]]<br>([[Socialist Party (France)|PS]]) (since [[2004]])|
population_rank = 23rd|
population_census = 422,497|
population_census_year = 1999 |
population_estimate = 453,000 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_density = 266|
population_density_year = 2005 |
arrondissements = 3 |
cantons = 43 |
communes = 34 |
départements = Guadeloupe|
image_map = GuadMap1.png |
image_map_size = 280px|
footnotes=|
|}}
'''Guadeloupe''' is an [[archipelago]] in the eastern [[Caribbean Sea]] at {{coor dm|16|15|N|61|35|W|type:co |
had avoided discovery because its
short radioactive half-life had meant it was present in air in
vanishingly tiny quantities. Once radium was available in
macroscopic quantities, the production of this radioactive noble
gas was readily detected as a product of radium's radioactive
decay.
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Radon]]</td>
<td>[[1898]]</td>
<td>[[Friedrich Ernst Dorn]] who called it nitron</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Actinium]]</td>
<td>[[1899]]</td>
<td>[[André-Louis Debierne]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Europium]]</td>
<td>[[1901]]</td>
<td>[[Eugene Demarcay]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Lutetium]]</td>
<td>[[1907]]</td>
<td>[[Georges Urbain]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Protactinium]]</td>
<td>[[1917]]</td>
<td>[[Kasimir Fajans]], [[O. Göhring]], [[Fredrich Soddy]], [[John Cranston]], [[Lise Meitner]] and [[Otto Hahn]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Hafnium]]</td>
<td>[[1923]]</td>
<td>[[Dirk Coster]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Rhenium]]</td>
<td>[[1925]]</td>
<td>[[Walter Noddack]] and [[Ida Tacke]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
At this point, all the [[stable element]]s existing on earth had been discovered, and most of the periodic table had been filled. A few gaps remained amongst the higher mass elements, but there remained a troublesome gap at element number 43, just below manganese in the table. The gaps were filled by the synthetic elements. Walter Noddack and Ida Tacke (later Ida Noddack) also believed that they had found Technetium, which they called Masurium (after Masurien, an area in Germany). Their work could not be reproduced, and it was dismissed at the time as an error (recent research suggests they may have been correct, however &mdash; see [[Technetium]] for more information).
===The [[synthetic element]]s===
The so-called "synthetic" elements are unstable, with [[half-life|half-lives]] so "short" relative to the age of the earth that any atoms of that element that may have been present when the earth formed have long since completely decayed away. Hence they are only known on earth as the product of [[nuclear reactor]]s, [[particle accelerator]]s, or in the byproducts from [[nuclear explosion]]s. The discovery of technetium finally filled in a puzzling gap in the [[periodic table]], and the discovery that there were no stable isotopes of technetium
explained its absence on earth: its [[1e14 s|4.2 million years]] half-life meant that none remained from the time of formation of the earth.
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Technetium]]</td>
<td>[[1937]]</td>
<td>[[Carlo Perrier]] and [[Emilio Segrè]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Francium]] (natural)</td>
<td>[[1939]]</td>
<td>[[Marguerite Derey]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
All elements after this are synthetic:
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Astatine]]</td>
<td>[[1940]]</td>
<td>[[Dale R. Corson]], [[K.R.Mackenzie]], [[Emilio Segrè]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
The next two elements were the first of the [[transuranium element|transuranic (beyond uranium) elements]] and were named after the planets beyond [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]], [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] and [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]]:
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Neptunium]]</td>
<td>[[1940]]</td>
<td>[[Edwin McMillan|E.M. McMillan]] &amp; [[Philip H. Abelson]],
[[University of California, Berkeley]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Plutonium]]</td>
<td>[[1941]]</td>
<td>[[Glenn T. Seaborg]], [[Arthur C. Wahl]], [[Joseph W. Kennedy]], [[Emilio Segrè]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Curium]]</td>
<td>[[1944]]</td>
<td>[[Glenn T. Seaborg]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Americium]]</td>
<td>[[1945]]</td>
<td>[[Glenn T. Seaborg]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Promethium]]</td>
<td>[[1945]]</td>
<td>[[J.A. Marinsky]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Berkelium]]</td>
<td>[[1949]]</td>
<td>[[Albert Ghiorso]], [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], [[Stanley G. Thompson]], [[Kenneth Street Jr.]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Californium]]</td>
<td>[[1950]]</td>
<td>[[Albert Ghiorso]], [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], [[Stanley G. Thompson]], [[Kenneth Street Jr.]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Einsteinium]]</td>
<td>[[1952]]</td>
<td>[[Argonne Laboratory]], [[Los Alamos Laboratory]], and [[University of California]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Fermium]]</td>
<td>[[1953]]</td>
<td>[[Argonne Laboratory]], [[Los Alamos Laboratory]], and [[University of California]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Mendelevium]]</td>
<td>[[1955]]</td>
<td>[[Glenn T. Seaborg]], [[Evans G. Valens]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Nobelium]]</td>
<td>[[1958]]</td>
<td>[[Albert Ghiorso]], [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], [[John R. Walton]] and [[Torbørn Sikkeland]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Lawrencium]]</td>
<td>[[1961]]</td>
<td> [[Albert Ghiorso]], [[Torbjørn Sikkeland]], [[Almon Larsh]] and [[Robert M. Latimer]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Rutherfordium]]</td>
<td>[[1964]]</td>
<td>[[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] at Dubna, U.S.S.R.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Dubnium]]</td>
<td>[[1970]]</td>
<td>[[Albert Ghiorso]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Seaborgium]]</td>
<td>[[1974]]</td>
<td> [[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] and [[University of California, Berkeley]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Bohrium]]</td>
<td>[[1976]]</td>
<td>[[Y. Oganessian]] et al, [[Dubna]] and confirmed at [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung|GSI]] (1982)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Meitnerium]]</td>
<td>[[1982]]</td>
<td>[[Peter Armbruster]] and [[Gottfried Münzenberg]], [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung|GSI]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Hassium]]</td>
<td>[[1984]]</td>
<td> [[Peter Armbruster]] and [[Gottfried Münzenberg]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Darmstadtium]]</td>
<td>[[1994]]</td>
<td>[[S. Hofmann]], [[V. Ninov]] et al, [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung|GSI]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Roentgenium]]</td>
<td>[[1994]]</td>
<td>[[S. Hofmann]], [[V. Ninov]] et al, [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung|GSI]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Ununbium]]</td>
<td>[[1996]]</td>
<td>[[S. Hofmann]], [[V. Ninov]] et al, [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung|GSI]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Ununquadium]]</td>
<td>[[1999]]</td>
<td>[[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] at Dubna</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Ununhexium]]</td>
<td>[[2001]]</td>
<td>[[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] at Dubna</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Ununtrium]]</td>
<td>[[2004]]</td>
<td> [[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] at Dubna and [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Ununpentium]]</td>
<td>[[2004]]</td>
<td> [[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] at Dubna and [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
== See also ==
* [[Periodic table]]
* [[Elements song]]
* [[Timeline of chemical element discovery]]
[[Category:History of chemistry]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
[[Category:Chemical elements|*]]
[[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements|*]]
[[pt:Descoberta dos elementos químicos]]
[[it:Scoperta degli elementi chimici]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diatonic scale</title>
<id>8202</id>
<revision>
<id>41722243</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T07:56:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andeggs</username>
<id>721426</id>
</contributor>
<comment>adding template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[music theory]], a '''diatonic scale''' (from the Greek ''diatonikos'', "to stretch out&q |
hi/sci/tech/2949629.stm 17 April, 2003, BBC News: Most ancient DNA ever?]
*[http://www.whatsnextnetwork.com/health/index.php?cat=61 Latest Advances In Gene Research]
*[http://www.dnai.org DNA Interactive] (requires [[Macromedia Flash]])
*[http://3dscience.com/3d_dna_models.asp Free 3d DNA model Images]
*[http://nist.rcsb.org/pdb/molecules/pdb23_1.html DNA: PDB molecule of the month]
*[http://www.fidelitysystems.com/Unlinked_DNA.html DNA under electron microscope]
*[http://www.myfirstbookaboutdna.com My First Book About DNA] Designed for children to learn more about DNA.
*{{dmoz|Science/Biology/Biochemistry_and_Molecular_Biology/Biomolecules/Nucleic_Acids/|Nucleic Acids}}
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/medicine/dna/ Rotten Library] articles on DNA
*Watson, James, and Francis Crick, "''[http://web.archive.org/web/20050401065957/http://biocrs.biomed.brown.edu/Books/Chapters/Ch+8/DH-Paper.html Molecular structure of nucleic acids], A structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid''". April 2, 1953. (paper on the structure of DNA)
*[http://www.zytologie-online.net/dna.php DNA Replication and Translation / Cell Biology]
{{Nucleic acids}}
<!--Interwiki-->
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Nucleic acids]]
[[Category:Genetics]]
[[Category:DNA|*]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[ar:حمض نووي ريبي منقوص الأكسجين]]
[[bg:ДНК]]
[[zh-min-nan:DNA]]
[[bs:DNA]]
[[ca:ADN]]
[[cs:DNA]]
[[cy:DNA]]
[[da:Dna]]
[[de:Desoxyribonukleinsäure]]
[[et:Desoksüribonukleiinhape]]
[[es:ADN]]
[[eo:DNA]]
[[eu:ADN]]
[[fr:Acide désoxyribonucléique]]
[[ga:ADN]]
[[gl:ADN]]
[[ko:DNA]]
[[ht:ADN]]
[[id:Asam deoksiribonukleat]]
[[it:DNA]]
[[he:DNA]]
[[la:Acidum deoxyribonucleinicum]]
[[lv:Dezoksiribonukleīnskābe]]
[[lt:Deoksiribonukleorūgštis]]
[[hu:DNS (biológia)]]
[[mk:ДНК]]
[[ms:DNA]]
[[nl:DNA]]
[[ja:デオキシリボ核酸]]
[[no:DNA]]
[[nn:Deoksyribonukleinsyre]]
[[pl:Kwas deoksyrybonukleinowy]]
[[pt:DNA]]
[[ro:ADN]]
[[ru:Дезоксирибонуклеиновая кислота]]
[[simple:DNA]]
[[sk:Deoxyribonukleová kyselina]]
[[sl:Deoksiribonukleinska kislina]]
[[sr:ДНК]]
[[su:DNA]]
[[fi:DNA]]
[[sv:DNA]]
[[tl:DNA]]
[[ta:ஆக்சிஜனற்ற ரைபோ கரு அமிலம்]]
[[th:ดีเอ็นเอ]]
[[vi:DNA]]
[[tr:DNA]]
[[uk:ДНК]]
[[ur:ڈی این اے]]
[[zh:脱氧核糖核酸]]
[[pam:DNA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dna</title>
<id>7956</id>
<revision>
<id>15905989</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-13T14:04:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eraserhead1</username>
<id>274035</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[DNA_(disambiguation)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dead Kennedy Family Members</title>
<id>7957</id>
<revision>
<id>21988199</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-27T22:39:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.216.235.190</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kennedy family]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Deflation</title>
<id>7958</id>
<revision>
<id>33453689</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-01T05:55:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Terjepetersen</username>
<id>36278</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|deflation}}
'''Deflation''' may mean:
* [[Deflation (economics)]], a decrease in the general price level (opposite of inflation)
* [[DEFLATE (algorithm)]], a lossless data compression algorithm
* The removal of loose soil by [[eolian]] (wind) processes
{{disambig}}
[[pl:Deflacja]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Democracy</title>
<id>7959</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42154555</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:28:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.198.27.179</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* 20th century waves of democracy */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article deals with democracy in general and its various forms. For specific types of democracy, see [[Democracy (disambiguation)]]}}
{{Elections|
image=|
caption=}}
'''Democracy''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] &delta;&eta;&mu;&omicron;&kappa;&rho;&alpha;&tau;&#943;&alpha; (demokratia), &delta;&eta;&mu;&omicron;&sigmaf; (demos) ''the common people'' + &kappa;&rho;&alpha;&tau;&epsilon;&iota;&nu; (kratein) ''to rule'' + the suffix &#943;&alpha; (ia), literally "the common people rule") is a system where the population of a [[society]] controls the [[government]]. It may be narrowly defined as that of [[nation-state]] government specifically, or more broadly to describe a society as a whole, which can also exert [[political power|political power]] and [[power (sociology)|social power]].
Democratic ''government'' aspires to serve under "the people" rather than ruling over them. This ideal is pursued by implementing some form of a [[voting system]], usually involving indirect [[representative democracy|representation]] (see also [[republic]]).
[[Liberal democracy]] is defined as democracy over an entire society, and implies [[individual rights|individual]] [[liberty]] and individual responsibility as a [[citizenship|citizen]] of that society. It extends the concept of distributed power all of the way to individual citizens in their personal domains - personal sovereignty and [[private property]] tempered by civic duty. In such a society, sovereignty originates in the people and is delegated to government rather than vice versa.
Because democratic government and democratic society are inter-related and used interchangeably, they are often confused, usually when one expects all of the benefits of democratic society to follow from the mechanisms of democratic government. While a democratic society has a democratic government, the reverse is not always true. A democratic government, while preventing [[despotism]] of abuse of power by a governing minority, does not protect other minorities from social forces from other members of society with other forms of power that may be played out through [[plutocracy]] within an existing democratic government, or [[majoritarianism]]. Democratic governments may be "liberal", where fundamental rights of individuals in the minority are protected by law, or they may be "illiberal" where they are not.
== Democratic government ==
Democracy is often implemented as a [[form of government]] in which policy is decided by the preference of the [[True democracy|real majority]], as opposed to a partial or relative majority of the demos or citizens, in a decision-making process, generally [[consensus decision-making]], usually [[election|elections]] or [[referenda]], open to all or most [[citizenship|citizens]]. In recent decades 'democracy' was used as a synonym for [[western world|western]] [[liberal democracy|liberal-democratic]] systems in [[nation-state]]s, but the existence of "[[illiberal democracy|illiberal democracies]]" is now recognised. The qualifier "liberal" in this context refers strictly speaking to [[constitutional liberalism]] and individual rights, but "liberal democracy" is widely used to describe other aspects that arise. Definitions of democracy have in any case broadened to include aspects of society and political culture in democratic societies, which are not specifically a "form of government". Most liberal-democracies are parliamentary [[representative democracy|representative democracies]], but there are many [[Democracy (varieties)|varieties of democracy]], some still hypothetical. The term "democratic" is also used in a looser sense, to describe participatory decision-making in groups or organizations.
Indeed, due to implications of comparative government, other preferred governments included: theocracy, monarchy, parliamentary republic, and republic. Since there are these other forms of government, the preference for the democratic form is itself an [[ideology]], and a source of conflict. Despite its historical importance, there is no separate name for this ideology; it is referred to as 'pro-democracy' or simply 'democracy'. It is a [[Universalism|universal]] ideology: most supporters of democracy consider it to be the only [[ethics|ethically legitimate]] form of government, and believe it should replace all other forms of government. [[Democratization]] is the replacement of these non-democratic forms by a democracy. If it continues, some consider that this process will make the liberal-democratic nation-states the standard form of human [[society]], although they are historically recent and historically unique. This transition is the core of the [[end of history]] thesis.
==History of democracy==
{{main|History of democracy}}
An early form of democracy was used by [[republic]]s of [[Mahajanapadas|Maha Janapadas]] in [[ancient India]] before the [[6th century BC]], before the time of [[Buddhism]]. <ref> Steve Muhlberger, ([[February 8]], [[1998]]). [http://www.nipissingu.ca/department/history/MUHLBERGER/HISTDEM/INDIADEM.HTM Democracy in Ancient India]. Retrieved [[February 19]], [[2006]]. </ref> Among these states, [[Vaishali]] was the first [[oligarchic]] republic of the world. Later on, during the time of [[Alexander the Great]] during the [[4th century BC]], the Greeks came in contact with two of these republics, the Sabarcae and Sambastai states in what is now [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]], whose "form of government was democratic and not regal" according to Greek scholars at the time.
The term "democracy" in the original word in Ancient Greek - was coined in [[ancient Athens]] in the [[5th century BC]]. [[Athenian democracy]] is generally seen as one of the earliest examples of a system corresponding to ''some'' of the modern notions of democratic rule. Only a sixth or a quarter |
med a boy band in order to get more attention from women. The group, [[3 Count]], performed several songs on [[WCW Monday Nitro]], and even acquired a roadie in former-[[Ultimate Fighting Championship|UFC]]-fighter [[Tank Abbott]].
A play (with music) called ''Boyband'', featuring a band named [[Boyband (play)|4ORCE]] and parodying the boy band phenomonen of the 90s with songs such as "Coming from Behind", "Our Love is Like Water - H40" and "Integrity", was performed at the [[Seymour Centre]] in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]] for 2 weeks in [[2005]] and is returning for a 4 week season in March 2006. (Note: not to be confused with the [[Style 2 Style]] managed band [[4ORCE]] from Manchester, United Kingdom, who were a male/female vocal group).
==External links==
* [http://dir.salon.com/mwt/style/2001/02/05/teen_aesthetic/index.html "Sluts and Teddy Bears"] - A cultural critique of the boy band phenomenon on [[Salon.com]].
{{popmusic}}
[[Category:Musical groups]] [[Category:Pop music]] [[Category:Men]] [[Category:Dance music]]
[[de:Boyband]]
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[[he:להקת בנים]]
[[nl:Boyband]]
[[pl:Boysband]]
[[sv:Pojkband]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>B-tree</title>
<id>4674</id>
<revision>
<id>41536971</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T00:34:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.218.204.10</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Btree.png|thumb|400px|right|A simple example linking the keys 1-7 to data values d<sub>1</sub>-d<sub>7</sub>. Note the linked list (red) allowing rapid in-order traversal.]] In [[Computer Science|computer science]], '''B-trees''' are [[tree data structure]]s that are most commonly found in [[database]]s and [[filesystem]]s. B-trees keep data sorted and allow [[amortized analysis|amortized]] logarithmic time insertions and deletions.
The idea behind B-trees is that internal nodes can have a variable number of child nodes within some pre-defined range. As data is inserted or removed from the data structure, the number of child nodes varies within a node and so internal nodes are coalesced or split so as to maintain the designed range. Because a range of child nodes is permitted, B-trees do not need re-balancing as frequently as other [[self-balancing binary search tree]]s, but may waste some space, since nodes are not entirely full. The lower and upper bounds on the number of child nodes are typically fixed for a particular implementation. For example, in a 2-3 B-tree (often simply '''2-3 tree'''), each internal node may have only 2 or 3 child nodes.
A B-tree is kept balanced by requiring that all leaf nodes are at the same depth. This depth will increase slowly as elements are added to the tree, but an increase in the overall depth is infrequent, and results in all leaf nodes being one more hop further removed from the root.
B-trees have substantial advantages over alternative implementations when node access times far exceed access times within nodes. This usually occurs when most nodes are in [[secondary storage]] such as [[hard drive]]s. By maximizing the number of [[child node]]s within each [[internal node]], the height of the tree decreases, balancing occurs less often, and efficiency increases. Usually this value is set such that each node takes up a full [[Block size (data storage and transmission)|disk block]] or an analogous size in secondary storage. While 2-3 B-trees might be useful in main memory, and are certainly easier to explain, if the node sizes are tuned to the size of a disk block, the result might be a 129-513 B-tree.
The B-tree's creator, [[Rudolf Bayer]], has not explained what the ''B'' stands for. The most common belief is that ''B'' stands for ''balanced'', as all the leaf nodes are at the same level in the tree. ''B'' may also stand for ''Bayer'', or for [[Boeing]], because he was working for ''Boeing Scientific Research Labs''.
== Node structures ==
Each internal node's elements act as separation values which divide its [[subtree]]s. For example, if an internal node has three child nodes (or subtrees) then it must have two separation values or elements ''a''<sub>1</sub> and ''a''<sub>2</sub>. All values in the leftmost subtree will be less than ''a''<sub>1</sub> , all values in the middle subtree will be between ''a''<sub>1</sub> and ''a''<sub>2</sub>, and all values in the rightmost subtree will be greater than ''a''<sub>2</sub>.
Internal nodes in a B-Tree — nodes which are not leaf nodes — are usually represented as an ordered set of elements and child pointers. Every internal node contains a maximum of ''U'' children and — other than the root — a minimum of ''L'' children. For all internal nodes other than the root, the number of elements is one less than the number of child pointers; the number of elements is between ''L-1'' and ''U-1''.
Leaf nodes have the same restriction on the number of elements, but have no children, and no child pointers.
The root node still has the upper limit on the number of children, but has no lower limit. For example, when there are fewer than ''L-1'' elements in the entire tree, the root will be the only node in the tree, and it will have no children at all.
A B-tree of depth ''n+1'' can hold about ''U'' times as many items as a B-tree of depth ''n'', but the cost of search, insert, and delete operations grows with the depth of the tree. As with any balanced tree, the cost grows much more slowly than the number of elements.
Some balanced trees store values only at the leaf nodes, and so have different kinds of nodes for leaf nodes and internal nodes. B-trees keep values in every node in the tree, and may use the same structure for all nodes. However, since leaf nodes never have children, a specialized structure for leaf nodes in B-trees will improve performance.
== Algorithms ==
=== Search ===
Search is performed in the typical manner, analogous to that in a [[binary search tree]]. Starting at the root, the tree is traversed top to bottom, choosing the child pointer whose separation values are on either side of the value that is being searched.
[[Binary search]] is typically used within nodes to find the separation values and child tree of interest.
=== Insertion ===
All insertions happen at the leaf nodes.
* By searching the tree, find the leaf node where the new element should be.
* If the leaf node contains fewer than ''U-1'' elements, there is room for one more. Insert the new element in the node, keeping the node's elements ordered.
* Otherwise the leaf node must be split. Typically, a single median is chosen from among the leaf's elements and the new element. The values less than the median are put in the new left node and the values greater than the median are put in the new right node, with the median acting as a separation value. That separation value needs to be added to the node's parent, which may cause it to be split, and so on. If the splitting goes all the way up to the root, it will create a new root with a single separator value and two children, which is why the lower bound on the size of internal nodes does not apply to the root.
=== Deletion ===
There are two problems with deleting elements: first, the element in an internal node may be acting as a seperator for its child nodes, and second, deleting an element may put it under the minimum number of elements and children. Each of the problems will be delt with in order.
==== Deletion From a Leaf Node ====
*Search for the value to delete.
*If the value is in a leaf node, it can simply be deleted from the node, perhaps leaving the node with too few elements.
==== Deletion From an Internal Node ====
Each element in an internal node acts as a separation values for two subtrees, and when that element is deleted a new separator for those subtrees must be found. But note that of the largest element in the left subtree is the largest element which is still less than the separator. Likewise, the smallest element in the right subtree is the smallest element which is still greater than the separator. Both of those elements are in leaf nodes, and either can be the new separator for the two subtrees.
*If the value is in an internal node, choose a new separator (either the largest element in the left subtree or the smallest element in the right subtree), remove it from the leaf node it is in, and replace the element to be deleted with the new separator.
*This has deleted an element from a leaf node, and so is now equivalent to the previous case.
==== Rebalancing After Deletion ====
If deleting an element from a leaf node has brought it under the minimum size, some elements must be redistributed to bring all nodes up to the minimum. In some cases the rearrangement will move the deficency to the parent, and the redistribution must be applied iteratively up the tree, perhaps even to the root. Since the minimum element count doesn't apply to the root, making the root be the only deficient node is not a problem.
The strategy is to find a sibling of the deficient node which has more than the minimum number of elements and redistribute elements among the siblings so that all have more than the minimum. This will change the separators in the siblings' parent node as well.
*If the sibling node immediately to the right of the deficient node has more than the minimum number of elements, choose the median of the separator and the values in both nodes as the new separator and put that in the parent.
*Redistribute the remaining elements to the right and left children.
*Redistribute the subtrees of the two nodes to parallel the redistribution of the elements. The subtrees themselves are transplanted entirely, and are not altered if moved to a different parent node, and this can be done as the elements are redistributed.
*If the sibling node |
of violence and starvation, for tens of miles in the snow to train stations; then transported for days at a time without food or shelter in freight trains with open carriages; and forced to march again at the other end to the new camp. Prisoners who lagged behind or fell were shot. The largest and best known of the death marches took place in January 1945, when the Soviet army advanced on [[Poland]]. Nine days before the Soviets arrived at the death camp at [[Auschwitz]], the Germans marched 60,000 prisoners out of the camp toward Wodzislaw, thirty-five miles away, where they were put on freight trains to other camps. Around 15,000 died on the way. In total, around 100,000 Jews died during these death marches{{ref|gilbert2}}.
In July, 1944, the first major Nazi camp, Majdanek, was discovered by the advancing Soviets, who eventually liberated Auschwitz in January 1945. In most of the camps discovered by the Soviets, the prisoners had already been transported by death marches, leaving only a few thousand prisoners alive. Concentration camps were also liberated by American and British forces, including [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp]] on April 15. Some 60,000 prisoners were discovered at the camp, but 10,000 died from disease or malnutrition within a few weeks of liberation.
==Resistance and rescuers==
===Resistance===
[[Image:Ghetto Uprising Warsaw2.jpg|thumb|right|300px| [[SS]] officers walking through the destroyed Ghetto after the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]].]]
Due to the careful organization and overwhelming military might of the [[Nazi]] German state and its supporters, few [[Jew]]s and other Holocaust victims were able to resist the killings. There are, however, many cases of attempts at resistance in one form or another, and over a hundred armed Jewish uprisings.
The largest instance of organized Jewish resistance was the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]], from April to May of 1943, as the final deportation from the Ghetto to the death camps was about to commence. The [[Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa|ZOB]] and smaller organizations held out against the Nazis for 27 days, before all were killed. There were also other [[Ghetto Uprising]]s, though none were successful against the German military.
There were also major resistance efforts in three of the extermination camps. In August 1943 an uprising also took place at the [[Treblinka extermination camp]]. Many buildings were burnt to the ground, and seventy inmates escaped to freedom, but 1,500 were killed. Gassing operations were interrupted for a month. In October 1943 another uprising took place at [[Sobibór extermination camp]]. This uprising was more successful; 11 SS guards were killed, and roughly 300 of the 600 inmates in the camp escaped, with about 50 surviving the war. The escape forced the Nazis to close the camp. On [[October 7]], [[1944]], the Jewish [[Sonderkommando]]s (those prisoners kept separate from the main camp and involved in the operation of the gas chambers and crematoria) at Auschwitz staged an uprising. Female prisoners had smuggled in explosives from a weapons factory, and Crematorium IV was partly destroyed by an explosion. The prisoners then attempted a mass escape, but all 250 were killed soon after.
There were a number of Jewish partisan groups operating in many countries (see [[Eugenio Calò]] for the story of a Jewish Italian partisan). Also, Jewish volunteers from the [[Palestinian Mandate]], most famously [[Hannah Szenes]], parachuted into Europe in an attempt to organize resistance.
===Rescuers===
:''See also: [[Righteous Among the Nations]] and [[List of people who helped Jews during the Holocaust]]
[[Image:Raoul_Wallenberg.jpg|right|thumb|Swedish diplomat [[Raoul Wallenberg]] and his colleagues saved as many as 100,000 Hungarian Jews by providing them with diplomatic passes.]]
In two cases, entire countries resisted the deportation of their Jewish population. The King of [[Denmark]] and his subjects saved the lives of most of the [[Rescue of the Danish Jews|7,500 Danish Jews]] by spiriting them to safety in Sweden via fishing boats in October 1943. Moreover, the Danish government continued to work to protect the few Danish Jews captured by the Nazis. When the Jews returned home at war's end, they found their houses and possessions waiting for them, exactly as they left them. In the second case, the Nazi-allied government of [[Bulgaria]], led by [[Dobri Bozhilov]], refused to deport its 50,000 Jewish citizens, saving them as well, though Bulgaria did deport Jews to concentration camps from areas in conquered [[Greece]] and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. In Rome, some 4000 Italian Jews and prisoners of war avoided deportation. Many of these were hidden in safe houses and evacuated from Italy by a resistance group that was organised by an Irish priest, [[Monsignor Hugh O' Flaherty]] of the Holy Office. Once a Vatican amabssador to Egypt O' Flaherty used his political connections to great effect in helping to secure sanctuary for dispossessed Jews.
Some towns and churches also helped hide Jews and protect others from the Holocaust, such as the French town of [[Le Chambon-sur-Lignon]] which sheltered several thousand Jews. Similar individual and family acts of rescue were repeated throughout Europe, as illustrated in the famous cases of [[Anne Frank]], often at great risk to the rescuers. In a few cases, individual diplomats and people of influence, such as [[Oskar Schindler]] or [[Nicholas Winton]], protected large numbers of Jews. Swedish diplomat [[Raoul Wallenberg]], the Italian [[Giorgio Perlasca]], Chinese diplomat [[Ho Fengshan]] and others saved tens of thousands of Jews with fake diplomatic passes. [[Chiune Sugihara]] saved several thousands of Jews by issuing them with Japanese visas against the will of his Nazi-aligned government.
There were also groups, like members of the Polish [[Zegota]] organization, that took drastic and dangerous steps to rescue Jews and other potential victims from the Nazis. [[Witold Pilecki]], member of [[Armia Krajowa]] (the Polish Home Army), organized a resistance movement in the [[Auschwitz concentration camp]] from 1940, and [[Jan Karski]] tried to spread word of the Holocaust.
Since 1963, a commission headed by an Israeli Supreme Court justice has been charged with the duty of awarding such people the honorary title [[Righteous Among the Nations]].
==Perpetrators and collaborators==
===Who was directly involved in the killings?===
A wide range of German soldiers, officials, and civilians were involved in the Holocaust, from clerks and officials in the government to units of the army, the police, and the SS. Many ministries, including those of armaments, interior, justice, railroads, and foreign affairs, had substantial roles in orchestrating the Holocaust; similarly, German physicians participated in medical experiments and the T-4 euthanasia program. And, though there was no single military unit in charge of the Holocaust, the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] under Himmler was the closest. From the SS came the [[Totenkopfverbände]] concentration camp guards, the [[Einsatzgruppen]] killing squads, and many of the administrative offices behind the Holocaust. The [[Wehrmacht]], or regular German army, participated directly less than the SS in the Holocaust (though it did directly massacre Jews in Russia, Serbia, Poland, and Greece), but it supported the Einsatzgruppen, helped form the ghettos, ran prison camps, some were concentration camp guards, transported prisoners to camps, had experiments performed on prisons, and used substantial slave labor. German police units also directly participated in the Holocaust, for example Reserve Police Battalion 101 in just over a year shot 38,000 Jews and deported 45,000 more to the extermination camps.{{ref|perp}}
In addition to the direct involvement of Nazi forces, most European countries allied with or occupied by the [[Axis Powers]] collaborated with the [[Nazism|Nazis]] in the Holocaust. Collaboration took the form of either rounding up of the local [[Jew|Jews]] for deportation to the German [[extermination camps]] or a direct participation in the killings.
The [[Romania|Romanian]] [[Ion Antonescu|Antonescu]] regime was directly responsible for the deaths of between 280,000 and 380,000 Jews. An official report[http://www.ushmm.org/research/center/presentations/programs/presentations/2005-03-10/pdf/english/executive_summary.pdf]. released by the Romanian government concluded, "Of all the allies of Nazi Germany, Romania bears responsibility for the deaths of more Jews than any country other than Germany itself. The exterminations committed in [[Iasi pogrom|Iasi]], [[Odessa massacre|Odessa]], [[Bogdanovka]], [[Domanovka]], and [[Peciora]], for example, were among the most hideous acts committed against Jews anywhere during the Holocaust."{{ref|Romania}}In cooperation with German [[Einsatzgruppen]] and Ukrainian auxiliaries, Romanians killed hundreds of thousands of Jews in [[Bessarabia]], northern [[Bukovina]], and [[Transnistria]]. Some of the larger massacres included 54,000 Jews killed in [[Bogdanovka]], a Romanian concentration camp along the [[Bug River]] in Transnistria, between 21 and 31 December 1941. Nearly 100,000 Jews were killed in occupied [[Odessa Massacre|Odessa]] and over 10,000 were killed in the [[Iasi pogrom]]. The Romanians also massacred [[Jew|Jews]] in the Domanevka and Akhmetchetka concentration camps.
In [[Italy]] a law from 1938 restricted civil liberties of Jews, but after the fall of [[Mussolini]] and his creation of the [[Italian Social Republic]], Jews started being deported to German camps. The deported numbered about 8,369, and only about a thousand survived. Several small camps were built in Italy and the so-called [[Risiera di San Sabba]] hosted a crematorium; from 3,000 to 5,000 people were killed in San Sabba, only a few of whom were Jews.
[[Bulgaria]], despite saving its own Jewis |
ot all units shipped with this type of shielding. Most C64s in [[Europe]] shipped with a cardboard RF shield, coated with a layer of metal foil. The effectiveness of the cardboard was highly questionable, and worse still it acted as an insulator, blocking airflow which trapped heat generated by the SID, VIC and PLA chips.
The SID was manufactured using NMOS at 7 and in some areas 6 micrometers. The prototype SID and some very early production models featured a ceramic DIL package, but unlike the VIC-II, these are extremely rare as the SID was encased in plastic when production started in early 1982.
In 1986 Commodore released the last revision to the "classic" C64 motherboard. It was otherwise identical to the 1984 design, except that it now used two 64 kbit &times;4 [[DRAM]] chips rather than the original eight 64 kbit &times;1.
After the release of the C64C, MOS Technology began to reconfigure the C64's chipset to use [[HMOS]] technology. The main benefit of using HMOS was that it required less voltage to drive the IC, which consequently generates less heat. This enhanced the overall reliability of the SID and VIC-II. The new chipset was re-numbered to 85xx in order to reflect the change to HMOS.
In 1987 Commodore released C64Cs with a totally redesigned motherboard commonly known as a "short board". The new board used the new HMOS chipset, featuring new 64-pin PLA chip. The new "SuperPLA" as it was dubbed, integrated many discrete components and [[transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] chips. The 2114 color RAM was integrated into the last revision of the PLA.
===Power problems===
The C64 used an external [[power supply]]. While this saved valuable space within the computer's case, the supply itself was barely adequate for the C64's power requirements and occasionally failed from overheating. Some users purchased heavier-duty, better-cooled, third-party power supplies. Later in the Commodore's lifetime, third-party power supplies became increasingly important when used in conjuction with [[Creative Micro Designs]]' peripherals. Of particular note, a C64 coupled with a RAM expansion or CMD [[SuperCPU]] required more power than the original Commodore power supply could provide.
==External hardware==
:''Main article: [[Commodore 64 peripherals]]''
==Software==
:''Main article: [[Commodore 64 software]]''
==Representative screenshots==
<center>
<gallery>
Image:C64_Multiplan.png|[[Multiplan]]<br/>[[Microsoft]] (1983)
Image:C64_Koala_Painter.png|[[KoalaPad/Painter | Koala Paint]]<br/>Koala/Audio Light (1983)
Image:C64_GEOS.png|[[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] (desktop)<br/>Berkeley Softworks (1986)
Image:C64_Geowrite.png|geoWrite<br/>Berkeley Softworks (1987)
Image:C64_Donkey_Kong.png|''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]''<br/>[[Atarisoft]] (1983)
Image:C64_Winter_Games.png|''[[Winter Games]]''<br/>[[Epyx]] (1985)
Image:C64_IKPlus.png|''[[International Karate Plus|International Karate+]]''<br/>[[System 3 (company)|System 3]] (1987)
Image:C64_Creatures_II.png|''[[Creatures II]]''<br/>Thalamus/Apex (1993)
</gallery>
Additional screenshots can be found on the [[Commodore 64 software]] page.
</center>
==Specifications==
===Internal hardware===
*Microprocessor CPU:
** [[MOS Technology 6510|MOS Technology 6510/8500]] (the 6510/8500 being a modified [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] with an integrated 6-bit I/O port)
** Clock speed: 1.023 MHz ([[NTSC]]) or 0.985 MHz ([[PAL]])
*Video: [[MOS Technology VIC-II]] 6567/8567 (NTSC), 6569/8569 (PAL)
**16 colors<!--to be listed-->
**Text mode: 40&times;25 characters; 256 user-defined chars (8×8 [[pixel]]s, or 4×8 in multicolor mode); 4-bit color RAM defines foreground color
**Bitmap modes: 320&times;200 (2 colors in each 8×8 block), 160&times;200 (3 colors plus background in each 4×8 block)
**8 hardware [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s of 24×21 pixels (12×21 in multicolor mode)
**Smooth [[scrolling]], [[raster]] [[interrupt]]s
*Sound: [[MOS Technology SID|MOS Technology 6581/8580 SID]]
**3-channel [[synthesizer]] with programmable [[synthesizer#sound basics|ADSR]] envelope
**8 [[octave]]s
**4 waveforms: triangle, sawtooth, variable pulse, noise
**Oscillator synchronization, [[ring modulation]]
**Programmable filter: [[high-pass filter|high pass]], [[low-pass filter|low pass]], [[band-pass filter|band pass]], [[notch filter]]
*RAM:
** 64 [[kilobyte|kB]] (65,536 bytes), of which 38 kB minus 1 byte (38911 bytes) were available for BASIC programs
** 0.5 kB color RAM (1 k [[nybble]]s)
** Expandable to 320 kB with [[Commodore REU|Commodore 1764]] 256 kB RAM Expansion Unit (REU); although only 64 kB directly accessible; REU mostly intended for [[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]]. REUs of 128 kB and 512 kB, originally designed for the C128, were also available, but required the user to buy a stronger power supply from some third party supplier; with the 1764 this was included.
*ROM:
** 20 kB (9 kB [[Commodore BASIC|BASIC 2.0]]; 7 kB [[KERNAL]]<!-- the BASIC continues into the upper ROM chip-->; 4 k character generator, providing two 2 k character sets)
===I/O ports and power supply===
*I/O ports:
** 8-pin [[DIN plug]] containing composite video output, separate Y/C outputs, and sound input/output. (Some early C64 units utilized a 5-pin DIN connector that omitted the Y/C output.)
** Integrated [[RF modulator]] antenna output via a [[RCA]] connector
** 2 &times; screwless [[D-subminiature|DE9M]] [[game controller]] ports (compatible with Atari 2600 controllers), each supporting five digital inputs and two analog inputs. Available peripherals included digital [[joystick]]s, analog [[paddle (game controller)|paddle]]s, a [[light pen]], the Commodore 1351 [[computer mouse|mouse]], and the unique [[KoalaPad]].
** [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]] expansion slot (slot for [[edge connector]] with 6510 CPU address/data bus lines and control signals, as well as GND and voltage pins; used for program modules and memory expansions, among others)
** [[Commodore PET|PET]]-type [[Datassette]] 300 [[baud]] tape interface (edge connector with cassette motor/read/write/sense signals and GND and +5 V pins; the motor pin is powered to directly supply the motor)
** User port (edge connector with [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]]-level [[RS-232]] signals, for modems, etc; and byte-parallel signals which can be used to drive third-party parallel printers, among other things; with 17 logic signals, 7 GND and voltage pins, including 9 V AC voltage)
** Serial bus (serial version of [[IEEE-488]], 6-pin DIN plug) for CBM printers and disk drives
*Power supply: 5 V DC and 9 V AC from external "monolithic power brick", attached to computer's 7-pin female DIN-connector
==Trivia==
*The Commodore 64's startup screen was spoofed in the startup sequence of the 2002 computer/video game ''[[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]]''.
*''[http://www.homestarrunner.com/pop_tire.html Population: Tire]'', a game from animated flash site [http://www.homestarrunner.com HomestarRunner.com], also starts up with a spoofed screen of the Commodore 64, called "Compydore 64".
*The Commodore 64's BASIC V2, the programming language which came built-in the computer, could be crashed by executing <tt>PRINT""+-[x]</tt> (where x is any integer).
==Notes==
# {{note|doorstop}} A contemporary rumor stated that while Commodore scavenged most trade-in computers for spare parts, its employees used the TS1000s as [[door stop]]s.
==See also==
*[[Commodore 64 Games System]]
*[[Commodore 64 software]]
*[[List of Commodore 64 games]]
*[[Commodore 64 demos]]
*[[Commodore 128]]
==References==
===Books===
* Bagnall, Brian (2005). ''On the Edge: the Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore''. Variant Press. ISBN 0-9738649-0-7.
* Commodore Business Machines, Inc., Computer Systems Division (1982). ''Commodore 64 Programmer's Reference Guide''. Self-published by CBM. ISBN 0-672-22056-3.
* Angerhausen, M.; Becker, Dr. A.; English, L.; Gerits, K. (1983, 84). ''The Anatomy of the Commodore 64''. Abacus Software (US ed.) / First Publishing Ltd. (UK ed.). ISBN 0-948015-004 (UK ed.). German original edition published by Data Becker GmbH, Düsseldorf.
* Tomczyk, Michael (1984). ''The Home Computer Wars: An Insider's Account of Commodore and Jack Tramiel''. COMPUTE! Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-942386-75-2.
===Magazine articles===
* Perry, Tekla S.; Wallich, Paul. "Design case history: the Commodore 64". ''[[IEEE Spectrum]]''. March 1985. [http://www.commodore.ca/gallery/magazines/c64_design/c64_design.htm]
* Jeffries, Ron. "A best buy for '83: Commodore 64". ''[[Creative Computing]]'', January 1983. [http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v9n1/21_A_best_buy_for_83_Commo.php]
==External links==
{{commons|Commodore 64}}
===Emulators===
*[http://www.c64s.com/ c64s.com] – Online C64 emulator (Java based).
*[http://www.viceteam.org VICE] – The [[VICE|Versatile Commodore Emulator]], emulating the C64 and other CBM machines on various operating systems (UNIX, BeOS, Windows, etc.)
*[http://www.computerbrains.com/ccs64/ CCS64] – By Håkan Sundell
*[http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Park/6558/win64.htm Win64] – C64 emulator for MS Windows
*[http://www.infinite-loop.at/Power64/index.html Power 64] – C64 emulator for Mac OS X and OS 9
*[http://frodo.cebix.net/ Frodo - The free portable C64 emulator]
===Link portals===
*[http://www.c64s.com/ c64s.com] – A catalogue of C64 titles playable online.
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Commodore/ Open Directory Project] – Large collection of Commodore links for emulators, hardware projects and games
*[http://www.c64.org/ c64.org] – A useful link portal
*[http://www.c64.cc/ Cocos (Commodore Computer Sitelist)] – A large directory of C64 + [[demoscene]]-related links
*[http://del.icio.us/64/ del.icio.us/ |
on: "We really slobbered over that old witch" <br>
Kissinger: "They are the most goddamn aggressive people around."<br>
Nixon: "The Indians?"<br>
Kissinger: "Yeah."<br>
Nixon: "Sure."<br>
Kissinger: "The Indians are bastards anyway. They are starting a war there. While she was a bitch, we got what we wanted too. She will not be able to go home and say that the United States didn't give her a warm reception and therefore in despair she's got to go to war." <br>
Dr. Kissinger has since expressed his regret over the comments saying, "I regret that these words were used. I have extremely high regard for Mrs. Gandhi as a statesman. This was somebody letting off steam at the end of a meeting in which both President Nixon and I were emphasizing that we had gone out of our way to treat Mrs. Gandhi very cordially." On Indo-American relations Kissinger has also added that "I'm known as a strong advocate and one of the originators of close relations with China. I believe that today I am also a strong advocate of close relations with India." The newly released documents also show that Kissinger pushed for a Chinese military build up along the Indian border as the Americans feared an Indian invasion into West Pakistan. The American request for Chinese involvement in the war was, however, declined.
[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GF23Df04.html][http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4640773.stm]
===The 1973 Yom Kippur War===
In 1973, Kissinger negotiated the end to the [[Yom Kippur War]], which had begun with a surprise attack against [[Israel]] by [[Egypt]]ian and surrounding Arab armies during [[Yom Kippur]], the holiest [[Judaism|Jewish]] holiday. Though Israel regained the territory it had lost, Kissinger pressured the Israelis to [[cede]] land to the Arabs, contributing to the first phases of a lasting Israeli-Egyptian peace. The move saw a warming in U.S.-Egyptian relations, bitter since the '50s, as the country moved away from its former pro-Soviet stance and into a close partnership with the United States. The peace was finalized in 1978 when U.S. president [[Jimmy Carter]] mediated the [[Camp David Accords (1978)|Camp David Accords]], during which Israel returned the [[Sinai]] in exchange for an Egyptian agreement to recognize Israeli statehood and end hostility.
===Latin American policy===
Normal relations with Latin America were continued, and the United States continued to recognize and maintain relationships with [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] and non-communist governments, democratic and authoritarian alike. [[John F. Kennedy]]'s [[Alliance for Progress]] was ended in 1973, the same year as [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s coup against [[Salvador Allende]] in [[Chile]].
==== Augusto Pinochet's September 11, 1973 coup ====
{{Main|Chilean coup of 1973}}
Chilean [[Socialist Party of Chile|Socialist]] presidential candidate [[Salvador Allende]] was elected by a narrow plurality in 1970, causing serious concern in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] due to his openly [[Marxism|Marxist]] and pro-[[Cuba]]n politics. While the Nixon administration initially considered authorizing the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] to organize a military coup that would prevent Allende's inauguration and presumably call new elections, the plan was aborted because the administration doubted any of the willing factions had a chance. [http://foia.state.gov/Reports/ChurchReport.asp] Kissingers involvement in or support for these plans are unknown.
U.S.-Chilean relations remained frosty during Salvador Allende's tenure; following the complete [[nationalization]] of the partially U.S.-owned copper mines and the Chilean subsidiary of the U.S.-based [[ITT]], as well as other Chilean businesses, the U.S. implemented partial economic sanctions, claiming that the Chilean government had greatly undervalued fair compensation for the nationalization by subtracting what it deemed "excess profits." The CIA provided funding for the mass anti-government strikes in 1972 and 1973; during this period, Kissinger made several controversial statements regarding Chile's government, stating that "the issues are much too important for the Chilean voters to be left to decide for themselves" and "I don't see why we need to stand by and watch a country go communist due to the irresponsibility of its people." [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Kissinger/HKissinger.html] These remarks sparked outrage among many commentators, who considered them patronizing and disparaging of Chile's [[sovereignty]]. In September 1973, Allende committed suicide during a military coup launched by Army Commander-in-Chief [[Augusto Pinochet]], who became President. During a later visit to Chile, Kissinger told Pinochet that the U.S. was concerned about the junta's human rights violations but was sympathetic to its anti-communist stance. U.S.-Chilean relations significantly improved and remained warm until [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] challenger [[Jimmy Carter]] defeated President Gerald Ford in 1976 and implemented a tough stance against any state that violated human rights, regardless of its friendliness toward America.
==== Operation Condor ====
{{Main|Operation Condor}}
[[Kenneth Maxwell]]'s review of [[Peter Kornbluh]]'s book ''The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability'', in ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' November/December 2003, pinpointed Kissinger's influence in Operation Condor. Nearly ten nations of the American continent participated in the brutal campaign, while a 1978 cable released in 2000 under Chile declassification project showed that the South American intelligence chiefs involved in Condor "[kept] in touch with one another through a U.S. communications installation in the Panama Canal Zone which [covered] all of Latin America". [[Robert E. White]], the U.S. ambassador to Paraguay, was concerned that the US connection to Condor might be revealed during the then ongoing investigation into the 1976 assassination of former minister of the ''[[Unidad Popular]]'' government [[Orlando Letelier]] in Washington D.C. and his American colleague Ronni Moffitt.
==== U.S. - Cuban relations ====
{{main|Foreign relations of Cuba}}
Kissinger initially supported the normalization of U.S.-[[Cuba]]n relations, broken since 1961 (all US-Cuban trade was blocked in February 1962, a few weeks after the exclusion of Cuba from the [[Organisation of American States]] under US pressure). However, he quickly changed his mind and followed Kennedy's policy. After [[Fidel Castro]]'s involvement in the [[anticolonialism|anticolonialist]] struggle in [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]], Kissinger supported the [[National Union for a Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA), led by [[Jonas Savimbi]], the [[Mozambican National Resistance]] (RENAMO) insurgencies, as well as the CIA-supported advance of [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|South Africa]]n troops in Angola. Kissinger made it clear that unless Cuba withdrew its forces from Angola and Mozambique relations would not be normalized. However, in 2005, it was revealed that Cuba had withdrawn from those countries under Soviet pressure.
==== Jorge Videla's Argentinian ''junta'' ====
{{main|Dirty War}}
Kissinger took a similar line that he had toward Chile when the [[Argentina|Argentine]] military, led by [[Jorge Rafael Videla|Jorge Videla]], toppled the government of [[Isabel Martínez de Perón|Isabel Perón]] in 1976 and consolidated power, launching brutal reprisals and "[[forced disappearance|disappearances]]" against political opponents. During a meeting with Argentine foreign minister [[César Augusto Guzzetti]], Kissinger assured him that the United States was an ally, but urged him to "get back to normal procedures" quickly before the U.S. Congress reconvened and had a chance to consider sanctions.
=== Africa ===
In 1974, a pacific left-wing coup, known as the [[Carnation Revolution]], took place in Portugal, chasing off [[Marcelo Caetano]], [[Oliveira Salazar]]'s succeeder; the new government proceeded to quickly give up its former colonies, leaving a power vacuum in the southern African states of [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]]. Fidel Castro ordered Cuban troops into the two countries and successfully assisted the Marxist-Leninist [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA) and [[Mozambican Liberation Front]] (FRELIMO) guerrilla organizations in taking power. Cuban troops remained to support the two governments and protect them against the [[National Union for Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA) and [[Mozambican National Resistance]] (RENAMO) insurgencies, as well as the CIA-supported advance of South African troops in Angola. Kissinger made it clear that unless Cuba withdrew its forces from Angola and Mozambique relations would not be normalized. However, in 2005 Cuba revealed that it had withdrawn its troops under Sovietic pressure. Following [[Gladio]]'s secret Nato "stay-behind" paramilitary organizations, it was also revealed that [[Eduardo Mondlane]], FRELIMO's head, had been assassinated in 1969 by ''Aginter Press'', the Portuguese branch of Gladio, supported by Kissinger.
===East Timor and support of Suharto ===
The Portuguese decolonization process that had brought the U.S.'s attention to the newly-independent Angola and Mozambique also brought American attention to the small but densely populated newly-independent former Portuguese colony of [[East Timor]] in the [[Indonesia]]n archipalego. Indonesian president [[Suharto]] was a strong American ally in the Pacific and began to mobilize the army, preparing to annex the nascent state, which had become increasingly dominated by the popular leftist and Chinese-supported [[Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor|FRETILIN]] |
/id>
<revision>
<id>40897509</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T19:17:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>IvanLanin</username>
<id>975372</id>
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<comment>+id</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the business definition. For the definition as used by intelligence agencies, see [[Asset (Intelligence)]]''
In [[business]] and [[accounting]] an '''asset''' is anything owned which can produce future economic benefit, whether in [[possession]] or by right to take possession, by a person or a group acting together, e.g. a [[types of companies|company]], the measurement of which can be expressed in monetary terms. Asset is listed on the [[balance sheet]]. It has a [[normal balance]] of [[debit]].
Similarly, in [[economics]] an asset is any form in which [[wealth]] can be held.
==Classification of assets==
Assets may be classified in many ways. In a company's [[balance sheet]] certain divisions are required by generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), which vary from country to country.
===US GAAP===
The following is an example of classification according to [[US GAAP]].
====Current assets====
Current assets are cash and other assets expected to be converted to cash, sold, or consumed either in a year or in the operating cycle. These assets are continually turned over in the course of a business during normal business activity. There are 5 major items included into current assets:
# '''Cash''' - it is the most liquid asset, which includes currency, [[bank deposit]]s, and [[negotiable instrument]]s (e.g., money orders, checks, bank drafts).
# '''Short-term investments''' - include securities bought and held for sale in the near future to generate income on short-term price differences (trading securities).
# '''Receivables''' - usually reported as net of allowance for uncollectible accounts.
# '''[[Inventory]]''' - trading these assets is a normal business of a company. The inventory value reported on the [[balance sheet]] is usually the historical cost or fair market value, whichever is lower. This is known as the "lower of cost or market" rule.
# '''Prepaid expenses''' - these are expenses paid in cash and recorded as assets before they are used or consumed (a common example is insurance). See also [[adjusting entries]].
The phrase ''net current assets'' (also called ''[[working capital]]'') is often used and refers to the total of current assets less the total of current [[liability|liabilities]].
====Long-term investments====
Often referred to simply as "investments." Long-term investments are to be held for many years and are not intended to be disposed in the near future. This group usually consists of four types of investments:
# Investments in securities, such as bonds, common stock, or long-term notes.
# Investments in fixed assets not used in operations (e.g., land held for sale).
# Investments in special funds (e.g., sinking funds or pension funds).
# Investments in subsidiaries or affiliated companies.
====Fixed assets====
Also referred to as PPE (property, plant, and equipment). Assets which are purchased for continued and long-term use in earning [[profit]] in a business. This group includes [[Land (economics)|land]], [[building]]s, [[machinery]], furniture, tools, wasting resources (timberland, minerals), etc. They are written off against [[profit]]s over their anticipated life by charging [[depreciation]] expenses (with exception of land). Accumulated depreciation is shown in the face of the balance sheet or in the notes.
These are also called [[capital asset]]s in [[management accounting]], especially when [[intangibles]] are considered.
====Intangible assets====
Intangible assets lack physical substance and usually are very hard to evaluate. They include [[patent]]s, [[copyright]]s, [[franchising|franchise]]s, [[goodwill]], [[trademark]]s, trade names, etc. These assets are (according to US GAAP) amortized to expense over 5 to 40 years with exception of goodwill.
====Other assets====
This section includes a high variety of assets, most commonly:
*long-term prepaid expenses
*long-term receivables
*intangible assets (if they represent just a very small fraction of total assets)
*property held for sale.
In a lot of cases this section is too general and broad, because assets could be classified into four above categories.
==Definition of asset==
An asset has potential to earn revenue, its value is managed over life cycle and its failure leads to irrecoverable commercial loss. 'Human asset' is a new term for knowledge economy where professionals are not in problem solving mode but in opportunity creation state. For knowledge economy, achievement is not the term; contribution is the key to success. Human asset can assure that.
Knowledge economy perceives knowledge as the key driver of economic processes. It
involves weaving knowledge acquisition, enhancement and innovation into the fabric of
the organizations operating in the knowledge zone. The professional domain being a
superset of the organizational domain offers limitless opportunities to explore, enhance
and innovate. Presence of an asset stresses on exploration, innovation in the domain space to bring excellence and exhibit the domain spirit for opportunity creation. Every organization is
being faced with a fresh set of challenges and the solution lies in devising newer ways of
harnessing knowledge, leveraging the extended knowledge base to deliver previously
unoffered solutions. The key enabler in such a scenario will be a pool of experts or assets
who by interaction with the industry and commitment to a particular domain will be in a
position to forecast market trends and develop products and, or solutions in line with such
trends. In order to further understand the advantage of opportunity creation against problem
solving we need to understand the key differences between the concepts. Problem
solving, an approach Indian knowledge workers often adopt involves investing in “made
to order” solutions. It is basically a quick-fix, adhoc approach wherein a given problem is
attacked and solved without resort to in depth analysis or study. While the approach does
solve the problem at hand and generates immediate revenue with reduced risk it may not
ensure future business in a similar domain. Since the emphasis is on the problem at hand,
implicit possibilities are overlooked; the whole approach becomes delivery-centric. As
innovation is not encouraged per se creative people are discouraged and lose their
excellence committing their energy towards often performing mundane repetitive tasks.
Opportunity creation on the other hand requires a long term commitment and investment.
Suppose a problem at hand is automating process X for XYZ industry. While problem
solving would stop at automating X, opportunity creation would take this a step further to
study and analyze the domain, to determine if there is equivalent need for automation in
industries operating in similar domain, maybe determine if a customizable solution may
be provided which may then be reused in future to solve such a problem should it recur.
The difference between problem solving and opportunity creation may be likened to the
difference between buying and renting a house: one aims at creation of a permanent asset
that may be a source of potential income, the other devises a low risk, low gain solution
that in the long run kills the more important aim of building the house.
Opportunity creation requires expertise, skill and commitment, it calls for the creation of
a pool of experts with their key specializations who are conscious of the industry at large,
who can utilize their awareness to unlock new avenues of earning revenue.
Human Assets are a set of motivated and talented individuals, build them up through the various stages so that they may become rain makers in the industry perceiving and tackling new challenges and creating opportunities, the worth of which may be judged in the open competitive space of knowledge intensive industries.
==See also==
*[[Asset valuation]]
*[[Asset management]]
*[[Balance sheet]]
*[[Financial markets]]
*[[Gold as an investment]]
*[[Liability]]
*[[Lists of corporate assets]]
*[[Real estate]]
*''[[Rich Dad, Poor Dad]]''
*[[Share (finance)]]
==External links==
* [http://www.greekshares.com/asset.asp Understand Your Assets]
{{Economicsfooter}}
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<page>
<title>Akio Morita</title>
<id>2391</id>
<revision>
<id>37843652</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T14:12:40Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Akio Morita.jpg|right|150px]]
'''Akio Morita''' (&#30427;&#30000;&#26157;&#22827; ''Morita Akio'', [[January 26]], [[1921]] in [[Nagoya, Japan]] - [[October 3]], [[1999]] in [[Tokyo]]) was a co-founder of [[Sony]] Corporation.
Trained as a physicist, Morita was an officer in the Japanese [[navy]] during [[World War II]]. His family was involved in [[sake]] production. He met [[Masaru Ibuka]] in the [[Wartime Research Committee]]; on [[May 7]], [[1946]], they founded [[Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo K.K]]. (Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation, later [[Sony]]) with approximately 20 employees and initial capital of 190,000 yen. Ibuka was 38 years old at the time and Morita was 25.
In [[1949]] the company developed magnetic recording tape and in [[1950]] sold the first tape recorder in [[Japan]]. In [[1957]] it produced a pocket-sized [[radio]] and a year later renamed itself Sony (sonus is [[Latin]] for [[sound]], and ''Sonny-boys'' is Japanese [[slang]] for "[[whiz kid]]s"). In [ |
ion it is not considered "religious" by Christians who may instead refer to it as "folklore."
On the other hand, folklore can be used to accurately describe a figurative narrative, which has no sacred or religious content. In the [[Jungian psychology|Jungian]] view, which is but one method of analysis, it may instead pertain to unconscious psychological patterns, instincts or [[archetypes]] of the mind. This lore may or may not have components of the [[fantasy|fantastic]] (such as [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], ethereal beings or the personification of inanimate objects). These folktales may or may not emerge from a religious tradition, but nevertheless speak to deep psychological issues. The familiar folklore, "[[Hansel and Gretel]]," is an example of this fine line. The manifest purpose of the tale may primarily be one of mundane instruction regarding forest safety or secondarily a [[cautionary tale]] about the dangers of famine to large families, but its latent meaning may evoke a strong emotional response due to the widely-understood [[theme (literature)|theme]]s and [[Motif (literature)|motif]]s such as “The Terrible Mother”, “Death,” and “Atonement with the Father.” There can be both a moral and psychological scope to the work, as well as entertainment value, depending upon the nature of the teller, the style of the telling, the ages of the audience members, and the overall [[context]] of the [[performance]]. Folklorists generally resist universal interpretations of [[narrative]]s and, wherever possible, analyze [[oral]] versions of tellings in specific contexts, rather than print sources, which often show the work or bias of the [[writer]] or [[editor]].
Contemporary folklore common in the Western world includes the [[urban legend]] and the [[conspiracy theory]]. There are many forms of folklore that are so common, however, that most people do not consider them to be folklore, such as [[riddle]]s, children's [[rhymes]] and [[ghost stories]], [[rumor]]s, [[gossip]], ethnic [[stereotype]]s, and [[holiday]] customs and [[life-cycle rituals]]. [[UFO abduction]] narratives can be seen, in some sense, to refigure the tales of pre-Christian [[Europe]], or even such tales in the [[Bible]] as the Ascent of Elijah to heaven. [[Adrienne Mayor]], in introducing a bibliography on the topic, noted that most modern folklorists are largely unaware of classical parallels and precedents, in materials that are only partly represented by the familiar designation ''[[Aesopica]]'': "Ancient Greek and Roman literature contains rich troves of folklore and popular beliefs, many of which have counterparts in modern contemporary legends" (Mayor, 2000).
==Categories of folklore==
*[[Genres]]
**[[Ballad]]
**[[Blason Populaire]]
**[[Counting rhyme]]s
**[[Costumbrista]]
**[[Custom]]
**[[Folk play]]
**[[Epic poetry]]
**[[Festival]]
**[[Folk speech]]
**[[Folk art]]
**[[Folk belief]]
**Folk [[metaphor]]
**[[Folk poetry]] and [[rhyme]]
**Folk [[simile]]
**[[Folk song]]
**Folk tale
***[[Animal tale]]
***[[Fairy tale]]
***[[Jocular tale]]
**[[Games]]
**[[Holiday lore]] and customs
**[[Joke]]
**[[Legend]]
***[[Urban legend|Urban (or Contemporary) legend]]
**[[Material culture]]
**[[Mythology|Myth]]
**[[Memorate]]
**[[Proverb]]
**[[Riddle]]
**[[Superstition]] and [[popular belief]]
**[[Taunts]]
**[[Xerox lore]]
*National or ethnic (see [[romantic nationalism]])
**[[African-American folklore]]
**[[Albanian folklore]]
**[[Arab folklore]]
**[[Paganism in the Eastern Alps|Austrian folklore]]
**[[American folklore]]
**[[Australian folklore]]
**[[Brazilian folklore]]
**[[Chinese folklore]]
**[[English folklore]]
**[[Finnish folklore]]
**[[German folklore]]
**[[Indian folklore]]
**[[Irish mythology|Irish folklore]]
**[[Jewish folklore]], which incorporates the [[Aggadah]]
**[[Japanese mythology|Japanese folklore]]
**[[Korean folklore]]
**[[Kosovar folklore]]
**[[Mexican folklore]]
**[[Native American folklore]]
**[[Olrig|Olrig folklore]]
**[[Pakistani folklore]]
**[[Philippine folklore]]
**[[Russian folklore]]
**[[Scandinavian folklore]]
**[[Scottish mythology|Scottish folklore]]
**[[Slavic folklore]]
**[[Swiss folklore]]
**[[Turkish folklore]]
**[[Laz folklore]]
==See also==
*[[Applied folklore]]
*[[Public folklore]]
*[[Chinook wind#Chinooks_and_tall_tales_(folklore)|Chinook wind]], section ''Chinooks and tall tales''.
==Other usages==
In [[mathematics]] and some related disciplines, the term ''folklore'' is used to refer to any result in a field of
study which is widely known by practioners of that field, but considered too trivial or unoriginal to be worth publishing by itself in the research literature. Such results often have to wait for a new textbook on the subject, or a survey article, before they appear in print.
== External links: North America ==
*[http://www.afsnet.org American Folklore Society]
*[http://www.loc.gov/folklife American Folklife Center]
*[http://www.westernfolklore.org/ Western States Folklore Society]
*[http://www.fl.ulaval.ca/celat/acef/ Folklore Studies Association of Canada]
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~folklore/ Indiana University's Folklore Program]
*[http://ls.berkeley.edu/dept/folklore/ Folklore Program at the University of California at Berkeley]
*[http://www.mun.ca/folklore Memorial University of Newfoundland's Folklore Program]
*[http://www.wku.edu/folkstudies/ Folklore Program at Western Kentucky University]
*[http://english.usu.edu/Document/index.asp?Parent=563 Folklore Program at Utah State University]
*[http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~flr/ University of Oregon's Folklore Program]
*[http://www.unc.edu/depts/folklore/ Folklore Program at the University of North Carolina]
*[http://www.wac.ucla.edu/degrees.php World Arts and Cultures Program of the University of California at Los Angeles]
*[http://www.folkstreams.net/ Folkstreams.net-video streaming films on American traditional culture and folklife]
==For further reading==
*[http://www.worldagesarchive.com/Reference_Links/Myth_Bibliograpgy.htm Adrienne Mayor, "Bibliography of Classical Folklore Scholarship: Myths, Legends, and Popular Beliefs of Ancient Greece and Rome"], from ''Folklore'' (April 2000)
[[Category:Folklore| ]]
[[ar:فلكلور]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fusion cuisine</title>
<id>11304</id>
<revision>
<id>33672105</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-03T01:56:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kucing</username>
<id>22944</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Formatting heading</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fusion cuisine''' combines elements of various [[cuisine|culinary traditions]] while not fitting specifically into any. The term generally refers to the innovations in many contemporary restaurant cuisines since the [[1970s]].
This type of restaurant's success depends on a number of factors. Among these are:
* Clientele's (or prospective clientele's) cultural [[diversity]]
* Clientele's [[travel]] patterns and experiences.
* Clientele's culinary sophistication and openness to new eating experiences.
These factors have made this type of cuisine accepted and popular in places like [[California cuisine|California]] and in large [[metropolitan area|metropolitan areas]]. California [[Chef]] [[Wolfgang Puck]] is one of the pioneers of fusion cuisine.
A menu sampling from menu of an [[United States|American]]-[[Europe|European]]-[[Japan|Japanese]] restaurant in California might include the following items:
* [[Sake]] [[cocktail|cocktails]]
* Salad with crisp [[nori]] topping, and a [[miso]]-[[cilantro]] vinaigrette dressing
* [[Rock shrimp]] dumplings
* [[Eel]], [[lettuce]] and [[tomato]] [[sushi]] handroll
* Poached [[tofu]]
==See also==
* [[Tex-Mex cuisine]]
* [[California cuisine]]
[[Category:Cuisine]]
[[he:פיוז'ן (בישול)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Frame problem</title>
<id>11306</id>
<revision>
<id>37004578</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T22:36:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[artificial intelligence]], the '''frame problem''' was initially formulated as the problem of expressing a dynamical domain in [[logic]] without explicitly specifying which conditions ''are not'' affected by an action. [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] and [[Patrick J. Hayes]] defined this problem in their [[1969]] article, ''Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence''. Later, the term acquired a broader meaning in [[philosophy]], where it is formulated as the problem of limiting the beliefs that have to be updated in response to actions.
The name &ldquo;frame problem&rdquo; derives from a common technique used by [[animated cartoon]] makers called [[traditional animation|framing]] where the currently moving parts of the cartoon are superimposed on the &ldquo;frame&rdquo;, which depicts the background of the scene, which does not change. In the logical context, actions are typically specified by what they change, with the implicit assumption that everything else (the frame) remain unchanged.
==The frame problem in artificial intelligence==
The frame problem occurs even in very simple domains. A scenario with a door, which can be open or closed |
asionally prescribed, with caveats)
== Therapeutic effects ==
Aromatherapy is based mainly on the following therapeutic effects:
* [[Antiseptic]] effects: [[viricide|viricidial]], [[bactericide|bactericidal]], [[fungicide|fungicidal]]
* [[Anesthetic]] action (menthol, camphor)
* [[Central nervous system]] effects
* [[Metabolism|Metabolic ]] / [[Endocrine]] effects
* [[Psychology|Psychological]] effects
* [[Immunostimulator]]
Fragrances can have a relaxing effect measured as an increase in alpha [[brain wave]]s.
One of the best known essential oils for aromatherapy is [[lavender]], which is recommended by practitioners for treating wounds, to enhance memory, and to aid sleep by combating [[anxiety]] and [[insomnia]]. Other popular scents include [[eucalyptus]], [[rose]], [[jasmine]] and [[bergamot]].
Aromatherapy is among the fastest growing fields in alternative and holistic medicine. Aromatherapy is sometimes used in clinics and hospitals for treatment of pain relief, for labor pain, for relieving pain caused by the side effects of the chemotherapy, and for the rehabilitation of cardiac patients.
== Criticism ==
Skeptics argue that while pleasant scents can be relaxing, lowering stress and related effects, there is currently insufficient scientific proof of the effectiveness of aromatherapy. Like many [[alternative medicine|alternative therapies]], few controlled, [[double-blind]] studies have been carried out&mdash;a common explanation is that there is little incentive to do so if the results of the studies are not [[Patentability|patentable]]. There are some treatments generally accepted in [[Western medicine]] to give a form of relief for the airways in case of cold or flu, such as [[mint]] and [[eucalyptus]] essential oils. Skeptical literature often depicts aromatherapy as based on [[anecdotal evidence]] of its benefits rather than proof that aromatherapy can cure diseases. Some skeptics acknowledge that aromatherapy has limited scientific support but argue that its claims go beyond the data or that the studies are not adequately controlled and peer reviewed. If there can be positive effects, there can also be negative ones if used incorrectly or in bad combinations especially with traditional pharmacology.
The term "aromatherapy" has been applied to such a wide range of products that almost anything which contains essential oils is likely to be called an "aromatherapy product", rendering the term somewhat meaningless in that context.
Some proponents of aromatherapy believe that the claimed effect of each type of oil is not caused by the chemicals in the oil interacting with the senses, but that the oil contains a distillation of the "life force" of the plant from which it is derived that will "balance the energies" of the body and promote healing or well-being by purging negative vibrations from the body's energy field. Arguing that there is little [[scientific method|scientific evidence]] that healing can be achieved, or that the claimed "energies" even exist, many [[scientific skepticism|skeptics]] reject this form of aromatherapy as [[pseudoscience]] or even [[quackery]].
== External links ==
*[http://www.oilganic.com/associations-research-trade.htm Aromatherapy Associations and Research Bodies]
*[http://aromatherapyinfonet.com Aromatherapy]- Aromatherapy information, articles and reviews
*[http://www.aromaweb.com AromaWeb] - Portal of home aromatherapy
====Criticism====
*[http://www.cf.ac.uk/biosi/staff/jacob/teaching/sensory/olfact1.html Smell Research by Tim Jacob: ''Aromatherapy - does it work?'']
*[http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/aroma.html Aromatherapy: Making Dollars out of Scents]
[[Category:Aromatherapy|*]]
[[Category:Perfumery]]
[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[ar:طب الروائح]]
[[de:Aromatherapie]]
[[et:Aroomiteraapia]]
[[es:Aromaterapia]]
[[fa:عطردرمانی]]
[[fr:Aromathérapie]]
[[it:Aromaterapia]]
[[nl:Aromatherapie]]
[[ja:アロマセラピー]]
[[pl:Aromaterapia]]
[[ru:Ароматерапия]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abodrites</title>
<id>2542</id>
<revision>
<id>15900942</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-28T14:45:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David Parker</username>
<id>42</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Obotrites]] </text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander Kerensky</title>
<id>2543</id>
<revision>
<id>41009381</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T13:21:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Catapult</username>
<id>792235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 17|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Aleksandr Fedorovich Kerensky.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Alexander Kerensky]]
'''Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Ке́ренский) ([[April 22]], [[1881]] ([[May 2]], [[New Style]]) - [[June 11]], [[1970]]) was a Russian revolutionary leader, who was instrumental in toppling the Russian [[Monarchy]]. He served as the second [[Prime Minister]] of the [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|Russian Provisional Government]], immediately before [[Lenin]] seized power in the [[October Revolution|October Revolution]].
==Early life and activism==
Kerensky was born in [[Simbirsk]] (now [[Ulyanovsk]]) the son of a headmaster. This was also Lenin's birthplace, and at one point Kerensky's father Fyodor taught the young [[Vladimir Ulyanov]] at [[Kazan State University|Kazan University]]. Kerensky graduated in law from [[Saint Petersburg University]] in 1904. He showed his political sympathies early on with his frequent defence of anti-Tsarist revolutionaries. He was elected to the Fourth [[Duma]] in 1912 as a member of the [[Trudoviks]] (a moderate [[Labour movement|labour party]]). A brilliant orator and skilled parliamentary leader, he became a member of the [[Provisional Committee of the Duma]] as a [[Socialist-Revolutionary Party|Socialist Revolutionary]] and a leader of the [[socialism|socialist]] opposition to the regime of the ruling [[tsar]], [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]].
==February Revolution of 1917==
When the [[February Revolution]] broke out in 1917 Kerensky was one of the revolution's most prominent leaders, and was elected vice-chairman of the [[Petrograd Soviet]] ([[soviet|workers' council]]). When the [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|Provisional Government]] was formed he was initially Minister of Justice, but he became Minister of War in May and Prime Minister in July 1917. Following the failed [[coup]] of General [[Lavr Kornilov]] in August and the resignation of the ministers, he appointed himself Supreme Commander-in-Chief as well.
Kerensky's essential problem in office was that Russia was exhausted after three years of [[warfare]] and the Russian people wanted nothing but peace. Lenin and his [[Bolshevik]] party were promising "peace, land, and bread" under a [[communist]] system, and the army was disintegrating as the peasant and worker soldiers deserted. But Kerensky and the other political leaders felt obliged by their commitments to Russia's allies to continue the war, and also correctly feared that [[Germany]] would demand enormous territorial concessions as the price for peace. Kerensky's refusal to withdraw Russia from the war proved his undoing.
==October Revolution of 1917==
During the [[Kornilov Coup]] Kerensky had distributed arms to the [[Petrograd]] workers, and by October most of these armed workers had gone over to the Bolsheviks. Lenin was determined to overthrow Kerensky's [[government]] before it could be legitimised by the planned [[election]]s for a [[Russian Constituent Assembly]], and on [[October 25]] ([[November 7]] New Style), the Bolsheviks took power in what became known as the [[October Revolution]].
Kerensky escaped the Bolsheviks and went to [[Pskov]], where he rallied loyal troops for an attempt to retake the [[capital city|capital]]. His troops captured [[Tsarskoe Selo]] but were defeated the next day at [[Pulkovo]]. Kerensky narrowly escaped this defeat, and for the next few weeks he lived in hiding until he could leave the country, eventually arriving in [[France]]. During the [[Russian Civil War]] he supported neither side - he opposed both the Bolshevik regime and the reactionary [[White Movement]] generals trying to restore the monarchy.
==Life in exile==
Kerensky lived in [[Paris]] until 1940, engaged in the endless splits and quarrels of the exiled Russian democratic leaders. When the Germans overran France, he escaped to the [[United States]] in 1940.
In 1939 he had married former [[Australian]] [[journalism|journalist]] Lydia ‘Nell' Tritton. In 1945 his wife became terminally ill. He travelled with her to [[Brisbane]], [[Australia]] and lived there with her family until her death in February 1946. Thereafter he returned to the United States where he lived until his death.
When [[Adolf Hitler]]'s forces invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in 1941, Kerensky offered his support to [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], but received no reply. Instead he made broadcasts in [[Russian language|Russian]] in support of the war effort. After the war he organised a group called the [[Union for the Liberation of Russia]], but this achieved little.
[[Image:Kerenskygrave.jpg|thumb|left|Grave of Kerensky in London]]
Kerensky eventually settled in [[New York City]], but he spent much of his time at the [[Hoover Institution]] at [[Stanford University]] in [[California]], where he both used and contributed to the Institution's huge archive on [[Russian history]], and where he taught graduate courses. He wrote and broadcast extensively on Russian [[politics]] and [[history]].
Kerensky's major works of writi |
|February 2006}}
==Extent==
[[Image:BritishEmpire1919.PNG|thumb|300px|The British Empire at its zenith in 1919.]]
At what is usually considered its height in 1921, the British Empire consisted of the following territories:
===Africa===
*[[Basutoland]] (now [[Lesotho]])
*[[Bechuanaland]] (now [[Botswana]]) (divided, one part colony and another part a British protectorate)
*[[British Togoland]] (now part of [[Ghana]])
*[[Gambia]]
*[[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] (now [[Ghana]])
*[[Egypt]] (as a state under British protectorate)
*[[Kenya]] (most parts colony, the coast area protectorate)
*[[Mauritius]]
*[[Nigeria]]
*[[Cameroons|Northern Cameroons]] (now part of [[Nigeria]])
*[[Northern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zambia]])
*[[Nyasaland]] (now [[Malawi]])
*[[Sierra Leone]]
*[[Somaliland]]
*[[Republic of South Africa|South Africa]]
*[[Cameroons|Southern Cameroons]] (now part of [[Cameroon]], being 9% of the territory of Cameroon)
*[[Southern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zimbabwe]])
*[[South West Africa]] (now [[Namibia]])
*[[Swaziland]] (as a state under British protectorate)
*[[Sudan]]
*[[Tanganyika]] (now [[Tanzania]])
*[[Uganda]]
*[[Zanzibar]] (now [[Tanzania]]) (as a state under British protectorate)
===The Americas and Atlantic===
*[[Ascension Island]]
*[[British Guiana]] (now [[Guyana]])
*[[British Honduras]] (now [[Belize]])
*[[Canada]]
*[[Falkland Islands]]
*[[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] (now a province of [[Canada]])
*[[British West Indies|West Indies]]
**[[Anguilla]]
**[[Antigua and Barbuda]]
**[[Bahamas]]
**[[Barbados]]
**[[Bermuda]]
**[[British Virgin Islands]]
**[[Cayman Islands]]
**[[Dominica]]
**[[Grenada]]
**[[Jamaica]]
**[[Montserrat]]
**[[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
**[[Saint Lucia]]
**[[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
**[[Trinidad and Tobago]]
**[[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
*[[Saint Helena (Britain)|St Helena]]
*[[Tristan da Cunha]]
*[[South Georgia]] (also claimed by Argentina)
===Antarctica===
*[[British Antarctic Territory]] (under Antarctic Treaty overlaps Argentine and Chilean claim)
===Asia===
*[[Aden (colony)|Aden Colony]] (now part of [[Yemen]])
*[[Aden Protectorate]] (states under British protection; now part of Yemen)
*[[Bahrain]]
*[[Bhutan]]
*[[British Raj|British India]] (now [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]])
*[[British Mandate of Palestine]] (now [[Israel]] (excluding the [[Golan Heights]]), the [[Gaza Strip]] and the [[West Bank]])
*[[Brunei]] (British protectorate)
*[[Burma]] (now [[Myanmar]])
*[[Ceylon]] (now [[Sri Lanka]])
*[[Hong Kong]] (now a [[Special Administrative Region]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] after ceded by China in 1841,1860 and leased in 1898)
*[[Iraq]]
*[[Kuwait]]
*[[Malaya]] (now [[Peninsular Malaysia]], part of [[Malaysia]])
*[[Maldives]]
*[[North Borneo]] (now [[Sabah]], part of Malaysia)
*[[Muscat and Oman]] (now [[Oman]])
*[[Qatar]]
*[[Sarawak]] (now part of Malaysia)
*[[Sikkim]] (now part of India)
*[[Straits Settlements]] ([[Singapore]], [[Malacca]], [[Penang]], and [[Labuan]] in [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Cocos Islands]] and [[Christmas Island]] in the [[Indian Ocean]]; now divided among Singapore, Malaysia, and [[Australia]])
*[[Transjordan]] (now [[Jordan]])
*[[Trucial States]] (states under British protection; now the [[United Arab Emirates]])
*[[Wei-Hai-Wei]] (&#23041;&#28023;&#34910;) (Now the city of [[Weihai]] in [[Shandong]], China)
- There were also several extraterritorial territories in China called [[treaty ports]], the most famous being the British concession in [[Shanghai]]
===Europe===
*[[Channel Islands]] ([[crown dependency|crown dependencies]])
**[[Guernsey]]
**[[Jersey]]
*[[Cyprus]]
*[[Gibraltar]]
*[[Malta]]
*[[Isle of Man]] (crown dependency)
*[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]
===Pacific===
*[[Australia]]
*[[British New Guinea]] (southern part of what is now [[Papua New Guinea]])
*[[Ellice Islands]] (now [[Tuvalu]])
*[[Fiji]]
*[[Gilbert Islands]] (now part of [[Kiribati]])
*[[Nauru]]
*[[New Hebrides]] ([[Anglo-French Condominium|condominium]] shared with the [[French colonial empires|French Empire]]) (now [[Vanuatu]])
*[[New Zealand]]
*[[Pitcairn]]
*[[Solomon Islands]]
*[[Tonga]] (as a state under British protectorate)
==Extent after World War II==
[[Image:British Empire Anachronous 5.PNG|thumb|400px|An anachronous map of the British Empire and England showing all the territories ruled from 1762 to 1948 (British Empire) and from 1066-1707 (England). See image description for a breakdown of colour coding.]]
During and after [[World War II]] Britain acquired control of further territories though most of these (except the Trust Territories) cannot be considered part of the British Empire as control was subject to international agreements. Territories obtained during and after the war were controlled in a variety of ways, with some ruled as UN Trust Territories and others being totally occupied and administered, while still others were only militarily occupied and the local administrations allowed to continue. These territories were:
===Africa===
*[[Comoros]] (as part of Madagascar, see below)
*[[Eritrea]] (as a UN Trust Territory)
*[[French Somaliland]] (now Djibouti) (occupied, local administration continues)
*[[Italian Somaliland]] (occupied and administered until 1950, then returned to Italy as a UN Trust Territory).
*[[Madagascar]] (occupied and administered)
*[[Mayotte]] (as part of the [[Comoros]], see above)
*[[Tripolitania]] and [[Cyrenaica]] (now most of [[Libya]]) (as a UN Trust Territory)
*[[Reunion]] (occupied, local administration continues)
===The Americas and Atlantic===
*[[Aruba]] (as part of the Netherlands Antilles, see below)
*[[Netherlands Antilles]] (as a protectorate)
===Asia===
*[[Dutch East Indies]]- mainly just [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] (occupied and administered by South East Asia Command (SEAC) to accept Japanese surrender and restore law and order until the Dutch arrived)
*[[French Indochina]]- south of the 16th parallel, but mainly [[Saigon]] (occupied and administered by SEAC to accept Japanese surrender and restore law and order until the French arrived)
*[[Iran]] (occupied and administered by Indian Command)
*[[Iraq]] (under same administration as Iran)
*[[Japan]] (Shikoku and part of Honshu occupied as [[British Commonwealth Occupation Zone]])
*[[Lebanon]] (occupied and administered)
*[[Syria]] (same administration as Lebanon)
===Europe===
*[[Austria]] (occupied south-eastern Austria as [[British Occupation Zone]])
*[[Faeroe Islands]] (occupied and administered, but local administration continued also)
*[[Germany]] (occupied north-western Germany as [[British Occupation Zone]])
*
*[[Italy]] (temporary military government and occupation, except in Udine and Venezia Gulia provinces)
==Territories Lost by British Empire before 1921==
*[[Thirteen Colonies]], later the [[United States of America]]
**[[Delaware]]
**[[Maryland]]
**[[New Jersey]]
**[[Virginia]], later [[Virginia]] and [[West Virginia]]
**[[Massachusetts]], later [[Massachusetts]] and [[Maine]]
**[[New York]], later [[New York]] and [[Vermont]]
**[[New Hampshire]]
**[[Rhode Island]]
**[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
**[[North Carolina]]
***[[Roanoke]], later part of [[North Carolina]]
**[[South Carolina]]
**[[Connecticut]]
**[[Pennsylvania]]
**[[Northwest Territory]] between the 13 Colonies and the [[Mississippi River]], with conflicting claims between the Colonies, which is now [[Ohio]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Michigan]] and [[Wisconsin]], as well as part of [[Minnesota]].
**Territory between the 13 Colonies and the Mississippi south of the Ohio River, with conflicting claims, which is now [[Alabama]], [[Mississippi]], [[Tennessee]], [[Kentucky]] and part of [[Louisiana]].
*[[Suriname]] from 1650 until 1667 when it was traded to the Dutch in exchange for New Amsterdam (now New York).
*[[Helgoland]] seized by the British in 1807 ceded to [[Germany]] in 1890.
*[[Florida]], to Spain, but later in the United States.
*Part of the [[Oregon Country]] (which was disputed with the USA, Spain, and Russia), to the United States.
*[[Hawaii]] (the Sandwich Islands) ceded to Britain on [[25 February]] [[1843]]; gained Independence [[28 November]] [[1843]]; annexed by the United States on [[7 July]] [[1898]].
*The [[Ionian Islands]] were captured by the British in 1809 and ceded to [[Greece]] in 1864.
*[[Minorca]] was first captured by the British in 1708; it was formally ceded to Spain in 1802.
*The [[Mosquito Coast]] was a British protectorate from 1655 to 1850.
*[[Havana]] and by de facto [[Cuba]] was occupied and captured by the British in 1762 during the [[Seven Years' War]]. It was part of the empire for only 10 months.
*[[Manila]] was occupied by the British during the [[Seven Years' War]], from 1762 to 1763.
*[[Senegal]] was annexed two times into the British colonial empire. First from 1758 to 1779 and in 1809 to 1817.
*[[Afghanistan]] was annexed a few times into the British Empire from the Anglo-Afghan Wars. Afghanistan achieved independence in 1919, after the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]].
*[[Samana]], a city on the northeast coast of the now [[Dominican Republic]], occupied from July to August 1809
*[[St. Dominique]], now [[Haiti]], mainly the coastal areas around [[Port-au-Prince]] from just north of the city to the south and west and including the towns of [[Leogane]] and [[Petit Goave]]. Other towns and areas in the French colony occupied by the British from 1793-1798 (Revolutionary Wars) included [[Tiburon]], [[Jérémie]], [[Mole St. Nicholas]], [[St. Marc]] and [[Tortuga Island]] just off the northern coast of Haiti.
*[[Bencoolen]], a trading posts in the [[Dutch East Indies]].
==Remaining Overseas Territories==
''Main article: [[British overseas territory]].''
Now only a few small territories remain under British administration, mostly for reasons of perceived insufficiency as sovereign states. The last remaining Overseas Territories are:
===Overseas Territo |
ted helicopter landing facilities (helipads) (2003 est.)
[[Category:Antarctica]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Antarctica]]
[[fr:Transport en Antarctique]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Antarctica</title>
<id>1280</id>
<revision>
<id>15899771</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-27T12:01:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge due to nonexisten subject</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Antarctica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antarctica/History</title>
<id>1282</id>
<revision>
<id>15899772</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-05T00:23:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*#redirect [[History of Antarctica]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of Antarctica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Alabama</title>
<id>1285</id>
<revision>
<id>38356684</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T20:37:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Psmith</username>
<id>25471</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Physical Features */ rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Physio-al.jpg|right|float|frame|Physiographic Regions in Alabama]]
==Physical Features==
The surface of [[Alabama]] in the N. and N.E., embracing about two-fifths of its area, is diversified and picturesque; the remaining portion is occupied by a gently undulating plain having a general incline south-westward toward the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]].
Extending entirely across the state of Alabama for about 20 m. S. of its N. boundary, and in the middle stretching 60 m. farther S., is the ''Cumberland Plateau'', or ''Tennessee Valley'' region, broken into broad table-lands by the dissection of rivers. In the N. part of this plateau, W. of [[Jackson County, Alabama|Jackson county]], there are about 1000 sq. m. of level highlands from 700 to 800 ft. above the sea. South of these highlands, occupying a narrow strip on each side of the [[Tennessee River]], is a country of gentle rolling lowlands varying in elevation from 500 to 800 ft. To the N.E. of these highlands and lowlands is a rugged section with steep mountain-sides, deep narrow coves and valleys, and flat mountain-tops. Its elevations range from 400 to 1800 ft. In the remainder of this region, the S. portion, the most prominent feature is Little Mountain, extending about 80 m. from E. to W. between two valleys, and Asing precipitouslyon the N. side 500 ft. above them or 1000ft. above the sea.
Adjoining the Cumberland Plateau region on the S.E. is the ''Appalachian Valley'' (locally known as Coosa Valley) region, which is the S. extremity of the great [[Appalachian Mountains]], and occupies an area within the state of about 8000 sq. m. This is a [[limestone]] belt with parallel hard rock ridges left standing by erosion to form mountains. Although the general direction of the mountains, ridges and valleys is N.E. and S.W., irregularity is one of the most prominent characteristics. In the N.E. are several flat-topped mountains, of which Raccoon and [[Lookout Mountain|Lookout]] are the most prominent, having a maximum elevation near the [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] line of little more than 1800 ft. and gradually decreasing in height toward the S.W., where Sand Mountain is a continuation of Raccoon. South of these the mountains are marked by steep N.W. sides, sharp crests and gently sloping S.E. sides.
South-east of the Appalachian Valley region, the ''Piedmont Plateau'' also crosses the Alabama border from the N.E. and occupies a small triangular-shaped section of which [[Randolph County, Alabama|Randolph]] and [[Clay County, Alabama|Clay]] counties, together with the N. part of [[Tallapoosa County, Alabama|Tallapoosa]] and [[Chambers County, Alabama|Chambers]], form the principal portion. Its surface is gently undulating and has an elevation of about 1000 ft. above the sea. The Piedmont Plateau is a lowland worn down by erosion on hard crystalline rocks, then uplifted to form a plateau.
The remainder of the state is occupied by the ''Coastal Plain''. This is crossed by foot-hills and rolling prairies in the central part of the state, where it has a mean elevation of about 600 ft., becomes lower and more level toward the S.W., and in the extreme S. is flat and but slightly elevated above the sea.
The Cumberland Plateau region is drained to the W.N.W. by the [[Tennessee River]] and its tributaries; all other parts of the state are drained to the S.W. In the Appalachian Valley region the Coosa is the principal river; and in the Piedmont Plateau, the Tallapoosa. In the Coastal Plain are the Tombigbee in the W., the Alabama (formed by the Coosa and Tallapoosa) in the W. central, and in the E. the Chattahoochee, which forms almost half of the Georgia boundary. The [[Tombigbee River|Tombigbee]] and [[Alabama River|Alabama]] unite near the S.W. corner of the state, their waters discharging into [[Mobile Bay]] by the [[Mobile River|Mobile]] and Tensas rivers. The Black Warrior is a considerable stream which joins the Tombigbee from the E.
The valleys in the N. and N.E. are usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain they are broad and in most cases rise in three successive terraces above the stream. The harbour of Mobile was formed by the drowning of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast.
The fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics.
==Climate and Soil==
The [[climate]] of Alabama is temperate and fairly uniform.
The heat of summer is tempered in the south by the winds from the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and in the north by the elevation above the sea. The average annual temperature is highest in the southwest along the coast (where the climate is [[subtropical]]), and lowest in the northeast among the highlands. Thus at Mobile the annual mean is 67°F (19°C), the mean for the summer 81°F (27°C), and for the winter 52°F (11°C); and at Valley Head, in De Kalb county, the annual mean is 59°F (15°C), the mean for the summer 75°F (24°C), and for the winter 41°F (5°C). At Montgomery, in the central region, the average annual temperature is 66°F (19°C), with a winter average of 49°F (9°C), and a summer average of 81°F (27°C). The average winter minimum for the entire state is 35°F (2°C), and there is an average of 35 days in each year in which the thermometer falls below the freezing-point. At extremely rare intervals the thermometer has fallen below zero (-18°F), as was the case in the remarkable cold wave of the 12th-13th of February [[1899]], when an absolute minimum of -17°F (-29°C) was registered at [[Valley Head, Alabama|Valley Head]]. The highest temperature ever recorded was 109°F (43°C) in [[Talladega County, Alabama|Talladega]] county in [[1902]].
The amount of precipitation is greatest along the coast (62 inches/1,574 mm) and evenly distributed through the rest of the state (about 52 inches/1,320 mm). During each winter there is usually one fall of snow in the south and two in the north; but the snow quickly disappears, and sometimes, during an entire winter, the ground is not covered with snow. [[Hailstorm]]s occur occasionally in the spring and summer, but are seldom destructive. Heavy [[fog]]s are rare, and are confined chiefly to the coast. [[Thunderstorm]]s occur throughout the year, but are most common in the summer. The prevailing winds are from the south. [[Tropical cyclone|Hurricane]]s are quite common in the state, especially in the southern part, and major hurricanes occasionally strike the coast which can be very destructive.
As regards its soil, Alabama may be divided into four regions. Extending from the Gulf northward for about 150 miles (240 km) is the outer belt of the Coastal Plain, also called the ''Timber Belt,'' whose soil is sandy and poor, but responds well to fertilization. North of this is the inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the ''Black Prairie,'' which includes some 13,000 square miles and seventeen counties. It receives its name from its soil (weathered from the weak underlying limestone), which is black in colour, almost destitute of sand and loam, and rich in limestone and marl formations, especially adapted to the production of cotton; hence the region is also called the ''Cotton Belt.'' Between the ''Cotton Belt'' and the [[Tennessee Valley]] is the [[mineral]] region, the ''Old Land'' area -- a region of resistant rocks -- whose soils, also derived from weathering in silu, are of varied fertility, the best coming from the granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from the gneisses, schists and slates. North of the mineral region is the ''Cereal Belt,'' embracing the Tennessee Valley and the counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays and dark loams of the river valley; north of which are less fertile soils, produced by siliceous and sandstone formations.
==Public lands==
Alabama includes several types of public use lands:
* [[List of Alabama state parks|Alabama State Parks]]
Alabama has four national forests and one national preserve within its borders. They provide over 25% of the state's public recreation land. There is a national seashore that runs along the gulf coast, encompassing several islands and beachfront areas.
* [[United States National Monument|National Monument]]s
** [[Little River Canyon National Preserve]]
** [[Russell Cave National Monument]]
* [[National Forest]]s
** [[Conecuh National Forest]]
** [[Talladega National Forest]]
** [[Tuskegee National F |
tion of the community's best entries that fall outside of the Edited Guide's [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/Writing-Guidelines Guidelines]. The UnderGuide and its volunteers have a similar structure to the Edited Guide's volunteers. They have scouts, but call them miners. They have sub editors, but their name is gem polishers. Miners inhabit the [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/RF5 Alternative Writing Workshop] to comment on entries and pick them for the UG.
== The community ==
The bulk of site activity takes place in the [[United Kingdom]] ([[GMT]]/[[British Summer Time|BST]]) daytime, which is when the in-house [[London]] based team (known as 'The Italics', see below), is there. But at other times, the [[United States|US]], [[Canada|Canadian]] and [[Australia|Australian]] researchers are also very active.
=== The Italics ===
The Italics (technically 'the Editors'), the inhouse editors of h2g2, are the only people on the site who get paid (by the BBC) for what they do. They monitor the content of the Edited Guide and oversee the general development of community life. They are named for the way their names appear in conversations, in bold italics, to keep people from impersonating them. There are informal nicknames for the editors such as 'The Powers That Be', 'The Towers', 'The Powers in the Towers' and '[[Leaning Tower of Pisa|Pisa]] People'.
The core personnel have changed considerably since h2g2 started in 1999. The first editor, Mark Moxon, left in 2002, and many other Italics have also been replaced. Of the original TDV team, only Jim Lynn, the original Technical Lead, and Peta Haigh the Community Editor, remain working on the site, although most of their time is spent developing the DNA software base and community system for other uses within the BBC, as part of the DNA team.
=== Volunteers ===
There are six different kinds of volunteer on the site, with varying responsibilities. Any researcher can apply to become a volunteer; if accepted, they gain a badge for their personal space, advertising their status as a member of that particular group:
* '''Aces''' (the name is an [[acronym]] for Assistant Community Editor) are responsible for welcoming new users and assisting them in becoming active and experienced members of h2g2. No [[statistics]] are publicly available, but this approach ensures that a large proportion of initially active Researchers continue to contribute. Aces are also expected to take a responsible role within the community, encouraging discussion and debate.
* '''Gurus''' help Researchers later on with technical issues, such as with [[GuideML]], a custom markup language designed to allow additional features (such as formatting for headings and subheadings, and graphical [[emoticon]]s), whilst removing unwanted [[HTML]] tags (such as [[JavaScript]] and embedded images and sounds).
* '''Scouts''' are responsible for making sure that quality work does not languish in Peer Review for too long. They keep an eye open for entries that have received a favourable response from other Researchers, and pick a few each month to recommend for inclusion in the Edited Guide. The picks are reviewed by the 'Italics' and then forwarded to a sub-editor.
* '''Sub-editors''' check and edit Entries to be added to the Edited Guide. After that is done, the new Edited Entry is posted to the front page for a day and one in three articles is awarded its own professionally drawn picture. Once Edited, the original authors cannot change the articles anymore, although there is a small team of Curators who continuously trawl old edited entries repairing broken links, making updates, and so forth. These were the first volunteers, originally hand picked, who used to do the jobs of scouts as well prior to the creation of Peer Review.
* '''Community Artists''' contribute the art that illustrates many of the entries. The volunteer group provides graphics frequently, in order to meet the one-in-three requirement mentioned above. They are always credited on the pages they have illustrated. Everyone on h2g2 has some respect for the artists.
* '''University Field Researchers''' write groups of entries based around a common theme, aiming to provide a comprehensive guide to a specific subject. These projects often became quite involved and take several months to complete. Once finished, they are usually featured on the h2g2 home page for a week. This scheme was discontinued on [[June 25]], [[2003]], though previous Field Researchers retained their badges. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/F77636?thread=289496] In late 2005, the scheme was reinstated and projects began to be featured on the Front Page again.
* '''Curators''' are Researchers who help the Italics keep the Edited Guide tidy and up-to-date. Their duties include correcting typos which have slipped through the editing process, cross-linking newer Entries to older ones and removing broken links, and taking care of requests for minor changes which have been posted to the editorial feedback forum.
=== Clubs and societies ===
h2g2 is large enough to have many unofficial [[club|clubs]] and societies, set up and maintained by researchers. Examples include:
* '''The Musicians' Guild''' - self explanatory; this is a place for [[musician|musicians]] to gather and discuss [[music|musical]] topics.
* '''The Zaphodistas''' - Loosely based on [[Mexico]]'s [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatista]] rebels, the Zaphodistas campaign for researcher rights, for example, to include external images on h2g2 pages.
* '''The Freedom from Faith Foundation''' - An organization of [[free-thinker|free-thinkers]], the FFFF is a forum for non-[[dogmatic]] discussion of [[philosophy|philosophical]] and [[religion|religious]] issues.
* '''The Society for the Addition of a Towel Smiley''' - This is a group that campaigned (successfully) to have a graphic representing a [[towel]] added to the extensive list of h2g2 [[smiley|smileys]].
* '''The Thingites''' - This is a group that campaigns (not yet successfully) to have the days of the [[week]] renamed (chiefly to rename 'Thursday' as 'Thing'). The group is also attempting (as yet also unsuccessfully) to have one of their threads ('No no no!!') recognised by the [[Guinness Book of Records]] as the longest thread in any chat community in the world. (As of February, 2006, that particular thread had over 82,000 posts, so maybe they have a point.)
* '''The Thursdayites''' - This group campaigns to have the days of the week as they are now
* '''The Terranic Army''' - This virtual [[army]] used to have online battles on their own World War battlefield. The army is now in general disuse, although many copycat societies have emerged.
* '''United Friends of h2g2space''' - One of the largest clubs at the site, United Friends is simply a celebration of the friendliness of h2g2. Membership is open to any researcher.
=== Talk Forums ===
Among the most popular Talk Forums on the site are:
*'''Ask the h2g2 Community''' - usually abbreviated to '''Ask'''. This is a general forum where Researchers can ask members of the community questions on various subjects. It also contains long-running conversations such as "My penis and I - what do women think of penises?", "What Films have you seen recently?" and "(The Return of) What book are you reading at this time?".
*'''The Forum''' - The Forum contains many similar conversations to Ask, but they tend to be of a more serious nature.
*'''SEx - Science Explained Forum''' - an area for Researchers to discuss all things scientific. Many of the Researchers are experts in particular fields, and so are able to provide explanations on a broad range of subjects.
=== The Post ===
[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/ThePost The Post] is h2g2's own virtual [[broadsheet]] [[newspaper]], published weekly by a team of community members. It includes cartoons, regular columns, fiction, poetry and feature stories written and submitted by the h2g2 Researchers. It is edited by a few dedicated h2g2 Researchers, not paid in-house editors. The Post provides an outlet for comment and for sharing experiences, and often features content that is not intended to form a part of the Edited Guide.
The h2g2 community also investigates its own progress at times, for example in the h2g2 Reports, written by a varied group of Researchers on a relatively infrequent basis.
== DNA ==
The [[software]] for h2g2 - and all of its related 'sister' communities in the BBC, such as "Filmnetwork", "Action Network", and "The Collective" &ndash; is affectionately known as DNA, after the initials of author and site founder [[Douglas Adams|Douglas Noel Adams]]. The DNA technology was introduced a few months after the BBC takeover. Before this technology, there was "Ripley", which was named after the character from the film ''[[Aliens (1986 film)|Aliens]]'', in homage to the quote "I say we take off and nuke the entire site from orbit. It's the only way to be sure." Before that there was a technology with no particular name, which subsequently gained the [[retronym]] Llama.
All BBC messageboards are currently in the process of being moved onto the DNA engine, a full list of those that have migrated onto DNA so far can be seen at: [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/hub/communities DNA communities].
Adams himself was rather involved in the website in its early days. His account name (of course) was DNA, and his user number was 42, a reference to the famous joke in ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' that the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe and Everything is 42. When Adams died, in May 2001, his personal space was the focus for a huge reaction from the community. Tributes and messages poured in at a rate of about one every two minutes.
Adams' legacy is still felt on h2g2, and naturally the site is peppered with references to the Hitchhiker b |
;br /> (''Rosa chinensis'')
|-
| '''[[Political divisions of China#County level|County-level divisions]]'''
| 18
|-
| '''[[Political divisions of China#Township level|Township-level divisions]]'''<br/>{[[December 31]], [[2004]])
| 273
|-
| '''[[Postal code of China|Postal code]]'''
| '''1000'''00 - '''1026'''00
|-
| '''[[China telephone numbering plan|Area code]]'''
| 10
|-
| rowspan="5" | '''[[Mainland Chinese licence plates|Licence plate]] prefixes'''
| 京A, C, E, F, H, J
|-
| 京B (taxis)
|-
| 京G (outside urban area)
|-
| 京O (police and authorities)
|-
| 京V (military headquarters & central government)
|-
| '''[[ISO 3166-2]]'''
| CN-11
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | '''Official [[website]]''': <br /> [http://www.beijing.gov.cn www.beijing.gov.cn] ([[Simplified Chinese]]) <br /> [http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn www.ebeijing.gov.cn] ([[English language|English]])
|}
'''{{Audio|Zh-Beijing.ogg|Beijing}}''' ([[IPA]] pei˩ tɕɪŋ˦), a city in northern [[China]], is the [[Capital of China|capital]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC). Beijing is one of the four [[municipality of China|municipalities]] of the PRC, equivalent to a [[province of China|province]] in China's [[Political divisions of China|administrative structure]]. Beijing Municipality borders [[Hebei|Hebei Province]] to the north, west, south, and for a small section in the east, and [[Tianjin|Tianjin Municipality]] to the southeast.
Beijing is China's second largest city in terms of [[population]], after [[Shanghai]]. It is a major transportation hub, with dozens of railways, roads and expressways entering and leaving it in all directions. It is also the focal point of many international flights to China. Beijing is recognized as the political, educational, and cultural center of the PRC, while [[Shanghai]] and [[Hong Kong]] predominate in economic fields.
Beijing is one of the [[Capital of China|Four Great Ancient Capitals of China]]. It will also host the [[2008 Summer Olympics]].
==Names==
Beijing (北京) literally means "northern capital", in line with the common East Asian tradition whereby capital cities are explicitly named as such. Other cities similarly named include [[Nanjing]] (南京), China, meaning "southern capital"; [[Tokyo]] (東京), [[Japan]], and [[Tonkin]] (東京; now [[Hanoi]]), [[Vietnam]], both meaning "eastern capital"; as well as [[Kyoto]] (京都), [[Japan]], and [[Gyeongseong]] (京城; now [[Seoul]]), [[Korea]], both meaning simply "capital".
The traditional customary name for Beijing in English is '''Peking'''. The term originated with French missionaries four hundred years ago, and corresponds to an older pronunciation predating a subsequent [[sound change]] in [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] from {{IPA|[k&#690;]}} to {{IPA|[t&#597;]}}. ({{IPA|[t&#597;]}} is represented in [[pinyin]] as '''j''', as in Bei'''j'''ing.)
In [[China]], the city has [[Geographical renaming|had many names]]. Between [[1928]]&nbsp;[http://www.bartleby.com/67/2470.html] and [[1949]], it was known as '''Beiping''' (北平, [[Pinyin]]: Beiping, [[Wade-Giles]]: Pei-p'ing), literally "Northern Peace". The name was changed — with the removal of the element meaning "capital" (''jing'' or ''king'', 京) — to reflect the fact that, with the [[Kuomintang]] government having established its capital in [[Nanking]] (pinyin: Nanjing), Peking was no longer the capital of China, and that the warlord government based in Peking was not legitimate.
The [[Communist Party of China]] reverted the name to Beijing (Peking) in 1949 again in part to emphasize that Beijing had returned to its role as China's capital. The government of the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] has never formally recognized the name change, and during the 1950s and 1960s it was common in Taiwan for Beijing to be called Peiping to imply the illegitimacy of the PRC. Today, almost all of Taiwan, including the ROC government, uses ''Beijing'', although some [[maps]] of China from [[Taiwan]] still use the old name along with pre-1949 political boundaries.
'''Yanjing''' (燕京, [[Pinyin]]: Yānjīng, [[Wade-Giles]]: Yen-ching) is and has been another popular informal name for Beijing, a reference to the ancient [[State of Yan]] that existed here during the [[Zhou Dynasty]]. This name is reflected in the locally-brewed [[Yanjing Beer]] as well as [[Peking University|Yenching University]], an institution of higher learning that was merged into Peking University. Beijing is also the '''[[Cambuluc]]''' ('''Khanbaliq''') described in [[Marco Polo]]'s accounts.
(''The history section below outlines other historical names of Beijing.'')
== History ==
There were cities in the vicinities of Beijing by the [[1st millennium BC]], and the capital of the [[State of Yan]] (燕), one of the powers of the [[Warring States Period]], was established at Ji (T: 薊 / S: 蓟), near modern Beijing. Ji has often been claimed to be the beginning of Beijing; but in reality Ji had been abandoned no later than the [[6th century]]. The exact location of Ji remains unknown despite much effort in recent decades to identify the site.
[[image:BeijingCityWalls1.jpg|thumb|300px|Remnants of city walls around Beijing (August 2004 image)]]
During the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] dynasties, only small towns existed in this area. Numerous ancient poets came here to mourn the lost city, as testified by their compositions.
In [[936]], the [[Later Jin Dynasty (Five Dynasties)|Later Jin Dynasty]] ([[936]]-[[947]]) of northern China ceded a large part of its northern frontier, including modern Beijing, to the [[Khitan]] [[Liao Dynasty]] in the [[10th century]]. In [[938]] the [[Liao Dynasty]] set up a secondary capital in what is now Beijing, and called it Nanjing (the "Southern Capital"). In [[1125]], the [[Jurchen]] [[Jinn Dynasty|Jin Dynasty]] annexed Liao, and in [[1153]] moved its capital to Liao's Nanjing, calling it Zhongdu (中都), or "the Central Capital". Zhongdu was situated in what is now the area centred around [[Tianningsi]], slightly to the southwest of central Beijing.
Mongol forces burned Zhongdu to the ground in [[1215]] and rebuilt its own "Grand Capital", Dadu (大都, [[Wade-Giles]]: ''Ta-tu''), to the north of the Jin capital in [[1267]], which was the true beginning of contemporary Beijing. This site is known as "Cambuluc" in [[Marco Polo]]'s accounts. Apparently, Kublai Khan, who wanted to become a Chinese emperor, established his capital in Beijing instead of more traditional sites in central China because Beijing was closer to his power base in Mongolia. The decision of the Khan greatly enhanced the status of a city that had been situated on the northern fringe of [[China proper]]. Dadu was situated north of modern central Beijing. It centred on what is now the northern stretch of the [[2nd Ring Road]], and stretched northwards to between the [[3rd Ring Road|3rd]] and [[4th Ring Road]]s. There are remnants of Mongol-era wall still standing.
In [[1403]], the 3rd Ming emperor [[Zhu Di]] (朱棣) moved the Ming capital from [[Nanjing]] to Beijing (北京), or "Northern Capital", situated in the north. He also gave it its modern name. Beijing during the [[Ming Dynasty]] took its current shape, and the Ming-era city wall served as the walls to the city until modern times, when it was pulled down and the [[2nd Ring Road]] was built in its place.
It is believed that Beijing was the largest city in the world from 1425 to 1650 and from 1710 to 1825. It was the first city to reach a population of above 5,000,000.[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm]
The [[Forbidden City]] was constructed soon after that ([[1406]]-[[1420]]), followed by the [[Temple of Heaven]] ([[1420]]), and numerous other construction projects. [[Tian'anmen]], which has become a state symbol of the [[People's Republic of China]] and is featured on its emblem, was burned down twice during the Ming Dynasty and the final reconstruction was carried out in [[1651]].
[[Image:Forbidden City1.JPG|300px|thumb|The [[Forbidden City]], home to the emperors of the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] dynasties]]
[[Image:BeijingFromTian'anmenChenglouJul2004.jpg|thumb|300px|Beijing's [[Tian'anmen Square]], as seen from the Tian'anmen Chenglou Building (taken in July of 2004)]]
After the [[Manchu]]s overthrew the Ming Dynasty and established the [[Qing Dynasty]] in its place, Beijing remained China's capital throughout the Qing period.
The [[Xinhai Revolution]] of [[1911]], aimed at replacing Qing rule with a republic, originally intended to establish its capital at [[Nanjing]]. After high-ranking Qing official [[Yuan Shikai]] forced the abdication of the Qing emperor in Beijing and ensured the success of the revolution, the revolutionaries in Nanjing accepted that Yuan should be the president of the ROC, and that the capital should remain at Beijing.
Yuan gradually consolidated power, culminating in his declaration of a Chinese Empire in late [[1915]] with himself as Emperor. The move was highly unpopular, and Yuan himself died less than a year later, ending his brief reign. China then fell under the control of regional warlords, and the most powerful factions fought frequent wars (The [[Zhili-Anhui War]], the [[First Zhili-Fengtian War]] and the [[Second Zhili-Fengtian War]]) to take control of the capital at Beijing.
Following the success of the [[Kuomintang]]'s [[Northern Expedition]] which pacified the warlords of the north, Nanjing was officially made the capital of the Republic of China in [[1928]], and Beijing was renamed Beiping ("Northern Peace" or "North Pacified") to emphasize that the warlord government in Beijing was not legitimate.
During the [[second Sino-Japanese War]], Beiping fell to [[Japan]] on [[July 29]], [[1937]]. During the occupation, the city w |
tan]] and called for the "total withdrawal of foreign troops" from the country.
Immediate problems also were within the party. He was the chosen man of the [[Kremlin]], and no one within the party could openly oppose him. However, scheming men devise ways to oppose even under the strictest of circumstances. No attempt was made to televise the process by which, even within the official party and the '''Revolutionary Council''', Karmal was elected head of the party and of the state.
Karmal’s poor performance in interviews with foreign journalists also failed to help his public image. In the first and last televised interview of his life, held before a large number of foreign and Afghan journalists after he was raised to power, Karmal divided the journalists on the basis of the [[Cold War]] line distinguishing between the '''imperialist bloc''' and the '''socialist bloc countries.'''
Thus, the civil war in Afghanistan started. This was a different type of war, however, since it was a guerrilla warfare and a war of attrition between the PDPA-Communist controlled regime and the [[mujahidin]]; it cost both sides a great deal. Many Afghans, perhaps as many as five million, or one-quarter of the country's population, fled to [[Pakistan]] and [[Iran]] where they organized into guerrilla groups to strike Soviet and government forces inside Afghanistan.
Others remained in Afghanistan and also formed fighting groups. These various groups were supplied with funds to purchase arms, principally from the [[United States]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[China]], and [[Egypt]].
==Fall from power==
[[Image:Karmal01.jpg|thumb|right|President Karmal with Afghan troops in the frontline. The Afghan Army and Airforce became powerful tools against the insurgency.]]
The regime ruled only the city of Kabul, the provincial capitals, and those strategic areas where the Soviets and the Afghan Military had stationed military contingents and militia units. Despite high casualties on both sides, pressure continued to mount on the [[Soviet Union]], especially after the [[United States]] brought in [[Stinger]] [[anti-aircraft]] missiles which severely reduced the effectiveness of Soviet air cover.
[[Moscow]] came to regard Karmal as a failure and blamed him for the problems. Years later, when Karmal’s inability to consolidate his government had become obvious, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], then General Secretary of the [[Soviet Communist Party]], said:
:''The main reason that there has been no national consolidation so far is that Comrade Karmal is hoping to continue sitting in Kabul with our help.''
Not only that, but some Afghan troops who had fought for the Communist Government began to defect. In May [[1986]] he was replaced as party leader by [[Mohammad Najibullah]], and six months later he was relieved of the presidency. Karmal moved to Moscow, where he remained until his death.
<br>
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Hafizullah Amin]] |
title=[[President of Afghanistan]] |
years= December 1979 &ndash; November 1986 |
after=[[Haji Mohammad Chamkani]] |
}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Hafizullah Amin]] |
title=[[Prime Minister of Afghanistan]] |
years= December 1979 &ndash; June 1981 |
after= Sultan Ali Keshtmand |
}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Hafizullah Amin|Hafizullah Amin]] |
title= General Secretary of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] |
years= December 1979 &ndash; May 1986 |
after=[[Mohammad Najibullah|Mohammad Najibullah]] |
}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Hafizullah Amin]] |
title=Chairman of the Revolutionary Council |
years= December 1979 &ndash; October 1986 |
after=[[Mohammad Najibullah]] |
}}
{{end box}}
</br>
==See also==
*[http://www.afghanland.com/history/karmal.html Biography of President Karmal - Afghani.com]
[[Category:1929 births|Karmal, Babrak]]
[[Category:1996 deaths|Karmal, Babrak]]
[[de:Babrak Karmal]]
[[fa:ببرک کارمل]]
[[nl:Babrak Karmal]]
[[ja:バーブラーク・カールマル]]
[[no:Babrak Karmal]]
[[ps:ببرک کارمل]]
[[sv:Babrak Karmal]]
[[zh:巴布拉克·卡尔迈勒]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Zecharaiah</title>
<id>4464</id>
<revision>
<id>15902730</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Zechariah]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Black Sox scandal</title>
<id>4466</id>
<revision>
<id>15902732</id>
<timestamp>2005-01-27T03:16:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.80.97.229</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[1919 World Series]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Buddhist philosophy</title>
<id>4468</id>
<revision>
<id>39430364</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T02:11:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Damicatz</username>
<id>177353</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 37922725 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Buddhist religious philosophy}}
{{buddhism}}
'''Buddhist philosophy''' is the branch of [[Eastern philosophy]] based on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]] (c. [[563 BCE]] - c. [[483 BCE]]). Buddhist philosophy deals extensively with problems in [[metaphysics]], [[phenomenology]], [[ethics]], and [[epistemology]].
== Introduction ==
From its inception, Buddhism has had a strong philosophical component. Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain [[Hindu philosophy|orthodox]] philosophical concepts, in which the Buddha had been instructed by various teachers. Buddhism rejects [[atheism]], [[theism]], [[monism]], and [[dualism]] alike. The Buddha criticized all concepts of metaphysical [[being]] and non-being, and this critique is inextricable from the founding of Buddhism.
Particular points of Buddhist philosophizing have often been the subject of disputes between different [[schools of Buddhism]]. Metaphysical questions such as "Is there a god?" and "Does the soul ([[Atman]]) really exist?" have divided the Buddha's followers even during his own lifetime, and epistemological debates over the proper modes of evidence have always been lively in Buddhism.
Readers should note that theory for its own sake is not valued in Buddhism, but theory pursued in the interest of enlightenment for oneself or others is fully consistent with Buddhist values and ethics.
===Buddhism ''as'' philosophy?===
Some have asserted that Buddhism as a whole is a [[philosophy]] rather than a [[religion]]. Proponents of such a view may argue that (a) Buddhism is non-[[theism|theistic]] (i.e., it has no special use for the existence or nonexistence of a god or gods) or [[atheistic]] and (b) religions necessarily involve some form of theism. Others might contest either part of such an argument. Other arguments for Buddhism "as" philosophy may claim that Buddhism does not have doctrines in the same sense as other religions; the Buddha himself taught that a person should accept a teaching only if one's own experience verifies it.
Arguments against Buddhism as a philosophy might call attention to the way Buddhism's pervasive inclusion of supernatural entities (not "gods" in the sense of Western [[monotheism]], of course), to what most scholars identify as worship practices (ceremonial reverence of saints, etc.), to Buddhism's thoroughly developed hierarchies of clergy (not usually characteristic of a "philosophy"), and its overall religious organization.
A third perspective might take the position that Buddhism can be practiced either as a religion or as a philosophy. A similar distinction is often made with reference to [[Taoism]].
Lama Anagorika Govinda expressed it as follows in the book 'A Living Buddhism for the West':
:''"Thus we could say that the Buddha's Dharma is,''
:''as experience and as a way to practical realisation, a religion;''
:''as the intellectual formulation of this experience, a philosophy;''
:''and as a result of self-observation and analysis, a psychology.''
:''Whoever treads this path acquires a norm of behaviour that is not dictated from without, but is the result of an inner process of maturation and that we - regarding it from without - can call morality."''
It should also be noted that in the South and East Asian cultures in which Buddhism achieved most of its development, the distinction between [[philosophy]] and [[religion]] is somewhat unclear and possibly quite spurious, so this may be a semantic problem arising in the West alone.
== Philosophical areas addressed in Buddhism ==
=== Epistemology ===
Decisive in distinguishing [[Buddhism]] from what is commonly called [[Hinduism]] is the issue of [[epistemology|epistemological]] justification. The schools of Indian [[History of logic|logic]] recognize a certain set of valid justifications for knowledge, while Buddhism recognizes a smaller set. Both accept [[perception]] and argument, for example, but for the orthodox schools (of Hinduism), the received textual tradition (e.g., the Vedas) is in itself an epistemological category equal to perception and argument (although this is not necessarily true for some of the non-orthodox schools, like [[Vedanta]]). Thus, in the orthodox schools, if a claim was made that could not be substantiated by appeal to the textual canon, it would be viewed as ridiculous as a claim that the sky was green.
Buddhism, on the other hand, rejected an inflexible reverence of accepted doctrine. As the Buddha said:
:''Do not accept anything by mere tradition. . . Do not accept anything just because it accords with your scriptures. . . Do not accept anything merely because it agrees with your pre-conceived notions. . . But |
]] knew of a [[Troy|Trojan]] ally named [[Asios Hyrtakides|Asios]], son of [[Hyrtacus]], a ruler over several towns, and elsewhere he describes a marsh as ασιος (Iliad 2, 461). The Greek term may be derived from [[Assuwa]], a [[14th century BC]] confederation of states in Western Anatolia. [[Hittite language|Hittite]] ''assu-'' "good" is probably an element in that name.
Alternatively, the ultimate etymology of the term may be from the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word ''(w)aṣû(m)'', cognate of Hebrew יצא, which means "to go out" or "to ascend", referring to the direction of the [[sun]] at sunrise in the [[Middle East]], and also likely connected with the Phoenician word ''asa'' meaning east. This may be contrasted to a similar etymology proposed for ''Europe'', as being from [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] ''erēbu'' "to enter" or "set" (of the sun). However, an originally Mesopotamian or Middle Eastern perspective would not explain how the term "Asia" first came to be associated with Anatolia as lying ''west'' of the Semitic speaking area.
==Definition and Boundaries==
[[Image:Asia-map.png|right|thumb|280px|Political map of Asia]]
Medieval Europeans considered Asia as a continent, a distinct landmass. The European concept of the three continents in the [[Old World]] goes back to [[classical antiquity]] with the [[etymology]] of the word rooted in the ancient [[Near East|Near]] and [[Middle East]]. The demarcation between Asia and [[Africa]] is the [[Isthmus]] of [[Suez Canal|Suez]] and the [[Red Sea]]. The boundary between Asia and [[Europe]] is commonly believed to run through the [[Dardanelles]], the [[Sea of Marmara]], the [[Bosporus]], the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, the Caspian Sea, the [[Ural River]] to its source, and the Ural Mountains to the [[Kara Sea]] near Kara, [[Russia]]. However, modern discovery of the extent of Africa and Asia made this definition rather anachronistic, especially in the case of Asia, which would have several regions that would be considered distinct landmasses if these criteria were used (for example, South Asia and East Asia).
Geologists and physical geographers no longer consider Asia and Europe to be separate continents. It is either defined in terms of geological landmasses (physical geography) or tectonic plates (geology). In the former case, Europe is a western peninsula of [[Eurasia]] or the Africa-Eurasia landmass. In the latter, Europe and Asia are still part of the Eurasian plate, which excludes the Arabian and Indian tectonic plates.
In human geography, there are two schools of thought. One school follows historical convention and treats Europe and Asia as different continents, categorizing Europe, East Asia (the Orient), South Asia (British India), and the Middle East (Arabia and Persia) as specific regions for more detailed analysis. The other schools equate the word "continent" in terms of geographical region when referring to Europe, and use the term "region" to describe Asia in terms of physical geography. Because in linguistic terms, "continent" implies a distinct landmass, it is becoming increasingly common to substitute the term "region" for "continent" to avoid the problem of disambiguation altogether.
There is much confusion in European languages with the term "Asian". Because a category implies homogenity, the term "Asian" almost always refers to a subcategory of people from Asia rather than referring to "Asian" defined in term of "Asia". The fact that in American English, Asian refers to East Asian (Orientals), while in British English, Asian refers to South Asian reflects this confusion. Sometimes, it is not even clear exactly what "Asia" consists of. Some definitions exclude [[Turkey]], the Middle East, and/or Russia. The term is sometimes used more strictly in reference to [[Asia Pacific]], which does not include the Middle East or Russia, but does include islands in the [[Pacific Ocean]] &mdash; a number of which may also be considered part of [[Australasia]] and/or [[Oceania]]. Asia contains the [[Indian subcontinent]], Arabian subcontinent, as well as a piece of the North American plate in Siberia.
{{further|[[Transcontinental nation#Countries in both Asia and Europe]]}}
{{seealso|Copenhagen criteria#Geographic_criteria for the definition of Europe}}
{{seealso|Orientalism}}
==Geographical regions==
{{seealso|Geography of Asia}}
[[Image:Asia satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|280px|Satellite view of Asia]]
As already mentioned, Asia is a subregion of [[Eurasia]]. For further subdivisions based on that term, see [[North Eurasia]] and [[Central Eurasia]].
Some Asian countries stretch beyond Asia. See [[Bicontinental country]] for details about the borderline cases between Asia and Europe, Asia and Africa, and Asia and Oceania.
The following subregions of Asia are traditionally recognized:
*[[Central Asia]]
*[[East Asia]]
*[[Far East]]
*[[North Asia]]
*[[South Asia]] (or Indian Subcontinent)
*[[Southeast Asia]]
*[[Southwest Asia]] (or Middle East or West Asia)
===Central Asia===
There is no absolute consensus in the usage of this term. Usually, Central Asia includes:
* the [[Central Asian Republics]] of [[Kazakhstan]] (excluding its small [[Bicontinental country#Countries in both Asia and Europe|European]] territory), [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Kyrgyzstan]].
* [[Afghanistan]], [[Mongolia]], and the western regions of [[China]] are also sometimes included.
* Former [[Soviet]] states in the [[Caucasus]] region.
Central Asia is currently geopolitically important because international disputes and conflicts over [[oil pipeline|oil pipelines]], [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], and [[Chechnya]], as well as the presence of [[U.S. military]] and [[Military of the UK|U.K. military]] forces in [[Afghanistan]].
===East Asia ===
This area includes:
* The [[Pacific Ocean]] island countries of [[Taiwan]] and [[Japan]]. {{further|[[Political status of Taiwan]]}}
* [[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea]] on the [[Korean Peninsula]].
* [[China]], but sometimes only the eastern regions
Sometimes the nations of [[Mongolia]] and [[Vietnam]] are also included in East Asia.
More informally, [[Southeast Asia]] is included in East Asia on some occasions.
===North Asia===
This term is rarely used by geographers, but usually it refers to the bigger Asian part of Russia, also known as [[Siberia]]. Sometimes the northern parts of other Asian nations, such as [[Kazakhstan]] are also included in Northern Asia.
===South Asia (or Indian Subcontinent)===
South Asia is also referred to as the [[Indian Subcontinent]]. It includes:
* The [[Himalayan States]] of [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Bangladesh]].
* The [[Indian Ocean]] nations of [[Sri Lanka]] and the [[Maldives]]. India's [[Andaman]], [[Nicobar]] and [[Lakshadweep]] islands also lie in the Indian Ocean.
* The [[peninsular India]] (also known as the [[Deccan Plateau]])
* Sometimes Afghanistan is also included into this category.
===Southeast Asia===
This region contains the [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Indochina]] and islands in the [[Indian Ocean]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]. The countries it contains are:
* In [[Indochina|mainland Southeast Asia]], the countries [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Vietnam]].
* In [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], the countries of [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], the [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]] and [[Indonesia]] ([[Bicontinental country#Countries in both Asia and Oceania|some]] of the Indonesian islands also lie in the [[Melanesia]] region of [[Oceania]]). [[East Timor]] (also [[Melanesia]]n) is sometimes included too.
The country of [[Malaysia]] is divided in two by the [[South China Sea]], and thus has both a mainland and island part.
===Southwest Asia (or Middle East, Near East or West Asia)===
This can also be called by the Western term ''[[Middle East]]'', which is commonly used by Europeans and Americans. ''Middle East'' (to some interpretations) is often used to also refer to some countries in [[North Africa]]. Southwest Asia can be further divided into:
* [[Anatolia]] (i.e. [[Asia Minor]]), constituting the [[Asian]] [[Bicontinental country#Countries in both Asia and Europe|part of]] Turkey.
* The [[island nation]] of [[Cyprus]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]].
* The [[Levant]] or [[Near East]], which includes [[Syria]], [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Iraq]] and the Asian [[Bicontinental country#Countries in both Asia and Africa|portion]] of [[Egypt]].
* The [[Arabian peninsula]], including [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], [[Oman]], [[Yemen]] and [[Kuwait]].
* The [[Caucasus]] region (which straddles both Asia and [[Europe]]), namely [[Transcaucasia]], including a small portion of Russia and, arguably, most if not all of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], and [[Azerbaijan]].
* The [[Iranian Plateau]], containing [[Iran]] and parts of other neighbouring nations.
{{seealso|Gulf States}}
==Economy==
{| class="wikitable" style="width:300px;" align="right"
|+ <big>'''Economy of Asia'''</big><br><small>During 2003 unless otherwise stated</small>
|-
|Population:
| 4.001 billion (2002)
|-
|[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|PPP]]):
|[[US$]]18.077 trillion
|-
|[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[List of countries by GDP|Currency]]):
| $8.782 trillion
|-
|GDP/capita ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|PPP]]):
| $4,518
|-
|GDP/capita ([[List of countries by GDP (Nominal) per capita|Currency]]):
| $2,195
|-
|Annual growth of <br> per capita GDP:
|
|-
|Income of top 10%:
|
|-
| [[Millionaires]]:
| 2.0 million (0.05%)
|-
|[[Unemployment]]
|
|-
|Estimated female<br> [[income]]
|
|-
| align="center" col |
parts between 483 and 516, principally by Gundobad, but also by his son, Sigismund. (Drew, p. 6-7) It was a record of Burgundian customary law and is typical of the many Germanic law codes from this period. In particular, the ''Liber'' borrowed from the ''[[Lex Visigothorum]]'' (Drew, p. 6) and influenced the later ''[[Lex Ribuaria]]''. (Rivers, p. 9) The ''Liber'' is one of the primary sources for contemporary Burgundian life, as well as the history of its kings.
Like many of the Germanic tribes, the Burgundians' legal traditions allowed the application of separate laws for separate ethnicities. Thus, in addition to the ''Lex Gundobada'', Gundobad also issued (or codified) a set of laws for Roman subjects of the Burgundian kingdom, the ''[[Lex Romana Burgundionum]]'' (''The Roman Law of the Burgundians'').
In addition to the above codes, Gundobad's son Sigismund later published the ''Prima Constitutio''. <!--''&ndash;I have been unable to find a source for this &ndash;[[User:Ryanmcdaniel|Ryan McDaniel]]'' -->
==Origin of Burgundy==
The name of the Burgundians has since remained connected to the area of modern France that still bears their name: see the later history of [[Burgundy]]. Between the 6th and 20th centuries, however, the boundaries and political connections of this area have changed frequently; none of those changes have had anything to do with the original Burgundians. The name ''Burgundians'' used here and generally used by English writers to refer to the Burgundes is a later formation and more precisely refers to the inhabitants of the territory of Burgundy which was named from the people called Burgundes. The descendants of the Burgundians today are found primarily among the French-speaking [[Swiss]] and neighbouring regions of France.
==See also==
''For later legends of the Burgundian kings, see'' '''[[Nibelung]]'''.
''For a list of Kings of Burgundy, see'' '''[[King of Burgundy]]'''.
==Notes==
<cite id="#fn_1">[[#fn_1_back|Note 1:]] Gregory was somewhat of a Frankish apologist, and commonly discredits the enemies of Clovis by attributing to them some fairly shocking acts. As with Godegisel, he also commonly refers to the treachery of Clovis' allies, when in fact Clovis seems to have bought them off (e.g., in the case of the Ripuarians). Additionally, Gregory's chronology of the events surrounding Clovis and Gundobad has been questioned by Bury, Shanzer, and Wood, among others. As such, his contributions here should probably be taken with a grain of salt.
==References==
*Bury, J.B. ''The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians.'' London: Macmillan and Co., 1928.
*Dalton, O.M. ''The History of the Franks, by Gregory of Tours.'' Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1927.
*Drew, Katherine Fischer. ''The Burgundian Code.'' Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972.
*Gordon, C.D. ''The Age of Attila.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961.
*Murray, Alexander Calder. ''From Roman to Merovingian Gaul.'' Broadview Press, 2000.
*Musset, Lucien. ''The Germanic Invasions: The Making of Europe AD 400-600.'' University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975.
*Nerman, Birger. ''Det svenska rikets uppkomst''. Generalstabens litagrafiska anstalt: Stockholm. 1925.
*Rivers, Theodore John. ''Laws of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks.'' New York: AMS Press, 1986.
*Rolfe, J.C., trans, ''Ammianus Marcellinus.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950.
*Shanzer, Danuta. ‘Dating the Baptism of Clovis.’ In ''Early Medieval Europe,'' volume 7, pages 29-57. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1998.
*Shanzer, D. and I. Wood. ''Avitus of Vienne: Letters and Selected Prose. Translated with an Introduction and Notes.'' Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2002.
*Werner, J. (1953). "Beiträge sur Archäologie des Attila-Reiches", ''Die Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaft. Abhandlungen.'' <small>N.F. XXXVIII&nbsp;A</small> Philosophische-philologische und historische Klasse. Münche
*Wood, Ian N. ‘Ethnicity and the Ethnogenesis of the Burgundians’. In Herwig Wolfram and Walter Pohl, editors, ''Typen der Ethnogenese unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Bayern,'' volume 1, pages 53–69. Vienna: Denkschriften der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1990.
*Wood, Ian N. ''The Merovingian Kingdoms.'' Harlow, England: The Longman Group, 1994.
==External links==
*[http://family-of-man.com/CatalogEnglish/Europe/Ancient_Europe/burgundians.html Table of the house of Gundahar/Gundicar, 411 - 534]
[[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[br:Burgonded]]
[[da:Burgundere]]
[[de:Burgunden]]
[[es:burgundio]]
[[fr:Burgondes]]
[[he:בורגונדים]]
[[it:Burgundi]]
[[nl:Bourgondiërs]]
[[pl:Burgundowie]]
[[pt:Burgúndios]]
[[ru:Бургунды]]
[[sv:Burgunder]]
[[uk:Бургунди]]
[[zh:勃艮第人]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dots and Boxes</title>
<id>4260</id>
<revision>
<id>41876039</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:02:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.85.246.102</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dots and Boxes''' (also known as '''Boxes''', '''Squares''', '''Square-it''', '''Dots and Dashes''', or '''Dots''') is a [[pencil and paper game]] for two players (or sometimes, more than two). In [[Mexico]] dots and boxes is called ''Timbiriche''.
[[Image:Dots-and-boxes.png|300px|right|thumb|Game of dots and boxes on the 2&times;2 board.]]
Starting with an empty grid of dots, players takes turns adding a single horizontal or vertical line between two unjoined adjacent dots. A player who completes the fourth side of a box earns one point and takes another turn. (The points are typically recorded by placing in the box an identifying mark of the player, such as an initial). The game ends when no more lines can be placed. The winner of the game is the player with the most points.
The board may be of any size. 2&times;2 boxes is good for beginners, and 6&times;6 is good for experts. In games with an even number of boxes, it is conventional that if the game is tied then the win should be awarded to the second player (this offsets the advantage of going first).
The diagram on the right shows a game being played on the 2&times;2 board. The second player (B) plays the mirror image of the first player's move, hoping to divide the board into two pieces and tie the game. The first player (A) makes a ''sacrifice'' at move 7; B accepts the sacrifice, getting one box. However, B must now add another line, and connects the center dot to the center-right dot, causing the remaining boxes to be joined together in a ''chain'' as shown at the end of move 8. With A's next move, A gets them all, winning 3&ndash;1.
== Strategy ==
[[Image:dots-and-boxes-chains.png|300px|right|thumb|The double-cross strategy. Faced with position 1, a novice player would create position 2 and lose. An experienced player would create position 3 and win.]]
Beginners play more or less at random until all the remaining boxes are joined together into ''chains'', whereupon any move gives away all the boxes in a chain to the opponent. A novice player faced with a situation like position 1 in the diagram on the right, in which some boxes can be captured, takes all the boxes in the chain, resulting in position 2. But with the extra move, player A has to open the next chain, and loses the game 4&ndash;5.
An experienced player faced with position 1 instead plays the ''double-cross strategy'', taking all but 2 of the boxes in the chain: see position 3. This leaves the last two boxes in the chain for their opponent, but then the ''opponent'' has to open the next chain. By moving to position 3 player A wins 7&ndash;2.
The double-cross strategy applies however many long chains there are. Take all but two of the boxes in each chain, but take all the boxes in the last chain. If the chains are long enough then you'll win. So between experts, dots and boxes becomes a battle for ''control''. An expert player tries to force their opponent to be the one who starts the first long chain.
In [[combinatorial game theory]] dots and boxes is very close to being an [[impartial game]] and many positions can be analyzed using [[Sprague-Grundy theorem|Sprague-Grundy theory]].
== Unusual grids ==
Dots and boxes need not be played on a rectangular grid. It can be played on a triangular grid or a hexagonal grid.
Dots-and-boxes has a dual form called "strings-and-coins". This game is played on a network of coins (vertices) joined by strings (edges). Players take turns to cut a string. When a cut leaves a coin with no strings, the player pockets the coin and takes another turn. The winner is the player who pockets the most coins. Strings-and-coins can be played on an arbitrary [[graph (mathematics)|graph]].
A variant played in Poland allows a player to claim a region of several squares as soon as its boundary is completed.
<!-- (judging by the article on the Polish wikipedia, at least) -->
== References ==
* {{cite book|author=[[Elwyn Berlekamp]]|title=The Dots-and-Boxes Game: Sophisticated Child's Play|publisher=AK Peters, Ltd|year=July, 2000|id=ISBN 1568811292}}
* {{MathWorld|urlname=DotsandBoxes|title=Dots and Boxes}}
* David Wilson, [http://homepages.cae.wisc.edu/~dwilson/boxes/ Dots-and-Boxes Analysis]. Contains computer analysis of small boards.
* Ilan Verdi, [http://cf.geocities.com/ilanpi/dots.html Dots Strategies].
== External links ==
*Play Dots-and-Boxes online: [http://www.well.com/user/argv/java/dots.html well.com], [http://games.yahoo.com/games/login2?page=dt Yahoo], [http://www.littlegolem.net LittleGolem].
* Freeware Windows versions of Dots and Boxes: [http://www.ossiemanners.co.uk ossiemanners. |
&kappa; || 12 || [[Kappa Arietis]] || 5.03 || 187 ||
* [[spectroscopic binary]]
|-
| &iota; || 8 || [[Iota Arietis]] || 5.09 || 660 ||
* [[spectroscopic binary]]
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| &tau;&sup2; || 63 || [[Tau Arietis|Tau-2 Arietis]] || 5.10 || 319 ||
|-
| || 38 || [[38 Arietis]] || 5.17 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| &eta; || 17 || [[Eta Arietis]] || 5.23 || 98.3 ||
|-
| &pi; || 42 || [[Pi Arietis]] || 5.26 || 600 ||
* close [[spectroscopic binary]]
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| &tau;&sup1; || 61 || [[Tau Arietis|Tau-1 Arietis]] || 5.27 || 462 ||
* [[eclipsing binary|eclipsing]] [[triple star system]]. Magnitude fluctuation: 5.26&ndash;5.32. Component magnitudes: 5.4, 7.9, 8.4
|-
| || 33 || [[33 Arietis]] || 5.30 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| &nu; || 32 || [[Nu Arietis]] || 5.45 || 347 ||
|-
| || 52 || [[52 Arietis]] || 5.45 || ||
* [[binary star]]; component magnitudes: 6.8, 7.0
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| &xi; || 24 || [[Xi Arietis]] || 5.48 || 600 ||
|-
| || 64 || [[64 Arietis]] || 5.50 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| &sigma; || 43 || [[Sigma Arietis]] || 5.52 || 480 ||
|-
| || 62 || [[62 Arietis]] || 5.55 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 21 || [[21 Arietis]] || 5.57 || ||
|-
| &theta; || 22 || [[Theta Arietis]] || 5.58 || 387 ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| &rho;&sup3; || 46 || [[Rho Arietis|Rho-3 Arietis]], Rho Arietis || 5.58 || 115 ||
|-
| || 10 || [[10 Arietis]] || 5.64 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 31 || [[31 Arietis]] || 5.64 || ||
|-
| || 15 || [[15 Arietis]] || 5.68 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 19 || [[19 Arietis]] || 5.72 || ||
|-
| &mu; || 34 || [[Mu Arietis]] || 5.74 || 338 ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 55 || [[55 Arietis]] || 5.74 || ||
|-
| &rho;&sup2; || 45 || [[Rho Arietis|Rho-2 Arietis]], RZ Arietis || 5.76 || 404 ||
* [[semiregular variable]]
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 7 || [[7 Arietis]] || 5.76 || ||
|-
| &omicron; || 37 || [[Omicron Arietis]] || 5.78 || 482 ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 56 || [[56 Arietis]] || 5.78 || ||
|-
| || 20 || [[20 Arietis]] || 5.79 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 47 || [[47 Arietis]] || 5.80 || ||
|-
| || 1 || [[1 Arietis]] || 5.83 || ||
* [[binary star]]; component magnitudes 6.2, 7.3.
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 40 || [[40 Arietis]] || 5.83 || ||
|-
| || 4 || [[4 Arietis]] || 5.86 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 49 || [[49 Arietis]] || 5.91 || ||
|-
| || 59 || [[59 Arietis]] || 5.91 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 29 || [[20 Arietis]] || 6.00 || ||
|-
| || 11 || [[11 Arietis]] || 6.01 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 16 || [[16 Arietis]] || 6.01 || ||
|-
| || 30 || [[30 Arietis]] || 6.01 || ||
* [[binary star]]; component magnitudes: 6.51, 7.09
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 66 || [[66 Arietis]] || 6.03 || ||
|-
| || 65 || [[65 Arietis]] || 6.07 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 53 || [[53 Arietis]] || 6.13 || ||
|-
| || 26 || [[26 Arietis]] || 6.14 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 60 || [[60 Arietis]] || 6.14 || ||
|-
| || 27 || [[27 Arietis]] || 6.21 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 54 || [[54 Arietis]] || 6.24 || ||
|-
| || 36 || [[36 Arietis]] || 6.40 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 25 || [[25 Arietis]] || 6.45 || ||
|-
| || 3 || [[3 Arietis]] || 6.55 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || 51 || [[51 Arietis]] || 6.62 || ||
|-
| &rho;&sup1; || 44 || [[Rho Arietis|Rho-1 Arietis]] || 7.10 || ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || || [[HD 12661]] || 7.44 || 121 ||
* has two planets
|-
| || || [[BD plus 20 307|BD+20&deg;307]] || 9.01 || 300 ||
|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;"
| || || [[TZ Arietis]] || 12.1 || 14.5 ||
* [[flare star]]
|-
| || || [[Teegarden's star]], SO025300.5+165258 || 15.4 || 12.6 ||
* nearby
* high [[proper motion]]
|}
Source: <cite>The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.</cite>, <cite>The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200</cite>
== See also ==
{{Zodiac}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Aries}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/aries/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Aries]
[[Category:Aries constellation| ]]
[[Category:Astrological signs]]
[[an:Aries]]
[[ast:Aries]]
[[ca:Àries]]
[[cs:Beran (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Vædderen (stjernetegn)]]
[[de:Widder (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Aries]]
[[eo:Ŝafo (Zodiako)]]
[[fr:Bélier (constellation)]]
[[ga:An Reithe]]
[[ko:양자리]]
[[id:Aries]]
[[it:Ariete (astronomia)]]
[[ka:ვერძი]]
[[ku:Beran (birç)]]
[[la:Aries (sidus)]]
[[lt:Avinas (astronomija)]]
[[nl:Ram (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:おひつじ座]]
[[pl:Baran (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Aries]]
[[ru:Овен (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Baran]]
[[fi:Oinas]]
[[sv:Väduren]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวแกะ]]
[[zh:白羊座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aquarius</title>
<id>799</id>
<revision>
<id>41610629</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:20:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Emre D.</username>
<id>665265</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert to revision 40765528 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the constellation}}
{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Aquarius |
abbreviation = Aqr |
genitive = Aquarii |
symbology = the Water-bearer |
RA = 23 |
dec= &minus;15 |
areatotal = 980 |
arearank = 10th |
numberstars = 2 |
starname = [[Beta Aquarii|&beta; Aqr]] (Sadalsuud) |
starmagnitude = 2.9 |
meteorshowers =
*[[March Aquarids]]
*[[Eta Aquarids]] (May&nbsp;4)
*[[Delta Aquarids]] (June&nbsp;28)
*[[Iota Aquarids]] |
bordering =
*[[Pisces]]
*[[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]]
*[[Equuleus]]
*[[Delphinus]]
*[[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]]
*[[Capricornus]]
*[[Piscis Austrinus]]
*[[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]]
*[[Cetus]] |
latmax = 65 |
latmin = 90 |
month = October |
notes=}}
'''Aquarius''' ([[Latin]] for the ''[[Water]]-bearer'' or ''Cup-bearer'', symbol [[Image:Aquarius_symbol_small.png|20px]], [[Unicode]] ♒) is the eleventh sign of the [[zodiac]], situated between Capricornus and Pisces. Its symbol is [[Image:Aquarius_symbol_small.png|20px]], representing part of a stream of water.
Aquarius is one of the oldest recognized constellations along the zodiac, the sun's apparent path. It is found in a region often called the [[Sea (astronomy)|Sea]] due to its profusion of watery constellations such as [[Cetus]], [[Pisces]], [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]], etc. Sometimes, the river Eridanus is depicted spilling from Aquarius' watering pot.
== Notable deep sky objects ==
There are three [[deep sky object]]s that are on the [[Messier object|Messier catalog]], the [[Globular Cluster M2]], [[Globular Cluster M72]], and the [[Messier Object 73|Open Cluster M73]].
Two [[planetary nebula]]e are found in Aquarius: [[NGC 7009]], called the [[Saturn Nebula]] due to its resemblance to the [[Saturn (planet)|planet]], to the southeast of &eta; Aquarii; and [[NGC 7293]], the famous [[Helix Nebula]], southwest of &delta; Aquarii.
== History ==
The constellation was immortalized in the [[1960s]], proclaimed the [[Age of Aquarius]]. However, there is no standard definition for astrological ages, so the age of Aquarius could begin in [[2150]] or even [[2660]], depending on the preferred definition. Based on the modern constellation boundaries of [[Pisces]] and Aquarius, the age of Aquarius would begin around 2660.
However, with so much of modern society reflecting the qualities of Aquarius most astrologers believe that this era has begun. Mass production, electricity, flight and space travel, electronic communications including computers the Internet, even the growing movement against capitalism in favour of a more socialist system of humanitarian development are all related to the Aquarian paradigm.
== Mythology ==
The best-known myth identifies Aquarius with [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]], a beautiful youth with whom [[Zeus]] fell in love, and whom he (in the guise of an eagle, represented as the constellation [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]]) carried off to Olympus to be cupbearer to the gods. [[Crater (constellation)|Crater]] is sometimes identified as his cup.
Aquarius generally resembles the figure of a man, and when considering fainter humanly visible stars, it takes on the image of a man with a bucket from which is pouring a stream. Aquarius was also identified as the pourer of the waters which flooded the earth in the [[Deluge (mythology)|Great Flood]], in the [[Greek mythology|ancient Greek version]] of the myth. As such, the constellation [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]] was sometimes identified as being a river poured out by Aquarius.
It may also, together with the constellation [[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]], be part of the origin of the myth of the [[Mares of Diomedes]], which forms one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Heracles]]. Its association with pouring out rivers, and the nearby constellation of [[Capricornus]], may be the source of the myth of the [[Augean stable]], which forms another of the labours.
===Astrology===
The Western [[astrological sign]] Aquarius of the [[tropical zodiac]] ([[January 20]] - [[February 18]]) differs from the astronomical constellation and the Hindu astrological sign of the [[Sidereal astrology|sidereal zodiac]] ([[February 16]] - [[ |
and Cleopatra, the Eastern half of the Empire followed suit, placing Octavian in the position of ruler of the entire Empire. Years of civil war had left [[Rome]] in a state of near-lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a [[despot]]. At the same time, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars amongst the Roman generals, and even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the City and provinces. Disbanding his personal forces, Octavian held elections and took up the position of [[consul]]; as such, though he had given up his personal armies, he was now legally in command of the legions of Rome.
===The First Settlement===
In [[27 BC]] he officially returned power to the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] of Rome, and offered to relinquish his own military supremacy over [[Egypt]]. Reportedly, the suggestion of Octavian's stepping down as consul led to rioting amongst the Plebeians in Rome. A compromise was reached between the Senate and Octavian's supporters, known as the First Settlement. Octavian was given proconsular authority over the Western half of the empire and [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] &mdash; the provinces that, combined, contained almost 70% of the Roman legions.
The Senate also gave him the titles ''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]'' and ''[[Princeps]]''. ''Augustus'' was a title of religious rather than political authority. In the mindset of contemporary religious beliefs, it would have cleverly symbolized a stamp of authority over humanity that went beyond any constitutional definition of his status. Additionally, after the harsh methods employed in consolidating his control, that the change in name would also serve to separate his benign reign as Augustus from his reign of terror as Octavian. ''Princeps'' translates to "first-citizen" or "first-leader". It had been a title under the Republic for those who had served the state well; for example, [[Gnaeus Pompey]] had held the title.
In addition, and perhaps the most dangerous innovation, Augustus was granted the right to wear the Civic Crown of laurel and oak. This crown was usually held above the head of a Roman general during a [[Roman Triumph|Triumph]], with the individual holding the crown charged to continually repeat, "Remember, thou art mortal," to the triumphant general. The fact that not only was Augustus awarded this crown but awarded the right to actually wear it upon his head is perhaps the clearest indication of the creation of a [[monarchy]]. However, it must be noted that none of these titles, or the Civic Crown, granted Octavian any additional powers or authority; for all intents and purposes the new Augustus was simply a highly-honored Roman citizen, holding the consulship.
These actions were highly abnormal from the Roman Senate, but this was not the same body of patricians that had murdered Caesar. Both Antony and Octavian had purged the Senate of suspect elements and planted it with their loyal partisans. How free a hand the Senate had in these transactions, and what backroom deals were made, remain unknown.
===The Second Settlement===
In [[23 BC]] Augustus renounced the consulship, but retained his consular ''[[imperium]]'', leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the Senate known as the Second Settlement. Augustus was granted the power of a [[tribune]] (''tribunicia potestas''), though not the title, which allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and the right to speak first at any meeting. Also included in Augustus' tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman [[censor]]; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a [[census]] and determine the membership of the Senate. No Tribune of Rome ever had these powers, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the Tribune and the Censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor. Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his ''tribunician'' authority, or he simply assumed these responsibilities, is still a matter of debate.
In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole ''imperium'' within the city of Rome itself: all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the [[Prefect|Praefects]], were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Additionally, Augustus was granted ''imperium proconsulare maius'', or "imperium over all the proconsuls", which translated to the right to interfere in any province in the Roman Empire and override the decisions of any governor. With ''maius imperium,'' Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph as he was ostensibly the head of every Roman army.
Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class. When in [[22 BC]] Augustus failed to stand for election as consul, fears arose once again that Augustus, seen as the great "defender of the people", was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In [[22 BC|22]], [[21 BC|21]], and [[20 BC]] the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus. Finally in [[19 BC]] the Senate voted to allow Augustus to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate, sometimes known as the Third Settlement. This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was actually a consul, the importance was that he appeared as one before the people.
With these powers in mind, it must be understood that all forms of permanent and legal power within Rome officially lay with the Senate and the people; Augustus was given extraordinary powers, but only as a pronconsul and magistrate under the authority of the Senate. Augustus never presented himself as a king or autocrat, once again only allowing himself to be addressed by the title ''[[Princeps]]''. After the death of Lepidus in [[13 BC]] he additionally took up the position of [[pontifex maximus]].
Later Roman Emperors would generally be limited to the powers and titles originally granted to Augustus, though often, in order to display humility, newly appointed Emperors would often decline one or more of the honorifics given to Augustus. Just as often, as their reign progressed, Emperors would appropriate all of the titles, regardless of whether they had actually been granted by the Senate. The Civic Crown, consular insignia, and later the purple robes of a Triumphant general (''[[toga picta]]'') became the imperial insignia well into the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] era, and were even adopted by many Germanic tribes invading the former Western empire as insignia of their right to rule.
==Reign==
Having gained power by means of great audacity, Augustus ruled with great prudence. In exchange for near absolute power, he gave Rome 40 years of civic peace and increasing prosperity, celebrated in history as the [[Pax Romana]], or ''Roman Peace''.
===Military reforms===
He created Rome's first permanent army and navy and stationed the [[Roman legion|legions]] along the Empire's borders, where they could not meddle in politics. A special unit, the [[Praetorian Guard]], garrisoned Rome and protected the Emperor's person. He also reformed Rome's finance and tax systems. Augustus channeled the enormous wealth brought in from the Empire to keeping the army happy with generous payments.
===Provincial reforms and imperial expansion===
The Roman Empire expanded enormously during the reign of Augustus. [[Cantabrian Wars|A war in the mountains of northern Hispania]] from [[26 BC]] to [[19 BC]] finally resulted in that territory's conquest. After [[Gauls|Gallic]] raids, the [[Alps|Alpine]] territories were conquered. Rome's borders were advanced to the natural frontier of the [[Danube]], and the province of [[Galatia]] was occupied. Further west, an attempt to advance into [[Germany]] ended with the defeat at the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in [[9|AD 9]]. Thereafter Augustus and his successors accepted the [[Rhine]] as the Empire's permanent border. In the east, he satisfied himself with establishing Roman control over [[Armenia]] and the [[Transcaucasus]]. He left the [[Parthia|Parthian Empire]] alone maintaining generally good relations with them, arranging with them to return the standards lost to them by [[Crassus]], an event portrayed on the breastplate of the ''Prima Porta Augustus''.
====Britain====
The Res Gestae says he received two kings of Britain. He considered [[Roman conquest of Britain#Aborted invasions|invasion]] on occasions but called it off.
====India====
There was an Indian in his retinue ([[Plutarch]], Life of Alexander, 69.9), and he claimed in the Raes Gestae to have received fealty from 'kings' of India.
===Civil reforms, innovations and entertainments in Rome===
He founded a ministry of [[transport]] that built an extensive network of roads &mdash; enabling improved communication, trade, and [[mail]]. Augustus also founded the world's first [[fire brigade]], and created a regular [[Cohortes urbanae|police]] force for Rome.
He channeled the enormous wealth brought in from the Empire to keeping the army happy with generous payments, and keeping the citizens of Rome happy by staging magnificent games. His use of games and special events to celebrate himself and his family cemented his popularity.
===Building programmes in Rome===
He famously boasted that he "found Rome [[brick]] and left it [[marble]]" (though that hardly applied to the |
y railroad conductors, in which holes punched in various places on a passenger's ticket identified the holder's passenger status. Urged on by [[John Shaw Billings]], he developed a mechanism for reading the presence or absence of holes in the cards using spring-mounted needles that passed through the holes to make electrical connections to trigger a counter to record one more of each value. The key idea (due to Billings), however, was that all personal data could be coded numerically. Hollerith saw that if the numbers could then be punched in specified columns on the cards, the cards could be sorted mechanically, and therefore the appropriate columns totalled. He described his idea in Patent No. 395,782 of January 8, 1889 as follows:
<blockquote>
The herein described method of compiling statistics which consists in recording separate statistical items pertaining to the individual by holes or combinations of holed punched in sheets of electrically non-conducting material, and bearing a specific relation to each other and to a standard, and then counting or tallying such statistical items separately or in combination by means of mechanical counters operated by electro-magnets the circuits through which are controlled by the perforated sheets, substantially as and for the purpose set forth.
</blockquote>
==Tabulating Machine Company==
He built machines under contract for the [[United States Census Bureau |US Census Bureau]], which used them to tabulate the 1890 census in much less time than the 1880 census. He started his own business in 1896 when he founded the [[Tabulating Machine Company]]. Most of the major census bureaus around the world leased his equipment and purchased his cards, as did major insurance companies. To make his system work he invented the first automatic card-feed mechanism, the first '''key punch''' (i.e. a punch that was operated from a [[Keyboard technology|keyboard]]) allowing a skilled operator to punch 200–300 cards per hour, and a '''wiring panel''' in his [[1906]] Type I Tabulator allowing it to do different jobs without having to be rebuilt (the first step towards programming). The 1890 Tabulator was [[hardwired]] to operate only on 1890 Census cards. These inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing industry.
==International Business Machines==
In 1911 his firm merged with two others to form the Computing Tabulating Recording (CTR) Corporation. Under the presidency of [[Thomas J. Watson]] it was renamed [[International Business Machines|IBM]] in [[1924]].
== External links ==
* Hollerith's patents from 1889: {{US patent|395781}} {{US patent|395782}} {{US patent|395783}}
* [http://museum.nist.gov/panels/conveyor/hollerithbio.htm Hollerith page at the National Hall of Fame]
* [http://www.oakhillcemeterydc.org/map.html Map to his gravesite]
* [http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/hollerith.html More on Hollerith and his original tabulator]
* [http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/hollerith.html "Inventor of the Week" biography at Lemelson-MIT Program site]
{{FOLDOC}}
==Timeline==
*1860 Birth of Herman Hollerith
*1880 [[Media:1880_census_Hollerith.gif|US Census]] in Manhattan
*1890 US Census compiled with his tabulating machine
*1929 Death of Herman Hollerith
[[Category:1860 births|Hollerith, Herman]]
[[Category:1929 deaths|Hollerith, Herman]]
[[Category:American inventors|Hollerith, Herman]]
[[Category:Columbia alumni|Hollerith, Herman]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Hollerith, Herman]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Hollerith, Herman]]
[[Category:IBM employees|Hollerith, Herman]]
[[Category:Leap day births|Hollerith, Herman]]
[[de:Herman Hollerith]]
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[[ru:Холлерит, Герман]]
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[[sv:Herman Hollerith]]</text>
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<page>
<title>History of painting</title>
<id>13971</id>
<revision>
<id>41630483</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:25:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tyrenius</username>
<id>393711</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!--It would be helpful to have dates in this article-->
== Prehistoric painting ==
*[[cave painting]]
== Ancient painting ==
== Medieval painting ==
*[[Gothic art]]
*[[Panel painting]]
== The Renaissance ==
*[[Early Renaissance painting]]
*[[Renaissance Classicism]]
*[[Italian_Renaissance|Italian Renaissance painting]]
*[[Northern_Renaissance#Art|Northern European Renaissance painting]]
*[[High_Renaissance|High Renaissance painting]]
*[[Mannerism]]
== [[Baroque]] ==
*[[Early Baroque]]
*[[High Baroque]]
== 18th Century ==
*[[Rococo]]
*[[Neoclassicism]]
== 19th Century ==
*[[Romanticism]]
*[[Academic art]]
*[[Realism (arts)]]
*[[Naturalism]]
*[[Impressionist|Impressionism]]
*[[Symbolism]]
*[[Post-Impressionism]]
*[[Neo-Impressionism]]
*[[Art Nouveau]]
== 20th Century ==
<!--These names need to be give a date and put in date order-->
This list is in random order. Date given is for the start of the style or movement.
*[[Fauvism]] (Les Fauves) 1905
*[[Cubism]] 1907
*[[Jack of Diamonds]] 1910
*[[Puteaux Group|Orphism]]
*[[Dada]]
*[[Surrealism]]
*[[Corealism]]
*[[Rayonnism]]
*[[Neoplasticism]]
*[[Expressionism]]
*[[Abstract art]]
*[[Abstract Expressionism]] 1946
*[[Post-painterly abstraction]] 1964
*[[Neo-expressionism]]
*[[Art Deco]]
*[[Futurism (art)|Futurism]] 1909
*[[Op art]]
*[[Pop art]]
*[[Minimalism]]
*[[Art Brut]] / [[Folk Art]] / [[Naïve Art]] / [[Outsider Art]]
*[[Suprematism]] 1913
[[Vorticism]] 1914
*[[Tachism]]
*[[Constructivism]]
*[[Russian avant-garde]]
*[[De Stijl]]
*[[Neue Sachlichkeit]]
*[[American realism]]
*[[Socialist realism]]
*[[Action painting]]
*[[Informal art]]
*[[Lyrical abstraction]]
*[[Monochrome painting]]
*[[Russian Non-Conformist]]
*[[Signal painting]]
*[[Photorealism]]
*[[Concept art]]
*[[Neue Wilde]]
*[[Graffiti]]
*[[Rectoversion]]
*[[Stuckism]] 1999
== See also: ==
* [[History of art]]
* [[History painting]]
* [[Art periods]]
* [[List of painters]]
* [[Painting]]
* [[Self-declared art movement]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.beyondbooks.com/art11/index.asp History of Painting]
[[Category:Art history|Painting]]
[[Category:Painting]]
[[pl:Historia malarstwa]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Hungarian language</title>
<id>13972</id>
<revision>
<id>42161676</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:45:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pianoman87</username>
<id>194203</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Official status */ add "the"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Hungarian
|nativename=magyar
|pronunciation=[ˈmɒɟɒr̪]
|familycolor=Uralic
|states=[[Hungary]] and areas in [[Romania]], [[Slovakia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Serbia]], [[Croatia]], [[Austria]], and [[Slovenia]]
|speakers=14.5 million
|rank=52
|fam1=[[Uralic languages|Uralic]]
|fam2=[[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]]
|fam3=[[Ugric languages|Ugric]]
|nation=[[Hungary]], [[European Union]], [[Slovenia]] (regional language), [[Serbia]] (regional language), [[Austria]] (regional language)
|agency=[[Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Nyelvtudományi Intézete|Research Institute for Linguistics of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences]]
|script=[[Latin alphabet]] ([[Hungarian alphabet|Hungarian variant]])
|iso1=hu|iso2=hun|iso3=hun}}
The '''Hungarian [[language]]''' is a [[Finno-Ugric language]] spoken in [[Hungary]] and in the adjacent states of [[Romania]], [[Slovakia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Croatia]], [[Austria]], and [[Slovenia]] (all are countries to which Hungary had to retrocede territories after [[World War I]]). The Hungarian name for the language is ''magyar'' {{IPA|[ˈmɒɟɒr̪]}}.
There are about 14.5 million speakers, of whom 10 million live in Hungary. Approximately 1,434,377 ethnic Hungarians ([[Magyars]]) live in Romania. The largest minority concentrations are in the Romanian counties of [[Transylvania]], including [[Harghita]] ''(Hargita),'' [[Mureş County|Mureş]] ''(Maros),'' and [[Covasna County|Covasna]] ''(Kovászna).''
<!--== History ==
Probable history of the language. What language(s) it is derived from. Dates of movement of major groups of speakers, etc.
-->
== Classification ==
{{hulang}}
Hungarian is a member of the [[Ugric languages]], a sub-group of the [[Finno-Ugric language]] family, which in turn is a branch of the [[Uralic languages]]. Connections between the Ugric and Finnic languages were noticed in the [[1670s]] and established, along with the entire Uralic family, in [[1717]], although the classification of Hungarian continued to be a matter of [[#Controversy|political controversy]] into the [[18th century|18th]] and even [[19th century|19th]] centuries. Today the Uralic family is considered one of the best demonstrated large language families, along with [[Indo-European]] and [[Austronesian]].
===Sound correspondences===
There are numerous regular sound correspondances between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian ''á'' {{IPA|[aː]}} corresponds to [[Khanty language|Khanty]] {{IPA|[o]}} in certain positions, and Hungarian ''h'' {{IPA|[h]}} corresponds to Khanty {{IPA|[x]}}, while Hungarian final ''z'' {{IPA|[z]}} corresponds to Khanty final {{IPA|[t]}}. For example, Hungarian ''ház'' {{IPA|[haːz]}} "house" vs. Khanty {{IPA|[xot]}} "house", and Hungarian ''száz'' {{IPA|[saːz]}} "hundred" vs. Khanty {{IPA|[sot]}} "hundred".
The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondances are also regular. The relationship is most obvious when comparing all the Ugric languages with all the Finnic languages, for then individual idiosyncracies are averaged out, but here we will just compare Hungarian with Finnish |
news site
* [http://eteamz.active.com/sites/australianfootball/ The Best Game] Why Australian rules is the world's best game.
* [http://www.worldfootynews.com/ World Footy News] All the news and views from Australian football's global frontier
* [http://www.aflnews.4t.com/ LIVE AFL News]- Keeping you up to date with the latest footy news
* [http://aussierules.co.nr/ Daniel's Aussie Rules]- Footy scores, ladders, news and archives
* [http://www.realfooty.theage.com.au/ Real Footy (from The Age)]
* [http://www.countryfootyscores.com/ Country Footy Scores]
* [http://www.maf.asn.au/ Masters - Australian Football for the over 30s]
* [http://www.afl-online.net/ AFL Online Forums]
<p></p>
|}
[[Category:Australian culture]]
[[Category:Australian rules football| ]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Team sports]]
[[cs:Australský fotbal]]
[[da:Australsk fodbold]]
[[de:Australian Football]]
[[es:Fútbol australiano]]
[[eo:Aŭstralia piedpilkado]]
[[fr:Football australien]]
[[it:Football australiano]]
[[nl:Australian Football]]
[[ja:オージーフットボール]]
[[no:Australsk fotball]]
[[pl:Futbol australijski]]
[[scn:Football australianu]]
[[sv:Australisk fotboll]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Aon Insurance</title>
<id>2404</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aon Corporation]]
</text>
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<page>
<title>Aon Corporation</title>
<id>2405</id>
<revision>
<id>41037267</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T17:24:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Catapult</username>
<id>792235</id>
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<minor />
<comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 18|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
'''Aon Corporation''' {{nyse|AOC}}, founded by [[W. Clement Stone]] in the late [[1920s]], is a global [[risk management|risk-management]] consulting and [[insurance]] underwriting firm. Also known as Aon Innovative Solutions or AIS. Aon is the [[Gaelic]] term for "oneness".
Aon Corporation is a [[NYSE]]-listed and leading provider of risk management services, [[insurance]] and [[reinsurance]] [[brokerage]], human capital and management consulting, and specialty insurance underwriting. The company employs approximately 47,000 professionals in its 500 offices in more than 120 countries. Backed by broad resources, industry knowledge and technical expertise, Aon professionals help a wide range of clients develop effective risk management and workforce productivity solutions.
Its New York offices were in the 99th and 100th floors of the [[Two World Trade Center tenants|south tower]] of the [[World Trade Center]] at the time of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001 terrorist attack]]. As a result, Aon lost more than 170 employees. See the [[sep11:Aon Corporation|Memorial wiki tribute to Aon]] for a complete list of people.
The company logo is featured for a brief moment in the motion picture "[[The Matrix]]".
== External links ==
* [http://www.aon.com Aon Corporation website]
* [http://www.legacy.com/aon/Tribute.asp Aon Remembers at Legacy.com]
* [http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=116756 Emporis - Aon Center, Chicago]
[[Category:Insurance companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in Illinois]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:Management consulting firms]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alban Berg</title>
<id>2406</id>
<revision>
<id>41699594</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:33:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RodC</username>
<id>12965</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Life and work */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alban Maria Johannes Berg''' ([[February 9]], [[1885]] &ndash; [[December 24]], [[1935]]) was an [[Austria]]n [[composer]]. He was a member of the [[Second Viennese School]] along with [[Arnold Schoenberg]] and [[Anton Webern]], producing works that combined [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]ian [[romantic music|romanticism]] with a highly personal adaptation of Schoenberg's [[twelve-tone technique]].
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[image:alban_berg.jpg|framed|right|Inset of portrait of Berg by [[Arnold Schoenberg]].]] -->
==Life and work==
Berg was born in [[Vienna]], the third of four children of Johanna and Conrad Berg. His family lived quite comfortably until the death of his father in [[1900]].
He was more interested in [[literature]] than [[music]] as a child, and did not begin to compose until he was fifteen, when he started to teach himself music. He had very little formal music eduction until he began a six-year period of study with Arnold Schoenberg in October [[1904]] to [[1911]], studying [[counterpoint]], [[music theory]], and [[harmony]]; by [[1906]] he concentrated on his music studies full-time, and by [[1907]] he began [[musical composition|composition]] lessons. Among his compositions under Schoenberg were five [[piano sonata]] drafts and various songs, including his ''[[Seven Early Songs (Berg)|Seven Early Songs]]'' (''Sieben frühe Lieder''), three of which were Berg's first publicly performed work in a concert featuring the music of Schoenberg's pupils in Vienna that same year.
These early compositions would reveal Berg's progress as a composer under Schoenberg's tutelage. The early sonata sketches eventually culminated in Berg's [[Piano Sonata (Berg)|Piano Sonata]] (Op.1) (1907&ndash;[[1908|8]]); while considered to be his "graduating composition", is one of the most formidable initial works ever written by any composer (Lauder, 1986). Schoenberg was a major influence on him throughout his lifetime; Berg not only greatly admired him as a composer and mentor, but they remained close friends for the remainder of his life. Many people believe that Berg also saw him as a surrogate father, considering Berg's young age during his father's death.
An important idea of Schoenberg is his teaching was what would later be known as ''developing variation'', which stated that the unity of a piece is dependent on all aspects of the composition being derived from a single basic idea. Berg would then pass this idea down to one of his students, [[Theodor Adorno]], who stated: "The main principle he conveyed was that of variation: everything was supposed to develop out of something else and yet be intrinsically different." The Sonata is a striking example of the execution of this idea &mdash; the whole composition can be derived from the opening [[quartal and quintal harmony|quartal]] gesture and from the opening phrase.
Berg was a part of Vienna's cultural elite during the heady period of ''[[fin de siècle]]''. Among his circle included the musicians [[Alexander von Zemlinsky]] and [[Franz Schreker]], painter [[Gustav Klimt]], writer and satirist [[Karl Kraus]], architect [[Adolf Loos]], and poet [[Peter Altenberg]]. In 1906, Berg met [[Helene Nahowski]], singer and daughter of a wealthy family, and despite the outward hostility of her family, married on May 3, 1911.
In [[1913]], two of Berg's ''Five Songs on Picture Postcard Texts by [[Peter Altenberg]]'' (1912) were premiered in Vienna under Schoenberg's baton. The pieces - settings of unpoetic, aphoristic utterances accompanied by a very large orchestra - caused a riot, and the performance had to be halted; the work was not performed in full until [[1952]] (and its full score remained unpublished until 1966).
From [[1915]] to [[1918]], he served in the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian Army]] and it was during a period of leave in [[1917]] that he began work on his first [[opera]], ''[[Wozzeck]]''. Following [[World War I]], he settled again in Vienna where he taught private pupils. He also helped Schoenberg run the [[Society for Private Musical Performances]], which sought to create an ideal environment for the exploration of unappreciated and unfamiliar new music by means of open rehearsals, repeated performances, and the exclusion of all newspaper critics.
The performance in [[1924]] of three excerpts from ''Wozzeck'' brought Berg his first public success. The opera, which Berg completed in [[1922]], was not performed in its entireity until [[December 14]], [[1925]], when [[Erich Kleiber]] directed a performance in [[Berlin]]. The opera is today seen as one of his most important works; a later opera, the critically acclaimed ''[[Lulu (opera)|Lulu]]'', was left with its third act incomplete at his death.
Berg's best-known piece is probably his elegiac [[Violin Concerto (Berg)|Violin Concerto]]. Like so much of his mature work, it employs a highly personal adaptation of Schoenberg's [[twelve tone technique]] that enables it to combine frank [[atonality]] with more traditionally tonal passages and harmonies; additionally, it uses actual quotations of pre-existing tonal music, including a [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] chorale and a [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthian]] folk song. The Violin Concerto was dedicated to Manon, the deceased daughter of architect [[Walter Gropius]] and [[Alma Schindler]].
Other well known Berg compositions include the ''[[Lyric Suite]]'' (seemingly a big influence on the String Quartet No. 3 of [[Béla Bartók]]), ''Three Pieces for Orchestra'', and the [[Chamber music|Chamber]] [[Concerto]] for [[violin]], [[piano]] and 13 [[Woodwind instrument|wind]] instruments.
Berg died on Christmas Eve, 1935, in Vienna, apparently from [[blood poisoning]] caused by an insect bite. He was 50 years old.
==Compositions==
*[[List of compositions by Alban Berg]]
*[[Wozzeck]]
*[[Lulu (ope |
smuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html]; also depicted in the tomb of [[Merknera]].
*[[3000 BC]] - [[Mehen]], board game from [[Predynastic Egypt]], played with [[lion]]-shaped game pieces and [[marbles]].
*[[2500 BC|2560 BC]] - Board of the [[Royal Game of Ur]] (found at Ur Tombs)
*[[2500 BC]] - Paintings of [[Senet]] and [[Han]] being played made in the tomb of [[Rashepes]]
*[[2000 BC]] - Drawing in a tomb at Benihassan depicting two unknown board games being played (depicted in Falkner). It has been suggested that the second of these is [[Tau]].
*[[1500 BC]] - [[Liubo]] carved on slab of blue stone. Also painting of [http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Brumbaugh/index.html Board Game] of [[Knossos]].
*[[1400 BC]] - Game boards including [[Alquerque]], [[Three Men's Morris]], [[Nine Men's Morris]], and a possible [[Mancala]] board etched on the roof of the [[Kurna Temple]]. (Source: Fiske, and Bell)
*[[200 BC]] - A [[Go (board game)|Go]] board pre-dating 200 BC was found in [[1954]] in [[Wangdu County]]. This board is now in [[Beijing Historical Museum]]. (Source: John Fairbairn's [http://gobase.org/history/china.html Go in Ancient China]).
*[[116 BC|116]] - [[27 BC]] - [[Marcus Terentius Varro]]'s [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/varro.ll10.html Lingua Latina X] ('''II, par. 20''') contains earliest known reference to ''[[latrunculi]]'' (often confused with [[Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum]], [[Ovid]]'s game mentioned below).
*[[79 BC|79]] - [[8 BC]] - Liu Xiang's (劉向) '''Shuo yuan,''' contains earliest known reference to [[Xiangqi]].
*[[1 BC]]-[[8|8 AD]] [[Ovid]]'s [[Ars Amatoria]] contains earliest known reference to [[Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum]] and the [[smaller merels]].
*[[220]]-[[265]] [[Nard (game)|Nard]] enters [[China]] under the name [[t'shu-p'u]] (Source: [[Hun Tsun Sii]])
Board games first became widely popular among the general population early in the [[20th century]] when the rise of the [[middle class]] with disposable income and leisure time made them a receptive audience to such games. This popularity expanded after the [[World War II|Second World War]], a period from which many classic board games date. [[Computer game]]s are closely related to board games, and many acclaimed computer games such as [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]] are based upon board games.
Many board games are now available as [[computer games]], including the option to have the computer act as an opponent. The rise of computers has also led to a relative decline in the most complicated board games, as they require less space, and are easier to set up and clear away. With the [[Internet]], many board games can now be played online against computer or other players in real time (like to classics board games available on [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]], [[Lycos]] and other big Internet sites) or during your spare time, every time it's your turn (see the links at the end of this article).
The modern board game industry is rife with corporate mergers and acquisitions, with large companies such as [[Hasbro]] owning many subsidiaries and selling products under a variety of brand names. It is difficult to successfully market a new board game to the mass market. Retailers tend to be conservative about stocking games of untested popularity, and most large board game companies have established criteria that a game must meet in order to be produced. If, for instance, [[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]] were introduced as a new game today, it would not meet the criteria for production.<!-- I can't remember the exact source of this, but it was an article by an insider in the board game industry. -- Try to find this reference or the statement may not last long on Wikipedia. -->
==Luck, strategy and diplomacy==
One way of defining board games are between those based upon [[luck]] and [[strategy]]. Some games, such as [[chess]], have no luck involved. Children's games tend to be very luck based, with games such as [[Sorry! (game)|Sorry!]], [[Candy Land]] and [[Chutes and Ladders]] having virtually no decisions to be made. Most board games have both luck and strategy. A player may be hampered by a few poor rolls of the dice in [[Risk (game)|Risk]] or [[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]], but over many games a player with a superior strategy will win more often. While some purists consider luck to not be a desirable component of a game, others counter that elements of luck can make for far more complex and multi-faceted strategies as concepts such as [[expected value]] and [[risk management]] must be considered. Still most adult game players prefer to make some decisions during play, and find purely luck based games such as [[Top Trumps]] quite boring.
The third important factor in a game is [[diplomacy]], or players making deals with each other. A game of [[solitaire]], for obvious reasons, has no player interaction. Two player games usually don't have diplomacy, as cooporation between the two players does not occur. Thus, this generally applies only to games played with three or more people. An important facet of [[Settlers of Catan]], for example, is convincing people to trade with you rather than with other players. In [[Risk (game)|Risk]], one example of diplomacy's effectiveness is when two or more players team up against another. Easy diplomacy consists of convincing other players that someone else is winning and should therefore be teamed up against. Difficult diplomacy (such as in the aptly named game [[Diplomacy (board game)|Diplomacy]]) consists of making elaborate plans together, with possibility of betrayal.
Luck is introduced to a game by a number of methods. The most popular is using [[dice]], generally six sided. These can determine everything from how many steps a player moves their token, as in Monopoly, how their forces fare in battle, such as in Risk, or which resources a player gains, such as in [[Settlers of Catan]]. Other games such as Sorry! use a deck of special [[card]]s that when shuffled create randomness. Scrabble does something similar with randomly picked letters. Other games use spinners, timers of random length, or other sources of randomness. Trivia games have a great deal of randomness based on which question a person gets. [[German-style board game]]s are notable for often having rather less luck factor than in many North American board games.
==Common terminology==
[[Image:Carcassonne Miples.jpg|thumb|[[Carcassonne (game)|Carcassonne]] tokens, or ''meeples'']]
Although many board games have a [[jargon]] all their own, there is a generalized [[terminology]] to describe concepts applicable to basic [[game mechanic]]s and attributes common to nearly all board games.
*'''Gameboard''' (or '''board''') &mdash; the (usually [[quadrilateral]]) surface on which one plays a board game; the [[namesake]] of the board game, gameboards are a [[necessary and sufficient condition]] of the [[genre]]
*'''Game Piece''' (or '''token''' or '''bit''') &mdash; a player's representative on the game board. Each player may control one or more game pieces. In some games that involve commanding multiple game pieces, such as chess, certain pieces have unique designations and capabilities within the [[parameter]]s of the game; in others, such as Go, all pieces controlled by a player have the same essential capabilities.
*'''Jump''' &mdash; to bypass one or more game pieces and/or '''spaces'''. Depending on the context, '''jumping''' may also involve capturing or conquering an opponent's game piece. (''See also:'' [[Game mechanic#Capture|Game mechanic: Capture]])
*'''Space''' (or '''square''') &mdash; a [[Units of measurement|physical unit]] of progress on a gameboard delimited by a distinct [[Border#Generic border|border]] (''See also:'' [[Game mechanic#Movement|Game mechanic: Movement]])
==References==
*Fiske, Willard. ''Chess in Iceland and in Icelandic Literature&mdash;with historical notes on other table-games)''. Florentine Typographical Society, [[1905]].
*Falkener, Edward. ''Games Ancient and Oriental, and How To Play Them''. Longmans, Green and Co., [[1892]].
*Austin, Roland G. &quot;Greek Board Games.&quot; ''Antiquity'' 14. [[September]] [[1940]]: 257&ndash;271
*[[Harold James Ruthven Murray|Murray, Harold James Ruthven]]. ''A History of Board-Games Other Than Chess''. Gardners Books, [[1969]].
*Bell, Robert Charles. ''The Boardgame Book''. [[London]]: Bookthrift Company, [[1979]].
*Bell, Robert Charles. ''Board and Table Games from Many Civilizations''. [[Mineola, New York]]: Dover Publications, [[1980]]. ISBN 0486238555
**Reprint: [[New York City|New York]]: Exeter Books, [[1983]].
*[[Sid Sackson|Sackson, Sid]]. ''[[A Gamut of Games]]''. [[Arrow Books]], [[1983]]. ISBN 0091533406
**Reprint: Dover Publications, [[1992]]. ISBN 0-486-27347-4
*Schmittberger, R. Wayne. ''New Rules for Classic Games''. [[John Wiley &amp; Sons]], [[1992]]. ISBN 0-471-53621-0
**Reprint: [[Random House|Random House Value Publishing]], [[1994]]. ISBN 0517129558
*Parlett, David. ''Oxford History of Board Games''. [[Oxford University Press]], [[1999]]. ISBN 0192129988
Note that some these works may suffer from cultural bias&mdash;especially Murray's work which, despite being the standard reference, tends to assume [[Western civilization|Western]] cultural superiority.
== See also ==
*[[List of board games]]
*[[List of board game publishers]]
*[[List of Japanese board games]]
*[[Card game]]
*[[Computer Olympiad]]
*[[Game classification]]
*[[Game mechanic]]
*[[Game theory]]
*[[Gameplay]]
*[[Game convention]]
*[[Games table desk]]
*[[German-style board game]]
*[[Mind Sports Olympiad]]
*[[Paper and pencil game]]s
*[[Parlour game]]
*[[Party game]]
*[[Simulation game]]
*[[Solved board games]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Board games}}
===General===
*[http://www.boardgamegeek.com BoardGameGeek] - [[BoardGameGeek]] is a board gaming database, including user reviews and ra |
vision ring; every division ring arises in this fashion from some simple module.
Much of [[linear algebra]] may be formulated, and remains correct, for [[module (mathematics)|modules]] over division rings instead of [[vector space|vector spaces]] over fields. Every module over a division ring has a basis; linear maps between finite-dimensional modules over a division ring can be described by [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]], and the [[Gauss-Jordan elimination]] algorithm remains applicable.
The [[center of a ring|center]] of a division ring is commutative and therefore a field. Every division ring is therefore a [[division algebra]] over its center. Division rings can be roughly classified according to whether or not they are finite-dimensional or infinite-dimensional over their centers. The former are called ''centrally finite'' and the latter ''centrally infinite''. Every field is, of course, one-dimensional over its center. The quaternion ring forms a 4-dimensional algebra over its center, which is isomorphic to the real numbers.
'''[[Joseph Wedderburn|Wedderburn's]] (little) theorem''': All finite division rings are commutative and therefore [[finite field|finite fields]].
'''[[Frobenius theorem (real division algebras)|Frobenius theorem]]''': The only division algebra over the reals are the the real numbers, the complex numbers and the [[quaternion]]s
Division rings used to be called fields in an older usage, which remained in other languages. A more complete comparison is found in the article [[Field (mathematics)]].
===Semantics===
Skew fields have an interesting [[lexical semantics|semantic]] feature: a prefix, here "skew", ''widens'' the scope of the suffix (here "field"). Thus a field is a particular type of skew field. This phenomenon appears to be rare in English, the only other example being Godemont's claim that [[tea]] is a particular kind of "leaf tea".
==External links==
*[http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&from=objects&id=3627 Proof of Wedderburn's Theorem at Planeth Math]
[[Category:Ring theory]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]
[[de:Schiefkörper]]
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[[ru:Тело (алгебра)]]
[[zh:除环]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Despotism</title>
<id>9068</id>
<revision>
<id>41792589</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:05:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haham hanuka</username>
<id>111674</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Despotism''' is [[government]] by a singular authority, either a single person or tightly knit group, which rules with absolute power. The word implies [[Tyranny|tyrannical]] rule; it suggests a form of government which exercises exacting and near-absolute control over all of its citizens.
A related term is '''benevolent''' or '''enlightened despotism''', which refers specifically to a form of rulership that came to prominence in the [[18th century]]. In this instance, the absolute [[monarchy|monarchs]] ruling certain nations used their authority to institute a number of reforms in the political and social structures of their countries. This movement was probably largely triggered by the ideals of [[the Enlightenment]].
Even though the word has modern pejorative meaning, it was once a legitimate title of office in the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Just as the word "Byzantine" is often used in a pejorative way (for specific reasons by certain Enlightenment authors wishing to express disapproval of that period in history), the word Despot was equally turned around for negative meaning. In fact, a Despot was an Imperial title, first used under [[Manuel I Komnenos]] (1143-1180) who created it to his appointed heir [[Béla III of Hungary|Alexius-Béla]]. According to Gyula Moravcsik this title was a simple translation of Béla's Hungarian title 'úr', but other historians believe it comes from the old Roman title 'dominus'.
It was typically bestowed on sons-in-law and later sons of the Emperor, and beginning in the 13th century it was bestowed to foreign princes. The Despot wore an elaborate costume similar to the Emperor's and had many privileges. Despots ruled over parts of the empire called [[Despotate]]s. In the [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox]] [[Liturgy]], if celebrated in [[Greek language|Greek]], the [[priest]] is addressed by the [[deacon]] as "despot" even today.
==External links==
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-01 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] despotism
*[http://www.archive.org/details/Despotis1946 ''Archive.org - Despotism Video - 1946'']
==See also==
*[[Dictatorship]]
*[[Enlightened despot]]
*[[Monarchy]]
*[[Oligarchy]]
*[[Despotate]]
[[ca:Despotisme_il%C2%B7lustrat]]
[[de:Despotie]]
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[[he:עריץ]]
[[nl:Despotisme]]
[[pt:Despotismo]]
[[ru:Деспотизм]]
[[sl:Despotizem]]
[[sv:Despotism]]
[[fi:Despotismi]]
[[uk:Деспотизм]]
[[Category:Politics]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dia</title>
<id>9069</id>
<revision>
<id>41743589</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T12:37:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.176.23.163</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>InterWiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the diagram-creation software. For other meanings, see [[Dia (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox Software |
name = Dia |
screenshot = [[image:dia.png|250px|]] |
caption = Dia 0.94 on Fedora Core 2 |
developer = Dia developers |
latest_release_version = 0.94 |
latest_release_date = [[August 24]], [[2004]] |
operating_system = [[Cross-platform]] |
genre = [[Diagramming software]] |
license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] |
website = [http://gnome.org/projects/dia/ gnome.org/projects/dia/] |
}}
'''Dia''' is a general-purpose [[diagram]] creation [[software program]], developed as part of the [[GNOME]] project. Dia was originally created by Alexander Larsson. Dia uses a Controlled [[Single Document Interface]] (CSDI) similar to [[GIMP|the GIMP]] and [[Sodipodi]]/[[Inkscape]].
Dia is conceived in a modular way with several shape packages for different needs: [[flowchart]], [[computer network|network]] diagrams, [[Electrical network|circuit]] diagrams, etc.
Dia is designed to serve a similar purpose to the commercial [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] program [[Microsoft Visio]]. It can be used to draw many different kinds of diagrams. It currently has special objects to help draw [[entity relationship diagram]]s, [[Unified Modeling Language|UML]] diagrams, [[flowchart]]s, network diagrams, and simple circuits. It is also possible to add support for new shapes by writing simple [[XML]] files, using a subset of [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]] (Scalable Vector Graphics) to draw the shape.
Dia loads and saves diagrams to a custom XML format (gzipped by default, to save space).
Dia can export diagrams to various formats including [[Encapsulated PostScript]] (EPS) or SVG, Drawing Interchange format (DXF), CGM, amongst others.
Dia can print diagrams including very large diagrams that span multiple pages. Dia can be scripted using the Python programming language.
==See also==
*[[Kivio]]
*[[List of UML tools]]
*[[Graphviz]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gnome.org/projects/dia/ Dia Project Homepage]
*[http://www.seanet.com/~hgg9140/comp/diatut/all/all.html Dia Tutorial written by Harry George]
[[Category:Diagramming software]]
[[Category:GNOME]]
[[Category:SourceForge projects]]
[[Category:UML tools]]
[[es:Dia (programa)]]
[[de:Dia (Software)]]
[[fr:Dia (logiciel)]]
[[it:Dia (software)]]
[[pl:Dia (program)]]
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[[sv:Dia (datorprogram)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Deep Space 1</title>
<id>9070</id>
<revision>
<id>35559545</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T17:23:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tanketai</username>
<id>361683</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[Image:Deep Space 1 using its ion engine.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Conceptual drawing]]
|-
|[[Image:Deep Space 1 lifted.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Deep Space 1 probe]]
|}
The [[spacecraft]] '''Deep Space 1''' was launched [[October 24]], [[1998]] on top of a [[Delta II rocket]]. As part of [[NASA]]'s [[New Millennium program]], the primary goal was the testing of twelve advanced technologies that have the potential to lower the cost and risk of future missions.
Among the technologies tested were:
* an [[ion thruster]], specifically a [[NSTAR]] [[electrostatic ion thruster]]
* 'Autonav,' an autonomous navigation system (which can also find imaging targets) which reduces ground intervention
* 'Remote agent' (remote intelligent self-repair software)
* SDST (Small, Deep-Space Transponder), a miniaturized radio system
* MICAS (Miniature Integrated Camera And Spectrometer), a smaller, lighter combination of prior instruments
* PEPE (Plasma Experiment for Planetary Exploration), again a combination of what would have been larger instruments
* SCARLET (Solar Concentrator Array of Refractive Linear Element Technologies), a lighter source with high power
* The Beacon Monitor experiment, where the spacecraft sends only a status signal during cruise, reducing cost
Deep Space 1 succeeded in its tasks and also achieved its secondary goals: flybys of the [[asteroid]] [[9969 Braille|Braille]] and of [[Comet Borrelly]], returning valuable science data and stunning pictures. Deep Space 1 was retired on [[December 18]], [[2001]].
==Technologies==
[[Image:Deep Space 1 ion engine.jpg|thumb|220px|Deep Space 1 ion engine]]
The NSTAR ion thruster achieves a specific impulse of over one to three thousand seconds. This is an order of magnitude higher than traditional space propulsion methods, resulting in a mass savings of approxi |
B (2004)
===Retired numbers===
*[[Dutch Clark]] (7)
*[[Lem Barney]] (20)
*[[Billy Sims]] (20)
*[[Barry Sanders]] (20)
**'''Note:''' The #20 was retired specifically for Sanders, but most people recognize the retired number as representing Barney and Sims, both of whom are noteworthy Lions, as well.
*[[Bobby Layne]] (22)
*[[Doak Walker]] (37)
*[[Joe Schmidt]] (56)
*[[Chuck Hughes]] (85)
**'''Note:''' Hughes died of a heart attack during a game on [[October 24]], 1971, and his number was unofficially retired in that no player has worn it since. Currently, receiver Kevin Johnson is wearing #85 after asking permission from the Hughes family as he has worn that number throughout his professional career.
*[[Charlie Sanders]] (88)
**'''Note:''' The #88 has been in and out of the rotation in recent years. Currently, it is being used by wide receiver Mike Williams.
===Not to be forgotten===
*[[Eric Andolsek]]
*[[Jerry Ball]]
*[[Lomas Brown]]
*[[Roger Brown]]
*[[Jeff Chadwick]]
*[[Harry Colon]]
*[[Chip Cox]]
*[[Mel Farr]]
*[[Alex Karras]]
*[[Greg Landry]]
*[[Dick LeBeau]]
*[[Chuck Long]]
*[[Earl Morrall]]
*[[Herman Moore]]
*[[Rodney Peete]]
*[[Milt Plum]]
*[[Robert Porcher]]
*[[Glenn Presnell]]
*[[Chris Spielman]]
*[[Pat Swilling]]
*[[Mike Utley]]
*[[Wayne Walker]]
==Head Coaches==
*[[Hal Griffin]] (1930)
*[[George Clark (football coach)|George "Potsy" Clark]] (1931-1936)
*[[Dutch Clark|Earl "Dutch" Clark]] (1937-1938)
*[[Gus Henderson|Elmer "Gus" Henderson]] (1939)
*[[George Clark (football coach)|George "Potsy" Clark]] (1940)
*[[Bill Edwards (football coach)|Bill Edwards]] (1941-1942)
*[[John Karcis]] (1942)
*[[Gus Dorais|Charles "Gus" Dorais]] (1943-1947)
*[[Bo McMillan|Alvin "Bo" McMillan]] (1948-1950)
*[[Buddy Parker]] (1951-1956)
*[[George Wilson (football coach)|George Wilson]] (1957-1964)
*[[Harry Gilmer]] (1965-1966)
*[[Joe Schmidt]] (1967-1972)
*[[Don McCafferty]] (1973)
*[[Rick Forzano]] (1974-1976)
*[[Tommy Hudspeth]] (1976-1977)
*[[Monte Clark]] (1978-1984)
*[[Darryl Rogers]] (1985-1988)
*[[Wayne Fontes]] (1988-1996)
*[[Bobby Ross]] (1997-2000)
*[[Gary Moeller]] (2000)
*[[Marty Mornhinweg]] (2001-2002)
*[[Steve Mariucci]] (2003-2005)
*[[Dick Jauron]] (2005) (interim)
*[[Rod Marinelli]] (2006-present)
===Current Staff===
*General Manager - [[Matt Millen]]
*Head Coach - [[Rod Marinelli]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Mike Martz]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Donnie Henderson]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Chuck Priefer]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Mike Martz]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Wilbert Montgomery]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Kippy Brown]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Pat Carter]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Larry Beightol]]
*Offensive Assistant - [[Shawn Jefferson]]
*Offensive Quality Control - [[Adam Gase]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Joe Cullen]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Phil Snow]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[TBA]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[Don Clemons]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Jason Arapoff]]
==External links==
*[http://www.detroitlions.com/ Detroit Lions official web site]<br>
* [http://wtfdetroit.com WTFDetroit.com Your source for up to date Lions and other NFL News And talk]
*[http://www.portsmouthspartans.org/ Portsmouth Spartans Historical Society]
*[http://www.motownlions.com MotownLions.com - Fan forum]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/det/lions.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]
{{NFL}}
[[Category:Detroit Lions| ]]
[[Category:Sports in Detroit, Michigan]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:1930 establishments]]
[[de:Detroit Lions]]
[[fr:Lions de Detroit]]
[[it:Detroit Lions]]
[[pt:Detroit Lions]]
[[sv:Detroit Lions]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dyne</title>
<id>8578</id>
<revision>
<id>25611602</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-15T21:40:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.109.243.150</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]], the '''dyne''' is a [[unit]] of [[Force (physics)|force]] specified in the ''[[Centimeter-gram-second system of units|centimetre-gram-second]]'' (cgs) [[system of units]], symbol "dyn". One dyne is equal to exactly 10<sup>-5</sup> [[newton]]s. Further, the dyne can be defined as "the force required to accelerate a [[mass]] of one [[gram]] at a rate of one [[centimetre]] per [[second]] squared."
{{Units of force}}
[[Category:CGS units]]
F. f. Greek &delta;&upsilon;&nu;&alpha;&mu;&iota;&sigmaf; (''dunamis'') power, force.
[[de:Dyn]]
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[[ja:ダイン]]
[[pl:Dyna]]
[[ru:Дина]]
[[sl:Dina]]
[[zh:达因]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Detroit Tigers</title>
<id>8579</id>
<revision>
<id>41266181</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T04:17:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.221.36.85</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Tigers}}
The '''Detroit Tigers''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Detroit, Michigan]]. They are in the [[American League Central|American League's Central Division]]. Since 1992 they have been owned by [[Mike Ilitch]], founder of [[Little Caesars|Little Caesars Pizza]] and owner of the [[National Hockey League|NHL]]'s [[Detroit Red Wings]].
== Franchise history ==
===The early years===
The '''Detroit Tigers''' played their first game as a major league team in the American League on [[April 25]], [[1901]] at [[Bennett Park]] in front of 10,000 fans against the Milwaukee Brewers. After trailing 13-4 entering the ninth inning, the team staged a dramatic comeback to win the game 14-13. The Tigers originally played in the minor Western League.
There are various legends about how the Tigers got their [[nickname]]. One has to do with the orange stripes they wore on their black stockings. Another has to do with a sportswriter equating that [[1901]] Detroit club's opening day victory to the ferocity of his alma mater, the [[Princeton University|Princeton Tigers]].
However, the truth is revealed in Richard Bak's [[1998]] [[book]], ''A Place for Summer: A Narrative History of Tiger Stadium''. In the [[19th century]], the city of Detroit had a military unit called the Detroit Light Guard, who were known as "The Tigers." They had played a significant role in certain [[Civil war|Civil War]] battles and also in the recently-fought [[Spanish-American War]]. The ballclub received permission from the Light Guard to use their [[trademark]], and from that day forth the ballclub was officially the ''Tigers''.
That 1901 team eventually finished third in the eight team league. Eleven years later, an elegant stadium was constructed on the site of Bennett Park and named Navin Field. In [[1961]], Briggs Stadium, as it was then known, was renamed [[Tiger Stadium]]. Tiger Stadium was used by the Tigers until the end of the [[1999]] season. Since [[2000]], the Tigers have played in [[Comerica Park]].
===The Cobb era===
In [[1905]], the team acquired [[Ty Cobb]], a fearless player with a mean streak, who would be considered one of the greatest of all-time. The addition of Cobb to an already talented team that included [[Sam Crawford]], [[Hughie Jennings]], [[Bill Donovan (baseball)|Bill Donovan]], and [[George Mullin (baseball)|George Mullin]] quickly yielded results, as the Tigers won their first American League pennant in 1907.
[[Image:TyCobbBatting.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Ty Cobb at bat in 1908 at Chicago's [[South Side Park]]]]
Cobb and the Tigers disappointed in the 1907 Fall Classic against the [[Chicago Cubs]]. With the exception of Game 1, which ended in a rare tie, the Tigers failed to score more than one run in any game and lost four straight. The Cubs would deny Detroit the title again in '08, holding Detroit to a .209 batting average for the series, which the Cubs again won in five games. It was hoped that a new opponent in the 1909 Series, [[Pittsburgh Pirates|Pittsburgh]], would yield different results, but the Bengals were blown out 8-0 in the decisive seventh game at [[Forbes Field]].
In the teens and twenties, Cobb remained the marquee player on many Tigers teams that would remain mired in the middle of the American League. Cobb himself took over [[baseball manager|managerial]] duties in 1921, but during six years at the helm, his Tigers never had a record better than 86-68.
===The Tigers break through===
The Tiger teams of the [[1930s]] were consistently among the league's best with "Black Mike" [[Mickey Cochrane]] behind the plate, [[Hank Greenberg]], one of the greatest Jewish baseball players of all time, at first, and [[Charlie Gehringer]], "The Mechanical Man" at second. They would be denied again in the 1934 World Series in seven games by the [[Gashouse Gang]] [[St. Louis Cardinals]]. Again, when the chips were down in the deciding game, Detroit folded, giving up seven third-inning runs and losing Game Seven 11-0 at Navin Field (Tiger Stadium). The game was marred by an ugly incident. After spiking Tiger third baseman Marv Owen in the sixth inning, the Cardinals' Joe "Ducky" Medwick had to be removed from the game for his own safety by Commissioner [[Kenesaw Mountain Landis]] after being pelted with fruit and garbage from angry fans in the large temporary bleacher section in left field.
The Tigers finally reached the Promised Land the following year, defeating the Cubs 4 games to 2 to win the 1935 World Series, which concluded with [[Goose Goslin]]'s dramatic walk-off single, scoring Cochrane to seal the victory.
The Tigers returned to the middle of the American League in the late 30's and World War II era before the timely return of [[Hank Greenberg]] from the military helped the Tigers to the 1945 American League pennant. With Virgil Trucks and Hall of Famer [[Hal Newhouser]] on the mound and Greenberg leading |
ulations can be transported from the ring <math>\Bbb{Z}_n</math> to the ring <math>\Bbb{Z}_p \times \Bbb{Z}_q</math>. The sum of the bit sizes of <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> is the bit size of <math>n</math>, making <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> considerably smaller than <math>n</math>. This greatly simplifies calculations.
Another potential application of Chinese remainder theorem is for counting soldiers in an army. Via Chinese remainder theorem, the general has the soldiers quickly line up in groups of 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, and so on and counts the remaining soldiers that can't make complete groups. After enough of these tests are made, the general can quickly calculate how many soldiers he has exactly; thus he has done a 3 hour headcount in all of 2 minutes. This fact, that a large number can be represented by a small number of relatively small remainders, is also the core idea of [[residue number system]]s.
== See also ==
* [[Covering system]]
* [[Residue number system]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/chinese.shtml Chinese remainder theorem] at [[cut-the-knot]]
==References==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.3.2 (pp.286&ndash;291), exercise 4.6.2&ndash;3 (page 456).
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Section 31.5: The Chinese remainder theorem, pp.873&ndash;876.
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<title>Cyril Kornbluth</title>
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<title>Climate Change 1995</title>
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<page>
<title>Cyril M. Kornbluth</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyril M. Kornbluth''' ([[July 23]], [[1923]] - [[March 21]], [[1958]] -- [[pen-name]]s: '''Cecil Corwin''', '''S.D. Gottesman''', '''Edward J. Bellin''', '''Kenneth Falconer''', '''Walter C. Davies''', '''Simon Eisner,''' '''Jordan Park''') was a [[science fiction]] [[author]] and a notable member of the [[Futurians]]. Kornbluth was born in [[New York City]].
Kornbluth served in the [[United States Army|US Army]] during [[World War II]] ([[European Theatre of World War II|European Theatre]]). He received a [[Bronze Star Medal|Bronze Star]] for his service in the [[Battle of the Bulge]]. After his discharge, he returned to finish his education at the [[University of Chicago]], which had been interrupted by the war.
Kornbluth began writing at fifteen. His first solo work, "King Cole of Pluto," was published in May 1940 and appeared in [[Science_fiction_magazine|Super Science Stories]] ("Stepsons of Mars," written with Richard Wilson and published under the name "Ivar Towers" appeared in the April 1940 [[Science_fiction_magazine|Astonishing]]). His other short fiction includes "The Little Black Bag," "The Marching Morons," "The Altar at Midnight," "Ms. Found in a Chinese Fortune Cookie," "Gomez," and "The Advent on Channel 12."
''The Little Black Bag'' was adapted for television by the [[BBC]] in 1969 for its ''[[Out of the Unknown]]'' series. In 1970, the same story was adapted by [[Rod Serling]] for an episode of his ''[[Night Gallery]]'' series. This dramatization starred [[Burgess Meredith]] as an alcoholic derelict; a discredited former doctor who acquires some far-future medical technology, which he uses benevolently ... thus reclaiming his career and redeeming his soul.
[[The_Marching_Morons|The Marching Morons]] is Kornbluth's most famous short story; it is a satirical look at an overpopulated future, with a population consisting of a few geniuses and a huge number of stupid people, in which the few geniuses are working desperately to keep things running from behind the scenes. Part of its appeal is that readers tend to identify with the oppressed geniuses. Few people realize that "The Marching Morons" is a direct sequel to "The Little Black Bag": it is easy to miss this, as "Bag" is set in the contemporary present while "Morons" takes place several centuries from now, and there is no character who appears in both stories.
Many of his novels were written as collaborations: either with [[Judith Merril]] (using the pseudonym "Cyril Judd"), or with [[Frederik Pohl]]. A number of short stories remained unfinished at Kornbluth's death; these were eventually completed and published by Pohl.
Kornbluth died at the age of thirty four of a heart attack in [[Waverly, Tioga County, New York |Waverly, New York]] although he had lived primarily in [[Chicago, Illinois]].
All of Kornbluth's short stories have been collected as ''His Share of Glory: The Complete Short Fiction of C. M. Kornbluth'' ([[New England Science Fiction Association|NESFA]] Press, 1997).
Kornbluth was also mentioned in Lemony Snicket's [[Series of Unfortunate Events]] as a member of [[V.F.D.]].
==Personality and habits==
Frederik Pohl (in his autobiography ''[[The Way the Future Was]]'') and [[Damon Knight]] (in his memoir ''[[The Futurians]]'') both give vivid descriptions of Kornbluth as a man of odd personal habits and vivid eccentricities. Among the traits which they describe:
* Kornbluth decided to educate himself by reading his way through an entire encyclopedia from A to Z; in the course of this effort, he acquired a great deal of esoteric knowledge that found its way into his stories ... in alphabetical order by subject. When Kornbluth wrote a story that mentioned the ancient Roman weapon ''ballista'', Pohl knew that Kornbluth had finished the "A" volume and had started the "B".
* According to Pohl, Kornbluth never brushed his teeth, and they were literally green. Deeply embarrassed by this, Kornbluth developed the habit of holding his hand in front of his mouth when speaking.
* Kornbluth disliked black coffee, but felt obliged to acquire a taste for it because he believed that professional authors were "supposed to" drink black coffee. He trained himself by putting gradually less cream into each cup of coffee he drank, until he eventually "weaned himself" (Knight's description) and switched to black coffee.
It should be noted that Pohl and Knight both had deep friendships with Kornbluth, and their affection for him is made clear in their respective memoirs. The first of these stories should be treated as apocryphal because there is similar story told by [[Bertrand Russell]] about [[Aldous Huxley]].
==Selected bibliography==
* ''[[The Marching Morons]]''
* ''Outpost Mars'' (with Judith Merril, first published as a ''[[Galaxy science fiction|Galaxy]]'' serial entitled ''Mars Child'' and AKA ''Sin in Space'', 1951)
* ''[[The Space Merchants]]'' (with Frederik Pohl, first published as a ''Galaxy'' serial entitled ''Gravy Planet'', 1952)
* ''Gunner Cade'' (with Judith Merril, 1952)
* ''Takeoff'' (1952)
* ''[[The Syndic]]'' (1953)
* ''Gladiator at Law'' (with Frederik Pohl, first published as a ''Galaxy'' serial, 1954)
* ''Search the Sky'' (with Frederik Pohl, 1954)
* ''Wolfbane'' (with Frederik Pohl) (first published as a ''Galaxy'' serial, 1954)
* ''[[Not This August]]'' (AKA ''Christmas Eve'', 1955)
* ''Valerie'' (1953, as Jordan Park), a novel about the hypocrisy of the "witch" hunters
* ''Half'' (1953, as Jordan Park), a novel about a hermaphrodite; somewhat dated but remarkable for its time
He also published several mystery novels, including ''A Man of Cold Rages'' (1958, as Jordan Park).
See also: [[Judith Merril]]
[[Category:1923 births|Kornbluth, Cyril M.]]
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<comment>Not without attribution</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''C |
abuse, the higher doses were taken off the market and it is now only available in 1mg.
==Pharmacology==
Like other [[benzodiazepine]]s, flunitrazepam's pharmacological effects include sedation, muscle relaxation, reduction in anxiety, and prevention of convulsions. However, flunitrazepam's sedative effects are approximately 7 to 10 times more potent than [[diazepam]]. The effects of flunitrazepam appear approximately 15 to 20 minutes after oral administration, and last for approximately four to six hours. Some residual effects can persist up to 12 hours or more after administration.
==Medical Uses==
Flunitrazepam has not been approved by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] for medical use in the [[United States]].
==Illegal Uses==
=== Use as a [[date rape]] drug ===
Flunitrazepam is known to induce [[anterograde amnesia]] in sufficient doses; individuals are unable to remember certain events that they experienced while under the influence of the drug. This effect is particularly dangerous when flunitrazepam is used to aid in the commission of [[sexual assault]]; victims may not be able to clearly recall the assault, the assailant, or the events surrounding the assault.
It is difficult to estimate just how many flunitrazepam-facilitated [[rape]]s have occurred in the United States. Very often, biological samples are taken from the victim at a time when the effects of the drug have already passed and only residual amounts remain in the body fluids. These residual amounts are difficult, and sometimes impossible, to detect using standard screening assays available in the United States. If flunitrazepam exposure is to be detected at all, urine samples need to be collected within 72 hours and subjected to sensitive analytical tests. The problem is compounded by the onset of amnesia after ingestion of the drug, which causes the victim to be uncertain about the facts surrounding the rape. This uncertainty may lead to critical delays or even reluctance to report the rape and provide appropriate biological samples for testing. If a person suspects that he or she is the victim of a flunitrazepam-facilitated rape, he or she should get laboratory testing for flunitrazepam as soon as possible.
It must be noted that an inability to remember events, including sexual encounters, is not conclusive evidence of having consumed a drugged drink: [[Drunkenness]] itself causes blackouts, sleepiness, and a reduction in inhibitions. Only a timely screening for flunitrazepam can demonstrate its use.
===Use for [[theft]]===
In the United Kingdom, the use of flunitrazepam and other "date rape" drugs is becoming widespread as a means of sedating victims and stealing from them. It is estimated that up to 2000 men and women are robbed each year after being spiked with powerful sedatives [http://www.guardian.co.uk/crime/article/0,2763,1376956,00.html], making drug-assisted robbery a more common problem than drug-assisted rape.
In December [[2004]], [[Selina Hakki]] was found guilty of using flunitrazepam to drug wealthy men and rob them of their clothes and accessories in the [[UK]].
===Use as a [[recreational drug]]===
Although flunitrazepam has become widely known for its use as a date-rape drug, it is used more frequently as a recreational drug. It is used by high school and college students, street gang members, rave party attendees, and [[heroin]] and [[cocaine]] users (who call a dose of flunitrazepam a "roofie") for recreational purposes, including:
* To produce profound intoxication
* To boost the high produced by [[heroin]], or ease the anxiety and/or sleeplessness of withdrawal
* To counteract the side effects of stimulants (e.g. insomnia, paranoia, jitteryness)
* To "soften" the so-called "crash" which follows heavy usage of stimulants, such as cocaine or methamphetamine
* To improve sex drive and appetite.
Flunitrazepam is usually consumed orally, and is often combined with [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]]. It is also occasionally insufflated (i.e. tablets are crushed into powder and snorted).
==Side Effects==
Flunitrazepam is considered to be one of the most addictive of the benzodiazepines, along with [[clonazepam]], [[midazolam]], [[temazepam]], [[lorazepam]] and [[alprazolam]]. Its use causes several notable side effects, including:
* Drowsiness
* Loss of motor control
** [[Dizziness]]
** Lack of coordination
* Slurred speech
* [[Confusion]]
* [[Gastrointestinal]] disturbances, lasting 12 or more hours.
* [[Respiratory depression]] in higher doses
Long-term use of flunitrazepam can result in psychological and physical dependence and the appearance of [[withdrawal]] symptoms when the drug is discontinued. Flunitrazepam impairs [[cognitive]] and psychomotor functions, affecting reaction time and driving skill. The use of this drug in combination with alcohol potentiates these side effects, and can lead to [[toxicity]].
==Legal Status==
Flunitrazepam is a [[Schedule III]] drug under the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]][http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf]. Flunitrazepam has never been approved for medical use in the [[United States]], and it was placed into Schedule IV of the [[Controlled Substances Act]] in [[1984]], and was later moved to Schedule III.
According to FDA Associate Director for Domestic and International Drug Control Nicholas Reuter[http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t990311b.html]:
:Flunitrazepam was "''temporarily controlled in [[Controlled Substances Act|Schedule IV]] pursuant to a treaty obligation under the [[1971]] Convention on Psychotropic Substances. At the time flunitrazepam was placed temporarily in Schedule IV . . . there was no evidence of abuse or trafficking of the drug in the United States.''"
Rohypnol is currently under consideration to be moved to a [[Controlled Substances Act|Schedule I]] substance, and is considered as such in the States of Florida, Idaho, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, and Pennsylvania.
{{UnitedStatesCode|21|841}} and {{UnitedStatesCode|21|952}} provide for very stiff prison terms for possession of flunitrazepam, including life in prison if death or serious bodily or emotional injury results from the use of flunitrazepam.
== See also ==
* [[Progesterex]]
== External Links ==
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/pim021.htm Inchem - Flunitrazepam]
* [http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/rohypnol/rohypnolh.htm Molecule of the Month]
* [http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t990311b.html Statement on "Date Rape" Drugs by Nicholas Reuter, M.P.H.], Mar. 11, 1999.
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<page>
<title>Fuel cell</title>
<id>11729</id>
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<id>41891524</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T12:00:09Z</timestamp>
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<username>Wayward</username>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/194.165.219.2|194.165.219.2]] ([[User talk:194.165.219.2|talk]]) to last version by DV8 2XL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
[[Image:Toyota FCHV.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Toyota FCHV fuel cell vehicle]]
A '''fuel cell''' is an [[electrochemistry|electrochemical]] device similar to a [[Battery (electricity)|battery]], but differing from the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i.e. it produces electricity from an external fuel supply of [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] as opposed to the limited internal energy storage capacity of a battery. Additionally, the electrodes within a battery react and change as a battery is charged or discharged, whereas a fuel cell's electrodes are catalytic and relatively stable.
Typical [[reactant]]s used in a fuel cell are [[hydrogen]] on the [[anode]] side and [[oxygen]] on the [[cathode]] side (a hydrogen cell). Usually, reactants flow in and reaction products flow out. Virtually continuous long-term operation is feasible as long as these flows are maintained.
Fuel cells are often considered to be very attractive in modern applications for their high efficiency and ideally emission-free use, in contrast to currently more common fuels such as [[methane]] or [[natural gas]] that generate [[carbon dioxide]]. The only [[by-product]] of a fuel cell operating on pure hydrogen is [[water vapor]]. There is concern, however, about the energy-consuming process of manufacturing the hydrogen. Manufacturing hydrogen requires a hydrogen carrier (typically [[fossil fuel]]s, though water is an alternative), as well as electricity, which is widely generated by conventional fuels ([[fossil fuel]] or [[nuclear power]]). While [[alternative energy]] sources like [[wind energy|wind]] and [[solar power]] could also be used, they are prohibitively expensive at present. In this regard, hydrogen fuel technology itself cannot be called truly independent of fossil fuel dependence, unless a totally nuclear option was considered.
== Technology ==
[[Image:Fuel cell NASA p48600ac.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Hydrogen fuel cell. The actual fuel cell stack is the layered cubic structure in the centre of the image]]
Fuel cells are not constrained by the maximum [[Carnot heat engine|Carnot cycle]] efficiency as combustion engines are because they do not operate with a thermal cycle. Consequently, they can have very high efficiencies in converting [[chemical energy]] to [[electrical energy]].
In the archetypal example of a [[hydrogen]]/[[oxygen]] proton-exchange membrane (or "polymer electrolyte& |
he first created a prose work and then used it as the basis for his poem, the [[Lays of Boethius]], his crowning literary achievement. He spent a great deal of time working on these books, which he tells us he gradually wrote through the many stressful times of his reign to refresh his mind. Of the authenticity of the work as a whole there has never been any doubt.
The last of Alfred's works is one to which he gave the name ''Blostman,'' i.e., "Blooms" or Anthology. The first half is based mainly on the ''Soliloquies'' of St [[Augustine of Hippo]], the remainder is drawn from various sources, and contains much that is Alfred's own and highly characteristic of him. The last words of it may be quoted; they form a fitting epitaph for the noblest of English kings. "Therefore he seems to me a very foolish man, and truly wretched, who will not increase his understanding while he is in the world, and ever wish and long to reach that endless life where all shall be made clear."
Beside these works of Alfred's, the Saxon Chronicle almost certainly, and a Saxon Martyrology, of which fragments only exist, probably owe their inspiration to him. A prose version of the first fifty [[Psalms]] has been attributed to him; and the attribution, though not proved, is perfectly possible. Additionally, Alfred appears as a character in ''[[The Owl and the Nightingale]],'' where his wisdom and skill with proverbs is attested. Additionally, ''[[The Proverbs of Alfred]]'', which exists for us in a 13th century manuscript contains sayings that very likely have their origins partly with the king.
=== Death ===
Alfred died on [[26 October]] [[899]], though the year is uncertain &mdash; but not [[900]] or [[901]] as were previously accepted. How he died is unknown. He was originally buried in the Old Minster, then moved to the New Minster, and then transferred to Hyde Abbey in the year 1110.
==Appearance in Culture==
In honour of Alfred, the [[University of Liverpool]] now has a [[King Alfred Chair of English Literature]].
[[Thomas Augustine Arne]]'s ''[[Masque of Alfred]]'' (known for "[[Rule Britannia]]") was a [[masque]] about Alfred the Great (first public performance: [[1745]]).
[[G K Chesterton]]'s poetical epic ''[[The Ballad of the White Horse]]'' describes Alfred uniting the fragmented Kingdoms of Britain to chase the northern invaders away from the island. Like [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'', it deals with the theme of a divinely oriented leader waging physical and spiritual battle against a morally unjust enemy.
The [[historical fiction]] author [[Bernard Cornwell]] started, in the early 21st century, a retelling saga ''[[The Saxon Stories]]'' about Alfred's life and his struggle against the [[Vikings]]. A biography of Alfred by Justin Pollard was published in 2005.
Alfred was played by [[David Hemmings]] in the [[1969]] film ''Alfred the Great'', which co-starred [[Michael York (actor)|Michael York]] as Guthrum [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0064000/].
[[Alfred University]], located in [[Alfred (village), New York|Alfred, NY]], is named after him.
== See also ==
* [[British military history]]
* [[University College, Oxford]]
* [[Kingdom of England]]
* [[Lays of Boethius]]
* [[Alfred Jewel]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page25.asp Alfred the Great] from the [http://www.royal.gov.uk/ official website of the British Monarchy]
* [http://www.mirror.org/ken.roberts/king.alfred.html King Alfred the Great] and [http://www.mirror.org/ken.roberts/alfred.jewel.html Alfred Jewel] by [http://www.mirror.org/ken.roberts/ Ken Roberts]
* [http://rsparlourtricks.blogspot.com/2005/10/alfred-great.html Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: Alfred the Great]
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lays_of_Boethius Lays of Boethius]
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[[ang:Ælfrēd se Grēata]]
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[[sv:Alfred den store]]
[[uk:Альфред Великий]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Alfred Ernest Albert</title>
<id>1641</id>
<revision>
<id>15900108</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-17T22:44:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John Kenney</username>
<id>10512</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alessandro Algardi</title>
<id>1642</id>
<revision>
<id>38155460</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T15:46:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pietro</username>
<id>19883</id>
</contributor>
<comment>it:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alessandro Algardi''' (Bologna [[July 31]],[[1598]] &ndash; Rome, [[June 10]], [[1654]]), is mainly known as an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Baroque]] [[Sculpture|sculptor]], the major rival of [[Bernini]] in the field and an outstanding draughtsman. His role as an architect rests largely on his designs for the [[Villa Doria Pamphili]], Rome (1644&ndash1652) and its extensive fountains and other garden features, where much of his free-standing sculpture and bas-reliefs also remain, and for the architectonic features of his sculptural setpieces.
While apprenticed in the Bolognese atelier of [[Agostino Carracci]], Algardi's aptitude for sculpture led him to work for the sculptor [[Giulio Cesare Conventi]] (1577&ndash;1640). At the age of twenty he was brought to the notice of [[Duke of Mantua|Ferdinando I, Duke of Mantua]], who gave him several commissions, which gave the young sculptor a chance to immerse himself in one of the greatand exposed the young sculptor a chance to see his large collections of Roman antiquities and sculpture. He was also much employed about the same period by goldsmiths, modelling for them in ivory and making wax ''modelli'' for casting in gold and silver.
After a short residence in [[Venice]], he went to [[Rome]] in 1625 with an introduction from the Duke of Mantua to the [[Pope Gregory XV|late pope's]] nephew, [[Ludovico Cardinal Ludovisi]], who employed him for a time in the restoration of ancient statues, which still form the core of the Bonacorsi-Ludovisi collection in [[Palazzo Altemps]]. . [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], in the first flush of his fame, had the pick of the best available commissions in Rome, and the duke's death left Algardi to his own meagre resources, and for several years he earned a precarious living from these restorations and commissions of goldsmiths and jewellers. His friends included his fellow Bolognese, [[Domenichino]] and [[Pietro da Cortona]], and his early Roman commissions included terracotta portrait busts, while he supported himself with small works like crucifixes.
For [[Pietro Buoncompagni]] in 1640, Algardi created his first major public work in marble, a colossal statue of [[Philip Neri]], with kneeling angels. Immediately after this, he produced a similar group, representing the beheading of [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] in two figures, of the kneeling saint and the executioner poised to strike the sword-blow, for [[San Paolo Maggiore]], the church of the Barnabite Fathers in Bologna. These proficient works expressed Baroque dramatic attitudes and immediacy of expression, at once established Algardi's reputation, and other commissions quickly followed.
==Algardi Gains Papal Favor with the Ascent of Innocent X==
For two decades Bernini had dominated the most prominent commissions in Rome, however,with the accession of the Bolognese [[Pamphilj]] [[Pope Innocent X]][http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria/Algardi%20Alessandro/imagepages/image17.html (bust)],[http://members.tripod.com/romeartlover/Juv34.html (coat of arms)]in 1644, Algardi was employed by the Pope and the pope's nephew, [[Camillo Pamphilj]].[http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria/Algardi%20Alessandro/imagepages/image2.html (bust, Hermitage)]For example, he was asked to design the [[Villa Doria Pamphili]] outside the San Pancrazio gate, a project in which he depended on the professional aid of the architect/engineer [[Girolamo Rainaldi]], while Algardi and his studio executed the sculpture-encrusted exteriors and interiors His portrait bust of Camillo Pamphili is at The [[Hermitage Museum]]. A church façade sometimes attributed to Algardi is that of Sant' Ignazio di Loyola in Campo Marzio. In [[1650]] Algardi met [[Diego Velasquez]], who obtained commissions for Spain. There are four chimneypieces by Algardi in the palace of [[Aranjuez]], where the figures on the fountain of [[Neptune (god)|Neptune]] were also by him. The Augustine monastery at [[Salamanca]] contains the tomb of the count and countess de Monterey, another work by Algardi.
==Relief of ''Fuga d'Attila'' in St. Peter's Basilica==
Algardi's masterpiece is the large dramatic marble high-relief panel of Pope Leo and Attila [http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/a/algardi/2/meeting.html (image)](1646&ndash;53) for [[St Peter's Basilica]], which reinvigorated the use of marble in reliefs. There had been large marble reliefs used pr |
ion]]
*[http://constitucion.presidencia.gob.mx/docs/constitucion.pdf Constitution of Mexico] (in Spanish) [PDF]
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China Constitution of the People's Republic of China]
*[http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/upload/static/256.pdf Constitution of Ireland]
*[http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/english/constitution.htm Constitution of Turkey]
*[http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/index.htm Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia]
*[http://www.folketinget.dk/pdf/constitution.pdf Constitution of Denmark]
*[http://confinder.richmond.edu Constitution Finder]
==References==
*[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld200203/ldselect/ldconst/168/16809.htm#note92 Report on the British constitution and proposed European constitution by Professor John McEldowney, University of Warwick] Submitted as written evidence to House of Lords Select Committee on Constitution, published to the public on [[15 October]] [[2003]].
*"Constitution", Encyclopædia Britannica 2003 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD
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</page>
<page>
<title>Common law</title>
<id>5254</id>
<revision>
<id>41536333</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T00:29:47Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of the term, within the field of law, see [[common law (disambiguation)]].''
{{CommonLaw}}
The '''common law''' forms a major part of the [[law]] of many [[state]]s, especially those with a history as [[British Empire|British]] territories or [[colony|colonies]]. It is notable for its inclusion of extensive [[non-statutory law]] reflecting [[precedent]] derived from centuries of [[judgment]]s by [[judge]]s hearing real cases.
There are three important connotations to the term.
One is used to distinguish the authority that promulgated a particular proposition of law: for example, the United States typically has "statutes" enacted by a legislature, "regulations" promulgated by executive branch agencies pursuant to a delegation of rule-making authority from a legislature, and "common law" decisions issued by courts (or quasi-judicial tribunals within agencies) that discuss and decide the fine distinctions in statutes and regulations. See [[statutory law]] and [[non-statutory law]].
The second distinguishes "common law" [[jurisdiction]]s (most of which descend from the English legal system) that place great weight on such common law decisions, from "[[civil law (legal system)|civil law]]", "continental" or "code" jurisdictions, heavily influenced by the 2000 years old [[Roman law]], its study in [[Europe]]an [[university|universities]] and its practice by professional [[lawyer]]s from the [[12th century]] on, and centred on [[code (law)|codes]] like the [[France|French]] [[Napoleonic code]] or the [[Germany|German]] [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|BGB]]). In civil law jurisdictions, the weight accorded to judicial precedent is much less.
The third distinguishes "common law" (or just "law") from "[[equity]]". Until the beginning of the 20th Century, most common law jurisdictions had two parallel court systems, courts of "law" that could only award money damages and recognised only the legal owner of property, and courts of "equity" that recognised [[trusts]] of property and could issue injunctions, orders to do or stop doing something. Although the separate courts were merged long ago in most jurisdictions, or at least all courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, the distinction between law and equity remains important in categorising and prioritising rights to property, and in the principles that apply to the grant of [[equitable remedies]] by the courts. In the United States, the distinction can determine whether the Sixth Amendment's guarantee of a jury trial applies (a determination of a fact necessary to resolution of a "law" claim) or whether the issue can only be decided by a judge (issues of equity).
Many important areas of law are governed primarily by common law. For example, in England and Wales and in most states of the United States, the basic law of contracts and torts does not exist in statute, but only in common law. In almost all areas of the law, statutes may give only terse statements of general principle, but the fine boundaries and definitions exist only in the common law. To find out what the law is, one has to locate precedent decisions on the topic, and reason from those decisions by analogy.
==History of the common law==
Common law originally developed under the [[adversary system|adversarial system]] in [[England]] from judicial decisions that were based in [[tradition]], [[custom]], and [[precedent]]. Such forms of legal institutions and culture bear resemblance to those which existed historically in continental [[Europe]] and other societies where precedent and custom have at times played a substantial role in the legal process, including [[Germanic law]] recorded in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[history|historical chronicles]]. The form of reasoning used in common law is known as [[casuistry]] or [[case-based reasoning]]. The common law, as applied in [[Civil case|civil cases]] (as distinct from [[Criminal case|criminal cases]]), was devised as a means of [[damages|compensating]] someone for wrongful acts known as [[tort]]s, including both intentional torts and torts caused by [[negligence]], and as developing the body of law recognizing and regulating [[contract]]s. The type of [[procedure]] practised in common law courts is known as the [[adversarial system]]; this is also a development of the common law.
Before the institutional stability imposed on England by [[William the Conqueror]] in [[1066]], English residents, like those of many other societies, particularly the Germanic cultures of continental Europe, were governed by unwritten local customs that varied from community to community and were enforced in often arbitrary fashion. For example, [[court]]s generally consisted of informal public assemblies that weighed conflicting claims in a case and, if unable to reach a decision, might require an accused to test guilt or innocence by carrying a red-hot iron or snatching a stone from a cauldron of boiling water or some other "test" of veracity ([[trial by ordeal]]). If the [[defendant|defendant's]] wound healed within a prescribed period, he was set free as innocent; if not, execution usually followed.
In [[1154]], [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] became the first [[Plantagenet]] king. Among many achievements, Henry institutionalised common law by creating a unified system of law "common" to the country through incorporating and elevating local custom to the national, ending local control and peculiarities, eliminating arbitrary remedies, and reinstating a [[jury]] system of citizens sworn on oath to investigate reliable criminal accusations and civil claims. The jury reached its [[verdict]] through evaluating common local knowledge, not necessarily through the presentation of [[evidence (law)|evidence]], a distinguishing factor from today's civil and criminal court systems.
Henry II's creation of a powerful and unified court system, which curbed somewhat the power of [[canon law|canonical]] (church) courts, brought him (and England) into conflict with the church, most famously, with [[Thomas Becket]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. Things were resolved eventually, at least for a time, in Henry's favour when a group of his henchmen murdered Becket. For its part, the Church soon canonised Becket as a saint.
Thus, in English legal history, judicially-developed "common law" became the uniform authority throughout the realm several centuries before Parliament acquired the power to make laws.
As early as the [[15th century]], it became the practice that litigants who felt they had been cheated by the common-law system would petition the [[Monarch|King]] in person. For example, they might argue that an award of damages (at common law) was not sufficient redress for a trespasser occupying their land, and instead request that the trespasser be evicted. From this developed the system of [[equity]], administered by the [[Lord Chancellor]], in the courts of [[chancery]]. By their nature, equity and law were frequently in conflict and litigation would frequently continue for years as one court countermanded the other, even though it was established by the [[17th century]] that equity should prevail. A famous example is the fictional case of [[Jarndyce and Jarndyce]] in ''[[Bleak House]]'', by [[Charles Dickens]].
In England, courts of law and [[equity]] were combined by the [[Judicature Acts]] of [[1873]] and [[1875]], with equi |
'''primary party organization''' (первичная партийная организация) or '''party cell''' (партийная ячейка). It was created within any organizational entity of any kind where there were at least three communists. The management of a cell was called '''party bureau''' (партийное бюро, партбюро). A partbureau was headed by the elected '''bureau secretary''' (секретарь партбюро).
At smaller party cells, secretaries were regular employees of the corresponding plant/hospital/school/etc. Sufficiently large party organizations were usually headed by an '''exempt secretary''' (освобожденный секретарь), who drew his salary from the Party money.
===Membership===
Membership in the party ultimately became a privilege with Communist Party members becoming an elite, or [[nomenklatura]], in Soviet society. Members of the nomenklatura would enjoy special privileges such as shopping at well-stocked stores, have preference in obtaining housing and access to [[dacha]]s and holiday resorts, being allowed to travel abroad, send their children to the best universities and obtain prestigious jobs for them. It became virtually impossible to join the Soviet ruling and managing elite without being a member of the Communist Party.
Membership had its risks, however, especially in the 1930s when the party was subjected to purges under [[Stalin]]. Membership in the party was not open. To become a party member one had to be approved by various committees and one's past was closely scrutinised. As generations grew up never having known anything but the USSR, party membership became something one generally achieved after passing a series of stages. Children would join the [[Pioneer Movement|Young Pioneers]] and then, at the age of 14, graduate to the [[Komsomol]] (Young Communist League) and ultimately, as an adult, if one had shown the proper adherence to [[party discipline]] or had the right connections one would become a member of the Communist Party itself!.
When the Bolsheviks became the ''All-Russian Communist Party'' it had a membership of approximately 200,000. In the late 1920s under Stalin, the party engaged in a heavy recruitment campaign (the "Lenin Levy") of new members from both the working class and rural areas. This was both an attempt to "proletarianize" the party and an attempt by Stalin to strengthen his base by outnumbering the [[Old Bolsheviks]] and reducing their influence in the party.
By 1933, the party had approximately 3.5 million members and candidate members but as a result of the [[Great Purge]] party membership fell to 1.9 million by 1939. In 1986, the CPSU had over 19 million members or approximately 10% of the USSR's adult population. Over 44% of party members were classified as industrial workers, 12% were collective farmers. The CPSU had party organizations in fourteen of the USSR's 15 republics. In the Russian federation itself there was no separate Communist Party as affairs were run directly by the CPSU.
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of the CPSU]]''
With some exceptions, the course of the CPSU (and the history of the whole Soviet Union) was largely determined by its leader. The history of the CPSU since the death of [[Lenin]] can thus be divided into the eras of [[Stalin]], [[Khrushchev]], [[Brezhnev]] and [[Gorbachev]].
<!-- a summary is in order -->
==End of Communist rule==
The growing likelihood of the dissolution of the USSR itself led conservative elements in the CPSU to launch the [[August Coup]] in [[1991]] which temporarily removed Gorbachev from power. On [[August 19]], 1991, a day before a ''Union Treaty'' was to be signed devolving power to the republics, a group calling itself the "State Emergency Committee" seized power in Moscow declaring that Gorbachev was ill and therefore relieved of his position as president. Soviet vice-president [[Gennadiy Yanayev]] was named acting president. The committee's eight members included [[KGB]] chairman [[Vladimir Kryuchkov]], Internal Affairs Minister [[Boris Pugo]], Defense Minister [[Dmitriy Yazov]], and Prime Minister [[Valentin Pavlov]]. The coup dissolved due to large public demonstrations and the efforts of [[Boris Yeltsin]] who became the real power in Russia as a result. Gorbachev returned to Moscow as president but resigned as General Secretary and vowed to purge the party of conservatives. Yeltsin had the CPSU formally banned within Russia. The [[KGB]] was disbanded as were other CPSU-related agencies and organisations. Yeltsin's action was later declared unconstitutional but by this time the USSR had ceased to exist.
After the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]], Russian adherents to the CPSU tradition, particularly as it existed before Gorbachev, reorganised themselves as the [[Communist Party of the Russian Federation]]. Today there is widespread flora of parties in Russia, claiming to be the successors of CPSU. Several of them used the name CPSU. However, CPRF is generally seen (due to its massive size) as the inheritor of the CPSU in Russia.
In other republics, communists established the [[Armenian Communist Party]], [[Communist Party of Azerbaijan]], [[Party of Communists of Kyrgyzstan]], [[Communist Party of Ukraine]], [[Communist Party of Belarus]], [[Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova]], [[Communist Party of Kazakhstan]] and the [[Communist Party of Tajikistan]].
In [[Turkmenistan]], the local party apparatus led by [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] was converted into the [[Democratic Party of Turkmenistan]].
In [[Uzbekistan]], [[Islam Karimov]] converted the CPSU branch into the [[Democratic People's Party (Uzbekistan)|Democratic People's Party]].
In [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], the Socialist Labour Party was founded in [[1992]]. This party would later evolve into the [[Communist Party of Georgia]] (SKP). Another communist faction in Georgia, which is larger than SKP, is the [[United Communist Party of Georgia]] (SEKP).
In [[Estonia]], the CPSU branch was in the hands of reformers, who converted it into the [[Estonian Democratic Labour Party]] (EDTP). A minority regrouped into the [[Communist Party of Estonia (1990)|Communist Party of Estonia]].
In [[Lithuania]], the CPSU branch converted into the [[Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania]]. In [[Latvia]], communist organizations were officially banned. A major part of the party there had broken away in [[1990]] and formed the [[Latvian Social Democratic Party]]. The remnants of CPSU became the [[Union of Communists of Latvia]], which went underground. Later communists regrouped into the [[Socialist Party of Latvia]].
==Branches==
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! Republic
! CPSU
!Communist Party of the Soviet Union
!Local Party
|-
|-
||[[Russian SFSR]]||КПСС||Коммунистическая Партия Советского Союза||Коммунистическая партия РСФСР (1990-1991)
|-
||[[Ukrainian SSR]]||КПРС||Комуністична Партія Радянського Союзу||
|-
||[[Belarusian SSR]]||КПСС||Камуністычная Партыя Савецкага Саюза||
|-
||[[Uzbek SSR]]||
|-
||[[Kazakh SSR]]||СОКП||
|-
||[[Georgian SSR]]||
|-
||[[Azerbaijan SSR]]||||Совет Иттифагы Коммунист Партијасы
|-
||[[Lithuanian SSR]]||TSKP||Tarybų Sąjungos komunistų partija ||
|-
||[[Moldavian SSR]]||ПКУС||Партидул Комунист ал Униуний Советиче
|-
||[[Latvian SSR]]||PSKP||Padomju Savienības Komunistiskā Partija||
|-
||[[Kyrgyz SSR]]||ССКП||Советтер Союзунун Коммунисттик партиясы||
|-
||[[Tajik SSR]]||||||
|-
||[[Armenian SSR]]||
|-
||[[Turkmen SSR]]||||||
|-
||[[Estonian SSR]]||NLKP||Nõukogude Liidu Kommunistlik Partei||[[Communist Party of Estonia (1990)|Eestimaa Kommunistlik Partei]] (EKP)
|}
==See also==
* [[Organization of the Communist Party of the USSR]]
* [[Communist Party]]
* [[List of socialists]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.archontology.org/nations/ussr/cpsu Executive Bodies of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1917-1991)]
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~eurodos/docu/cpsu-texts/cpsu86-0.htm Program of the CPSU, 27th Party Congress (1986)]
[[Category:1918 establishments]]
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[[de:Kommunistische Partei der Sowjetunion]]
[[es:Partido Comunista de la Unión Soviética]]
[[eo:KPSU]]
[[fr:Parti communiste de l'Union soviétique]]
[[it:Partito Comunista dell'Unione Sovietica]]
[[he:המפלגה הקומוניסטית של ברית המועצות]]
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[[nn:Sovjetunionens kommunistiske parti]]
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[[pt:Partido Comunista da União Soviética]]
[[ro:Partidul Comunist al Uniunii Sovietice]]
[[ru:Коммунистическая партия Советского Союза]]
[[th:พรรคคอมมิวนิสต์แห่งสหภาพโซเวียต]]
[[zh:苏联共产党]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Homosexuality and Christianity</title>
<id>7272</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>40754746</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T20:29:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chesaguy</username>
<id>614351</id>
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<comment>/* The Bible and homosexuality */ Revert vandalism.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{RAH}}
The issue of '''Homosexuality and Christianity''' has become a matter of intense [[theology|theological]] debate among some [[Christians]], with ongoing argument over whether [[homosexuality]], and specifically homosexual [[sexual intercourse|sex]], is [[moral]] or a [[sin]].
Traditionally, Christian churches have regarded homosexual sex as sinful, based on their interpretation of certain passages in the [[Bible]]. This position is still affirmed by the largest [[List of Christian denominations|Christian denominations]], including the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], and most [[Protestan |
ign to their times. Variations from modern standards of beauty, social roles, sexual positions, and age disparities are of such magnitude so as to render meaningless any projection of modern roles onto historical personages.
While some premodern societies did not employ categories fully comparable to the modern homosexual or heterosexual dichotomy, this does not demonstrate that the polarity is not applicable to those societies. A common thread of constructionist argument is that no one in antiquity or the Middle Ages experienced homosexuality as an exclusive, permanent, or defining mode of sexuality. John Boswell has criticised this argument by citing ancient Greek writings by Plato, which he says indicate knowledge of exclusive homosexuality.
[[Michel Foucault]] and his followers have argued that the ''homosexual'' is a modern invention, a mental construct of the last 100 years. While true of homosexuality as a ''scientific'' or ''psychological'' category, there are examples from earlier ages of those viewing their sexuality as a part of a human identity and not merely a sexual act. One cited example is the [[16th century|16th-century]] Italian artist [[Giovanni Antonio Bazzi]] who adopted the nickname "Sodoma", which is viewed by Louis Crompton as something analogous to the modern gay identity.
Conversely, it could be noted that the practice of describing a notably evidenced historical figure as having a heterosexual orientation rarely evokes such controversy. This tendency among Western historians, to view heterosexuality as an acceptable norm while regarding arguments that a particular historical figure may have been gay controversial or requiring more evidence than a claim of opposite-sex attraction might warrant, is often attributed to homophobia on the part of historians and is referred to within queer studies as [[heteronormativity]].
===Africa===
Though frequently denied or ignored by European explorers, homosexual expression in native Africa was also present and took a variety of forms. Representative examples:
Anthropologists Murray and Roscoe report that women in [[Lesotho]] have engaged in socially sanctioned "long term, erotic relationships" named ''motsoalle.''
E. E. Evans-Pritchard reported that male [[Azande]] warriors (in the northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]) routinely married male youths who functioned as temporary wives. The practice had died out in the early 20th century but was recounted to him by the elders.
An academic paper by Stephen O. Murray examines the history of descriptions of [http://semgai.free.fr/doc_et_pdf/africa_A4.pdf "Homosexuality in traditional Sub-Saharan Africa"].
===Americas===
[[Image:Catlin - Dance to the berdache.jpg|thumb|''Dance to the Berdache''<br>[[Sac and Fox]] nation ceremonial dance to celebrate the two-spirit person. George Catlin (1796-1872); Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC]]
In North American Native society, the most common form of same-sex sexuality seems to centre around the figure of the [[two-spirit]] individual. Such persons seem to have been recognised by the majority of tribes, each of which had its particular term for the role. Typically the two-spirit individual was recognised early in life, was given a choice by the parents to follow the path, and if the child accepted the role then it was raised in the appropriate manner, learning the customs of the gender it had chosen. Two-spirit individuals were commonly [[shamans]] and were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary shamans. Their sexual life would be with the ordinary tribe members of the opposite gender. Male two-spirit people were prized as wives because of their greater strength and ability to work. ''See [[Two-spirit]]''
===East Asia===
In [[Asia]] same-sex love has known since the dawn of history. Early Western travellers were taken aback by its widespread acceptance and open display.
[[Homosexuality in China|Homosexual relations]] in [[China]], known as the ''pleasures of the bitten peach,'' ''the cut sleeve,'' or ''the southern custom,'' have been recorded since approximately [[600s BCE|600 BCE]]. These euphemistic terms were used to describe behaviours, but not identities. The relationships were marked by differences in age and social position. However, the instances of same-sex affection and sexual interactions described in the ''[[Cao Xueqin|Hong Lou Meng]]'' (''Dream of the Red Chamber,'' or ''Story of the Stone'') seem as familiar to observers in the present as do equivalent stories of romances between heterosexuals during the same period.
[[Homosexuality in Japan#Ancient Japan|Homosexuality in Japan]], variously known as [[shudo]] or [[nanshoku]], terms influenced by Chinese literature, has been documented for over one thousand years and was an integral part of [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monastic life and the [[samurai]] tradition. This same-sex love culture gave rise to strong traditions of [[Ukyio-e|painting]] and literature documenting and celebrating such relationships.
Similarly, in [[Thailand]], ''[[Kathoey]]'' or ladyboys have been a feature of Thai society for many centuries, and Thai kings had male as well as female lovers. Kathoey are men who dress as women. They are generally accepted by society. The teachings of [[Buddhism]], dominant in Thai society was accepting of a third gender designation.
===Europe===
[[Image:Romanmanandyouth.jpg|thumb|Roman man and youth in bed.'' ca. AD [[30]]'' Found in Estepa, [[Spain]]]]
:''Main articles: [[Pederasty in ancient Greece]] and [[Philosophy of Greek pederasty]]''
The earliest western documents (in the form of literary works, art objects, as well as [[Greek mythology|mythographic materials]]) concerning same-sex relationships are derived from [[Ancient Greece]]. They depict a world in which relationships with women and relationships with youths were the essential foundation of a normal man's love life. Same-sex relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time and from one city to another. (See [[Pederasty]]) The practice, a system of relationships between an adult male and an adolescent coming of age, was often valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, and occasionally blamed for causing disorder. [[Plato]] praised its benefits in his early writings, but in his late works proposed its prohibition, laying out a strategy which uncannily predicts the path by which same-sex love was eventually driven underground. ''(See [[Philosophy of Greek pederasty]])''
The [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor [[Theodosius]] decreed a law, on August 6th, [[390]], condemning passive homosexuals to be burned at the stake. [[Justinian I|Justinian]], towards the end of his reign, expanded the proscription to the active partner as well (in [[558]]) warning that such conduct can lead to the destruction of cities through the "wrath of God." Notwithstanding these regulations, taxes on homosexual boy [[brothels]] continued to be collected until the end of the reign of [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]] in [[518]].
During the [[Renaissance]], cities in northern Italy, [[Florence]] and [[Venice]] in particular, were renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a majority of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern of Greece and Rome. {{ref|rocke}} {{ref|ruggiero}} But even as the majority of the male population was engaging in same-sex relationships, the authorities, under the aegis of the [[Officers of the Night]] court, were prosecuting, fining, and imprisoning a good portion of that population. The eclipse of this period of relative artistic and erotic freedom was precipitated by the rise to power of the moralising monk [[Girolamo Savonarola]]. Throughout all of Europe, fierce conflicts, dating back to the early [[Middle Ages]], raged between proponents and opponents of same sex love. In northern Europe the artistic discourse on sodomy was turned against its proponents by artists such as [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], who in his [[Ganymede (mythology)#Renaissance and Baroque Ganymede|"Rape of Ganymede"]] no longer depicted [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]] as a willing youth, but as a squalling baby attacked by a rapacious bird of prey.
===Middle East and Central Asia===
[[Image:Samarkand A group of musicians playing for a bacha dancing boy.jpg|thumb|''Dance of a [[baccha|bacchá]] (dancing boy)''<br> Samarkand, (ca 1905 - 1915), photo [[Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii]]. [[Library of Congress]], Washington, DC.]]
:''Main articles: [[Pederasty in the Islamic lands]]''
Among many [[Middle East|Middle-Eastern]] Muslim cultures, homosexual practices were widespread and public. Persian poets, such as Attar (d. 1220), Rumi (d. 1273), Sa’di (d. 1291), Hafez (d. 1389), and Jami (d. 1492), wrote poems replete with homoerotic allusions. Recent work in [[queer studies]] suggests that while the visibility of such relationships has been much reduced, their frequency has not. The two most commonly documented forms were commercial sex with [[transgender]] males or males enacting transgender roles exemplified by the [[kocek]]s and the [[baccha]]s, and [[Sufi]] spiritual practices in which the practitioner crossed over from the idealised chaste form of the practice to one in which the desire is consummated.
In Persia homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were tolerated in numerous public places, from monasteries and seminaries to taverns, military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses. In the early Safavid era (1501-1723), male houses of prostitution (amrad khaneh) were legally recognized and paid taxes.
A rich tradition of art and literature sprang up, constructing Middle Eastern homosexuality in ways analogous to the ancient tradition of male love in which [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]], cup-bearer to the gods, symbol |
regard: he understood the older forms quite well, and knew how to present them in new garb, with an enhanced variety of form; he went far in overhauling the older forms from the Baroque.
===The early Classical style (1760-1775)===
By the late 1750s there are flourishing centers of the new style in Italy, Vienna, Mannheim, and Paris; dozens of symphonies are composed, and there are "bands" of players associated with theatres. Opera or other vocal music is the feature of most musical events, with concerti and "symphonies", which would over the course of the Classical develop and become independent instrumental works (see [[symphony]]), serving as instrumental interludes and introductions, for operas, and for even church services. The norms of a body of strings supplemented by winds, and of movements of particular rhythmic character, are established by the late 1750s in Vienna. But the length and weight of pieces is still set with some Baroque characteristics: individual movements still focus on one ''affect'' or have only one sharply contrasting middle section, and their length is not significantly greater than Baroque movements. It should also be noted that at this time there is not yet a clearly enunciated theory of how to compose in the new style. It was a moment ripe for a breakthrough.
Many consider this breakthrough to have been made by C.P.E. Bach, Gluck, and several others. Indeed, C.P.E. Bach and Gluck are often considered to be founders of the Classical style itself.
The first great master of the style was the composer [[Joseph Haydn]]. In the late 1750s he began composing symphonies, and by 1761 he had composed a triptych ("Morning", "Noon", and "Evening") solidly in the "contemporary" mode. As a "vice-Kapellmeister" and later "Kapellmeister", his output expanded: he would compose over forty symphonies in the 1760s alone. And while his fame grew, as his orchestra was expanded and his compositions were copied and disseminated, his voice was only one among many.
While some suggest that he was overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it would be difficult to overstate Haydn's centrality to the new style, and therefore to the future of Western art music as a whole. At the time, before the pre-eminence of Mozart or Beethoven, and with [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] known primarily to connoisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place in music that set him above all other composers except perhaps [[George Friedrich Handel]]. Some have pointed out that he occupied a place equivalent to the Beatles, for example, in the history of Rock and Roll. It was he who, more than any other single individual, realized that the evolving new style needed to be directed by new ideas and principles. He took existing ideas, and radically altered how they functioned &ndash; earning him the titles "father of the [[symphony]]" and "father of the [[string quartet]]". One might truly say that he was the father of the [[sonata form]] &ndash; which, in its Classical flowering, relied on dramatic contrast, tension of melody against harmony and rhythm, and required the audience to follow a dramatic curve over a larger span of time than was previously necessary.
Strangely enough, one of the forces that worked as an impetus for his pressing forward was the first stirring of what would later be called "[[Romanticism]]" &ndash; the "[[Sturm und Drang]]", or "storm and struggle" phase in the arts, a short period where obvious emotionalism was a stylistic preference: the fad of the 1770s. Haydn accordingly wanted more dramatic contrast and more emotionally appealing melodies, with sharpened character and individuality. This period faded away in music and literature: however, it would color what came afterward, and eventually be a component of aesthetic taste in coming decades.
The [[Symphony No. 45 (Haydn)|"Farewell" Symphony]], No. 45 in F# Minor, exemplifies Haydn's integration of the differing demands of the new style, with surprising sharp turns, and a long adagio to end the work. In 1772, Haydn completed his Opus 20 set of six string quartets, in which he deploys the polyphonic techniques he gathered from the previous era to provide structural coherence capable of holding together his melodic ideas. For some this marks the beginning of the "mature" Classical style, where the period of reaction against the complexity of the late Baroque begins to be replaced with a period of integration of elements of both Baroque and Classical styles.
===The middle Classical style (1775-1790)===
Haydn, having worked for over a decade as the music director for a prince, had far more resources and scope for composing than most, and also the ability to shape the forces that would play his music. This opportunity was not wasted, as Haydn, beginning quite early on his career, restlessly sought to press forward the technique of building ideas in music (see [[Musical_development|development]]). His next important breakthrough was in the Opus 33 string quartets (1781), where the melodic and the harmonic roles segue among the instruments: it is often momentarily unclear what is melody and what is harmony. This changes way the ensemble works its way between dramatic moments of transition and climactic sections: the music flows smoothly and without obvious interruption. He then took this integrated style and began applying it to orchestral and vocal music.
Haydn's gift to music was a way of composing, a way of structuring works, which was at the same time in accord with the governing aesthetic of the new style. It would, however, be a younger contemporary, [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], who would bring his genius to Haydn's ideas, and apply them to two of the major genres of the day: opera, and the virtuoso concerto. Whereas Haydn spent much of his working life as a court composer, Mozart wanted public success in the concert life of cities. This meant opera, and it meant performing as a virtuoso. Haydn was not a virtuoso at the international touring level; nor was he seeking to create operatic works that could play for many nights in front of a large audience. Mozart wanted both. Moreover, Mozart also had a taste for more chromatic chords (and greater contrasts in harmonic language generally), a greater love for creating a welter of melodies in a single work, and a more Italianate sensibility in music as a whole. He found, in Haydn's music, and later in his study of the polyphony of Bach, the means to discipline and enrich his gifts.
Mozart rapidly came to the attention of Haydn, who hailed the new composer, studied his works, and considered the younger man his only true peer in music. Their letters to each other are filled with the kind of asides that only two people working at a higher plane than their contemporaries can share. In Mozart, Haydn found a greater range of instrumentation, dramatic effect and melodic resource &ndash; the learning relationship moved in two directions.
Mozart's arrival in Vienna in 1780 brought an acceleration in the development of the Classical style. There Mozart absorbed the fusion of Italianate brilliance and Germanic cohesiveness which had been brewing for the previous 20 years. His own taste for brilliances, rhythmically complex melodies and figures, long cantilena melodies, and virtuoso flourishes was merged with an appreciation for formal coherence and internal connectedness. Strangely enough, it is at this point that war and inflation halted a trend to larger and larger orchestras and forced the disbanding or reduction of many theatre orchestras. This pressed the Classical style inwards: towards seeking greater ensemble and technical challenge &ndash; for example, scattering the melody across woodwinds, or using thirds to highlight the melody taken by them. This process placed a premium on chamber music for more public performance, giving a further boost to the string quartet and other small ensemble groupings.
It was during this decade that public taste began, increasingly, to recognize that Haydn and Mozart had reached a higher standard of composition. By the time Mozart arrived at age 25, in [[1781]], the dominant styles of Vienna were recognizably connected to the emergence in the 1750s of the early Classical style. By the end of the 1780s, changes in performance practice, the relative standing of instrumental and vocal music, technical demands on musicians, and stylistic unity had become established in the composers who imitated Mozart and Haydn. During this decade Mozart would compose his most famous operas, his six late symphonies which would help redefine the genre, and a string of piano concerti which still stand at the pinnacle of these forms.
One composer who was influential in spreading the more serious style that Mozart and Haydn had formed is [[Muzio Clementi]], a gifted virtuoso pianist who dueled Mozart to a draw before the Emperor, when they exhibited their compositions in performance. His own sonatas for the piano circulated widely, and he became the most successful composer in [[London]] during the 1780s. The stage was set for a generation of composers who, having absorbed the lessons of the new style earlier, and having clear examples to aim at, would take the Classical style in new directions. Also in London at this time was [[Johann Ladislaus Dussek]], who, like Clementi, encouraged piano makers to extend the range and other features of their instruments, and then fully exploited the newly opened possibilities. The importance of London in the Classical period is often overlooked &ndash; but it served as the home to the [[Broadwood and Sons|Broadwood]]'s factory for piano manufacturing, and as the base for composers who, while less famous than the "Vienna School", would have a decisive influence on what came late |
rs, the ''Scuderia'' briefly became [[Auto Avio Costruzioni Ferrari]], which ostensibly produced machine tools and aircraft accessories. Also known as SEFAC Ferrari did in fact produce one racecar, the [[Ferrari Tipo 815|Tipo 815]], in the non-competition period; it was thus the first actual Ferrari car (it debuted at the 1940 [[Mille Miglia]]), but due to [[World War II]] it saw little competition. In [[1943]] the Ferrari factory moved to Maranello, where it has remained ever since. The factory was bombed in [[1944]] and rebuilt in [[1946]] to include a works for road car production. Right up to ''Il Commendatore'''s death, this would remain little more than a source of funding for his first love, racing.
"''Scuderia Ferrari''" literally means "Ferrari Stable" in keeping with the prancing horse emblem; the name is figuratively translated as "Team Ferrari." (It is correctly pronounced "skoo dee ''ry'' ah".)
=== 1945-present ===
The first Ferrari road car was the [[1947]] [[Ferrari 125|125 S]], powered by a 1.5&nbsp;L V12 engine; Enzo reluctantly built and sold his automobiles to fund the ''Scuderia''. While his beautiful and blazingly fast cars quickly gained a reputation for excellence, Enzo maintained a famous distaste for his customers, most of whom he felt were buying his cars for the prestige and not the performance.
Ferrari road cars, noted for magnificent styling by design houses like [[Pininfarina]], have long been one of the ultimate accessories for the rich. Other design houses that have done work for Ferrari over the years include [[Scaglietti]], [[Bertone]], [[Touring]], [[Ghia]], and [[Vignale]].
As of [[2004]], [[FIAT]] owns 56% of Ferrari, [[Mediobanca]] 15%, [[Commerzbank]] 10%, [[Lehman Brothers]] 7%, and Enzo's son [[Piero Ferrari]] 10%.
== Racing ==
[[Image:Schumacher_A1Ring.jpg|thumb|300px|The Scuderia celebrate another Schumacher win, (C) Ferrari Press Office]]
''Main article: [[Scuderia Ferrari]]''
[[Enzo Ferrari]]'s true passion, despite his extensive road car business, was always auto racing. His Scuderia started as an independent sponsor for drivers in various cars, but soon became the [[Alfa Romeo]] in-house racing team. After Ferrari's departure from Alfa, he began to design and produce cars of his own; the Ferrari team first appeared on the European grand prix scene after the end of [[World War II]].
The Scuderia joined the [[Formula One]] World Championship in the first year of its existence, [[1950]]. [[José Froilán González]] gave the team its first victory at the [[1951]] [[British Grand Prix]]. [[Alberto Ascari]] gave Ferrari its first [[List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions|World Championship]] a year later. Ferrari is the oldest team left in the championship, not to mention the most successful: the team holds nearly every Formula One record. As of [[2004]], the team's records include fourteen World Drivers Championship titles ([[1952]], [[1953]], [[1956]], [[1958]], [[1961]], [[1964]], [[1975]], [[1977]], [[1979]], [[2000]], [[2001]], [[2002]], [[2003]] and [[2004]]), fourteen World Constructors Championship titles ([[1961]], [[1964]], [[1975]], [[1976]], [[1977]], [[1979]], [[1982]], [[1983]], [[1999]], [[2000]], [[2001]], [[2002]], [[2003]] and [[2004]]), 179 [[Grand Prix motor racing|grand prix]] victories, 3445 and a half points, 544 podium finishes, 174 [[pole position]]s, 11,182 laps led, and 180 fastest laps in 1622 grands prix contested.
Famous drivers include [[Tazio Nuvolari]], [[Juan Manuel Fangio]], [[Alberto Ascari]], [[Phil Hill]], [[Mike Hawthorn]], [[John Surtees]], [[Niki Lauda]], [[Jody Scheckter]], [[Gilles Villeneuve]], [[Nigel Mansell]], [[Alain Prost]] and [[Michael Schumacher]].
== The "Cavallino Rampante" ==
[[Image:Scuderia Ferrari Logo.png|thumbnail|120px|left|The Scuderia Ferrari Logo]]
The famous symbol of the Ferrari race team is a black prancing [[horse]] on yellow shield-shaped background, usually with the letters ''S F'' for ''Scuderia Ferrari'', and with three stripes of the Italian national colors green-white-red on top. The road cars have a rectangular badge on the front hood (see picture above).
Curiously, a similar black horse on a yellow shield is the [[Coat of Arms]] of the [[Germany|German]] city of [[Stuttgart]]. This name is derived from ''Stutengarten'', an ancient form of the modern German word ''Gestüt'', which translates into English as ''stud farm'' and into Italian as ''scuderia''. Stuttgart, called ''Stoccarda'' by the Italians, is the home of [[Mercedes-Benz]] and Ferrari's rival [[Porsche]], which also uses the Stuttgart sign in its corporate logo, centered in the emblem of the state of [[Württemberg]] just like the city is placed within the state. Enzo Ferrari met these competitors many times since the 1920s while competing for [[Alfa Romeo|Alfa]].
[[Image:Stuttgart_coat_of_arms.gif|thumbnail|120px|right|Coat of Arms of [[Stuttgart]], Germany]]
On [[June 17]], [[1923]], Enzo Ferrari won a race at the [[Savio]] track in [[Ravenna]] where he met the Countess Paolina, mother of Count [[Francesco Baracca]], a legendary ''asso'' (ace) of the Italian [[air force]] and national hero during [[World War I]], who used to paint a horse on the side of his planes. The Countess asked Enzo to use this horse on his cars, suggesting that it would grant him good luck. Ferrari left the horse black as it had been on Baracca's plane; however, he added a [[canary]] [[yellow]] background as this is the color of the city of [[Modena]], his birthplace. It has been supposed the choice of a horse was perhaps partly because his noble family was known for having many horses on their estates at Lugo di Romagna. Another theory suggests Baracca copied the rampant horse design from a shot-down German pilot who had the emblem of the city of Stuttgart on his plane. This is supported by the evidence Barraca's horse looks more similar to the one of Stuttgart (not changed since 1938) than the current Ferrari design, especially as the legs of the horses are concerned. Baracca using the Stuttgart horse from a shot-down plane ties in with the fact that his family owned many horses.
The first race at which [[Alfa Romeo]] would let Ferrari use the horse on the Alfas entered by his [[Scuderia Ferrari]] was eleven years later at [[Spa 24 Hours]] in [[1932]], which the Ferrari-led Alfa team won. Ever since, the cavallino was shown on the Alfas that were competing against the [[Silver Arrow]]s of [[Mercedes-Benz]] and [[Auto Union]], among others.
[[Image:FBaracca_1.jpg|thumbnail|left|Count Francesco Baracca]]
The prancing horse has not always been uniquely identified with the Ferrari brand: [[Fabio Taglioni]] used it on his [[Ducati]] motorbikes. Taglioni's father was, in fact, a companion of Baracca's and fought with him in the 91st Air Squad. But, as Ferrari's fame grew, Ducati abandoned the horse; this may have been the result of a private agreement between the two brands.
[[Image:Logo_avanti.gif|thumbnail|right|Austrian Fuel Stations]]
The prancing horse is now a [[trademark]] of Ferrari. Yet, other companies use similar logos. One example is quite prominent next to roads in Austria and Eastern European countries, as an Austrian company, named "avanti" (http://www.avanti.at) since 1972, operates over 100 [[filling station]]s marked with a prancing horse logo which is nearly identical to Ferrari's.
== Rosso Corsa ==
Since the 1920s, Italian race cars of [[Alfa Romeo]], [[Maserati]] and later Ferrari and [[Abarth]] were (and often still are) painted in "race red" (''Rosso Corsa''). This was the customary national racing color of Italy, as recommended between the World Wars by the organisations that later would become the [[FIA]].
In that scheme, French cars like [[Bugatti]] were blue, German like [[BMW]] and [[Porsche]] white (since 1934 also [[Silver Arrows]]), [[British racing green]] etc.
The color was not determined by the country the car was made in, nor by the nationality of the driver(s), but by the nationality of the team that entered the vehicle. For example, a yellow Ferrari 156 was entered and driven in the [[1961 Belgian Grand Prix]] by [[Olivier Gendebien]] from [[Belgium]], scoring 4th behind 3 other [[Ferrari 156]] painted in red, as they were entered by the Scuderia Ferrari itself, but driven by [[United States|Americans]] [[Phil Hill]] and [[Richie Ginther]] as well as [[Germany|German]] [[Wolfgang von Trips]].
These national colors were mostly replaced by sponsor liveries since 1968, but unlike most other teams, Ferrari always kept the traditional red. The shade of the color varies, though. Since 1996, the Ferrari F1 cars are said to be painted in a brighter, nearly orange red, in order to fit better to their tobacco sponsor. In recent years, these traditional colors have resurfaced in some cases, eg. the green [[Jaguar Racing]] in F1 as well as the blue on current [[Renault F1]] cars, which was originally contributed by a tobacco sponsor. When [[BMW]] re-entered F1 in 2000, they also made sure that the cars of [[WilliamsF1]] were painted white and blue.
Curiosly, Ferrari won the 1964 World championship with [[John Surtees]] by competing the last two races in cars painted white and blue, as these were not entered by the Italian factory themselves, but the US-based [[NART]] team. This was done as a protest concerning arguments between Ferrari and the Italian Racing Authorities regarding the homologation of a new mid-engined Ferrari race car.
== List of models ==
Until the mid-[[1990s]], Ferrari followed a three-number naming scheme based on [[engine displacement]]:
* V6 and V8 models used the total displacement (in deciliters) for the first two digits and the number of cylinders as the third. Thus, the 206 was a 2.0&nbsp;L V6-powered vehicle, while the 348 used a 3.4&nbsp;L V8.
* V12 models used the displacement (in cubic ce |
d, whereof he knew nothing, because their outsides were so like, that they could not be distinguished; for such twins have been seen."{{ref|Locke}}
Or again:
:"PERSON, as I take it, is the name for this self. Wherever a man finds what he calls himself, there, I think, another may say is the same person. It is a forensic term, appropriating actions and their merit; and so belong only to intelligent agents, capable of a law, and happiness, and misery. This personality extends itself beyond present existence to what is past, only by consciousness, --whereby it becomes concerned and accountable; owns and imputes to itself past actions, just upon the same ground and for the same reason as it does the present. All which is founded in a concern for happiness, the unavoidable concomitant of consciousness; that which is conscious of pleasure and plain, desiring that that self that is conscious should be happy. And therefore whatever past actions it cannot reconcile or APPROPRIATE to that present self by consciousness, it can be no more concerned in it than if they had never been done: and to receive pleasure or pain, i.e. reward or punishment, on the account of any such action, is all one as to be made happy or miserable in its first being, without any demerit at all. For, supposing a MAN punished now for what he had done in another life, whereof he could be made to have no consciousness at all, what difference is there between that punishment and being CREATED miserable? And therefore, conformable to this, the apostle tells us, that, at the great day, when every one shall 'receive according to his doings, the secrets of all hearts shall be laid open.' The sentence shall be justified by the consciousness all person shall have, that THEY THEMSELVES, in what bodies soever they appear, or what substances soever that consciousness adheres to, are the SAME that committed those actions, and deserve that punishment for them." {{ref label|Locke|4|a}}
Henceforth, Locke's conception of personal identity founds it not on the substance or the body, but in the "same continued consciousness", which is also distinct from the soul since the soul may have no consciousness of itself (as in reincarnation). He creates a third term between the soul and the body - and Locke's thought may certainly be meditated by those who, following a [[scientist]] ideology, would identify too quickly the brain to consciousness. For the brain, as the body and as any substance, may change, while consciousness remains the same. Therefore personal identity is not in the brain, but in consciousness. However, Locke's theory also reveals his debt to [[theology]] and to [[Apocalypse|Apocalyptic]] "great day", which by advance excuse any failings of human justice and therefore humanity's miserable state.
=== Philosophical criticisms of the notion of consciousness ===
Locke's "[[forensic]]" notion of personal identity founded on an individual conscious [[subject (philosophy)|subject]] would be criticized in the 19th century by [[Marx]], [[Nietzsche]] and [[Freud]] following different angles. [[Martin Heidegger]]'s concept of the ''[[Dasein]]'' ("[[Being]]-there") would also be a tentative to think beyond the conscious subject.
Marx considered that social relations [[ontology|ontologically]] preceded individual consciousness, and criticized the conception of a conscious subject as an [[Ideology#Ideology as an instrument of social reproduction|ideological]] conception on which [[liberalism]] political thought was founded. Marx in particular criticized the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]], considering that the so-called individual [[natural rights]] were ideological fictions camouflaging [[social inequality]] in the attribution of those rights. Later, [[Louis Althusser]] would criticize the "bourgeois ideology of the subject" through the concept of ''[[interpellation]]'' ("Hey, you!").
Nietzsche, for his part, once wrote that "they give you [[free will]] only to later blame yourself", thus reversing the classical [[liberalism|liberal]] conception of free will in a critical account of the genealogy of consciousness as the effect of guilt and [[ressentiment]], which he described in ''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]''. Hence, Nietzsche was the first one to see how much the modern notion of consciousness was indebted to the modern system of penality, which judged a man according to his "[[responsibility]]", that is by the consciousness through which acts can be attributed to an individual subject: "I did this! this is me!". Consciousness is thus related by Nietzsche to the classic philosopheme of [[recognition]] which, according to him, defines [[knowledge]] {{ref|Gay}}.
According to [[Pierre Klossowski]] (1969), Nietzsche considered consciousness to be a [[reification|hypostatization]] of the [[body]], composed of multiple forces (the "[[Friedrich Nietzsche#The Will to Power: the book and concept|Will to Power]]"). According to him, the subject was only a "grammatical fiction": we believed in the existence of an individual subject, and therefore of a specific author of each act, insofar as we speak. Therefore, the conscious subject is dependent on the existence of [[language]], a claim which would be generalized by [[critical discourse analysis]] (see for example [[Judith Butler]]).
[[Michel Foucault]]'s analyze of the creation of the individual subject through ''[[disciplinary institution|disciplines]]'', in ''[[Discipline and Punish]]'' (1975), would extend Nietzsche's genealogy of consciousness and personal identity - i.e. [[individualism]] - to the change in the juridico-penal system: the emergence of [[penology]] and the disciplinization of the individual subject through the creation of a penal system which judged not the acts as it alleged to, but the personal identity of the wrong-doer. In other words, Foucault maintained that, by judging not the acts (the crime), but the person behind those acts (the criminal), the modern penal system was not only following the philosophical definition of consciousness, once again demonstrating the imbrications between [[ideas]] and social institutions ("material ideology" as would call it Althusser); it was by itself creating the individual person, categorizing and dividing the masses into a category of poor but honest and law-abiding citizens and another category of "professionals criminals" or [[recidivist]]s.
=== Phenomenal and access consciousness ===
Some philosophers call our current experience ''phenomenal consciousness'' (P-consciousness), as contrasted with ''access consciousness'' (A-consciousness). Phenomenal consciousness is simply experience, it is moving, coloured forms, sounds, sensations, emotions and feelings with our bodies and responses at the center. These experiences, considered independently of any impact on behavior, are called [[qualia]]. The ''[[hard problem of consciousness]]'' was formulated by [[David Chalmers|Chalmers]] in 1996, dealing with the issue of "how to explain a state of phenomenal consciousness in terms of its neurological basis" (Block 2004). [[Daniel Dennett]](1988) suggests that what people think of as qualia are judgements and consequent behaviour. He extends this analysis (Dennett (1996)) by arguing that phenomenal consciousness can be explained in terms of access consciousness, denying the existence of qualia, hence denying the existence of a "hard problem."
''Access consciousness'' is the phenomenon whereby information in our minds is accessible for verbal report, reasoning, and the control of behavior. So, when we [[perception|perceive]], information about what we perceive is often access conscious; when we [[introspection|introspect]], information about our thoughts is access conscious; when we [[memory|remember]], information about the past (e.g., something that we [[learning|learned]]) is often access conscious; and so on. Chalmers thinks that access consciousness is less mysterious than phenomenal consciousness, so that it is held to pose one of the ''easy problems'' of consciousness. Dennett disagrees, asserting that the totality of consciousness can be understood in terms of impact on behavior, as studied through [[heterophenomenology]].
Events that occur in the mind or brain that are not within phenomenal or access consciousness are known as ''[[subconscious mind|subconscious]]'' events.
===The description and location of phenomenal consciousness===
Although it is the conventional wisdom that consciousness cannot be defined, philosophers have been describing phenomenal consciousness for centuries. [[Rene Descartes]] wrote ''[[Meditations on First Philosophy]]'' in the seventeenth century, containing extensive descriptions of what it is to be conscious. Descartes described conscious experience as imaginings and perceptions laid out in space and time that are viewed from a point. Each thing appears as a result of some quality (qualia) such as colour, smell, etc. Other philosophers, such as [[Nicholas Malebranche]], [[John Locke]], [[David Hume]] and [[Immanuel Kant]], also agreed with much of this description, although some avoid mentioning the viewing point. The extension of things in time was considered in more detail by Kant and James. Kant wrote that "only on the presupposition of time can we represent to ourselves a number of things as existing at one and the same time (simultaneously) or at different times (successively)." [[William James]] stressed the extension of experience in time and said that time is "the short duration of which we are immediately and incessantly sensible." These philosophers also go on to describe dreams, thoughts, emotions, etc.
When we look around a room or have a dream, things are laid out in space and time and viewed |
on in September 2006.
==Politics==
As with his friend [[Ken MacLeod]] (another Scottish writer of technical and social science fiction) a strong awareness of [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] history shows in his writings. The argument that an [[economy of abundance]] renders [[anarchism|anarchy]] and [[adhocracy]] viable (or even inevitable) attracts many as an interesting potential experiment, were it ever to become testable. He is known as a supporter of [[Scottish independence]], and has campaigned with the [[Scottish Socialist Party]].
In late 2004 Banks was a prominent member of a group of British politicians and media figures who campaigned to have Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] impeached following the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Invasion of Iraq]]. In protest he cut up his [[passport]] and posted it to [[10 Downing Street]].
Banks is an Honorary Associate of the [[National Secular Society]].
==Miscellany==
*Banks tends to produce a [[novel]] in around three months, working solidly, then take nine months off. In his leisure time, he has had flying lessons and records his own [[Rock and roll|rock music]].
*Banks tends to alternate writing between [[science fiction]] and [[literary fiction]] novels.
*Many of his [[science fiction]] books are based in the universe of '[[the Culture]]' (a powerful, multi-species civilization living in our galaxy). The [[novella]] ''[[The State of the Art]]'' records the Culture coming into contact with planet Earth (see Bibliography below).
*Following the release of his most recent book, ''[[The Algebraist]]'' in [[2004]] (a non-Culture novel), Banks has stated that he intends to write more Culture novels. However, as he intends to slow the release of such books from one every 12 months to one every 18 months, the next Culture novel cannot be expected until sometime after [[2006]].
*Although Banks generally confines his writing to his own novels, he has written occasional reviews for ''[[The Guardian]]'' newspaper and is a semi-regular music reviewer for [[Marc Riley|Marc Riley's]] Rocket Science radio show on [[BBC 6 Music]]. He has been the subject of ''[[The South Bank Show|South Bank Show]]'' television programme broadcast on [[16 November]] [[1997]], subtitled ''The Strange Worlds of Iain Banks'' which concentrated on his mainstream work. ''The Curse Of Iain Banks'', a play written by Maxton Walker, was performed at the [[Edinburgh Fringe]] in 1999, with Banks contributing as a voice on tape. He has appeared on the [[BBC]]'s political discussion television programme ''[[Question Time (television)|Question Time]]''.
*Iain Banks occasionally writes letters to the editor of the [[New Scientist]], most recently mocking [[creationism]] in November 2005.[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18825260.500]
*While a student at Stirling University, Banks appeared as an extra in the final battle scene of the film ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'', which was filmed at the nearby [[Doune Castle]].
*Banks captained a team of writers to victory in a special series of ''[[University Challenge|University Challenge: The Professionals]]'', beating the 'news' team 190-45 in the final. He also won an edition of ''[[Mastermind|Celebrity Mastermind]]'', taking "Malt whiskies and the distilleries of Scotland" as his specialist subject. The shows were broadcast, on BBC2 and BBC1 respectively, on two consecutive days ([[January 1]] and [[2 January]] [[2006]]).
==Bibliography==
===Novels as Iain Banks===
* ''[[The Wasp Factory]]'' ([[1984]])
* ''[[Walking on Glass]]'' ([[1985]])
* ''[[The Bridge (novel)|The Bridge]]'' ([[1986]])
* ''[[Espedair Street]]'' ([[1987]]) &ndash; adapted for [[BBC]] radio in [[1998]] (directed by [[David Batchelor]])
* ''[[Canal Dreams]]'' ([[1989]])
* ''[[The Crow Road]]'' ([[1992]]) &ndash; [[The Crow Road (mini-series)|adapted]] for BBC TV in [[1996]] (directed by [[Gavin Millar]])
* ''[[Complicity]]'' ([[1993]]) &ndash; [[Complicity (film)|filmed]] in [[2000]] (directed by [[Gavin Millar]]), retitled ''Retribution'' for its US DVD/video release
* ''[[Whit]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[A Song of Stone]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[The Business (novel)|The Business]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Dead Air]]'' ([[2002]])
===Novels as Iain M. Banks===
Much of Banks' science fiction deals with a pan-galactic civilisation, [[the Culture]], which he has developed in some detail over the course of six novels and a collection of [[short story|short stories]].
* ''[[Consider Phlebas]]'' ([[1987]])
* ''[[The Player of Games]]'' ([[1988]])
* ''[[Use of Weapons]]'' ([[1991]])
* ''[[Excession]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Inversions]]'' ([[1998]]) (makes covert references to the protagonists being Culture citizens)
* ''[[Look to Windward]]'' ([[2000]])
His other, non-Culture, science fiction novels are:
* ''[[Against a Dark Background]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Feersum Endjinn]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[The Algebraist]]'' ([[2004]])
===Short fiction===
Banks writes less short fiction but has published one collection under his Iain M. Banks name:
* ''[[The State of the Art]]'' ([[1989]])
It contains both science fiction and less categorizable works of fiction. The [[eponym|eponymous]] [[novella]] deals with the Culture, as do two other of the stories contained in this collection.
===Non-fiction===
* ''[[Raw Spirit]]'' ([[2003]]) (a travelogue of Scotland and its [[Scotch whisky|whisky distilleries]])
==Quotes==
"I write because I love it, I enjoy it, I've spent most of my life trying to do it better, and I can make a living from it: beats a [[day job]]." [http://www.contemporarywriters.com/authors/?p=auth12]
== External links ==
* [http://www.iainbanks.net/ Official site]
* [http://www.futurehi.net/phlebas/ Culture Shock]
* [http://banksoniain.netfirms.com The Banksoniain] - Fanzine
* [http://www.iainbanksfaq.f9.co.uk Iain Banks FAQ]
* [http://www.culturelist.org/cdr/ The Culture Data Repository]
* http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?IainBanks
* {{isfdb name|id=Iain_M._Banks|name=Iain M. Banks}}
* {{contemporary writers|id=12}}
* {{iblist name|id=43|name=Iain Banks}}
* [http://us.imdb.com/name/nm0052169/ Internet Movie Database entry]
* [http://books.guardian.co.uk/authors/author/0,5917,-16,00.html Guardian Books "Author Page"], with profile and links to further articles.
* [http://www.spikemagazine.com/0996bank.php Spike Magazine Interview]
* [http://homepages.compuserve.de/Mostral/interviews/starlog94.htm Interview]
* [http://www.futurehi.net/phlebas/text/cultnote.html ''A Few Notes on the Culture''] - essay by Banks
[[Category:1954 births|Banks, Iain]]
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<page>
<title>Iain Banks/The Crow Road</title>
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<id>15912389</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-21T09:19:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tarquin</username>
<id>83</id>
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<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Crow Road]]
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<page>
<title>Iain Banks/The Wasp Factory</title>
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<timestamp>2002-06-21T09:17:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tarquin</username>
<id>83</id>
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<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Wasp Factory]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Iain Banks/Espedair Street</title>
<id>14862</id>
<revision>
<id>15912392</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-21T09:18:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tarquin</username>
<id>83</id>
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<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Espedair Street]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Incunabulum</title>
<id>14863</id>
<revision>
<id>40364425</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
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<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''"Incunabula" redirects here. For the Autechre album, see [[Incunabula (album)]]''
----
[[Image:Incunabulum.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A page from a rare [[Blackletter]] [[Bible]] ([[1497]]) printed in [[Strasbourg]] by [[J.R. Grueninger]]. The coloured chapter [[initial]]s were hand written after the page was printed.]]
An '''incunabulum''' is a [[book]], single sheet, or image that was [[printing|printed]] &mdash; not [[manuscript|handwritten]] &mdash; before the year [[1501]] in [[Europe]]. These are usually very rare and fragile items whose nature can only be verified by experts. The origin of the word is the [[Latin]] ''incunabula'' for "swaddling clothes", used by extension for the infancy or early stages of something. The first recorded use of ''incunabula'' as a printing term is in a pamphlet by [[Bernard von Mallinckrodt]], ''De ortu et progressu artis typographicae'' ("Of the rise and progress of the typographic art"), published in [[Cologne]] in [[1639]], which includes the phrase ''prima typographicae incunabula'', "the first infancy of printing". The term came to denote the printed books themselves from the late [[17th century]]. The plural is '''incunabula''' and the word is sometimes Anglici |
d]] and to the visual arts generally. Although the "self-important rhetoric and whines of persecution" on the part of cyberpunk fans were irritating at worst and humorous at best, Brin declares that the "rebels did shake things up. We owe them a debt. [...] But," he asks, "were they original?" {{ref|DavidBrin}}
As new writers and artists began to experiment with cyberpunk ideas, new varieties of fiction emerged, sometimes addressing the criticisms leveled at the original cyberpunk stories. [[Lawrence Person]] writes, in an essay he posted to the Internet forum [[Slashdot]],
:Many writers who grew up reading in the 1980s are just now starting to have their stories and novels published. To them cyberpunk was not a revolution or alien philosophy invading SF, but rather just another flavor of SF. Like the writers of the 1970s and 80s who assimilated the New Wave's classics and stylistic techniques without necessarily knowing or even caring about the manifestos and ideologies that birthed them, today's new writers might very well have read ''[[Neuromancer]]'' back to back with [[Isaac Asimov|Asimov]]'s ''[[Foundation (novel)|Foundation]],'' [[John Brunner (novelist)|John Brunner]]'s ''[[Stand on Zanzibar]]'', and Larry Niven's ''[[Ringworld]]'' and seen not discontinuities but a continuum. {{ref|LawrencePerson}}
Person's essay advocates using the term "[[postcyberpunk]]" to label the new works such writers produce. In this view, typical postcyberpunk stories continue the preoccupation with the effects of computers, but without the assumption of [[dystopia]] or the emphasis on [[cybernetic]] implants. Good examples might be [[Neal Stephenson]]'s ''[[Snow Crash]]'' or [[Warren Ellis]] and [[Darick Robertson]]'s ''[[Transmetropolitan]].'' After Person posted his observations on Slashdot, his readers observed that the term was possibly superfluous&mdash;one more piece of jargon invented to shore up false distinctions. Like practically all categories discerned within science fiction, the boundaries of postcyberpunk are likely to be fluid or ill defined. To complicate matters, there is a continuing market for "pure" cyberpunk novels strongly influenced by Gibson's early work.
Among the subgenres of cyberpunk is [[steampunk]], which is set in an anachronistic [[Victorian era|Victorian]] environment, but with cyberpunk's bleak [[film noir]] world view. The term was originally coined around 1987 as a joke to describe some of the novels of [[Tim Powers]], [[James P. Blaylock]], and [[K.W. Jeter]], but by the time Gibson and Sterling entered the subgenre with their collaborative novel ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' the term was being used earnestly as well. {{ref|wordspy}} The early 1990s saw the emergence of [[biopunk]], a derivative style building not on informational technology but on biology. In these stories, people are changed in some way not by mechanical means, but by [[genetic engineering|genetic manipulation]] of their very chromosomes. [[Paul Di Filippo]] is seen as the most prominent biopunk writer, although [[Bruce Sterling]]'s [[Shaper/Mechanist]] cycle is also a major influence.
[[Cyberprep]] is a term that reflects the flip side of cyberpunk. A cyberprep world assumes that all the [[technological]] advancements of cyberpunk speculation have taken place, but that life is happy rather than gritty and dangerous. Since society is leisure driven, [[mind transfer|uploading]] is more of an art form or a medium of entertainment while advanced [[body modification]]s are used for sports and pleasure.
:''See also the [[List of cyberpunk works#Notable precursors to the genre|list of notable precursors]] and the [[List of cyberpunk works#Print media|list of print media]].''
==Film and television==
[[Image:BladeRunner Bradbury.jpg|thumb|320px|The world of 2019 [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] as imagined by ''Blade Runner''. ''Blade Runner'' is the most famous early cyberpunk work.]]
The film ''[[Blade Runner]]'' (1982), adapted from Philip K. Dick's ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'', is set in a dystopian future in which manufactured beings called [[replicant]]s are slaves used on space colonies and are legal prey on Earth to various bounty hunters who "retire" (kill) them. Although ''Blade Runner'' was not extravagantly successful in its first theatrical release, it found a wide viewership in the home video market. Since the movie omits the religious and mythical elements of Dick's original novel (''e.g.,'' empathy boxes and Wilbur Mercer), it falls more strictly within the cyberpunk genre than the novel does. William Gibson has revealed being disconcerted at how the look of this film matched his vision when he was working on ''[[Neuromancer]]''.
As mentioned above, the short-lived television series ''[[Max Headroom]]'' also spread cyberpunk tropes, perhaps with more popular success than the genre's first written works.
The number of films in the genre or at least using a few genre elements has grown steadily since ''Blade Runner.'' Several of Philip K. Dick's works have been adapted to the silver screen, with cyberpunk elements typically becoming dominant; examples include ''[[Minority Report (film)|Minority Report]]'' (2002) and ''[[Paycheck (film)|Paycheck]]'' (2003). William Gibson has also been adapted: ''[[Johnny Mnemonic (film)|Johnny Mnemonic]]'' (1995) was not commercially or critically successful, but detailed Gibson's world rather faithfully.
Director [[Darren Aronofsky]] set his debut feature ''[[Pi (film)|&pi;]]'' (1998) in a present-day [[New York City]], but built its script with influences from cyberpunk aesthetic. According to the [[DVD]] commentary, he and his production team deliberately used antiquated machines (like 5-1/4 inch [[floppy disk]]s) to echo the technological style of ''[[Brazil (film)|Brazil]]'' (1985) and create a cyberpunk "feel". Aronofsky describes [[Chinatown]], where the film is set, as "New York's last cyberpunk neighborhood".
[[Image:Ghost In The Shell DVD.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[anime]] [[cult film]] ''[[Ghost in the Shell (film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'', released in 1995, explores a key cyberpunk issue: what happens when the entire human body becomes replaceable?]]
The ''[[RoboCop]]'' series has a more near-futuristic setting where at least one [[list of fictional companies|corporation]], Omni Consumer Products, is an all-powerful presence in the city of [[Detroit]]. ''[[Until the End of the World]]'' (1991) shows another example where cyberpunk provides an assumed background, and a plot device, to an otherwise mood and character-driven story. ''[[Gattaca]]'' (1997) directed by [[Andrew Niccol]] is a futuristic ''film noir'' whose mood-drenched dystopia provides a good example of [[biopunk]].
[[Anime]] has contained [[cyborg]]s and other plausibly "cyberpunk" elements since the early 1960s. Witness the series ''[[8 Man]]'' (1963), about a human-turned-cyborg who fights an endless struggle against his lawless world. This series arose two decades before Gibson propelled the genre to celebrity, though as with many such questions in science fiction, the actual extent to which these early works influenced later ones is open to debate. The anime series ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]'' (1985) was also an early animated form of cyberpunk, and in a more explicit manner: both the ''2032'' and the newer ''2040'' series serve as extended homages to ''Blade Runner.'' The anime movie ''[[Ghost in the Shell (film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'' (1995), based on a 1991 [[manga]] and often hailed as a cyberpunk classic, explores the boundaries between man and machine in a futuristic Japan. The television series ''[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex]]'' {{ref|associated-content}} carries over the movie's characters to explore the movie's world in more sociological depth. Indeed, this focus upon the social impact of network technology has led some commentators to feel that the television series leans more toward being a product of the postcyberpunk period.
The ''Matrix'' series, which began with 1999's ''[[The Matrix]]'' (and now also contains ''[[The Matrix Reloaded]],'' ''[[The Matrix Revolutions]],'' and ''[[The Animatrix]]'') uses a wide variety of cyberpunk elements. The series' basic premise revolves around a virtual reality so realistic as to be indistinguishable from the real world; human brains are directly connected to this computer system. The [[Wachowski brothers]], writers and directors behind the series, drew many of its elements from Japanese [[anime]], and ''The Animatrix'' carried the idea exchange in the reverse direction.
Anime has also provided examples of the steampunk sub-genre, such as ''[[Last Exile]]'' (2003), directed by [[Kouichi Chigira]], which features a curious blend of Victorian society and futuristic battles between ships of the sky. Also of note is 2004's ''[[Steamboy]]'' directed by [[Katsuhiro Otomo]].
:''See also the [[List of cyberpunk works#List of Cyberpunk films|list of cyberpunk films]] and [[List of cyberpunk works#List of TV series|list of cyberpunk TV series]].''
==Music and fashion==
The term "cyberpunk music" can refer to two rather overlapping categories. First, it may denote the varied range of musical works which cyberpunk films use as soundtrack material. These works occur in genres from [[European classical music|classical music]] and [[jazz]]&mdash;used, in ''[[Blade Runner]]'' and elsewhere, to evoke a ''film noir'' ambiance&mdash;to "[[Noise music|noize]]" and [[electronica]]. Typically, films draw upon electronica, [[electronic body music]], [[Industrial music|industrial]], [[noise music|noise]], [[futurepop]], [[alternative rock]], [[goth rock]], and [[intelligent dance music]] to create the proper "feel". The same principles apply to computer and video g |
9</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-22T00:16:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''forgetting rate''' is the rate at which material that has been memorised is forgotten over time.
In 1885, [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] discovered the [[exponential decay|exponential]] nature of [[forgetting]]. We can roughly describe the forgetting rate by ''R'' = ''e''<sup>(&minus;''t''/''S'')</sup>, where ''R'' is [[memory retention]], ''S'' is the relative [[strength of memory]], and ''t'' is [[time]]. Thus, strength of memory (''S'') is the best way to represent the forgetting rate.
For example, if you learn a foreign word today, you usually have only a 90% chance of remembering it after several days.
The forgetting rate tends to decrease after each repetition. Some strategies for learning aim to reduce forgetting by [[spaced repetition]], by which the learned material is reviewed repeatedly. The spacing between the repetitions is adjusted so that the material is reviewed before it would have been forgotten.
==See also==
*[[forgetting curve]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Free-running sleep</title>
<id>10971</id>
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<id>37138585</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T23:31:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tnikkel</username>
<id>83978</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of '''free running''', see [[free running]].''
'''Free-running sleep''' is [[sleep]] that is not artificially regulated. It is used as a form of [[chronotherapy]] that can help to cure some [[sleep disorder]]s. Most people in the industrial world cannot afford free-running sleep. Only a small part of the population can sleep in a perfect 24 hour cycle and in synchrony with the schedules demanded by work and family. The most typical violation of free-running sleep is the use of an [[alarm clock]]. Another violation is staying awake past one's accustomed bedtime in spite of drowsiness. (Staying up late when one is not sleepy does not violate free-running sleep.) Going to sleep too early (e.g. to force longer sleep before early arising) may also disturb the free-running [[sleep cycle]].
[[Category:Sleep]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fenrisulfr</title>
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<id>41359136</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T21:08:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Calm</username>
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<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Fenris Ulf]] for the character in the Narnia stories. Fenrir redirects here. See [[Fenrir (disambiguation)]] for other uses.''
[[Image:Tyr and Fenrir.jpg|right|250px|thumb|According to the [[Edda]] Fenrisulfr bites off the
hand of [[Tyr|Týr]] ([[John Bauer]], 1911)]]
In [[Norse mythology]], the '''Fenrisulfr''', '''Wolf of Fenrir''', '''Fenris''' or simply '''Fenrir''' is a monstrous [[wolf]], the son of [[Loki]] and the [[giantess]] [[Angrboda|Angrboða]]. Fenrir is bound by the gods, but is ultimately destined to grow too large for his bonds and devour [[Odin]] during the course of [[Ragnarök]]. At that time he will have grown so large that his upper jaw touches the sky while his lower touches the earth when he gapes. After killing Odin he will be slain by Odin's son, [[Vidar|Viðarr]], who will either stab him in the heart or rip his jaws asunder according to different accounts.
The most important source of our information about Fenrir appears in the "Gylfaginning" section of [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s ''[[Edda]]'', although there are other, often contradictory, accounts and sources which need to be assessed (e.g. in [[Lokasenna]] [[Loki]] threatens [[Thor]] with destruction by Fenrir at the forthcoming Ragnarök once Fenrir has destroyed Odin).
[[Image:Fenris Ledbergsstenen 20041231.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Wolf images on the [[Ledberg stone]].]]
Fenrir has two sons, [[Hati]] ('hate') and [[Skoll]]. These sons chase the horses [[Arvak|Árvakr]] and [[Alsvid|Alsviðr]], that drag the chariot which contains the [[sun]]. [[Hati]] also chases [[Mani (god)|Máni]], the [[moon]]. 'Skoll', in certain circumstances, is used as a [[heiti]] to refer indirectly to the father (Fenrir) and not the son. This ambiguity works in the other direction also, for example in the [[Vafþrúðnismál]], where a confusion exists in stanza 46 where Fenrir is given the sun-chasing attributes of his son Skoll.
Learning from the prophecy of the sybil (cf. [[Völuspá]]) and from his contest with [[Vafþrúðnir]] (related in [[Vafþrúðnismál]]) that the children of Loki and Angrboða would bring trouble to the gods, [[Odin]] had the wolf brought to him along with his brother [[Jormungand|Jörmungandr]] and his sister [[Hel (goddess)|Hel]].
After casting Jörmungandr into the sea and Hel down into the land of the dead, Odin had the wolf raised among the [[Æsir]]. Only the god [[Tyr|Týr]] was daring enough to feed the growing monster. The gods urged by the wolf's increasing strength and by prophecies that he would be their destruction, attempted to bind the great beast. Twice he agreed to be chained and twice easily burst out of two successive fetters. The first, made of iron, was called L&oelig;ðingr. The second, also of iron, but of twice the strength, was called Drómi.
Odin then had the [[Norse dwarves|dwarfs]] forge the chain [[Gleipnir]] ("deceiver" or "entangler"). It appeared to be only a silken ribbon but was made of six wondrous ingredients: the sound of a cat's footfall, the beard of a woman, the roots of a mountain, bear's sinews (meaning nerves, sensibility), fish's breath, and bird's spittle (which explains why these things are not found today). [[Skirnir|Skírnir]], [[Freyr]]'s messenger, brought it back to [[Asgard|Ásgarðr]].
Then, in the island called Lyngvi ("Heathery") in the lake called Ámsvartnir 'Red-black' (places unknown to us), the gods challenged Fenrisulfr to break this chain also. But the wolf noted the thinness and fineness of construction of Gleipnir and not unreasonably suspected a trick. He agreed to make the test only if one of the gods was willing to place his hand in the wolf's mouth during the binding as a pledge to free him if he failed to break the chain. No god was willing to do this, until Týr stood forth and placed his hand in the wolf's mouth. Fenrisulfr strained to burst the chain but the more he struggled the tighter he was held. When the gods would not free him, the wolf bit off Týr's hand at the wrist, the point afterwards called "the wolf joint".
[[Image:Fenrir bound manuscript image.jpg|right|thumb|400px|A river flows from bound Fenrir's mouth in this illustration from a [[17th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]]
Then, as told by Snorri in Brodeur's translation:
<blockquote>When the Æsir saw that the Wolf was fully bound, they took the chain that was fast to the fetter, and which is called Gelgja 'Thin', and passed it through a great rock&mdash;it is called [[Gioll|Gjöll]] 'Scream'&mdash;and fixed the rock deep down into the earth. Then they took a great stone and drove it yet deeper into the earth&mdash;it was called Thviti&mdash;and used the stone for a fastening-pin. The Wolf gaped terribly, and thrashed about and strove to bite them; they thrust into his mouth a certain sword: the guards caught in his lower jaw, and the point in the upper; that is his gag. He howls hideously, and slaver runs out of his mouth: that is the river called Ván 'Hope'; there he lies till the Weird of the Gods.</blockquote>
It is prophesied that at Ragnarök the wolf will at last break free and join forces with the enemies of the gods and will then devour Odin himself. After that Viðarr, Odin's son, will slay the wolf to avenge his father, either with a sword through the heart, or by tearing apart the wolf after placing one foot shod with a special shoe on its lower jaw and one hand on its upper jaw.
[[Image:Manuscript Fenrir.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Týr losing his hand is a scene that has provoked the imagination of artists throughout the centuries. This illustration is from an [[18th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]]
==Other names==
*Fenrisúlfr
*Fenris Wolf (a translation of Fenrisulfr)
*Dominous Wolfous (a translation of Irish)
*Fenrir (along with Fenris as one of the more accepted)
*Hróðvitnir, 'the famous wolf'
{{NorseMythology}}
[[Category:Creatures in Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Mythological dogs]]
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<page>
<title>Fuel</title>
<id>10973</id>
<revision>
<id>38656255</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T20:06:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.230.71.132</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For information on the band, see [[Fuel (band)]].''
:''For the workstation, see [[SGI Fuel]]''.
'''Fuel''' is a material with one type of [[energy]] which can be transformed into another usable energy. A common example is [[potential energy]] being converted into [[kinetic energy]], (as [[heat]] and [[mechanical work]]). In many cases this is just something that will [[combustion|burn]].
===Solid fuels===
[[Image:Coal.jpg|150px|thumb|A lump of coal.]]
There are many different types of fuel. [[Solid fuel]]s include [[coal]], [[wood]] and [[peat]]. All these types of fuel are combustible (they create fire and heat). Coal was burnt by [[steam]] [[rail t |
the [[transcript]] as well as being important for controlling the rate of translation and half life of the transcript. Furthermore, transcripts made from the same gene may not have the same exon structure since parts of the mRNA could be removed by the process of [[alternative splicing]]. Some mRNA transcripts have exons with no ORF's and thus are sometimes referred to as [[non-coding RNA]].
Exonization is the creation of a new exon, as result of mutations in [[intron]]ic sequences.
[[Polycistronic]] messages have multiple ORF's in one transcript and also have small regions of untranslated sequence between each ORF.
==Experimental approaches that utilise exons==
[[Exon trapping]] or '[[gene trapping]]' is a [[molecular biology]] technique that exploits the existence of the intron-exon [[splicing]] to find new genes. The first exon of a 'trapped' gene will splice into the exon that is contained in the [[insertional DNA]]. This new exon contains the ORF for a [[reporter gene]] that can now be expressed using the [[enhancer]]s that control the target gene. A scientist knows that a new gene has been trapped when the reporter gene is expressed.
Splicing can be experimentally modified so that targeted exons are excluded from mature mRNA transcripts by blocking the access of splice-directing proteins to pre-mRNA using [[Morpholino|Morpholino antisense oligos]]. This has become a standard technique in [[developmental biology]].
==References==
*[http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/exon Definiton of exon]
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=622185&dopt=Abstract Gilbert W (1978) Why genes in pieces? Nature 271:501]
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9536098&dopt=Abstract Zhang MQ (1998) Statistical features of human exons and their flanking regions. Hum Mol Genet 7:919932]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Exxon</title>
<id>10239</id>
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<id>15908063</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-26T19:44:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mulad</username>
<id>12070</id>
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<minor />
<comment>bypass redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ExxonMobil]]</text>
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<page>
<title>ExxonMobil</title>
<id>10240</id>
<revision>
<id>41166810</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T13:52:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wbkelley</username>
<id>190224</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Diversity */ rephrase & point of view, see Talk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = Exxon Mobil Corporation |
company_logo = [[Image:ExxonMobil logo.png|222px|center|]] |
company_type = [[Public company|Public]] ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=XOM XOM])|
company_slogan = "Taking on the world's toughest energy challenges" |
foundation = 1882 (in 1999, company took on current name) |
location = HQ in [[Irving, Texas]] |
key_people = Chairman and CEO, [[Rex W. Tillerson]] |
num_employees = 88,300 |
industry = [[List of petroleum companies|Oil and Gasoline]] |
products = [[Petrochemical]] products |
revenue = [[Image:green up.png]]$371 billion [[U.S. dollar|USD]] (2005) |
homepage = [http://www.exxonmobil.com/ www.exxonmobil.com]
}}
'''Exxon Mobil Corporation''' or '''ExxonMobil''' ({{nyse|XOM}}) is the largest publicly-traded [[Petroleum|oil]] producer and distributor in the world, formed on [[November 30]], [[1999]], by the merger of Exxon and [[Mobil]]. It is the largest publicly traded company in the world. Its operating profit in 2005 was $36.13 billion (an all-time record for any publicly-traded company), slightly less than the gross domestic product of [[Azerbaijan]], while its revenues were $30.5 billion dollars larger than the GDP of Saudi Arabia. Its headquarters are in [[Irving, Texas|Irving]], a suburb of [[Dallas, Texas]]. The merger of Exxon and Mobil is symbolic in American history because it once again consolidated the two largest companies (Standard Oil Company of New Jersey/Exxon and Standard Oil Company of New York/Mobil) of [[John D. Rockefeller]]'s [[Standard Oil]] trust. Exxon Mobil is a component of the {{DJIA}}.
The current ExxonMobil is the parent of Exxon, Mobil, and [[Esso]] companies around the world. Of the four largest oil companies in the world (ExxonMobil, [[Royal Dutch Shell]], [[BP]], and [[Total S.A.|Total]]), ExxonMobil is the largest by profit and market value.
==Name==
[[Image:Exxon logo.jpg|thunmb|240px|right|Exxon logo]]
[[Image:Exxongasstation.jpg|240px|thumb|Exxon-branded gas station in California (actually operated by Valero)]]
''Exxon'' formally replaced the ''Esso'', ''Enco'', and ''Humble'' brands on [[January 1]], [[1973]] in the [[United States|USA]]. The name ''Esso'', which sounds like ''S''-''O'', attracted protests from other [[Standard Oil]] spinoffs because of its similarity to the name of the parent company, ''Standard Oil''. Hence, the company was restricted from using ''Esso'' in the USA except in those states awarded to it in the 1911 Standard Oil antitrust settlement. In states where the Esso brand was blackballed, the company marketed its gasoline under the Humble or Enco brands. The Humble brand was used at Texas stations for decades as those operations were under the direction of Jersey Standard affiliate, [[Humble Oil]], and in the mid-to-late 1950s expanded to other Southwestern states including New Mexico, Arizona and Oklahoma.
In 1960, Jersey Standard gained full control of Humble Oil and Refining Co., and through a reorganization of the company, restructured Humble into Jersey's domestic marketing and refining division to sell and market gasoline nationwide under the Esso, Enco and Humble brands. The Enco brand was introduced by Humble in 1960 at stations in Ohio but was soon blackballed after Standard Oil of Ohio (Sohio) protested that Enco (Humble's acronym for "ENergy COmpany) sounded and looked too much like Esso as it shared the same oval logo with blue border and red letters with the two middle letters the only difference. At that point, the stations in Ohio would be rebranded Humble until the name change to Exxon in 1972.
After the Enco brand was discontinued in Ohio, it was moved to other non-Esso states. In 1961, Humble stations in Oklahoma, New Mexico and Arizona were rebranded as Enco and the Enco brand appeared on gasoline and lubricant products at Humble stations in Texas that same year with service stations there changed to Enco in 1962. By that time, Jersey had expanded the Enco brand to stations in the Midwest and Northwest that had been operated by various subsidaries such as Carter, Pate and Oklahoma among others.
In 1963, Humble was approached by Tidewater Oil Company - a major gasoline marketer along the eastern and western seaboards - to purchase the firm's refining and marketing operations on the west coast, a move that would have given Humble a large number of existing stations and a refinery in California - which was then the fastest growing gasoline market. However, the Justice Department objected to Humble's plan to purchase Tidewater's west coast operations, which were later sold to Phillips Petroleum in 1966. Meanwhile, Humble gradually built up new and rebranded service stations in California and other western states under the Enco brand and purchased a large number of stations from Signal Oil Company in 1967, followed by the opening of a new refinery Benicia, Calif. in 1969.
In 1966, the Justice Department ordered Humble to "cease and desist" from using the Esso brand at stations in several Southeastern states following protests from Standard Oil of Kentucky (a [[Standard Oil of California]] subsidiary by that time and in the process of rebranding the Kyso stations as [[Chevron]]). By 1967, stations in each of those states were rebranded as [[Enco]].
Despite the success of the "Put A Tiger In Your Tank" advertising campaign introduced by Humble in 1964 to promote its Enco/Esso Extra gasolines, the similar logotypes, use of the Humble name in all Esso/Enco ads and the uniformity in design and products of Humble stations nationwide, the company still had difficulties promoting itself as a nationwide gasoline marketer competing against truly national brands such as [[Texaco]] - then a 50-state marketer and the only company selling products under one brand name in each state. Humble officials realized by the late 1960s that the time had come to swallow its pride by developing a new brand name that could be used nationwide throughout the U.S. At first, consideration was given to simply rebranding all stations as "Enco" but that was shelved when it was learned that "Enco" is a Japanese abbreviation of "engine failure." (エンジン故障, ''enjinkoshou'')
In order to create a unified brand, the company changed its corporate name from ''Jersey Standard'' to ''Exxon'', rebranding all its U.S. stations under the latter title in the summer and fall of 1972 following the successful test marketing of the Exxon brand and logo in late 1971 and early 1972 at rebranded Enco/Esso stations in certain U.S. cities. However, the unrestricted international use of the popular brand ''Esso'' prompted the company to continue using ''Esso'' outside of the USA. ''Esso'' is the only widely used Standard Oil brand left in existence. Other Standard Oil descendants, such as [[BP]] and [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]], do however maintain a few stations with the ''Standard Oil'' brand in specific states in order to retain their trademarks and prevent others fr |
, [[1918]] (monarchy abolished)
|-
| align="left" | [[Prajadhipok|Prajadhipok of Siam]]
| align="right" | [[March 2]], [[1935]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom]]
| align="right" | [[December 11]], [[1936]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Carol II of Romania]]
| align="right" | [[September 6]], [[1940]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy]]
| align="right" | [[May 9]], [[1946]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Wilhelmina of the Netherlands]]
| align="right" | [[September 4]], [[1948]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Léopold III of Belgium|Léopold III, King of the Belgians]]
| align="right" | [[July 16]], [[1951]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Farouk I of Egypt]]
| align="right" | [[July 26]], [[1952]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Fuad II of Egypt]]
| align="right" | [[June 18]], [[1953]] (Monarchy abolished)
|-
| align="left" | [[Juliana of the Netherlands]]
| align="right" | [[April 30]], [[1980]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Jean of Luxembourg]]
| align="right" | [[October 7]], [[2000]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Hans-Adam II of Liechtenstein]]<sup>[[#Notes|3]]</sup>
| align-"right" | [[August 15]], [[2004]] (Made his son regent)
|-
| align="left" | [[Norodom Sihanouk]] of [[Cambodia]]
| align="right" | [[October 7]], [[2004]]
|-
| align="left" | [[Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah]] of [[Kuwait]]
| align="right" | [[January 23]], [[2006]]
|}
==Notes==
<sup>1</sup>Charles abdicated as lord of the [[Netherlands]] ([[October 25]], [[1555]]) and king of [[Spain]] ([[January 16]], [[1556]]), in favor of his son [[Philip II of Spain]]. Also in 1556 he separately voluntarily abdicated his German possessions and the title of [[Holy Roman Emperor]].<br />
<sup>2</sup>Pedro IV of Portugal and Pedro I of Brazil were the same person. He was already Emperor of Brazil when he succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter [[Maria II of Portugal]]. Later he abdicated the throne of Brazil in favor of his son [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]]. <br />
<sup>3</sup>Hans-Adam II made his son [[Alois of Liechtenstein|Alois]] regent, effectively abdicating; however, he still remains the formal Head of State.
==See also==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abdication}}
*[[Lists of incumbents]]
*[[List of monarchs who lost their thrones or abdicated in the 20th century]]
*[[Papal abdication]]
*[[The Great Abdication]]
==References==
* Public domain 1911 edition of ''The New Century Book of Facts'' published by the King-Richardson Company, Springfield, Massachusetts.
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<page>
<title>Awk</title>
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<timestamp>2002-11-04T17:01:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
<id>135</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AWK programming language]]</text>
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<title>AgoraNomic</title>
<id>908</id>
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<timestamp>2003-06-08T23:53:32Z</timestamp>
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<username>Eloquence</username>
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<page>
<title>Anglican Communion</title>
<id>909</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:53:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<comment>/* What holds the Communion together? */ removed "- -"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CompassRose.gif|thumb|The Anglican Communion uses the [[compass rose]] as its symbol, signifying its worldwide reach and decentralized nature. It is surmounted, like ecclesiastical coats of arms, by a bishop's [[mitre]]; in the center is a [[St. George's cross | cross of St. George]] recalling the communion's origins in the [[Church of England]]. The [[Greek language | Greek]] motto, &#7977; &#7936;&lambda;&#942;&theta;&epsilon;&iota;&alpha; &#7952;&lambda;&epsilon;&upsilon;&theta;&epsilon;&rho;&#974;&sigma;&epsilon;&iota; &#8017;&mu;&#8118;&sigmaf; ("The truth will set you free") is a quotation from [[Gospel of John|John]] 8:32.]]
The '''Anglican Communion''' is a world-wide organisation of [[Anglican]] Churches. There is no single "Anglican Church" since each national or regional church has full autonomy; as the name suggests, rather, the Anglican ''Communion'' is an association of these churches in [[full communion]] with each other and particularly with the [[Church of England]], which may be regarded as the "mother church" of the worldwide communion.
As a result, all [[rite]]s conducted in one member church are recognised by the others. Some of these churches are known as Anglican, explicitly recognising the link to England; others, such as the American and Scottish [[Episcopal Church| Episcopal]] churches, or the [[Church of Ireland]], prefer a specific name. Each church has its own [[doctrine]] and [[liturgy]], based in most cases on that of the Church of England; and each church has its own legislative process and overall episcopal leadership from a local [[primate (religion) | primate]]. The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], religious head of the Church of England, has no formal authority outside that country; but is recognised as a symbolic head for the worldwide communion. Among the other primates, he is ''primus inter pares'', or "[[first among equals]]." If the Archbishop of Canterbury is compared with other religious leaders such as the [[Pope]], therefore, it is only because of his prominent figurehead role in the media. He has no formal authority outside his own province.
Although they are not considered members, some non-Anglican bodies have entered into communion with the Anglican Communion despite having non-Anglican origins and traditions. There are also a number of Anglican-type bodies which separated from a member church of the Anglican Communion and thus are no longer in communion with the Church of England. They tend to call themselves "[[Anglican continuing churches|continuing churches]]."
==What holds the Communion together?==
{{Anglicanism}}
The Anglican Communion has no official legal existence nor any formal governing structure. (There is an "[[Anglican Communion Office]]" in London, under the aegis of the Archbishop of Canterbury; but it serves merely a supporting and organisational role.) Some have asked what holds the communion together.
The first attempt at an answer was the [[Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral]] of [[1888]]. Proposed by the American Episcopal Church in 1886 and adopted by the [[Lambeth Conference]] of 1888, it set out four principles for future Christian unity. Although wider union has not followed, the quadrilateral has been useful within the communion itself.
The quadrilateral, according to the wording adopted in Lambeth ([http://anglicansonline.org/basics/Chicago_Lambeth.html]), consists of:
# "The Holy Scriptures of the [[Old Testament | Old]] and [[New Testament]]s, as 'containing all things necessary to salvation', and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith."
# "The [[Apostles' Creed]], as the Baptismal Symbol; and the [[Nicene Creed]], as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith."
# "The two [[Sacrament]]s ordained by Christ Himself - Baptism and the Supper of the Lord - ministered with unfailing use of Christ's words of Institution, and of the elements ordained by Him."
# "The Historic [[bishop|Episcopate]], locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of God into the Unity of His Church."
This, then, is the theoretical basis for unity. But what holds it together organisationally? In the last few years people have began to refer to four "Instruments of Unity", which are effectively symbols to which all the churches of the communion can feel tied. In order of antiquity, they are:
* The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (''ab origine'')
* The [[Lambeth Conference]] (first held in [[1867]])
* The [[Anglican Consultative Council]] (first met in [[1971]])
* The [[Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting | Primates' Meeting]] (first met in [[1979]])
Since each province is legally independent and free to chart its own course, the stress on these instruments of unity can easily be imagined. In recent years, for example, some Anglicans (particularly in Africa and Asia) have been displeased with the American and Canadian branches, upset by their welcoming attitudes towards homosexuals, and by the confident way the changes have been made &mdash; the conservatives condemned the action as unilateral and called for wider consultation within the communion before such steps were taken. After the North American churches reaffirmed their belief that their actions had been righteous and "prophetic", they were asked to withdraw their delegates from the 2005 meeting of the Anglican Consultative Council, although it is not clear under whose authority or by what law. They were eventually permitted at the meeting with voice, but no vote. |
wo. In recent history, with scientists learning more about autism and possibly coming closer to a cure, some members of the "anti-cure" movement [[Autistic community#Declaration from the autism community|sent a letter to the United Nations]] demanding to be treated as a minority group rather than a group with a [[mental disability]] or disease. Websites such as autistics.org{{ref|refbot.770}} present the view of the anti-cure group.
There are numerous resources available for autistics from many groups. Due to the fact that many autistics find it easier to communicate online than in person, many of these resources are available online. In addition, sometimes successful autistic adults in a local community will help out children with autism, much in the way a master would help out an apprentice, for example.
2002 was declared [[Autism Awareness Year]] in the [[United Kingdom]]&mdash;this idea was initiated by [[Ivan and Charika Corea]], parents of an autistic child, Charin. Autism Awareness Year was led by the [[British Institute of Brain Injured Children]], [[Disabilities Trust]], [[National Autistic Society]], [[Autism London]] and 800 organizations in the United Kingdom. It had the personal backing of [[United Kingdom|British]] Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] and parliamentarians of all parties in the [[Palace of Westminster]].
===Culture===
{{details|Autistic culture}}
With the recent increases in autism recognition and new approaches to educating and socializing autistics, an ''autistic culture'' has begun to develop. Similar to [[deaf culture]], autistic culture is based in a belief that autism is a unique way of being and not a disorder to be cured. There are some commonalities which are specific to autism in general as a culture, not just "autistic culture".
It is a common misperception that people with autism do not marry; many do get married. Often, they marry another person with autism, although this is not always the case. Many times autistics are attracted to other autistics due to shared interests or obsessions, but more often than not the attraction is due to simple compatibility with personality types, the same as is true for non-autistics. Autistics who communicate have explained that companionship is as important to autistics as it is to anyone else. Multigenerational autistic families have also recently become a bit more common.
The interests of autistic people and so-called "[[geeks]]" or "[[Nerd|nerds]]" can often overlap as autistic people can sometimes become preoccupied with certain subjects, much like the variant normal behavior geeks experience. However, in practice many autistic people have difficulty with working in groups, which impairs them even in the most "technical" of situations.
===Autistic adults===
[[image:Grandin2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Temple Grandin]], one of the more successful adults with autism.
<small>Photograph courtesy Joshua Nathaniel Pritikin and William Lawrence Jarrold.</small>]]
Some autistic adults are able to work successfully in mainstream jobs, usually those with high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome. Nevertheless, communication and social problems often cause difficulties in many areas of the autistic's life. Other autistics are capable of employment in sheltered workshops under the supervision of managers trained in working with persons with disabilities. A nurturing environment at home, at school, and later in job training and at work, helps autistic people continue to learn and to develop throughout their lives. Some argue that the internet allows autistic individuals to communicate and form online communities, in addition to being able to find occupations such as independent consulting, which does generally not require much human interaction offline.
In the [[United States]], the public schools' responsibility for providing services ends when the autistic person is in their 20s, depending on each state. The family is then faced with the challenge of finding living arrangements and employment to match the particular needs of their adult child, as well as the programs and facilities that can provide support services to achieve these goals.
=== Autistic savants ===
{{Main|autistic savant}}
The autistic savant phenomenon is sometimes seen in autistic people. The term is used to describe a person who is autistic and has extreme talent in a certain area of study. Although there is a common association between savants and autism (an association created by the 1988 film ''[[Rain Man]]''), most autistic people are not [[savants]]. [[Mental calculator]]s and fast [[programming]] skills are the most common form. The famous example is [[Daniel Tammet]], the subject of the [[documentary film]] ''[[The Brain Man]]'' {{ref|guardianbrainman}} ([[Kim Peek]], one of the inspirations for [[Dustin Hoffman]]'s character in the film ''[[Rain Man]]'', is not autistic). "Bright Splinters of the Mind" is a book that explores this issue further.
== Other pervasive developmental disorders ==
Autism and Asperger's syndrome are just two of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs). The three other pervasive developmental disorders are [[Rett syndrome]], [[Childhood disintegrative disorder]], and [[PDD not otherwise specified|Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]]. Some of these are related to autism, while some of them are entirely separate conditions.
=== Rett syndrome ===
[[Rett syndrome]] is relatively rare, affecting almost exclusively females, one out of 10,000 to 15,000. After a period of normal development, sometime between 6 and 18 months, autism-like symptoms begin to appear. The little girl's mental and social development regresses; she no longer responds to her parents and pulls away from any social contact. If she has been talking, she stops; she cannot control her feet; she wrings her hands. Some of these early symptoms may be confused for autism. Some of the problems associated with Rett syndrome can be treated. [[Physical therapy|Physical]], [[Occupational therapy|occupational]], and [[Speech therapy|speech]] therapy can help with problems of coordination, movement, and [[speech]].
Scientists sponsored by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development have discovered that a mutation in the sequence of a single gene causes Rett syndrome, and can physically test for it with a 80% accuracy rate {{ref|nihrett}}. Rett syndrome in the past was sometimes classified as an autistic spectrum disorder, however most scientists agree that Rett syndrome is a separate developmental disorder and not part of the autistic spectrum {{ref|brighttotsrett}}.
===Childhood disintegrative disorder===
[[Childhood disintegrative disorder]] (CDD, and sometimes abbreviated as CHDD also) is a condition appearing in 3 or 4 year old children who have developed normally until age 2. Over several months, the child will deteriorate in intellectual, social, and language functioning from previously normal behaviour. This long period of normal development before regression helps differentiate CDD from Rett syndrome (and in fact it must be differentiated from autism in testing). The cause for CDD is unknown (thus it may be a spectrum disorder) but current evidence suggests it has something to do with the central nervous system {{ref|yalecdd}} {{ref|nihcdd}}.
=== Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified ===
[[PDD not otherwise specified|Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]], or PDD-NOS, is referred to as a ''subthreshold'' condition because it is a classification which is given to someone who suffers from impairments in social interaction, communication, and/or stereotyped behaviour but does not meet the criteria for one of the other four pervasive developmental disorders. Unlike the other four pervasive developmental disorders, PDD-NOS has no specific guidelines for diagnosis, so the person may have a lot of characteristics of an autistic person, or few to none at all. Note that pervasive developmental disorder is not a diagnosis, just a term to refer to the five mentioned conditions, while PDD-NOS is an official diagnosis {{ref|yalepddnos}}.
==See also==
* '''General'''
:* [[Autism therapies]]
:* [[Causes of autism]]
:* [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders]]
:* [[Early Childhood Autism]]
:* [[Heritability of autism]]
* '''Groups'''
:* [[Aspies For Freedom]]
:* [[National Alliance for Autism Research]]
* '''Controversy'''
:* [[Controversies about functioning labels in the autism spectrum]]
:* [[Controversies in autism]]
:* [[Ethical challenges to autism treatment]]
* '''Lists'''
:* [[List of autism-related topics]]
:* [[List of fictional characters on the autistic spectrum]]
:* [[List of autistic people]]
==References==
* {{cite web | author= | title=Rett syndrome (NIH Publication No. 01-4960) | publisher=Rockville, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development | year=2001 | work=Rett syndrome | url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm?from=autism | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear= 2005 }}
* {{cite journal | author=Frombonne E. | title=Prevalence of childhood disintegrative disorder | journal=Autism | year=2002 | volume=6 | issue=2 | pages=149-157}}
* {{cite journal | author=Volkmar RM and Rutter M. | title=Childhood disintegrative disorder: Results of the DSM-IV autism field trial | journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | year=1995 | volume=34 | pages=1092-1095}}
* {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Ewald | given=Paul | title=Plague Time | date=April 2001 | org=Popular Science | url=http://www.centurytel.net/tjs11/bug/ewald1.htm}}
* {{cite web | title=PANDAS (Paediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococci) and PITAND (Paediatric Infection-triggered Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders) | work=PANDAS & PITAND |
vaporate the oxygen, which was calculated to take a few days at the highest operational temperature of 80 °F (27 °C).
* However, when the heater was turned on continuously, the higher voltage fused the thermostat, which allowed the heater to keep heating up. Because the thermometer did not register temperatures higher than 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 degrees Celsius), the monitoring equipment did not pick this up. The current recorder in the power supply showed that the heater was not cycling on and off, but no-one noticed it at the time. Instead of taking several days, the gas evaporated in hours, and the interior of the tank kept heating up, reaching an estimated 800 degrees Fahrenheit (430 °C). This burned off the teflon coating, leaving the wires inside the tank exposed.
* The rest was inevitable. When the tank was refilled with oxygen, it became a bomb waiting to go off. The order to run the "cryo stir" to run the fans set off sparks inside the tank which led to the explosion.
* Disaster might have been averted, had not the oxygen tanks been adjacent. Although the second tank survived the explosion, its valves were damaged which allowed the oxygen within to leak out. In future Apollo missions, the two oxygen tanks were separately located.
==Mission notes==
*There was no time to properly replace the original [[lunar plaques|lunar plaque]] on ''Aquarius'' (which bore Mattingly's name), so Jim Lovell was given a replacement (with Swigert's name) to place over the original plaque once they landed on the moon. However, because the lunar landing was never made, Lovell kept the plaque, which is one of the few mementos from the mission that he has on display at his home.
*As a result of following the free return trajectory, the altitude of Apollo 13 over the [[Far side (Moon)|lunar far side]] was approximately 100 km greater than the corresponding orbital altitude on the remaining Apollo lunar missions. This could mean an all-time [[altitude]] record for human spaceflight&mdash;not even superseded [[as of 2006]]&mdash;but this may well not be the case: the variation in distance between Earth and the Moon owing to the [[eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] of the Moon's orbit about Earth is much larger than this 100 km. The [[Guinness Book of Records]] listed this flight as having the absolute altitude record for a manned spacecraft, and Lovell should have received a certificate from them attesting to this record (Lovell stated in the book ''Lost Moon'' that apart from the plaque and a couple of other pieces of salvage, the only other item he has regarding this mission was a letter from [[Charles Lindbergh]]).
*The splashdown point was {{coor dm|21|38|S|165|22|W|}}, SE of American Samoa and 6.5 km (4 mi) from the recovery ship, [[USS Iwo Jima (LPH-2)|USS ''Iwo Jima'']].
*Superstitious people have associated the [[Triskaidekaphobia|belief that 13 is an unlucky number]] to the mission, especially due to the fact that the mission began at 13:13 [[Central Standard Time Zone|CST]], the problems began on [[April 13]], and the mission is called Apollo 13.
==Insignia==
The Apollo 13 logo featured three flying horses, and the motto ''Ex luna, scientia'' (from the Moon, knowledge), and the number of the mission in Roman numerals. It is one of two Apollo insignias (the other being ''[[Apollo 11]]'''s) not to include the names of the crew (which was fortunate, considering one of the original crew was replaced not long before the mission began).
==Relics==
The command module is currently displayed at the [[Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center]], [[Hutchinson, Kansas]]. It was formerly at the [[Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace]], [[Paris]]. The lunar module burned up in Earth's atmosphere [[17 April]], [[1970]], having been targeted to enter over the Pacific Ocean to reduce the possibility of contamination from a [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]] (RTG) on board (had the mission proceeded as planned, the RTG would have been used to power the [[Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package]], and then remained on the Moon). The RTG survived reentry (as designed) and landed in the [[Tonga Trench]]. While it will remain radioactive for approximately 2000 years, it does not appear to be releasing radioactive material.
==Dramatization==
* ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'' - the 1995 [[film]] directed by [[Ron Howard (American director)|Ron Howard]] and starring, as the astronauts, [[Tom Hanks]], [[Bill Paxton]], and [[Kevin Bacon]], with [[Ed Harris]] as [[flight director]] [[Gene Kranz]], [[Kathleen Quinlan]], and [[Gary Sinise]] in supporting roles. The film was based on ''Lost Moon'', Jim Lovell's book about the incident.
* In the [[1993]] film ''[[Falling Down]]'', [[Michael Douglas]]' character compares himself to the crew of Apollo 13, claiming that he had passed the "point of no return" as they had, thus causing them to circle the moon.
==Games==
* ''[[Apollo 13 Solarquest]]'' was a [[1995]] board game released by Universal Games. It was based on the popular [[1986]] "space-age" [[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]] variant, [[Solarquest]].
*[[Sega]] produced an Apollo 13 [[pinball]] machine, featuring a 13-ball [[Glossary of pinball terms#M|multiball]].
*[http://www.apollo13game.com/ Apollo 13 - an ITSM case experience] is a simulation game used in [[ITIL]] training. It's made by Dutch company [http://www.gamingworks.nl GamingWorks BV].
==External links==
* [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo13.htm Apollo 13 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
===References===
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.41.htm Apollo 13 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19770075651_1977075651.pdf Original Apollo 13 Lunar Exploration and Photography Summary Plan (PDF), February 1970]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19930074343_1993074343.pdf Apollo 13 Spacecraft Incident Investigation, (PDF) NASA June 1970]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19700076776_1970076776.pdf Report of Apollo 13 Review Board, (PDF) NASA June 1970]
*[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/mission_trans/AS13_TEC.PDF Apollo 13 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription, April 1970, 765 pages (PDF, 20.4 MB)]
*[http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/apr05/2697 Apollo 13, We Have a Solution: Rather than hurried improvisation, saving the crew of Apollo 13 took years of preparation]
*Lovell, Jim; Kluger, Jeffrey (1994). ''Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13''. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0395670292.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/HoustonWeveGotAProblem ''NASA film on the Apollo 13 mission downloadable from ''archive.org'' ''The Internet Archive'']
{{commons|Apollo 13}}
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<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=272 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big>'''''Apollo 7'''''</big>
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:AP7lucky7.jpg|200px|Apollo 7 insignia]]
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 7
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||Command module:<br />''Apollo 7''
|-
|'''Number of<br />Crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[October 11]], [[1968]]<br />15:02:45 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station]]<br />LC 34
|-
|'''Apogee:'''||297 km
|-
|'''Perigee:'''||231 km
|-
|'''Period:'''||89.78 min
|-
|'''Inclination:'''||31.63
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[October 22]], [[1968]]<br />11:11:48 UTC<br />27° 38' N - 64° 09' W
|-
|'''Duration:'''||10 d 20 h 9 min 3 s
|-
|'''Number of<br />Orbits:'''||163
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM |
|}}
'''Galactus''', sometimes called the '''Devourer of Worlds''' or '''Eater of Planets''', is a [[fictional character|fictional]] [[comic book]] character, a cosmic entity within [[Marvel Comics]]' [[Marvel Universe|universe]]. Created by [[Jack Kirby]] and [[Stan Lee]], he first appeared in ''[[Fantastic Four]]'' #48, the beginning of a [[story arc]] sometimes regarded as the finest Lee/Kirby collaboration.
==Character history==
{{spoiler}}
===Rebirth===
Originally named '''Galan''' (or '''Galen''', the spelling differs on occasion), he hails from the planet Taa, and is the sole survivor of the [[Big Crunch]] of the previous [[universe]] in which Taa was located.
A [[outer space|space]] explorer investigating the impending end of his universe, his ship approached the focal point of the Big Crunch and was promptly destroyed. Galen, the only survivor, was transformed into a cosmic entity even as the universe collapsed, after striking a deal with [[Eternity (comics)|Eternity]], who was about to be reborn in the next universe.
After the [[Big Bang]] of the current universe, to complete his [[metamorphosis (biology)|transformation]], Galactus was encased in a [[cosmic egg]] brimming with enormous energies. After billions of years, he emerged as an entity of vast cosmic power who was also necessary for the existence of the newly formed universe.
Galactus is considered one of the five essential entities within the Marvel Universe alongside [[Eternity (comics)|Eternity]], the personification of the universe, [[Death (Marvel Comics)|Death]], [[Infinity (Marvel Comics)|Infinity]] and Oblivion.
===The Devourer of Worlds===
Galactus wields the immeasurable '''Power Cosmic''' (indeed, he is so powerful that he must always wear his alien armor in order to contain his vast energies; were he ever to remove it, the energy thus released would destroy him and turn him into a star). However, he must feed to survive, consuming the energy of entire [[planet]]s. Towards this end, Galactus scours the universe seeking planets to sustain himself.
Over millions of years, he has become one of the most feared beings in the universe, his vast power allowing him to lay waste to innumerable [[Extraterrestrial life|extra-terrestrial]] [[civilization]]s in his quest for sustenance.
[[Image:Sspara.png|Galactus with the Silver Surfer.|225px|Cover to ''Silver Surfer: Parable''. Art by [[Jean Giraud]], under the pseudonym "Moebius."|thumb]]
Nevertheless, he is not an [[evil]] being, but rather a force of nature whose feedings are necessary for survival. It is also said that Galactus plays a necessary role in the continuum of the Universe bringing randomness, which in turn balances with order, and if he were ever destroyed another being would have to take his place in this task.
===Heralds===
He has appointed a number of entities as his [[Herald of Galactus|heralds]], imbuing them with a portion of the Power Cosmic and sending them to search for edible worlds. Most of his heralds have rebelled or betrayed him.
Among his heralds are the Fallen One, [[Tyrant (comics)|Tyrant]], [[Silver Surfer]], [[Terrax]], [[Gladiator (Shi'ar)|Gladiator]], [[Firelord]], [[Air-Walker]], the Air-Walker robot, an Earthwoman named Frankie Raye later known as [[Nova (comics)#Frankie_Raye|Nova]], [[Morg]], [[Red Shift (comics)|Red Shift]], the Asgardian [[Destroyer (Thor)|Destroyer]] armor, [[Johnny Storm|Human Torch]], [[Dazzler]], and Stardust (his current herald).
[[Gladiator (Shi'ar)|Gladiator]] and [[Tyrant (comics)|Tyrant]] were possibly heralds, and [[Superman]] was a herald very briefly in the FF/Superman crossover.
In stories in alternate and parallel realities, he also used unknown heralds: Plasma, Dark Angel, Kryptonian, [[Golden Oldie]], the Fantastic Four, Thor, Ardina, and Starglow.
In the Ultimate Marvel storyline Gah Lak Tus, as he is known in the Ultimate Universe, has used The Ultimate version of the Silver Surfer as heralds as well. The ultimate version of the [[Vision]] was built as a warning system for the coming of Gah Lak Tus.
===Attempts to Devour the Earth===
Galactus has threatened to destroy the [[Earth]], on several occasions. On the first, the [[Fantastic Four]] (aided by the [[Watcher (comics)|Watcher]] [[Uatu]] and by Galactus' rebellious herald, the [[Silver Surfer]]) defeated him by threatening him with the [[Ultimate Nullifier]]. Galactus vowed to never again try to harm the Earth.
Nevertheless, he has returned on several occasions, in one instance weakened enough for the Fantastic Four, the [[Avengers]] and several miscellaneous heroes to defeat him. Rather than watch him die of hunger, Mr. Fantastic saved him, for which he later went on galactic trial.
===Temporary death===
In the ''Galactus: The Devourer'' limited series (1999-2000), Galactus was killed after a battle against the united forces of the [[Avengers (comics)|Avengers]], [[Fantastic Four]], [[Starjammers]], the [[Shi'ar]] Empire and an armada of other united planets (including even a [[Kree]] starship). He died with an ominous warning that his death would allow a great evil to surface. After his death, Galactus' true form was revealed, that of a [[star]].
That great evil emerged in ''Fantastic Four Annual 2001'' in the form of [[Abraxas (comics)|Abraxas]], an entity that was the antithesis of Eternity. It was revealed that most of the energy that Galactus takes from planets was devoted to keeping him imprisoned. Abraxas was only defeated after it was revealed in ''Fantastic Four'' (vol. 2) #49 ([vol. 1] #478; January 2002) that Galactus was still alive. [[Roma (comics)|Roma]], [[Franklin Richards]], and [[Valeria Richards|Valeria Von Doom]] had been incubating Galactus within Eternity.
===Humanoid===
In the 2005 Fantastic Four storyline ''[[Rising Storm]]'', Galactus was separated from his cosmic energy, and reverted to the humanoid form of Galan. In tribute to "the indominitible spirit of the humanoid order", Galan willingly exiled himself into an other-universal realm, in apparent hope that this would prevent or delay the Galactus-energy-being from finding him.
This did not last long, however, and as Galactus, he encountered [[Beta Ray Bill]] shortly after.
==Alternate realities==
===Earth X===
Galactus also made an appearance in the ''[[Earth X]]'' series, which lies outside the normal Marvel [[Earth-616|Earth 616]] [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]], making it non-canon. According to the ''Earth X'' series, Galactus was one of the three essential entities in the Marvel Universe not because he kept Abraxas at bay, but because he kept the [[Celestials]] at bay. By destroying planets, which were really "eggs" of the [[Celestials]], he prevented the Celestials from overpopulating the universe. In its previous incarnation, the universe was brought to a premature end by the overpopulation of Celestials.
When the threat of the gestating Celestial within Earth was discovered, Reed Richards was contacted by [[Machine Man|X-51]] to summon Galactus and destroy the Celestial. Unfortunately, in events which parallel Earth-616, Reed had turned Galactus into a star. However, he still sent [[Black Bolt]] on a suicide mission on the Moon to send a message into space. This message brought a being who appeared to be none other than Galactus himself, who then fought and killed several Celestials before terminating the gestating Celestial. After the battle, Reed asked Galactus to remove his mask, revealing that the devourer of worlds was actually his own missing son, Franklin. The sequels to Earth X (Universe X and Paradise X) later revealed that Franklin, distraught over his mother and uncle's deaths, had fled Earth with the armor of Galactus, convinced to take on the role of the cosmic entity. As Franklin had manifested the final stage of the Celestial seed within humanity, he believed he was Galactus and became Galactus. Reed could not even call his son by name when they met again on Earth. At the end of Paradise X, after Reed inherits [[Captain Marvel (Marvel Comics)|Mar-vell's]] cosmic awareness, he states that his first act would be to rescue his son.
The original Galactus was also revealed to be connected to the [[Microverse]]. The energies of the Sword in the Star not only created the Microverse, but also empowered [[Captain Universe]] before Arcturus Rann ceded the power to Mar-vell. When the Psycho-Man conquered Homeworld with the power of hate and forced Mari to kill Arcturus Rann, the Micronauts fought their way out, stealing the Psycho-Man's Psycho-Caster. The "fear" effect of the Psycho-Caster drew the Man-Thing to the portal which the Micronauts escaped through; as that which knows fear (or any other strong emotion) burns at the touch of the Man-Thing, the entirety of Subatomica was set ablaze by Man-Thing's tendrils. As a result, the energy which made up Subatomica, that from the Sword in the Star, threw itself backwards in time, to before the universe existed. There, it empowered Galan of Taa, to allow him to survive the previous universe and become Galactus. While Kyle Richmond claimed that the Sword itself was sentient, X-51 contradicted him on the Moon, saying that the Star was the sentient aspect: Galactus as a star.
[[Image:ULTEXT001 cov.jpg|thumb|Cover to ''Ultimate Extinction'' #1. Art by Brandon Peterson.]]
===Ultimate Marvel===
While Galactus (called Gah Lak Tus here) has as yet only appeared in a side story of the [[Ultimate Marvel]] Universe (see below), writer [[Warren Ellis]] is currently writing a trilogy of [[limited series]] set in the Ultimate Universe that will introduce him. The trilogy are ''[[Ultimate Nightmare]]'', ''[[Ultimate Secret]]'', and ''[[Ultimate Extinction]]''. Gah Lak Tus is mentioned by name from the Ultimate version of the [[Vision (comics) |Vision]] during ''Ultimate Nightmare'' and is set to be introduced in ''Ultimate Extinction''.
[[Image:GahLakTus.PNG|th |
==First day of battle==
{{seesubarticle|Battle of Gettysburg, First Day}}
[[Image:Gettysburg_Battle_Map_Day1.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Map of Battle, July 1st. Confederate troops are marked in red, Union in blue.]]
General Buford realized the importance of the high ground directly to the south of Gettysburg, knowing that if the Confederates could gain control of the heights, Meade's army would have a hard time dislodging them. He decided to utilize three ridges west of Gettysburg: Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge, and Seminary Ridge (proceeding west to east toward the town). These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small division against superior Confederate forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of infantrymen who could occupy the superior defensive positions south of town, [[Cemetery Hill]], [[Cemetery Ridge]], and [[Culp's Hill]].
Heth's division advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by Brig. Gens. [[James Archer]] and [[Joseph R. Davis]]. They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike. Three miles (5 km) west of town, about 7:30 a.m. on July 1, Heth's two brigades met light resistance from cavalry [[vedette]]s and deployed into line. Eventually, they reached dismounted troopers from Col. [[William Gamble (USA)|William Gamble]]'s cavalry brigade, who mounted determined resistance and delaying tactics from behind fence posts with rapid fire from their Sharps carbines. By 10:20 a.m., the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of the [[I Corps (ACW)|I Corps]] (Maj. Gen. [[John F. Reynolds]]) finally arrived.
North of the Pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brig. Gen. [[Lysander Cutler]]'s brigade, but was repulsed with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge. South of the Pike, Archer's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also know as McPherson's) Woods. The Federal [[Iron Brigade]] under Brig. Gen. [[Solomon Meredith]] enjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself.
Early in the fighting, while General Reynolds was directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods, he fell from his horse, killed instantly by a bullet striking him behind the left ear. Maj. Gen. [[Abner Doubleday]] assumed command. Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12:30 p.m. It resumed around 2:30 p.m., when Heth's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and Col. [[John M. Brockenbrough]].
As Pettigrew's North Carolina Brigade came on line they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back. The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army with nearly 900 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day's fight with around 212 men. By the end of the three-day battle, they would have about 60 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any other regiment, north or south. Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge. Hill added [[William Dorsey Pender]]'s division to the assault and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of the Lutheran Seminary and Gettysburg streets.
As the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg Roads toward Gettysburg, while the Union [[XI Corps (ACW)|XI Corps]] (Maj. Gen. [[Oliver O. Howard]]) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road. By early afternoon, the Federal line ran in a semi-circle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg.
However, the Federals did not have enough troops; Cutler, who was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air. The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line.
Around 2:00 p.m., [[Robert E. Rodes]]'s and [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early]]'s Second Corps divisions smashed and out-flanked the Federal I and XI Corps positions north and northwest of town. The brigades of [[Edward A. O'Neal]] and [[Alfred Iverson]] suffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brig. Gen. [[John C. Robinson]] south of Oak Hill. Early's division profited from a blunder made by Brig. Gen. [[Francis C. Barlow]], when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow's Knoll); this represented a salient in the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early's troops overran his division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army's position. Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack.
As Federal positions collapsed both north and west of town, Gen. Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town, [[Cemetery Hill]], where he had left the division of [[Adolph von Steinwehr]] as a reserve.
Gen. Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground. He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken "if practicable." Ewell chose not to attempt the assault, considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity.
The battle of [[July 1]] had pitted over 25,000 Confederates against 18,000 Federals, and ranks in itself as the twenty-third largest battle of the war.
== Second day of battle ==
[[Image:Gettysburg_Battle_Map_Day2.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Map of Battle, July 2nd.]]
{{seesubarticle|Battle of Gettysburg, Second Day}}
===Plans and movement to battle===
Throughout the evening of July 1 and morning of [[July 2]], most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union [[II Corps (ACW)|II]], [[III Corps (ACW)|III]], [[V Corps (ACW)|V]], [[VI Corps (ACW)|VI]], and [[XII Corps (ACW)|XII Corps]]. Longstreet's third division, commanded by [[George Pickett]], had begun the march from [[Chambersburg, Pennsylvania|Chambersburg]] early in the morning; it would not arrive until late on July 2.
The Union line ran from [[Culp's Hill]] southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly two miles (3 km) along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of [[Little Round Top]]. Most of the XII Corps was on Culp's Hill, the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill, II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge, and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank. This shape of the Union line is popularly described as a "fishhook" formation. The Confederate line paralleled the Union line about a mile (1600 m) to the west on [[Seminary Ridge]], ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp's Hill. Thus, the Federal army had interior lines, while the Confederate's exterior line was nearly five miles (8 km) in length.
Lee's battle plan for July 2 called for Longstreet's First Corps to position itself stealthily to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle the Emmitsburg Road, and to roll up the Federal line. The attack sequence was to begin with [[John Bell Hood]]'s and [[Lafayette McLaws]]'s divisions, followed by [[Richard H. Anderson]]'s division of Hill's Third Corps. The progressive ''en echelon'' sequence of this attack would prevent Meade from shifting troops from his center to bolster his left. At the same time, [[Edward Johnson (general) | Edward "Allegheny" Johnson's]] and Jubal Early's Second Corps divisions were to make a "demonstration" against Culp's and Cemetery Hills (again, to prevent the shifting of Federal troops), and to turn the demonstration into a full-scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself.
Lee's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart's continued absence from the battlefield. Instead of moving beyond the Federals' left and attacking their flank, Longstreet's left division, under McLaws, would face Maj. Gen. [[Daniel Sickles]]'s III Corps directly in their path. Sickles, dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge, and seeing higher ground more favorable to artillery positions a half mile (800 m) to the west, had advanced his corps&mdash;without orders&mdash;to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road. The new line ran from Devil's Den, northwest to the Sherfy farm's Peach Orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm. This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brig. Gen. [[Andrew A. Humphreys]]'s division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Maj. Gen. [[David B. Birney]]'s division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively.
Longstreet's attack was to be made as early as practicable; however, Longstreet got permission from Lee to await the arrival of one of his brigades, and, while marching to the assigned position, his men came within sight of a Union signal station on Little Round Top. Countermarching to avoid detection wasted much time, and Hood's and McLaws's divisions did not launch their attacks until just after 4 p.m. and 5 p.m., respectively.
===Attacks on the Union left flank===
As Longstreet's divisions slammed into the Union III Corps, Meade had to send reinforcements in the form of the entire V Corps, Caldwell's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and small portions of the newly arrived VI Corps. Hard fighting took place in [[Devil's Den]], the [[Battle of Gettysburg, Second Day#Wheatfield | Wheatfield]], [[Little Round Top]], and the [[Battle of Gettysburg, Second Day#Peach Orchard | Peach Orchard]]. The III Corps was virtua |
are even capable of learning ASL or any other natural language, is not currently accepted by linguists&mdash;including linguists who accept similar but better documented claims of rudimentary human language acquisition by birds. Despite this, however, research on the ability of primates to learn symbol systems continues and receives occasional publicity in the media.
==See also==
*[[American Sign Language alphabet]]
*[[British Sign Language]]
*[[Signing Exact English]]
*[[Gallaudet University]]
*[[Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf]]
==External links==
* [http://home.bluemarble.net/~langmin/miniatures/asl.htm Silent Eloquence: The sophistication of American Sign Language]
* [http://home.bluemarble.net/~langmin/miniatures/interrogsign.htm Going to Read This?: Sign languages and that rise in the voice]
* [http://www.bu.edu/asllrp/ The American Sign Language Linguistics Research Project]
** [http://www.bu.edu/asllrp/publications.html Publications of the ASLLRP]
** [http://www.bu.edu/asllrp/asllrpr12.pdf The Syntactic Organization of American Sign Language: A Synopsis] (.pdf)
*[http://www.lifeprint.com/ ASL Resource Site] Free online lessons, ASL dictionary, and resources for teachers, students, and parents.
*[http://www.handspeak.com/ HandSpeak] a leading online website on ASL, International Sign, Gestures, Baby Sign, and more.
*[http://www.deaflibrary.org/asl.html About ASL] - article at [http://www.deaflibrary.org deaflibrary.org]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ase Ethnologue entry on ASL]
*[http://commtechlab.msu.edu/sites/aslweb/browser.htm Videos Dictionary of ASL]
*[http://newportwebs.com/thomas/ Chimpanzees & Sign Language] - article focusing on chimpanzee communication through sign language.
* [http://ling.ucsc.edu/Jorge/fernald.html Athabaskan Satellites & ASL Ion-Morphs]
*[http://www.vengefulstapler.com/serious/aslfl.html American Sign Language is a Foreign Language] - a research/argumentative paper for the consideration of ASL to fulfill University foreign language requirements.
==References==
* {{cite book|author=Groce, Nora Ellen|year=1988|title=Everyone Here Spoke Sign Language: Hereditary Deafness on Martha's Vineyard|publisher=Cambridge: [[Harvard University Press]]|id=ISBN 067427041X}}
* {{cite book|author=Klima, Edward, and Bellugi, Ursula|year=1979|title=The Signs of Language|publisher=Cambridge: [[Harvard University Press]]|id=ISBN 0674807952}}
* [[Harlan Lane|Lane, Harlan L.]] (1984). ''When the mind hears: A history of the deaf''. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-3945-0878-5.
* Padden, Carol; & Humphries, Tom. (1988). ''Deaf in America: Voices from a culture''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-6741-9423-3.
* [[Oliver Sacks|Sacks, Oliver W.]] (1989). ''Seeing voices: A journey into the land of the deaf''. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-5200-6083-0.
* {{cite book|author=Stokoe, William C.|year=1976|title=Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles|publisher=Linstok Press|id=ISBN 0932130011}}
* [[William Stokoe|Stokoe, William C.]] (1960). ''Sign language structure: An outline of the visual communication systems of the American deaf''. Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. 8). Buffalo: Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Buffalo.
[[Category:Sign languages]]
[[Category:Deaf culture]]
[[Category:Languages of the United States]]
[[Category:Languages of Canada]]
[[Category:Languages of Mexico]]
[[de:American Sign Language]]
[[eo:Usona signolingvo]]
[[nl:Amerikaanse Gebarentaal]]
[[ja:アメリカ手話]]
[[fi:Amerikkalainen viittomakieli]]
[[zh:美國手語]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Applet</title>
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<comment>sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''applet''' is a software component that runs in the context of another program, for example a [[web browser]]. An applet usually performs a very narrow function that has no independent use. Hence, it is an ''app''lication ''[[-let]]''. The term was introduced in [[AppleScript]] in 1993. An applet is distinguished from "subroutine" by several features. First, it executes only on the "client" platform environment of a system, as contrasted from "servlet." As such, an applet provides functionality or performance beyond the default capabilities of its container (the browser). Also, in contrast with a subroutine, certain capabilities are restricted by the container. An applet is written in a language that is different from the scripting or [[HTML]] language which invokes it. The applet is written in a compiled language, while the scripting language of the container is an interpreted language, hence, the greater performance or functionality of the applet. Unlike a "subroutine," a complete web component can be implemented as an applet.
== Attributes ==
Unlike a [[program]], an applet cannot run independently; an applet usually features display and graphics and often interacts with the human user. However, they are usually stateless and have restricted security privileges. The applet must run in a [[container]], which is provided by a host program, through a [[plugin]], or a variety of other applications including mobile devices that support the applet programming model.
== Interfaces ==
Applets usually have some form of [[user interface]] or perform a particular piece of the overall user interface in a web page. This distinguishes them from a program written in a [[scripting programming language]] (such as [[JavaScript]]) that also runs in the context of a larger, client program, but which would not be considered an applet.
Applets generally have the capability of interacting with and/or influencing their host program, through the restricted security privileges, although they are generally not required to do so.
== Examples ==
Common examples of applets are [[Java applet]]s and [[SWF|Flash movies]]. Another example is the [[Windows Media Player]] applet that is used to display embeded video files in [[Internet Explorer]] (and other [[Web browser|browsers]] that support the plugin). Some plugins also allow for displaying various 3D model formats in a web browser, via an applet that allow the view of the model to be rotated and zoomed. Many [[browser game]]s are applet-based, though some may develop into fully functional applications that require installation.
== See also ==
* [[Java applet]]
* [http://www-math.mit.edu/daimp Some mathematics applets, at MIT]
[[da:Applet]]
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[[fr:Applet]]
[[he:יישומון]]
[[it:Applet]]
[[ja:アプレット]]
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[[pl:Aplet]]
[[pt:Applet]]
[[ru:Апплет]]
[[sv:Applet]]
[[zh:Applet]]
[[Category:Programming paradigms]]
[[Category:Technology neologisms]]</text>
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<title>Alternate history (fiction)</title>
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<comment>Birmingham's POD--result is three worlds, not just two (phrase added)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Speculative fiction}}
'''Alternate history''' or '''alternative history''' is a [[subgenre]] of [[speculative fiction]] (or some would say of [[science fiction]]), that is set in a world in which [[history]] has [[Point of divergence|diverged]] from history as it is generally known; more simply put, alternate history asks the question, "What If history had developed differently?" Most works that employ this rubric are set in factful historical contexts, yet feature several social, geopolitical or industrial circumstances that developed differently or at a different pace from our own, sometimes as a result of [[progress]] in [[technology|technological]] or [[society|social]] [[paradigms]] that were accomplished via the understanding already present in the given [[zeitgeist]]. While to some extent all [[fiction]] can be described as alternate history, the subgenre proper comprises fiction in which a change happens that causes history to diverge from our own.
Since the 1950s this type of fiction has to a large extent merged with science fictional framings involving (a) cross-time, or paratime, travel between alternate histories/universes (or some kind of psychic awareness of the existence of "our" universe by the people in the other, as in Nabokov and Dick; see below); or (b) ordinary voyaging uptime or downtime that results in a world splitting into two or more new timelines. So close have the cross-time, time-splitting and alternate history themes been interwoven that it is impossible to discuss them fully apart from one another. Thus, cross-time and time-splitting stories will be an important part of this article <i>insofar as they portray one or more alternate histories that diverged from a common past</i>.
In [[French (language)|French]], alternate history novels are called ''uchronie''. This [[neologism]] is based on the word ''utopia'' (a place that doesn't exist) and the Greek for time, ''chronos''. An ''uchronie'', then, is defined as a time that doesn't exist.
== History of alternate history fiction ==
=== Antiquity ===
The earliest example of alternate history appears to be Book IX, sections 17-19, of [[Livy]]'s ''History of Rome from Its Foundation''. He contemplates the possibility of [[Alexander the Great]] expanding his father's empire westward instead of eastward and attacking Rome in the [[4th century BC]].
=== 19th century ===
The earliest alternate history published as a complete work, rather than an aside or digression in a longer work, is believed to be [[Louis Napoléon Geoffroy-Château]]' |
''P'', ''a'' &le;''x''}, where ''x'' is a fixed element from ''P'', is directed.
== Directed subsets ==
Directed sets need not be [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]] and therefore in general are not [[partial order|partial orders]]. However, the term is also frequently used in the context of posets. In this setting, a subset ''A'' of a partially ordered set (''P'',&le;) is called a '''directed subset''' [[iff]]
* ''A'' is not the [[empty set]],
* for any two ''a'' and ''b'' in ''A'', there exists a ''c'' in ''A'' with ''a'' &le; ''c'' and ''b'' &le; ''c'' (directedness),
where the order of the elements of ''A'' is inherited from ''P''. For this reason, reflexivity and transitivity need not be required explicitly.
Directed subsets are most commonly used in [[domain theory]], where one studies orders for which these sets are required to have a [[least upper bound]]. Thus, directed subsets provide a generalization of (converging) sequences in the setting of partial orders as well.
== See also ==
* [[equivalence relation]]
* [[filter (mathematics)|filter]]
* [[semilattice]]
[[Category:Order theory]]
[[Category:General topology]]
[[de:Gerichtete Menge]]
[[fr:Ensemble filtrant]]
[[it:Insieme diretto]]
[[pl:Rodzina skierowana]]</text>
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lock printing|wood block printed]] copy in the [[British Library]] which, although not the earliest example of block printing, is the earliest example which bears an actual date. It was found in [[1907]] by the [[archaeologist]] Sir [[Marc Aurel Stein]] in a walled-up cave near [[Dunhuang]], in northwest [[China]]. The [[colophon (book)|colophon]], at the inner end, reads: ''Reverently [caused to be] made for universal free distribution by Wang Jie on behalf of his two parents on the 13th of the 4th moon of the 9th year of Xiantong [i.e. 11th May, CE [[868]] ]''.
The Chinese inventor [[Pi Sheng]] made moveable type of earthenware circa [[1045]], but we have no surviving examples of his printing. He embedded the characters, face up, in a shallow tray lined with warm [[wax]]. He laid a board across them and pressed it down until all the characters were at exactly the same level. When the wax cooled he used his letter tray to print whole pages.
It was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] popularized the [[printing press]] with metal [[moveable type]] in the 15th century that books started to be affordable and widely available. This upset the status quo, leading to remarks such as "The printing press will allow books to get into the hands of people who have no business reading books." <!-- need source for quote --> It is estimated that in Europe about 1,000 various books were created per year before the invention of the printing press.
With the rise of printing in the fifteenth century, books were published in limited numbers and were quite valuable. The need to protect these precious commodities was evident. One of the earliest references to the use of [[bookmark]]s was in 1584 when the Queen's Printer, Christopher Barker, presented [[Queen Elizabeth I]] with a fringed silk bookmark. Common bookmarks in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were narrow silk ribbons bound into the book at the top of the spine and extended below the lower edge of the page. The first detachable bookmarks began appearing in the 1850's and were made from silk or embroidered fabrics. Not until the 1880's, did paper and other materials become more common.
The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the conditions for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws. See also [[intellectual property]], [[public domain]], [[copyright]]. In mid-20th century, Europe book production has risen to over 200,000 titles per year.
== Structure of books ==
{{main|Book design}}
Depending on a book's purpose or type (i.e. [[Encyclopedia]], [[Dictionary]], [[Textbook]], [[Monograph]]), its [[structure]] varies, but some common structural parts of a book usually are:
#[[Book cover]] (hard or soft, fancy-looking, with [[illustration]])
#[[Title page]] (shows title and author, often with small illustration or icon)
#Metrics page
#(sometimes - dedication page)
#[[Table of contents]]
#[[Preface]]
#Text of contents of the book
#[[Index (publishing)|Index]]
== Conservation issues ==
In the mid-[[19th century]], papers made from [[Wood pulp|pulp]] (cellulose, wood) were introduced because it was cheaper than cloth-based papers (i.e. linen or abaca). Pulp based paper made cheap novels, cheap school text books and cheap books of all kinds available to the general public. This paved the way for huge leaps in the rate of literacy in industrialised nations and eased the spread of information during the [[Second Industrial Revolution]].
However, this pulp paper contained acid that causes a sort of [[slow fires]] that eventually destroys the paper from within. Earlier techniques for making paper used limestone rollers which neutralized the acid in the pulp. Libraries today have to consider [[mass deacidification]] of their older collections. Books printed from 1850-1950 are at risk; more recent books are often printed on acid-free or [[alkaline]] paper.
The proper care of books takes into account the possibility of chemical changes to the cover and text. Books are best stored in reduced lighting, definitely out of direct sunlight, at cool temperatures, and at moderate humidity. Books, especially heavy ones, need the support of surrounding volumes to maintain their shape. It is desirable for that reason to group books by size.
== Collections of books ==
[[Image:Brockhaus Lexikon.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Brockhaus Konversations-Lexikon, 1902]]
Maintaining a [[library]] used to be the privilege of princes, the wealthy, monasteries and other religious institutions, and [[university|universities]]. The growth of a [[public library]] system in the United States started in the late [[19th century]] and was much helped by donations from [[Andrew Carnegie]]. This reflected classes in a society: The poor or the middle class had to share most books through a public library or by other means while the rich could afford to have a [[private library]] built into their homes.
The advent of [[paperback]] books in the [[20th century]] led to an explosion of popular publishing. Paperback books made owning books affordable for many people. Paperback books often included works from genres that had previously been published mostly in [[pulp magazines]]. As a result of the low cost of such books and the spread of bookstores filled with them (in addition to the creation of a smaller market of extremely cheap used paperbacks) owning a private library ceased to be a status symbol for the rich.
While a small collection of books, or one to be used by a small number of people, can be stored in any way convenient to the owners, a large or public collection requires a [[catalogue]] and some means of consulting it. Often codes or other marks have to be added to the books to speed the process of relating them to the catalogue and their correct shelf position. Where these identify a volume uniquely, they are referred to as "call numbers". In large libraries this call number is usually based on a [[Library classification]] system. The call number is placed inside the book and on the spine of the book, normally a short distance before the bottom, in accordance with institutional or national standards such as [[ANSI]]/[[NISO]] Z39.41 - 1997. This short (7 pages) standard also establishes the correct way to place information (such as the title or the name of the author) on book spines and on "shelvable" book-like objects such as containers for [[DVD]]s, [[video tape]]s and [[Computer software|software]].
In library and booksellers' catalogues, it is common to include an abbreviation such as "Crown 8vo" to indicate the [[paper size]] from which the book is made.
When rows of books are lined on a bookshelf, [[bookend]]s are sometimes needed to keep them from slanting.
== Keeping track of books ==
One of the earliest and most widely known systems of cataloguing books is the [[Dewey Decimal System]]. This system has fallen out of use in some places, mainly because of a Eurocentric bias and other difficulties applying the system to modern libraries. However, it is still used by most public libraries in America. Another popular classification system is the [[Library of Congress]] system, which is more popular in university libraries.
All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]], or, to use a term coined by eBook author [[Rick Sutcliffe]] in the early 1980s, the [[Metalibrary]].
For the entire 20th century most [[librarian]]s concerned with offering proper library services to the public (or a smaller subset such as students) worried about keeping track of the books being added yearly to the Gutenberg Galaxy. Through a global society called the [[International Federation of Library Association]]s (IFLA) they devised a series of tools such as the International Standard Book Description or [[ISBD]].
Besides, each book is specified by a International Standard Book Number, or [[ISBN]], which is unique to every book produced by participating publishers, world wide. It is managed by the <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> Society. It has four parts. The first part is the country code, the second the [[publisher]] code, and the third the title code. The last part is a checksum or a check digit and can take values from 0-9 and X (10). The [[EAN]] [[Barcode]]s numbers for books are derived from the ISBN by prefixing 978, for Bookland and calculating a new check digit.
Many government publishers, in industrial countries as well as in developing countries, do not participate fully in the ISBN system. They often produce books which do not have ISBNs. In certain industrialized countries large classes of commercial books, such as novels, textbooks and other non-fiction books, are nearly always given ISBNs by publishers, thus giving the illusion to many customers that the ISBN is an international and complete system, with no exceptions.
== Transition to digital format ==
The term [[e-book]] (electronic book) in the broad sense is an amount of information like a conventional book, but in digital form. It is made available through internet, CD-ROM, etc. In the popular press the term eBook sometimes refers to a device such as the [[Sony Librie EBR-1000EP]], which is meant to read the digital form and present it to a human being.
Throughout the [[20th century]], libraries have faced an ever-increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an [[information explosion]]. The advent of [[electronic publishing]] and the [[Internet]] means that much new information is not printed in paper books, but is made available online e.g. through a [[digital library]], on [[CD-ROM]], or in the form of e-books.
On the other hand, though books are nowadays produced using a digital version of the content, for most books such a version is not available to the public (i.e. neither in the library nor on the Internet), and there is no decline in the rate of paper publishing. Ther |
the Byzantine Greek Schism</b>. New Rochelle, New York: 1992. An apologetic response to polemical attacks. A useful book for its inclusion of important texts and documents; see especially citations and works by Thomas Aquinas, O.P., Demetrios Kydones, Nikos A. Nissiotis, and Alexis Stawrowsky. The select bibilography is excellent. The author demonstrates that the <i>filioque</i> dispute is only understood as part of a dispute over papal primacy and cannot be dealt with apart from ecclesiology.
*Bruce D. Marshall, "''''Ex Occidente Lux?'''' Aquinas and Eastern Orthodox Theology," <b>Modern Theology</b> 20:1 (January, 2004), 23-50. Reconsideration of the views of Aquinas, especially on deification and grace, as well as his Orthodox critics. The author suggests that Aquinas may have a more accurate perspective than his critics, on the systematic questions of theology that relate to the <i>filioque</i> dispute.
*Malon H. Smith, III. <b>And Taking Bread: Cerularius and the Azyme Controversy of 1054</b>. Paris: Beauschesne, 1978. This work is still valuable for understanding cultural and theological estrangement of East and West by the turn of the millennium. Now, it is evident that neither side understood the other; both Greek and Latin antagonists assumed their own practices were normative and authentic.
*Timothy [Kallistos] Ware. <b>The Orthodox Church</b>. New edition. London: Penguin, 1993, pp. 52-61.
*Timothy [Kallistos] Ware. <b>The Orthodox Way</b>. Revised edition. Crestwood, New York: 1995, pp. 89-104.
*[World Council of Churches] /Conseil Oecuménique des Eglises. <b>La théologie du Saint-Esprit dans le dialogue oecuménique</b> Document # 103 [Faith and Order]/Foi et Constitution. Paris: Centurion, 1981
==External links==
===General===
*[http://www.scoba.us/resources/filioque-p02.asp Orthodox/Catholic joint statement]
*[http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Filioque Filioque] at [[OrthodoxWiki]]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06073a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
=== Historical origins ===
*[http://www.praiseofglory.com/filioque.htm An extensive history of the ''filioque'' dispute, assembled by Gerard Seraphin] The author makes an important reference to Johannes Grohe, who speaks of Eastern use of the ''filioque''.
*[http://www.unc.edu/~gdemacop/Filioque.html Chronology of the Filioque Controversy] A one-page overview of the dispute, from 325 to 1453.
*[http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.03.en.franks_romans_feudalism_and_doctrine.03.htm John S. Romanides, "The Filioque"] The author shows how Franks in the Carolingian Empire in the ninth century worked in opposition to the ancient Church of Rome-Constantinople, the "Roman Church" of East and West.
*[http://www.stjosephplacentia.org/RCath-L/history6.htm "History of the Mass: Part VI"] A brief but more objective presentation of the influence of the Franks in matters of discipline.
*[http://www.praiseofglory.com/photius.htm "The Patriarch Photius: The Era of Confrontation and Polemics"] Yves Congar, O.P., here provides the historical context of the ''filioque'' dispute, as it took place with Patriarch Photius.
*[http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/photius_encyclical.html '''Encyclical to the Eastern Patriarchs'''] The polemical letter of Patriarch Photius, condemning the ''filioque'', as well as other practices, such as fasting on Saturdays. From the very words of Photius, it is evident that the origin of his hostility is in what he perceives as competition from "Westerners" (Latin priests) in Bulgaria, a territory he considers under his jurisdiction. It is also evident, as Photius says, that he never heard of the ''filoque'' until now; in spite of his considerable erudition, he is, therefore, not familiar with the Latin Fathers.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12043b.htm "Photius of Constantinople"] From the '''Catholic Encyclopedia'', here is an introduction to Photius, reflecting the state of scholarship on this topic, at the beginning of the twentieth century.
*[http://www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/english/milton1_16.html "The Patriarch Photius and his disputes with Rome"] In this article, Milton V. Anastos (like Congar, Dvornik et al.) gives a much kinder assessment of Photius. Contemporary scholarship has corrected many false statements about his actions and provided a more accurate historical context. Pope John VIII, for example, never excommunicated Photius.
*[http://www.stpaulsirvine.org/html/TheGreatSchism.htm '''The Orthodox Church'''] In this excerpt from the book, Bishop Kallistos Ware writes of the role of the ''filioque'' in the East-West disputes, especially objections to that phrase by St. Photius and Patriarch Cerularius. The author provides the historical context of the estrangement of East and West; he does an excellent job.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/0555c.htm "Hugh and Leo Etherianus"] At Constantinople, in the 12th century, Hugh Etherianus prepared the first exhaustive and scholarly defense of the ''filioque'', using both Latin and Greek Fathers: '''De haeresibus quas Graeci in Latinos devolvunt, sive quod Spiritus Sanctus ex utroque Patre et Filio procedit'''. In English, that's "About the heresies of which the Greeks accuse the Latins, whether the Holy Spirit proceeeds from both the Father and the Son."
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14663b.htm "St. Thomas Aquinas"] Introduction to Thomas Aquinas, O.P., prominent Scholastic theologian and philosopher, defender of the ''filioque''.
*[http://www.logoslibrary.org/aquinas/summa/1027.html Excerpt from the '''Summa Theologica''', "The Processions of the Divine Persons"] Explicit explanation of the processions of the Trinity, according to Aquinas.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/summa/103602.htm Another excerpt from the '''Summa''', "Whether the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Son?"] The Scholastic perspective of Aquinas, precisely on the topic of this present article.
*[http://www.op.org/steinkerchner/comps/notes/aquinas.html Scott Steinkercher, O.P., "Notes on Thomas Aquinas"] Background, method, and anthropology of the Scholastic theology of Aquinas.
*[http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/oce.html Thomas Aquinas, '''Contra errores Graecorum'''] This 55-page essay, in Latin, is not for the faint of heart. Alta Vista and Google probably cannot render the text clearly in English, because of the dense logic of the arguments. In this essay, Aquinas argues that the Greeks don't accept universal jurisdiction of the Pope because their pneumatology is defective, as evidenced, he says, in their rejection of the ''filioque''. This essay was influential among the participants in the 1274 Council of Lyons. Pope Urban IV had asked Aquinas to prepare this document, in preparation for that council. Regrettably, there does not seem to be a complete English translation of '''Contra errores''' available online.
*[http://www.globalserve.net/~bumblebee/ecclesia/errorgre.htm '''Contra errores Graecorum'''] This is an English translation of the first part of this essay, by Antoine Valentin. Although the relevant passages are not here translated, in this excerpt you can see how Aquinas argues.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02380b.htm Patriarch John Beccus of Constantinople] The remarkable life of this Orthodox bishop; he did not consider the ''filioque'' heresy and favored reconciliation with the West.
*[http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/tomos1285.html ''Tomos'' of 1285] The definitive rejection by [[Patriarch Gregory II of Constantinople|Patriarch Gregory]] and the Council of [[Blachernae]] of the union of 1274 and the preceding patriarch, John Beccus. Calling the ''filioque'' addition to the Creed "blasphemy," this document represents a polemical, violent reaction to Scholastic theology, used to explain and defend the ''filioque''. In this document, Beccus and his followers are said to be banished and "expelled from Orthodoxy."
*[http://www.praiseofglory.com/gilladdition.htm Excerpt from '''The Council of Florence''' by Joseph Gill, S.J., "The Addition to the Creed"] Dialogue between East and West at Ferrara, on the ''filioque''.
*[http://www.praiseofglory.com/gillprocession.htm Another excerpt from '''The Council of Florence''', "Florence and the Dogmatic Discussions"] Dialogue at Florence on the ''filioque''.
*[http://www.praiseofglory.com/gillunion.htm A third excerpt from '''The Council of Florence''', "Reunion"] History and text of '''Laetentur Caeli''', 1439 decree of union between East and West.
=== Orthodox Church ===
*[http://www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/english/Dragas_RomanCatholic.html George Dragas, "The Manner of Reception of Roman Catholic Converts into the Orthodox Church"] Tracing the history of such reception, the author makes the important point that the practice of re-baptizing Roman Catholics became widespread in the 13th century, after the sacking of Constantinople by the Crusaders. Even single immersion, as in the West, was often considered invalid. In Russia, says the author, such re-baptizing was a universal practice; it must, he says, have been transferred there from the Greek Church. However, a synod in 1484 prescribed only chrismation (anointing), with a renunciation of the ''filioque'' and other Western practices, such as the use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist. In both re-baptism and chrismation, the Latins were treated as heretics undergoing reconciliation.
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/orthodoxy_and_catholicism/5.html Ecumenism and Heresy] Here is a list of links, giving Orthodox positions that are anti-ecumenical and positions that are more irenic in character. See especially the sites with authorship by the Sacred Community of Mount A |
iasts, in such groups as the ''League of American Wheelmen'', led to further changes. Both their model for political organization and the paved roads for which they argued facilitated the growth of the bicycle's rival, the [[automobile]].
In recent years, US and European bicycle makers have moved much of their production to Asia. Some sixty percent of the world's bicycles are now being made in China. Despite this shift in production, as nations such as China and India become more wealthy, their own use of bicycles has declined. One of the major reasons for the proliferation of Chinese-made bicycles in foreign markets is the increasing affordability of cars and motorcycles for its own citizens <sup>[[#Notes|5]]</sup>.
===Bicycles at work===
[[Image:PoliceOfficerOnBike.jpg|thumb|right|Police officer on a bicycle]]
The [[mail|postal service]]s of many countries have long relied on bicycles. The [[Royal Mail]] first started using bicycles in 1880. Bicycle delivery fleets include 37,000 in the [[UK]], 25,700 in [[Germany]] and 10,500 in [[Hungary]]. [[Police]] officers adopted the bicycle as well, initially using their own. However, they eventually became a standard issue, particularly for police in rural areas. The [[Kent]] police purchased 20 bicycles in 1896, and by 1904 there were 129 police bicycle patrols operating. Some countries retained the police bicycle while others dispensed with them for a time. Bicycle patrols are now enjoying a resurgence in many cities, as the mobility of car-borne officers is becoming increasingly limited by traffic congestion and [[Auto-free zone|pedestrianisation]]. They also have the advantages that the officers are inherently more open to the public, and the transport is quieter to permit a more stealthy approach toward suspects. The pursuit of suspects can also be assisted by a bicycle.
[[Image:Indian Couple on Bicycle.jpg|right|thumb|Bicycles are still an important mode of transportation for people of lower middle class in [[India]]]]
Bicycles have enjoyed substantial use as general delivery vehicles in many cities. In the UK, this use persisted for some purposes with generations of teenagers getting their first jobs delivering newspapers by bicycle. In [[India]], many of [[Mumbai]]'s [[Dabbawala]]s use bicycles to deliver hot lunches to the city’s workers. In [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]] the city’s largest bakery recently replaced most of its delivery trucks with bicycles. Even the car industry uses bicycles. At the huge [[Mercedes-Benz]] factory in [[Sindelfingen]], [[Germany]] workers use bicycles, colour-coded by department, to move around the factory.
===Bicycle recreation===
Bicycles are used for recreation at all ages. [[Bicycle touring]] involves touring and exploration or sightseeing with the use of a bicycle for leisure. A [[brevet (cycling)|brevet]] or randonnée is an organized long-distance ride.
One major aspect of [[Netherlands|Dutch]] popular culture is enjoying relaxed cycling in the [[rural|countryside]] of the [[Netherlands]]. The land is very flat and full of special public bicycle trails where cyclist aren't bothered by [[automobile|cars]] and other traffic, which makes it ideal for cycling [[recreation]]. Many [[Dutch people]] subscribe every [[year]] to an event called ''[[fietsvierdaagse]]'' &#8212; four days of organised cycling through the local environment. [[Paris-Brest-Paris]] (PBP), which began in 1891, is the oldest bicycling event still run on a regular basis on the open road, covers over 1200 km and imposes a 90-hour time limit.
===Bicycles and war===
{{main|bicycle infantry}}
The bicycle is not suited for combat, but it has been used as a method of transporting soldiers and supplies to combat zones. Bicycles were used in the [[Second Boer War]], where both sides used them for scouting. In [[World War I]], France and Germany used bicycles to move troops. In its 1937 invasion of China, Japan employed some 50,000 bicycle troops, and similar forces were instrumental in Japan's march through [[Malaya]] in [[World War II]]. Germany used bicycles again in World War II, while the British employed airborne ''Cycle-commandos'' with folding bikes.
In the [[Vietnam War]], communist forces used bicycles extensively as cargo carriers along the [[Ho Chi Minh Trail]]. There are reports of mountain bicycles being used in scouting by U.S. Special Forces in the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] and in subsequent battles against the [[Taliban]]. The only country to recently maintain a regiment of bicycle troops was [[Switzerland]], who disbanded the last unit in 2003.
===Bicycle racing===
{{main|bicycle racing}}
Shortly after the introduction of bicycles, competitions developed independently in many parts of the world. Early races involving boneshaker style bicycles were predictably fraught with injuries. Large races became popular during the 1890's "Golden Age of Cycling", with events across Europe, and in the U.S. and Japan as well. At one point, almost every major city in the US had a [[velodrome]] or two for [[track racing]] events. However since the middle of the 20th Century cycling has become a minority sport in the US whilst in Continental Europe it continues to be a major sport, particulrly in France, Belgium and Italy. The most famous of all bicycle races is the [[Tour de France]]. This began in 1903, and continues to capture the attention of the sporting world.
As the bicycle evolved its various forms, different racing formats developed. Road races may involve both team and individual competition, and are contested in various ways. They range from the one-day road race, [[criterium]], and time trial to multi-stage events like the Tour de France and its sister events which make up cycling's [[Grand Tour (cycling)|Grand Tours]]. [[Recumbent bicycle]]s were banned from bike races in 1934 after [[Marcel Berthet]] set a new [[hour record]] in his ''Velodyne streamliner'' (49.992 km on Nov 18, 1933). [[Track bicycle]]s are used for [[Track cycling|track racing]] in [[Velodrome]]s , while [[cyclo-cross]] races are held on rugged outdoor terrain. In the past decade, [[mountain biking|mountain bike racing]] has also reached international popularity and is even an Olympic sport.
The governing body of international cycle sport, the Union Cycliste International, decided in the late 1990s to create additional rules restricting the design of racing bicycles. These rules met with considerable controversy and to some extent arrested the development of the racing bicycle. Their stated motive was so that developing countries could compete in international competitions without requiring large equipment budgets, and to re-focus attention on the athlete rather than the bicyle. For example. monocoque frames, such as used by Chris Boardman to win the Gold medal in 1992 Olympic individual pursuit event in Barcelona, were no longer permitted.
===Modal share: cycle use in modern cities===
{{main|utility cycling}}
Cyclists and motorists make different demands on road design which may lead to conflicts both in politics and on the streets. Some jurisdictions give priority to motorised traffic, for example setting up extensive one-way street systems, free-right turns, high capacity roundabouts, and slip roads. Other cities may apply active ''traffic restraint'' measures to limit the impact of motorised transport. In the former cases, cycling has tended to decline while in the latter it has tended to be maintained. Occasionally, extreme measures against cycling may occur. In [[Shanghai]], a city where bicycles were once the dominant mode of transportation, bicycle travel on city roads was actually banned temporarily in December 2003.
In areas in which cycling is popular and encouraged, cycle-parking facilities using [[bicycle rack]]s, lockable ''mini-garages'', and patrolled cycle parks are used to reduce theft. Local governments also promote cycling by permitting the carriage of bicycles on public transport or by providing external attachment devices on public transport vehicles. Conversely, an absence of secure cycle-parking is a recurring complaint by cyclists from cities with low modal share of cycling.
Extensive [[bicycle path]] systems may be found in some cities. Such dedicated paths often have to be shared with inline skaters, scooters, skateboarders, and pedestrians. Segregating bicycle and automobile traffic in cities has met with mixed success, both in terms of safety and bicycle promotion. At some point the two streams of traffic inevitably intersect, often in a haphazard and congested fashion. Studies have demonstrated that, due to the high incidence of accidents at these sites, such segregated schemes can actually ''increase'' the number of car-bike collisions.<sup>[[#Notes|7]]</sup>
===Cycling activism===
Cyclists form associations, both for specific interests (trails development, road maintenance, urban design, racing clubs, touring clubs, etc.) and for more global goals ([[energy conservation]], pollution reduction, promotion of fitness). Two broad themes run in bicycle activism: one more overtly political with roots in the [[environmental movement]]; the other drawing on the traditions of the established bicycle lobby.
Such groups promote the bicycle as an alternative mode of transport and emphasize the potential for energy and resource conservation and health benefits gained from cycling versus automobile use. Activists in both camps also argue for improved local and inter-city rail services and other methods of mass transportation, and also for greater provision for cycle carriage on such services. Many cities also have [[community bicycle program]]s that promote cycling, especially as a means of inner-city transport.
Controversially, some bicycle activists (including some traffic management advisors) seek the construction of [[segregated cycle facilities]] for journeys of all |
center/presentations/index.php?content=programs/presentations/2005-03-10/ Romania: Facing the Past]" available in Romanian and English, published online March, 2005.
#{{note|price}}Ad van Liempt, ''[http://www.nlpvf.nl/Book/NLPVF_BooktxtDB.php?Book=84 A Price on Their Heads, Kopgeld, Dutch bounty hunters in search of Jews, 1943]'', NLPVF (accessed June 8, 2005).
#{{note|victims}}"[http://www.pbs.org/auschwitz/40-45/victims/perps.html#kabac Victims and Perpetrators, Michal Kabác: Slovak Hlinka Guard]," PBS (accessed June 8, 2005).
#{{note|baltics}} "[http://depts.washington.edu/baltic/papers/holocaust.html The Holocaust in the Baltics]"
#{{note|hungary}} "[http://hist.academic.claremontmckenna.edu/jpetropoulos/arrow/holocaust/holocaust.htm The Holocaust in Hungary]" Prof. Jonathan Petropoulos, Claremont McKenna College. See also the [http://www.hdke.hu/en/facts_hungholo.html Hungarian Holocaust Museum], also
#{{note|croats}}"[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/Jasenovac.html Jasenovac]" at the Jewish Virtual Library
#{{note|estonia}} Max Jakobson Commission Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity, "[http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/conclusions.htm#crimiger1] Report"
#{{note|latvia}} "[http://vip.latnet.lv/LPRA/EZERG_intr.html The Holocaust in Latvia]: An introduction" by Andrew Ezergailis, book excerpt, The Historical Institute of Latvia, 1996.
#{{note|Archives}}Richard Breitman, "[http://www.archives.gov/iwg/research-papers/breitman-chilean-diplomats.html What Diplomats Learned about the Holocaust]," US National Archives (accessed August 30, 2005).
#{{note|Gallately}} John Ezard, "[http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,439168,00.html Germans knew of Holocaust Horror about Death Camps]," Guardian, February 17, 2001.
#{{note|documented}}Donald L. Niewyk, ed. ''The Holocaust: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation'', D.C. Heath and Company, 1992.
#{{note|Gord}}Gord McFee, "[http://www.holocaust-history.org/revisionism-isnt/ why 'Revisionism' isn't]," The Holocaust History Project (accessed June 8, 2005).
#{{note|Public}} Tom Smith, "The Polls--A Review: The Holocaust Denial Controversy." Public Opinion Quarterly 59 (Summer 1995): 269-295.
==See also==
{{sisterlinks|The Holocaust}}
* [[Rescue of the Danish Jews]]
* [[Anti-Semitism]]
* [[Bereavement in Judaism]]
* [[Genocide]]
* [[Historikerstreit]]
* [[Death marches (Holocaust)|Death marches]]
* [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]]
* [[International response to the Holocaust]]
* [[Phases of the Holocaust]]
* [[Jews outside Europe under Nazi occupation]]
* [[History of gays in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust]]
* [[Porajmos|History of the Roma and Sinti during the Holocaust]]
* [[Holocaust memorials]]
* [[Involvement of Croatian Catholic clergy with the Ustaša regime]]
* [[Henneicke Colonne]] (involvement of the Dutch population in the Holocaust)
* [[Sh'erit ha-Pletah]] (Jewish Holocaust survivors)
* [[Wiedergutmachung]] (reparations to individual survivors)
* [[War crimes of the Wehrmacht]]
===Nazi plans related to the Holocaust===
* [[Final Solution|Endlösung]] ("Final Solution")
* [[Generalplan Ost]]
* [[Operation Reinhard]]
* [[Lublin Plan]]
* [[Madagascar Plan]]
===Eugenics===
* [[Rhineland Bastard]]
===Individuals and the Holocaust===
* [[List of famous Holocaust survivors]]
* [[List of famous Holocaust victims]]
* [[List of people who helped Jews during the Holocaust]] (see also [[Righteous Among the Nations]])
*[[Children of the Holocaust]]
===Nazi concentration camps===
''See'' [[List of Nazi concentration camps]], [[Nazi extermination camp]]
* [[Auschwitz]], [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]], [[Treblinka]], [[Majdanek]], [[Belzec]], [[Sobibór]], [[Chełmno extermination camp|Chełmno]]
===Ghettos===
* [[Warsaw Ghetto]]
* [[Judenrat]] (Jewish administrative bodies established in the ghettos by order of the Nazis)
===Massacres and pogroms===
* in [[Białystok]]
* [[Babi Yar]] Massacre
* [[Jedwabne Pogrom]]
* in [[Paneriai]]
* [[Odessa Massacre]]
===Jewish resistance===
====Poland====
* Resistance groups
** [[Żydowski Związek Walki]]
** [[Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa]]
* Uprisings
** [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising|Warsaw Ghetto]]
** [[Białystok Ghetto Uprising|Białystok]]
** [[Marcinkance Ghetto Uprising|Marcinkace]]
== External links, references, resources ==
External links, references, books and other resources are listed [[Holocaust (resources)|here]].
{{Link FA|ar}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[Category:Holocaust|*]]
[[ar:هولوكوست]]
[[ast:Holocaustu]]
[[be:Галакост]]
[[bn:হলোকস্ট]]
[[ca:Holocaust]]
[[cs:Holocaust]]
[[da:Holocaust]]
[[de:Holocaust]]
[[et:Holokaust]]
[[el:Ολοκαύτωμα]]
[[es:Holocausto]]
[[eo:Holokaŭsto]]
[[fa:همهسوزی]]
[[fr:Holocauste]]
[[gl:Holocausto]]
[[ko:유대인 대학살]]
[[hr:Holokaust]]
[[id:Holocaust]]
[[it:Olocausto]]
[[he:השואה]]
[[lt:Holokaustas]]
[[lb:Holocaust]]
[[hu:Holokauszt]]
[[nl:Holocaust]]
[[nds:Schoah]]
[[ja:ホロコースト]]
[[no:Holocaust]]
[[nn:Holocaust]]
[[pl:Holocaust]]
[[pt:Holocausto]]
[[ro:Holocaust]]
[[ru:Холокост]]
[[simple:The Holocaust]]
[[sl:Holokavst]]
[[sr:Холокауст]]
[[fi:Holokausti]]
[[sv:Förintelsen]]
[[zh:猶太人大屠殺]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transclusion</title>
<id>13499</id>
<revision>
<id>41553846</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T02:54:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.21.34.36</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], some [[hypertext]] systems, including [[Ted Nelson]]'s [[Project Xanadu|Xanadu Project]], have the capability for documents to include sections of other documents by reference, called '''transclusion'''. For example, an article about a country might include a chart or a paragraph describing that country's agricultural exports from a different article about agriculture. Rather than copying the included data and storing it in two places, a transclusion embodies [[modular design]], by allowing it to be stored only once (and perhaps corrected and updated if the link type supported that) and viewed in different contexts. The reference also serves to link both articles.
In Ted Nelson's original proposal for hypertext, outlined in his 1982 book, ''[[Literary Machines]]'', [[micropayment]]s could be automatically exacted from the reader for all the text, no matter how many snippets of content are taken from various places.
==Atomicity==
The idea of transclusion implies that sections of text can be written [[atomicity|atomically]], so that the content of one section does not interfere with the contents of another section. For example, the following formulations, often found in written linear prose, are problematic:
*''See the section below for an explanation.''
*''See the preceding section for an explanation.''
*''As was mentioned earlier.''
*''As we have already detailed.''
*''We will deal with this issue in detail later.''
As one does not know where the section will appear, one cannot reference text outside the section in this manner, as one does not know if it will be there or not. If someone else chooses to use the section elsewhere, it will be confusing.
For some kinds of prose, these kinds of limitations are not severe, but to others it may be disturbing and lower the quality of the text.
==HTML / web usage==
Present [[HTML]] has a limited form of transclusion.
For instance, it is possible to refer to an image, which the [[web browser]] will retrieve and draw on the page; see [[inline linking]].
Also, an HTML document can contain an "iframe," or inline frame, that refers to another document and presents it as text inside the calling document. [[As of 2002|As of January 2002]], [http://www.weather.com Weather.com] was using this technique to build its weather forecast page from several small documents. Future versions of HTML may support deeper transclusion of portions of documents using [[XML]] technologies such as [[XPath]]'s document referencing and [[XSLT]] manipulations. See also [[framing (World Wide Web)|Framing in websites]].
<!-- TO DO: describe the copyright implications of "framing" with respect to transclusion -->
Certain implementations of [[wiki]] software, including Wikipedia's [[MediaWiki]], support a form of transclusion. On sites created using [[TiddlyWiki]], for example, text is presented in the form of [[microcontent]] which is loaded into the main display when the user clicks on [[wikilinks]].
The practice of 'remote loading', including data from other sites, such as links to images, etc., is something usually frowned upon because of the use of bandwidth (even called "[[bandwidth theft]]") and computing power required from the remote computer system. This is said to "tax" another [[server]], and is often considered an example of [[bandwidth theft|leeching]].
However, there is one major exception to this rule: web [[advertising]], where the advertiser prefers to serve the advertisement themselves, rather than having their content served for them by the parent web-site. In this way, they can directly verify the existence of a remote browser performing a page view, rather than having to trust the publisher of the parent content. (See also: [[hit counter]], [[web bug]]).
==A side note==
There are other technologies that have similar abilities of including external components such as [[Active Server Pages|ASP]] (Active Server Pages), [[JavaServer Pages|JSP]] (JavaServer Pages), [[PHP]] (originally Personal Home Page, now PHP Hypertext Preprocessor), and the use of [[Server Side Includes|SSI]] (Server Side Includes).
The term "transclusion" is an example of a [[portmanteau]].
==See also==
* [[Compound document]]
* [[Single source publishing]]
* [[PurpleWiki]] [http://www.blueoxen.org/tools/purplewiki/] is a [[UseModWiki]] derivative that [http://purplewiki.blueoxen.net/cgi |
2;&#12462;&#12522;&#12473;&#22269;&#25945;&#20250;]]
[[it:Chiesa Anglicana]]
[[kw:Eglos Pow Sows]]
[[nl:Anglicaanse Kerk]]
[[no:Den engelske kirke]]
[[pt:Igreja Anglicana]]
[[sv:Anglikanska kyrkan]]
[[vi:Giáo h&#7897;i Anh]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Circe</title>
<id>5956</id>
<revision>
<id>41697830</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:16:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.118.126.200</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the sorceress. Circe is also a [[chess variant]]; see [[Circe chess]].''
----
[[Image:Circe - Edward Burne-Jones - Project Gutenberg eText 13725.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|'''Circe''', a painting by [[Edward Burne-Jones]].]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Circe''' or '''Kirkê''' (Greek '''Κίρκη''') was a [[sorceress]] living on the [[island]] of [[Aeaea]].
Circe's father was [[Helios]], the pre-Olympic [[Titan (mythology)|titan]] of the [[Sun]], and her mother was [[Perse]], an [[Oceanid]]; she was sister of [[Aeetes]], the king of [[Colchis]] and of [[Pasiphae]] and [[Aegea|Aga]]. She [[transmogrification|transformed]] her enemies, or those who offended her, into animals through the use of magical potions. She was renowned for her knowledge of drugs and herbs.
In [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'', her home is described as a stone mansion standing in the middle of a clearing in a dense wood. Around the house prowled [[panthera leo|lions]] and [[wolf|wolves]], the drugged victims of her magic; they were not dangerous, and fawned on all newcomers. Circe worked at a huge loom. She invited [[Odysseus]]' crew to a feast, the food laced with one of her magical potions, and she turned them all into [[pig]]s with a wand after they gorged themselves on it. Only [[Eurylochus]], suspecting treachery from the outset, escaped to warn Odysseus and the others who had stayed behind at the ships. Odysseus set out to rescue his men, but was intercepted by [[Hermes]] and told to procure some of the herb [[moly]] to protect him from the same fate. When her magic failed he was able to force her to return his men to human form. She later fell in love with Odysseus and assisted him in his quest to reach his home after he and his crew spent a year with her on her island. Odysseus and Circe [[sexual intercourse|made love]] in her "flawless bed of love" as well.
[[Image:Circe Offering the Cup to Odysseus.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|'''Circe Offering the Cup to Odysseus''', by [[John William Waterhouse]].]]
According to Homer, she suggested to Odysseus two alternative routes to return to Ithaca: either toward the "Wandering Rocks" (the pumiceous Lipari Islands; in the 13th-century Chinese travel notes of [[Chou Ju-kua]] they are called similarly), where King Aeolus reigned. Or, to pass between the dangerous [[Scylla]] and the whirlpool Charybdis, conventionally identified with the [[Strait of Messina]].
Almost at the end of [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'' (1011f) we find that Circe bore of Odysseus three sons: Agrius (otherwise unknown), [[Latinus]], and [[Telegonus]] who ruled over the Tyrsenoi, that is the [[Etruscans]].
Later poets generally only speak of Telegonus as Odysseus' son by Circe. When grown to manhood, later poets reported, she sent him to find Odysseus, who had long since returned to his home on [[Ithaca]], but on arrival Telegonus accidentally killed his father. He brought the body back to Aeaea and took Odysseus' widow [[Penelope]] and son [[Telemachus]] with him. Circe made them immortal and married Telemachus, while Telegonus made Penelope his wife.
[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] (1.72.5) cites Xenagoras the historian as claiming that Odysseus and Circe had three sons: Romus, Anteias, and Ardeias who respectively founded three cities called by their names: [[Rome]], [[Antium]], and [[Ardea (city)|Ardea]].
That Circe also purified the [[Argonauts]] for the death of [[Apsyrtus]] may be early tradition.
In later tales Circe turned [[Picus]] into a [[woodpecker]] for refusing her love, and Scylla into a monstrous creature with six dogs' heads when [[Glaucus]] (another object of Circe's affection) declared his undying love for her. She had one daughter: [[Aega (mythology)|Aega]].
== Modern interpretations ==
In the ''[[Wonder Woman]]'' comics, [[Circe (comics)|Circe]] is often portrayed as an antagonist of Wonder Woman and the [[Amazons]]. The [[Marvel Comics]] character [[Sersi]] is also based on the mythological Circe.
This character also starred in the episode ''This Little Piggy'' of ''[[Justice League Unlimited]]'' and turned Wonder Woman into a pig.
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Circe|Circé}}
*[http://www.geocities.com/medea19777/circe.html Tales of Circe]
[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Shapeshifting]]
[[Category:Characters in the Odyssey]]
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[[he:קירקה]]
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[[ja:キルケ]]
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[[pt:Circe]]
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[[sv:Kirke]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CPR (disambiguation)</title>
<id>5958</id>
<revision>
<id>36536774</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T19:53:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Curps</username>
<id>44727</id>
</contributor>
<comment>unverified</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''CPR''' is an [[acronym]] standing for:
* [[American Bar Association Model Code of Professional Responsibility]]
* [[Automatic number plate recognition|Car Plate Recognition]]
* [[Cardiopulmonary resuscitation]]
* [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]
* [[Central Pacific Railroad]]
* [[Community Patent|Community patent regulation]]
* [[Det Centrale Personregister]] (Danish Central Office of Civil Registration)
* [[Common Pool Resource]]
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canadian Pacific Railway</title>
<id>5959</id>
<revision>
<id>42147328</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:16:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Indefatigable</username>
<id>20612</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox SG rail|
railroad_name=Canadian Pacific Railway|
logo_filename=1997CPRbeaver.png|
logo_size=|
old_gauge=|
marks=CP, CPAA, CPI|
locale=[[Canada]] with branches to [[United States|US]] cities [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Minneapolis]] and [[New York City]]|
start_year=1881|
end_year=present|
hq_city=[[Calgary, Alberta]]
}}
The '''Canadian Pacific Railway''' ('''CPR'''; [[Association of American Railroads|AAR]] [[reporting mark]]s '''CP''', '''CPAA''', '''CPI'''), known as '''CP Rail''' between 1968 and 1996, is a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Class I railroad|Class I railway]] operated by [[Canadian Pacific Railway Limited]]. Its rail network stretches from [[Vancouver]] to [[Montreal]], and also serves major cities in the [[United States]] such as [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]], [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], and [[New York City]]. Its headquarters are in [[Calgary, Alberta]].
The [[rail transport|railway]] was originally built between eastern Canada and [[British Columbia]] between 1881 and 1885, fulfilling a promise extended to British Columbia when it entered [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] in 1871. It was Canada's first [[transcontinental railroad|transcontinental railway]]. Now primarily a [[freight]] railway, the CPR was for many decades the only practical means of long distance [[passenger train|passenger]] [[transport]] in many regions of Canada, and was instrumental in the [[colonization|settlement]] and [[economic development|development]] of [[Western Canada]]. Its primary passenger services were eliminated in 1978 after being assumed by [[VIA Rail|VIA Rail Canada]]. A [[beaver]] was chosen as the railway's logo because it is one of the national symbols of Canada and represents the hardworking character of the company. The object of both praise and damnation for over 120 years, the CPR remains an indisputable icon of Canadian [[nationalism]].
[[Image:CanadianPacificRailwayNetworkMap.png|thumb|290px|right|Current network Map of the Canadian Pacific Railway]]
[[Image:Eastbound over SCB.jpg|thumb|290px|right|An eastbound CPR freight at Stoney Creek Bridge. Photo by David R. Spencer]] <!-- NOTE: David has requested as a courtesy that we display his attribution here, please respect this even though it is not the usual practice -->
==History==
===Before the Canadian Pacific Railway, 1871-1881===
Creation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was a task originally undertaken for a combination of reasons by the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]] government of [[Prime Minister of Canada|prime minister]] [[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]]. [[British Columbia]] had insisted upon a national railway as a condition for joining the [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] of [[Canada]]. The government thus promised to build a railway linking the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] [[Canadian province|province]] to the eastern provinces within ten years of [[July 20]], [[1871]]. Macdonald also saw it as essential to the creation of a unified Canadian nation that would stretch across the continent. Moreover, [[manufacturing]] interests in [[Quebec]] and [[Ontario]] desired access to sources of [[raw material]]s and [[market]]s in [[Western Canada|Canada's west]].
[[Image:JohnAM.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Sir John A. Macdonald]]
The first obstacle to its construction was economic. The logical route for a railway serving Western Canada would be to go through the American [[Midwest]] and the city of [[Chicago, Illinois]]. In addition to the obvious difficulty of building a railroad through the [[Canadian Rockies]], an |
Melittidae]]<br />
[[Oxaeidae]]<br />
[[Stenotritidae]]
}}
[[Image:Bees Collecting Pollen 2004-08-14.jpg|thumb|right|Bee collecting pollen]]
'''Bees''' ('''Apoidea''' superfamily) are flying [[insect]]s, closely related to [[wasp]]s and [[ant]]s. There are approximately 20,000 species of bees, and they may be found on every continent except Antarctica. Bees are adapted for feeding on [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] and [[pollen]], the former primarily as an energy source, and the latter primarily for [[protein]] and other nutrients. Most pollen is used for food for the [[larva|brood]].
Bees have a long [[proboscis]] that enables them to obtain the nectar from [[flower]]s. Bees have [[antennae]] made up of thirteen segments in males and twelve in females. They have two pairs of wings, the back pair being the smaller of the two.
Bees play an important role in [[pollination|pollinating]] [[flowering plant]]s, and are called [[pollinator]]s. Bees may focus on gathering nectar or on gathering pollen, depending on their greater need at the time. Bees gathering nectar may accomplish pollination, but bees that are deliberately gathering pollen are more efficient pollinators. It is estimated that one third of the human food supply depends on insect pollination, most of this accomplished by bees.
Bees are fuzzy and carry an electrostatic charge, thus aiding in the adherence of pollen. Bees periodically stop foraging and groom themselves to pack the pollen into specialized [[pollen basket]]s which are on the legs of honeybees and some other [[species]], and on the ventral [[abdomen]] on other species.
Bees are extremely important as pollinators in [[agriculture]], with [[pollination management|contract pollination]] having overtaken the role of [[honey]] production for beekeepers in many countries. [[Monoculture]] and [[pollinator decline]] have increasingly caused honeybee keepers to become [[Seasonal human migration|migratory]] so that bees can be concentrated in areas of pollination need at the appropriate season. Many other species of bees are increasingly cultured and used to meet agricultural pollination need. Bees also play a major, though not always understood, role in providing food for birds and wildlife. Many of these bees survive in refuge in wild areas away from agricultural spraying, only to be poisoned in massive spray programs for [[mosquito]]es, [[gypsy moth]]s, or other [[Pest (animal)|pest]] insects.
There are over 16,000 described species, and possibly around 30,000 species in total. Many species are poorly known. The smallest bee is a dwarf bee (Trigona minima) and it is about 2.1 mm (5/64") long. The largest bee in the world is the [[Megachile pluto]], which can be as large as 39 mm (1.5").
== Eusocial and quasisocial bees ==
Bees may be solitary, or may live in various sorts of communities. The most advanced of these are [[eusocial]] colonies, found among the [[honeybee]]s and [[stingless bee]]s. Sociality is believed to have evolved separately in different groups of bees.
Eusocial bees live in colonies, each of which has a single [[Queen (bee)|queen]], together with [[worker bee|worker]]s and [[drone (bee)|drone]]s. When humans provide a home for a colony, the structure is called a [[Beehive (beekeeping)|hive]]. A hive can typically contain up to about 40,000 individual bees at their annual peak, which occurs in the spring, but usually have fewer.
Visiting flowers is a dangerous occupation, with very high mortality rates. Many [[assassin bug]]s and [[crab spider]]s hide in flowers to capture unwary bees. Others are lost to birds in flight. [[Insecticide]]s used on blooming plants can kill large numbers of bees, both by direct poisoning and by contaminating their food supply. A honeybee queen may lay 2000 eggs per day during spring buildup, but she also must lay 1000 to 1500 eggs per day during the foraging season, simply to replace daily casualties.
[[Bumblebee]]s (''Bombus terrestris'', ''B. pratorum'', et al.) are referred to as quasisocial because the queen bee is typically able to survive on her own for at least a short time (unlike queens in eusocial species who must be cared for at all times). Bumblebee colonies typically have from 50 to 200 individual bees at peak population, which occurs in mid to late summer.
The population value of bees depends partly on the individual efficiency of the bees, but also on the population. Thus, while bumblebees have been found to be about ten times more efficient pollinators on cucurbits, the total efficiency of a colony of honeybees is much greater, due to greater numbers. Likewise, during early spring orchard blossoms, bumblebee populations are limited to only a few queens, thus they are not significant pollinators of early fruit.
[[Image:Bumblebee_closeup.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bumblebee]]]]
The life cycle of bumblebees begins in the spring when the queen bee rises from hibernation. At this time the queen bee is the one who does all the work as there are no worker bees to do the work yet. She searches for a place to build her nest and she builds the honeypots. She also does the foraging to collect nectar and pollen. Bumblebee colonies die off in the autumn, after raising a last generation of queens, which survive individually. Interestingly bumblebee queens sometimes seek winter safety in honeybee hives, where they are sometimes found dead in the spring by [[beekeeper]]s, presumably stung to death by the honeybees. It is not known whether any succeed in winter survival in such an environment.
With [[honeybee|honeybees]], which survive winter as a colony, the queen begins egg laying in mid to late winter, to prepare for spring. This is most likely triggered by longer day length. She is the only fertile [[female]], and deposits all the [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s from which the other bees are produced. Except a brief mating period, when she may make several flights to mate with drones or if she leaves in later life with a [[Swarming (honeybee)|swarm]] to establish a new [[Colony (biology)|colony]], the queen rarely leaves the hive after the [[larva]]e have become full grown bees. The queen deposits each egg in a cell prepared by the worker bees. The egg hatches into a small larva which is fed by ''nurse'' bees (worker bees who maintain the interior of the colony). After about a week (depending on species), the larva is sealed up in its cell by the nurse bees and begins the pupal stage. After another week (again, depending on species), it will emerge an adult bee.
The larvae and [[pupa]]e in a frame of honeycomb are referred to as frames of [[brood (honeybee)|brood]] and are often sold (with adhering bees) by beekeepers to other beekeepers to start new beehives.
[[Image:Queencell_0017.JPG|thumb|left|Peanut-like queen brood cells are extended outward from the brood comb]]
Both workers and queens are fed ''[[royal jelly]]'' during the first three days of the larval stage. Then workers are switched to a diet of pollen and nectar or diluted honey, while those intended for queens will continue to receive royal jelly. This causes the larva to develop to the pupa stage more quickly, while being also larger and fully developed sexually. Queen breeders consider good nutrition during the larval stage to be of critical importance to the quality of the queens raised, good genetics and sufficient number of [[mating]]s also being factors. During the larval and pupal stages, various parasites can attack the pupa/larva and destroy or damage it.
Queens are not always raised in the typical horizontal brood cells of the [[honeycomb]]. The typical queen cell is specially constructed to be much larger, and have a vertical orientation. However, should the workers sense that the old queen is weakening, they will produce emergency cells known as supercedre cells. These cells are made from a cell with a egg or very young larva. These cells protrude from the comb. As the queen finishes her larval feeding, and pupates, she moves into a head downward position, from which she will later chew her way out of the cell. At pupation the workers cap or seal the cell. Just prior to emerging from their cells, young queens can often be heard "piping." This is considered likely to be a challenge to other queens for battle.
[[Image:Bee swarm.jpg|thumb|right|Bee Swarm- bees are remarkably non aggressive in this state as they have no hive to protect, and can be captured with ease]]
Worker bees are infertile females, however in some circumstances they may lay infertile eggs. Worker bees secrete the [[Beeswax|wax]] used to build the hive, clean and maintain the hive, raise the young, guard the hive and forage for nectar and pollen.
In [[honeybees]], the worker bees have a modified [[ovipositor]] called a [[stinger (organ)|stinger]] with which they can sting to defend the hive. Contrary to popular belief, the bee will ''not'' always die soon after stinging: this is a misconception based on the fact that a bee will always die shortly after stinging a ''[[mammal]]''; however, the stinger evolved primarily for inter-bee combat.
Drone bees are the [[male]] bees of the colony. Since they do not have ovipositors, they also do not have stingers. Drone honeybees do not forage for nectar or pollen. In some species, drones are suspected of playing a contributing role in the temperature regulation of the hive. The primary purpose of a drone bee is to [[fertilization|fertilize]] a new queen. Drones mate with the queen in flight, then die immediately after mating.
Queens live for up to three years, while workers have an average life of only three months (during the foraging season, but longer in places with extended winters).
Honeybee queens release [[pheromone]]s to regulate hive activities, and worker bees also produce pheromones for various communications.
[[Image:Bee1web.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Honeybee]] with tongue partly extended]]
By collecting nectar from |
as the unluckiest time, it is a shame that Georg Wilhelm did not put up an army, before the combatants of the Thirty Years War destroyed the land, where the ravages can still be witnessed so many years later.
==References==
*Wedgwood, Cicely V. ''The Thirty Years War'', New York, 1961.
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before=[[John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg|John Sigismund]] |
title=[[Elector of Brandenburg]] |
years=1619-1640 |
after=[[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1595 births]]
[[Category:1640 deaths]]
[[Category:Electors of Brandenburg]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]
[[da:Georg Vilhelm af Brandenburg-Preussen]]
[[de:Georg Wilhelm (Brandenburg)]]
[[pl:Jerzy Wilhelm]]
[[ja:ゲオルク・ヴィルヘルム]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Graphic design</title>
<id>12799</id>
<revision>
<id>41994358</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:35:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Heah</username>
<id>213940</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv linkspam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Saul_bass_goldenarm.jpg|thumb|[[Saul Bass]]'s poster for the film, [[The Man with the Golden Arm]] - a highly regarded work of graphic design. The film was also notable for its groundbreaking title sequence, also by Bass.]]
'''Graphic design''' is the [[applied art]] of selecting, creating and arranging marks on a surface to communicate a message. These marks may be letterforms ([[Typography]]) or of other media such as [[drawing]] or [[photography]].
It encompasses the creative work done in many media, such as [[print]], [[digital media]], [[Film|motion pictures]], [[animation]], [[Industrial design|product design]], [[packaging]], and [[information sign]]s. Graphic design as a practice can be traced back to the origin of the written word, but only in the late [[19th century]] did it become identified as a separate discipline.
Some fundamental principles of design are [[justification (typesetting)|alignment]], [[balance]], [[color]], [[contrast]], [[emphasis]], [[movement]], [[pattern]], [[proportion]], [[proximity]], [[repetition]], [[rhythm]], [[texture]], [[unity]], and [[white space (graphic design)|white space]].
=Design Theory=
==Classic theory of design==
According to the '''classic theory of design''' (or graphic design, visual design, art), the visual excitement of a work of design is a result of how the [[composition (visual arts)|composition]] of the '''elements of design''' follows the '''principles of design'''. For more information on the origins and use see: [[Aesthetics]].
===Elements of design===
The elements of design are the fundamental, isolated parts or aspects into which any work of design can be decomposed. An element of design may appear explicitly or implicitly (e.g. the boundary between two areas of contrasting color is an implicit line).
* Form (shape, line, dot)
* [[Texture]]
* [[Color]] (or hue)
* Value (light and dark)
* Space (actual and virtual)
* Time (first, second, last...)
These are combined with [[Principles]] to create the following:
* Hierarchy
* Mood
* Style
* Message
There are additional elements that come into play for most design work. These include:
* the Design Process, which encompasses the step by step and often complex path that a designer takes toward a design solution through research, exploration, re-evaluation, and revision of a design problem.
* use of a Grid to help improve or speed up the layout of images and text. Like the steel internal frame of building, the grid helps the 2D designer place information on paper or screen in a way that improves the design visually and its usability.
* impact and use of Technology for design solutions (Graphic designers are usually first adopters and incorporate new technology in solutions or concept when possible. This experimentation is not always to the benefit of the design or the user.)
===Principles of design===
The principles of design are general characterizations of relations between or applied to elements in a composition.
Here is a list of some design principles:
* [[Balance]]
* [[Rhythm]]
* [[Proportion]]
* Dominance
* [[Unity]]
* Clarity
* Foreground/Background
* Positive/Negative Space
* Stepping
* Gradation
* Contrast
* Focal Point
* Symmetry/Asymmetry
* Alignment
==Other theories==
The classic theory of design continues to be the first one introduced to starting students and amateurs, with details such as the number of principles varying from book to book, and instructor to instructor. However, the classic theory of design is limited in scope, and only considers the decorative aspects of design. More comprehensive theories and treatments include or emphasize the aspects of [[visual communication]] and [[usability|utility and usability]], and encompass [[sociological]] and [[lingusitic]]
=Design History=
==Early history==
The compelling&mdash;if somewhat obscure&mdash; paintings in the caves of [[Lascaux]] around 14,000 BC and the birth of written language in the third or fourth millennium BC, are both significant milestones in the history of graphic design and other fields which hold roots to graphic design.
The [[Book of Kells]] is a very beautiful and very early example of graphic design in a form that would be acceptable even today. The Book is a lavishly illustrated hand-written copy of the [[Christian Bible]] created by [[Celt|Celtic]] [[monks]] in the ninth century AD.
[[Johann Gutenberg]]'s introduction of [[movable type]] in [[Europe]] made books widely available. The earliest books produced by Gutenberg's press and others of the era (the [[Incunabula]]) became the benchmark by which the design of future books, even as late as the [[20th century]], would be judged. Graphic design of this era is called either ''Old Style'' (especially the [[typeface]]s which these early [[typography|typographer]]s used), or ''Humanist'', after the predominant philosophical school of the time.
Graphic design, after Gutenberg saw a gradual evolution rather than any significant change, in the late [[19th century]] when, especially in the [[United Kingdom]], an effort was made to create a firm division between the [[fine arts|fine]] and the applied arts.
[[Piet Mondrian]], born in 1872, is often called the father of graphic design. Although he was a fine artist (not a graphic designer) his use of [[grids]] inspired the basic structure of the modern advertising layout known also as the grid system, used commonly today by graphic designers.
From [[1891]] to [[1896]] [[William Morris]]' Kelmscott Press published some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the [[Arts and Crafts movement]], and made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium. Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art. The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its decadence and by its obsession with historical styles. This historicism was, however, historically important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design. Morris' work, along with the rest of the [[Private Press]] movement, directly influenced [[Art Nouveau]] and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.
The term Graphic Design was first coined by U.S. book designer and type designer [[William Addison Dwiggins]] in the early 20th C.
==20th century==
[[Image:Normandie_poster.jpg|thumb|Famous [[SS Normandie|SS ''Normandie'']] poster by [[Adolphe Muron Cassandre]].]]
Modern Design of the early [[20th century]], much like the [[fine art]] of the same period, was a reaction against the decadence of typography and design of the late 19th century. The hallmark of early modern typography is the [[sans-serif]] typeface. Early Modern (not to be confused with the other modern era of the [[18th century|18th]] and 19th centuries) typographers such as [[Edward Johnston]] and [[Eric Gill]] after him were inspired by [[vernacular]] and industrial typography of the latter nineteenth century. The signage in the [[London Underground]] is a classic of this era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in [[1916]].
[[Jan Tschichold]] codified the principles of modern typography in his [[1928]] book, ''New Typography''. He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential. Tschichold, [[Bauhaus]] typographers such as [[Herbert Bayer]] and [[Laszlo Moholy-Nagy]], and [[El Lissitzky]] are the fathers of graphic design as we know it today. They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century. Although the computer has altered production forever, the experimental approach to design they pioneered has become more relevant than ever.
The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application. A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging. The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a "mass-produced" minimalism to America; sparking a wild fire of postmodern architecture and design. Notable names in mid-century modern design include [[Adrian Frutiger]], designer of the [[typeface]]s [[Univers]] and [[Frutiger]]; [[Paul Rand]], who, from the late 1930's until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as [[corporate identity]]; and [[Josef Müller |
ed guitar players in death metal, playing complex solos at ridiculous speeds and overlapping riffs which give Deicide the definitive heavy sound and complex song structures which are ultimately recognized as theirs. This line up remained intact until [[25 November]], 2004 when Glen Benton announced that the Hoffman brothers had been ejected from the band for repeatedly cancelling shows and walking out on tours. For the remainder of the current tour, one guitar slot has been filled by ex-[[Cannibal Corpse]] guitarist, Jack Owen, and the other by new permanent band member, [[Vital Remains]] guitarist, Dave Suzuki. Following the tour, Owen will be replaced by Tony Lazaro, the other guitarist from [[Vital Remains]] in the new Deicide line-up. Ralph Santolla is also featured in the touring lineup of the band as of 2005. Later, Eric Hoffman hit back at Benton claiming he was unprofessional and lied about tour cancellations. More can be read here: [http://www.alternativenation.net/forums/extreme-metal/69255-glen-benton-lied-public-about-tour-cancellations-he-gits-cried.html.] Recently after a long time, Benton replied to their claims: [http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=49065]
Deicide almost exclusively perform songs with anti-[[Christianity|Christian]] themes, and are banned from some places like many other controversial bands.
==Discography==
*''[[Amon, Feasting the Beast (album)|Amon:Feasting the Beast]]'' (as Amon, re-released in 1993)
*''[[Deicide (album)|Deicide]]'' (1990)
*''[[Legion (album)|Legion]]'' (1992)
*''[[Ex aime la bite (mini LP) | Anaal Ex ]]'' (1993)
*''[[Once Upon The Cross (album)|Once Upon The Cross]]'' (1995)
*''[[Serpents Of The Light (album)|Serpents Of The Light]]'' (1997)
*''[[Deicide (album)|Deicide: Remastered]]'' (1998)
*''[[When Satan Lives (album)|When Satan Lives]]'' (1998, live album recorded at the [[House of Blues]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]])
*''[[Insineratehymn (album)|Insineratehymn]]'' (2000)
*''[[In Torment In Hell (album)|In Torment In Hell]]'' (2001)
*''[[The Best of Deicide (album)|The Best of Deicide]]'' (2003)
*''[[Scars of the Crucifix (album)|Scars of the Crucifix]]'' (2004)
*''[[The Stench Of Redemption (album)|The Stench Of Redemption]]'' (to be released 6/6/06)
[[Category:Death metal musical groups]]
[[Category:American heavy metal musical groups]]
==External links==
* [http://www.earache.com/ Earache Records]
* [http://www.earache.com/bands/deicide/deicide.html Deicide Page at Earache Records]
* [http://www.ultimatemetal.com/forum/forumdisplay.php?f=266 Earache.com's Discussion Forums]
* [http://www.deicide.com/ Deicide.com - The Official Deicide Website]
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Division of labour''' is generally speaking the specialisation of cooperative labour in specific, circumscribed tasks and roles, intended to increase efficiency of output. Historically the growth of a more and more complex division of labour is closely associated with the rise of [[capitalism]], the growth of [[trade]] and complexity of [[industrialization]] processes. Later, the division of labor reached the level of a scientifically-based management practice with the time and motion studies associated with [[Taylorism]].
In the history of the human species, the first division of labour was between men and women, but it became ever more sophisticated since the invention of [[agriculture]] and the dawn of [[civilization]]. Some other [[social animal]]s also exhibit a division of labour.
What appeared to some as the idyllic "wholeness" of pre-civilized life in humans was thought to be due first and foremost to people not being differentiated into specialized roles and functions. That interpretation is countered by the [[primitive]], [[survivalist]] [[habitus]] of prehistoric man who spent much of his time foraging. [[Anarcho-primitivism]] and [[Primitive Communism]] are two other theories which explore the politics of these [[primitivism|primitivist]] economic states.
==Plato==
In [[Plato]]'s ''[[Republic (dialogue)|Republic]]'' we are instructed that the origin of the state lies in that "natural" inequality of humanity that is embodied in the division of labour.
"Well then, how will our state supply these needs? It will need a farmer, a builder, and a weaver, and also, I think, a shoemaker and one or two others to provide for our bodily needs. So that the minimum state would consist of four or five men...." (''The Republic'', Page 103, Penguin Classics edition.)
==Xenophon==
[[Xenophon]], writing in the fourth century BC makes a passing reference to division of labour in in his 'Cyropaedia' or [[Education Of Cyrus]]
"Just as the various trades are most highly developed in large cities, in the same way food at the palace is prepared in a far superior manner. In small towns the same man makes couches, doors, ploughs and tables, and often he even builds houses, and still he is thankful if only he can find enough work to support himself. And it is impossible for a man of many trades to do all of them well. In large cities, however, because many make demands on each trade, one alone is enough to support a man, and often less than one: for instance one man makes shoes for men, another for women, there are places even where one man earns a living just by mending shoes, another by cutting them out, another just by sewing the uppers together, while there is another who performs none of these operations but assembles the parts, Of necessity, he who pursues a very specialised task will do it best." (Cited in ''The Ancient Economy'' by M. I. Finley. Penguin books 1992, p 135.)
==Sir William Petty==
[[Sir William Petty]] was the first modern writer to take note of division of labour, showing its existence and usefulness in Dutch shipyards. Classically the workers in a shipyard would build ships as units, finishing one before starting another. But the Dutch had it organised with several teams each doing the same tasks for successive ships. People with a particular task to do must have discovered new methods that were only later observed and justified by writers on political economy.
Petty also applied the principle to his survey of Ireland. His breakthrough was to divide up the work so that large parts of it could be done by people with no extensive training. (The ethics of doing this is another matter.)
==Adam Smith==
In the first sentence of ''[[An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]'' (1776), [[Adam Smith]] foresaw the essence of industrialism by determining that division of labour represents a qualitative increase in productivity. His original example was the making of pins. Unlike Plato, Smith did not regard the division of labour as a consequence of human inequality but famously argued that the difference between a street porter and a philosopher was as much a consequence of the division of labour as its cause. Therefore, while for Plato the level of specialisation determined by the division of labour was externally determined, for Smith it was the dynamic engine of economic progress. However, in a further chapter of the same book Smith criticises the division of labour saying it leads to a 'mental mutilation' in workers; they become ignorant and insular as their working lives are confined to a single repetitive task. This contradiction has led to some debate over Smith's opinion of the division of labour.
The [[specialization]] and concentration of the workers on their single subtasks often leads to greater skill and greater productivity on their particular subtasks than |
ous conflict since the [[1941]] war occurred in January-February [[1995]], when thousands of soldiers from both sides fought an intense but localized war in the disputed territory in the upper Cenepa valley. A peace agreement brokered by the four Guarantors of the Rio Protocol ([[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], and the [[United States]]) in February 1995 led to the cessation of hostilities and the establishment of the [[Military Observers Mission to Ecuador-Peru]] (MOMEP) to monitor the zone. In [[1996]], Ecuador and Peru began a series of meetings intended to set the stage for substantive negotiations to resolve the dispute.
Those talks were successful. In January [[1998]], Ecuador and Peru initialed a historic agreement in [[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil, which provided a framework to resolve the major outstanding issues between the two countries through four commissions. The commissions were to prepare a Treaty of Commerce and Navigation and a Comprehensive Agreement on Border Integration, to fix on the ground the common land boundary, and to establish a Binational Commission on Mutual Confidence Measures and Security. The commissions began work in February, with the intention of reaching a definitive agreement by May 30, 1998. The commissions on border integration and mutual confidence measures successfully concluded their work, and the commission working on a treaty of commerce and navigation produced a draft treaty text, but the commission on border demarcation failed to produce agreement by May 30. A flare-up in military tensions in the disputed region in August 1998 led to the creation of a temporary second MOMEP-patrolled demilitarized zone just south of the first demilitarized zone.
Presidents Mahuad and [[Fujimori]] established direct communication by meetings and phone calls in an effort to overcome the two countries' remaining differences. In October 1998, after asking for and receiving a boundary determination from the guarantors, the two presidents reached agreement. On October 26, 1998, at a ceremony in Brasilia, Presidents Fujimori and Mahuad and their foreign ministers signed a comprehensive settlement.
'''Disputes - international:'''
demarcation of the agreed-upon border with Peru was completed in May [[1999]]
'''Illicit drugs:'''
significant transit country for [[cocaine]] and derivatives of coca originating in [[Colombia]] and Peru; importer of precursor chemicals used in production of illicit narcotics; important [[money-laundering]] hub; increased activity on frontiers by [[illegal drugs trade|trafficking]] groups and Colombian insurgents
==See also==
* [[Ecuador]]
* [[History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute]]
{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''Egypt redirects here. For information on the ancient civilization, see [[Ancient Egypt]]''
{{Infobox_Country|
|native_name = جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة<br>{{unicode|Gomhuriat Masr Al-Arabiah}}<br>Arab Republic of Egypt
|common_name = Egypt
|image_flag = Flag of Egypt.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Egypt.png
|image_map = LocationEgypt.png
|national_motto =
|national_anthem = [[Bilady, Bilady, Bilady]]
|official_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]]
|capital = [[Cairo]]
|latd=30 |latm=2 |latNS=N |longd=31 |longm=13 |longEW=E |
|largest_city = [[Cairo]]
|government_type = [[Republic]]
|leader_titles = [[President of Egypt]]<br>[[Prime Minister of Egypt]]
|leader_names = [[Hosni Mubarak]]<br>[[Ahmed Nazif]]
|area_rank = 30th
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area= 1,001,450
|percent_water = 0.6%
|population_estimate = 77,505,756
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 15th
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density = 77
|population_density_rank = 93rd
|GDP_PPP_year= 2004
|GDP_PPP = $282,333,000,000
|GDP_PPP_rank = 31st
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,072
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 115th
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Egypt|Independence]]
|established_events = Granted<br>Declared
|established_dates = From the [[United Kingdom]]<br>[[February 28]], [[1922]]<br>[[June 18]], [[1953]]
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI = 0.659
|HDI_rank = 119th
|HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>
|currency = [[Egyptian pound]] (LE)
|currency_code = EGP
|country_code = EGY
|time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
|utc_offset = +2
|time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
|utc_offset_DST = +3
|cctld = [[.eg]]
|calling_code = 20
|footnotes =
}}
The '''Arab Republic of Egypt''', commonly known as '''Egypt''', (in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: مصر, [[Romanization|romanized]] ''Misr'', in [[Egyptian Arabic]] ''Másr'', {{Audio|ar-Gumhuriyat_Misr_al-Arabiyah.ogg|listen}}), is a [[republic]] in [[North Africa]]. While most of the country is geographically located in [[Africa]], the [[Sinai Peninsula]] east of the [[Suez Canal]] is in [[Asia]].
Covering an area of about 1,020,000 square kilometres (394,000&nbsp;[[square mile|mi²]]), Egypt shares land [[border]]s with [[Libya]] to the west, [[Sudan]] to the south, and [[Israel]] and the [[Gaza Strip]] to the northeast and has coasts on the north and east by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the [[Red Sea]], respectively.
Egypt is the fifteenth most populous country in the world. The vast majority of its 77 million population (2005) live near the banks of the [[Nile River]] (about 40,000&nbsp;km&sup2;&nbsp;or&nbsp;15,450&nbsp;mi²), where the only arable agricultural land is found. Large areas of land are part of the [[Sahara]] [[Desert]] and are sparsely inhabited. About half of the Egyptian people today are urban, living in the densely populated centers of greater [[Cairo]], the largest city in Africa, and [[Alexandria]].
Egypt is famous for its [[Ancient Egypt|ancient civilization]] and some of the world's most stunning ancient monuments, including the [[Giza pyramid complex|Giza Pyramids]], the [[Karnak]] Temple and the [[Valley of the Kings]] and the Great Sphinx; the southern city of [[Luxor]] contains a particularly large number of ancient artifacts. Today, Egypt is widely regarded as the main political and cultural centre of the [[Arab]] and Middle Eastern regions.
==Origin and history of the name==
''Misr'', the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and official name for modern Egypt, is of [[Semitic]] origin directly cognate with the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] מִצְרַיִם ''Mitzráyim'' meaning "the two straits", and possibly means "a country" or "a state." The ancient name for the country, ''kemet'', or "black land," is derived from the fertile black soils deposited by the Nile floods, distinct from the 'red land' (''deshret'') of the desert. This name became ''keme'' in a later stage of [[Coptic language|Coptic]]. The English name "Egypt" came via the Latin word ''Aegyptus'' derived from the ancient Greek word Αίγυπτος ''Aiguptos'' (see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]). This word may in turn be derived from the ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] phrase '' ḥwt-k3-ptḥ'' ("Hwt ka Ptah") meaning "home of the [[Egyptian soul|Ka (part of the soul)]] of Ptah," the name of a temple of the god [[Ptah]] at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]. For details see the article ''[[Copt]]''.
==History==
{{Main articles|[[History of Egypt]] and [[Ancient Egypt]]}}
[[Image:sphinx.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Great Sphinx of Giza]], with the Pyramid of Khafre in the background are at the heart of Egypt's thriving tourism industry.]]The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by [[desert]]s to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great civilizations. A unified kingdom was founded circa 3200 [[anno domini|BC]] by King [[Narmer]], and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty, known as the Thirtieth Dynasty, fell to the [[Iran|Persia]]ns in 341 BC who dug the predecessor of the [[Suez canal]] and connected the [[Red Sea]] to the [[Mediterranean]]. Later, Egypt fell to the Greeks, Romans, [[Byzantines]] and Persians again.
It was the Muslim [[Arabs]] who introduced [[Islam]] and the [[Arabic language]] in the seventh century to the Egyptians, who gradually adopted both. Muslim rulers nominated by the [[Islamic Caliphate]] remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the [[Mamluks]] took control about 1250 and continued to govern even after the conquest of Egypt by the [[Ottoman Turks]] in 1517.
Following the completion of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub; however, the country also fell heavily into debt. Ostensibly to protect its investments, the [[United Kingdom]] seized control of Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the [[Ottoman Empire]] continued until 1914.
Almost fully independent from the UK in 1922, the Egyptian Parliament drafted and implemented a new [[1923 Constitution of Egypt|const |
y no means the only frequency range involved in radiation. The frequencies emitted are partially related to [[black-body radiation]]. Hotter objects&mdash;a campfire is around 700 K, for instance&mdash;transfer heat in the visible spectrum or beyond. Whenever EM radiation is emitted and then absorbed, heat is transferred. This principle is used in [[microwave oven]]s, [[laser cutting]], and [[Electrolysis (cosmetology)|RF hair removal]].
==Other heat transfer mechanisms==
*[[Latent heat]]: Transfer of heat through a physical change in the medium such as water-to-ice or water-to-steam involves significant energy and is exploited in many ways: [[steam engine]], [[refrigerator]] etc. (see [[latent heat of fusion]])
*[[Heat pipe]]: Using latent heat and capilliary action to move heat, it can carry many times as much heat as a similar sized copper rod. Orignally invented for use in [[satellites]], they are starting to have applications in [[personal computer]]s.
==Heat dissipation==
In cold climates, houses with their heating systems form dissipative systems. In spite of efforts to insulate such houses, to reduce heat losses to their exteriors, considerable heat is lost, or dissipated, from them which would make their interiors uncomfortably cool or cold. The house is an open system in as much as it is incapable of preventing heat from escaping. Furthermore, the interior of the house must be maintained out of thermal equilibrium with its exterior for the sake of its inhabitants.
In such a house, a [[thermostat]] is a device capable of starting the heating system when the house's interior falls to a set temperature, and of stopping that same system when another set temperature has been achieved. Thus the thermostat controls the flow of energy into the house, that energy eventually being dissipated to the exterior.
==References==
<div style="font-size:85%">
#{{note|one}} Summation of the definitions give in the following six sources; see: [[Talk:Heat]].
#{{note|smith}}{{cite book|author= Smith, J.M., Van Ness, H.C., Abbot, M.M.|title=Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=2005|id=ISBN 0073104450}}
#{{note|baierlein}}{{cite book|author= Baierlein, Ralph|title=Thermal Physics|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|id=ISBN 0521658381}}
#{{note|schroeder}}{{cite book|author= Schroeder, Daniel, R.|title=Thermal Physics|publisher=New York: Addison Wesley Longman|year=2000|id=ISBN 0201380277}}
#{{note|4}}[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/heat.html Discourse on Heat and Work] - Department of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University: Hyperphysics (online)
#{{note|perrot}}{{cite book | author=Perrot, Pierre | title=A to Z of Thermodynamics | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0198565526}}
#{{note|clark}}{{cite book | author=Clark, John, O.E. | title=The Essential Dictionary of Science | publisher=Barnes & Noble Books | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0760746168}}
#{{note|baeyer}}{{cite book|author=Baeyer, H.C. von |title=Warmth Disperses and Time Passes – the History of Heat|publisher=New York: The Modern Library|year=1998|id=ISBN 0375753729}}
</div>
== See also ==
* [[Heat death of the Universe]]
* [[Heat equation]]
* [[Heat exchanger]]
* [[Heat pump]]
* [[Heat transfer coefficient]]
* [[How directness of sunlight causes warmer weather]]
* [[Internal energy]]
* [[Shock heating]]
== External links ==
*[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/heacon.html#heacon Heat and Thermodynamics] - Georgia State University
*[http://www.cheresources.com/convection.shtml Correlations for Convective Heat Transfer] - ChE Online Resources
[[Category:Heat| ]]
[[ar:حرارة]]
[[ca:Calor]]
[[cs:Teplo]]
[[da:Termisk energi]]
[[de:Wärme]]
[[el:Θερμότητα]]
[[es:Calor]]
[[eo:Varmo]]
[[fa:گرما]]
[[fr:Chaleur]]
[[gl:Calor]]
[[gu:ઉષ્મા]]
[[he:חום (פיזיקה)]]
[[ko:열]]
[[io:Kaloro]]
[[it:Calore]]
[[lv:Siltums]]
[[nl:Warmte]]
[[ja:熱]]
[[pl:Ciepło]]
[[pt:Calor]]
[[simple:Heat]]
[[sl:Toplota]]
[[fi:Lämpö]]
[[sv:Värmemängd]]
[[tr:Isı]]
[[zh:熱量]]</text>
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'''Hawkwind''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[rock music]] group.
Formed in the summer of [[1969]] as '''Hawkwind Zoo''', they were offered a record deal by [[Liberty Records]] in November of that year and immediately shortened the band name to Hawkwind. Singer/songwriter/guitarist [[Dave Brock]] has been the only consistent band member though multiple personnel changes. Their music began as hard-driving [[blues rock]], but quickly added doses of [[psychedelic music]], with prominent use of [[special effect]]s and [[synthesizer]]s. Their music usually deals with urban and [[science fiction]] themes (writer [[Michael Moorcock]] was a collaborator), and Hawkwind are widely seen as one of the earliest [[space rock]] groups.
Their elaborate live performances (somewhat reminiscent of [[Sun Ra]]'s) quickly gathered them a [[cult following]], partly because they were seen as a 'community' ''Of the People - For the People'' group. Their second album ''[[In Search of Space]]'' was very successful.
Hawkwind were, along with the [[Pink Fairies]], key 'community bands' in [[Ladbroke Grove]], home of the Mountain Grill cafe. During the early [[1970s]] Hawkwind played a number of benefit gigs along with other 'community' bands/artists including [[Pink Fairies]] and [[Steve Took]] who, as a key member of the [[United Kingdom Underground|UK Underground]] went on to work with a number of Hawkwind members.
Hawkwind achieved chart status with the release of the single "[[Silver Machine]]" in [[1972]] (Written by [[Dave Brock]] and [[Robert Calvert]], allegedly about his bicycle. Vocals by [[Lemmy Kilmister]]). Their follow up single "[[Urban Guerrilla (song)|Urban Guerrilla]]" was banned by the BBC and withdrawn after increased [[terrorism|terrorist]] activity by the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]].
Hawkwind have had a long-standing connection with many free festivals including the [[Stonehenge free festival]] that ran from [[1973]] until banned in [[1985]]. Authorities moved in "with force" to stop the event that 13th year as, under [[ancient charter]] law, it would have become a public festival for all time. The spirit of these festivals has been reawakened by their last two "Hawkfest" weekends.
On [[October 21]] [[2000]] the ''Hawkestra'', a band formed by virtually all former members of Hawkwind, played a sell-out gig at the [[Brixton Academy]].
Dozens of musicians have passed through Hawkwind over the years, but [[Dave Brock]] has been at the heart of the band since they formed. Other members have included [[Lemmy Kilmister]] (who went on to form [[Motörhead]]), [[Nik Turner]], [[Harvey Bainbridge]], [[Del Dettmar]], [[DikMik]] ,[[Huw Lloyd Langton]], [[Robert Calvert]], [[Paul Rudolph (musician)|Paul Rudolph]] (former ''Pink Fairies/[[Deviants (band)|Deviants]]'' member) and [[Twink (musician)|Twink]] (another ''Pink Fairies'' member) and more recently, [[Ron Tree]] as bassist and frontman. The 1990 album space bandits included a female vocalist [[Bridget Wishart]]. Other members who may have been better known for their careers outside Hawkwind include [[Ginger Baker]] and [[Arthur Brown (musician)|Arthur Brown]].
Also Hawkwind have been known for giving credit to non-musician members of their crew, such as [[Liquid Len]], a lighting engineer, and [[Stacia]], a dancer. Their distinctive graphic design was created by [[Barney Bubbles]], who would later create the graphic identity for [[Stiff Records]], where, due to it being a small world Larry Wallis (Pink Fairies and Motörhead with Lemmy) was an in-house Producer.
The [[science fiction]] writer [[Michael Moorcock]] has a long association with the band. One of Hawkwind's albums [[Hawkwind/Chronicle of the Black Sword|Chronicle of the Black Sword]] was based largely on Moorcock's [[Elric]] book series. The cover for this album was designed by (John Coulthart). Michael Moorcock wrote a piece called MESSAGES which appeared on the 1983 album ''Zones'' as ''Running Through the Backbrain'' with Moorcock on vocals.
Hawkwind should be partly credited for Lemmy's Motörhead [[speed metal]] style of music (so named because of the slang name "Speed" for [[amfetamine|Amphetamines]] which the members of Motörhead consumed with relish). Lemmy was sacked from Hawkwind after being arrested at customs with suspected [[Cocaine]], although analysis revealed it was amphetamines. He was ultimately released because he had been charged with the wrong crime, not because amphetamines were legal in Canada, as some have maintained.
Hawkwind have been an influence for many bands: Former [[Black Flag (band)|Black Flag]] and current [[Rollins Band]] singer [[Henry Rollins]] is a fan, as is [[Jello Biafra]]. The [[Sex Pistols]] included "Silver Machine" in their reunion performances of 2002; while reviewers may have seen this as "ultra ironic" [http://www.nme.com/reviews/10795.htm], [[John Lydon]] made it clear that this was a tribute [http://www.thefilthandthefury.co.u |
arly 2000s, campus-wide debate focused on whether or not the Greek system at Dartmouth should become "substantially coeducational," but most houses retain single-sex membership policies.
===Technology===
Technology plays an important role in student life, as Dartmouth is perenially ranked as one of the most technologically-advanced American colleges (as in ''[[Newsweek]]'s'' ranking of [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5626574/site/newsweek/ "Hottest for the Tech-Savvy"]). '''[[BlitzMail]]''', the campus [[e-mail]] network, plays a tremendous role in social life, as students tend to use it for communication in lieu of [[cellular phones]] or [[instant messenging]] programs. The complete campus, indoors and out, is serviced by [[Wi-Fi|wireless Internet]], and all students are required to own a personal computer.
Student reliance on BlitzMail (known colloquially as "Blitz," which functions as both noun and verb) has led to computer terminals being installed all around campus, so that students can check their e-mail in between classes or while away from their rooms. Dartmouth has more than 12,000 computers available for use on campus. [http://www.dartmouth.edu/learnmore/school.html]
===Freshman Trips===
Established in [[1935]] to promote interest in the [[Dartmouth Outing Club]], the tradition of freshman outing trips is among the largest pre-orientation programs in the country, involving upwards of 95 percent of students in each incoming class. The Trips evolved steadily since their inception, becoming steadily more popular and intricate. During the 1960s, under the support of Dartmouth President [[John Sloan Dickey]], the College renovated the [[Moosilauke Ravine Lodge]], made the Lodge the final destination for all Trips, and brought participation up to two-thirds of the incoming class.
Today, the Trips take place in the two weeks prior to the standard orientation week, and involve a three-night, four-day trip of [[hiking]], [[cycling]], [[kayaking]], or even nature [[photography]], culminating in a tradition-filled night spent at the College-owned Moosilauke Ravine Lodge. Run almost entirely by current students, these trips feature crews on campus and at the Lodge who, dressed in eccentric clothing, teach many of the traditional College dances, songs, and legends. Around eight incoming students are led by two current students on their trip. Students frequently claim that once their Freshman Trip is over, the Dartmouth spirit has become so engrained in them that the College is part of their blood. As a result, up to one-third of the eligible current students apply to either lead trips or to serve on the Hanover or Lodge crews.
===Winter Carnival===
[[Image:2004_Winter_Carnival_Sculpture.JPG|thumb|200px|Snow Sculpture at the 2004 Dartmouth Winter Carnival.]]
Winter Carnival is a long-standing tradition at Dartmouth College that was particularly famous during the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s.
The [[Dartmouth Outing Club]], founded in [[1909]], organized a winter weekend "field day" in [[1910]]. This was an athletic event centered on skiing, a sport which the Outing Club helped to pioneer and publicize on a national scale. In [[1911]] the event was named Winter Carnival, social events were added, and women were invited to attend. By [[1919]] the emphasis had shifted to dances organized by fraternities. Special trains made runs to transport women guests to Dartmouth, and National Geographic Magazine referred to it as "the Mardi Gras of the North." The event became famous, much as Spring Break in Fort Lauderdale was to be during the 1950s and 1960s.
Carnival was the subject of the frothy [[1939]] motion picture comedy ''Winter Carnival,'' starring [[Ann Sheridan]], who plays a former Winter Carnival Queen of the Snows who has made a bad marriage to a European duke and revisits Dartmouth in an attempt to save her younger sister, the current Queen, from repeating her mistake with a European count.
The movie is remembered mostly for its extracinematic associations; [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] and Dartmouth alumnus [[Budd Schulberg]] were hired to write the screenplay. While gathering background in Hanover during Carnival, Fitzgerald became scandalously drunk at fraternities and was forced to leave the project. Although portions of his work were used, he was not given a writer's credit. The events and personalities bear a resemblance to those recounted in Schulberg's novel, ''The Disenchanted.''
Winter Carnival takes place each year on a weekend in February and include such events as ski competitions at the [[Dartmouth Skiway]]; a polar bear swim; [[a cappella]] and jazz concerts; a human dogsled race; a drag ball; and a showing of the [[1939]] movie. Students build a large Carnival-themed [[snow sculpture]] on the college Green. The [[1987]] sculpture held the [[Guinness Book of Records|Guinness record]] for the "tallest snowman." The sculpture in 2004 reflected the famous character 'The Cat in the Hat,' in honor of the 100th birthday of Dartmouth alumnus and creater of the character, Dr. Seuss.
Numerous parties are thrown by the campus's fraternities and sororities. In 1999, students cancelled their parties to protest other administration policies.
===Dartmouth Night===
Dartmouth Night starts the college's traditional "[[Homecoming]]" weekend with an evening of speeches, a parade, and a bonfire. Traditionally, the freshman class builds the bonfire and then runs around it a set number of times in concordance with their class year; the class of 2009 performed 109 circuits, the class of 1999 performed 99, etc.
President [[William Jewett Tucker]] introduced the ceremony of Dartmouth Night in [[1895]]. The evening of speeches celebrated the accomplishments of the college's alumni. Originally the event took place in the Old Chapel in Dartmouth Hall, but over time other events began to become more important and popular and Dartmouth Night moved outdoors.
The focus of Dartmouth Night is the bonfire. Students had built bonfires during the late nineteenth century to celebrate sports victories, including one in [[1888]] that recognized a baseball victory over Manchester. An editorial in The Dartmouth criticized that fire, saying:
:It disturbed the slumbers of a peaceful town, destroyed some property, made the boys feel that they were being men, and in fact did no one any good.
The students nevertheless continued to build bonfires before and after athletic events, and by the mid-twentieth century, bonfires were firmly associated with Dartmouth Night.
In [[1904]], the [[Earl of Dartmouth]] visited the campus on Dartmouth Night with New Hampshire politician and author [[Winston Churchill (novelist)|Winston Churchill]] and marched around the Green with the students. Early on, the tradition of reading out telegrams (later e-mail messages) sent that night from alumni clubs around the country began.
Football first began to be associated with Dartmouth Night during the 1920s. Memorial Field was dedicated on Dartmouth Night in [[1923]]. For decades the raucous pre-football rallies remained separate from the dignified official activities. In [[1936]], the College first began the tradition of football games during this weekend; ten years later the formal College events and the rally were combined in a single grand event, and for the first time Dartmouth Night was intentionally scheduled on what is called Dartmouth Night Weekend.
During the 1950s, students adopted a star-hexagon-square structure for the bonfire. Following the tragic [[Aggie Bonfire|bonfire accident]] at [[Texas A&M University|Texas A&M]] in [[1999]], the school hired professionals to do some of the building; nevertheless the night still remains a highlight of the school year.
===Native Americans at Dartmouth===
{{main|Native Americans at Dartmouth College}}
==Alumni==
{{main|List of notable Dartmouth alumni}}
Famous graduates and students at Dartmouth include:
* [[Daniel Webster]] - [[United States Senate|US Senator]] from [[New Hampshire]] and [[Secretary of State]] of the US
* [[Salmon P. Chase|Salmon Portland Chase]] from [[Ohio]] - [[Chief Justice of the United States]]
* [[Robert Frost|Robert Lee Frost]] - [[poet]] who won four [[Pulitzer Prizes]]
* [[Nelson Rockefeller|Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller]] - [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President of the US]] and [[Governor]] of [[New York State|New York]]
* Theodor Seuss Geisel - the children's author better known as [[Dr. Seuss]]
==See also==
*[[Dartmouth pong]]
*[[Ivy League]]
*[[Ivy League business schools]]
==References==
*{{cite book | first = Scott L. | last = Glabe | title=Dartmouth College:Off the Record | publisher=College Prowler | year=2005 | id=ISBN 1596580380}}
*{{cite book | author=Molly K. Hughs, Susan Berry | title=Forever Green: The Dartmouth College Campus—An arboretum of Northern Trees | publisher=Enfield Books | year=2000 | id=ISBN 1893598012}}
*{{cite book | first = Leon B. | last = Richardson | title=History of Dartmouth College | publisher=Dartmouth College Publications | year=1932 | id=ASIN B00086U61Y }}
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Dartmouth College}}
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/ Dartmouth College website]
*[http://www.dartmouthindependent.com/ The Dartmouth Independent] &mdash; Dartmouth's only online publication, spanning a spectrum of political views.
*[http://www.thedartmouth.com/ The Dartmouth] &mdash; the United States' oldest independent college newspaper
*[http://www.dartmouthbeacon.com/ The Dartmouth Beacon] &mdash; Dartmouth's only college recognized conservative publication.
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~thepress/ The Dartmouth Free Press] &mdash; College-funded liberal publication
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~tgm/ The Dartmouth Green Magazine] &mdash; Dartmouth's environment-oriented publication
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~news/releases |
d to be its own country. This right was supported by the British government in the [[Balfour Declaration]] of [[November 2]], [[1917]] and re-affirmed in the Mandate of the [[League of Nations]] which, in particular, gave international sanction to the historic connection between the Jewish people and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and to the right of the Jewish people to rebuild its National Home.
The European [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] of [[1939]] - [[1945]] is part of the imperative for the re-settlement of the homeland:
''"the catastrophe which recently befell the Jewish people&mdash;the massacre of millions of Jews in Europe&mdash;was another clear demonstration of the urgency of solving the problem of its homelessness by re-establishing in Israel the Jewish State, which would open the gates of the homeland wide to every Jew and confer upon the Jewish people the status of a fully privileged member of the community of nations. Survivors of the [[Nazi]] [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] in [[Europe]], as well as Jews from other parts of the world, continued to migrate to Israel, undaunted by difficulties, restrictions and dangers, and never ceased to assert their right to a life of dignity, freedom and honest toil in their national homeland."''
In [[World War II]], the Jewish community of Palestine supported the [[Allied Forces]] against the [[Axis Powers]], and in particular against the [[Nazi]]s, while some members of the Arab Palestinian community supported the Nazis (see [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]]). Many maintain that the region's Jews thus earned the right to be among the peoples who founded the [[United Nations]].
On the [[November 29]], [[1947]], the [[United Nations General Assembly]] passed a [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181|resolution]] calling for the establishment of a Jewish State in Israel, requiring the inhabitants of Israel to take such steps as were necessary on their part for the implementation of that resolution. This recognition by the United Nations of the right of the Jewish people to establish their State is irrevocable.
Thus members and representatives of the Jews of Palestine and of the [[Zionism|Zionist]] movement upon the end of the British Mandate, by virtue of "natural and historic right" and based on the [[United Nations]] resolution:
''"...Hereby declare the establishment of a Jewish state in the land of Israel to be known as the State of Israel."''
And so the state will be open for Jewish immigration and for the "Ingathering of the Exiles"; it will foster the development of the country for the benefit of all its inhabitants; it will be based on freedom, justice and peace as envisaged by the [[Prophet|prophets]] of Israel; it will ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex; it will guarantee freedom of religion, conscience, language, education and culture; it will safeguard the Holy Places of all religions; and it will be faithful to the principles of the Charter of the United Nations.
The new state pledged that it will take steps to bring about the economic union of the whole of Eretz-Israel.
To the surrounding [[Arab]] states:
''"...in the very midst of the onslaught launched against us now for months - to the Arab inhabitants of the State of Israel to preserve peace and participate in the upbuilding of the State on the basis of full and equal citizenship and due representation in all its provisional and permanent institutions. We extend our hand to all neighbouring states and their peoples in an offer of peace and good neighbourliness, and appeal to them to establish bonds of cooperation and mutual help with the sovereign Jewish people settled in its own land. The State of Israel is prepared to do its share in a common effort for the advancement of the entire Middle East."''
A final appeal is made to the Jewish people throughout the Diaspora to rally round the Jews of Eretz-Israel in the tasks of [[Aliyah|immigration]] and upbuilding and to stand by them in the struggle for the realization of their age-old dream, the redemption of Israel.
Concluding by "Placing our trust in the Rock of Israel [language which was the result of a compromise between religious and secular groups]..." the signatories affixed their signatures. First to sign was [[David Ben-Gurion]], and some of the famous names associated with the founding of the state: [[Yitzhak Ben-Zvi]], [[Golda Meir|Golda Myerson (Meir)]], Rabbi Yehuda Leib Hacohen Fishman, [[Moshe Sharett]].<!-- The ones who sign on the scroll of independence signed their names on an empty parchment, because in the time of the declaration, the writing of the scroll on the parchment was not finished. Only later the content of the scroll of independence like it is known today was added to the parchment.--><!--Can we get a citation for that please?-->
[[Category:Israel and Zionism]]
[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[he:&#1492;&#1499;&#1512;&#1494;&#1514; &#1492;&#1506;&#1510;&#1502;&#1488;&#1493;&#1514;]]
[[sr:&#1044;&#1077;&#1082;&#1083;&#1072;&#1088;&#1072;&#1094;&#1080;&#1112;&#1072; &#1086; &#1087;&#1088;&#1086;&#1075;&#1083;&#1072;&#1096;&#1077;&#1114;&#1091; &#1044;&#1088;&#1078;&#1072;&#1074;&#1077; &#1048;&#1079;&#1088;&#1072;&#1077;&#1083;]]
[[yi:מגילת העצמאות]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Israel/Cities</title>
<id>14697</id>
<revision>
<id>15912233</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-15T03:57:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of cities in Israel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Italy/History</title>
<id>14698</id>
<revision>
<id>15912234</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-17T23:41:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gianfranco</username>
<id>918</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*#Redirect [[History of Italy]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[History of Italy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Italy</title>
<id>14699</id>
<revision>
<id>36481872</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T09:45:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Retaggio</username>
<id>272761</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>it:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Extreme points of Italy}}
[[Image:1europe 2001.jpg|thumb|right|Italy viewed from space.]]
This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Italy]]'''.
; Location:
: Southern [[Europe]], a [[peninsula]] extending into the central [[Mediterranean Sea]], northeast of [[Tunisia]].
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|42|50|N|12|50|E|type:country}}
; Map references:
: Europe
; Area:
:* Total: 301,230 [[Square kilometre|km&sup2;]]
:* Land: 294,020 km&sup2;
:* Water: 7,210 km&sup2;
:* Note: includes [[Sardinia]] and [[Sicily]]
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 1,932.2 km
:* Border countries: Austria 430 km, France 488 km, Holy See (Vatican City) 3.2 km, San Marino 39 km, Slovenia 232 km, Switzerland 740 km
:* See also [[Extreme points of Italy]].
; Coastline:
: 7,600 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Continental shelf: 200 [[metre|m]] depth or to the depth of exploitation
:* Territorial sea: 12 [[nautical mile]]s
; Climate:
: Predominantly Mediterranean; Alpine in far north; hot, dry in south
; Terrain:
: Mostly rugged and mountainous; some plains, coastal lowlands
; Natural resources:
: Mercury, potash, marble, sulfur, dwindling natural gas and crude oil reserves, fish, coal, arable land
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 31%
:* Permanent crops: 10%
:* Permanent pastures: 15%
:* Forests and woodland: 23%
:* Other: 21% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: 27,100 km&sup2; (1993 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: Regional risks include landslides, mudflows, avalanches, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, flooding; land subsidence in Venice
; Environment--current issues:
: Air pollution from industrial emissions such as sulfur dioxide; coastal and inland rivers polluted from industrial and agricultural effluents; acid rain damaging lakes; inadequate industrial waste treatment and disposal facilities
; Environment--international agreements:
:* Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
:* Signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]]
; Geography--note:
: Strategic location dominating central Mediterranean as well as southern sea and air approaches to Western Europe
[[Category:Geography of Italy| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Italy]]
[[es:Geografía de Italia]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Italie]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה של איטליה]]
[[it:Italia geografica]]
[[pt:Geografia da Itália]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Italy</title>
<id>14700</id>
<revision>
<id>42122327</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:40:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Simdawdler</username>
<id>1014500</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Italy]] is largely homogeneous linguistically and religiously but is diverse culturally, econo |
[[embedded systems]] for a variety of reasons, including limited hardware in the small systems; extensive libraries, tools, licensing cost issues; and simply being good enough for the job on others. The highly influential [[AberMUD]] was written in B.
B was greatly influenced by BCPL, and its name is most likely to be a contraction of BCPL. However it is possible that its name may be based on [[Bon_programming_language|Bon]], an earlier but unrelated, and rather different, programming language which Thompson designed for use on [[Multics]].
==Example==
The following example is from the ''Users' Reference to B'' by Ken Thompson:
<pre>
/* The following function will print a non-negative number, n, to
the base b, where 2<=b<=10, This routine uses the fact that
in the ANSCII character set, the digits O to 9 have sequential
code values. */
printn(n,b) {
extrn putchar;
auto a;
if(a=n/b) /* assignment, not test for equality */
printn(a, b); /* recursive */
putchar(n%b + '0');
}
</pre>
==External links==
* ''[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/chist.html The Development of the C Language]'', [[Dennis Ritchie|Dennis M. Ritchie]]. Puts B in the context of [[BCPL]] and [[C programming language|C]].
* ''[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/kbman.html Users' Reference to B]'', Ken Thompson. Describes the [[PDP-11]] version.
* ''[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/bintro.html The Programming Language B]'', S. C. Johnson & B. W. Kernighan, Technical Report CS TR 8, [[Bell Labs]] (January 1973). The [[GCOS]] version on [[Honeywell]] equipment.
==See also==
* The [[B-Method]], a [[formal method]] with its own [[Abstract Machine Notation]] (AMN), not to be confused with the B programming language.
Another language, also called '''B''', was a simple interactive programming language by Lambert Meertens and Steven Pemberton. This B was the predecessor of [[ABC programming language|ABC]].
: ''[ftp://ftp.uni-kl.de/pub/languages/B.tar.Z Draft Proposal for the B Programming Language]'', [[Lambert Meertens]], [[National_Research_Institute_for_Mathematics_and_Computer_Science|CWI]], Amsterdam, 1981. (No longer available as of [[30 December]] [[2004]].)
[[Category:Historical programming languages]]
[[de:B (Programmiersprache)]]
[[es:Lenguaje de programación B]]
[[fr:B (langage)]]
[[it:B (linguaggio)]]
[[nl:B (programmeertaal)]]
[[ja:B言語]]
[[pl:B (język programowania)]]
[[pt:Linguagem de programação B]]
[[sl:Programski jezik B]]
[[zh:B語言]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beer-Lambert law</title>
<id>4476</id>
<revision>
<id>40692168</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T09:40:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antikon</username>
<id>256261</id>
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<minor />
<comment>+interwiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[optics]], the '''Beer-Lambert law''', also known as '''Beer's law''' or the '''Beer-Lambert-Bouguer law''' is an [[empirical relationship]] that relates the [[Absorption (optics)|absorption]] of [[light]] to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling.
==Equations==
[[Image:Beer lambert.png|thumb|300px|Diagram of Beer-Lambert absorption of a beam of light as it travels through a [[cuvette]] of size ''l''.]]
There are several ways in which the law can be expressed:
:<math>\begin{matrix}A=\alpha lc\end{matrix}</math>
:<math> {I_{1}\over I_{0}} = e^{-\alpha l c}</math>
:<math> A = -\log\frac{I_1}{I_0}</math>
:<math> \alpha = \frac{4 \pi k}{\lambda}</math>
Here:
*A is [[absorbance]]
*''I''<sub>0</sub> is the [[intensity]] of the incident light
*''I''<sub>1</sub> is the intensity after passing through the material
*''l'' is the distance that the light travels through the material (the [[path length]])
*''c'' is the [[concentration]] of absorbing species in the material
*&alpha; is the ''absorption coefficient'' or the [[molar absorptivity]] of the absorber
*&lambda; is the [[wavelength]] of the light
*''k'' is the [[extinction coefficient]]
In essence, the law states that there is an exponential dependence between the transmission of light through a substance and the concentration of the substance, and also between the transmission and the length of material that the light travels through. Thus if ''l'' and &alpha; are known, the concentration of a substance can be deduced from the amount of light transmitted by it.
The units of ''c'' and &alpha; depend on the way that the concentration of the absorber is being expressed. If the material is a liquid, it is usual to express the absorber concentration ''c'' as a [[mole fraction]] i.e. a dimensionless fraction. The units of &alpha; are thus reciprocal length (e.g. cm<sup>-1</sup>). In the case of a gas, ''c'' may be expressed as a density (units of reciprocal length cubed, e.g. cm<sup>-3</sup>), in which case &alpha; is an ''absorption cross-section'' and has units of length squared (e.g. cm<sup>2</sup>). If concentration ''c'' is expressed in [[mole (unit)|mole]]s per unit [[volume]], &alpha; is a [[molar absorptivity]] usually given in units of mol cm<sup>-2</sup>.
The value of the absorption coefficient &alpha; varies between different absorbing materials and also with wavelength for a particular material. It is usually determined by experiment.
The law tends to break down at very high concentrations, especially if the material is highly [[scattering]]. If the light is especially intense, [[nonlinear optics|nonlinear optical]] processes can also cause variances.
The law's link between concentration and light absorption is the basis behind the use of [[spectroscopy]] to identify substances.
== Beer-Lambert law in the atmosphere ==
This law is also applied to describe the attenuation of solar radiation as it travels through the atmosphere. In this case, there is scattering of radiation as well as absorption. The Beer-Lambert law for the atmosphere is usually written
:<math>I_n=(I_o/R^2)\,\exp(-(k_a+k_g+k_{NO2}+k_w+k_{O3}+k_r) m)</math> ,
where each <math>k_x</math> is an extinction coefficient whose subscript identifies the source of the absorption or scattering it describes:
*<math>a</math> refers to [[Particulate|aerosol]]s (that absorb and scatter)
*<math>g</math> are uniformly mixed gases (mainly [[carbon dioxide]] (<math>CO_2</math>) and molecular [[oxygen]] (<math>O_2</math>) which only absorb)
*<math>NO_2</math> is [[nitrogen dioxide]], mainly due to urban pollution (absorption only)
*<math>w</math> is [[water vapour]] absorption
*<math>O_3</math> is [[ozone]] (absorption only)
*<math>r</math> is [[Rayleigh scattering]] from molecular [[oxygen]] (<math>O_2</math>) and [[nitrogen]] (<math>N_2</math>) (responsible for the blue color of the sky).
<math>m</math> is the ''optical mass'', a term basically equal to <math>1/\cos(\theta)</math> where <math>\theta</math> is the solar azimuth (the solar angle with respect to a direction perpendicular to the Earth's surface at the observation site).
This equation can be used to retrieve <math>k_a</math>, the aerosol optical thickness, which is necessary for the correction of satellite images and also important in accounting for the role of aerosols in climate.
==History==
Beer's law was independently discovered (in various forms) by [[Pierre Bouguer]] in 1729, [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]] in 1760 and [[August Beer]] in 1852.
==See also==
*[[Logarithm]]
*[[Scientific laws named after people]]
[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:Exponentials]]
[[Category:Eponymous laws]]
[[Category:Spectroscopy]]
[[de:Lambert-Beersches Gesetz]]
[[es:Ley_de_Beer-Lambert]]
[[fr:Loi de Beer-Lambert]]
[[it:Legge di Lambert-Beer]]
[[ru:Закон Бугера — Ламберта — Бера]]
[[sl:Absorpcijski zakon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Beach Boys</title>
<id>4477</id>
<revision>
<id>42021735</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:12:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.130.145.100</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Mid-career brings a change in leadership */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''The Beach Boys''' are a [[popular music|pop music]] group formed in [[Hawthorne, California]] in [[1961]] who are widely considered one of the most influential bands in rock and pop music history. They have recorded dozens of [[Top 40]] hits (including four US #1 singles), many best-selling albums, and were inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in [[1988]].
The original group comprised singer-musician-composer [[Brian Wilson]], his brothers [[Carl Wilson|Carl]] and [[Dennis Wilson|Dennis]], their cousin [[Mike Love]], and friend [[Alan Jardine]]. Many changes in both musical style and personnel have occurred in their sometimes-stormy career: Brian Wilson's [[mental illness]], [[drug addiction]] and eventual withdrawal from the group; the deaths of [[Dennis Wilson]] in 1983 and [[Carl Wilson]] in 1998; and continuing legal battles among surviving members of the group.
[[As of 2006]], The Beach Boys continue to tour, with only one of the original members (Mike Love).
==Early years==
The group was formed in 1961 in [[Hawthorne, California]] under the leadership of [[Brian Wilson]], and included his brothers [[Carl Wilson|Carl]] and [[Dennis Wilson|Dennis]], their cousin [[Mike Love]] and school friend [[Al Jardine]].
The early inspirations of the group were the Wilsons' musician father, [[Murry Wilson|Murry]], and the close vocal harmonies of groups such as [[The Four Freshmen]]. The group performed initially as ''The Pen |
level. The Persian king did not account for the creation of a pool of water at the bottom of the cliff, which brought increased human traffic to the area. Considerable damage has been caused to some figures.
==In ancient history==
The first historical mention of the inscription is by the Greek [[Ctesias|Ctesias of Cnidus]], who noted its existence some time around [[400 BC]], and mentions a well and a garden beneath the inscription dedicated by Queen [[Semiramis of Babylon]] to [[Zeus]] (the Greek analogue of [[Ahura Mazda]]). [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] also mentions it and includes a description of some of the long-lost ancillary monuments at the base of the cliff, including an altar to [[Hercules]]. What has been recovered of them, including a statue dedicated in 148 BC, is consistent with Tacitus' description. [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]] also writes of "Bagistanon" and claims it was inscribed by Queen Semiramis.
After the fall of the Persian Empire and its successors, and the fall of cuneiform writing into disuse, the nature of the inscription was forgotten and fanciful origins became the norm. For centuries, instead of being attributed to Darius &mdash; one of the first Persian kings &mdash; it was believed to be from the reign of [[Khosrau II of Persia|Chosroes II of Persia]] &mdash; one of the last. A legend arose that it had been created by [[Farhad]], a lover of Chosroes' wife, [[Shirin]]. Exiled for his transgression, Farhad is given the task of cutting away the mountain to find water; if he succeeds, he will be given permission to marry Shirin. After many years and the removal of half the mountain, he does find water, but is informed by Chosroes that Shirin had died. He goes mad, and throws himself from the cliff. Shirin is not dead, naturally, and hangs herself upon hearing the news.
==Discovery and translation== [[Image:Darius I the Great's inscription.jpg|thumb|300px|Modern day picture of the inscription.]]
The inscription was noted by an Arab traveller, [[Ibn Hauqal]], in the mid-900s, who interpreted the figures as a teacher punishing his pupils. It was not until 1598, when the [[England|Englishman]] [[Robert Sherley]] saw the inscription during a diplomatic mission to [[Iran|Persia]] on behalf of [[Austria]], that the inscription first came to the attention of western European scholars. His party came to the conclusion that it was a picture of the [[ascension]] of [[Jesus]] with an inscription in [[Greek language|Greek]].
Biblical misinterpretations by Europeans were rife for the next two centuries. French General Gardanne thought it showed Christ and his [[twelve apostles]], and [[Robert Ker Porter|Sir Robert Ker Porter]] thought it represented the 12 [[tribes of Israel]] and [[Shalmaneser I|Shalmaneser of Assyria]]. Italian explorer [[Pietro della Valle]] visited the inscription in the course of a pilgrimage in around 1621, and German surveyor [[Carsten Niebuhr]] visited in around 1764 while exploring Arabia and the middle east for [[Frederick V of Denmark]], publishing a copy of the inscription in the account of his journeys in 1777. Niebuhr's transcriptions were used by [[Georg Friedrich Grotefend]] and others in their efforts to decipher the Old Persian cuneiform script. Grotefend had deciphered ten of the 37 symbols of Old Persian by 1802.
In 1835, [[Henry Rawlinson|Sir Henry Rawlinson]], a British army officer training the army of the [[Shah]] of Iran, began studying the inscription in earnest. As the town of Bisistun's name was anglicized as "Behistun" at this time, the monument became known as the "Behistun Inscription". Despite its inaccessibility, Rawlinson was able to scale the cliff and copy the Old Persian inscription. The Elamite was across a chasm, and the Babylonian four metres above; both were beyond easy reach and were left for later.
Armed with the Persian text, and with about a third of the [[syllabary]] made available to him by the work of Grotefend, Rawlinson set to work on deciphering the text. Fortunately, the first section of this text contained a list of Persian kings identical to that found in [[Herodotus]], and by matching the names and the characters, Rawlinson was able to crack the form of cuneiform used for Old Persian by 1838 and present his results to the [[Royal Asiatic Society]] in [[London]] and the [[Société Asiatique]] in [[Paris]].
Next came the remaining two texts. After a stretch of service in [[Afghanistan]], Rawlinson returned in 1843. Using planks he crossed the gap between the Old Persian text and the Elamite, and copied that. He was then able to find an enterprising local boy to climb up a crack in the cliff and rig ropes across the Babylonian writing, so that [[papier-mâché]] casts of it could be taken. Rawlinson set to work and translated the Babylonian writing and language, working independently of [[Edward Hincks]], [[Julius Oppert]] and [[William Henry Fox Talbot]], who also contributed to the decipherment; [[Edwin Norris]] and others were the first to do the same for the Elamite. As three of the primary languages of [[Mesopotamia]], and three variations of the cuneiform script, these decipherments were one of the keys to putting [[Assyriology]] on a modern footing.
==After Rawlinson==
Later expeditions, in 1904 sponsored by the [[British Museum]] and led by Leonard William King and Reginald Campbell Thompson and in 1948 by George G. Cameron of the [[University of Michigan]], obtained photographs, casts and more accurate transcriptions of the texts, including passages that were not copied by Rawlinson. It also became apparent that rainwater had dissolved some areas of the limestone in which the text is inscribed, while leaving new deposits of limestone over other areas, covering the text.
The monument suffered some damage from soldiers using it for target practice during [[World War II]]. In recent years, Iranian archaeologists have been undertaking conservations works.
==References==
*Rawlinson, H.C., ''Archaeologia'', 1853, vol. xxxiv, p. 74
*Thompson, R. Campbell. "The Rock of Behistun". ''Wonders of the Past''. Edited by Sir J. A. Hammerton. Vol. II. New York: Wise and Co., 1937. (p. 760&ndash;767) [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~ancientpersia/behistun.html]
*Cameron, George G. "Darius Carved History on Ageless Rock". ''[[National Geographic Magazine]]''. Vol. XCVIII, Num. 6, December 1950. (p. 825&ndash;844) [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~ancientpersia/behistun.html]
*[http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html The Livius historical website] &mdash; a comprehensive discussion of the Behistun inscription, with pictures, drawings of the entire cuneiform text, transcription, and a translation to English.
*[http://visopsys.org/andy/essays/darius-bisitun.html Darius the Great and the Bisutun Inscription]
== External links ==
*[http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Persia/Behistun_txt.html English translation of the inscription text]
*[http://library.case.edu/ksl/ecoll/books/anoscu00/anoscu00.pdf Case Western Reserve University Digital Library] &mdash; the complete text of the Behistun inscription, in transcribed cuneiform and English translation, available in [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] format
*[https://www.sharemation.com/zoroaster7/BISOTUN.PDF?uniq=ksz8bm Bisotun]&mdash; the complete text of the bisotun inscription, in transcribed cuneiform and [[Persian language|Persian]] translation, available in pdf format.
*[http://www.payvand.com/news/04/aug/1149.html Iran: Documentation of Behistun Inscription Nearly Complete]
*[http://www.avesta.org/op/op.htm Behistun and many others persian royal inscriptions]
[[Category:Inscriptions]]
[[Category:Achaemenid dynasty]]
[[Category:History of Iran]]
[[Category:Multilingual texts]]
[[ca:Inscripció de Behistun]]
[[cs:Behistunský nápis]]
[[da:Bisutun-inskriptionerne]]
[[de:Behistun-Inschrift]]
[[es:Inscripción de Behistún]]
[[fa:سنگنبشته بیستون]]
[[fr:Inscription de Behistun]]
[[gl:Inscrición de Behistún]]
[[nl:Behistuninscriptie]]
[[ja:ベヒストゥン碑文]]
[[pl:Inskrypcja z Behistun]]
[[pt:Inscrição de Behistun]]
[[sv:Bisutuninskriften]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bundesmarine</title>
<id>4790</id>
<revision>
<id>15903043</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[German Navy]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barry Goldwater</title>
<id>4792</id>
<revision>
<id>41880988</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T09:15:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rjensen</username>
<id>313197</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Political career */ small changes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:BarryGoldwater.jpg|frame|Barry Goldwater]]
'''Barry Morris Goldwater''' ([[January 1]], [[1909]] &ndash; [[May 29]], [[1998]]) was a [[United States]] [[politician]] and a founding figure in the modern [[conservatism|conservative]] movement in the USA as well as being a major inspiration for many of his youthful followers to join the [[libertarian]] movement. Goldwater personified the shift in balance in [[American culture]] from [[U.S. Northeast|the Northeast]] to [[U.S. West|the West]]. A five-term [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] from [[Arizona]] (1953-1965, 1969-87), he was the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]'s candidate for the [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1964|1964 election]] which he lost to [[Lyndon B. Johnson]].
Many of the policies and ideas advocated by Goldwater were distinctly out-of-step with dominance of the [[New Deal coalition]] in the two decades following [[World War II]]. He was rid |
duced incentives for such activity and is beginning to implement an ambitious environmental plan - and has just adopted an Environmental Crimes Law that requires serious penalties for infractions.
==Industry==
[[Brazil]] has the most advanced industrial sector in [[Latin America]]. Accounting for one-third of GDP, Brazil's diverse industries range from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables. With the increased economic stability provided by the Plano Real, Brazilian and multinational businesses have invested heavily in new equipment and technology, a large proportion of which has been purchased from U.S. firms.
[[Brazil]] has a diverse and sophisticated services industry as well. During the early 1990s, the banking sector accounted for as much as 16% of GDP. Although undergoing a major overhaul, [[Brazil]]'s financial services industry provides local businesses with a wide range of products and is attracting numerous new entrants, including U.S. financial firms. The [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]] and [[Rio de Janeiro]] stock exchanges are undergoing a consolidation and the reinsurance sector is about to be privatized.
The Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported oil. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but now account for about 33%. [[Brazil]] is one of the world's leading producers of [[hydroelectric power]], with a current capacity of about 58,000 megawatts. Existing [[hydroelectric power]] provides 92% of the nation's electricity. Two large hydroelectrical projects, the 12,600 megawatt [[Itaipu Dam]] on the [[Parana]] River--the world's largest dam--and the Tucurui Dam in Para in northern Brazil, are in operation. Brazil's first commercial nuclear reactor, Angra I, located near [[Rio de Janeiro]], has been in operation for more than 10 years. Angra II is under construction and, after years of delays, is about to come on line. An Angra III is planned. The three reactors would have combined capacity of 3,000 megawatts when completed.
Proven mineral resources are extensive. Large iron and manganese reserves are important sources of industrial raw materials and export earnings. Deposits of nickel, tin, chromite, bauxite, beryllium, copper, lead, tungsten, zinc, gold, and other minerals are exploited. High-quality cooking-grade coal required in the steel industry is in short supply.
==Economy - overview==
Possessing large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, [[Brazil]]'s economy outweighs that of all other South American countries and is expanding its presence in world markets. In the late eighties and early [[The nineties|ninetie]]s, high inflation hindered economic activity and investment. The [[Plano Real]] (''Real Plan''), instituted in the [[Spring (season)|spring]] of 1994, sought to break [[inflationary expectation]]s by [[pegging]] the real to the [[U.S. dollar]]. Inflation was brought down to single digit annual figures, but not fast enough to avoid substantial real exchange rate appreciation during the transition phase of the ''Real Plan''. This appreciation meant that Brazilian goods were now more expensive relative to goods from other countries, which contributed to large current account deficits. However, no [[shortage]] of foreign currency ensued because of the financial community's renewed interest in Brazilian markets as inflation rates stabilized and memories of the [[debt crisis]] of the [[1980s]] faded. The maintenance of large [[current account]] [[deficit]]s via [[capital account]] [[surplus]]es became problematic as investors became more risk averse to emerging market exposure as a consequence of the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the Russian bond default in August 1998. After crafting a [[fiscal adjustment]] program and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a $41.5 billion IMF-led international support program in November 1998. In January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the real would no longer be pegged to the U.S. dollar. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn in economic growth in 1999 that investors had expressed concerns about over the summer of 1998. Brazil's debt to GDP ratio of 48% for 1999 beat the IMF target and helped reassure investors that Brazil will maintain tight fiscal and monetary policy even with a floating currency. The economy grew 4.4% in 2000, but problems in Argentina in 2001, and growing concerns that the presidential candidate considered most likely to win, leftist [[Luis Inácio Lula da Silva]], would default on the debt, triggered a confidence crisis that caused the economy to deccelerate. During his first year as president, in 2003, President da Silva decided to take an austere approach to the economy by controlling inflation and seeking current account surpluses in order to meet Brazil's debt obligations. This strategy caused a GDP decrease during 2003, but helped the country to attain robust GDP growth of 5.2% during 2004. The country paid off it's IMF debt pre-schedule on the 29th (2,04 billion) and the 30th (13,46 billion) of december, 2005.
For several decades, Brazilian development was based on an import substitution strategy. The main economic problem in the 1980s was enormous inflation.
In 1990, after a few years of an informal and slow opening of the economy, the country has made some dramatic changes, strongly reducing the import tariff and emphasizing the need for quality (read ISO 9000 series adoption).
In 1994, the [[Plano Real|Real Plan]] successfully eliminated inflation, after many [[Timeline of Brazilian economic stabilization plans|failed attempts]] to control it. As a result, Brazilian purchasing power has dramatically improved. Almost 25 million people turned into consumers "overnight". Consumer good imports have grown very fast in recent years. Companies, realizing the business opportunities, increased their investment in Brazil and slowly the import pattern has changed from consumer goods into machinery and other capital goods.
==Other statistics==
'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
19.8% of GDP (2004 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
* ''lowest 10%:'' 0.7%
* ''highest 10%:'' 48% (1998)
'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
60.7 (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
coffee, soybeans, wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane, cocoa, citrus; beef
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
6% (2004 est.)
'''Electricity:'''
* ''production:'' 339 TWh (2002)
* ''consumption:''351.9 TWh (2002)
* ''exports:'' 7 GWh (2002)
* ''imports:'' 36.58 TWh; note - supplied by [[Paraguay]] (2002)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
* ''fossil fuel:'' 8.3%
* ''hydro:'' 82.7%
* ''other:'' 4.6% (2001)
* ''nuclear:'' 4.4%
'''Oil:'''
* ''production:'' 1.788 million barrel/day (2004 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 2.199 million barrel/day (2001 est.)
* ''exports:'' NA
* ''imports:'' NA
* ''proved reserves:'' 13.9 billion barrel (2004 est.)
'''Natural gas:'''
* ''production:'' 5.95 billion m³ (2001 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 9.59 billion m³ (2001 est.)
* ''exports:'' 0 m³ (2001 est.)
* ''imports:'' 3.64 billion m³ (2001 est.)
* ''proved reserves:'' 221.7 billion m³ (2004)
'''Current account balance:'''
$8 billion (2004 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
transport equipment, iron ore, soybeans, footwear, coffee, autos
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery, electrical and transport equipment, chemical products, oil
'''Reserves of foreign exchange & gold:'''
$52.94 billion (2004 est.)
'''Exchange rates:'''
reals per U.S. dollar - ~2.30 (2005), 2.9249 (2004), 3.0771 (2003), 2.9208 (2002), 2.3577 (2001), 1.8301 (2000)
==See also==
*[[Brazil]]
* [[Brazil/History|History]]
* [[Brazil/Geography|Geography]]
* [[Brazil/People|People]]
* [[Brazil/Government|Government]]
* [[Brazil/Communications|Communications]]
* [[Brazil/Transportation|Transportation]]
* [[Brazil/Military|Military]]
* [[Brazil/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
* [[Economy of South America]]
===Lists===
* [[List of Brazilian companies]]
==External links==
*[http://ecen.com/content/eee6/debt2.htm Brazilian Public Debt]
*[http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html GDP rank, CIA Factbook]]
{{SACN}}
{{WTO}}
{{South America in topic|Economy of}}
[[Category:WTO members|Brazil]]
[[Category:Economy of Brazil| ]]
[[ca:Economia del Brasil]]
[[es:Economía de Brasil]]
[[fr:Économie du Brésil]]
[[gl:Economía do Brasil]]
[[no:Brasils økonomi]]
[[pl:Gospodarka Brazylii]]
[[pt:Economia do Brasil]]
[[ro:Economia Braziliei]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Brazil</title>
<id>3635</id>
<revision>
<id>40447818</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T16:55:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{CIA}}, {{South America in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
19 million (1997)
39 million (2005)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
4 million (1997)
80 million (2005)
'''Telephone system:'''
good working system
<br />''domestic:''
extensive microwave radio relay system and a domestic satellite system with 64 earth stations
<br />''international:''
3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region east), connected by microwave relay system to MERCOSUR Brazilsat B3 satellite earth station
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 1,551, FM 2,620, shortwave 134 (as of June 30, 2003)
'''Radios:'''
71 million (1997)
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
269 (plus 5,704 repeaters) (as of June 30, 2003)
'''Televisions:'''
90.3% of the houses (2003).
'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
197 (1999)
'''Internet Users:'''
19,3 |
and edited by [[Marc Bloch]] and [[Lucien Febvre]] in [[1929]], while they were teaching at the [[University of Strasbourg]]. These authors quickly became associated with the distinctive Annales approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the [[Annee Sociologique]] (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th century historians. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures (''[[la longue durée]]'') over events. Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called ''mentalities'' or the psychology of the epoch are also characteristic areas of study.
An eminent member of this school, [[Georges Duby]], wrote in the forward of his book "Le dimanche de Bouvines" that the history he is teaching "rejected on the sidelines the sensational, was reluctant to the simple acounting of events, strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting the surface trepidations, wanted to observe on the long and medium term the evolution of economy, society and civilisation."
Bloch was shot by the [[Gestapo]] during the German occupation of France in [[World War II]], and Febvre carried on the Annales approach in the 1940s and 1950s. It was during this time that he trained [[Fernand Braudel]], who would become one of the best known exponents of this school. Braudel's work came to define a 'second' era of Annales historiography and was very influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain.
While authors such as [[Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie]] and [[Jacques Le Goff]] continue to carry the Annales banner, today the Annales approach has been less distinctive as more and more historians do work in [[cultural history]] and [[economic history]].
''See also:'' [[Historiography]]
==References==
* [http://www.strath.ac.uk/Departments/History/s_adams/annales.htm Fernand Braudel and the Annales School by David Moon]
==Further reading==
*Peter Burke. ''The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School, 1929-1989''. Stanford University Press. 1991.
*François Dosse. ''The New History in France: The Triumph of the Annales''. University of Illinois Press. 1994.
*Lynn Hunt and Jacques Revel (eds). ''Histories: French Constructions of the Past''. The New Press. 1994. (A collection of essays with many pieces from the Annales--the long introduction is excellent, and contains many good references).
[[Category:Historiography]]
[[Category:Historiosophy]]
[[cs:Škola Annales]]
[[de:Annales-Schule]]
[[es:Escuela de los Annales]]
[[fr:École des Annales]]
[[it:Scuola delle Annales]]
[[ja:アナール学派]]
[[lt:Analų mokykla]]
[[pl:Szkoła Annales]]
[[pt:Escola dos Annales]]
[[fi:Annalistinen koulukunta]]
[[sv:Annales-skolan]]
[[zh:年鑑學派]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antimatter</title>
<id>1317</id>
<revision>
<id>42074510</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:23:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lynch82</username>
<id>1016163</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Artificial production */ minor changes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[physics]] of antimatter, see the article on [[antiparticle]]s; for the [[Cubanate]] album, see [[Antimatter (album)]].''
{{Antimatter}}
'''Antimatter''' or '''contra-terrene matter''' is [[matter]] that is composed of the [[antiparticle]]s of those that constitute normal matter. If a particle and its antiparticle come in contact with each other, the two [[Annihilation|annihilate]] and produce a burst of [[energy]], which results in the production of other particles and antiparticles or [[electromagnetic radiation]]. In these reactions, [[rest mass]] is not conserved, although (as in any other reaction) energy ([[E=mc²]]) is conserved.
== History ==
In 1928 [[Paul Dirac]] developed a [[theory of relativity|relativistic]] equation for the [[electron]], now known as the [[Dirac equation]]. Curiously, the equation was found to have negative energy solutions in addition to the normal positive ones. This presented a problem, as electrons tend toward the lowest possible energy level; energies of negative infinity are nonsensical. As a way of getting around this, Dirac proposed that the vacuum can be considered a "sea" of negative energy, the [[Dirac sea]]. Any electrons would therefore have to sit on top of the sea.
Thinking further, Dirac found that a "hole" in the sea would have a positive charge. At first he thought that this was the [[proton]], but [[Hermann Weyl]] pointed out the hole should have the same mass as the electron. The existence of this particle, the [[positron]], was confirmed experimentally in 1932 by [[Carl D. Anderson]].
Today's [[standard model]] shows that every particle has an antiparticle, for which each additive [[quantum number]] has the negative of the value it has for the normal matter particle. The sign reversal applies only to quantum numbers (properties) which are additive, such as [[charge]], but not to [[mass]], for example. The [[positron]] has the opposite charge but the same mass as the electron. An [[atom]] of [[antihydrogen]] is composed of a negatively-charged [[antiproton]] being [[atomic orbital|orbited]] by a positively-charged [[positron]] .
== Antimatter production ==
===Artificial production===
The artificial production of antimatter (specifically [[antihydrogen]]) first became a reality in the early 1990s. [[Charles Munger]] of the [[SLAC]], and associates at [[Fermilab]], realised that an [[antiproton]], travelling at [[relativistic speeds]] and passing close to the [[nucleus]] of an [[atom]], would have the potential to force the creation of an [[electron]]-[[positron]] pair. It was postulated that under this scenario the antiproton would have a small chance of pairing with the positron (ejecting the electron) to form an antihydrogen atom.
In [[1995]] [[CERN]] announced that it had successfully created 9 antihydrogen atoms by implementing the SLAC/Fermilab concept during the [[PS210 experiment]]. The experiment was preformed using the Low-Energy Antiproton Ring ([[LEAR]]), and was lead by [[Walter Oelert]] and [[Mario Macri]]. Fermilab soon confirmed the CERN findings by producing approximately 100 antihydrogen atoms at their facilities.
The antihydrogen atoms created during PS210, and subsequent experiments (at both CERN and Fermilab) were extremely energetic ("hot") and were not well suited to study. To resolve this hurdle, and to gain a better understanding of antihydrogen, two collaborations were formed in the late 1990s - [[ATHENA]] and [[ATRAP]]. The primary goal of these collaborations is the creation of less energetic ("cold") antihydrogen, better suited to study.
In [[1999]] CERN activated the [[Antiproton Decelerator]], a device capable of decelerating antiprotons from 3.5 GeV/c to 5.3 MeV – still too "hot" to produce study effective antihydrogen, but a huge leap forward.
In late [[2002]] the ATHENA project announced that they had created the worlds first "cold" antihydrogen. The antiprotons used in the experiment were 'cooled' sufficiently by decelerating them (using the Antiproton Decelerator), passing them through a thin sheet of foil, and finally capturing them in a [[Penning Trap]]. The antiprotons also underwent [[stochastic cooling]] at several stages during the process.
The ATHENA team's antiproton cooling process is effective, but highly inefficient. Approximately 25 million antiprotons leave the Antiproton Decelerator; roughly 10 thousand make it to the Penning Trap.
In early 2004 ATHENA researchers released data on a new method of creating low energy antihydrogen.
The technique involves slowing antiprotons using the Antiproton Decelerator, and injecting them into a Penning trap (specifically a Penning-Malmberg trap). Once trapped the antiprotons are mixed with electrons that have been cooled to an energy potential significantly less than the antiprotons; the resulting Coulomb collisions cool the antiprotons while warming the electrons until the particles reach an equilibrium of approximately 4 K.
While the antiprotons are being cooled in the first trap, a small cloud of positron plasma is injected into a second trap (the mixing trap). Exciting the resonance of the mixing trap’s confinement fields can control the temperature of the positron plasma; but the procedure is more effective when the plasma is in thermal equilibrium with the trap’s environment. The positron plasma cloud is generated in a positron accumulator prior to injection; the source of the positrons is usually radioactive sodium.
Once the antiprotons are sufficiently cooled, the antiproton-electron mixture is transferred into the mixing trap (containing the positrons). The electrons are subsequently removed by a series of fast pulses in the mixing traps electrical field. When the antiprotons reach the positron plasma further Coulomb collisions occur, resulting in further cooling of the antiprotons. When the positrons and antiprotons approach thermal equilibrium antihydrogen atoms begin to form. Being electrically neutral the antihydrogen atoms are not effected by the trap and can leave the confinement fields.
Using this method ATHENA researchers predict they will be able to create to 100 antihydrogen atoms per operational second.
ATHENA and ATRAP are now seeking to further 'cool' the antihydrogen atoms by subjecting them to an [[inhomogeneous field]]. While antihydrogen atoms are electrically neutral, their spin produces [[magnetic moments]]. These magnetic moments vary depending on the [[spin direction]] (up or down) of the atom, and can be deflected by inhomogeneous fields regardless of electrical ch |
dica'') fruit extract several hours before drinking can significantly reduce certain hangover symptoms, including nausea. The authors theorize that the extract may work by suppressing the body's natural immune reaction to congeners.
Makers of competing hangover remedies containing [[activated carbon]] ([[charcoal]]), such as ''[[Chaser (tablet)|Chaser]]'' or ''Hangover-stopper'', claim that it prevents absorption of congeners in the first place (which scientists speculate is possible, though so far untested). [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/chronicle/archive/2004/12/12/MNGVDA9K181.DTL&type=health]. Extracts from the kudzu vine are currently being touted as cures.
In a review of the medical literature on hangover cures by researchers led by Max Pittler of the Peninsular Medical School at [[Exeter University]], they reported in the [[24 December]] [[2005]] issue of the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' the following conclusion: "No compelling evidence exists to suggest that any conventional or complementary intervention is effective for preventing or treating alcohol hangover. The most effective way to avoid the symptoms of alcohol induced hangover is to practice abstinence or moderation." [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/331/7531/1515?ehom]
A well known joke on the subject of hangover cures goes as follows: ''Q: What is the best thing for a hangover? A: Heavy drinking the night before!''
== See also ==
* [[Blood alcohol concentration]]
* [[Chaser (tablet)]] an anti-hangover pill
* [[Withdrawal]]
* [[White Castle Hangover]]
== External links ==
* [http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh22-1/54-60.pdf "Alcohol Hangover: Mechanisms and Mediators"] [PDF] by Robert Swift, M.D., Ph.D. and Dena Davidson, Ph.D., [[NIAAA]] ''Alcohol Health and Research World'', January 14, 2002, retrieved November 22, 2004.
* [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,8124-1398774,00.html "The party's over: Advice on treating hangovers"] by Dr. Thomas Stuttaford, ''[[The Times]]'', December 13, 2004 retrieved August 24, 2005. A colorful layman's article on hangovers, their cause and treatment along with reference to famous [[Soho]] drinkers, such as [[Jeffrey Bernard]], [[Dylan Thomas]] and [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]].
* [http://www.hangoverreview.com Hangover Review] Useful tips, articles and reviews on hangovers and hangover cures / products.
* [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/InTheNews/Etc/1106621330.html "Hangover Remedies Flood Market"] by David J. Hanson, Ph.D., ''Potsdam'', 2005, retrieved September 9, 2005.
* [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/HealthIssues/1127332920.html "Kudzu and Alcohol Consumption"] by David J. Hanson, Ph.D., ''Potsdam'', 2005, retrieved December 16, 2005.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4563760.stm "The ultimate hangover cure?"] by Becky McCall, ''[[BBC News]] Magazine'', December 28, 2005, retrieved December 28, 2005.
[[Category:Alcohol_abuse]]
[[Category:Drinking culture]]
[[cs:Kocovina]]
[[da:Tømmermænd]]
[[de:Kater (Alkohol)]]
[[he:חמרמורת]]
[[hu:Másnaposság]]
[[nl:Kater (alcohol)]]
[[pl:Kac]]
[[ru:Алкогольный абстинентный синдром]]
[[fi:Krapula]]
[[sv:Bakfylla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Home Improvement</title>
<id>13523</id>
<revision>
<id>41857533</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:36:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.7.58.44</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* ''Home Improvement'' on DVD */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
{{Infobox_television
| show_name = Home Improvement
| image = [[Image:Home improvement 250.jpg]]
| caption = The Taylor family
| format = [[Sitcom]]
| runtime = 22 Minutes
| creator = [[Matt Williams (producer)|Matt Williams]]<br>[[Carmen Finestra]]<br>[[David MacFadzean]]
| starring = [[Tim Allen]]<br>[[Patricia Richardson]]<br>[[Earl Hindman]]<br>[[Richard Karn]]<br>[[Debbe Dunning]]<br>[[Zachery Ty Bryan]]<br>[[Taran Noah Smith]]<br>[[Jonathan Taylor Thomas]]
| country = [[United States|USA]]
| rating= {{TV-G}}
| network = [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]
| first_aired = [[September 1]], [[1991]]
| last_aired = [[May 25]], [[1999]]
| num_episodes = 204
|}}
'''''Home Improvement''''' was an [[American television]] [[sitcom]] starring actor/comedian [[Tim Allen]], and loosely based on his [[stand-up comedy]] routine that ran on the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] for eight seasons from [[September]] [[1991]] to [[May]] [[1999]]. It is currently in national syndication on cable television stations such as [[TBS (TV network)|TBS]] in the US, and can be seen on digital channels [[ABC1]] and the [[Disney Channel]] in the UK.
== Premise ==
Set in the [[suburbs]] of [[Detroit, Michigan]] (with many references to the [[Royal Oak, Michigan|Royal Oak]] region), the series centers around the antics of the Taylor family, which, along with Tim, included his pedantic wife Jill ([[Patricia Richardson]]), and their three mischievous sons, the popular and athletic Brad ([[Zachery Ty Bryan]]), comedian and intellectual Randy ([[Jonathan Taylor Thomas]]), and the youngest Mark ([[Taran Noah Smith]]).
Additional focus was given to Tim's job as a television personality on his very own 'home improvement' show, called ''[[Tool Time]]''. On this [[show-within-a-show]], Tim was joined by his friend and mild-mannered assistant Al Borland (played by [[Richard Karn]]).
==History==
In the first few seasons, sons Brad and Randy would torment their youngest brother Mark (and each other) in ways that consistently presented a challenge to Tim and Jill.
Mark was initially presented as slightly naive and in constant admiration of his father. As the series progressed, however, Mark grew up to be somewhat of a teenage outcast who dressed in dark goth clothing. By this time, Randy was written out of the script by mentioning that he was in [[Costa Rica]] (done so to accommodate the then-budding film career of [[Jonathan Taylor Thomas]], who became a teen icon during his years on the show).
Some time was spent dealing with the sometimes tense relationship between coworkers Tim and Al. Al was portrayed as a slightly geeky character, prefering to wear mostly [[flannel]] shirts, and whose catchphrase was "I don't think so, Tim." He also came up with many [[puns]] and giggles and snorts when a joke is made at Tim's expense. Taylor was always arrogant and prone to accidents and his "archenemy", so to speak, is the real-life [[home improvement]] specialist [[Bob Vila]]. His projects on ''Tool Time'' usually go awry &mdash; such as using an oversized and overpowered [[Binford]] gadget. The cautious, insecure, and brighter Borland always bore the brunt of Tim Taylor's jokes and constant put-downs. A [[running gag|running joke]] was Tim's references to Al's overweight mother, who is usually referred to but is never seen throughout the series &mdash; although in one episode, she dies and the characters are at her funeral. Al has a "twin" brother named Cal who is a [[physicist]], and unlike other siblings across the world, they have never gotten into a physical fight; instead, they settle their disputes over a cup of [[tea]].
Throughout the series, Jill studied to become a [[psychologist]]. In one episode, Tim also received a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] from his alma mater.
== Running Gags ==
The show featured a few unique [[gimmicks]]. During scene changes clever "wipes" were used to comically remove the current image from the screen. For example, the current scene could shatter like glass, fall over like a piece of wood, or deflate like a balloon. These "wipes" usually included something shown or mentioned in the scene before.
Another gag included Tim banging his head on a large metal pipe every time he was walking down the basement steps.
Perhaps the show's most well-known gimmick was the character of Wilson ([[Earl Hindman]]), the Taylor family's sage, advice-giving neighbor with many historical, philosophical, and literary works to quote. Tim often confusingly misquotes and re-words Wilson's advice when speaking to Jill or his sons. Since Wilson was partly inspired by a neighbor that Tim had when he was very little, half of Wilson's face was never seen on the show, and was instead constantly &mdash; and sometimes humorously &mdash; blocked by various props, such as fences, masks, trees, and unusual costumes. Following the series finale episode his face was fully exposed while taking his final bow. When it came into question whether "Wilson" was the character's first name or last, he explained that his full name was actually Wilson Wilson, Jr.; his father's name having been Wilson Wilson, Sr. During the show, Wilson is usually working on an unusual project of some sort in his backyard. His usual catchphrase is "Well! Hidy-ho neighbor" when greeting Tim and "Hidy-ho neighborette" when greeting Jill. Such devices further fueled the show's reputation for involving extremely clever humor.
== The "Tool Time Girls" ==
The sitcom launched the career of former [[Playboy]] model [[Pamela Anderson]], who would later star in the internationally syndicated television show ''[[Baywatch]]''. Anderson played the announcer and "toolgirl" Lisa in the character Tim Taylor's ''Tool Time'' show. As Anderson gained stardom, she was replaced by another actress. On ''Tool Time'', Lisa was replaced by Heidi ([[Debbe Dunning]]), who stayed on the show for the remainder of the series. Anderson made a guest appearance as Lisa in a later episode, wherein Heidi becomes jealous when Lisa gets more attention and begins to fear for her job.
==Ending==
{{spoiler}}
The series ended in a three-part episode involvi |
quot; graphics chip, a [[Direct memory access|DMA]] controller, and the "GLUE" interrupt handler.
At about the same time, Amiga were desperate for a buyer or investor, and the "Warner owned" Atari had paid Amiga for development work (''see: [http://www.atarimuseum.com/articles/mickey.html "TOP SECRET: Confidential Atari-Amiga Agreement"]''). In return Atari was to get one-year exclusive use of the design. Atari was also working on a "high-end" 68000 based machine at the time, so it is not clear what their intentions for the Amiga design were.
By May Tramiel had secured his funding, bought the remains of Atari from Warner for a very low price, and set about re-creating his empire. One of his first acts was to fire practically all of Atari's highly respected engineering staff, and cancel almost all ongoing development. The Amiga crew was upset, and soon entered discussions with Commodore that led to them purchasing Amiga, and quickly cancelling Atari's license. Tramiel was furious, and the resulting court case lasted for years. Finally, it settled out of court, the details of which remain secret.
Work thus continued with the design started at Tramiel Technology. With the basic design complete, the team started looking at solutions for the [[operating system]]. Soon after the buyout [[Microsoft]] approached Tramiel with the suggestion that they port [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] to the platform, but the delivery date was out about two years, far too long for their needs. Another possibility was [[Digital Research]], who were working on a new GUI-based system then known as Crystal, soon to become [[Graphical Environment Manager|GEM]]. A final possibility was to write a new system in-house, but this was eventually rejected due to risk.
DR seemed generally uninterested in porting the system, so a team from Atari was sent to the DR Monterey headquarters to do it themselves. They were given the latest versions of the [[Intel 8086]] code from their DR counterparts, and would port it to the 68000 as quickly as possible. A version, running on top of [[CP/M|CP/M-68K]], was available just in time for the January 1985 [[CES]], where the ST was introduced.
[[Image:Atari_TOS_1_0.png|right|TOS 1.0 with the GEM user interface]]CP/M-68K was essentially a direct port of CP/M's original, and very old, operating system. By 'modern' standards of 1985, it was rather outdated both in terms of command structure, and that it didn't support hierarchical file systems. DR was also in the process of building a new [[DOS]]-like operating system specifically for GEM, '''GEMDOS''', and there was some discussion of whether or not a port of GEMDOS could be complete in time for product delivery in June. The decision was eventually taken to port it, resulting in a GEM/GEMDOS system Atari referred to as [[Atari TOS|TOS]] (officially '''The Operating System''', unofficially re-extrapolated as '''Tramiel Operating System''' by sceners). This was beneficial to the system, as it allowed the ST to read and write standard [[IBM PC]] disks.
The design shipped in June 1985 as the '''520ST'''. The machine had gone from concept to store shelves in a little under a year. Atari had originally intended to release versions with 128&nbsp;[[kilobyte|kB]] and 256&nbsp;kB of RAM as the '''130ST''' and '''260ST''' respectively, but the rapidly falling prices of RAM at the time led them to cancel these versions and it was released with 512&nbsp;kB only. In [[1986]] the '''1040ST<sup>F</sup>''' (also written '''STF''') shipped with 1&nbsp;[[mebibyte|MiB]] of RAM and featured an integral [[power supply]] and double sided floppy-disk drive. The '''1040ST''' was the first personal computer shipped with a base RAM configuration of 1&nbsp;MiB, and when the list price was reduced to $999 in the U.S. it became the first computer to break the $1000/MiB price barrier. However, the ST remained generally the same internally over the majority of its several-year lifespan. The choice of model numbers was inherited from the model-numbers of the ''XE series'' of the [[Atari 8-bit family]] of computers.
==Description==
The 520ST was an all-in-one unit, similar to earlier home computers like the [[Commodore 64]]. However, by this time the market demanded a "full sized" keyboard, including cursor keys and a numeric keypad. For this reason the 520ST was fairly "boxy", generally oversized for a machine that one had to move around to adjust the keyboard position. Adding to this problem was the number of large cables needed to connect to the peripherals. This problem was addressed to some degree in the follow-on models which included a built-in floppy disk, though this addition resulted in a notoriously bad repositioning of the mouse and joystick sockets to a cramped niche ''underneath'' the keyboard (as the mouse shared a socket with the second joystick, any user wanting to both use the GUI and play games against a friend would find themselves regularly going through the frustrating and painful ritual of lifting the entire machine up at 45 degrees, before eking out one plug and struggling the other one in - whilst trying not to break anything).
Following most machines of the era, and thus differing greatly from earlier Atari designs, the ST used a large number of one-off ports mounted on the rear of the machine. In addition to power and monitor connections (plus TV-out where fitted), the ST included an [[RS-232]] serial port, a [[Centronics]] parallel printer connection, two Atari-standard [[joystick]]/mouse ports (relocated on the more integrated machines - see above), an ACSI (not [[SCSI]]) [[hard drive]] connector, the floppy disk connector (retained on later machines to allow a two-disc setup), a rarely-used cartridge port, and two MIDI ports. An interesting feature of the Centronics port as supplied was that it could also be used for joystick input (a distinctly off-spec alteration of the standard), and several games made use of available adaptors that plugged into the printer socket and provided two additional 9-pin joystick ports - notably classics Gauntlet and Gauntlet II, and Dynablaster (UK release name for Bomberman - also allowing one player to enter the fray using keyboard control for a frenetic 5-way battle)... even without an army of friends this was useful on games that supported it, to allow a 2-player match without having to undergo the tiresome mouse/joystick swapping ritual.
The case followed the Tramiel-Atari design of the era, being basically wedge shaped, with a series of grilles cut into the rear for airflow. The original 520ST design used an external floppy drive, the 1040ST-style case featured a built-in floppy drive. The power supply for the early 520ST was a large external brick while the 1040ST's was inside the machine. In addition the majority of the machines had keyboards with a very soft tactile feedback, not as good as those on the IBM PC, with unique and strange rhomboid function keys across the top edge. The design was much improved with the '''Mega ST''' series which included a detached high-quality keyboard and stronger case, but this apparently cost too much to produce and the design was not used widely.
Atari initially used single-sided [[floppy disk|disk drives]] that could store up to 360&nbsp;[[kilobyte|kB]]. Later drives were double-sided versions that stored 720&nbsp;kB. Due to the early sales of so many of the single-sided drives, almost all software would ship on two single-sided disks instead of a single double-sided one, in fear of cutting off all the other owners. The situation was complicated by the single sided drives somehow having their read/write head mounted on the 'wrong' side of the disc, compared to most other single sided drives, and the 'first' head of double sided drives - ST magazines wishing to cater for the entire audience whilst still supplying a large amount of material on a single cover disc had to adopt innovative custom formats to work around this problem. Another sticking point was that the Atari double-sided drive could read IBM formatted disks, but IBM PCs could not read Atari disks. This was a 'minor' formatting issue that was later resolved by third-party software formatters and TOS upgrades.
Additionally they had originally intended to include GEM's GDOS hardware abstraction layer, which allowed programs to draw (display, print, etc.) graphics to any supported device with no changes. This allowed developers to write a program for display to the screen, and get high quality printing "for free". However GDOS was not ready at the time the ST started shipping, and while Atari promised to include it as soon as possible, it was not released until much later. This left printing support up to the developers, who had to create their own engines for every possible printer.
Similarly the custom "[[BLiTTER]]" was to be included to speed the performance of graphics operations on the screen, but this was isolated to their higher-end machines (e.g. later 1MiB 1040STFM models with TOS v1.04) and the enhanced '''STE''' models when it was eventually released. As a result, even when the BLiTTER eventually shipped, it was ignored by game developers because it was not present on all machines. However, properly written GEM programs could use the BLiTTER seamlessly since the GEM [[Application programming interface|API]] had always supported it.
On the plus side the ST was less expensive than most machines, including [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh Plus]], and tended to be faster than most (''external link:'' [http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Vista/3015/16bit.html price comparison]). Largely as a result of the price/performance factor, the ST would go on to be a fairly big seller, notably in markets where the foreign exchange rates amplified prices. Indeed, the company's English advertising strapline of |
ly Fortunes (see [[Family Feud]])''
*''[[The Generation Game]]''
*''[[The Golden Shot]]''
*''Name That Tune''
*''[[Odd One Out]]''
*''Play Your Cards Right (see [[Card Sharks]])''
*''The Price is Right''
*''[[Robot Wars]]''
*''[[Runaround (TV show)|Runaround]]''
*''[[Take Your Pick]]''
*''[[Time Commanders]]''
*''Win Beadle's Money (see [[Win Ben Stein's Money]])''
*''[[Wipeout (game show)|Wipeout]]''
*''[[You Bet!]]''
===[[United States]]===
====US dating shows====
* ''[[Average Joe]]''
* ''[[The Bachelor]]''
* ''[[The Bachelorette]]''
* ''[[Blind Date (US television)|Blind Date]]''
* ''[[Boy Meets Boy (TV)|Boy Meets Boy]]''
* ''[[The Dating Game]]'' and ''The New Dating Game''
* ''[[Elimidate]]''
* ''[[The Fifth Wheel]]''
* ''[[For Love or Money]]''
* ''[[He Said, She Said]]''
* ''[[Joe Millionaire]]''
* ''[[Love Connection]]''
* ''[[My Big Fat Obnoxious Fiance]]''
* ''[[The Newlywed Game]]''
* ''[[Paradise Hotel]]''
* ''[[Studs]]''
* ''[[Temptation Island]]''
* ''[[Who Wants to Marry a Multi-Millionaire]]''
* ''[[Who Wants to Marry My Dad?]]''
====US kids' game shows====
*''[[Double Dare]]''(1986-2000)
*''[[Finders Keepers]](1987-1989)
*''[[Fun House (game show)|Fun House]]'' (1988-1991)
*''[[Guts]] (see [[Global Guts]]
*''[[Gladiators 2000]]
*''[[Get the Picture]]''(1991-1993)
*''[[Legends of the Hidden Temple]]''(1993-1995)
*''[[The Quiz Kids Challenge]]'' (1990)
====US panel games====
*''[[All Star Blitz]]''
*''[[Says You!]]''
====US quiz/game shows====
*''[[The $64,000 Question]]'' and ''[[64,000 Challenge|$64,000 Challenge]]''
*''Almost Anything Goes'' (1975-1976) ''(See [[It's a Knockout]])''
*''[[American Gladiators]] and spinoff [[Gladiators 2000]]''
*''[[Battlestars (game show)|Battlestars]] (1981-1982) and its revival [[Battlestars (game show)|The New Battlestars]] (1983)
*''[[Beat the Clock]]'' (1950-1958, 1969-1974, 1979-1980, 2002-2003)
*''[[The Better Sex]]'' (1977-1978)
*''[[The Big Showdown]]'' (1974-1975)
*''[[Blockbusters (game show)|Blockbusters]]'' (1980-1982, 1987)
*''[[Body Language (game show)|Body Language]]'' (1984-1986)
*''[[Bowling for Dollars]]'' (Circa 1970s)
*''[[Break the Bank]]'' (1948-1957, 1976-1977, 1985-1986)
*''[[Bullseye (American game show)|Bullseye]]'' (1980-1982)
*''[[Bumper Stumpers]]'' (1987-1990)
*''[[Card Sharks]]'' (1978-1981, 1986-1989, 2001-2002)
*''[[Catch Phrase (US game show)|Catch Phrase]]'' (1985-1986)
*''[[Celebrity Poker Showdown]]'' '''(2004-Present)'''
*''[[Celebrity Sweepstakes]]''
*''[[Chain Reaction (game show)|Chain Reaction]]'' (1980, 1986-1991)
*''[[The Challengers (game show)|The Challengers]]'' (1990-1991)
*''[[The Chamber (game show)|The Chamber]]'' (2002)
*''[[Child's Play (game show)|Child's Play]]'' (1982-1983)
*''[[Concentration (game show)|Concentration]] and Classic Concentration'' (1958-1973, 1973-1978, 1987-1991)
*''[[Cram (game show)|Cram]]'' (2003)
*''[[The Cross-Wits]]'' (1975-1980, 1986-1987)
*''[[Deal or No Deal]]'' (2005-2006)
*''[[Double Dare (1976)|Double Dare]]'' (1976 version)
*''[[Double Dare]]'' (1986 version)
*''[[Double Talk]]''
*''[[Eye Guess]]'' (1966-1969)
*''[[Face The Music (game show)|Face the Music]]'' (1980-1981)
*''[[The Fame Game]]'' hosted by Rich Friedland as Red Harris, Las Vegas, NV
*''[[Family Feud]]'' (1976-1985, 1988-1995, '''1999-present''')
*''[[Fandango (game show)|Fandango]]'' (1983-1989)
*''[[Fear Factor]]'' (2001-present)
*''[[Gambit (game show)]] and Las Vegas Gambit'' (1972-1976, 1980-1981)
*''[[Go (game show)|Go]]'' (1983-1984)
*''[[The Gong Show]]'' (1976-1980)
*''[[Greed (game show)|Greed]]'' (1999-2000)
*''[[Headline Chasers]]'' (1985-1986)
*''[[High Rollers]]'' (1974-1976, 1978-1980, 1987-1988)
*''[[History IQ]]'' (2000)
*''[[Hollywood Connection]]''
*''[[Hollywood Squares]]'' (1966-1980, 1968, 1971-1981, 1986-1989, 1998-2004)
*''[[Hot Potato]]'' (1984)
*''[[I'd Do Anything]]''
*''[[I've Got a Secret]]''
*''[[Information, Please!]]''
*''[[It's Academic]]''
*''[[Jackpot (game show)|Jackpot!]]'' (1974-1975, 1989-1990)
*''[[Jeopardy!]]'' (1964-1975, '''1984-present''')
*''[[The Joker's Wild]]'' (1972-1975, 1977-1986, 1990-1991)
*''[[Let's Make a Deal]]'' (1963-1968, 1969-1976, 1971-1977, 1980-1981, 1984-1986, 1990-1991, 2003)
*''[[Love Buffet]]''
*''[[Lingo (game show)|Lingo]]'' (2002-present)
*''[[Match Game]]'' (1962-1969, 1973-1979, 1979-1982, 1990-1991, 1998-1999)
*''[[Match Game-Hollywood Squares Hour]]'' (1983-1984)
*''[[Match Game PM]]'' (1975-1981)
*''[[Musical Chairs (game show)|Musical Chairs]]''
*''[[Name That Tune]]'' ([[1950s]], 1974-1981, 1984-1985)
*''[[The Name's the Same]]''
*''[[Now You See It]]'' (1974-1975, 1989)
*''[[Password game|Password]]'' (1961-1969, 1971-1975) and sequels ''Password Plus'' (1979-1982) and ''Super Password'' (1984-1989)
*''[[The Perfect Match]]''
*''[[Play the Percentages]]''
*''[[Press Your Luck]]'' (1983-1986) and sequel ''[[Whammy! The All-New Press Your Luck]]''
*''[[The Price is Right]]'' (1956-1965, '''1972-present)'''
*''[[Pyramid (game show)|Pyramid]]'' (all versions)
**''The $10,000 Pyramid'' (1973-1974, 1974-1976)
**''The $20,000 Pyramid'' (1976-1980)
**''The $25,000 Pyramid'' (1974-1979, 1982-1987, 1988)
**''The $50,000 Pyramid'' (1981)
**''The $100,000 Pyramid'' (1985-1988, 1991)
**''Pyramid'' (2002-2004)
*''[[Queen for a Day]]''
*''[[Random Acts of Comedy]]''
*''[[Remote Control (game show)|Remote Control]]''
*''[[Rhyme & Reason (game show)|Rhyme & Reason]]''
*''[[Russian Roulette (game show)|Russian Roulette]]''
*''[[Sabado Gigante]]''
*''[[Sale of the Century]]'' (1969-1973, 1983-1989)
*''[[Scrabble (game show)|Scrabble]]'' (1984-1990, 1993)
*''[[Second Chance (game show)|Second Chance]]'' (1977)
*''[[Shop 'Til You Drop]]''
*''[[Split Second]]'' (1972-1975, 1987-1988)
*''[[Street Smarts (game show)|Street Smarts]]'' (2000-2005)
*''[[Strike It Rich (1980s TV game show)|Strike It Rich]]'' (1986-1987)
*''[[Studio 7]]'' (2004)
*''[[Supermarket Sweep]]'' (1965-1967, 1990-1998, 2000-2004)
*''[[Tattletales]]'' (1974-1978, 1982-1984)
*''[[3s a Crowd|Three's A Crowd]]'' (1979)
*''[[Tic-Tac-Dough]]'' (1950s, 1978-1986, 1990-1991)
*''[[To Tell the Truth]]'' (1956-1968, 1969-1978, 1980-1981, 1990-1991, 2000-2002)
*''[[Top Card]], (1989-1993)
*''[[Trivia Trap]]'' (1984-1985)
*''[[Trump Card (game show)|Trump Card]] (1990-1991)
*''[[Truth or Consequences]]''
*''[[Twenty One (game show)|Twenty One]]'' (1956-1958, 2000-2001)
*''[[Two For The Money]]''
*''[[Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!]]'' (radio)
*''[[What's Going On? (game show)|What's Going On?]]''
*''[[What's My Line?]]''
*''[[The Weakest Link]]'' (2001-2002, 2002-2003)
*''[[Wheel of Fortune]]'' (1975-present)
*''[[Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?]]'' (1999-2002, 2002-present) and ''[[Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire?]]'' (2004)
*''[[The Who, What, Or Where Game]]'' (1969-1974)
*''[[Win Ben Stein's Money]]'' (1996-2003)
*''[[Win, Lose or Draw]]'' (1987-1990)
*''[[Wordplay (game show)|Wordplay]]''
*''[[You Bet Your Life]]''
*''[[Your Number's Up]]''
====US reality shows====
* ''[[The Amazing Race]]''
* ''[[The Apprentice]]''
* ''[[The Benefactor]]''
* ''[[Big Brother (USA TV series)|Big Brother]]''
* ''[[Boot Camp (program)|Boot Camp]]''
* ''[[Chains of Love]]''
* ''[[The Code Room|Code Room]]''
* ''[[Combat Missions]]''
* ''[[Dancing with the Stars (USA)|Dancing with the Stars]]''
* ''[[Fear Factor]]''
* ''[[Gana la Verde]]'' ([[Spanish language]])
* ''[[The Joe Schmo Show]]'' ([[parody]])
* ''[[Last Comic Standing]]''
* ''[[Lost (reality TV series)|Lost]]''
* ''[[Love Cruise]]''
* ''[[Married by America]]''
* ''[[The Mole]]''
* ''[[Murder in Small Town X]]''
* ''[[Real World]]''
* ''[[Survivor (TV series)|Survivor]]''
* ''[[Temptation Island]]''
* ''[[Trading Spaces]]''
* ''[[The Ultimate Fighter]]''
* ''[[While You Were Out]]''
==See also==
*[[GSN - The Network for Games]]
*[[List of game show hosts]]
*[[List of television programs]]
*[[:Category:Reality show winners|List of reality show winners]]
*[[Quiz Show (movie)]]
*[[Quiz show scandal]]
==Pop culture==
*In the 1984 movie ''[[Ghostbusters]]'', at one point Dana ([[Sigourney Weaver]]) remarks to Peter ([[Bill Murray]]), the whimsical leader of the Ghostbusters team, "You don't act like a scientist. You're more like a game show host!"
==External links==
* [http://www.gsn.com/ GSN: The Network for Games]
* [http://www.ukgameshows.com UKGameshows.com] - fan site for UK game shows
* [http://www.challenge.co.uk/ Challenge TV]
* [http://www.gameshowfavorites.com/ Game Show Favorites]
* [http://www.gameshowcongress.com/ Game Show Congress Industry Association]
* [http://www.tvgameshows.net/ Game Show Convention Center News]
* [http://www.gameshownewsnet.com/ Game Show News Network]
* [http://www.loogslair.com/gameshow/rules/rules.shtml Loogslair.com - Rules Repository]
[[Category:Lists of television series|Game shows]]
[[Category:Game shows| ]]
[[fr:Jeu télévisé]]
[[ja:&#12463;&#12452;&#12474;&#30058;&#32068;]]
[[pl:Teleturniej]]
[[de:Spielshow]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Game of sprouts</title>
<id>13136</id>
<revision>
<id>15910768</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-27T12:24:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kevyn</username>
<id>71581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Fixed link which was pointing to disambig page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sprouts (game)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grindcore</title>
<id>13137</id>
<revision>
<id>41989737</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:56:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.244.214.254</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Crucial bands */ Definetly a definetive band</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
'''Grindcore''' is an extreme form of [[hardcore punk]] and [[Heavy Metal music|heavy metal]], related to both [[death metal]] and [[crust punk]], but h |
onso III</title>
<id>1692</id>
<revision>
<id>27035985</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-01T03:28:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joaopais</username>
<id>94195</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">There have been several monarchs called '''Alfonso III''':
*[[Alfonso III of Leon]] -- (866-914) surnamed "the Great"
*[[Afonso III of Portugal]] -- (1210-1279)
*[[Alfonso III of Aragon]] -- (1285-1291)
*[[Alfonso III of Kongo]] -- (1666-1667)
{{disambig}}
[[ca:Alfons III]]
[[de:Liste der Herrscher namens Alfons]]
[[es:Alfonso III]]
[[fr:Alphonse III]]
[[pt:Afonso III]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amazon</title>
<id>1693</id>
<revision>
<id>40867459</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T15:12:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dabbler</username>
<id>139032</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other */ fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The name '''''Amazon''''' may refer to several concepts:
==Geography==
*The [[Amazon River]], [[Amazon Rainforest]], and [[Amazon Basin]] through which it flows.
*[[Amazonas]], the name of several administrative divisions in [[South America]] named after the river, including:
**[[Amazonas Department, Colombia|Amazonas Department]], Colombia
**[[Amazonas Region]], Peru
**[[Amazonas State, Brazil]]
**[[Amazonas State, Venezuela]]
*[[Amazônia Legal]], a government-designated economic and environmental development region covering 61% of Brazil
==Other==
*The legendary [[Amazons]], women renowned in antiquity for their prowess in battle.
*[[Amazon.com]], the large online store that began as an online book store but which has expanded as a seller of many goods.
*[[Volvo Amazon]], a car model from Volvo. Perhaps as P120 in the US.
*[[HMS Amazon|HMS ''Amazon'']], name of many ships of the Royal Navy
*[[Amazon parrot]]s are a group of parrots native to the New World, which are usually predominantly green.
*''[[Swallows and Amazons (series)|Swallows and Amazons]]'' is a series of children's books by English author Arthur Ransome.
*[[The Game of the Amazons]], an abstract board game.
*''[[Amazons (1986 film)]]''
*[[Dahomey Amazons]], an all-female regiment of the African kingdom of Dahomey.
*[[Amazon (band)]], formed in 2002.
*Amazon or Amazonia, was the nom de guerre of a [[female gladiator]].
*[[Amazon Guardians of Eden]] an adventure game developed by Access Software.
*''[[Amazon Women on the Moon]]'', a 1987 comedic film.
*[[Amazon (comics)]] is a female fictional character in the Marvel Universe.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Amazonas (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[es:Amazona]]
[[fr:Amazone]]
[[id:Amazon]]
[[ja:アマゾン]]
[[mk:Амазон]]
[[nl:Amazone]]
[[pl:Amazonka]]
[[pt:Amazonas (desambiguação)]]
[[ro:Amazon]]
[[sv:Amazon]]
[[zh:亚马孙]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfonso IV</title>
<id>1694</id>
<revision>
<id>33093349</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-29T06:35:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.226.101.102</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>link to zh</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*[[Alfonso IV of Leon]] -- (924-931)
*[[Afonso IV of Portugal]] -- (1291-1357)
*[[Alfonso IV of Aragon]] -- (1327-1336)
{{disambig}}
[[pt:Afonso IV]]
[[zh:阿方索四世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amazons</title>
<id>1695</id>
<revision>
<id>41820621</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:29:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Martial Law</username>
<id>514543</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Modern depiction of Amazons */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the Amazon women of Greek mythology and similar cases. For other uses, see [[Amazons (disambiguation)]].}}
In [[Greek mythology]], the '''{{polytonic|Ἀμαζόνες}}, Amazons''' were either an ancient legendary nation of female warriors or a land dominated by women at the outer edges of their known world. The legends appear to have a nugget of factual basis in warrior women among the [[Scythia]]ns, but classical Greeks never ceased to be astounded at such role-reversals. Women in classical Greek society were expected to be passive and dependent on males. In early modern usage, the word was often used to refer to strong and independent women, in contrast to conventional stereotypes of women as weak and passive (see "[[damsel in distress]]"), but now "amazon" in such contexts has self-ironic overtones.
[[Image:1729.jpg|thumb|300px|The unidentified London cartographer, ''ca'' 1770, has placed ''Amazones'' in the north of ''[[Sarmatians|Sarmatia Asiatica]]'', based on Greek literary sources.]]
==Etymology==
The name {{polytonic|Ἀμαζών}} is probably derived from an [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] [[ethnonym]], ''*ha-mazan-'', originally meaning "warriors". A connected word is probably the [[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]] gloss {{polytonic|&#7937;μαζακ&#8049;ραν· πολεμε&#8150;ν}} ("to make war", containing the [[Indo-Iranian]] root ''kar-'' "make" also in ''[[karma|kar-ma]]'').
The Greek variant of the name was connected by [[popular etymology]] to [[privative a]] + ''mazos'', "without [[breast]]", connected with an [[aetiological]] tradition that Amazons had their right breast cut off or burnt out, in order that they might be able to use the bow more freely (contemporary Greeks drew the bowstring to the [[sternum]]); there is no indication of this practice in works of art, in which the Amazons are always represented with both breasts, although the right is frequently covered. Other suggested derivations were: ''a-'' (intensive) + ''mazos'', breast, "full-breasted"; ''a'' (privative) and ''masso'', touch, "not touching" (men); ''maza'', a [[Circassian]] word said to signify "moon", has suggested their connection with the worship of a moon-goddess, perhaps the Asiatic representative of [[Artemis]].
==Amazons of Greek mythology==
[[Image:AmazonBattle.JPG|thumbnail|right|''Amazon Preparing for Battle'' or ''Armed Venus'', by [[Pierre-Eugène-Emile Hébert]].]]
Amazons were said to have lived in [[Pontus]],which is part of modern day Turkey near the shore of the [[Euxine Sea]], where they formed an independent kingdom under the government of a queen, often named [[Hippolyta]] ("she lets her horses loose"). They were supposed to have founded many towns, amongst them [[Izmir|Smyrna]], [[Ephesus]], [[Sinope]], [[Paphos]]. According to another account, they originally came to the [[Thermodon]] from the ''Palus Maeotis'' ("Lake Maeotis", the [[Sea of Azov]]).
In some versions, no men were permitted to reside in Amazon country; but once a year, in order to prevent their race from dying out, they visited the [[Gargareans]], a neighbouring tribe. The male children who were the result of these visits were either put to death or sent back to their fathers; the females were kept and brought up by their mothers, and trained in agricultural pursuits, hunting, and the art of war ([[Strabo]] xi. p. 503).
In the ''[[Iliad]]'', the Amazons were referred to as [[Antianeira]] ("those who fight like men"). [[Herodotus]] called them [[Androktones]] ("killers of men").
The Amazons appear in connection with several Greek legends. They invaded [[Lycia]], but were defeated by [[Bellerophon]], who was sent out against them by [[Iobates]], the king of that country, in the hope that he might meet his death at their hands (''Iliad'', vi. 186). According to [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]], Queen [[Myrine]] led them to victory against the [[Atlantis|Atlanteans]], [[Libya]] and much of [[Gorgon]].
They attacked the [[Phrygia]]ns, who were assisted by [[Priam]], then a young man (''Iliad'', iii. 189). Although in his later years, towards the end of the [[Trojan War]], his old opponents took his side again against the Greeks under their queen [[Penthesilea]], who was slain by [[Achilles]] (Quint. Smyr. i.; Justin ii. 4; Virgil, Aen. i. 490).
One of the tasks imposed upon [[Heracles]] by [[Eurystheus]] was to obtain possession of the girdle of the Amazonian queen [[Hippolyte]] (''[[Apollodorus]]'' ii. 5). He was accompanied by his friend [[Theseus]], who carried off the princess [[Antiope (mythology)|Antiope]], sister of Hippolyte, an incident which led to a retaliatory invasion of [[Attica, Greece|Attica]], in which Antiope perished fighting by the side of Theseus. In some versions, however, Theseus marries Hippolyta and in others, he marries Antiope and she does not die. The battle between the Athenians and Amazonians is often commemorated in an entire genre of art, [[amazonomachy]], marble carvings such as from the [[Parthenon]].
The Amazons are also said to have undertaken an
expedition against the island of [[Leuke]], at the mouth of the [[Danube]], where the ashes of Achilles had been deposited by [[Thetis]]. The ghost of the dead hero appeared and so terrified the horses, that they threw and trampled upon the invaders, who were forced to retire. [[Pompey]] is said to have found them in the army of [[Mithradates]].
They are heard of in the time of [[Alexander the Great]], when some of the great king's biographers make mention of Amazon Queen [[Thalestris]] visiting him and becoming a mother by him. However, several other biographers of Alexander totally dispute the claim, including the highly regarded secondary source, [[Plutarch]]. In his writing he makes mention of when Alexander's secondary naval commander, [[Onesicritus]], was reading the Amazon passage of his Alexander history to King [[Lysimachus]] of [[Thrace]] who was on the original expedition, the king smiled at him and said "And where was I, then?"
The Roman writer [[Virgil]]'s character of the [[Volsci|Volscian]] warrior maiden ''Camilla'' in the ''[[Aene |
'''Target''' - Multiuse mid-to-high alpha hop from England. Parentage is from Kent Goldings.
'''Tettnang''' – Classic hop of North German pilsners, Tettnang are used for both bittering and aroma (though the latter is often in conjunction with some form of Hallertau). Bitterness from Tettnang is rich, yet soft, so brewers can really crank up the IBUs without rendering the beer astringent.
'''Tradition''' - Newish, disease-resistant variety from the Mittelfrüh lineage, with a refined, spicy, grassy aroma.
'''Vanguard''' – American aroma cross developed from Hallertau in 1982. (Alpha acid 5.5% - 6% / Beta acid 6 - 7%)
'''Warrior''' - New bittering hop, whose popularity is on the rise due to slightly softer bitterness than some its contemporaries and lack of aroma properties.
'''Willamette''' – Popular American development in 1976 of the English Fuggle. Mild aroma hop, with a herbal, sometimes gently fruity character. (Alpha acid 4.0 - 6.0% / Beta acid 3.0 - 4.0%)
'''Zeus''' – Aromatic American high-alpha hop with a chunky bitterness. (Alpha acid 15.0%)
==External links==
*[http://www.hops.co.uk/ UK hops]
*[http://www.uvm.edu/~pass/perry/hops.html USA hops]
*[http://www.realbeer.com/hops/FAQ.html Norm Pyle's Hops]
*[http://www.ratebeer.com/HopGuide.asp RateBeer hop quide]
*[http://www.brew-monkey.com/brewschool/hopdata.php Hop data]
[[Category:Beer]]
[[Category:Brewing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical linguistics or philology</title>
<id>14353</id>
<revision>
<id>15911915</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-24T06:00:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Enchanter</username>
<id>1104</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Correcting redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Philology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hack</title>
<id>14355</id>
<revision>
<id>40977132</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T06:10:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>THB</username>
<id>320771</id>
</contributor>
<comment>style</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar2|hack|hacking}}
'''Hack''' may mean:
* '''[[Horse]]''', especially an old and tired one, for hire
* '''[[Hackney carriage]]''', slang for a taxicab for hire, or by derivation the driver thereof
* '''[[standup comedy|Standup comic]]''', one who presents the material of other comics as his own
* '''[[Hack writer]]''', a writer for hire, paid to express others' thoughts and opinions, or a writer or journalist of dubious talent
* '''[[Slob]]''', aperson who is not very good at something, or just doesn't care about anything
* '''[[Party hack]]''', an unscrupulous individual of questionable competency, whose position comes by virtue of a devout loyalty to a political party
* '''[[Hack (technology slang)]]''', a joke, a programming exploit, or a commercial software break-in
* '''[[Roof and tunnel hacking]]''', a form of urban exploration mostly at educational institutions
* '''[[Lifehack]]''', an ingenious solution to everyday problems
* To '''[[Strike (attack)|strike]]''' a blow with an axe or sword
* To '''[[kick]]''' an opponent in the shins (in rugby football)
* '''[[Spading fork]]''' or '''clam hack''', with a short, bent handle, used to harvest clams
* '''[[Cough]]'''
* '''[[goal (sport)|Goal]]''', of a game such as footbag (hacky sack)
* '''[[Hacky sack]]''', a game played with the feet and a small beanbag
* '''[[Billhook]]''', in some UK dialects
* To '''[[Driving|drive]] fast''' (British slang)
* '''[[Hack saw]]''', a type of hand-held saw
* A piece of equipment used in the sport of '''[[curling]]''' by the curler making a shot, for traction
In '''mass media''':
* '''[[Hack (television series)]]''', a television series on CBS
* '''[[Hack (computer game)]]''', a Rogue-like computer game using ASCII graphics
* '''[[Hack (album)]]''', by ''Information Society''
* '''[[Hack (radio program)]]''', the Triple J current affairs radio program
==See also==
* [[Hacks (1997 movie)]], written and directed by Gary Rosen
* [[Hacks (2002 movie)]], written and directed by Glenn Rockowitz
* [[Hacker (disambiguation)]]
* [[List_of_people_by_name:_Hab-Haf#Hab-Hac|List of people by name: Hack-]]
* [[Hack and slash]], a style of play in computer, video and role-playing games
* [[.hack]] (pronounced "dot&mdash;hack"), a multimedia franchise
* [[What the Hack]], a convention
{{disambig}}
[[he:האקינג]]
[[nl:Hacken]]
[[pt:Hacking]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Huey, Dewey and Louie</title>
<id>14356</id>
<revision>
<id>42063320</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:33:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tone</username>
<id>266534</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* The boys' names in other languages */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:hdl_rosa2.jpg|250px|thumb|Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck, with [[Donald Duck]], en route to their first meeting with [[Scrooge McDuck]]. From ''[[The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck]]'' comic miniseries (''[[Uncle Scrooge]]'' #296).]]
'''Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck''' are [[fictional character|fictional]] [[duck]]s who appear in [[animated cartoon]]s and [[comic book]]s published by [[The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. Identical [[Triplets|triplets]], the three are [[Donald Duck]]'s [[nephew]]s. Huey, Dewey and Louie were created by [[Ted Osborne]] and [[Al Taliaferro]], and first appeared in a [[newspaper]] [[comic strip]] on [[October 17]], [[1937]]. Their first animated appearance was in the theatrical short ''Donald's Nephews'', released [[April 15]], [[1938]].
Huey, Dewey and Louie are the sons of Donald's sister; in ''Donald's Nephews'', Donald's sister is named "Dumbella," but in the comics, her full name is [[Della Thelma Duck]]. In the original theatrical shorts, they were originally sent to visit Donald for only one day; in the comics, the three were sent to stay with Donald on a temporary basis, until their father came back from the [[hospital]] (the boys had wound up sending him there after a [[practical joke]] of putting [[firecracker]]s under his chair). In both the comics and animated shorts, the boys' parents were never heard from or referred to again after these instances, with the boys ending up permanently living with Donald. All four of them live in the fictional city of [[Duckburg]].
The boys are noted for having both identical appearances and personalities in most appearances, with the three sometimes shown as finishing each others' sentences as a running joke. In the theatrical shorts, Huey, Dewey and Louie would often behave in a rambunctious manner, sometimes committing retaliation or revenge on their uncle Donald for something he did to them. In the comics, however, as developed by [[Al Taliaferro]] and [[Carl Barks]], the boys usually are shown in a more well-behaved manner, usually helping their uncle Donald and great-uncle [[Scrooge McDuck]] in the adventure at hand.
Since the production of the [[1987]] [[animated series]] ''[[DuckTales]]'', Huey, Dewey and Louie can usually be told apart by the color of their hats and/or clothing: Huey dresses in [[red]] (although he used to wear [[Orange (color)|orange]]), Dewey in [[blue]], and Louie in [[green]]. Disney's archivist [[Dave Smith]], in "Disney A to Z," said, "Note that the brightest hue of the three is red (Huey), the color of water, dew, is blue (Dewey), and that leaves Louie, and leaves are green." Before ''DuckTales'', the colors were not applied to the individual characters consistently; each character looked the same until colored, and often which colors belonged to which duck were decided by the colorist.
==Animation==
[[Image:ChronoD02.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The boys as they first appeared in the short ''Donald's Nephews''.]]
Huey, Dewey and Louie appeared in a large number of theatrical shorts with Donald, starting with ''[[Donald's Nephews]]'', released in [[1938]]. From there on, they appeared alongside Donald in the following shorts:
* ''Good Scouts''
* ''Donald's Golf Game''
* ''Hockey Champ''
* ''Sea Scouts''
* ''Mr. Duck Steps Out''
* ''Fire Chief''
* ''Truant Officer Donald''
* ''The Nifty Nineties''
* ''Donald's Snow Fight''
* ''Home Defense''
* ''Donald Duck and the Gorilla''
* ''Donald's Off Day''
* ''Donald's Crime''
* ''Straight Shooters''
* ''Soup's On''
* ''Donald's Happy Birthday''
* ''Lion Around''
* ''Lucky Number''
* ''Trick or Treat''
* ''Don's Fountain of Youth''
* ''Canvas Back Duck''
* ''Spare the Rod''
* ''The Litterbug''
[[Image:ScroogeWithNephews.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Huey, Dewey, and Louie, plus Scrooge McDuck, as they appeared on ''[[DuckTales]]''.]]
They later starred in the [[1987]] animated [[television]] series ''DuckTales'', in which they appeared in adventures with their great-uncle, Scrooge McDuck (Donald having enlisted in the [[U.S. Navy]]. The boys' personalities in this series were mainly based on their comic book appearances versus the theatrical shorts.
Huey, Dewey and Louie also starred in the [[1990s]] series ''[[Quack Pack]]'', in which the three were portrayed as [[teenager]]s. In ''Quack Pack'', the boys were given distinct personalities, with Huey serving as the group's leader, Dewey as a computer whiz, and Louie as enjoying sports.
After ''Quack Pack'', the boys were reverted to their original ages in future appearances, including [[2000s]] series ''[[Mickey Mouse Works]]'' and then re-aged in ''[[House of Mouse]]''.
[[Clarence Nash]], Donald's voice actor, gave the voices to the boys in the cartoon shorts. Huey, Dewey and Louie were all voiced by [[Russi Taylor]] in ''DuckTales''. In ''Quack Pack'', they were voiced by [[Jeannie Elias]], [[Pamela Segall]], and [[Elizabeth Daily]], respectively. [[Tony Anselmo]] voiced the characters in ''House of Mouse |
1, 1812), who formally
stated the theorem relating to the product of two matrices of <math>m</math>
columns and <math>n</math> rows, which for the special case of <math>m = n</math> reduces
to the multiplication theorem. On the same day (Nov. 30, 1812) that
Binet presented his paper to the Academy, [[Cauchy]] also presented one
on the subject. (See [[Cauchy-Binet formula]].) In this he used the word '''''determinant''''' in its
present sense, summarized and simplified what was then known on the
subject, improved the notation, and gave the multiplication theorem
with a proof more satisfactory than Binet's. With him begins the theory in its generality.
The next important figure was [[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi|Jacobi]] (from 1827). He early used the functional determinant which Sylvester later called the [[Jacobian]], and in his memoirs in ''[[Crelle]]'' for 1841 he specially treats this subject, as well as the class of alternating functions which Sylvester has called ''alternants''. About the time of Jacobi's last memoirs, [[James Joseph Sylvester|Sylvester]] (1839) and [[Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] began their work.
The study of special forms of determinants has been the natural result of the completion of the general theory. Axisymmetric determinants have been studied by [[Lebesgue]], [[Otto Hesse|Hesse]], and Sylvester;
[[persymmetric]] determinants by Sylvester and [[Hermann Hankel | Hankel]]; [[circulant]]s by [[Eugène Charles Catalan|Catalan]], [[Spottiswoode]], [[James Whitbread Lee Glaisher|Glaisher]], and [[Scott]]; skew determinants and [[Pfaffian]]s, in connection with the theory of [[orthogonal transformation]], by Cayley; continuants by Sylvester; [[Wronskian]]s (so called by [[Thomas Muir (mathematician)|Muir]]) by [[Elwin Bruno Christoffel|Christoffel]] and [[Ferdinand Georg Frobenius|Frobenius]]; compound determinants by Sylvester, [[Reiss]], and [[Picquet]]; Jacobians and [[Hessian matrix|Hessian]]s by Sylvester; and symmetric gauche determinants by [[Trudi]]. Of the text-books on the subject Spottiswoode's was the first. In America, Hanus (1886) and Weld (1893) published treatises.
== Cowan's Rule ==
To compute the determinant an even <math>n x n</math> matrix: Row reduce the initial matrix to achieve one quadrant containing the zero matrix, ensuring you follow the rules listed in the computation section. Next compute the determinate of the diagonal quadrants. The determinate of the initial matrix will be the product of the determinates of the diagonal quadrants with one caveat: if the diagonal quadrants were 2 & 3 you must multiply by (-1).
Example:
Coming Soon
==External links==
*[http://www.bluebit.gr/matrix-calculator/ Online Matrix Calculator] Online determinant calculator.
*[http://bonnie.ourweb.net/~cached/determinant.php Cached's Determinant Calculator] Online determinant calculator.
[[Category:Matrix theory]]
[[Category:Linear algebra]]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[ar:محدد]]
[[cs:Determinant]]
[[de:Determinante (Mathematik)]]
[[et:Determinant]]
[[es:Determinante (matemáticas)]]
[[fr:Déterminant (mathématiques)]]
[[ko:행렬식]]
[[is:Ákveða]]
[[it:Determinante]]
[[he:דטרמיננטה]]
[[lt:Determinantas]]
[[nl:Determinant]]
[[ja:行列式]]
[[pl:Wyznacznik]]
[[ru:Определитель]]
[[sv:Determinant]]
[[vi:Định thức]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Ricardo</title>
<id>8470</id>
<revision>
<id>42057671</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:40:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John wesley</username>
<id>689662</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
subject_name = David Ricardo |
image_name = David_ricardo.jpg |
image_caption = David Ricardo |
date_of_birth = [[April 18]], [[1772]] |
place_of_birth = [[London]], [[England]] |
dead=dead |
date_of_death = [[September 11]], [[1823]] |
place_of_death = [[Gloucestershire]], [[England]]
}}
'''David Ricardo''' ([[April 18]], [[1772]] &ndash; [[September 11]], [[1823]]), a British [[political economy|political economist]], is often credited with systematizing economics, and was one of the most influential of the [[classical economics|classical economist]]s. He was also a successful businessman, financier and speculator, and amassed a considerable fortune.
==Personal life==
Born in [[London]], Ricardo was the third of seventeen children in a [[Sephardi|Sephardic Jewish]] family (from [[Portugal]]) that emigrated from [[Netherlands|The Netherlands]] to [[England]] just prior to his birth. At age 14, after a brief schooling in Holland, Ricardo joined his father at the [[London Stock Exchange]], where he began to learn about the workings of finance. This beginning set the stage for Ricardo's later success in the stock market and real estate.
Ricardo rejected the [[Orthodox_Judaism|orthodox Jewish beliefs]] of his family and eloped with a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakeress]], [[Priscilla Anne Wilkinson]], when he was 21, leading to estrangement from his close family. It seems likely, for example, that his mother never spoke to him again. This was around the same time Ricardo became a [[Unitarian]].
Ricardo became interested in economics after reading [[Adam Smith]]'s ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' in [[1799]] on a vacation to the English resort of [[Bath]]. This was Ricardo's first contact with economics. He wrote his first economics article at age 37 and within another ten years he reached the height of his fame.
Ricardo's work with the stock exchange made him quite wealthy, which allowed him to retire from business in [[1814]] at the age of 42. He then purchased and moved to [[Gatcombe Park]], an estate in [[Gloucestershire]].
In [[1819]], Ricardo took a seat in the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British parliament]] as a [[Peers and Parliament|representative]] of [[Portarlington]], a [[Peerage of Ireland|borough of Ireland]]. He held the post until the year of his death in [[1823]]. As an [[Member of Parliament|MP]], Ricardo advocated [[free trade]] and the repeal of the [[Corn Laws]].
Ricardo was a close friend of [[James Mill]], who encouraged him in his political ambitions and writings about economics. Other notable friends included [[Jeremy Bentham]] and [[Thomas Malthus]], with whom Ricardo had a considerable debate (in correspondence) over such things as the role of land owners in a society. He also was a member of London's intellectuals, later becoming a member of Malthus' Political Economy Club, and a member of the King of Clubs.
He died at Gatcombe Park at 51 years of age.
==Ideas==
Ricardo's most famous work is his ''[[Principles of Political Economy and Taxation]]''. Ricardo opens the first chapter with a statement of the
[[labor theory of value]]. Later in this chapter, he demonstrates that
this theory cannot be true. He retained the theory, however, as an
approximation. Ricardo continued to work on his value theory to the end
of his life.
This book introduces the theory of [[comparative advantage]]. According to Ricardo's theory, even if a country could produce everything more efficiently than another country, it would reap gains from specializing in what it was best at producing and trading with other nations. (Case & Fair, 1999: 812&ndash;818). Ricardo believed that wages should be left to free competition, so there should be no restrictions on the importation of agricultural products from abroad.
The benefits of comparative advantage are both distributional and related to improved real income. Within Ricardo's theory distributional effects included that foreign trade could not directly affect profits because profits respond only in changes to the level of wages. The effects on income are always beneficial because foreign trade does not effect value.
Comparative advantage forms the basis of modern trade theory, reformulated as the [[Heckscher-Ohlin theorem]], which states that a country has a comparative advantage in the production of a product if the country is relatively well-endowed with inputs that are used intensively in producing the product. (Case & Fair, 1999: 822).
Like Adam Smith, Ricardo was also an opponent of protectionism for national economies, especially for agriculture. He believed that the British "[[Corn Laws]]" &mdash; tariffs on agriculture products &mdash; ensured that less productive domestic land would be harvested and rents would be driven up. (Case & Fair, 1999: 812, 813). Thus, the surplus would be directed more toward feudal landlords and away from the emerging industrial capitalists. Since landlords tended to squander their wealth on luxuries, rather than investments, Ricardo believed that the Corn Laws were leading to the economic stagnation of the British economy. Parliament repealed the Corn Laws in 1846.
Another idea associated with Ricardo is [[Ricardian equivalence]], an argument suggesting that in some circumstances a government's choice of how to pay for its spending (''i.e.,'' whether to use tax revenue or issue debt and run a deficit) might have no effect on the economy. Ironically, while the proposition bears his name, he does not seem to have believed it. Economist [[Robert Barro]] is responsible for its modern prominence.
Ricardo is responsible for developing theories of rent, wages, and profits. He defined rent as the difference in the costs of the production between different tracts of land. The model for this theory basically said that while only of one grade of land is being used for cultivation, rent will not exist, but when multiple grades of land are being utilized, rent will be charged on the higher grades and will increase with the ascension of the grade. As such, Ricardo believed that the process of economic development, which increased land utilization and eventually led to |
cut [[flower]]s have boomed, while more traditional exports such as [[sugar]], [[banana]]s, and [[coffee]] continue to represent a large share of the export market.
The United States is the country's largest trading partner, providing 41% of Guatemala's imports and receiving 34% of its exports. The government sector is small and shrinking, with its business activities limited to public utilities--some of which have been [[privatization|privatized]]--ports and airports and several development-oriented financial institutions. Guatemala was certified to receive export trade benefits under the United States' [[Caribbean Basin Trade and Partnership Act]] (CBTPA) in October [[2000]], and enjoys access to U.S. [[Generalized System of Preferences]] (GSP) benefits. Due to concerns over serious worker rights protection issues, however, Guatemala's benefits under both the CBTPA and GSP are currently under review.
Current economic priorities include:
* [[liberalization|Liberalizing]] the trade regime;
* Financial services sector reform;
* Overhauling Guatemala's public finances;
* Simplifying the [[tax]] structure, enhancing tax compliance, and broadening the tax base.
* Improving the investment climate through procedural and regulatory simplification and adopting a goal of concluding treaties to protect investment and [[intellectual property]] rights.
Import tariffs have been lowered in conjunction with Guatemala's Central American neighbors so that most fall between 0% and 15%, with further reductions planned. Responding to Guatemala's changed political and economic policy environment, the international community has mobilized substantial resources to support the country's economic and social development objectives. The United States, along with other donor countries--especially [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]], [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and the international financial institutions--have increased development project financing. Donors' response to the need for international financial support funds for implementation of the Peace Accords is, however, contingent upon Guatemalan government reforms and counterpart financing.
Problems hindering economic growth include high [[crime]] rates, [[literacy|illiteracy]] and low levels of [[education]], and an inadequate and underdeveloped capital market. They also include lack of [[infrastructure]], particularly in the transportation, [[telecommunication]]s, and electricity sectors, although the state telephone company and electricity distribution were privatized in [[1998]]. The distribution of income and wealth remains highly skewed. The wealthiest 10% of the population receives almost one-half of all income; the top 20% receives two-thirds of all income. As a result, approximately 80% of the population lives in [[poverty]], and two-thirds of that number live in extreme poverty. Guatemala's social indicators, such as infant mortality and illiteracy, are among the worst in the hemisphere.
In 2005 Guatemala ratified its signature to the [[Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement|Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA)]] between the [[United States of America]] and several other Central American countries.
==Statistics==
'''GDP:''' purchasing power parity - $56.5 billion (2003 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:''' 2.1% (2003 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $4,100 (2003 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''<br>
''agriculture:'' 22.5%<br>
''industry:'' 18.9%<br>
''services:'' 58.5% (2003 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:''' 56% (2004 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''<br>
''lowest 10%:'' 1.6%<br>
''highest 10%:'' 46% (1998)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' 5.5% (2003 est.)
'''Labor force:''' 3.84 million (2003 est.)
'''Labor force - by occupation:''' agriculture 50%, industry 15%, services 35% (1999 est.)
'''Unemployment rate:''' 7.5% (2003 est.)
'''Agriculture - products:''' sugarcane, [[maize]], bananas, coffee, beans, [[cardamom]], [[cattle]], [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[pig]]s, [[chicken]]s
'''Industries:''' sugar, textiles and clothing, [[furniture]], chemicals, [[petroleum]], metals, [[rubber]], [[tourism]]
'''Electricity - production:''' 6,237 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''<br>
''fossil fuel:'' 26.42%<br>
''hydro:'' 66.61%<br>
''nuclear:'' 0%<br>
''other:'' 6.97% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:''' 5,559 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - exports:''' 336 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - imports:''' 95 GWh (2001)
'''Oil - production:''' 21,080 barrel/day (2001 est.)
'''Oil - consumption:''' 61,000 barrel/day (2001 est.)
'''Oil - proved reserves:''' 263 million barrel ([[1 January]] [[2002]])
'''Natural gas - proved reserves:''' 1.543 billion m&sup3; ([[1 January]] [[2002]])
'''Exports:''' $2.763 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:''' coffee, sugar, bananas, fruits and vegetables, cardamom, meat, apparel, petroleum, [[electricity]]
'''Exports - partners:''' US 56.7%, El Salvador 10.8%, Nicaragua 3.6% (2003)
'''Imports:''' $4.5 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
'''Imports - commodities:''' fuels, machinery and transport equipment, construction materials, grain, fertilizers, electricity
'''Imports - partners:''' US 34.1%, Mexico 8.8%, South Korea 7.8%, El Salvador 6.4%, China 4.6% (2003)
'''Debt - external:''' $4.957 billion (2003 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:''' $250 million (2000 est.)
'''Currency:''' 1 quetzal (Q) = 100 centavos
'''Exchange rates:''' quetzales per US dollar - 7.9409 (2003), 7.8216 (2002), 7.8586 (2001), 7.7632 (2000), 7.3856 (1999)
'''Fiscal year:''' calendar year
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Guatemala]]
[[Category:Economy of Guatemala| ]]
[[es:Economía de Guatemala]]
[[fr:Économie du Guatemala]]
[[pt:Economia da Guatemala]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Guatemala</title>
<id>12162</id>
<revision>
<id>31824706</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-18T07:19:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alfiboy</username>
<id>219382</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
665,061 (2000)
<br>Approximately 1,200,000 (October 2005)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
663,296 (2000)
<br>Approximately 3,500,000 (October 2005)
<br>Operators: Telmex (PCS Digital), Telefónica, Millicom (Comcel)
'''Telephone system:'''
fairly modern network centered in the city of [[Guatemala City|Guatemala]]
<br>''domestic:''
NA
<br>''international:''
connected to [[Central American Microwave System]]; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 130, [[FM]] 487, [[shortwave]] 15 (2000)
'''Radios:'''
835,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
26 (plus 27 repeaters) (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
640,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
5 (2000)
'''Internet Users:'''
200,000 (2002)
'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GT
==Online newspapers==
*http://www.prensalibre.com/
*http://www.sigloxxi.com/
==See also==
*[[Guatemala]]
----
Source: [http://www.prensalibre.com.gt/pl/2005/noviembre/07/127185.html Source for telephone numbers - prensalibre.com.gt]
[[Category:Communications in Guatemala| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Guatemala</title>
<id>12163</id>
<revision>
<id>32575448</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-24T07:45:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.135.236.78</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Highways */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Transportation In [[Guatemala]]'''
== Railways ==
<br>''total:''
884 km (102 km privately owned)
<br>''narrow gauge:''
884 km 0.914-m gauge (single track)
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Mexico|Mexico]] - yes - [[break-of-gauge]] 914mm/1435mm
* [[Transportation in Belize|Belize]] - no
* [[Transportation in Honduras|Honduras]] - none in use
* [[Transportation in El Salvador|El Salvador]] - none in use
== Highways ==
<br>''total:''
13,100 km
<br>''paved:''
3,616 km (including 140 km of expressways)
<br>''unpaved:''
9,484 km (1996 est.)
guatemala
== Waterways ==
260 km navigable year round; additional 730 km navigable during high-water season
== Pipelines ==
crude oil 275 km
== Ports and harbors ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===
* [[Puerto Barrios]], [[Santo Tomás de Castilla]]
=== Pacific Ocean ===
* [[Champerico]], [[Puerto Quetzal]], [[Puerto San José]]
== Merchant marine ==
none (1999 est.)
== Airports ==
477 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
11
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
3
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
5
<br>''under 914 m:''
2 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
466
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
9
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
124
<br>''under 914 m:''
332 (1999 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Guatemala]]
[[Category:Transportation in Guatemala|*]]
== Getting Around ==
[[Image:lanchas.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Lanchas in Rio Dulce, Guatemala]]
'''Gound Transportation'''
<br>In Guatemala, one can travel by micro-bus when traveling to towns near by. When traveling to distant town, charter buses are available. Rail travel is limited.
<br>'''By Air'''
<br>Guatemala's Airline (TikalJets) offers non-stop service to Flores (Tikal).
<br>'''Note''': Boats & other forms of transportation are available in certain regions.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Guatemala</title>
<id>12164</id>
<revision>
<id>40434208</id>
<timestamp>2006-02 |
| death_date=[[March 28]], [[1969]]
| death_place=[[Washington, D.C.]]
| spouse=[[Mamie Eisenhower|Mamie Doud Eisenhower]]
| party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| vicepresident=[[Richard Nixon]]
}}
'''Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower''' ([[October 14]], [[1890]] &ndash; [[March 28]], [[1969]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Military of the United States|soldier]] and [[Politics of the United States|politician]]. As a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] he was elected the 34th [[President of the United States]] (1953&ndash;1961). During [[World War II]] he served as [[Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Commander]] of the [[Allies|Allied forces]] in [[Europe]] with the rank of [[General of the Army (USA)|General of the Army]], and in 1949 became the first Supreme Commander of [[NATO]].
==Early life and family==
Eisenhower was born in [[Denison, Texas]], the third of seven sons born to David Jacob Eisenhower and Ida Elizabeth Stover, and their only child born in Texas. He was named David Dwight, and was called Dwight. The Eisenhower family is from German descent and came from [[Forbach]], [[Lorraine]], but had lived in America since the 18th century. The family moved back to Abilene, Kansas in 1892. Eisenhower graduated from Abilene High School in 1909.
Eisenhower married [[Mamie Eisenhower|Mamie Geneva Doud]] (1896&ndash;1979), of [[Denver, Colorado]], on [[July 1]], [[1916]]. They had two children, Doud Dwight Eisenhower (1917&ndash;1921) whose tragic death in childhood haunted the couple, and John Sheldon David Doud Eisenhower (born 1922). [[John Eisenhower]] served in the [[United States Army]], then became an author and served as U.S. Ambassador to [[Belgium]]. John's son, [[David Eisenhower]], after whom [[Camp David]] is named, married [[Richard Nixon]]'s daughter [[Julie Nixon Eisenhower|Julie]] in 1968.
===Religion===
When Ike was five years old, his parents became followers of the WatchTower Society, whose members later took the name [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting Hall from 1896 to 1915. Ike and his brothers also stopped associating regularly after 1915, but Ike's mother continued as an active member until her death. Ike enjoyed a close relationship with his mother throughout her lifetime. In later years, Eisenhower became a communicant in the [[Presbyterian]] church in 1953; in his retirement years, he was a member of the Gettysburg Presbyterian Church [http://www.gettysburg.com/communit/gpc.htm] in [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]].
== Military career==
{{main|Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
===Preparing for Command===
Eisenhower enrolled at the [[United States Military Academy]], [[West Point, New York]], in June, 1911.
Eisenhower was a great athlete at the time but his football career came to an end after he injured his knee trying to tackle the legendary [[Jim Thorpe]].
In a 1961 speech, Eisenhower recalled, "Here and there, there are some people who are supremely endowed... My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe. He never practiced in his life, and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever saw."[http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/07/09/jim.thorpe][http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/sports.htm]
Eisenhower graduated in 1915. He served with the infantry until 1918 at various camps in [[Texas]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. During [[World War I]], Eisenhower was active in the [[tank corps]] and rose to [[Lieutenant Colonel]] in the [[National Army]]. Upon the conclusion of hostilities, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of Captain (and was promoted to Major the next day) before assuming duties at [[Camp Meade]], [[Maryland]] where he remained until 1922.
He was next assigned as executive officer to General [[Fox Conner]] in the [[Panama Canal Zone]], where he served until 1924. In 1925 and 1926 he attended the [[Command and General Staff College]] at [[Fort Leavenworth]], [[Kansas]], and then served as a [[battalion commander]], at [[Fort Benning]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], until 1927.
[[Image:Eisenhower with Mamie.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Eisenhower with his wife Mamie on the steps of St. Mary's University of San Antonio, Texas in 1916.]]
During the late 1920s and early 1930s Eisenhower's career in the peacetime Army stagnated. He was assigned to the [[American Battle Monuments Commission]], directed by General [[John J. Pershing]], then to the [[Army War College]], and then served as executive officer to General [[George V. Moseley]], Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to 1933. He then served as chief military aide to General [[Douglas MacArthur]], Army Chief of Staff, until 1935, when he accompanied MacArthur to the [[Philippines]], where he served as assistant military advisor to the Philippine government. He was promoted to [[Lieutenant Colonel]] in 1936 after sixteen years as a Major.
Eisenhower returned to the U.S. in 1939 and held a series of staff positions in Washington, D.C., [[California]], and Texas. In June 1941 he was appointed Chief of Staff to General [[Walter Krueger]], Commander of the 3rd Army, at [[Fort Sam Houston]], Texas. He was promoted to Brigadier-General in September 1941. Although his administrative abilities had been noticed, on the eve of the U.S. entry into [[World War II]] he had never held an active command and was far from being considered as a potential commander of major operations.
After the Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, where he served until June 1942. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division, General [[Leonard Gerow]], and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Then he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of Operations Division under the Chief of Staff, General [[George C. Marshall]]. It was his close association with Marshall which finally brought Eisenhower to senior command positions. Marshall recognized his great organizational and administrative abilities.
===Wartime commander===
[[Image:ac.eisenhower2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Eisenhower with [[Winston Churchill]] during World War II]]
In June 1942 Eisenhower was appointed Commanding General, [[European Theater of Operations]] (ETOUSA) and was based in [[London]]. In November he was also appointed [[Supreme Commander Allied (Expeditionary) Force]] of the [[North African Theater of Operations]] through the new operational Headquarters [[AFHQ|A(E)FHQ]]. The word Expeditionary was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. In February 1943 his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the [[Mediterranean Sea]] basin to include the [[British 8th Army]], commanded by General [[Bernard Montgomery]]. The 8th Army had advanced across the [[Western Desert Campaign|Western Desert]] from the east and was ready for the start of the [[Tunisia Campaign]]. Eisenhower gained his fourth star and gave up command of ETOUSA to be commander of NATOUSA. After the capitulation of [[Axis Powers|Axis]] forces in [[North Africa]], Eisenhower remained in command of the renamed [[Mediterranean Theater of Operations]] (MTO) keeping the operational title and continued in command of NATOUSA redesignated MTOUSA. In this position he oversaw the [[Operation Husky|invasion of Sicily]] and the [[Allied invasion of Italy|invasion of the Italian mainland]].
In December 1943, it was announced that Eisenhower would be Supreme Allied Commander in [[Europe]]. In January 1944 he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force]] ([[SHAEF]]), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. In these positions he was charged with planning and carrying out the Allied [[Battle of Normandy|assault on the coast of Normandy]] in June 1944 under the code name [[Operation Overlord]], the liberation of western Europe and the invasion of [[Germany]]. A month after the Normandy [[D-Day]] on [[June 6]], 1944, the [[Operation Dragoon|invasion of southern France]] took place, and control of the forces which took part in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. From then until the [[The end of World War II in Europe|end of the War in Europe]] on [[May 8]] [[1945]], Eisenhower through SHAEF had supreme command of all operational Allied forces<sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>, and through his command of ETOUSA, administrative command of all U.S. forces, on the [[Western Front (WWII)#1944 &ndash; 1945|Western Front]] north of the Alps.
As recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on [[December 20]], 1944, he was promoted to [[General of the Army]] equivalent to the rank of [[Field Marshal]] in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He dealt skillfully with difficult subordinates such as [[Omar Bradley]] and [[George Patton]] and allies such as [[Winston Churchill]], Field Marshal [[Bernard Montgomery]] and General [[Charles de Gaulle]]. He had fundamental disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He negotiated with [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Georgy Zhukov|Marshal Zhukov]], and such was the confidence that President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] had in him, he sometimes worked directly with [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]].
Eisenhower was offered the [[Medal of Honor]] for his leadership in the European Theater but refused it, saying that it should be reserved for bravery and valor.
It was never a certainty that ''Overlord'' would succeed. The |
directly associate composition of the book with a prophet by the name of Zephaniah. Some scholars believe that much of the material does not date from the days of King [[Josiah]] (ca. 640-609 BCE), but is actually post-monarchic. Three general possibilities are that: a person (possibly named Zephaniah) prophesied the words of the book of Zephaniah; the general message of a Josianic prophet is conveyed through the book of Zephaniah, or the name could have been employed (either during the monarchic or post-monarchic period) as a ‘speaking voice’, possibly for rhetorical purposes. Although it is possible that a post-monarchic author assumed the persona of a monarchic prophet to add credibility to his message, there is no evidence to support such a claim.
The prophetic book of the Bible attributed to Zephaniah occurs ninth among the twelve [[minor prophet|minor prophets]], preceded by [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] and followed by [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]]. Zephaniah (or Tzfanya, Sophonias, &#1510;&#1508;&#1504;&#1497;&#1492;, &#7826;&#601;fanya, &#7778;&#601;p&#772;any&#257;h) means 'the Lord conceals', 'the Lord protects' or, possibly, 'God of darkness'.
==When was it written?==
If the superscription of the book of Zephaniah is a reliable indicator of the time that the bulk of the book was composed, then Zephaniah was a contemporary of the prophet [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] (or Jeremias). King [[Josiah]] ruled over [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] from approximately 640-609 BCE. Some scholars believe that the picture of [[Jerusalem]] which Zephaniah gives indicates that he was active prior to the religious reforms of King Josiah which are described in 2 [[Books of Kings|Kings]] 23. These reforms took place in 622 BCE. Scholars also cite the reference to “the officials and the king’s sons . . .” in 1:8 as evidence that the kingdom was still ruled by a regent for the Josiah. The portrait of foreign nations in chapter 2 also indicates the late seventh century.
Zephaniah was probably the first prophet following the prophecies of [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] and the violent reign of [[Manasseh]]. Both Zephaniah and [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] urged King [[Josiah]] to enact religious reforms, which he eventually did.
Other scholars have presented evidence pointing to a post-monarchic date (as late as 200 BCE) based on language and theme, although the book might still have been based on an earlier composition.
==Where was it written==
The author of Zephaniah describes the city of [[Jerusalem]] in considerable detail. The author of Zephaniah writes that “a cry will be heard from the Fish Gate, / a wail from the Second Quarter, / a loud crash on the hills. / The inhabitants of the Mortar wail, for all the traders have perished . . .” (1:10-11). His description of the geography and of the offenses being committed in [[Jerusalem]] indicate first-hand knowledge. Because the book most directly effects the inhabitants of [[Jerusalem]], it is probable that this is where the book was composed.
==Why was it written==
There are two possible reasons for the creation of the book of Zephaniah. Either way, the primary purpose of the book’s composition was to alter the behaviour (particularly religious behaviour) of the author’s contemporary Jerusalemites.
If the book of Zephaniah was largely composed during the monarchic period, the author of the book of Zephaniah attempts to accomplish this change in behaviour through the threat of future calamity for “those who have turned back from following the Lord, / who have not sought the Lord or inquired of him” (1:6). The author conceives of a date in the future – the ‘great day of the Lord’ – when [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] will judge all the people of the earth. This coming judgment will affect all of the nations, including the author’s own nation of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] where [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] is understood to reside. The threats made against [[Jerusalem]], however, are much more specific than the oracles concerning foreign nations. This strengthened the belief that the Israelites, who understood themselves to be God’s chosen people, were even more culpable than other peoples for living up to [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]’s statutes because they were to be a ‘light unto the nations’. The book concludes by extending a promise of deliverance to the remnant of [[Israel]] which remains. The fulfilment of this prophecy is commonly understood to have taken place when [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] was captured by the nation of [[Babylon]] and many of its inhabitants were exiled in an event known as the [[Babylonian captivity]].
If the book gained most of its present form in post-monarchic period, then the author likely intended to draw upon an understanding of the [[Babylonian captivity]] as a punishment from [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]], urging his own contemporaries not to repeat the mistakes of the past. It is not known whether the religious syncretism, alluded to in chapter one, was a significant issue in post-exilic [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]].
==What are the themes of the book?==
The book of Zephaniah consists of three chapters in the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Masoretic Text]]. In English versions, the book is divided into four chapters. The [[New Revised Standard Version]] of the Bible supplies headings for the book as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Verse/Chapter Headings in the NRSV
|-
! Verse Reference !! Heading
|-
| 1:1 || (Superscription)
|-
| 1:2-13 || The Coming Judgment on [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]
|-
| 1:14-18 || [[Last Judgement|The Great Day of the Lord]]
|-
| 2:1-15 || Judgment on [[Israel]]'s Enemies
|-
| 3:1-7 || The Wickedness of [[Jerusalem]]
|-
| 3:8-13 || Punishment and Conversion of the Nations
|-
| 3:14-20 || Song of Joy
|}
It is important to note that there are a number of different sub-divisions in use for the text with no clear consensus.
Despite its relatively short length, the book of Zephaniah incorporates a number of common prophetic themes. Zephaniah includes one of the most vivid descriptions in the prophetic literature of God’s wrath. Yet, it is also unequivocal in its proclamation of a restoration for those who survive the ‘[[Last Judgement|Great Day of the Lord]]'.
The book of Zephaniah incorporates a good deal of phrases and terminology which are found in other books of the Bible. This suggests that the author of Zephaniah was familiar with and drew upon earlier Israelite religious tradition and also that later biblical writers regarded the book of Zephaniah as an authoritative (or at least respectable) work in the prophetic corpus.
The book of Zephaniah draws upon several themes from the book of [[Genesis]] and reverses them. The opening verses of the book of Zephaniah are reminiscent both of the creation and of [[Noah]]’s flood. Chapter 1:2-3 declare that “I will sweep away everything / from the face of the earth says the Lord. / I will sweep away humans and animals; I will sweep away the birds of the air / and the fish of the sea.” The order of the creatures to be destroyed in Zephaniah is the opposite of the order in which they are created in Genesis 1:20-27. It is also worth noting than in both Noah’s flood and Zephaniah’s [[Last Judgement|Day of the Lord]], a ‘remnant’ survives God’s wrath.
It is also not surprising that the book of Zephaniah bears marked similarities to the book of [[Deuteronomy]] and the Deuteronomistic history. Similarities might be expected to each of these works because the Deuteronomistic history covers an overlapping period of time and because the issues which are dealt with in the book of Zephaniah go straight to the heart of the covenant which is reaffirmed in the book of Deuteronomy before Israel enters into the [[Promised Land]] of [[Canaan]]. The first 3-4 of the [[Ten Commandments]] (or Ten Words, Decalogue) contained in Exodus 20:1-17 and Deuteronomy 5:1-22 directly concern Israel’s relationship with [[Yahweh]]. It is this integral component of the covenant between [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] and [[Israel]] which is threatened by the practices which to which the author of the book of Zephaniah refers in 1:4-6. In this manner, Zephaniah invokes one of the most common themes, not only in prophetic literature, but in the whole of the [[Hebrew Bible|Hebrew Scriptures]].
Zephaniah also draws upon the emerging idea that [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] is quite different from the regional or tribal gods of the surrounding nations. Rather, [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] is beginning to be understood as the only God and the God who rules over all nations. It was an apparently unique belief in the ancient [[Middle East]] that a god could send a foreign nation to execute that god’s judgment (as the Israelites believed [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] did with [[Babylon]]). In the book of Zephaniah, all nations are portrayed as being subject to [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]’s divine judgment.
The book of Zephaniah also interacts with the prophetic tradition – both borrowing from and contributing to the corpus in terms of language and images.
----
'''See also:'''
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=106&letter=Z Zephaniah at JewishEncyclopedia.com]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14146a.htm Sophonias (Zephaniah) at Catholic Encyclopedia]
'''Translations of the book of Zephaniah:'''
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15766 Tzefaniah - Zephaniah (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
**{{biblegateway||Zephaniah}}
** [http://bible.crosswalk.com/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?passage=zep+1 ''Zephaniah'' at CrossWalk.com] (various versions)
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/36_zephaniah.htm ''Zephaniah'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Zephaniah ''Zephaniah' |
]] in order to help the US occupation with armed transport convoys, though public opinion opposed the country's participation in the war. One soldier was KIA due to a roadside bomb in Iraq. The parliament refused to extend the one year mandate of the logistics unit and all troops have returned from Iraq as of mid-January 2005. Hungarian troops are still in Afghanistan as of early 2005 to assist in peace-keeping and de-[[taliban]]ization.
In a significant move for modernization, the first Saab [[Gripen]] light fighter jets shall arrive in Hungary during early [[2006]] to replace the aging [[MiG-29]] fighter interceptors.
== Military branches ==
*Ground Forces
*Air Force
*Border Guard
{{NATO}}
[[Category:Military of Hungary|*]]
[[Category:Militaries|Hungary]]
[[de:Ungarische Armee]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Hungary</title>
<id>13432</id>
<revision>
<id>35958838</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T14:54:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mark83</username>
<id>239610</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Except for the short-lived [[neutrality]] declared by [[Imre Nagy]] in November [[1956]], [[Hungary]]'s foreign policy generally followed the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] lead from [[1947]] to [[1989]]. During the [[Communism|Communist]] period, Hungary maintained treaties of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance with the [[Soviet Union]], [[Poland]], [[Czechoslovakia]], the [[German Democratic Republic]], [[Romania]], and [[Bulgaria]]. It was one of the founding members of the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]] and [[Comecon]], and it was the first central European country to withdraw from those organizations, now defunct.
As with any ''country'', Hungarian security attitudes are shaped largely by history and geography. For Hungary, this is a history of more than 400 years of domination by great powers--the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], the [[Habsburg]]s, the [[Germany|Germans]] during [[World War II]], and the Soviets during the [[Cold War]]--and a geography of regional instability and separation from Hungarian minorities living in neighboring countries. Hungary's foreign policy priorities, largely consistent since [[1990]], represent a direct response to these factors. Since 1990, Hungary's top foreign policy goal has been achieving integration into Western economic and security organizations. Hungary joined the [[Partnership for Peace]] program in [[1994]] and has actively supported the [[IFOR]] and [[SFOR]] missions in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]]. The Horn government achieved Hungary's most important foreign policy successes of the post-communist era by securing invitations to join both [[NATO]] and the [[European Union]] in [[1997]]. Hungary became member of NATO in [[1999]], and member of the EU in [[2004]].
Hungary also has improved its often-chilled neighborly relations by signing basic treaties with [[Romania]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Ukraine]]. These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Slovakia and Romania periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare. Hungary was a signatory to the [[Helsinki Final Act]] in [[1975]], has signed all of the CSCE/[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] follow-on documents since [[1989]], and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in [[1997]]. Hungary's record of implementing CSCE '''Helsinki Final Act''' provisions, including those on reunification of divided families, remains among the best in eastern Europe. Hungary has been a member of the [[United Nations]] since December [[1955]].
'''Disputes - international:'''
ongoing [[Gabcikovo Dam]] dispute with [[Slovakia]]
'''Illicit drugs:'''
major transshipment point for [[Southwest Asia]]n [[heroin]] and [[cannabis]] and transit point for [[South America]]n [[cocaine]] destined for [[Western Europe]]; limited producer of precursor [[chemical compound|chemicals]], particularly for [[amfetamine|amphetamines]] and [[methamphetamine]]s
==See also==
* [[Hungary]]
[[category:Foreign relations of Hungary| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henryk Sienkiewicz</title>
<id>13433</id>
<revision>
<id>41317741</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T14:55:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>* {{gutenberg author| id=Sienkiewicz+Henryk | name=Henryk Sienkiewicz}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Henryk Sienkiewicz.jpg|250px|Henryk Sienkiewicz|right|thumb|Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
'''Henryk Adam Aleksander Pius Sienkiewicz''' (pronounce: [[Image:Ltspkr.png]] [[Media:Sienkiewicz.ogg|<nowiki>['γεnrɨk ɕen'kieviʧ]</nowiki>]]) ([[May 5]] [[1846]] - [[November 15]] [[1916]]) was a [[Poland|Polish]] [[novelist]], one of the outstanding [[writer]]s of the second half of the [[19th century]]. Sienkiewicz was born to a well-to-do family in [[Wola Okrzejsk]]a, a town in Russian-ruled Poland. A Polish patriot to the core, Sienkiewicz created [[historical novel]]s that extolled the valiant men and brave deeds of the former [[Rzeczpospolita]]. [[Serial]]izing his novels in [[newspaper]]s, he became immensely popular and beloved in his time and, over a century later, is still highly valued by readers of prose. In Poland he is best known for his colorful historical novels (''[[The Trilogy]]'') depicting the derring-do of Polish heroes in the 17th century [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], while abroad, for his novel, ''[[Quo Vadis (novel)|Quo Vadis]]'', set in the reign of the Roman emperor [[Nero]].
Sienkiewicz had a way with language. In the trilogy, for instance, he had his characters use Polish language as it was spoken in seventeenth century. In Krzyżacy, which relates to the [[Battle of Grunwald]] in [[1410]], he even had his characters speak a variety of medieval Polish which he recreated by utilizing many of the archaic expressions then still common among the highlanders of Podhale.
''Quo Vadis'' has been filmed several times, most notably the [[Quo Vadis (1951 movie)|1951 version]].
He won the 1905 [[Nobel Prize in literature]] "because of his outstanding merits as an epic writer."<sup>1</sup>
== Works ==
His most important novels were:
* ''[[The Trilogy]]'' (''Trylogia''), comprising:
** ''[[With Fire and Sword]]'' (''Ogniem i mieczem,'' 1884, relating to the great seventeenth century [[Cossacks|Cossack]] revolt known as the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]]); made into [[With Fire and Sword (film)|a movie with the same title]];
** ''[[The Deluge (book)|The Deluge]]'' (''Potop'', 1886, relating to the Swedish invasion of Poland known as [[The Deluge]]); made into [[The Deluge (movie)|a movie with the same title]];
** ''[[Pan Wołodyjowski]]'' (''Pan Wołodyjowski'', 1888, relating to a tale of the wars with the Moslem Ottomans) aka ''[[Fire in the Steppe]]''; made into [[Pan Wołodyjowski (movie)|a movie with the same title]].
* ''[[The Teutonic Knights (book)|The Teutonic Knights]]'', also translated as ''The Knights of the Cross'', ISBN 0781804337 (''Krzyżacy'', 1900, relating to the [[Battle of Grunwald]]).
* ''[[Quo Vadis (novel)|Quo Vadis]]'' (1895).
* ''[[In Desert and Wilderness]]'' (''W pustyni i w puszczy'', 1912).
* ''[[The Polaniecki Family]]'' (''Rodzina Połanieckich'', 1894).
* ''[[Without Dogma]]'' (''Bez dogmatu'', 1891).
== Note ==
* Many commentators erroneusly state that Sienkiewicz received the Nobel Prize for ''Quo vadis''. This is incorrect. He received it "because of his outstanding merits as an epic writer." Sources: [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1905/index.html NobelPrize.org] and [http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36037,2521266.html] ''"Za co Sienkiewicz dostał Nobla"'' (a Polish newspaper article).
==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Sienkiewicz+Henryk | name=Henryk Sienkiewicz}}
*[http://www.polishamericancenter.org/Sienkiewicz.htm Biography at the Polish American Center]
*[http://www.culture.pl/en/culture/instytucje/muzea/in_mu_sienkiewicza_oblegorek Homepage of the Henryk Sienkiewicz Museum in Oblegorek]
*[http://www.muzeumkielce.net/wystawy/oddzialy/oblegorek/oblegorek1.html The house of Henryk Sienkiewicz in Oblegorek]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Frédéric Mistral]]/[[José Echegaray]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1905| after = [[Giosuè Carducci]]
}}
{{end box}}
{{Poland-writer-stub}}
[[Category:Historical novelists|Sienkiewicz, Henryk]]
[[Category:1846 births|Sienkiewicz, Henryk]]
[[Category:1916 deaths|Sienkiewicz, Henryk]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Sienkiewicz, Henryk]]
[[Category:Polish Nobel Prize winners|Sienkiewicz, Henryk]]
[[Category:Polish novelists|Sienkiewicz, Henryk]]
[[bg:Хенрик Сенкевич]]
[[cs:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[da:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
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[[el:Χένρικ Σιενκιέβιτς]]
[[es:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[eo:Henryk SIENKIEWICZ]]
[[fr:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[gd:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[hr:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
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[[it:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[he:הנריק סנקביץ']]
[[lt:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[hu:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[nl:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[ja:ヘンリク・シェンキェヴィチ]]
[[no:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[pl:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[ro:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[ru:Сенкевич, Генрик]]
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[[sl:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
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[[sv:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hg</title>
<id>13434</id>
<revision>
<id>41615748</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:12:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username |
1/December/0391.html].
==Versions==
[[Image:Abiword grammar.jpg|thumb|320px|AbiWord 2.4 checks grammar using [[Link grammar]] ]]
; Abiword 0.7 : [[May 19]] [[1999]]
; Abiword 0.9 : [[July 31]] [[2001]]
; Abiword 1.0 : [[April 18]], [[2002]].
; Abiword 2.0 : [[September 15]], [[2003]]. Included support for Tables, Footnotes and Endnotes.
; Abiword 2.2 : [[December 3]], [[2004]]. Included support for Table of Contents.
; Abiword 2.4 : [[September 30]], [[2005]]. Included support for [[OpenDocument]] file import, equation editing, and grammar checking.
==See also==
*[[List of word processors]]
==External links==
*[http://www.abisource.com/ AbiSource.com], the website.
*[http://portableapps.com/apps/office/word_processors/portable_abiword Portable Abiword] A version of AbiWord packaged for use on removable devices (USB thumbdrive, iPod, MP3 player, portable hard drive, etc)
*[http://salon.com/tech/col/leon/2002/11/15/abiword/index.html Andrew Leonard: Abiword Up.] ''Salon.com'', Nov 15 2002. History of the project and comparison with closed source development.
*[http://www.flexbeta.net/main/articles.php?action=show&id=78 AbiWord vs. MS Word] ''Flexbeta.net'', Sep 1 2004.
*[http://software.newsforge.com/software/05/08/16/2038242.shtml?tid=93&tid=150 Comparison between OOo Writer, AbiWord, and KWord] ''[[newsforge.com]]'', Aug 23 2005.
[[Category:GNOME]]
[[Category:Linux word processors]]
[[Category:Mac OS word processors]]
[[Category:SourceForge projects]]
[[Category:Windows word processors]]
[[Category:Free word processors]]
[[ca:AbiWord]]
[[da:AbiWord]]
[[de:AbiWord]]
[[es:AbiWord]]
[[fr:AbiWord]]
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[[pt:AbiWord]]
[[simple:AbiWord]]
[[sv:AbiWord]]
[[fi:AbiWord]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ATC classification</title>
<id>2765</id>
<revision>
<id>15901157</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ames test</title>
<id>2766</id>
<revision>
<id>26931809</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-31T01:17:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kazrak</username>
<id>215642</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ames test''' is a biological assay used in [[genetics]], generally [[genetic toxicology]], to test for [[mutagenic]] properties of a chemical compound. A compound is said to be [[mutagenic]] if it causes a change in the [[DNA]] (deoxyriboneucleic acid) of a living cell or organism. The test is named after its inventor, [[Bruce Ames]].
== General procedure ==
This assay is carried out using strains of [[bacterium|bacteria]], generally [[Escherichia coli]] or [[Salmonella]] that already have a single mutation, for example, a [[strain]] that cannot produce [[histidine]], an [[amino acid]] that is essential for the bacterium to grow if not provided externally with essential nutrients. Cultures of the bacteria are grown in an [[agar]] containing dish so that a "lawn" of bacteria is present.
The experimental cultures are exposed to the agent to be tested while the positive control cultures are exposed to a known mutagen to confirm that there has been no contamination of the strain. Strains of bacteria are available which have been genetically modified such that only a certain type of mutation (i.e. a base pair mutation or a frameshift mutation) will cause the strand to revert to a normal state, not requiring nutrients to grow. If the mutation screened for has in fact occurred, dense spots in the colonies will form. A certain number of spots may form due to random mutation not caused by the agent; therefore, data analysis using control dishes is necessary. Occasionally a tested agent will be toxic enough to simply kill the bacterial culture in which case a "thin lawn" is observed.
== S-9 ==
In some Ames assays an S-9 mix is added. The S-9 mix contains liver [[enzymes]], generally from a [[rat]]. These enzymes can metabolize the agent being tested in order to predict the mutagenic properties within a living system, specifically the source of the S-9 enzymes.
== Mutagenic and carcinogenic correlation ==
Studies have shown that the majority of substances shown to be mutagenic by an Ames assay will be [[carcinogenic]] in humans.
[[Category:Applied genetics]]
[[pl:Test Ames]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ACE inhibitor</title>
<id>2767</id>
<revision>
<id>38416610</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T04:30:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Uthbrian</username>
<id>562409</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Use in combination with ACE inhibitors */ add info</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ACE inhibitors''', or inhibitors of [[angiotensin-converting enzyme|'''A'''ngiotensin-'''C'''onverting '''E'''nzyme]], are a group of [[pharmaceutical]]s that are used primarily in treatment of [[hypertension]] and [[congestive heart failure]], in most cases as the drugs of first choice.
==Clinical use==
Indications of ACE inhibitors include:
* Prevention of [[cardiovascular]] disorders
* [[Congestive heart failure]]
* [[Hypertension]]
* Left [[ventricle (heart)|ventricular]] dysfunction
* Prevention of [[nephropathy]] in [[diabetes mellitus]]
In several of these indications, ACE inhibitors are used first-line as several agents in the class have been clinically shown to be superior to other classes of drugs in the reduction of [[morbidity]] and [[mortality]].
ACE inhibitors are often combined with [[diuretic]]s in the control of hypertension (usually a [[thiazide]]), when an ACE inhibitor alone proves insufficient; and in chronic heart failure (usually [[furosemide]]) for improved symptomatic control. Thus there exists, on the market, combination products combining an ACE inhibitor with a thiazide (usually [[hydrochlorothiazide]]) in a single tablet to allow easy administration by patients.
==Mechanism of action==
They work by modulating the [[renin-angiotensin system|renin-angiotensin-aldosterone]] (RAS or RAAS) system. By inhibiting angiotensin converting enzyme, ACE inhibitors significantly (but not completely) block the conversion of [[angiotensin|angiotensin I]] to [[angiotensin|angiotensin II]]. As a complementary action, ACE inhibitors also reduce the degradation of [[bradykinin]]. Thus ACE inhibitors work to lower blood pressure by decreasing the ''formation'' of a potent vasoconstrictor (angiotensin II) and decreasing the ''degradation'' of a potent vasodilator (bradykinin).
==Effects of ACE inhibitors==
ACE inhibitors lower [[arteriole|arteriolar]] resistance and increase venous capacitance; increase [[cardiac output]] and [[cardiac index]], stroke work and [[stroke volume|volume]], lower renovascular resistance, and lead to increased [[natriuresis]] (excretion of [[sodium]] in the [[urine]]).
[[Epidemiology|Epidemiological]] and clinical studies have shown that ACE inhibitors reduce the progress of [[diabetic nephropathy]] independently from their blood pressure-lowering effect. This action of ACE inhibitors is utilised in the prevention of diabetic renal failure.
ACE inhibitors have been shown to be effective for indications other than hypertension even in patients with normal blood pressure. The use of a maximum dose of ACE inhibitors in such patients (including for prevention of diabetic nephropathy, congestive heart failure, prophylaxis of cardiovascular events) is justified because it improves clinical outcomes, independent of the blood pressure lowering effect of ACE inhibitors. Such therapy, of course, requires careful and gradual titration of the dose to prevent the patient suffering from the effects of rapidly decreasing their blood pressure (dizziness, fainting, ''etc'').
==Adverse effects==
Common adverse drug reactions include: [[hypotension]], [[cough]], [[hyperkalaemia]], [[headache]], [[Vertigo (medical)|dizziness]], [[Fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], [[nausea]], renal impairment (Rossi, 2004).
A persistent dry cough is a relatively common adverse effect believed to be associated with the increases in [[bradykinin]] levels produced by ACE inhibitors. Patients who experience this cough are often switched to [[angiotensin II receptor antagonist]]s.
Rash and taste disturbances, infrequent with most ACE inhibitors, are more prevalent in [[captopril]] and is attributed to its sulfhydryl moiety. This has led to decreased use of captopril in clinical setting, although it is still used in [[scintigraphy]] of the kidney.
Renal impairment is a significant adverse effect of all ACE inhibitors, and is associated with their effect on angiotensin II-mediated [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] functions such as renal bloodflow. ACE inhibitors can induce or exacerbate renal impairment in patients with [[renal artery stenosis]]. This is especially a problem if the patient is also concomitantly taking an [[NSAID]] and a [[diuretic]] - the so-called "triple whammy" effect - such patients are at very high risk of developing renal failure (Thomas, 2000).
Some patients develop [[angioedema]] due to increased bradykinin levels. There appears to be a genetic predisposition towards this side-effect in patients who degrade bradykinin slower than average (Molinaro 2002).
==Examples of ACE inhibitors==
ACE inhibitors can be divided into three groups based on their molecular structure:
===Sulfhydryl-containing ACE inhibitors===
* [[Captopril]] (Capoten®), the first ACE inhibitor
===Dicarboxylate-containing ACE inhibitors===
This is the largest group, including:
* [[Enalapril]] (Va |
="30%" align="center" rowspan="4"| Succeeded by:<br />'''[[Philip III of Macedon|Philip III]] &amp; [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]]'''
|-
| width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2"| Preceded by:<br />'''[[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]]'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[List of kings of Persia|Great King of Media and Persia]]'''<br /> 330&ndash;323 BC
|-
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Pharaoh|Pharaoh of Egypt]]'''<br />332&ndash;323 BC
|-
{{end box}}
{{Plutarch's lives}}
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[[Category:Alexander the Great| ]]
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[[Category:City founders]]
[[Category:Macedonian monarchs]]
[[Category:Mummies]]
[[Category:Nine Worthies]]
[[Category:Pederastic lovers]]
{{Link FA|fi}}
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[[af:Alexander die Grote]]
[[ar:الإسكندر الأكبر]]
[[ast:Aleixandre'l Grande]]
[[bg:Александър Македонски]]
[[bs:Aleksandar Veliki]]
[[ca:Alexandre el Gran]]
[[cs:Alexandr Veliký]]
[[da:Alexander den Store]]
[[de:Alexander der Große]]
[[el:Αλέξανδρος ο Μέγας]]
[[eo:Aleksandro la Granda]]
[[es:Alejandro Magno]]
[[et:Aleksander Suur]]
[[eu:Alexandro Handia]]
[[fa:اسکندر مقدونی]]
[[fi:Aleksanteri Suuri]]
[[fr:Alexandre le Grand]]
[[fy:Aleksander de Grutte]]
[[gl:Alexandre o Grande]]
[[he:אלכסנדר הגדול]]
[[hr:Aleksandar Veliki]]
[[hu:Nagy Sándor]]
[[id:Alexander Agung]]
[[is:Alexander mikli]]
[[it:Alessandro Magno]]
[[ja:アレクサンドロス3世]]
[[ko:알렉산드로스 대왕]]
[[ku:Eskenderê Mezin]]
[[la:Alexander Magnus]]
[[lt:Aleksandras Didysis]]
[[lv:Aleksandrs Lielais]]
[[mk:Александар Македонски]]
[[nl:Alexander de Grote]]
[[no:Aleksander den store]]
[[pl:Aleksander Macedoński]]
[[pt:Alexandre, o Grande]]
[[ro:Alexandru cel Mare]]
[[ru:Александр Македонский]]
[[scn:Lissandru lu Granni]]
[[simple:Alexander the Great]]
[[sk:Alexander Veľký]]
[[sl:Aleksander Veliki]]
[[sq:Leka i Madh]]
[[sr:Александар Македонски]]
[[sv:Alexander den store]]
[[tl:Alexander ang Dakila]]
[[tr:Büyük İskender]]
[[tt:İskändär]]
[[uk:Александр Македонський]]
[[zh:亚历山大大帝]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfred Korzybski</title>
<id>784</id>
<revision>
<id>40877655</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T16:41:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.118.16.153</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>m</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Korzybski.jpg|thumb|135px|right|Alfred Korzybski]]
'''Alfred Korzybski''' was born on [[July 3]], [[1879]] in [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]], and died on [[March 1]], [[1950]] in [[Lakeville, Connecticut]], [[United States|USA]]. He is probably best-remembered for developing the theory of [[general semantics]].
==Early life and career==
He came from an [[aristocratic]] family whose members had worked as [[Mathematics|mathematicians]], [[Science|scientists]], and [[Engineering|engineers]] for generations, and he chose to train as an engineer.
Korzybski was educated at the [[Warsaw University of Technology]]. During the [[World War I|First World War]] Korzybski served as an [[Military intelligence|intelligence officer]] in the [[Russia|Russian]] Army. After being wounded in his leg and suffering other injuries, he came to North America in [[1916]] (first to [[Canada]], then the [[United States]]) to coordinate the shipment of artillery to the war front. He also lectured to [[Polish-American]] audiences about the conflict, promoting the sale of war bonds. Following the war, he decided to remain in the United States, becoming a [[Naturalization|naturalized citizen]] in [[1940]]. His first book, <cite>Manhood of Humanity</cite> was published in [[1921]]. In the book, he proposed and explained in detail a new theory of humankind: mankind as a [[time-binding]] class of life.
==General semantics ==
Korzybski's work culminated in the founding of a discipline that he called [[general semantics]] (GS). As Korzybski explicitly said, GS should not be confused with [[semantics]], a different subject. The basic principles of general semantics, which include time-binding, are outlined in <cite>Science and Sanity</cite>, published in [[1933]]. In [[1938]] Korzybski founded the [[Institute of General Semantics]] and directed it until his death.
In simplified form, the "essence" of Korzybski's work was the claim that human beings are limited in what they know by (1) the structure of their nervous systems, and (2) the [[structure]] of their languages. Human beings cannot experience the world directly, but only through their "abstractions" (nonverbal impressions or "gleanings" derived from the nervous system, and verbal indicators expressed and derived from language). Sometimes our perceptions and our languages actually mislead us as to the "facts" with which we must deal. Our understanding of what is going on sometimes lacks ''similarity of structure'' with what is actually going on. He stressed training in awareness of abstracting, using techniques that he had derived from his study of mathematics and science. He called this awareness, this goal of his system, "consciousness of abstracting." His system included modifying the way we approach the world, e.g., with an attitude of "I don't know; let's see," to better discover or reflect its realities as shown by modern science. One of these techniques involved becoming inwardly and outwardly quiet, an experience that he called, "silence on the objective levels."
== Korzybski and ''to be'' ==
It is often said that Korzybski opposed the use of the verb "to be," an unfortunate exaggeration. He thought that ''certain uses'' of the verb "to be," called the "is of identity" and the "is of predication," were faulty in structure, e.g., a statement such as "Joe is a fool" (said of a person named 'Joe' who has done something that we regard as dumb). Korzybski's remedy was to ''deny'' identity; in this example, to be continually aware that 'Joe' is ''not'' what we ''call'' him. We find Joe not in the verbal domain, the world of words, but the nonverbal domain. This was expressed in Korzybski's most famous premise, "[[The map is not the territory|the map is not the territory]]." Note that "the map is not the territory," uses the phrase "is not", a form of the verb "to be." This example shows that he did not intend to abandon the verb as such.
== Anecdote about Korzybski ==
One day, Korzybski was giving a lecture to a group of students, and he suddenly interrupted the lesson in order to retrieve a packet of biscuits, wrapped in white paper, from his briefcase. He muttered that he just had to eat something, and he asked the students on the seats in the front row, if they would also like a biscuit. A few students took a biscuit. "Nice biscuit, don't you think", said Korzybski, while he took a second one. The students were chewing vigorously. Then he tore the white paper from the biscuits, in order to reveal the original packaging. On it was a big picture of a dog's head and the words "Dog Cookies". The students looked at the package, and were shocked. Two of them wanted to throw up, put their hands in front of their mouths, and ran out of the lecture hall to the toilet. "You see, ladies and gentlemen", Korzybski remarked, "I have just demonstrated that people don't just eat food, but also words, and that the taste of the former is often outdone by the taste of the latter." Apparently his prank aimed to illustrate how human suffering originates from the confusion or conflation of linguistic representations of reality and reality itself. (Source: R. Diekstra, ''Haarlemmer Dagblad'', 1993, cited by L. Derks & J. Hollander, ''Essenties van NLP'' (Utrecht: Servire, 1996), p. 58).
== Impact ==
Korzybski's work influenced [[Neuro-linguistic programming]] (especially the [[metamodel]]), [[Gestalt Therapy]], [[Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy]] and individuals such as [[Albert Ellis]], [[Gregory Bateson]], [[Buckminster Fuller]], [[Alvin Toffler]], [[Robert A. Heinlein]], [[L. Ron Hubbard]], [[A. E. van Vogt]], [[Robert Anton Wilson]], Tommy Hall (lyricist for the [[13th Floor Elevators]]), and scientists such as William Alanson White (psychiatry), and W. Horsley Gantt (a student and colleague of Pavlov).
{{wikiquote}}
==See also==
* [[General Semantics]]
* [[The map is not the territory]]
* [[Structural differential]]
* [[E-Prime]]
* [[Institute of General Semantics]]
* [[Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture]]
==External links==
*[http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/pennvalley/biology/lewis/gs.htm Korzybski's General Semantics]
*[http://www.general-semantics.org Institute of General Semantics]
*[http://www.gestalt.org/alfred.htm Alfred Korzybski and Gestalt Therapy Website]
*[http://www.esgs.org/uk/gshome.htm]
== Further reading ==
*<cite>Manhood of Humanity</cite>, Alfred Korzybski, forward by Edward Kasner, notes by M. Kendig, Institute of General Semantics, 1950, hardcover, 2nd edition, 391 pages, ISBN 093729800X
*<cite>Science and Sanity An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics</cite>, Alfred Korzybski, Preface by [[Robert P. Pula]], Institute of General Semantics, 1994, hardcover, 5th edition, ISBN 0937298018
* ''Alfred Korzybski: Collected Writings 1920-1950'', Institute of General Semantics, 1990, hardcover, ISBN: 0685406164
[[Category:1879 births|Korzybski, Alfred]]
[[Category:1950 deaths|Korzybski, Alfred]]
[[Category:Engineers|Korzybski, Alfred]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Korybski, Alfred]]
[[Category:Neuro-Linguistic Programming predecessors]]
[[Category:Polish engineers|Korzybski, Alfred]]
[[Category:Polish ph |
their attention to [[home computer]]s. Peddle packaged his existing [[KIM-1]] [[single-board computer]] design in a metal case, along with a full-travel [[QWERTY]] keyboard, [[monochrome]] [[computer monitor|monitor]], and [[Datassette|tape recorder]] for program and data storage, to produce the [[Commodore PET]]. From its [[1977]] debut, Commodore would be a computer company.
Commodore had been reorganized the year before into '''Commodore International, Ltd.''', moving its financial headquarters to the [[Bahamas]] and its operational headquarters to [[West Chester, Pennsylvania]], close to the MOS Technology site. The operational headquarters, where research and development of new products were taking place, retained the name Commodore Business Machines, Inc.
The PET computer line was used primarily in [[Primary education|school]]s, due to its tough all-metal construction (some models were labeled "Teacher's PET"), but did not compete well in the home setting where graphics and sound were important. This was addressed with the introduction of the [[Commodore VIC-20|VIC-20]] in [[1981]], which was introduced at a cost of $299 and sold in retail stores. Commodore took out aggressive ads featuring [[William Shatner]] asking consumers "Why buy just a video game?" The strategy worked and the VIC-20 became the first computer to ship more than one million units. A total of 2.5 million units were sold over the machine's lifetime.
CBM introduced the [[Commodore 64]] in [[1982]] as the successor to the VIC-20. Thanks to a well-integrated series of [[integrated circuit|chips]] designed by MOS, the C64 possessed remarkably-capable sound and graphics for its time and is often credited with starting the computer [[demo scene]]. Its $595 price was high compared to the VIC-20, but it was still much less expensive than any other 64K computer on the market. Early C64 ads boasted "You can't buy a better computer at twice the price."
In [[1983]] Tramiel decided to focus on market share and cut the price of the VIC-20 and C64 dramatically. TI responded by cutting prices on its [[Texas Instruments TI-99/4A|TI-99/4A]], which had been introduced in 1981. Soon there was an all-out price war involving Commodore, TI, [[Atari]] and practically every vendor other than [[Apple Computer]]. This price war contributed to the [[Video game crash of 1983|video game crash of 1983]]. By the end of this conflict, Commodore had shipped somewhere around 22 million C64s&mdash;making the C64 the best selling computer of all time&mdash;and in the process drove TI out of the home-computer market, almost destroyed Atari, bankrupted most smaller companies, and wiped out its own savings. Tramiel's motto, "Business is war," took its toll.
===Tramiel quits; The Amiga vs ST battle ===
[[Image:Commodore Logo(1985).png|right|thumb|220px|Second Commodore logo, with mixed-case company name (1985&ndash;1994).]]
Commodore's board of directors was as trapped as anyone else by the price spiral and decided it wanted out. A power struggle started inside the company, and in January [[1984]], Tramiel quit. He founded a new company, Tramiel Technologies, and hired away a number of Commodore engineers to begin work on a next-generation computer design. Then, in July 1984 he bought the consumer side of Atari Inc. from [[Time Warner|Warner Communications]], providing him with a manufacturing base and sales network to help him strike back at his rivals at Commodore.
Now it was up to the remaining Commodore management to salvage the company and plan for the future. It did so by buying a small company called [[Amiga Corporation]]. The company was better known for its forays into the video game market, designing controllers for game consoles as well as making games for the Atari 2600. But as it turned out, its video game business was more of a smoke screen to fund the company's true purpose, designing a groundbreaking new computer. Commodore brought this new [[16-bit]] computer design (known initially as the Lorraine, later dubbed the [[Amiga 1000]]) to market in the fall of [[1985]] for US $1295.
But Tramiel had beaten Commodore to the punch. He had already released the [[Atari ST]] earlier in 1985 for about $800. However, this was not the design Atari had intended to launch at the time. Prior to Tramiel's purchase of the company, Atari had signed a licensing deal with Amiga that granted them use of the Lorraine's custom chips, the very chips that made Amiga's computer so powerful. Tramiel wanted to use these chips in his forthcoming ST computer, but true to form he wanted those chips at a bargain-basement price. Knowing Amiga was strapped for cash as a result of the crash of the video game market, he held back a scheduled payment Atari was due to pay Amiga in an effort to force it to renegotiate the contract with terms more favorable to Atari. This strategy backfired when Commodore bought Amiga and canceled the contract, citing Atari's late payment as the reason. In the end, Atari was forced to use off-the-shelf components to complete the ST's design. (A lawsuit over the Amiga license dragged on for years, only to be abruptly settled. Terms were not disclosed, but many speculate the settlement involved Atari obtaining Amiga development systems for use with the [[Atari Lynx|Lynx]] handheld game system.)
Throughout the life of the ST and Amiga platforms, a ferocious Atari-Commodore rivalry raged. While this rivalry was in many ways a holdover from the days when the Commodore 64 had first challenged the Atari 800 (among others) in a series of scathing television commercials, the events leading to the launch of the ST and Amiga only served to further alienate fans of each computer, who fought vitriolic [[Flame_war#Holy_wars|holy wars]] on the question of which platform was superior. This was reflected in roughly-similar sales numbers for the two platforms until the release of the [[Amiga 500]] in [[1987]], which took over the market from the ST. Ultimately, the Amiga outsold the ST about 1.5 to 1 in spite of being later to market. Neither platform, however, captured a significant share of the world computer market.
=== The beginning of the end ===
In the 1970s and early 80s, the computer press had often come to Commodore--one of the industry's leading players--and its colorful management for information. The VIC-20 and C64, although aggressively marketed, arguably were successful more because of their price than because of their marketing. After Tramiel's departure, Commodore executives shied away from mass advertising and other marketing ploys, fearful of repeating past mistakes. Commodore also retreated from its earlier strategy of selling its computers at discount houses and toy stores, and now favored authorized dealers.
However, by the late 1980s, the personal computer market had become dominated by the [[IBM PC]] and [[Apple Macintosh]] platforms. By comparison, Commodore's marketing efforts for the Amiga proved ineffective and even seemed half-hearted (one common joke was "If CBM got the contract to advertise [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]], they'd call it 'Warm Dead Bird'"). The company also concentrated on consumer products that would not see demand for another couple of years &ndash; including a [[digital television|digital TV]] system called [[CDTV]], and later a 32-bit [[CD-ROM]]-based [[game console]]: the [[Amiga CD32|CD32]].
Once the clear technology leader, the Amiga rapidly lost ground as the personal computer market became increasingly dominated by the [[IBM PC compatible|IBM PC]]. When introduced in 1985, the Amiga was competing favorably against [[Intel 80286|286]]-based systems with [[Enhanced Graphics Adapter|EGA]] graphics and rudimentary sound capabilities that frequently cost 2&ndash;3 times as much. But well into the early 1990s, CBM continued selling mostly Amigas with 7&ndash;14 [[megahertz|MHz]] [[Motorola 68000|68000]]-family CPUs (even though [[Amiga 3000]] with 25Mhz [[68030]] was in the market by that time), when PCs with 33 MHz [[Intel 80486|486]]'s, high-color [[graphics card]]s and [[SoundBlaster]] (or compatible) [[sound card]]s offered comparable, and eventually higher, performance at very competitive prices. Software developers by and large became focused primarily, if not exclusively, on the PC market.
The Amiga hardware did not begin to reach feature parity with PCs until the release of the [[A4000]] and [[A1200]] computers in late [[1992]], which featured an improved graphics chipset, the [[Advanced Graphics Architecture|AGA]]. By this point, both the IBM PC and Apple Macintosh had several times the market share of the Amiga platform. As software developers shifted to these platforms, the Amiga lost value for mainstream consumers. The custom-designed and custom-built AGA chipset also cost Commodore considerably more than the commodity chips used in IBM PCs, reducing Commodore's profit margins. Although welcomed by Amiga enthusiasts, the machines did little to improve Commodore's fortunes.
=== The sun sets on Commodore ===
With market share eroding, Commodore embarked on a series of decisions that were heavily questioned by shareholders and the press, who sometimes accused management of only being interested in removing as much value from the company as possible before it finally disappeared. By [[1994]], only its operations in [[Germany]] and the [[United Kingdom]] were still profitable.
Commodore declared bankruptcy on [[April 29]] [[1994]], and its assets were liquidated. The former site of Commodore's operational headquarters in [[West Chester, Pennsylvania]], now houses the headquarters and broadcast studios of leading cable retailer [[QVC]], Inc. (On [[November 26]], [[2004]], QVC became the first retailer to sell the [[C64 Direct-to-TV|DTV]], a "C64 in a joystick" designed by [[Jeri Ellsworth]].)
The company's computer syste |
Txina]]
[[fr:République populaire de Chine]]
[[gl:China - 中国]]
[[gu:ચીન]]
[[ko:중화인민공화국]]
[[hr:Kina]]
[[io:Chinia]]
[[id:Republik Rakyat Tiongkok]]
[[ia:China]]
[[is:Alþýðulýðveldið Kína]]
[[it:Cina]]
[[he:הרפובליקה העממית של סין]]
[[kk:Қытай]]
[[ku:Çîn]]
[[la:Respublica Populi Sinarum]]
[[lv:Ķīna]]
[[lt:Kinija]]
[[jbo:jungug]]
[[hu:Kína]]
[[mk:Кина]]
[[ms:Republik Rakyat China]]
[[mn:Бүгд Найрамдах Хятад Ард Улс]]
[[nah:Xina]]
[[nl:Volksrepubliek China]]
[[nds:Volksrepubliek China]]
[[ja:中華人民共和国]]
[[no:Folkerepublikken Kina]]
[[nn:Folkerepublikken Kina]]
[[os:Китай]]
[[pl:Chińska Republika Ludowa]]
[[pt:República Popular da China]]
[[ro:Republica Populară Chineză]]
[[ru:Китай]]
[[simple:People's Republic of China]]
[[sk:Čínska ľudová republika]]
[[sl:Kitajska]]
[[sr:Народна Република Кина]]
[[sv:Kina]]
[[tl:Tsina]]
[[ta:சீன மக்கள் குடியரசு]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐประชาชนจีน]]
[[vi:Cộng hòa Nhân dân Trung Hoa]]
[[tr:Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti]]
[[uk:Китай]]
[[yi:כינע]]
[[za:Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz]]
[[zh:中华人民共和国]]
²²</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>California</title>
<id>5407</id>
<revision>
<id>42144756</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:52:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Yeltensic42</username>
<id>365773</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Mt. Whitney and Death Valley are within 85 miles of each other</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US state |
Name = California|
Fullname = State of California |
Flag = California state flag.png |
Flaglink = [[Flag of California]] |
Seal = California state seal.png |
Map = Map of USA highlighting California.png |
Nickname = The Golden State |
Capital = [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] |
OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] |
LargestCity = [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] |
Governor = [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] (R)|
Senators = [[Dianne Feinstein]] (D)
[[Barbara Boxer]] (D) |
PostalAbbreviation = CA |
TradAbbreviation = Calif. |
AreaRank = 3<sup>rd</sup> |
TotalArea = 410,000 |
LandArea = 404,298 |
WaterArea = 20,047 |
PCWater = 4.7 |
PCForest = 35 |
PCDesert = 25 |
PopRank = 1<sup>st</sup> |
2004Pop(est) = 35,893,799 |
2003Pop = 35,484,453 |
2000Pop = 33,871,648 |
DensityRank = 12<sup>th</sup> |
2000Density = 83.78 |
AdmittanceOrder = 31<sup>st</sup> |
AdmittanceDate = [[September 9]], [[1850]] |
TimeZone = [[Pacific Standard Time Zone|Pacific]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-8/[[Daylight saving time|-7]] |
Latitude = 32°30'N to 42°N |
Longitude = 114°8'W to 124°24'W |
Width = 402.5 |
Length = 1,240 |
HighestElev = 4421 |
MeanElev = 884 |
LowestElev = -86 |
ISOCode = US-CA |
Website = www.ca.gov
}}
{{US state symbols |
<!-- before modifying these state symbols please verify your changes against official California Government Code sections 420-429.8,
http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/waisgate?WAISdocID=06487414661+1+0+0&WAISaction=retrieve
-->
Name = California |
Flag = California state flag.png |
Seal = California state seal.png |
Nickname = The Golden State |
Capital = [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] |
Animal = [[Brown Bear|California grizzly bear]]; marine - [[Gray Whale]]|
Bird = [[California Quail]] |
Butterfly = [[California dogface butterfly]] |
Fish = [[Golden Trout]]; marine - [[Garibaldi (fish)|Garibaldi]] |
Flower = [[California Poppy]] |
Grass = [[Stipa|Purple Needlegrass]] |
Insect = [[California dogface butterfly]] |
Reptile = [[Desert Tortoise]] |
Tree = [[Sequoia|California Redwood]] |
Wildflower = [[California Poppy]] |
Colors = [[Blue]] & [[Gold (color)|Gold]] |
Dance = [[West Coast Swing]]; folk - [[Square dance]] |
Fossil = [[Smilodon|Saber-toothed cat]] |
Gemstone = [[Benitoite]] |
Mineral = [[Gold]] |
Motto = [[Eureka (word)|Eureka!]] |
StateRock = [[Serpentine]] |
Ships = ''The Californian'' (tall ship) |
Song = ''[[I Love You, California]]'' |
Soil = San Joaquin soil |
Tartan = [[California State Tartan]]|
Beverage = none |
Furbearer = none |
Game = none |
MusicalInstrument = none |
Neckwear = none |
Waltz = none
}}
<!-- How to add a footnote:
NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details.
1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
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5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to.
NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
-->
'''California''' is a [[U.S. state]] located on the [[West Coast of the United States|west coast]] of the [[United States]]. California is the third largest state in the U.S. by area and the [[List of U.S. states by population|most populous state in the U.S.]], as well as the most physically diverse, with the highest and the lowest points in the [[lower 48]] states located within 85 miles of each other. If California were an independent nation, it would have the sixth largest [[Economy of California|economy]] in the world (after the rest of the U.S., [[Japan]], [[Germany]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[China]]; see [[economy of California]]). The state's official nickname is "The Golden State" in reference to California's 1849 [[California Gold Rush|Gold Rush]]. {{ref|origin_of_nickname}}
As one of the most demographically diverse states in the nation, California is a dominant force in American culture as well as the nation's economy. It has some of the nation's most important cities, including [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[San Diego, California|San Diego]], [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], and [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], and is responsible for many legal and technological innovations.
The entire region originally known as California was composed of the Mexican peninsula now known as [[Baja California Peninsula|Baja California]] and much of the land in the current states of California, [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], [[Arizona]] and [[Wyoming]], known as [[Alta California]]. In these early times, the boundaries of the [[Sea of Cortez]] and the Pacific coast were only partially explored and California was shown on early maps as an island. The name comes from ''Las sergas de Esplandián'' (Adventures of Splandian), a 16th century novel, by [[Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo]], where there is an island paradise called California. (For further discussion, see: [[Origin of the name California]].)
== History ==
:''Main articles: [[History of California]], [[History of California (20th century)]]''
Pre-European California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse culture areas in Native North America. Large, settled populations lived on the West Coast and hunted sea mammals, fished for salmon, and gathered shellfish, while more mobile hunters and gathering groups in the California interior hunted terrestrial game and gathered nuts, acorns, and berries. California groups also were diverse in their political organization with bands, tribes, tribelets, and on the resource-rich coasts large chiefdoms, such as the Chumash, Pomo and Salinan. Trade, intermarriage, and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups.
The first [[European]] to explore parts of the coast was the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[Juãn Rodrigues Cabrillo]] in 1542.
The first to explore the entire coast and claim possession of it was [[Francis Drake]] in 1579. Beginning in the late 1700s, Spanish missionaries set up tiny settlements on enormous grants of land in the vast territory north of Baja California. The missions played a dominant role in the decimation of California's [[Native American tribes of California#California|indigenous population]]. Upon Mexican independence from Spain, the [[Spanish Missions of California|chain of missions]] became the property of the Mexican government, and they were quickly dissolved and abandoned. However, many of California's major cities grew around these missions, leading to their religious names (i.e. [[Los Angeles]] for the [[Virgin Mary]], [[San Francisco]] for [[St. Francis of Assisi]], [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] for [[St. Joseph of Nazareth]] and [[San Diego]] for [[St. Didacus]].) For a quarter century after the achievement of Mexican independence in 1821, California was a remote northern province of the nation of Mexico. Huge cattle ranches, or ranchos, emerged as the dominant institutions of Mexican California. Traders and settlers from the United States began to arrive, harbingers of the great changes that would sweep California.
In this period, some nobles of [[Imperial Russia]] made brief attempts to explore and claim parts of California, but these were limited by a lack of Im |
arded as considerate and atmospheric, but too often were conventional, placid and slow. Nevertheless, he was nominated seven times for an [[Academy Award]] (six times as a director, once as a [[film producer|producer]]) but never received the Oscar.
The Clarence Brown Theater, on the campus of the [[University of Tennessee]], is named in his honor.
==Filmography==
:''The Last of the Mohicans'' (1920)
:''The Great Redeemer'' (1920)
:''The Foolish Matrons'' (1921)
:''The Light in the Dark'' (1922)
:''Don't Marry for Money'' (1923)
:''The Acquittal'' (1923)
:''The Signal Tower'' (1924)
:''Butterfly'' (1924)
:''[[The Eagle]]'' (1925)
:''The Goose Woman'' (1925)
:''Smouldering Fires'' (1925)
:''Flesh and the Devil'' (1926)
:''Kiki'' (1926)
:''A Woman of Affairs'' (1928)
:''The Trail of '98'' (1929)
:''Navy Blues'' (1929)
:''Wonder of Women'' (1929)
:''[[Anna Christie]]'' (1930) - Academy Award Nomination for best director.
:''[[Romance (1930 film)|Romance]]'' (1930) - Academy Award Nomination for best director.
:''Inspiration'' (1931)
:''Possessed'' (1931)
:''[[A Free Soul]]'' (1931) - Academy Award Nomination for best director.
:''[[Emma (1932 film)|Emma]]'' (1932)
:''Letty Lynton'' (1932)
:''The Son-Daughter'' (1932)
:''Looking Forward'' (1933)
:''Night Flight'' (1933)
:''[[Sadie McKee]]'' (1934)
:''Chained'' (1934)
:''Ah, Wilderness!'' (1935)
:''[[Anna Karenina]]'' (1935)
:''[[Wife vs. Secretary]]'' (1935)
:''The Gorgeous Hussy'' (1936)
:''Conquest'' (1938)
:''Of Human Hearts'' (1938)
:''Idiot's Delight'' (1939)
:''The Rains Came'' (1939)
:''Edison, the Man'' (1940)
:''Come Live with Me'' (1941)
:''They Met in Bombay'' (1941)
:''[[The Human Comedy]]'' (1943) - Academy Award Nominations for best director and best picture.
:''[[The White Cliffs of Dover (1944 film)|The White Cliffs of Dover]]'' (1944)
:''[[National Velvet]]'' (1944) - Academy Award Nomination for best director.
:''[[The Yearling]]'' (1946) - Academy Award Nomination for best director.
:''Song of Love'' (1947)
:''Intruder in the Dust'' (1949)
:''To Please a Lady'' (1950)
:''Angels in the Outfield'' (1951):
:''When in Rome'' (1952)
:''Plymouth Adventure'' (1952).
==External links==
[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0113284 Clarence Brown at IMDb.com]
[[Category:1890 births|Brown, Clarence]]
[[Category:1987 deaths|Brown, Clarence]]
[[Category:American film directors|Brown, Clarence]]
[[de:Clarence Brown]]
[[fr:Clarence Brown]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conciliation</title>
<id>7643</id>
<revision>
<id>38071905</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T23:53:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.45.162.34</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Conciliation''' is an [[alternative dispute resolution]] process whereby the parties to a dispute (including future interest disputes) agree to utilize the services of a conciliator, who then meets with the parties separately in an attempt to resolve their differences. Conciliation differs from [[arbitration]] in that the conciliation process, in and of itself, has no legal standing, and the conciliator usually has no authority to seek evidence or call witnesses, usually writes no decision, and makes no award. Conciliation differs from [[mediation]] in that the main goal is to conciliate, most of the time by seeking concessions. In mediation, the mediator tries to guide the discussion in a way that optimizes parties needs, takes feelings into account and reframes representations.
In conciliation the parties seldom, if ever, actually face each other across the table in the presence of the conciliator. (This latter difference ''can'' be regarded as one of species to genus. Most practicing mediators refer to the practice of meeting with the parties separately as "caucusing" and would regard conciliation as a specific type or form of mediation practice -- "[[shuttle diplomacy]]" -- that relies on exclusively on caucusing. All the other features of conciliation are found in mediation as well.)
If the conciliator is successful in negotiating an understanding between the parties, said understanding is almost always committed to writing (usually with the assistance of legal counsel) and signed by the parties, at which time it becomes a legally binding contract and falls under contract law.
Recent studies in the processes of [[negotiation]] have indicated the effectiveness of a technique which deserves mention here. A conciliator assists each of the parties to independently develop a list of all of their objectives (the outcomes which they desire to obtain from the conciliation). The conciliator then has each of the parties separately prioritize their own list from most to least important. She then goes back and forth between the parties and encourages them to "give" on the objectives one at a time, starting with the least important and working toward the most important for each party in turn. The parties rarely place the same priorities on all objectives, and usually have some objectives which are not on the list compiled by parties on the other side. Thus the conciliator can quickly build a string of successes and help the parties create an atmosphere of trust which the conciliator can continue to develop.
Most successful conciliators are highly skilled negotiators. Some conciliators operate under the auspices of any one of several non-governmental entities, and for governmental agencies such as the [[Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service]].
==See also==
* [[dispute resolution]]
==External links==
* [http://www.PeaceForge.org PeaceForge.org] - wiki dedicated to best practices in peace and conflict resolution
* [http://www.arbitrator.com Arbitrator.com: Information about various forms of dispute resolution.]
[[Category:Dispute resolution]]
[[nl:Conciliatie]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Colin Fulcher</title>
<id>7644</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<page>
<title>Cyclone programming language</title>
<id>7645</id>
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<id>35834113</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T17:33:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Quadell</username>
<id>57108</id>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguate link [[gcc]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cyclone''' [[programming language]] is intended to be a safe dialect of the [[C programming language]]. Cyclone is designed to avoid [[buffer overflow]]s and other vulnerabilities that are endemic in C programs, without losing the power and convenience of C as a tool for [[systems programming]].
Cyclone was jointly developed by [[Greg Morrisett]]'s group at [[Cornell University]] and [[AT and T Labs Research|AT&T Labs Research]] in the early 2000s. It received a certain amount of publicity in November 2001. As of June 15, 2004, the Cyclone compiler stands at version 0.8.1.
== Language features ==
Cyclone attempts to avoid some of the common pitfalls of the [[C programming language]], while still maintaining the look and performance of C. To this end, Cyclone places the following restrictions upon programs:
* <code>[[NULL]]</code> checks are inserted to prevent [[segmentation fault]]s
* [[Pointer arithmetic]] is restricted
* Pointers must be initialized before use
* [[Dangling pointer]]s are prevented through region analysis and limitations on [[Malloc|<code>free()</code>]]
* Only "safe" casts and unions are allowed
* [[Control flow | <code>goto</code>]] into scopes is disallowed
* [[Control flow | <code>switch</code>]] labels in different scopes are disallowed
* Pointer-returning functions must execute <code>return</code>
* [[Setjmp/longjmp|<code>setjmp</code> and <code>longjmp</code>]] are not supported
In order to maintain the tool set that C programmers are used to, Cyclone provides the following extensions:
* '''Never-<code>NULL</code> pointers''' do not require <code>NULL</code> checks
* '''"Fat" pointers''' support pointer arithmetic with run-time [[bounds checking]]
* '''Growable regions''' support a form of safe manual memory management
* '''[[Garbage collection (computer science)|Garbage collection]]''' for heap-allocated values
* '''[[Tagged union]]s''' support type-varying arguments
* '''Injections''' help automate the use of tagged unions for programmers
* '''[[Polymorphism (computer science)|Polymorphism]]''' replaces some uses of [[void pointer|<code>void *</code>]]
* '''varargs''' are implemented as fat pointers
* '''[[Exception handling|Exceptions]]''' replace some uses of <code>setjmp</code> and <code>longjmp</code>
For a better high-level introduction to Cyclone, the reasoning behind Cyclone and the source of these lists, please see [http://www.research.att.com/projects/cyclone/papers/cyclone-safety.pdf].
Although Cyclone looks, in general, much like [[C programming language|C]], it should be thought of as a [[:Category:C dialects|C-like language]]. With that, let us look at more features of the language, in depth.
===Pointer/reference types===
Cyclone implements three kinds of [[reference]] (following C terminology these are called pointers):
* <code>*</code> (the normal type)
* <code>@</code> (the never-<code>NULL</code> pointer), and
* <code>?</code> (the only type with [[pointer arithmetic]] allowed, "fat" pointers).
The purpose of introducing these new pointer types is to avoid common problems when using pointers. Take for i |
a]]
[[it:Grenada]]
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[[mk:Гренада]]
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[[ja:グレナダ]]
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[[pt:Granada]]
[[ro:Grenada]]
[[ru:Гренада]]
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[[uk:Гренада]]
[[zh:格林纳达]]</text>
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<page>
<title>History of Grenada</title>
<id>12129</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-10T15:59:18Z</timestamp>
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<username>Wetman</username>
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<comment>link [[Hurricane Emily]]: anon. change of date confirmed ok</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Before the arrival of Europeans, [[Grenada]] was inhabited by [[Carib]] Indians who had driven the more peaceful [[Arawaks]] from the island. [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] landed on Grenada in [[1498]] during his third voyage to the new world. He named the island "Concepcion." The origin of the name "Grenada" is obscure, but it is likely that [[Spain|Spanish]] sailors renamed the island for the city of [[Granada]]. By the beginning of the 18th century, the name "Grenada," or "la Grenade" in [[French language|French]], was in common use.
Partly because of the Caribs, Grenada remained uncolonized for more than 100 years after its discovery; early [[england|English]] efforts to settle the island were unsuccessful. In [[1650]], a [[France|French]] company founded by [[Cardinal Richelieu]] purchased Grenada from the English and established a small settlement. After several skirmishes with the Caribs, the French brought in reinforcements from [[Martinique]] and defeated the Caribs, the last of whom leapt into the sea rather than surrender.
The island remained under French control until its capture by the British in [[1762]], during the [[Seven Years' War]]. Grenada was formally ceded to the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] by the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]]. Although the French regained control in [[1779]], the island was restored to Britain with the [[Treaty of Versailles (1783)]]. Although Britain was hard pressed to overcome a pro-French revolt in [[1795]], Grenada remained British for the remainder of the [[colonialism|colonial]] period.
During the 18th century, Grenada's economy underwent an important transition. Like much of the rest of the [[West Indies]], it was originally settled to cultivate [[sugar]], which was grown on estates using slave labor. But natural disasters paved the way for the introduction of other crops. In [[1782]], [[Sir Joseph Banks]], the botanical adviser to [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]], introduced [[nutmeg]] to Grenada. The island's soil was ideal for growing the spice and because Grenada was a closer source of spices for Europe than the [[Dutch East Indies]], the island assumed a new importance to European traders.
[[Image:Grenada - St. George. c. 1895.jpg|thumb|400px|St. George, Grenada. 1890s]]
The collapse of the sugar estates and the introduction of nutmeg and [[cacao]] encouraged the development of smaller land holdings, and the island developed a land-owning [[yeoman]] farmer class. Slavery was outlawed in [[1834]]. In [[1833]], Grenada became part of the [[British Windward Islands Administration]]. The governor of the Windward Islands administered the island for the rest of the colonial period. In [[1958]], the Windward Islands Administration was dissolved, and Grenada joined the [[Federation of the West Indies]]. After that federation collapsed in [[1962]], the British Government tried to form a small federation out of its remaining dependencies in the Eastern Caribbean.
Following the failure of this second effort, the British and the islanders developed the concept of "[[associated state]]hood". Under the Associated Statehood Act in [[1967]] Grenada was granted full autonomy over its internal affairs in March of that year. Full independence was granted on [[February 7]], [[1974]].
After obtaining independence, Grenada adopted a modified [[Westminster parliamentary system]] based on the British model with a governor general appointed by and representing the British monarch (head of state) and a prime minister who is both leader of the majority party and the head of government. [[Sir Eric Gairy]] was Grenada's first prime minister.
On [[March 13]], [[1979]], the [[New Jewel Movement]], a new joint endeavor for welfare, education, and liberation, ousted Gairy in a nearly bloodless coup and established a people's revolutionary government (PRG), headed by [[Maurice Bishop]] who became prime minister. His [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] government established close ties with [[Cuba]], the [[Soviet Union]], and other [[communist bloc]] countries.
In October [[1983]], a power struggle within the government resulted in the arrest of Bishop at the order of his Deputy Prime Minister, [[Bernard Coard]]. After a breakdown in civil order, in which Coard's forces executed Bishop and members of his cabinet, a U.S.-Caribbean force landed on Grenada on [[October 25]] in an action called [[Operation Urgent Fury]]. This action was taken in response to an appeal obtained from the governor general and to a request for assistance from the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]], without consulting the island's head of state, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] institutions or other usual diplomatic channels (as had been done in [[Anguilla]]). Furthermore, United States government military strategists feared that Soviet use of the island would enable the Soviet Union to project tactical power over the entire Caribbean region. U.S. citizens were evacuated, and the ''[[status quo]]'' was restored (though the previous culture has since been overlaid by U.S. influences).
An advisory council named by the governor general administered the country until general elections were held in December [[1984]]. The New National Party (NNP) led by [[Herbert Blaize]] won 14 out of 15 seats in elections and formed a democratic government. Grenada's constitution had been suspended in 1979 by the PRG but it was restored after the 1984 elections.
The NNP continued in power until [[1989]] but with a reduced majority. Five NNP parliamentary members, including two cabinet ministers, left the party in 1986-87 and formed the National Democratic Congress (NDC) which became the official opposition.
In August 1989, Prime Minister Blaize broke with the NNP to form another new party, The National Party (TNP), from the ranks of the NNP. This split in the NNP resulted in the formation of a minority government until constitutionally scheduled elections in March [[1990]]. Prime Minister Blaize died in December 1989 and was succeeded as prime minister by Ben Jones until after the elections.
The NDC emerged from the 1990 elections as the strongest party, winning seven of the 15 available seats. Nicholas Brathwaite added two TNP members and one member of the Grenada United Labor Party (GULP) to create a 10-seat majority coalition. The governor general appointed him to be prime minister.
In parliamentary elections on [[June 20]], [[1995]], the NNP won eight seats and formed a government headed by Dr. Keith Mitchell. The NNP maintained and affirmed its hold on power when it took all 15 parliamentary seats in the January [[1999]] elections.
On [[September 7]], [[2004]], Grenada was hit directly by Category 4 Hurricane Ivan. The hurricane destroyed about 85% of the structures on the island, including the prison and the prime minister's residence, killed 39 people, and destroyed most of the nutmeg crop, Grenada's main economic mainstay. Grenada's economy was set back several years by Hurricane Ivan's impact. [[Hurricane Emily]] ravished the islands North part in June 2005.
==See also==
[[Past_and_present_anarchist_communities#Radicalism_in_Grenada.2C_1979_to_1983|Radicalism in Grenada 1979 to 1983]]
[[Category:History of Grenada| ]]
[[es:Historia de Granada]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Geography of Grenada</title>
<id>12130</id>
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<timestamp>2005-10-28T07:00:58Z</timestamp>
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<username>Brian0918</username>
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<comment>expanded using Library of Congress Public Domain text</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Grenada.png|thumb|300px|Grenada - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Color) Satellite Image]]
This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Grenada]]'''.
Grenada is a [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] [[island]] (one of the [[Grenadines]]) between the Caribbean Sea and [[Atlantic Ocean]], north of [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. It is located at {{coor dm|12|07|N|61|40|W|}}. There are no large inland bodies of water on the island, which consists entirely of the state of Grenada. The coastline is 121 km long.
The Grenadan climate is tropical, tempered by northeast [[trade winds]]. The land is [[volcano|volcanic]] in origin with [[mountain]]s in the interior. The lowest point is at [[sea level]], and the highest is 840 m on [[Mount Saint Catherine]].
[[Natural resource]]s include [[timber]], tropical [[fruit]] and deepwater [[harbor]]s.
Grenada and its largely uninhabited outlying territories are the most southerly of the Windward Islands. The Grenadine Islands chain consists of some 600 islets; those south of the Martinique Channel belong to Grenada, while those north of the channel are part of the nation of St. Vincent and the Grenadines. Located about 160 kilometers north of Venezuela, at approximately 12° north latitude and 61° west longitude, Grenada and its territories occupy a total a |
Ain]] enjoys cooler temperatures even through summer due to [[sporadic]] rainfall.
==Transport==
[[Abu Dhabi International Airport]] serves this city. The local time is [[GMT]] + 4 hours.
==Trivia==
* The cartoon cat [[Garfield]] would often put the kitten [[Nermal]] in a box and ship him to Abu Dhabi. A common phrase from Garfield is "Abu Dhabi is where all the cute kittens go." The reason is that the author of Garfield found out through over-seas relations that the city of Abu Dhabi, and the majority of UAE, has a large amount of cats that roam wild. Many live around the suburbs.
== See also ==
* [[Mina' Zayid]], the port of Abu Dhabi.
* [[Al Ain]]
* [[Marawah]]
* [[Postal Authorities]]
* [[Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Transportation in the United Arab Emirates]]
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{commons|Abu Dhabi}}
* [http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/alpha/a/abudhabi.html Encyclopaedia of Postal History]
* [http://www.thepersiangulf.org/cities/abudhabi.html Abu Dhabi, The Persian Gulf]
* [http://www.abudhabi.com/ abudhabi.com]
* [http://www.adcci-uae.com/ Abu Dhabi Chamber of Commerce and Industry]
* [http://www.adnoc.com/ Abu Dhabi National Oil Company]
* [http://www.spe.org/society/abudhabi/AbuDhabi-info.htm SPE history, with oil details]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/ok/ABUDHABISTAMPS/ Abu Dhabi postal history]
* [http://www.adias-uae.com ADIAS], Abu Dhabi Islands Archaeological Survey
* [http://www.alloexpat.com/abu_dhabi_expat_forum/ Expatriates Forums in Abu Dhabi]
* [http://www.timeoutabudhabi.com/ Time Out Abu Dhabi], Guide to life in Abu Dhabi
*[http://www.careeruae.net/ Career UAE - Useful web site for the job seekers in Abu dabi/United Arab Emirates]
===Non-Government Organisations===
* [http://www.ansarburney.org/ Ansar Burney Trust] - human rights and anti-slavery organisation
{{UAE}}
[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Cities in the United Arab Emirates]]
[[Category:Emirates]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Philately by country]]
[[ar:أبوظبي]]
[[bg:Абу Даби]]
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[[gl:Emirato de Abu Dabi]]
[[ko:아부다비]]
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[[he:אבו דאבי]]
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[[ja:アブダビ]]
[[no:Abu Dhabi]]
[[nn:Abu Dhabi]]
[[pl:Abu Zabi]]
[[pt:Abu Dhabi]]
[[ru:Абу-Даби]]
[[simple:Abu Dhabi]]
[[sk:Abú Zabí (mesto)]]
[[fi:Abu Dhabi]]
[[sv:Abu Dhabi]]
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[[zh:阿布扎比]]</text>
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<title>AtlasShrugged</title>
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way]].
* [[1998]] - The [[presidential]] [[line-item veto]] is declared [[unconstitutional]] by [[United States]] [[federal judge]].
* [[1999]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]] is acquitted by the [[United States Senate]] in his [[impeachment]] trial.
* [[2001]] - [[NEAR Shoemaker]] spacecraft touchdown in the "[[saddle]]" region of [[433 Eros]] becoming the first spacecraft to land on an [[asteroid]].
* 2001 - [[Google]] obtains the [[Usenet]] service of [[Dejanews|Deja.com]], creating [http://groups.google.com Google Groups] ([http://www.google.com/press/pressrel/pressrelease48.html press release]).
* [[2002]] - The trial of former [[President]] of [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] [[Slobodan Milošević]] begins at the [[United Nations]] [[war crime]]s tribunal in [[The Hague]].
* 2002 - [[Nuclear waste]]: [[US Secretary of Energy]] makes the decision that [[Yucca Mountain]] is suitable to be the [[United States]]' nuclear repository.
* 2002 - An [[Iran Air Tours|Iran Air]] [[Tupolev Tu-154]] crashes prior to landing in [[Khorramabad]], [[Iran]], killing 119.
* [[2004]] - [[Mayor]] [[Gavin Newsom]] of [[San Francisco, California]], on [[National Freedom to Marry Day]], orders his [[county clerk]] to revise [[marriage license]]s to allow [[gay]] and [[lesbian]] couples to legally wed.
* 2004 - [[Mattel|Mattel Inc.]] announces the split of [[Barbie|Barbara Millicent Roberts]] and [[Ken Carson]] (aka [[Barbie]] and [[Ken]]) after 43 years of [[Courtship|dating]].
* [[2005]] - Former [[Vermont]] governor and presidential candidate [[Howard Dean]] becomes chairman of the [[Democratic National Committee]].
* [[2006]] - A powerful [[Nor'easter]] [[Blizzard of 2006|Winter Storm]] blankets the [[Northeast]] [[United States]] dumping 1 to 2 feet of [[snow]] from [[Washington DC]] up to [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]. The storm dumped a record 26.9 inches of snow in New York City.
==Births==
*[[1074]] - [[Conrad (King of Italy)|Conrad]], King of Germany and Italy (d. [[1101]])
*[[1218]] - [[Kujo Yoritsune]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1256]])
*[[1567]] - [[Thomas Campion]], English composer and poet (d. [[1620]])
*[[1606]] - [[John Winthrop, the Younger]], Governor of Connecticut (d. [[1676]])
*[[1637]] - [[Jan Swammerdam]], Dutch scientist (d. [[1680]])
*[[1663]] - [[Cotton Mather]], New England minister (d. [[1728]])
*[[1665]] - [[Rudolf Jakob Camerarius]], German botanist and physician (d. [[1721]])
*[[1704]] - [[Charles Pinot Duclos]], French writer (d. [[1772]])
*[[1728]] - [[Étienne-Louis Boullée]], French architect (d. [[1799]])
*[[1753]] - [[François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers]], French admiral (d. [[1798]])
*[[1768]] - [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1835]])
*[[1775]] - [[Louisa Adams]], [[First Lady of the United States]], wife of [[John Quincy Adams]] (d. [[1852]])
*[[1777]] - [[Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué]], French poet (d. [[1843]])
*[[1785]] - [[Pierre Louis Dulong]], French physicist (d. [[1838]])
*[[1788]] - [[Carl Reichenbach]], German chemist and philosopher (d. [[1869]])
*[[1794]] - [[Alexander Petrov]], Russian chess player (d. [[1867]])
*[[1804]] - [[Heinrich Lenz]], German physicist (d. [[1865]])
*[[1809]] - [[Charles Darwin]], English naturalist (d. [[1882]])
*1809 - [[Abraham Lincoln]], 16th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1865]])
*[[1818]] - [[Otto Ludwig]], German writer
*[[1828]] - [[George Meredith]], English writer (d. [[1909]])
*[[1857]] - [[Bobby Peel]], English cricketer (d. [[1943]]).
*[[1861]] - [[Lou Andreas-Salome]], Russian-born author (d. [[1937]])
*[[1865]] - [[Kazimierz Tetmajer]], Polish poet and writer (d. [[1940]])
*[[1876]] - [[Thubten Gyatso, 13th Dalai Lama|Thubten Gyatso]], 13th [[Dalai Lama]] (d. [[1933]])
*[[1880]] - [[John L. Lewis]], American labor union leader (d. [[1969]])
*[[1881]] - [[Anna Pavlova]], Russian ballerina (d. [[1931]])
*[[1884]] - [[Max Beckmann]], painter and graphic artist (d. [[1950]])
*1884 - [[Marie Vassilieff]], Russian artist (d. [[1957]])
*[[1893]] - [[Omar Bradley]], American general (d. [[1981]])
*[[1898]] - [[Wallace Ford]], actor (d. [[1966]])
*[[1900]] - [[Roger J. Traynor]], American judge (d. [[1980]])
*[[1904]] - [[Ted Mack (television host)|Ted Mack]], American television host (d. [[1976]])
*[[1908]] - [[Jacques Herbrand]], French logician-mathematician (d. [[1931]])
* 1908 - [[August Neo]], Estonian wrestler, Olympic medalist (d. [[1982]])
*[[1911]] - [[Stephen H. Sholes]], American recording executive (d. [[1968]])
*[[1912]] - [[R. F. Delderfield]], English author (d. [[1972]])
*[[1914]] - [[Tex Beneke]], American musician and band leader (d. [[2000]])
*[[1915]] - [[Lorne Greene]], American actor (d. [[1987]])
*[[1916]] - [[Joseph Alioto]], Mayor of San Francisco (d. [[1998]])
*[[1918]] - [[Julian Schwinger]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1994]])
*[[1919]] - [[Forrest Tucker]], American actor (d. [[1986]])
*[[1920]] - [[William Roscoe Estep]], Baptist historian and professor (d. [[2000]])
*[[1923]] - [[Franco Zeffirelli]], Italian film and opera director and designer
*[[1925]] - Sir [[Anthony Berry]], British politician (d. [[1984]])
*[[1926]] - [[Joe Garagiola]], baseball player
*1926 - [[Paul Kurtz]], American philosopher
*1926 - [[Charles Van Doren]], American quiz show contestant
*[[1930]] - [[Arlen Specter]], U.S. Senator from Pennsylvania
*[[1931]] - [[Janwillem van de Wetering]], Dutch author
*[[1932]] - [[Axel Jensen]], Norwegian author (d. [[2003]])
*1932 - [[Julian Lincoln Simon]], American economist and author (d. [[1998]])
*[[1933]] - [[Costa-Gavras]], Greek-born director and writer
*[[1934]] - [[Bill Russell (basketball)|Bill Russell]], American basketball player
*[[1936]] - [[Joe Don Baker]], American actor
*1936 - [[Paul Shenar]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Charles Dumas]], American athlete
*[[1938]] - [[Judy Blume]], American author
*1938 - [[Johnny Rutherford]], American race car driver
*[[1939]] - [[Ray Manzarek]], American keyboardist ([[The Doors]])
*[[1940]] - [[Richard Lynch]], American actor
*[[1942]] - [[Ehud Barak]], [[Prime Minister of Israel]]
*[[1945]] - [[Maud Adams]], Swedish actress
*[[1946]] - [[Ajda Pekkan]], Turkish singer
*[[1950]] - [[Michael Ironside]], Canadian actor
*1950 - [[Steve Hackett]], British musician ([[Genesis (band)]])
*[[1952]] - [[Michael McDonald (singer)|Michael McDonald]], American musician
*[[1953]] - [[Nabil Shaban]], British actor
*1953 - [[Robin Thomas]], American actor
*[[1954]] - [[Philip Zimmermann]], cryptographer
*[[1955]] - [[Arsenio Hall]], American actor and talk show host
*[[1958]] - [[Bobby Smith]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1961]] - [[James R. M. Harris|Jim Harris]], [[Canada|Canadian]] polititian
*[[1962]] - [[Jimmy Kirkwood]], Irish-born field hockey player
*[[1967]] - [[Chris McKinstry]], Canadian computer scientist
*[[1968]] - [[Josh Brolin]], American actor
*1968 - [[Chynna Phillips]], American singer
*[[1969]] - [[Darren Aronofsky]], American director and writer
*1969 - [[Meja]], Swedish singer
*1969 - [[Hong Myung-Bo]], Korean footballer
*[[1970]] - [[Jim Creeggan]], Canadian bassist ([[Barenaked Ladies]])
*[[1973]] - [[Gianni Romme]], Dutch speed skater
*1973 - [[Tara Strong]], American voice actress
*[[1976]] - [[Silvia Saint]], Czech actress
*[[1979]] - [[Jesse Spencer]], Australian actor
*[[1980]] - [[Juan Carlos Ferrero]], Spanish tennis player
*1980 - [[Christina Ricci]], American actress
*[[1982]] - [[Onil Joseph]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Major League Baseball]] baseball player
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1538]] - [[Albrecht Altdorfer]], German painter
*[[1554]] - [[Lord Guilford Dudley]], consort of [[Lady Jane Grey]] (executed) (b. [[1536]])
*1554 - [[Lady Jane Grey]], claimant to the throne of England (executed) (b. [[1537]])
*[[1571]] - [[Nicholas Throckmorton]], English diplomat and politician (b. [[1515]])
*[[1590]] - [[François Hotman]], French lawyer and writer (b. [[1524]])
*[[1595]] - [[Archduke Ernest of Austria]], Governor of the Spanish Netherlands (b. [[1553]])
*[[1612]] - [[Christopher Clavius]], German astronomer (b. [[1538]])
*[[1624]] - [[George Heriot]], Scottish goldsmith and philanthropist (b. [[1563]])
*[[1630]] - [[Fynes Moryson]], English traveler and writer (b. [[1566]])
*[[1700]] - [[Aleksei Shein]], Russian general and statesman (b. [[1662]])
*[[1724]] - [[Elkanah Settle]], English writer (b. [[1648]])
*[[1728]] - [[Agostino Steffani]], Italian diplomat and composer (b. [[1653]])
*[[1762]] - [[Laurent Belissen]], French composer (b. [[1693]])
*[[1763]] - [[Pierre de Marivaux]], French writer (b. [[1688]])
*[[1771]] - King [[Adolf Frederick of Sweden]] (b. [[1710]])
*[[1789]] - [[Ethan Allen]], American patriot (b. [[1738]])
*[[1799]] - [[Lazzaro Spallanzani]], Italian biologist (b. [[1729]])
*[[1804]] - [[Immanuel Kant]], German philosopher (b. [[1724]])
*[[1916]] - [[Richard Dedekind]], German mathematician (b. [[1831]])
*[[1929]] - [[Lillie Langtry]], British singer and actress (b. [[1853]])
*[[1933]] - [[Henri Duparc]], French composer (b. [[1848]])
*[[1935]] - [[Auguste Escoffier]], French chef (b. [[1846]])
*[[1949]] - [[Hassan al Banna|Imam Hassan al Banna]], Egyptian founder of the Muslim Brotherhood (b. [[1906]])
*[[1951]] - [[Choudhary Rahmat Ali]], one who named the country Pakistan (b. [[1895]])
*[[1954]] - [[Dziga Vertov]], Russian filmmaker (b. [[1896]])
*[[1957]] - [[Eric Alfred Knudsen]], American author, folklorist (b. [[1872]])
*[[1971]] - [[James C. Penney]], American department store founder (b. [[1875]])
*[[1976]] - [[Sal Mineo]], American actor (b. [[1939]])
*[[1979]] - [[Jean Renoir]], French director (b. [[1894]])
*[[1982]] - [[Victor Jory]], Canadian actor (b. [[1902]])
*[[1983]] - [[Eubie Blake]], American musician and songwriter
*[[1 |
ergetic ion beam will generally have a broad depth distribution. The average penetration depth is called the range of the ions. Under typical circumstances ion ranges will be between 10 nanometers and 1 micrometer. Thus, ion implantation is especially useful in cases where the chemical or structural change is desired to be near the surface of the target. Ions gradually lose their energy as they travel through the solid, both from occasional collisions with target atoms (which cause abrupt energy transfers) and from a mild drag from overlap of electron orbitals, which is a continuous process. The loss of ion energy in the target is called stopping.
==Application in [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor device fabrication]]==
===[[Doping (semiconductor)|Doping]]===
The introduction of dopants in a semiconductor is the most common application of ion implantation. Dopant ions such as boron, phosphorus or arsenic are generally created from a gas source, so that the purity of the source can be very high. These gases tend to be very hazardous. When implanted in a semiconductor, each dopant atom creates a charge carrier in the semiconductor (hole or electron, depending on if it is a p-type or n-type dopant), thus modifying the conductivity of the semiconductor in its vicinity.
===[[Silicon on insulator]]===
SOI wafers are produced by one of two main methods, both of which rely on ion implantation:
*''SIMOX'' - '''S'''eparation by '''IM'''plantation of '''OX'''ygen: Oxygen can be implanted at high energy into a silicon substrate, at a high enough dose that subsequent high temperature annealing forms an oxide layer underneath the surface layer of silicon. The oxide is an insulator, thus producing a silicon on insulator (SOI) structure.
*''Smartcut'': First, oxidized surfaces are grown on two wafers, and then bonded together. Most of the top wafer is then [[cleavage (crystal)|cleaved]] away along a band of [[hydrogen]] bubbles which form from implanted ions. The thin layer of silicon that is left behind is isolated from the substrate by what were originally the surface oxide layers.
===Mesotaxy===
Mesotaxy is the term for the growth of a crystallographically matching phase underneath the surface of the host crystal (compare to [[epitaxy]], which is the growth of the matching phase on the surface of a substrate). In this process, ions are implanted at a high enough energy and dose into a material to create a layer of a second phase, and the temperature is controlled so that the crystal structure of the target is not destroyed. The crystal orientation of the layer can be engineered to match that of the target, even though the exact crystal structure and lattice constant may be very different . For example, after the implantation of nickel ions into a silicon wafer, a layer of nickel silicide can be grown in which the crystal orientation of the silicide matches that of the silicon.
==Application in metal finishing==
===Tool steel toughening===
Nitrogen or other ions can be implanted into a tool steel target (drill bits, for example). The structural change caused by the implantation produces a surface compression in the steel, which prevent crack propagation and thus makes the material more resistant to fracture. The chemical change can also make the tool more resistant to corrosion.
===Surface finishing===
In some applications, for example prosthetic devices such as artificial joints, it is desired to have surfaces very resistant to both chemical corrosion and wear due to friction. Ion implantation is used in such cases to engineer the surfaces of such devices for more reliable performance. As in the case of tool steels, the surface modification caused by ion implantation includes both a surface compression which prevents crack propagation and an alloying of the surface to make it more chemically resistant to corrosion.
==Other issues in ion implantation==
===Crystallographic damage===
Each individual ion produces many point defects in the target crystal on impact such as vacancies and interstitials. Vacancies are crystal lattice points unoccupied by an atom: in this case the ion collides with a target atom, resulting in transfer of a significant amount of energy to the target atom such that it leaves its crystal site. This target atom then itself becomes a projectile in the solid, and can cause successive collision events. Interstitials result when such atoms (or the original ion itself) come to rest in the solid, but find no vacant space in the lattice to reside. These point defects can migrate and cluster with each other, resulting in dislocation loops and other defects.
===Damage recovery===
Because ion implantation causes damage to the crystal structure of the target which is often unwanted, ion implantation processing is often followed by a thermal annealing. This can be referred to as damage recovery.
===Amorphization===
The amount of crystallographic damage can be enough to completely amorphize the surface of the target: i.e. it can become an [[amorphous solid]] (such a solid produced from a melt is called a [[glass]]). In some cases, complete amorphization of a target is preferable to a highly defective crystal: An amorphized film can be regrown at a lower temperature than required to anneal a highly damaged crystal.
===[[Sputtering]]===
Some of the collision events result in atoms being ejected from the surface, and thus ion implantation will slowly etch away a surface. The effect is only appreciable for very large doses.
===Ion channelling===
[[image:Diamsm.gif|framed|right|A diamond cubic crystal viewed from the [[Crystallography#Notation|<110>]] direction, showing hexagonal ion channels.]]
If there is a crystallographic structure to the target, and especially in semiconductor substrates where the crystal structure is more open, particular crystallographic directions offer much lower stopping that other directions. The result is that the range of an ion can be much longer if the ion travels exactly along a particular direction, for example the <110> direction in silicon and other [[diamond cubic]] materials. This effect is called ''ion channelling''. The effect is highly nonlinear, with small variations from perfect orientation resulting in extreme differences in implantation depth. For this reason, most implantation is carried out a few degrees off-axis, where tiny alignment errors will have more predictable effects. There is no relation between this effect and [[ion channel]] of a cell membrane.
Ion channelling can be used directly in [[Rutherford backscattering]] and related techniques as an analytical method to determine the amount and depth profile of damage in crystalline thin film materials.
== Hazardous materials note==
In the ion implantation semiconductor fabrication process of [[Wafer (electronics)|wafers]], it is important for the workers to minimize their exposure to the [[toxic]] materials used in the ion implanter process. Such hazardous elements, solid source and gasses are used, such as [[arsenic]]. For this reason, the [[semiconductor fabrication]] facilities are highly automated. Other elements may include [[Antimony]], [[phosphine]], and [[boron]]. Residue of these elements show up when the machine is opened to atmosphere, and can also be accumulated and found concentrated in the vacuum pumps hardware. It is important not to expose yourself to these [[Carcinogen|Carcinogenic]] , [[Corrosion|corrosive]] , [[flammable]] , and [[Toxicity|toxic]] elements. Use safety, and do read [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS's]].
=== High Voltage safety===
There is also potential for electrocution, death by [[Electric shock|electric shock]], in the [[Ion source]] area, and [[Quadrupole magnet|steering magnet]] and focusing lens power supplies. Make sure all [[High voltage|high voltage potentials hazards]] are off, and discharged.
== Manufacturers of Ion Implantation Equipment ==
*[http://www.amat.com Applied Materials]
*[http://www.axcelis.com Axcelis Technologies]
*[http://www.nissin-ion.co.jp Nissin Ion Equipment (Japanese)]
*[http://www.senova.com Sumitomo Eaton Nova (Japanese)]
*[http://www.ulvac.com Ulvac]
*[http://www.vsea.com Varian Semiconuductor]
== External links ==
*[http://www.casetechnology.com/implant.html Ion Implantation]
[[Category:Materials science]]
[[Category:Semiconductor device fabrication]]
[[de:Ionenimplantation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Igneous rock</title>
<id>15540</id>
<revision>
<id>42067211</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:12:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maxamegalon2000</username>
<id>410083</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41564755 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:North america rock volcanic.jpg|thumb|right|Volcanic rock on [[North America]] ]]
[[Image:North america rock plutonic.jpg|thumb|right|Plutonic rock on [[North America]] ]]
'''Igneous rocks''' are formed when molten [[rock (geology)|rock]] ([[magma]]) cools and solidifies, with or without [[crystal]]lization, either below the surface as [[Intrusion|intrusive]] (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as [[extrusive (geology)|extrusive]] ([[Volcanic rock|volcanic]]) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the [[Earth]]'s [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's [[crust (geology)|crust]]. The word "igneous" is derived from the [[Latin]] ''ignis'', meaning "fire".
==Magma origination==
The Earth's crust is about 35 kilometers thick under the [[Continental crust|continents]], but averages only some 7-10 kilometers beneath the [[Oceanic crust|oceans]]. The continental crust is composed primarily of crystalline |
he Bahá'í International Community and the United Nations.
==See also==
*[[Bahá'í apologetics]]
*[[Bahá'í individuals]]
*[[Bahá'í literature]]
*[[Bahá'í orthography]]
*[[Bahá'í timeline]]
==References==
*{{cite book
|author=`Abdu'l-Bahá
|authorlink=`Abdu'l-Bahá
|origyear=1912
|year=1982
|title=The Promulgation of Universal Peace
|edition=Hardcover
|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
|location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
|id=ISBN 0877431728
|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/PUP/
}} Talks Delivered by `Abdu'l-Bahá during His Visit to the United States and Canada in 1912.
*{{cite book
|author=`Abdu'l-Bahá
|authorlink=`Abdu'l-Bahá
|year=1978
|title=Selections From the Writings of `Abdu'l-Bahá
|edition=Hardcover
|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
|location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
|id=ISBN 0853980810
|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAB/index.html
}}
*{{cite book
|author= `Abdu'l-Bahá
|editor=Browne, E.G., Tr.
|year= 1891
|title= A Traveller's Narrative: Written to illustrate the episode of the Bab
|publisher= Cambridge University Press
|url= http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/books/A-E/B/browne/tn/hometn.htm
}}
*{{cite book
|author=`Abdu'l-Bahá
|authorlink=`Abdu'l-Bahá
|origyear=1901-08
|year=1992
|title=The Will And Testament of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
|publisher=Bahá'í Publications Australia
|location=Mona Vale, N.S.W, Australia
|id=ISBN 0909991472
|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/WT/
}}
*{{cite book
|author=Bahá'u'lláh
|authorlink=Bahá'u'lláh
|year=1976
|title=Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh
|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
|location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
|id=ISBN 0877431876
|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/GWB/
}}
*{{cite book
|author=Bahá'u'lláh
|authorlink=Bahá'u'lláh
|origyear=1873
|year=1992
|title=The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book
|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
|location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
|id=ISBN 0853989990
|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KA/
}}
*{{cite book
|author=Britannica (Eds.)
|year=1992
|title=Britannica Book of the Year
|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Chicago,
|id=}}
*{{cite book
|first=Shoghi
|last=Effendi
|authorlink=Shoghi Effendi
|year=1944
|title=God Passes By
|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
|location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
|id=ISBN 0877430209
|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/GPB/
}}
*{{cite book
|author=Hatcher, W.S.
|coauthors=& Martin, J.D.
|year= 1998
|title=The Bahá'í Faith: The Emerging Global Religion
|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
|location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
|id= ISBN 0877432643
}}
*{{cite book
|last= Heggie
|first=James
|year= 1986
|title= Bahá'í References to Judaism, Christianity and Islam
|publisher= George Ronald
|location=Oxford, UK
|id= ISBN 0853982422
}}.
*{{cite book
|last= Momen
|first=Moojan
|year= 1994
|title= Buddhism and the Bahá'í Faith
|publisher= George Ronald
|location=Oxford, UK
|id= ISBN 0853983844
}}.
*{{cite book
|last= Momen
|first=Moojan
|year= 2000
|title= Islam and the Bahá'í Faith, An Introduction to the Bahá'í Faith for Muslims
|publisher=George Ronald
|location=Oxford, UK
|id= ISBN 0-853984468
}}.
*{{cite book
|last= Momen
|first=Moojan
|year= 1990
|title= Hinduism and the Bahá'í Faith
|publisher= George Ronald
|location=Oxford, UK
|id= ISBN 0853982996
}}.
*{{cite book
|last=Townshend
|first=George
|year= 1986|title= Christ and Bahá’u’lláh
|publisher= George Ronald
|location=Oxford, UK
|id= ISBN 0853980055
}}.
*{{cite book
|last=Motlagh
|first=Hudishar
|title=I Shall Come Again
|publisher=Global Perspective
|year=1992
|id=ISBN 0-937661-01-5
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Schaefer
|first=Udo
|title=Making the Crooked Straight: A Contribution to Bahá'í Apologetics
|publisher=George Ronald
|location=Oxford, UK
|year=2000
|id=ISBN 0-85398-443-3
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Taherzadeh
|first=Adib
|year= 1972
|title= The Covenant of Baha'u'llah
|publisher= George Ronald
|location=Oxford, UK
|id= ISBN 0853983445
}}
*{{cite book
|first=George
|last=Townshend
|authorlink=Hand of the Cause George Townshend
|year=1966
|title=Christ and Bahá’u’lláh
|publisher=George Ronald
|location=Oxford, UK
|id=ISBN 0853980055
}}
*{{cite book
|author= Universal House of Justice
|authorlink= Universal House of Justice
|year= 2001
|title= Century of Light
|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
|location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
|id= ISBN 0877432945
|url= http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/COL/
}}
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikinews|Portal:Bahá'í Faith}}
{{portal}}
===Official websites of the Bahá'í International Community===
*[http://www.bahai.org/ The Bahá'ís], the official presence of the Bahá'í International Community on the Web.
*[http://www.bahaiworldnews.org/ Bahá'í World News Service], news and reports on the activities, projects and events of the worldwide Bahá'í community.
*[http://www.bahai.us/ Bahai Faith U.S.], the official presence of the Bahá'í Faith in the United States.
*[http://reference.bahai.org/ Bahá'í Reference Library], official versions of selected writings of the Bahá'í Faith in English, Persian, and Arabic.
*[http://www.onecountry.org/ One Country], the newsletter of the Bahá'í International Community.
*[http://www.bic-un.bahai.org/ Bahá'í International Community Statement Library], statements by the Bahá'í International Community in eleven languages, including submissions to the United Nations (1947-present).
*[http://www.bahaiyouth.com/ Bahaiyouth.com], A site dedicated to Bahá'í youth.
===Other Bahá'í websites===
* [http://www.uga.edu/bahai/ Bahá'í Association of the University of Georgia], one of the oldest Bahá'í sites on the internet. Links to information in multiple languages, simple to follow but comprehensive information, and largest archive of media coverage of the Bahá'í Faith. Site maintained by an individual Bahá'í.
* [http://bahai-library.com/ Bahá'í Library Online], an academically-oriented site with a large number of primary and secondary source materials on the Bahá'í Faith.
* [http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/ H-Bahai], part of the H-net series, H-Bahai concentrates on the scholarly study of Shaykhism, the Bábí Faith, and the Bahá'í Faith.
* [http://bahaistudy.org/ Bahá'í Study Center], varied Bahá'í resources, including online videos and talking books.
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/bahai/ BBC Religion and Ethics special: Bahá'í], BBC on the Bahá'í Faith.
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/bahai/index.htm ReligionFacts.com: Bahá'í Faith], objective guide to the Bahá'í Faith
* [http://www.bahai-education.org/ocean/ Ocean], a privately-developed, free downloadable reference library and research engine, containing the full text of the Bahá'í writings and many other scriptures in English, and over 1000 volumes from among the world's religious literature. Smaller selections in six other major languages. (Typographical accuracy of texts varies.)
* [http://www.northill.demon.co.uk/relstud/index.htm Religious Studies and Bahá'í Studies] Articles and papers authored as drafts towards a short encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith.
* [http://www.bahai-religion.org The Bahá'í Religion] Academic introduction to the Bábí and Bahá'í religions from an Islamic studies perspective.
* [http://bci.org/islam-bahai/ Islam and the Bahá'í Faith] The relationship between the two religions (in English and Arabic).
* [http://www.bahaullah.com/ Baha'u'llah] A web site on the life and teachings of Bahá'u'lláh. Includes a history and selected Writings.
----
''Usage note: The correct orthographies are "Bahá'í", "Bahá'ís", "Báb", "Bahá'u'lláh", and "`Abdu'l-Bahá": Bahá'ís use a particular and [[Bahá'í orthography|specific transcription]] of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in their publications. Because of typographic limitations, the forms "Bahai", "Bahais", "Baha'i", "Bab", "Bahaullah" and "Baha'u'llah" are often used as a common spelling and are satisfactory for certain electronic uses.''
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Bahá'í|*]]
{{Link FA|eo}}
{{Link FA|ja}}
[[ar:بهائية]]
[[az:Bahailik]]
[[bs:Baha'i]]
[[ca:Fe Bahà'í]]
[[cs:Baha'i]]
[[da:Bahai]]
[[de:Baha'i]]
[[et:Baha'i usk]]
[[es:Bahaísmo]]
[[eo:Bahaa Kredo]]
[[eu:Bahaismo]]
[[fa:دین بهایی]]
[[fr:Bahaïsme]]
[[ko:바하이 신앙]]
[[hr:Bahai vjera]]
[[io:Bahaa Kredo]]
[[id:Baha'i]]
[[ia:Fide Bahá'í]]
[[it:Fede Bahá'í]]
[[he:האמונה הבהאאית]]
[[kw:Fay Bahá'í]]
[[lt:Bahaizmas]]
[[lb:Baha'i]]
[[hu:Bahá'í]]
[[ms:Bahai]]
[[nl:Bahá'í]]
[[ja:バハーイー教]]
[[no:Bahai]]
[[nn:Bahai]]
[[pl:Bahaizm]]
[[pt:Fé Bahá'í]]
[[ro:Bahaism]]
[[ru:Бахаизм]]
[[sk:Bahá'í]]
[[sl:Bahá'í]]
[[fi:Bahá'í]]
[[sv:Bahai]]
[[th:บาไฮ]]
[[tr:Bahailik]]
[[zh:巴哈伊信仰]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bahais</title>
<id>4252</id>
<revision>
<id>15902538</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-18T20:45:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Bahá'í Faith]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bahá'í Faith]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baader-Meinhof-Gang</title>
<id>4253</id>
<revision>
<id>15902539</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-02T08:21:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tijmz</username>
<id>3215</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Red Army Faction]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bubble sort</title>
<id>4255</id>
<revision>
<id>41114050</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T03:27:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ycl6</username>
<id>785799</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bubble sort''', also known as '''exchange sort''', is a simple [[sorting algorithm]]. I |
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''group velocity''' of a [[wave]] is the [[velocity]] with which the variations in the shape of the wave's amplitude (known as the '''modulation''' or '''envelope''' of the wave) propagates through space. The group velocity is defined by the equation:
:<math>v_g \equiv \frac{\partial \omega}{\partial k}</math>
where:
:''v<sub>g</sub>'' is the group velocity
:''&omega;'' is the wave's [[angular frequency]]
:''k'' is the [[Wavenumber|wave number]]
The group velocity is often thought of as the velocity at which [[energy]] or [[information]] is conveyed along a wave. In most cases this is accurate, and the group velocity can be thought of as the [[signal velocity]] of the [[wave|waveform]]. However, if the wave is travelling through an absorptive medium, this does not always hold. For example, it is possible to design experiments where the group velocity of [[laser]] light pulses sent through specially prepared materials significantly exceeds the [[speed of light]] in vacuum (though [[superluminal communication]] is not possible, since the signal velocity remains less than the speed of light). It is also possible to reduce the group velocity to zero, stopping the pulse.
The [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''&omega;''(''k''), which gives ''&omega;'' as a function of ''k'', is known as the '''dispersion relation'''. If ''&omega;'' is [[Proportionality (mathematics)|directly proportional]] to ''k'', then the group velocity is exactly equal to the [[phase velocity]]. Otherwise, the envelope of the wave will become distorted as it propagates. This "group velocity dispersion" is an important effect in the propagation of signals through [[optical fiber]]s and in the design of short pulse lasers.
The idea of a group velocity distinct from a wave's phase velocity was first proposed by [[William Rowan Hamilton|W.R. Hamilton]] in [[1839]], and the first full treatment was by [[John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|Rayleigh]] in his "Theory of Sound" in [[1877]].
==See also==
*[[Dispersion (optics)]] for a full discussion of wave velocities
*[[Slow light]]
==References==
*Brillouin, Léon. ''Wave Propagation and Group Velocity''. Academic Press Inc., New York (1960).
==External links==
* [[Greg Egan]] has an excellent Java applet on [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/APPLETS/20/20.html his web site] that illustrates the apparent difference in group velocity from [[phase velocity]].
[[Category:Radio frequency propagation]]
[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:Wave mechanics]]
[[Category:Physical quantity]]
[[de:Gruppengeschwindigkeit]]
[[ja:&#32676;&#36895;&#24230;]]<!-- [[ja:&#32676;&#36895;&#24230;]] -->
[[sl:skupinska hitrost]]
[[vi:Vận tốc nhóm]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glitnir</title>
<id>12780</id>
<revision>
<id>28304784</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-14T15:22:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Glitnir''' ("shining") is the home of [[Forseti]], the [[Norse Mythology|Norse]] god of justice, and the seat of justice amongst the [[Æsir]]. Glitnir is symbolic of the importance of discussion rather than violence as a means of resolution of conflict within the Norse tradition. It has a [[silver]] roof and red pillars.
{{Euro-myth-stub}}
[[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]]
[[da:Glitner]]
[[no:Glitne]]
[[sv:Glitne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Group action</title>
<id>12781</id>
<revision>
<id>39212818</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T15:23:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>140.180.136.136</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Orbits and stabilizers */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the mathematical concept. For the sociology term, see [[group action (sociology)]].''
In [[mathematics]], a [[symmetry group]] describes all [[symmetry|symmetries]] of objects. This is formalized by the notion of a '''group action''': every element of the [[group (mathematics)|group]] "acts" like a [[bijective]] map (or "symmetry") on some set. In this case, the group is also called a '''[[permutation group]]''' (especially if the set is finite or not a vector space) or '''transformation group''' (especially if the set is a [[vector space]] and the group acts like [[linear transformation]]s of the set). A '''permutation representation''' of a group ''G'' is a representation of ''G'' as a group of [[permutation]]s of the set (usually if the set is finite), and may be described as a [[group representation]] of ''G'' by [[permutation matrix|permutation matrices]], and is usually considered in the finite-dimensional case&mdash;it is the same as a group action of ''G'' on an ''ordered'' [[basis of a vector space]].
== Definition ==
If <math>\mathrm{G}</math> is a [[group (mathematics)|group]] and <math>\mathrm{X}</math> is a [[set]], then a (left) '''group action''' of <math>\mathrm{G}</math> on <math>\mathrm{X}</math> is a [[binary function]] <math>\cdot : \mathrm{G} \times \mathrm{X} \rightarrow \mathrm{X}</math> (where the image of <math>g \in \mathrm{G}</math> and <math>x \in \mathrm{X}</math> is written as <math>g \cdot x</math>) which satisfies the following two axioms:
# <math>g \cdot (h \cdot x) = (g h) \cdot x</math> for all <math>g, h \in \mathrm{G}</math> and <math>x \in \mathrm{X}</math>
# <math>e \cdot x = x</math> for every <math>x \in \mathrm{X}</math> (<math>e</math> denotes the [[identity element]] of <math>\mathrm{G}</math>)
From these two axioms, it follows that for every <math>g \in \mathrm{G}</math>, the function which maps <math>x \in \mathrm{X}</math> to <math>g \cdot x</math> is a [[bijective function|bijective map]] from <math>\mathrm{X}</math> to <math>\mathrm{X}</math>. Therefore, one may alternatively and equivalently define a group action of <math>\mathrm{G}</math> on <math>\mathrm{X}</math> as a [[group homomorphism]] <math>\mathrm{G} \rightarrow \mathcal{X}</math>, where <math>\mathcal{X}</math> denotes the group of all bijective maps from <math>\mathrm{X}</math> to <math>\mathrm{X}</math>.
If a group action <math>\mathrm{G} \times \mathrm{X} \rightarrow \mathrm{X}</math> is given, we also say that ''G acts on the set X'' or ''X'' is a '''''G''-set'''.
In complete analogy, one can define a '''right group action''' of ''G'' on ''X'' as a function <math>g : \mathrm{X} \times \mathrm{G} \rightarrow \mathrm{X}</math> by the two axioms:
# <math>(x \cdot g) \cdot h = x \cdot (g h)</math>
# <math>x \cdot e = x</math>
Note that the difference between left and right actions is only in the order in which a product like ''gh'' acts on ''x''. For left actions ''h'' acts first followed by ''g'', while for right actions ''g'' acts first followed by ''h''. From a right action a left action can be constructed by composing with the inverse operation on the group. If ''r'' is a right action, then
:<math>l : G \times M \to M : (g, m) \mapsto r(m, g^{-1})</math>
is a left action, since
:<math>l(gh, m) = r(m, (gh)^{-1}) = r(m, h^{-1}), g^{-1}) = r(r(m, h^{-1}), g^{-1}) = r(l(h, m), g^{-1}) = l(g, l(h, m)).\,</math>
Therefore in the sequel, we consider only left group actions, since right actions add nothing.
== Examples ==
* Every group ''G'' acts on ''G'' in two natural but essentially different ways: ''g''&middot;''x'' = ''gx'' for all ''x'' in ''G'', or ''g''&middot;''x'' = ''gxg''<sup>&minus;1</sup> for all ''x'' in ''G''.
* The [[symmetric group]] S<sub>''n''</sub> and its [[subgroup | subgroups]] act on the set {&nbsp;1,&nbsp;...&nbsp;,&nbsp;''n''&nbsp;} by permuting its elements.
* The [[symmetry group]] of a [[polyhedron]] acts on the set of vertices of that polyhedron.
* The symmetry group of any geometrical object acts on the set of points of that object: for example, [http://log24.com/theory/plane.html the eightfold cube] and [http://diamondtheorem.com the diamond theorem].
* The [[automorphism group]] of a [[vector space]] (or [[graph theory|graph]], or group, or [[ring (algebra)|ring]]...) acts on the vector space (or set of [[vertex|vertices]] of the graph, or group, or ring...).
* The [[general linear group]] GL(''n'','''R'''), [[special linear group]] SL(''n'','''R'''), [[orthogonal group]] O(''n'','''R'''), and special orthogonal group SO(''n'','''R''') are [[Lie group]]s which act on '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>.
* The [[Galois group]] of a [[field extension]] ''E''/''F'' acts on the bigger field ''E''. So does every subgroup of the Galois group.
* The additive group of the [[real number|real numbers]] ('''R''', +) acts on the [[phase space]] of "[[well-behaved]]" systems in [[classical mechanics]] (and in more general [[dynamical systems]]): if ''t'' is in '''R''' and ''x'' is in the phase space, then ''x'' describes a state of the system, and ''t''.''x'' is defined to be the state of the system ''t'' seconds later if ''t'' is positive or ''-t'' seconds ago if ''t'' is negative.
*The additive group of the real numbers ('''R''', +) acts on the set of real functions of a real variable with ''(g &middot; f)''(''x'') equal to e.g. ''f''(''x''+''g''), ''f''(''x'') + ''g'', <math>f(x e^g)</math>, <math>f(x) e^g</math>, <math>f(x+g) e^g |
in the Rain]]", remixed by [[Mint Royale]]. The tagline was, "The original, updated."
==Quotation==
* "If [[Fred Astaire]] is the [[Cary Grant]] of dance, I'm the [[Marlon Brando]]." &mdash; Gene Kelly
==Stage Work==
As Actor:
*''Leave It to Me'' ([[1938]])
*''One for the Money'' ([[1939]])
*''[[The Time of Your Life]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[The Time of Your Life]]'' ([[1940]]) (return engagement) (also choreographer)
*''[[Pal Joey]]'' ([[1940]])
As Crew Member:
*''Best Foot Forward'' ([[1941]]) (choreographer)
*''[[Flower Drum Song]]'' ([[1958]]) (director)
*''Coquelico'' ([[1979]]) (producer)
==Filmography==
As Actor:
*''[[For Me and My Gal]]'' ([[1942]])
*''[[Pilot #5]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[Du Barry Was a Lady]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[Thousands Cheer]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[The Cross of Lorraine]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[Cover Girl]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[Christmas Holiday]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[Anchors Aweigh (film)]]'' ([[1945]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[Ziegfeld Follies (MGM)|Ziegfeld Follies]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[Living in a Big Way]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[The Pirate]]'' ([[1948]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[The Three Musketeers]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[Words and Music (1948 film)|Words and Music]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[Take Me Out to the Ball Game]]'' ([[1949]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[On the Town]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[Black Hand]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Summer Stock]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[An American in Paris]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[It's a Big Country]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[Council of Europe]]'' ([[1952]]) (short subject) (narrator)
*''[[Love Is Better Than Ever]]'' ([[1952]]) (Cameo)
*''[[Singin' in the Rain]]'' ([[1952]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[The Devil Makes Three]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[Brigadoon]]'' ([[1954]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[Crest of the Wave]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Deep in My Heart]]'' ([[1954]])
*''1955 Motion Picture Theatre Celebration'' ([[1955]]) (short subject)
*''[[It's Always Fair Weather]]'' ([[1955]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[The Magic Lamp]]'' ([[1956]]) (short subject) (voice)
*''[[Invitation to the Dance]]'' ([[1956]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[The Happy Road]]'' ([[1957]])
*''[[Les Girls]]'' ([[1957]])
*''[[Marjorie Morningstar]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Inherit the Wind]]'' ([[1960]])
*''[[Let's Make Love]]'' ([[1960]]) (Cameo)
*''[[What a Way to Go!]]'' ([[1964]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[The Young Girls of Rochefort]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[40 Carats]]'' ([[1973]])
*''[[Just One More Time]]'' ([[1974]]) (short subject)
*''[[That's Entertainment!]]'' ([[1974]]) (narrator)
*''[[The Lion Roars Again]]'' ([[1975]]) (short subject)
*''[[That's Entertainment!|That's Entertainment, Part II]]'' ([[1976]]) (narrator)
*''[[Viva Knievel!]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Xanadu (film)|Xanadu]]'' ([[1980]])
*''Reporters'' ([[1981]]) (documentary)
*''[[That's Entertainment!|That's Dancing!]]'' ([[1985]]) (narrator) (also executive producer)
*''[[The Young Girls Turn 25]]'' ([[1993]]) (documentary)
*''[[That's Entertainment!|That's Entertainment! III]]'' ([[1994]]) (narrator)
As Director:
*''[[On the Town]]'' ([[1949]]) (with [[Stanley Donen]])
*''[[An American in Paris]]'' ([[1951]]) (director of [[Leslie Caron]]'s intro sequences)
*''[[Singin' in the Rain]]'' ([[1952]]) (with Stanley Donen)
*''[[It's Always Fair Weather]]'' ([[1955]]) (with Stanley Donen)
*''[[Invitation to the Dance]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[The Happy Road]]'' ([[1957]]) (also producer)
*''[[The Tunnel of Love]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Gigot]]'' ([[1962]])
*''[[A Guide for the Married Man]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[Hello, Dolly!]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[The Cheyenne Social Club]]'' ([[1970]]) (also producer)
*''[[That's Entertainment, Part II]]'' ([[1976]]) (director of new sequences)
==Television Work==
*''[[Going My Way (TV series)|Going My Way]]'' ([[1962]]-[[1963]])
*''Gene Kelly: New York, New York'' ([[1966]])
*''[[Jack and the Beanstalk]]'' ([[1967]]) (also director)
*''[[The Funny Side]]'' ([[1971]]) (canceled after 4 months)
*''Gene Kelly: An American in Pasadena'' ([[1978]])
*''[[North and South (novel)|North and South]]'' ([[1985]]) (miniseries)
*''[[Sins (miniseries)|Sins]]'' ([[1986]]) (miniseries)
==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000037|name=Gene Kelly}}
[[Category:1912 births|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:1996 deaths|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:American dancers|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:American actors|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:American choreographers|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:American male singers|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Kelly, Gene]] <!-- Anchors Aweigh (movie) -->
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:Irish-American actors|Kelly,Gene]]
[[Category:People from Pennsylvania|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:People from Pittsburgh|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:Tap dancers|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:Vaudeville performers|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:National Medal of Arts recipients|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:American film directors|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 80s|Kelly, Gene]]
[[cy:Gene Kelly]]
[[de:Gene Kelly]]
[[es:Gene Kelly]]
[[fr:Gene Kelly]]
[[hr:Gene Kelly]]
[[he:ג'ין קלי]]
[[ja:ジーン・ケリー]]
[[fi:Gene Kelly]]
[[sv:Gene Kelly]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Graffiti art</title>
<id>12210</id>
<revision>
<id>15909912</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-11T18:23:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kowey</username>
<id>28474</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Graffiti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gangsta rap</title>
<id>12212</id>
<revision>
<id>42138121</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:52:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Iamthejabberwock</username>
<id>531901</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed hypen from "hip-hop" - see [[Talk:Hip_hop_music#why_it_should_be_moved|this page]] for details</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
'''Gangsta rap''' is a [[musical genre|subgenre]] of [[hip hop music]] which involves a lyrical focus on the lifestyles of [[inner-city]] criminals.
Although [[crime]] and violence in the inner city have always been part of [[hip hop music|hip hop]]'s lyrical canon, before the rise of gangsta rap the subject was not embraced or addressed so blatantly. Gangster rap also signalled an end to the mainstream popularity of socially conscious lyrics put forward by [[golden age hip hop|golden age]] artists such as [[Public Enemy]]. Gangster rap was pioneered by [[Ice-T]], who was influenced by [[Schooly D]]'s crime-raps but still mixed in a lot of social commentary in his lyrics. Crews such as [[Boogie Down Productions|BDP]] and [[N.W.A|NWA]] would go on to set the stage for gangster rap to be the norm.
With the popularity of [[Dr Dre]]'s ''[[The Chronic]]'' in 1992, gangster rap became the most commercially lucrative subgenre of hip hop. Since then, many gangster rap artists have moved towards a more pop-friendly mainstream sound.
==Controversy over subject matter==
The subject matter inherent in gangsta rap has caused a great deal of controversy, with many observers criticizing the genre for the messages it espouses including [[homophobia]], [[misogyny]], [[racism]], and [[materialism]]. Gangsta rappers generally defend themselves by pointing out that they are describing the reality of inner-city life and claim that when rapping, they are simply playing a character.
Given that the audience for gangsta rap has become predominately white, some commentators (for example, [[Spike Lee]] in his satirical film ''[[Bamboozled]]'') have even criticized it as analogous to [[minstrel show]]s and [[blackface]] performance, in which performers, both black and white, were made up to look African American , acted in a stereotypically uncultured and ignorant manner for the entertainment of white audiences. Some performers, such as [[The Geto Boys]], are even accused of being [[cartoon]]ish and over-the-top (though many artists, particularly the Geto Boys, would be the first to freely admit this).
==Gangsta rap in the [[1980s]]==
[[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]' [[Ice T]] is often credited as the first gangsta rapper due to his influential "Six n' da Mornin'" and other aggressive, gritty recordings (like ''[[Rhyme Pays]]'', 1987); his first rap in 1982 included references to guns, "hoes" and "niggers", but he remained a low-key rapper until 1986. Many other artists such as [[Philadelphia]]'s [[Schoolly D]] (''[[The Adventures of Schoolly D]]'', 1987, and the song 'PSK'), [[Kool G Rap]] ("It's a Demo", "I'm Fly"), [[N.W.A]], [[BDP]]'s first album [[Criminal Minded]], and [[Grandmaster Flash]]'s hit "[[The Message]]" are crucial to the foundations of the genre. Gangsta rap is usually credited as being an originally [[West Coast rap|West Coast]] phenomenon, due to the influence of Ice-T and N.W.A, though Schoolly D, BDP and Kool G Rap are East Coast rappers. Other major influences include the pioneering [[hardcore hip hop|hardcore]] work of politically-aware performers like [[Public Enemy]] (''[[It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back]]'', 1988), [[Ice Cube]] (''[[AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted]]'', 1990) and [[Boogie Down Productions]] (''[[Criminal Minded]]'', 1987), and the similarly "poetic gangsta" prose and poetry of Ice-T's namesake, [[Iceberg Slim]], and the [[Lightning Rod]] album [[Hustler's Convention]].
===Hip hop moves west and gangsta rap appears===
[[Image:N.W.A.StraightOuttaComptonalbumcover.jpg|frame|right|N.W.A's ''Straight Outta Compton'']]
Until the very late 1980s, hip hop had been dominated by the East Coast (essentially [[New York City]], though Philadelphia and [[New Jersey]] also had vital scenes), with West Coast hip hop a curiosity dominated by dance-heavy and critically reviled [[electro hop]] art |
gt;STS-51-F</td></tr>
<TR><TD>[[Space Shuttle|Shuttle]]:</td><td>[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]</td></tr>
<TR><TD>Launch pad:</td><td> 39A</td></tr>
<TR><TD>Launch:</td><td>[[July 29]], [[1985]]<br />5:00:00 p.m. EDT (21:00:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]])</td></tr>
<TR><TD>Landing:</td><td>[[August 6]], [[1985]]<br />12:45:26 p.m. PDT (19:45:26 UTC)<br />[[Edwards AFB, California]], Runway 23</td></tr>
<TR><TD>Duration:</td><td> 7 days, 22 hours, 45 minutes, 26 seconds</td></tr>
<TR><TD>Orbit altitude:</td><td> 173 nautical miles (320 km)</td></tr>
<TR><TD>Orbit inclination:</td><td> 49.5 degrees</td></tr>
<TR><TD>Orbits:</td><td>127</td></tr>
<TR><TD>Distance traveled:</td><td>3,283,543 miles (5,284,350 km)</td></tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#FFDEAD">'''Crew photo'''</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">[[image:Sts51f crew.jpg|thumb|center|250px|Front row (seated) L-R: Fullerton, Bridges, Back row (standing) L-R: England, Henize, Musgrave, Acton, Bartoe]]<br />
</td></tr>
<td width="50%" align="center">'''Previous mission''':<br>
[[STS-51-G]]</td>
<td width="50%" align="center">'''Next mission''':<br>
[[STS-51-I]]</td>
</table>
'''STS-51-F''' (Spacelab 2) was the nineteenth flight of a [[Space Shuttle]] and the eighth flight of [[Space Shuttle Challenger|''Challenger'']].
== Crew ==
* Commander: [[C. Gordon Fullerton]] (flew on ''[[STS-3]]'' & ''STS-51-F'')
* Pilot: [[Roy D. Bridges, Jr.]] (flew on ''STS-51-F'')
* Mission Specialist 1: [[Story Musgrave|F. Story Musgrave]] (flew on ''[[STS-6]]'', ''STS-51-F'', ''[[STS-33]]'', ''[[STS-44]]'', ''[[STS-61]]'' & ''[[STS-80]]'')
* Mission Specialist 2: [[Anthony W. England]] (flew on ''STS-51-F'')
* Mission Specialist 3: [[Karl G. Henize]] (flew on ''STS-51-F'')
* Payload Specialist 1: [[Loren Acton|Loren W. Acton]] (flew on ''STS-51-F'')
* Payload Specialist 2: [[John-David F. Bartoe]] (flew on ''STS-51-F'')
* Backup Payload Specialist 1: [[George W. Simon]]
* Backup Payload Specialist 2: [[Diane K. Prinz]]
==Mission parameters==
*'''[[Mass]]:'''
**''Orbiter Liftoff:'' 114,590 kg
**''Orbiter Landing:'' 98,307 kg
**''Payload:'' 15,603 kg
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 203 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 337 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 49.5°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 89.9 min
== Mission highlights ==
Primary payload was [[Spacelab]]-2. Despite an [[Space Shuttle program#Intact_abort_modes|abort to orbit]], which required mission replanning, the mission was declared a success. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the igloo, located at head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered [[life science]]s, [[plasma physics]], [[astronomy]], high-energy [[astrophysics]], [[solar physics]], [[atmospheric physics]] and [[technology research]].
The flight marked the first time the ESA Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one [[arcsecond]]. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected.
The payload with the most publicity probably was the ''Carbonated Beverage Dispenser Evaluation'' &mdash; an experiment where both [[Coca-Cola]] and [[Pepsi]] tried to make their drinks available to astronauts. Both fizzed excessively in microgravity.
== Launch ==
[[July 29]], [[1985]], 5:00:00 p.m. EDT. Launch countdown [[July 12]] halted at T-3 seconds after main engine ignition when a malfunction of number two [[Space Shuttle Main Engine]] (SSME) coolant valve caused shutdown of all three main engines. Launch July 29 delayed one hour, 37 minutes due to problem with table maintenance block update uplink. Five minutes, 45 seconds into ascent, number one main engine shut down prematurely due to a spurious high temperature sensor. This was the only in-flight main engine failure of the shuttle program. At about the same time, a second main engine almost shut down from a similar problem, but this was observed and inhibited by a fast acting [[flight controller]]. The failed SSME resulted in an
[[Space Shuttle abort modes#Intact_abort_modes|Abort To Orbit (ATO)]] trajectory, whereby the shuttle achieves a lower than planned orbital altitude. Launch weight: 252,855 lb (114.693 t).
== Landing ==
[[August 6]], [[1985]], 12:45:26 p.m. PDT, Runway 23, [[Edwards Air Force Base]], [[California]]. Rollout distance: 8,569 ft (2.612 km). Rollout time: 55 seconds. Mission extended 17 revolutions for additional payload activities due to abort-to-orbit. Orbiter returned to KSC [[August 11]], 1985. Landing Weight: 216,735 lb (98.309 t).
== Mission insignia ==
The mission insignia was designed by [[Houston, Texas|Houston]] artist Skip Bradley.
The Space Shuttle Challenger is depicted
ascending toward the heavens in search of new knowledge in the
field of solar and stellar astronomy, with its Spacelab 2 payload.
The constellations [[Leo]] and [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] are in the positions they will be in,
relative to the Sun during the flight. The nineteen stars signify that
this will be the 19th STS flight.
==See also==
* [[Space science]]
* [[Space shuttle]]
* [[List of space shuttle missions]]
* [[List of human spaceflights chronologically]]
== External links ==
* [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/51-f/mission-51-f.html NASA mission summary]
* [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/51-f/51-f-press-kit.txt Press Kit]
* [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/51-f/51-f-info.html Additional NASA info]
[[Category:Human spaceflights|STS-051-F]]
[[Category:Space Shuttle missions|STS-051-F]]
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[[de:STS-51-F]]
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<title>Springfield Nuclear Power Plant</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Springfield npp.png|right|thumb|'''Springfield Nuclear Power Plant''', from [[The Simpsons Road Rage]].]] In the [[television]] [[animated cartoon]] series ''[[The Simpsons]]'', the city of [[Springfield (The Simpsons)|Springfield's]] electricity is generated from the '''Springfield [[Nuclear power plant|Nuclear Power Plant]]'''. The plant has a [[monopoly]] on the city's energy supply, but is sometimes mismanaged and endangers much of the town with its presence.
Based on the plant's appearance and certain episode plots, it likely houses only a single "Unit" or reactor (although, judging from the number of reactor domes and [[cooling tower]]s, there is a chance it may have two). In one episode an emergency occurs and Homer resorts to the manual, which begins "Congratulations on your purchase of a Fissionator 1952
Slow-Fission Reactor".
The plant is poorly maintained, largely due to owner Montgomery Burns' miserliness. Its safety record is appalling, with various episodes showing luminous rats in the bowels of the building, pipes and drums leaking radioactive waste, the disposal of waste in a children's playground, plutonium used as a paperweight, cracked cooling towers, dangerously high Geiger counter readings around the perimeter of the plant, and so on. In the opening credits a bar of some radioactive substance is trapped in Homer's overalls and later disposed of in the street.
The design and folly of Springfield Nuclear Power Plant is based on the real life [[Trojan Nuclear Power Plant]] near [[Matt Groening]]'s home town of [[Portland, Oregon]]. Trojan Nuclear Power Plant opened in [[1970]] was infamous for it's poor construction and maintenance, resulting in leaking steam generators by [[1974]]. The leaking generators ultimately forced the plant to close in [[1992]].
== Employees/Associates ==
*'''[[C. M. Burns|Charles Montgomery Burns]]''', Very rich real owner and CEO of the power plant.
*'''[[Waylon Smithers]]''', is Montgomery Burns's Executive Assistant and adoring henchman. While he appears to [[de facto]] run much of the plant's day-to-day administration, his main job is tending to Mr. Burns, and often trying to talk him out of his more outrageous schemes.
[[Image:C-carl.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Carl Carlson]]
[[Image:C-lenny.jpg|thumb|150px||right|Lenny Leonard]]
*'''[[Homer Simpson]]''', currently works in Sector 7G as the Safety Officer and has been with the company in some capacity since the birth of his first child. He mostly works in a control room sitting in front of a console, but has little idea how to operate it (in one episode he was replaced by a chicken pecking at the buttons). Often he just reclines in his chair, snoozing or eating doughnuts. He frequently takes "leaves of absence" from (or flat-out quits) his job whenever something interesting comes up. This typically goes either unnoticed or without consequence by his superiors. Despite the fact that the safety of the plant - and Springfield - has been imperiled more than once on Homer's watch, he still keeps his job. Homer is the lowest-ranking perso |
oor or they were intended as such. At many places they have been damaged by the process of decay or human interference. Therefore, many areas of the painted walls, ceilings, and pillars are fragmentary. The painted narratives of the Jataka tales are depicted only on the walls, which demanded special attention of the devotee. They are didactic in nature meant to inform the community about the Buddha's teachings and life through successive births. Their placement on the walls required the devotee to walk through the aisles and 'read' the narratives depicted in various episodes. (Alas, to prevent vandalism, the entry in the aisles is restricted by site-authorities). The narrative episodes are depicted one after another although not in a linear order. Their identification has been a core area of research on the subject since the time of the site's rediscovery in 1819 CE. Deiter Schlingloff's identifications have updated our knowledge on the subject.
For long the paintings were erroneously referred to as frescoes. However, we know now that it is best to call them murals because the typically known process and technique of 'fresco' painting is not found in these murals. At Ajanta, the technique used, the medium, materials, and process is unlike the examples found in the art history of other civilizations. In fact, these murals have a certain uniqueness about them that is rarely found elsewhere, even within the history of South Asian art. The process of painting involved several stages. First of all the rock surface was chiseled rough so that it can hold the plaster. The plaster was prepared of clay, hay, dung, lime, etc. Variations are found in ingredients and their proportions from cave to cave, and in various places in the same cave. While the plaster was still wet, the drawings were done, and the colors applied. The wet plaster has the capacity to soak the color so that the color becomes a part of the surface and would not peel off or decay easily. As regards the color, they were the so called 'earth color' or the 'vegetable color.' Various kinds of stones, minerals, and plants were used in combinations to prepare different colors. Sculptures were often covered with stucco to give them a fine finish and lustrous polish. The stucco had the ingredients of lime and powdered sea-shell or conch. The latter afforded peculiar shine and smoothness. In cave upper six, some of it is extant. The smoothness resembles the surface of a glass, which astonishes the visitor today.
The brush for painting was made of animal hairs and twigs of certain plants.
==References==
Burgess, James, and Indraji, Bhagwanlal. ''Inscriptions from the Cave Temples of Western India'', Archaeological Survey of Western India, Memoirs, 10 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1881).
Burgess, James. ''Buddhist Cave Temples and Their Inscriptions'', Archaeological Survey of Western India, 4 (London: Trubner & Co., 1883; Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1964).
Burgess, James. “Notes on the Bauddha Rock Temples of Ajanta, Their Paintings and Sculptures,” Archaeological Survey of Western India, 9 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1879).
Burgess, James and Fergusson J. ''Cave Temples of India.'' (London: W.H. Allen & Co., 1880. Delhi: Munshiram Manohar Lal Publishers Pvt Ltd., Delhi, 2005).
Griffiths, J. ''Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta,'' 2 vols. (London: 1896 - 1897).
Cohen, Richard Scott. ''Setting the Three Jewels: The Complex Culture of Buddhism at the Ajanta Caves.'' A Ph. D. dissertation (Asian Languages and Cultures: Buddhist Studies, University of Michigan, 1995).
Cowell, E.B. ''The Jataka,'' I-VI (Cambridge: Cambridge, 1895; reprint, 1907).
Dhavalikar, M.K. ''Late Hinayana Caves of Western India'' (Pune: 1984).
Kramrisch, Stella. ''A Survey of Painting in the Deccan'' (Calcutta and London: The India Society in co-operation with the Dept. of Archaeology, 1937). Reproduced: “Ajanta,” ''Exploring India’s Sacred Art: Selected Writings of Stella Kramrisch,'' ed. Miller, Barbara Stoler (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: 1983), pp. 273-307; reprint (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 1994), pp. 273-307.
Majumdar, R.C. and A.S. Altekar, eds. ''The Vakataka-Gupta Age.'' New History of Indian People Series, VI (Benares: Motilal Banarasidass, 1946; reprint, Delhi: 1960).
Mirashi, V.V. “Historical Evidence in Dandin’s Dasakumaracharita,” ''Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute'', 24 (1945), 20ff. Reproduced: Studies in Indology, 1 (Nagpur: Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal, 1960), pp. 164-77.
Mirashi, V.V. ''Inscription of the Vakatakas''. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Series, 5 (Ootacamund: Government Epigraphist for India, 1963).
Mirashi, V.V. ''The Ghatotkacha Cave Inscriptions with a Note on Ghatotkacha Cave Temples by Srinivasachar, P''. (Hyderabad: Archaeological Department, 1952).
Mirashi, V.V. ''Vakataka inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta''. Hyderabad Archaeological Series, 14 (Calcutta: Baptist mission Press for the Archaeological Department of His Highness the Nizam’s Dominions, 1941).
Mitra, Debala. ''Ajanta'', 8th ed. (Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1980).
Nagaraju, S. ''Buddhist Architecture of Western India'' (Delhi: 1981).
Parimoo, Ratan; et al. ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', 2 vols (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991).
Schligloff, Dieter. ''Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 1; Narrative Wall Paintings'' (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1999)
Schligloff, Dieter. ''Studies in the Ajanta Paintings: Identifications and Interpretations'' (New Delhi: 1987).
Shastri, Ajay Mitra, ed. ''The Age of the Vakatakas'' (New Delhi: Harman, 1992).
Spink, Walter M. “A Reconstruction of Events related to the development of Vakataka caves,” ''C.S. Sivaramamurti felicitation volume'', ed. M.S. Nagaraja Rao (New Delhi: 1987).
Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: Cave 1’s Patronage,” ''Chhavi'' 2, ed. Krishna, Anand (Benares: Bharat Kala Bhawan, 1981), pp. 144-57.
Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: Cave 7’s Twice-born Buddha,” ''Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia'', ed. Narain, A.K. (New Delhi: 1985), pp. 103-16.
Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: Politics and Patronage,” ''Kaladarsana'', ed. Williams, Joanna (New Delhi: 1981), pp. 109-26.
Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: The Crucial Cave,” ''Ars Orientalis'', 10 (1975), pp. 143-169.
Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: The Problem of Cave 11,” ''Ars Orientalis'', 7 (1968), pp. 155-168.
Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Paintings: A Checklist for their Dating,” ''Dimensions of Indian Art, Pupul Jayakar Felicitation Volume'', ed. Chandra, Lokesh; and Jain, Jyotindra (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1987), p. 457.
Spink, Walter M. “Notes on Buddha Images,” ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp. 213-41.
Spink, Walter M. “The Achievement of Ajanta,” ''The Age of the Vakatakas'', ed. Shastri, Ajaya Mitra (New Delhi: Harman Publishing House, 1992), pp. 177-202.
Spink, Walter M. “The Vakataka’s Flowering and Fall,” ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp. 71-99.
Spink, Walter M. “The Archaeology of Ajanta,” ''Ars Orientalis'', 21, pp. 67-94.
Weiner, Sheila L. ''Ajanta: It’s Place in Buddhist Art'' (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977).
Yazdani, Gulam. ''Ajanta: the Colour and Monochrome Reproductions of the Ajanta Frescoes Based on Photography'', 4 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1930 [31?], 1955).
Yazdani, Gulam. ''The Early History of the De''ccan, Parts 7-9 (Oxford: 1960).
Zin, Monika. ''Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 2; Devotional and Ornamental Paintings'' (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2003).
==External links==
* [http://www.india-picture.net/Ajanta india-picture.net] - Pictures of Ajanta from india-picture.net
* [http://www.rksingh1970.blogspot.com]- A new article on monk Buddhabhadra's Cave 26 Complex, Ajanta in the Vākāţaka period
{{Commons|Ajanta Caves}}
{{Template:World Heritage Sites in India}}
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[[Category:Buddhist art and culture]]
[[Category:Maharashtra]]
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<title>Ajax of Cyprus</title>
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<title>Ajmer</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ajmer''', or Ajmere, is a city in [[Ajmer District]] in [[India]]'s [[Rajasthan]] [[states and territories of India|state]]. Its population was approximately 500,000 in 2001. The city gives its name to a district, and also to a former province o |
| editing =
| distributor =
| released = [[December 29]], [[1939 in film|1939]] U.S. release
| runtime = 94 min
| language = English
| budget =
| imdb_id = 0031225
}}
'''''Destry Rides Again''''' is a [[1939]] [[western film]] directed by George Marshall, starring [[Marlene Dietrich]], [[James Stewart (actor)|James Stewart]], [[Mischa Auer]], [[Charles Winninger]], [[Brian Donlevy]], [[Allen Jenkins]], [[Irene Hervey]], [[Bill Cody, Jr.]], and [[Una Merkel]].
This is both a comedy and a drama, about how a corrupt and violent town can be cleaned up without relying entirely on physical force. It demonstrates the power the cooperation between men and women, as well as what can be done by putting respect for the law over reliance on brawn.
{{spoiler}}
Characters:
*Kent - saloon owner
*Slade - mayor
*Callahan - henpecked Russian
*Frenchy - the saloon singer
*Wash - new sheriff
*Destry - new deputy
[[Image:destry.jpg|thumb|left|James Stewart and Marlene Dietrich ]]
The film opens to the usual drunken men's brawl, but outside the tavern rather than in. We then watch the saloon owner and Frenchy (Dietrich) cheat a man out of his ranch. Frenchy spills coffee on the man when he gleefully bets his $10,000 ranch with an unbeatable poker hand. Kent's stooge replaces the man's ace in the hole with a deuce. When Sheriff Keho goes up to investigate, Kent's gang murders him and hides his body. The mayor announces that Keho has suddenly gone away on business and picks the banjo playing town drunk to be the new sheriff. Unexpectedly, this former deputy of the great Destry suddenly swears off drinking: "You gotta choose between the bottle or the badge". He announces that he's sending for Tom Destry, Junior who cleaned up Tombstone.
A cattleman and his sister ride on the 6-horse stage along with Tom. The hot-headed cattleman complains about the bumpy ride, while his sister says she doesn't mind at all. Tom watches with calm, almost amused detachment. He then deflates Jack with a homespun anecdote about a violent man who went up against the wrong person one day, and is now pushing up the prettiest flowers in his hometown cemetery.
Kent introduces himself as a man with an unusual hobby - taking deputy's guns - and the other men edge cautiously away, but Destry defuses the situation by announcing he doesn't carry a gun. But people are not disappointed because a big fight does indeed break out: it's a cat fight over Callahan between his wife and Frenchy: "You know he'd rather be cheated by me than married to you." It lasts over two minutes and is broken up by Destry pouring water over the two women. It's a running joke that Callahan is treated like a pouting boy by his domineering wife.
Destry believes in law and order, but not in guns. This is the paradox of the film. A casual observer might think he was a pacifist. But he does believe in using force, just not in violent shoot-outs. A violent confrontation makes the bad guys look like heroes somehow, but locking them up in jail makes them look cheap and serves as a warning to the rest.
Destry is actually the most forceful man in town. When the sheriff talks of quitting, because Destry refuses to challenge the bad guys with guns a-blazing, Destry grabs his shoulder and turns him around. "You're not going back to being the town drunk!" He makes him swear him in. When three horsemen come in, shooting their pistols for fun, Destry tells them to hold on. One man calls him "No Gun Destry", but he asks if he can heft the other's guns. He then shoots the knobs off a sign and angrily tells the much subdued gun owner, "The next time, I'll put you in jail."
Destry stops another gun fight by siding with Kent against Claggett, the man he cheated, and permits Kent to throw Claggett off the ranch he worked ten years for. "We gotta respect the law. No two ways about it, right?" He also visits Frenchy "to apologize" (but really to appeal to her better nature).
He gives Callahan a pair of pants to help locate Keogh's body. No pacifist, Destry punches out Jack when he insultingly accuses him of accepting bribes from Kent.
The film has been selected for preservation in the United States [[National Film Registry]].
A western with a very similar plot and similar comic effects is [[Michael Curtiz]]'s ''[[Dodge City (1939 movie)|Dodge City]]''.
A [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[Musical theater|musical]] version of the story, ''Destry Rides Again,'' opened in [[New York]] at the [[Imperial Theater]] on [[April 23]], [[1959 in music|1959]], and played 472 performances. Produced by [[David Merrick]], the show had music and lyrics by [[Harold Rome]] and starred [[Andy Griffith]] as Destry and [[Dolores Gray]] as Frenchy. Obviously influenced by having played the role of Destry, when [[Andy Griffith]] became the star on The Andy Griffith Show (1960-1968), the main character, Andy Taylor, was a sherrif who carried no gun.
[[Category:1939 films]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry]]
[[Category:Western films]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Denmark}}
'''Politics of Denmark''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democratic]] [[constitutional monarchy]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Denmark|prime minister]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government, with the prime minister acting as the [[first among equals]] (''[[primus inter pares]]''). [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the Danish [[parliament]], known as the ''[[Folketing]]''. In the last decennia the party system is dominated by the market liberal [[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre]] party and the social democratic [[Socialdemokraterne|Social Democrats]].
The [[courts of Denmark|Danish Judiciary]] is functionally and administratively independent of the executive and the legislature.
== Executive branch ==
[[Denmark]] is a [[constitutional monarchy]] with an [[List of Danish monarchs|almost unbroken link of monarchs]] for more than 1,000 years (except for an interregnum of eight years from [[1332]] to [[1340]]). The current monarch, [[Margaret II of Denmark|Queen Margaret II]], has largely ceremonial functions; perhaps her most significant formal power lies in her right to appoint the [[Prime Minister|prime minister]] ''(Statsminister)'' and the [[cabinet of Denmark]], who are responsible for administration of the government. However, she must consult with parliamentary leaders to determine the public's will, since the cabinet may be dismissed by a [[vote of no confidence]] in the ''[[Folketing]],'' the Danish parliament. Cabinet members are occasionally recruited from outside the ''Folketing.''
The vote of no confidence is an essential part of danish parliamentary work, since the constitution states "no government can work with a majority against it", opposed to the more common international rule that says a government needs a majority for it. These rules may seem to have the same meaning, but in politics nothing is absolute, and as proof of this the Social Democrats once used this rule to form government although the |
Dahomey (Königreich)]]
[[et:Dahomee]]
[[fa:داهومی]]
[[fr:Dahomey]]
[[is:Dahómey]]
[[he:דהומיי]]
[[hu:Dahomey]]
[[nl:Dahomey]]
[[ja:ダホメ王国]]
[[pl:Dahomej]]
[[pt:Daomé]]
[[ro:Dahomey]]
[[tl:Dahomey]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Doctors Without Borders</title>
<id>8766</id>
<revision>
<id>15906716</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-29T18:22:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hephaestos</username>
<id>3628</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Médecins Sans Frontières]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dragoon</title>
<id>8767</id>
<revision>
<id>41548684</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T02:10:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.65.66.178</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|mounted infantry}}
{{alternateuses}}
[[Image:Dragoon-illustration.jpeg|right|thumb|A light dragoon from the American Revolution]]
[[Image:Dragon-ArcLouvres.jpg|thumb|Statue of a dragoon on the Triumph Arc of the Louvres in Paris]]
During the late 17th and early 18th centuries a '''dragoon''' was traditionally a [[soldier]] trained to fight on foot, but transport himself on [[horse]]back. In other words, he moved as [[cavalry]] but fought as [[infantry]]. The name derives from the dragoon's primary weapon, a [[carbine]] or short [[musket]] called the ''dragon''. Sometimes, dragon carbines are said to have been so-called because they "breathed fire" &mdash; a reference to the smoke they emitted when fired.
Dragoons were organized not in [[squadron]]s or [[troop]]s like the horse, but in [[company (military unit)|companies]] like the foot, and their [[commissioned officer|officers]] and [[non-commissioned officer]]s bore infantry ranks. The flexibility of mounted infantry made dragoons a useful arm, especially when employed for what would now be termed "internal security work" against smugglers or civil unrest. The dragoon regiments were also cheaper to recruit and maintain than the notoriously expensive regiments of horse. However, dragoons were at a disadvantage when engaged against true cavalry, and constantly sought to raise their horsemanship, armament and social status to the levels of the horse regiments. Thus, "dragoon" had come to mean medium cavalry by the time of the early wars of [[Frederick the Great]], in the [[1740s]].
The term "to dragoon" dates from the earlier mounted infantry period. Dragoons were the most efficient and economical form of cavalry for [[police]] work and [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] warfare.
From the late 18th century, some regiments started to be designated as Light Dragoons, who rode faster and lighter horses and carried lighter [[sabre]]s. They were trained in [[reconnaissance]], [[skirmish]]ing and other work requiring speed. In the early [[19th century]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] Light Dragoon regiments converted to [[Lancer]]s and [[Hussar]]s. Between 1881 and 1910 all Russian cavalry other than cossacks and Imperial Guard units were designated as dragoons, reflecting an emphasis on dismounted action in their training. In 1914 there were still dragoon regiments in the British, French, German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Spanish armies. Their uniforms varied greatly, lacking the common features of hussar or lancers regiments.
A current unit designated as Dragoons is the [[United States Army]]'s [[2d Armored Cavalry Regiment]]. Known as the "2d Dragoons", it was organized as the Second Dragoon Regiment until it was renamed the Second Cavalry Regiment in 1860. It is the oldest active cavalry combat unit in the U.S. military and uses [[Stryker]] infantry fighting vehicles in the same manner that horses were once used.
In the present-day [[British Army]], one regiment is designated [[The Light Dragoons]] and three as [[Dragoon guards|Dragoon Guards]]. In the [[Territorial Army]], one of the five squadrons of the [[Royal Yeomanry]], W ([[Westminster Dragoons]]) Squadron, also bears the title of a former dragoon regiment.
In Canada, the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] have the status of a regiment of Dragoons. The senior [[armoured]] regiment in the [[Canadian Forces]] is the [[Royal Canadian Dragoons]]
==See also==
* [[Mounted infantry]]
* [[Dragonnades]]
* [[Dragoon guards]]
* [[1st Continental Light Dragoons]]
* [[2nd Continental Light Dragoons]]
* [[3rd Continental Light Dragoons]]
* [[4th Continental Light Dragoons]]
* [[Langdon's Company of Light Horse Volunteers]]
* [[Corps of North Carolina Light Dragoons]]
==External links==
*[http://www.westminsterdragoons.co.uk Westminster Dragoons]
*[http://www.saskd.ca/opportunities.htm Saskatchewan Dragoons]
*[http://www.militaryhorse.org/ Society of the Military Horse]
*[http://www.bcdragoon.ca/ British Colubmbia Dragoons]
[[Category:Cavalry]] [[Category:Infantry]]
[[da:Dragon]]
[[de:Dragoner]]
[[es:Dragón (militar)]]
[[fr:Dragon (militaire)]]
[[io:Dragono]]
[[nl:Dragonder]]
[[ja:ドラグーン]]
[[no:Dragon]]
[[pl:Dragoni (wojsko)]]
[[ru:Драгун]]
[[sv:Dragon (soldat)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dulcimer</title>
<id>8768</id>
<revision>
<id>37896127</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T21:13:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dsreyn</username>
<id>423367</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed "three-course" from Appalachian dulcimer description - various numbers are common</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dulcimer''' is the name given to two types of stringed [[musical instrument]]:
* The [[Appalachian dulcimer]], a [[fret]]ted, plucked instrument which is also referred to as a ''mountain dulcimer'' or just a ''dulcimer'', and
* The [[Hammered dulcimer]], which is a hammer-struck, [[trapezoid]]-shaped [[zither]]
The instruments are quite different, but are both members of the zither family of instruments.
{{disambig}}
[[Category:String instruments]]
[[de:Dulcimer]]
[[eo:zimbalono]]
[[fr:Dulcimer]]
[[nl:Hammered dulcimer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dutch West India Company</title>
<id>8769</id>
<revision>
<id>40865910</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T14:58:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nick Taylor</username>
<id>699162</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added Category:History of Guyana</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dutch West India Company''' ([[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''West-Indische Compagnie'' or ''WIC'') was a company of [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] [[merchant]]s. On [[June 3]], [[1621]], it was granted a [[chartered company|charter]] for a trade monopoly in the [[West Indies]] (meaning the Caribbean) by the [[Republic of the Seven United Netherlands]] and given jurisdiction over the [[African slave trade]], [[Brazil]], the [[Caribbean]], and [[North America]]. The area where the company could operate consisted of [[West Africa]] (the area between the [[Tropic of Cancer]] and [[Cape of Good Hope]]) and the [[Americas]], which included the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the eastern part of [[New Guinea]]. The intended purpose of the charter was to eliminate competition, particularly Spanish or Portuguese, between the various trading posts established by the merchants. The company became instrumental in the [[Dutch colonization of the Americas]].
The WIC was organised similar to the (far greater and richer) [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC), which had a trade monopoly for [[Asia]] (mainly present Indonesia) since [[1602]], except for the fact that the WIC was not allowed to conduct military operations without approval of the Dutch government. Like the VOC, the company had five offices, called chambers (''kamers''), in [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]] (both in Holland), [[Middelburg]] (in Zeeland), [[Hoorn]] and [[Groningen (city)]] (in the north), of which the chambers in Amsterdam and Middelburg contributed most to the company. The board consisted of 19 members, known as the [[Heeren XIX]] ('Lords').
The company was initially relatively successful; in the [[1620s]] and [[1630s]], many trade posts or colonies were established. The [[New Netherland]] area, which included [[New Amsterdam]], covered parts of present-day [[New York]], [[Connecticut]], [[Delaware]], and [[New Jersey]]. Other settlements were established on the [[Netherlands Antilles]], several other Caribbean islands, [[Suriname]] and [[Guyana]]. In [[1630]], the colony of New Holland (capital Mauritsstad (modern [[Recife]])) was formed, taking over [[Portugal|Portuguese]] possessions in [[Brazil]].
In Africa, posts were established on the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] (now [[Ghana]]) and briefly in [[Angola]].
Another success for the WIC was the capture of a fleet carrying silver from the Spanish colonies to Europe by [[Piet Hein (Netherlands)|Piet Hein]] in [[1628]] - piracy was one of the objectives of the WIC.
In the Americas, [[fur]] (North America) and sugar (South America) were the most important trade goods, while African settlements traded slaves - mainly destined for the plantations on the Antilles and Suriname - gold and ivory.
However, the successes quickly ended. New Holland was lost to Portuguese Brazil in 1654, after a long war, and many other trading posts were also destroyed or captured by rivaling European nations. The [[New Netherland]] colonisation effort did not spread further either, in part due to a fierce rivalry with the [[England|English]], who conquered New Netherland in [[1664]], and in part due to the difficulty of attracting settlers under the company's initial policy of the [[Patroon]] system, which granted vast power over settlers to the men who brought them to the colony.
After years of debts, the original WIC f |
;, et cetera. The calculation of <math>k G</math>, where <math>k</math> is an integer and <math>G</math> is a point, is called ''scalar multiplication''.
==Cryptographic schemes==
Since the the (additive) cyclic group described above can be considered similar to the (multiplicative) group of powers of an integer <math>g</math> modulo prime <math>p</math>: <math>(g^0, g, g^2, g^3, g^4, \ldots)</math>, the problem of finding <math>k</math> given points <math>k G</math> and <math>G</math> is called ''elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem'' (ECDLP). The assumed hardness of several problems related to the [[discrete logarithm]] in the subgroup of <math>E(\mathbb{F}_q)</math> allows cryptographic use of elliptic curves. Most of the elliptic curve cryptographic schemes are related to the discrete logarithm schemes which were originally formulated for usual modular arithmetic:
* the [[Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman]] key agreement scheme is based on the [[Diffie-Hellman]] scheme,
* the [[Elliptic Curve DSA|Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm]] is based on the [[Digital Signature Algorithm]],
* the [[ECMQV]] key agreement scheme is based on the [[MQV]] key agreement scheme.
Not all the DLP schemes should be ported to the elliptic curve domain. For example, the well known [[ElGamal encryption]] scheme was never standardized by official bodies and should not be directly used over an elliptic curve (the standard encryption scheme for ECC is called Elliptic Curve [[Integrated Encryption Scheme]]). The main reason is that although it is straightforward to convert an arbitrary message (of limited length) to an integer modulo <math>p</math>, it is not that simple to convert a bitstring to a point of a curve (note for every <math>x_0</math> there is an <math>y</math> such that <math>(x,y) \in E(\mathbb{F}_q)</math>). (Another factor is that ElGamal scheme is vulnerable to chosen-ciphertext attacks.)
There is a vision that ECDLP-based cryptography is going to replace cryptography based on integer factorization (e.g., RSA) and finite-field cryptography (e.g., DSA)<!--terms from SP800-57-->. At the RSA Conference 2005 the [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) announced [[NSA Suite B|Suite B]] which exclusively uses ECC for digital signature generation and key exchange. The suite is intended to protect both classified and unclassified national security systems and information.
Another major source of cryptographic applications of elliptic curves is [[bilinear operator]] (based on the [[Weil pairing]] or the Tate pairing) which allows, for example, to make efficient [[ID-based cryptography]] (see also [http://paginas.terra.com.br/informatica/paulobarreto/pblounge.html The Pairing-Based Crypto Lounge]).
==Implementation considerations==
Although the details of each particular elliptic curve scheme are described in the article referenced above some common implementation considerations are discussed here.
===Domain parameters===
To use ECC all parties must agree on all the elements defining the elliptic curve, that is ''domain parameters'' of the scheme. The field is defined by <math>p</math> in the prime case and the pair of <math>m</math> and <math>f</math> in the binary case. The elliptic curve is defined by the constants <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> used in its defining equation. Finally, the cyclic subgroup is defined by its ''generator'' (aka. ''base point'') <math>G</math>. For cryptographic application the order of <math>G</math>, that is the smallest non-negative number <math>n</math> such that <math>n G = O</math>, must be prime. Since <math>n</math> is the size of a subgroup of <math>E(\mathbb{F}_q)</math> it follows from the [[Lagrange's theorem (group theory)|Lagrange's theorem]] that the number <math>h = \frac{|E|}{n}</math> is integer. In cryptographic applications this number <math>h</math>, called ''cofactor'', at least must be small (<math>h \le 4</math>) and, preferably, <math>h = 1</math>. Let us summarize: in the prime case the domain parameters are <math>(p,a,b,G,n,h)</math> and in the binary case they are <math>(m,f,a,b,G,n,h)</math>.
Unless there is an assurance that domain parameters were generated by a party trusted with respect to their use, the domain parameters ''must'' be validated before use.<!--TBD: validation procedure-->
The generation of domain parameters is not usually done by each participant since this involves counting the number of points on a curve which is time-consuming and troublesome to implement. As a result several standard bodies published domain parameters of elliptic curves for several common field sizes:
* NIST, [http://csrc.nist.gov/CryptoToolkit/dss/ecdsa/NISTReCur.pdf Recommended Elliptic Curves for Government Use]
* SECG, [http://www.secg.org/download/aid-386/sec2_final.pdf SEC 2: Recommended Elliptic Curve Domain Parameters]
Test vectors are also available [http://www.secg.org/download/aid-390/gec2.pdf].
If one (despite the said above) wants to build his own domain parameters he should select the underlying field and then use one of the following strategies to find a curve with appropriate (i.e., near prime) number of points using one of the following methods:
* select a random curve and use a general point-counting algorithm, for example, [[Schoof's algorithm]] or [[Schoof-Elkies-Atkin algorithm]],
* select a random curve from a family which allows easy calculation of the number of points (e.g., Koblitz curves), or
* select the number of points and generate a curve with this number of points using ''complex multiplication'' technique {{ref|cm}}.
Several classes of curves are weak and shall be avoided:
* curves over <math>\mathbb{F}_{2^m}</math> with non-prime <math>m</math> are vulnerable to [[Weil descent]] attacks {{ref|gs}}, {{ref|ghs}}.
* curves such that <math>n</math> divides <math>q^B-1</math> for small <math>B</math> (say, <math>B < 20</math>) are vulnerable to MOV attack {{ref|mov}} which applies usual DLP in a small degree extension field of <math>\mathbb{F}_q</math> to solve ECDLP,
* curves such that <math>|E(\mathbb{F}_q)| = q</math> are vulnerable to the attack that maps the points on the curve to the additive group of <math>\mathbb{F}_q</math> {{ref|semaev}}, {{ref|smart}}, {{ref|sa}}.
===Key sizes===
Since all the fastest known algorithms that allow to solve the ECDLP ([[baby-step giant-step]], [[Pollard's rho algorithm for logarithms|Pollard's rho]], etc.), need <math>O(\sqrt{n})</math> steps, it follows that the size of the underlying field shall be roughly twice the security parameter. For example, for 128-bit security one needs a curve over <math>\mathbb{F}_q</math>, where <math>q \approx 2^{256}</math>. This can be contrasted with finite-field cryptography (e.g., [[Digital Signature Algorithm|DSA]]) which requires{{ref|SP800-57}} 3072-bit public keys and 256-bit private keys, and integer factorization cryptography (e.g., [[Rivest-Shamir-Adleman|RSA]]) which requires 3072-bit public and private keys. The hardest ECC scheme (publicly) broken to date has 109-bit key (that is about 55 bits of security), it was broken near the beginning of [[2003]] using over 10,000 [[Pentium]] class PCs running continuously for over 540 days (see [http://www.certicom.com/index.php?action=company,press_archive&view=121]).
===Projective coordinates===
A close examination of the addition rules shows that in order to add two point one needs not only several additions and multiplications in <math>\mathbb{F}_q</math> but also an inversion operation. The inversion (for given <math>x \in \mathbb{F}_q</math> find <math>y \in \mathbb{F}_q</math> such that <math>x y = 1</math>) is one-two orders of magnitude slower {{ref|hdcm}} than multiplication. Fortunately, points on a curve can be represented in a different coordinate systems which do not require an inversion operation to add two points. Several such systems were proposed: in the ''projective'' system each point is represented by three coordinates <math>(X,Y,Z)</math> using the following relation: <math>x = \frac{X}{Z}</math>, <math>y = \frac{y}{Z}</math>; in the ''Jacobian'' system a point is also represented with three coordinates <math>(X,Y,Z)</math> by a different relation is used: <math>x = \frac{X}{Z^2}</math>, <math>y = \frac{y}{Z^3}</math>; in the ''modified Jacobian'' system the same relations are used but four coordinates are stored and used for calculations <math>(X,Y,Z,aZ^4)</math>; and in the ''Chudnovsky Jacobian'' system five coordinates are used <math>(X,Y,Z,Z^2,Z^3)</math>. Note that there are may be different naming conventions, for example, [[IEEE P1363]]-2000 standard uses "projective coordinates" to refer to what is commonly called Jacobian coordinates.<!--TBD: insert formulas--> An additional speed-up is possible if mixed coordinates are used {{ref|cmo}}.
===Fast reduction (NIST curves)===
Reduction (which is needed for addition and multiplication) modulo <math>p</math> can be executed much faster if the prime <math>p</math> is a pseudo-[[Mersenne prime]] that is <math>p \approx 2^d</math>, for example, <math>p = 2^{521} - 1</math> or <math>p = 2^{256} - 2^{32} - 2^9 - 2^8 - 2^7 - 2^6 - 2^4 - 1</math>. Compared to Barrett reduction there can |
window, so that whoever had lost it would see it as they went past, and could come in and claim it.
Then Bagpuss would start yawning again, and as he fell asleep the narration returned and all the toys reverted: Professor Yaffle once again became a bookend, the mice turned back to carvings on the Marvellous Mechanical Mouse Organ, and Bagpuss became, once again, just a saggy old cloth cat: baggy, and a bit loose at the seams.
Most of the stories and songs used in the series are based on folk songs and [[fairy tale]]s from around the world.
==Episodes==
The titles of the thirteen episodes each refer in some way to the object Emily found.
* The Ship in a Bottle - "Where would it sail to?",
* The Owls of Athens - A dirty rag that reveals a picture once cleaned,
* The Frog Princess - assorted jewels, which initially are thought to represent a cat and mouse but which Gabriel decides were the crown jewels of a frog princess,
* The Ballet Shoe - put to inventive use by the mice,
* The Hamish - a tartan pin cushion,
* The Wise Man - a broken figurine of a Chinaman, claimed by Yaffle to be the very wise Ling-Po,
* The Elephant - missing its ears,
* The Mouse Mill - demonstrated by the mice to make chocolate biscuits out of butterbeans and breadcrumbs. This turns out to be a fraud,
* The Giant - a statuette,
* Old Man's Beard - a tangly plant,
* The Fiddle - which plays itself,
* Flying - a basket which the mice attempt to turn into a flying machine,
* Uncle Feedle - a piece of cloth, decided to be a house for a rag doll.
==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/ilove/tv/bagpuss/index.shtml BBC "Cult TV" site for Bagpuss, with video clips]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/classic/bagpuss/bagpussdegree.shtml Video clip of Oliver Postgate talking about Bagpuss' degree]
* [http://www.smallfilms.co.uk/bagpuss The Smallfilms Treasury's Bagpuss site]
* [http://www.anorakzone.com/bagpuss Anorak Zone's Bagpuss site]
* [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/562331/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online]
[[Category:BBC children's television programmes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Naive set theory</title>
<id>4944</id>
<revision>
<id>40694266</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T10:09:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Reetep</username>
<id>263488</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Paradoxes */ No brackets needed. In any case a full stop should appear outside of the bracket.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract mathematics]], '''naive set theory'''{{rf|1|origin}} was the first development of [[set theory]], which was later to be framed more carefully as [[axiomatic set theory]]. Naive set theory is distinguished from axiomatic set theory by the fact that the former relies on an informal understanding of [[set]]s as collections of objects, called the ''elements'' or ''members'' of the set, whereas the latter uses only those facts about sets and membership provable from definite lists of [[axiom]]s (derived from our understanding of collections of objects and their members, but framed with care for various purposes, including but not limited to avoiding the known [[paradoxes]]). Sets are of great importance in [[mathematics]]; in fact, in modern formal treatments, most mathematical objects ([[number]]s, [[relation (mathematics)|relation]]s, [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, etc.) are defined in terms of sets.
==Introduction==
Naive set theory was created at the end of the [[19th century]] by [[Georg Cantor]] in order to allow mathematicians to work with [[infinite set]]s consistently.
As it turned out, assuming that one could perform any operations on sets without restriction led to [[paradox]]es such as [[Russell's paradox]]. In response, [[axiomatic set theory]] was developed to determine precisely what operations were allowed and when. Today, when mathematicians talk about "set theory" as a field, they usually mean axiomatic set theory. Informal applications of set theory in other fields are sometimes referred to as applications of "naive set theory", but usually are understood to be justifiable in terms of an [[axiomatic system]] (normally [[ZFC]]).
It is important to note that some believe that [[Georg Cantor]]'s set theory was not actually implicated in the [[paradox]]es (this is a matter which continues to be discussed). He was aware of some of them and did not appear to believe that they discredited his theory. It is hard to be sure of this because he did not give an axiomatization. [[Frege]] did explicitly axiomatize a theory, in which the formalized version of [[naive set theory]] can be interpreted, and it is this formal theory which [[Bertrand Russell]] actually addressed when he presented [[Russell's paradox]].
It is useful to study sets naively in order to develop facility for working with them. Furthermore, a firm grasp of set theoretical concepts from a naive standpoint is important as a first stage in understanding the motivation for the formal axioms of set theory.
This article develops the naive theory. Sets are defined informally and a few of their properties are investigated. Links in this article to specific axioms of set theory point out some of the relationships between the informal discussion here and the formal [[axiomatization]] of set theory, but no attempt is made to justify every statement on such a basis.
The term "naive set theory" does not always refer to the inconsistent theory of Frege. It can refer to the usual set theory presented informally, as in the case of Halmos's well-known book ''Naive Set Theory'', which is actually a somewhat (and not all that) informal presentation of the usual axiomatic set theory [[ZFC]].
== Sets, membership and equality ==
In naive set theory, a '''set''' is described as a well-defined collection of objects. These objects are called the '''elements''' or '''members''' of the set. Objects can be anything: numbers, people, other sets, etc. For instance, 4 is a member of the set of all even [[integer]]s. Clearly, the set of even numbers is infinitely large; there is no requirement that a set be finite.
If ''x'' is a member of ''A'', then it is also said that ''x'' '''belongs to''' ''A'', or that ''x'' is in ''A''. In this case, we write ''x''&nbsp;&isin;&nbsp;''A''.
(The symbol "<math>\in</math>" is a derivation from the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] [[epsilon]], "&epsilon;", introduced by [[Peano]] in 1888.)
The symbol <math>\notin</math> is sometimes used to write ''x''&nbsp;&notin;&nbsp;''A'', or "x is not in A".
Two sets ''A'' and ''B'' are defined to be '''[[Equality (mathematics)|equal]]''' when they have precisely the same elements, that is, if every element of ''A'' is an element of ''B'' and every element of ''B'' is an element of ''A''. (See [[axiom of extensionality]].) Thus a set is completely determined by its elements; the description is immaterial. For example, the set with elements 2, 3, and 5 is equal to the set of all [[prime number]]s less than 6.
If ''A'' and ''B'' are equal, then this is denoted symbolically as ''A''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''B'' (as usual).
We also allow for an '''[[empty set]]''', often denoted <math>\varnothing</math>: a set without any members at all.
Since a set is determined completely by its elements, there can only be one empty set. (See [[axiom of empty set]].)
== Specifying sets ==
The simplest way to describe a set is to list its elements between curly braces.
Thus {1,2} denotes the set whose only elements are 1 and 2.
(See [[axiom of pairing]].)
Note the following points:
*Order of elements is immaterial; for example, {1,2} = {2,1}.
*Repetition ([[multiplicity]]) of elements is irrelevant; for example, {1,2,2} = {1,1,1,2} = {1,2}.
(These are consequences of the definition of equality in the previous section.)
This notation can be informally abused by saying something like {dogs} to indicate the set of all dogs, but this example would usually be read by mathematicians as "the set containing the single element ''dogs''".
An extreme (but correct) example of this notation is {}, which denotes the empty set.
We can also use the notation {''x''&nbsp;:&nbsp;''P''(''x'')} (or sometimes {''x''&nbsp;|&nbsp;''P''(''x'')}) to denote the set containing all objects for which the condition ''P'' holds.
For example, {''x''&nbsp;: ''x''&nbsp;is a real number} denotes the set of [[real number]]s, {''x''&nbsp;: ''x''&nbsp;has blonde hair} denotes the set of everything with blonde hair, and {''x''&nbsp;: ''x''&nbsp;is a dog} denotes the set of all dogs.
This notation is called [[set-builder notation]] (or "'''set comprehension'''", particularly in the context of [[Functional programming]]).
Some variants of set builder notation are:
*{''x''&nbsp;&isin;&nbsp;''A''&nbsp;: ''P''(''x'')} denotes the set of all ''x'' ''that are already members of A'' such that the condition ''P'' holds for ''x''. For example, if '''Z''' is the set of [[integer]]s, then {''x''&nbsp;&isin;&nbsp;'''Z'''&nbsp;: ''x''&nbsp;is&nbsp;even} is the set of all [[even]] integers. (See [[axiom of specification]].)
*{''F''(''x'')&nbsp;: ''x''&nbsp;&isin;&nbsp;''A''} denotes the set of all objects obtained by putting members of the set ''A'' into the formula ''F''. For example, {2''x''&nbsp;: ''x''&nbsp;&isin;&nbsp;'''Z'''} is again the set of all even integers. (See [[axiom of replacement]].)
*{''F''(''x'')&nbsp;: ''P''(''x'')} is the most general form of set builder notation. For example, {''x'''s&nbsp;owner&nbsp;: ''x''&nbsp;is a dog} is the set of all dog owners.
== Subsets ==
Given two sets ''A'' and ''B'' we say that ''A'' is |
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