text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
the rational approach to divine understanding that the schoolmen adopted, Bernard preached an immediate faith, in which the intercessor was the Virgin Mary. "the Virgin that is the royal way, by which the Savior comes to us." "Bernard played the leading role in the development of the Virgin cult, which is one of the most important manifestations of the popular piety of the twelfth century. In early medieval thought the Virgin Mary had played a minor role, and it was only with the rise of emotional Christianity in the eleventh century that she became the prime intercessor for humanity with the deity." (Cantor 1993 p 341)
==Bernard's character ==
The greatness of St Bernard is generally regarded as being his character. The age saw him as the embodiment of its ideal: that of medieval monasticism at its highest development. The world had no meaning for him save as a place of banishment and trial, in which men are but "strangers and pilgrims" (Serm. i., Epiph. n. I; Serm. vii., Lent. n. I); the way of grace, back to the lost inheritance, had been marked out, and the function of theology was merely to maintain the landmarks inherited from the past. He had no sympathy with the dialectics of many teachers. Bernard's vision was clear. With merciless logic he followed the principles of the Christian faith as he conceived it. For all his overmastering zeal he was by nature neither a bigot nor a persecutor. Even when preaching the crusade he interfered at [[Mainz]] to stop the persecution of the [[Jew]]s, stirred up by the monk Radulf.[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=879&letter=B&search=bernard_of_clairvaux] As for heretics, "the little foxes that spoil the vines should be taken, not by force of arms, but by force of argument". However, if any heretic refused to be thus taken, he considered "that he should be driven away, or even a restraint put upon his liberty, rather than that he should be allowed to spoil the vines" (Serm. lxiv). He was troubled by the mob violence which made the heretics "[[martyr]]s to their unbelief." He approved the zeal of the people, but believed that "faith is to be produced by persuasion, not imposed by force"; adding that, "it would without doubt be better that they should be coerced by the sword than that they should be allowed to draw away many other persons into their error." Finally, he ascribes the steadfastness of these "dogs" in facing death to the power of the devil (Serm. lxvi. on Canticles ii. 15).
Bernard at his best displays a nobility of nature, a wise charity and tenderness in his dealings with others, and a genuine humility, that make him one of the most complete exponents of the Christian life. His broadly Christian character is witnessed to by the enduring quality of his influence. The author of the ''Imitatio'' drew inspiration from his writings; the reformers saw him as a medieval champion of their favourite doctrine of the supremacy of the divine grace. His works have been reprinted in countless editions. This is perhaps due to the fact that the chief fountain of his own inspiration was the [[Bible]]. He was saturated in its language and in its spirit; and though he read it, as might be expected, uncritically, and interpreted its plain meanings allegorically-- as the fashion of the day was--it saved him from
the grosser aberrations of medieval Catholicism. He accepted the teaching of the church as to the reverence due to our Lady and the saints, and on feast-days and festivals these receive their due meed in his sermons; but in his letters and sermons their names are at other times seldom invoked. They were overshadowed by his idea of the grace of God and the moral splendour of Christ; "from Him do the Saints derive the odour of sanctity; from Him also do they shine as lights " (Ep. 464).
Bernard's popularity as a preacher cannot be judged by the sermons that survive. These were all delivered in [[Latin]], to congregations more or less on his own intellectual level. Like his letters, they are full of quotations from and reference to the Bible, and they have all the qualities likely to appeal to men of culture at all times.
In [[the Divine Comedy]] Bernard is the last of Dante's spiritual guides, and offers his prayer to the Virgin Mary to grant Dante the vision of the true nature of God that is the climax of the story.
"Bernard," wrote [[Erasmus of Rotterdam]] in his ''Art of Preaching'', "is an eloquent preacher, much more by nature than by art; he is full of charm and vivacity and knows how to reach and move the affections." The same is true of the letters and to an even more striking degree. They are written on a variety of subjects, great and small, to people of the most diverse stations and types; and they help us to understand the adaptable nature of the man, which enabled him to appeal as successfully to the unlearned as to the learned.
== Works ==
Bernard's works fall into three categories:
*(1) Letters, of which over five hundred have been preserved, of great interest and value for the history of the period.
*(2) Treatises:
**(a) dogmatic and polemical, ''De gratia et libero arbitrio'', written about 1127, and following closely the lines laid down by St [[Augustine of Hippo]]; ''De baptismo aliisque quaestionibus ad mag. Ilugonem de S. Victore''; ''Contra quaedam capitala errorum Abaelardi ad Innocentem II'' (in justification of the action of the synod of Sens);
**(b) ascetic and mystical, ''De gradibus humilitatis ci superbiae'', his first work, written perhaps about 1121; ''De diligendo Deo'' (about 1126); ''De conversione ad clericos'', an address to candidates for the priesthood; ''De Consideratione'', Bernard's last work, written about 1148 at the pope's request for the edification and guidance of Eugenius III;
**(c) about monasticism, ''Apologia ad Guilelmum'', written about 1127 to William, abbot of St Thierry; ''De laude novae militiae ad milites templi'' (c. 1132--1136); ''De precepto et dispensatione'', an answer to various questions on monastic conduct and discipline addressed to him by the monks of St Peter at Chartres (some time before 1143);
**(d) on ecclesiastical government, ''De moribus et officio episcoporum'', written about 1126 for Henry, bishop of Sens; the ''De Consideratione'' mentioned above;
**(e) a biography, ''De vita et rebus gestis S. Maiachiae, Hiberniae episcopi'', written at the request of the Irish abbot Congan and with the aid of materials supplied by him; it is of importance for the ecclesiastical history of [[Ireland]] in the 12th century;
**(f) sermons--divided into ''Sermones de tempore''; ''de sanctis''; ''de diversis''; and eighty-six sermons, in ''Cantica Canticorum'', an allegorical and mystical exposition of the [[Song of Solomon]];
**(g) hymns. Many hymns ascribed to Bernard survive, e.g. ''Jesu dulcis memoria'', ''Jesus rex admirabilis'', ''Jesu decus angelicum'', ''Salve Caput cruentatum''.
Of these the three first are included in the Roman breviary. Many have been translated and are used in Protestant churches.
==Editions==
St Bernard's works were first published in anything like a complete edition at Paris in 1508, under the title ''Seraphica melliflui devotique doctoris S. Bernardi scripta'', edited by [[André Bocard]]. The first really critical and complete edition is that of Dom [[Jean Mabillon|J. Mabillon]] ''Sancti Bernardi'' opp. etc. (Paris, 1667, improved and enlarged in 1690, and again, by [[René Massuet]] and Texier, in 1719), reprinted by [[Jacques Paul Migne|JP Migne]], ''[[Patrologia Latina|Patrolog. lat.]]'' (Paris, 1859).
The modern critical edition is edited by Leclerq, Talbot, and Rochais (8 vols., Rome, 1958-1975). There is an English translation of Mabillon's edition, including, however, only the letters and the sermons on the Song of Songs, with the biographical and other prefaces, by [[Samuel J. Eales]] (4 vols., London, 1889--1895). More recent (1970s-1990s) English translations of many of Bernard's works can be found in the "Cistercian Fathers" series, published by Cistercian Publications, Spencer, MA.
==References==
*[[Norman F. Cantor|Cantor, Norman F.]] 1993. ''The Civilization of the Middle Ages''
*{{1911}}
{{Commons|Bernard of Clairvaux}}
[[Category:Crusades]]
[[Category:Cistercians]]
[[Category:French theologians]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:1090 births|Bernard of Clairvaux]]
[[Category:1153 deaths|Bernard of Clairvaux]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]
[[ar:برنارد من كليرفو]]
[[da:Bernhard af Clairvaux]]
[[de:Bernhard von Clairvaux]]
[[es:Bernardo de Claraval]]
[[fr:Bernard de Clairvaux]]
[[gl:Bernardo de Claraval]]
[[it:San Bernardo di Chiaravalle]]
[[he:ברנר מקלרבו]]
[[la:Bernardus Claraevallensis]]
[[nl:Bernard van Clairvaux]]
[[ja:クレルヴォーのベルナルドゥス]]
[[pl:Bernard z Clairvaux]]
[[pt:Bernardo de Claraval]]
[[ro:Bernard de Clairvaux]]
[[ru:Бернар Клервоский]]
[[sk:Bernard z Clairvaux]]
[[fi:Bernhard Clairvauxlainen]]
[[sv:Bernhard av Clairvaux]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bishkek</title>
<id>4554</id>
<revision>
<id>41897990</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:29:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pmsyyz</username>
<id>83813</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bischkekklein.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Bishkek cityscape]]
'''Bishkek''' (Бишкек, بىشكهك) is the [[capital]] of [[Kyrgyzstan]]. It has a population of approximately 900,000 (2005). Originally founded in [[1878]] as the Russian fortress of '''Pishpek''' (Пишпек), between [[1926]] and [[1991]] it was known as '''Frunze''' (Фрунзе), after the [[Bolshevik]] military leader [[Mikhail Frunze]]. In [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]], a ''Bishkek'' is a churn used to make fermented mare's milk ([[kumis]]), the Kyrgyz national |
Newer liquid nutritional supplements using plant ionic compounds are believed to be more readily absorbed in the human body.
The benefits of antioxidants were examined during the [[Age-Related Eye Disease Study]].
=== Nutritional antioxidants ===
The following substances have shown positive antioxidant effects:
*[[Vitamin A]] ([[Retinol]], also synthesized by the body from [[beta-carotene]]) protects dark green, yellow and orange vegetables and fruits from solar radiation damage, and is thought to play a similar role in the human body. Carrots, squash, broccoli, sweet potatoes, tomatoes (which gain their color from the compound [[lycopene]]), kale, collards, cantaloupe, peaches and apricots are particularly rich sources of beta-carotene.
*[[Vitamin C]] ([[Ascorbic acid]]) is a water-[[soluble]] compound that fulfills several roles in living systems. Important sources include citrus fruits (such as oranges, sweet lime, etc.), green peppers, broccoli, green leafy vegetables, strawberries, blueberries, raw cabbage and tomatoes. [[Linus Pauling]] was a major advocate for its use.
*[[Vitamin E]], including [[Tocotrienol]] and [[Tocopherol]], is fat soluble and protects [[lipid|lipids]]. Sources include wheat germ, nuts, seeds, whole grains, green leafy vegetables, vegetable oil, and fish-liver oil. Recent studies showed that some tocotrienol isomers have significant anti-oxidant properties.
*[[Selenium]] has been shown as early as the 1950's to have a beneficial effect in reducing the occurrence of male [[prostate]] cancer, and a recent study done by the National Health System of China have verified previous results. However, the substance must be taken in measured amounts because large doses of the element can be toxic. Good food sources include fish, shellfish, red meat, grains, eggs, sunflower seeds, chicken, garlic, and brazil nuts. Vegetables can also be a good source if they are grown in selenium-rich soils, and some nutritional supplements contain a supply of selenium.
*[[Coenzyme Q | Coenzyme Q10]] (CoQ10) is an antioxidant which is both water and lipid soluble. It is not classified as a vitamin in humans as it can be manufactured by the body, but quantities decrease with age to levels that may be less than optimal, and levels in the diet are generally low. Supplementation with CoQ10 has been clinically proven to improve the health of gums. There is evidence that CoQ10 helps protect the brain against Parkinson's disease.
*[[Melatonin]] is a natural hormone which has several biological roles in different species. It is an exceptionally effective antioxidant within the mitochondria, which are subject to extreme oxidative stress.
*[[Bio-flavonoids]] are present in many dark berries such as pomegranate, [[noni]], blueberries, and blackberries, as well as in certain types of [[tea]] and [[coffee]], especially [[green tea]]. Coffee is often depleted of antioxidants due to the high-temperature roasting process. Applied Food Sciences has introduced Healthy Roast, a product that remove antioxidants from the green coffee beans before roasting and then adds them back when beans are quenched. The [[FDA]] may have recently suggested that the average person should consume up to 7000 [[Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity|ORAC]] units daily, in order to reduce the risk of cancer. As this is nearly 12 servings of high-ORAC-value fruit, the use of nutritional supplements containing bio-flavonoids is likely necessary to reach this target.
* Several [[Food additive|food additives]], including pectin, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and tocopherol-derived compounds are used as antioxidants to help [[preservative|guard against food deterioration]].
* A wide variety of antioxidants occur naturally in the body; many of these are [[enzymes]] such as [[glutathione peroxidase]], [[superoxide dismutase]] and [[catalase]]. Bilirubin, a breakdown product of blood, has been identified [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=3029864&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum] as a possibly significant antioxidant.
In addition, [[Omega 3]] fatty acids prevent the formation of [[atherosclerosis]] when they are taken in conjunction with antioxidants. The antioxidants prevent the acids from being oxidised.
Many [[nutraceutical]] and health food companies have, in light of scientific studies, produced products that supplement the diet with antioxidants. Large companies such as the [[Nutraceutical Corporation]] and [[Natrol]] have products that are explicitly composed of derivatives that contain antioxidants, like [[resveratrol]] in grape seeds. Other companies, such as [[Canprev]], [[Vemma]] and Natural Health, produce supplements that contain a combination of antioxidants, like their Immunotality formula.
Specialty herbs such as [[green tea]] and [[jiaogulan]], with makers like Japanese Green Tea and Arizona (for iced) have benefitted tremendously from recent articles on antioxidants in green tea delaying onset of age-related [[macular degeneration]].
==Antioxidants in fuels==
Some antioxidants are added to liquid industrial chemicals, most often [[fuel]]s and [[lubricant]]s to prevent oxidation, and in gasolines to prevent polymerization leading to [[gumming]]. Some examples are:
* [[AO-22]] ([[N,N'-di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamine]]), for turbine oils, [[transformer oil]]s, [[hydraulic fluid]]s, [[wax]]es, and [[grease (lubricant)|grease]]s
* [[AO-24]] (mostly [[N,N'-di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamine]]), blended for low-temperature handling)
* [[AO-29]] ([[2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol]]), for turbine oils, transformer oils, hydraulic fluids, waxes, greases, and [[gasoline]]s
* [[AO-30]] (alkylated phenols, mostly [[2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol]] (>97%)), for [[jet fuel]]s and gasolines, including aviation gasolines
* [[AO-31]] (alkylated phenols, mostly [[2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol]] (>72%)), for jet fuels and gasolines, including aviation gasolines
* [[AO-32]] (alkylated phenols, mostly [[2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol]] (>55%), and [[2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol]] (>15%)), for jet fuels and gasolines, including aviation gasolines
* [[AO-36]] (alkylated phenols), for gasolines
* [[AO-37]] (alkylated phenols, mostly [[2,6-di-tert-butylphenol]]), for jet fuels and gasolines, widely approved for [[aviation fuel]]s
Antioxidants are frequently used together with [[metal deactivator]]s and [[corrosion inhibitor]]s.
==References==
* Halliwell B. 1999. Antioxidant defense mechanisms: from the beginning to the end (of the beginning). Free Radical Research 31:261-72.
*Rhodes C.J. Book: Toxicology of the Human Environment - the critical role of free radicals, Taylor and Francis, London (2000).
==External links==
*[http://www.thedoctorslounge.net/medlounge/articles/antioxidants/ Antioxidants: Introduction, Biochemistry & Classification]
*[http://www.senescence.info/causes.html Damage-Based Theories of Aging] Includes a description of the free radical theory of aging and a discussion of the role of antioxidants in aging.
*[http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/columnnn/nn000322.html Foods that are rich in antioxidants]
*[http://www.benbest.com/nutrceut/AntiOxidants.html General Anti-Oxidant Actions]
*[http://www.projectgoodlife.com/jiaogulanantioxidant.php Natural Herbal Antioxidant]
[[Category:Antioxidants|*]]
[[Category:Physiology]]
[[cs:Antioxidant]]
[[da:Antioxidant]]
[[de:Antioxidans]]
[[es:Antioxidante]]
[[hu:Antioxidáns]]
[[nl:Antioxidant]]
[[pt:Antioxidante]]
[[sk:Antioxidant]]
[[fi:Antioksidantti]]
[[sv:Antioxidanter]]
[[uk:Антиоксидант]]
[[zh:抗氧化剂]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BeBoldInUpdatingPages</title>
<id>3279</id>
<revision>
<id>15901636</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-14T00:00:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Netoholic</username>
<id>41995</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Be bold in updating pages]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Be bold in updating pages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BoMis</title>
<id>3280</id>
<revision>
<id>15901637</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bomis]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BiblicalInterpretation</title>
<id>3281</id>
<revision>
<id>15901638</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bible]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BalticSea</title>
<id>3282</id>
<revision>
<id>15901639</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baltic Sea]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BallroomDance</title>
<id>3283</id>
<revision>
<id>15901640</id>
<timestamp>2002-11-26T08:21:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RTC</username>
<id>4392</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ballroom dance]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BiologicalScience</title>
<id>3284</id>
<revision>
<id>15901641</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text |
to win that War." [Ward 1990 p 272]
Other historians, however, suggest that the South had a chance to win its independence. As James McPherson has observed, the Confederacy remained on the defensive, which required fewer military resources. The Union, committed to the strategic offensive, faced enormous manpower demands that it often had difficulty meeting. War weariness among Union civilians mounted along with casualties, in the long years before Union advantages proved decisive. Thus, the inevitability of Union victory remains hotly contested among scholars.
The goals were not symmetric. To win independence the South had to convince the North it could not win, but it did not have to invade the North. To restore the Union the North had to conquer vast stretches of territory. In the short run (a matter of months) the two sides were evenly matched. But in the long run (a matter of years) the North had advantages that increasingly came into play.
Both sides had long-term advantages but the Union had more of them. The Union had to control the entire coastline, defeat all the main Confederate armies, seize Richmond, and control most of the population centers. As the occupying force they had to station hundreds of thousands of soldiers to control railroads, supply lines, and major towns and cites. The long-term advantages widely credited by historians to have contributed to the Union's success include:
[[Image:Advantages.jpg|right|350px|US economic advantages over CSA]]
*The more industrialized economy of the North, which aided in the production of arms, munitions and supplies, as well as finances, and transportation. The graph shows the relative advantage of the USA over the CSA.
*A [[Second Party System| party system]] that enabled the Republicans to mobilize soldiers and support at the grass roots, even when the war became unpopular. The Confederacy deliberately did not use parties.
*The Union population was 22 million and the South 9 million in 1861; the disparity grew as the Union controlled more and more southern territory with garrisons, and cut off the trans-Mississippi part of the Confederacy.
*Excellent railroad links between Union cities, which allowed for the quick and cheap movement of troops and supplies. Transportation was much slower and more difficult in the South which was unable to augment its much smaller system or repair damage, or even perform routine maintenance.
*The Union devoted much more of its resources to medical needs, thereby overcoming the unhealthy disease environment that sickened (and killed) more soldiers than combat did.
*The Union at the start controlled over 80% of the shipyards, steamships, river boats, and the Navy. It augmented these by a massive shipbuilding program. This enabled the Union to control the river systems and to blockade the entire southern coastline.
*The Union's more established government, particularly a mature executive branch which accumulated even greater power during wartime, may have resulted in less regional infighting and a more streamlined conduct of the war. Failure of Davis to maintain positive and productive relationships with state governors damaged the Confederate president's ability to draw on regional resources.
*The Confederacy's tactic of engaging in major battles at the cost of heavy manpower losses, when it could not easily replace its losses.
*The Confederacy's [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HZY/is_1_14/ai_78397581 failure] to fully use its advantages in guerrilla warfare against Union communication and transportation infrastructure. However, as Lee warned, such warfare would prove devastating to the South, and (with the exception of Confederate partisans in Missouri) Confederate leaders shrank from it.
*Despite the Union's many tactical blunders like the [[Seven Days Battle]], those commited by Confederate generals, such as Lee's miscalculations at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] and [[Battle of Antietam]], were far more serious&mdash;if for no other reason than that the Confederates could so little afford the losses.
*Lincoln proved more adept than Davis in replacing unsuccessful generals with better ones.
*Strategically the location of the capital Richmond tied Lee to a highly exposed position at the end of supply lines. (Loss of Richmond, everyone realized, meant loss of the war.)
*Lincoln grew as a grand strategist, in contrast to Davis. The Confederacy never developed an overall strategy. It never had a plan to deal with the blockade. Davis failed to respond in a coordinated fashion to serious threats, such as Grant's campaign against Vicksburg in 1863 (in the face of which, he allowed Lee to invade Pennsylvania).
*The Confederacy's failure to win diplomatic or military support from any foreign powers. Its [[King Cotton]] misperception of the world economy led to bad diplomacy, such as the refusal to ship cotton before the blockade started.
* Most important, the Union had the will to win, and leaders like Lincoln, Seward, Stanton, Grant, and Sherman would do whatever it took to achieve victory. The Confederacy, as Beringer et al (1986) argue, may have lacked the total commitment needed to win. It took time, however, for leaders such as Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan to emerge; in the meantime, Union public opinion wavered, and Lincoln worried about losing the election of 1864, until victories in the Shenandoah Valley and Atlanta made victory seem likely.
==Major land battles==
There were as many as 10,000 hostile engagements during the war. The costliest and most significant are listed in [[Battles of the American Civil War]].
==Civil War leaders and soldiers==
[[Image:Lincoln and Davis Statue.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Statues of [[Abraham Lincoln]] and [[Jefferson Davis]] at [[Vicksburg National Military Park]].]]
One of the reasons that the U.S. Civil War wore on as long as it did and the battles were so fierce was that most important generals on both sides had formerly served in the [[United States Army]]&mdash;some, including [[Ulysses S. Grant]] and [[Robert E. Lee]], during the [[Mexican-American War]] between 1846 and 1848. Most were graduates of the [[United States Military Academy]] at West Point.
Southern military commanders and strategists included [[Jefferson Davis]], [[Robert E. Lee]], [[Joseph E. Johnston]], [[Stonewall Jackson|Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson]], [[James Longstreet]], [[P.G.T. Beauregard]], [[John Mosby]], [[Braxton Bragg]], [[John Bell Hood]], [[JEB Stuart|James Ewell Brown (JEB) Stuart]], [[William Mahone]], [[Judah P. Benjamin]], [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early]], and [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]].
Northern military commanders and strategists included [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[Edwin M. Stanton]], [[Ulysses S. Grant]], [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], [[George H. Thomas]], [[George B. McClellan]], [[Henry W. Halleck]], [[Joseph Hooker]], [[Ambrose Burnside]], [[Irvin McDowell]], [[Winfield Scott]], [[Philip Sheridan]], [[George Crook]], [[George Armstrong Custer]], [[George G. Meade]], and [[Winfield Hancock]]
After 1980, scholarly attention turned to ordinary soldiers, and to women and African Americans involved with the War. As James McPherson observed "The profound irony of the Civil War was that Confederate and Union soldiers ... interpreted the heritage of 1776 in opposite ways. Confederates fought for liberty and independence from what they regarded as a tyrannical government; Unionists fought to preserve the nation created by the founders from dismemberment and destruction."(McPherson 1994 p 24)
==The Question of Slavery==
Given the painfulness of the historical memory of slavery for many Americans, its role in the war remains controversial to this day. To understand its place in the conflict, it is necessary to divide the issue in two: slavery as a motivation for secession, and abolition as a Union war aim.
In the weeks and months preceding the secession of the Confederate states, Southern leaders spoke openly about their desire to preserve slavery, and their fears for the "peculiar institution" if the South remained within the Union. Almost all of the ordinances of secession cited the preservation of slavery as a primary, even the foremost, reason for departure from the Union. And yet many individual Southern soldiers fought for reasons quite apart from the defense of slavery: to protect their families and communities, to defend their home states, and out of a nascent sense of nationality.
On the Union side, Lincoln initially declared his purpose in prosecuting the war to be the preservation of the Union, not emancipation. He had no wish to alienate the thousands of slaveholders in the Union border states. The long war, however, had a radicalizing effect on federal policies. With the [[Emancipation Proclamation]], announced in September 1862 and put into effect four months later, Lincoln adopted the abolition of the [[Slave Power]] as a second mission&mdash;that is slaves owned by rebels had to be taken away from them and freed. One goal was to destroy the economic basis of the Confederate leadership class, and another goal was to actually liberate the 4 million slaves, which was accomplished by 1865.
The Emancipation Proclamation declared all slaves held in territory then under Confederate control to be "then, thenceforth, and forever free," but did not affect slaves in areas under Union control. It did, however, show the Union that slavery's days were numbered, increasing abolitionist support in the North. The border states (except Kentucky) abolished slavery on their own.
==Foreign diplomacy==
Because of the Confederacy's attempt to create a new state, recognition and support from the European powers were critical to its prospects. The Union, under [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[William Henry Seward]] attempted to block the Confederacy's efforts in this sphere. The Confederates ho |
diamond. Historically, some jewelers' stones were misgraded because of smudges on the girdle, or dye on the culet. Current practice is to thoroughly clean a diamond before grading its color.
Maintaining a clean diamond can sometimes be difficult, as jewelry settings can obstruct cleaning efforts, and oils, grease, and other [[hydrophobic]] materials adhere well to a diamond's surface. Some jewelers provide their customers with [[ammonia]]-based cleaning kits; [[ultrasonic cleaner]]s are also popular.
Cleanliness does not affect the diamond's market value, as any competent jeweler will clean the diamond before offering it for sale. However, cleanliness might reflect a diamond's sentimental value: some jewelers have noted a correlation between ring cleanliness and marriage quality [http://www.diamondcuttersintl.com/diamond_education/articles/customers/getting_in_shape.html].
==History==
Diamonds are thought to have been first recognized and mined in [[India]], where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found. The earliest written reference can be found in the [[Sanskrit]] text ''[[Arthasastra]]'', which was completed around [[296 BCE]], describes diamond's hardness, luster, and dispersion. Diamonds quickly became associated with divinity, being used to decorate religious [[icon]]s, and were believed to bring good fortune to those who carried them. Ownership was restricted among various [[caste]]s by color, with only kings being allowed to own all colors of diamond.
In February 2005, a joint [[China|Chinese]]-U.S. team of [[archaeology|archaeologists]] reported the discovery of four [[corundum]]-rich stone ceremonial burial [[axe]]s originating from China's [[Liangzhu jade culture|Liangzhu]] and [[Sanxingcun]] cultures ([[4000 BCE]]&ndash;[[2500 BCE]]) which, because of the axes' specular surfaces, the scientists believe were polished using diamond powder [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4555235.stm] [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-02/18/content_417247.htm]. Although there are diamond deposits now known to exist close to the burial sites, no direct evidence of coeval diamond mining has been found: the researchers came to this conclusion by polishing corundum using various [[lapidary]] abrasives and modern techniques then comparing the results using an [[atomic force microscope]]. At that scale, the surface of the modern diamond-polished corundum closely resembled that of the axes; however, the polishes of the latter were superior.
Diamonds were traded to both the east and west of India and were recognized by various cultures for their gemological or industrial uses. The [[Roman Empire|Roman]] writer [[Pliny the Elder]] noted diamond's ornamental uses, as well as its usefulness to [[engraving|engravers]] because of its hardness, in his work ''[[Naturalis Historia]]''. In China, diamonds seem to have been used primarily for engraving [[jade]] and drilling holes in beads. Archaeological evidence from [[Yemen]] suggests that diamonds were used as drill tips as early as the [[4th century BCE]]. In [[Europe]], however, diamonds disappeared for almost 1,000 years following the rise of [[Christianity]] because of two effects: early [[Christian]]s rejected diamonds because of their earlier use in [[amulet]]s, and [[Arab|Arabic]] traders restricted the flow of trade between Europe and India.
[[Image:Diamond cut history.png|right|thumb|350px|Diagram of old diamond cuts showing the evolution from the most primitive (point cut) to the most advanced pre-[[Marcel Tolkowsky|Tolkowsky]] cut (old European).]]
Until the late [[Middle Ages]], diamonds were most prized in their natural octahedral state, perhaps with the crystal surfaces polished to increase luster and remove foreign material. Around [[1300s|1300]], the flow of diamonds into Europe increased via [[Venice]]'s trade network, with most flowing through the [[low Countries|low country]] ports of [[Bruges]], [[Antwerp]], and [[Amsterdam]]. During this time, the [[taboo]] against cutting diamonds into gem shapes, which was established over 1,000 years earlier in the traditions of India, ended allowing the development of diamond cutting technology to begin in earnest. By 1375, a guild of diamond polishers had been established at [[Nuremberg]]. Over the following centuries, various diamond cuts were introduced which increasingly demonstrated the fire and brilliance that makes diamonds treasured today: the ''table cut'', the ''briolette'' (around 1476), the ''rose cut'' (mid-16th century), and by the mid-17th century, the ''Mazarin'', the first [[Brilliant (diamond cut)|brilliant cut diamond]] design. In 1919, [[Marcel Tolkowsky]] developed an ''ideal'' round brilliant cut design that has set the standard for comparison of modern gems; however, diamond cuts have continued to be refined.
The rise in popularity of diamonds as gems seems to have paralleled increasing availability through European history. In the 13th century, King [[Louis IX of France]] established a law that only the king could own diamonds. However, within a century diamonds were popular gems among the moneyed [[aristocrat]]ic and merchant classes, and by at latest 1477 had begun to be used in [[wedding ring]]s. Popularity continued to rise as new cuts were developed that enhanced the diamond's aesthetic appeal, and has largely continued unabated to this day; diamonds have proven popular with all classes in society as their cost has become within reach. A number of large diamonds have become historically significant objects, as their inclusion in various sets of [[crown jewels]] and the purchase, sale, and sometimes theft of notable diamonds, have sometimes become politicized.
===Record-holding diamonds===
The [[Cullinan Diamond]], owned by [[Queen Elizabeth II]] was the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106.75 carats. One of the diamonds cut from it, Cullinan I or the Great Star of Africa, was formerly the largest cut diamond at 530.2 carats, but now that title has been taken by [[the Golden Jubilee]] (1985), a 545.67 carat yellow-brown diamond. The largest flawless and colorless (grade D) diamond is the [[Centenary Diamond]] which weighs 273.85 carats. The [[Millennium Star]] is the second largest (1990) at 203.04 carats.
:''See also: [[List of famous diamonds]]''
== The diamond industry ==
[[Image:Diamond.jpg|framed|A round [[Brilliant (diamond cut)|brilliant cut]] diamond set in a ring.]]
The diamond industry can be broadly separated into two basically distinct categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and another for industrial-grade diamonds. While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways.
===Gem diamond industry===
A large trade in [[gem]]-grade diamonds exists. Unlike [[precious metal]]s such as [[gold]] or [[platinum]], gem diamonds do not trade as a [[commodity]]: there is a substantial mark-up in the sale of diamonds, and there is not a very active market for resale of diamonds. One hallmark of the trade in gem-quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale trade and diamond cutting is limited to a few locations (most importantly New York, [[Antwerp]], [[London]], [[Tel Aviv]], [[Amsterdam]] and [[Surat]]), and a single company&mdash;[[De Beers]]&mdash;controls over half of all trade in diamonds. They are based in [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]] and [[London]], [[England]].
The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players, and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers (the most important being [[Antwerp]]). The De Beers company holds a clearly dominant position in the industry, and has done so since soon after its founding in 1888. De Beers owns or controls a significant portion of the world's rough diamond production facilities ([[mining|mines]]) and distribution channels for gem-quality diamonds. The company and its subsidiaries own mines that produce some 40 percent of annual world diamond production, and control distribution channels handling nearly two thirds of all gem diamonds. At one time it was thought over 80 percent of the world's rough diamonds passed through the [[Diamond Trading Company]] (DTC, a subsidiary of [[De Beers]]) in [[London]], but presently the figure is estimated at around 60 percent. De Beers has used its [[monopoly]] position to establish strict price controls, and aggressively market diamonds directly to consumers in world markets.
The [[De Beers#Marketing|De Beers diamond advertising campaign]] is acknowledged as one of the most successful and innovative ones in history. [[N.W. Ayer & Son]], the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded in reviving the American diamond market and opened up new markets, even in countries where no diamond tradition had existed before. N.W. Ayer's multifaceted marketing campaign included [[product placement]], advertising the diamond itself rather than the De Beers brand, and building associations with celebrities and royalty. This coordinated campaign has lasted decades and continues today; it is perhaps best captured by the now-familiar [[slogan]] "a diamond is forever".
=== Industrial diamond industry ===
The market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamond, including clarity and color, mostly irrelevant. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million carats or 20,000 kg annually), unsuitable for use as gemstones and known as ''[[bort]]'', are destined for industrial use. In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another 400 |
" and only the summary should be left here. Specific species should be added. -->
Having lived side-by-side with agricultural peoples for millennia, Europe's animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and activities of man. With the exception of [[Scandinavia]] and northern [[Russia]], few areas of untouched wilderness are today to be found in Europe, except for different natural parks.
The main natural vegetation cover in Europe is [[forest]]. The conditions for growth are very favourable. In the north, the [[Gulf Stream]] and [[North Atlantic Drift]] warm the continent. Southern Europe could be described as having a warm, but mild climate. There are frequent summer droughts in this region. Mountain ridges also affect the conditions. Some of these ([[Alps]], [[Pyrenees]]) are oriented east-west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the ocean in the interior. Others are oriented south-north ([[Scandinavian Mountains]], [[Dinaric Alps|Dinarides]], [[Carpathians]], [[Apennines]]) and because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards sea, forests grow well on this side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable. Few corners of mainland Europe have not been grazed by [[livestock]] at some point in time, and the cutting down of the pre-agricultural forest habitat caused disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems.
Eighty to ninety percent of Europe was once covered by forest. It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Though over half of Europe's original forests disappeared through the centuries of [[deforestation]], Europe still has over one quarter of its land area as forest, such as the [[taiga]] of Scandinavia and Russia, mixed [[rainforest]]s of the Caucasus and the [[Cork oak]] forests in the western Mediterranean. During recent times, deforestation has been slowed and many trees have been planted. However, in many cases monoculture [[plantation]]s of [[Pinophyta|conifers]] have replaced the original mixed natural forest, because these grow quicker. The plantations now cover vast areas of land, but offer poorer habitats for many European forest dwelling species which require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest structure. The amount of natural forest in Western Europe is just 2-3% or less, in European Russia 5-10%. The country with the smallest percentage of forested area is the [[Republic of Ireland]] (8%), while the most forested country is [[Finland]] (72%).
In temperate Europe, mixed forest with both [[flowering plant|broadleaf]] and [[pinophyta|conifer]] trees present. The most important species in central and western Europe are [[beech]] and [[oak]]. In the north, the taiga is a mixed [[spruce]]-[[pine]]-[[birch]] forest; further north within Russia and Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to [[tundra]] as the Arctic is approached. In the Mediterranean, many [[olive]] trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate; [[Cupressus sempervirens|Mediterranean Cypress]] is also widely planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterranean region hosts much scrub forest. A narrow east-west tongue of Eurasian [[grassland]] (the [[steppe]]) extends eastwards from Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north.
Glaciation during the most recent [[ice age]] and the presence of man affected the distribution of European fauna. As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top [[predator]] species have been hunted to extinction. The [[woolly mammoth]] and [[aurochs]] were extinct before the end of the [[Neolithic]] period. Today [[wolf|wolves]] ([[carnivore]]s) and [[bears]] ([[omnivore]]s) are endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. However, deforestation caused these animals to withdraw further and further. By the [[Middle Ages]] the bears' habitats were limited to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover. Today, the brown bear lives primarily in the Balkan peninsula, Scandinavia, and Russia; a small number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria, Pyrenees etc.), but in these areas brown bear populations are fragmented and marginalised because of the destruction of their habitat. In addition, [[polar bear]]s may be found on [[Svalbard]], an autonomous [[Norway|Norwegian]] island region far north of Scandinavia. The wolf, the second largest predator in Europe after the brown bear, can be found primarily in [[Eastern Europe]] and in the Balkans, with a handful of packs in Spain and Scandinavia.
Other important European carnivores are [[Eurasian lynx]], European [[wild cat]], [[fox]]es (especially the [[red fox]]), [[jackal]] and different species of [[marten]]s, [[hedgehog]]s, different species of snakes ([[viper]]s, [[grass snake]]...), different birds ([[owl]]s, [[hawk]]s and other [[birds of prey]])
Important European [[herbivore]]s are [[snail]]s, [[amphibian]]s, [[fish]], different birds, and [[mammal]]s, like [[rodent]]s, [[deer]]s and [[roe deer]]s, [[boar]]s, and living in the mountains, [[marmot]]s, [[Alpine Ibex|steinbocks]], [[chamois]]es among others.
Sea creatures are also an important part of European flora and fauna. The sea flora is mainly [[phytoplankton]]. Important animals that live in European seas are [[zooplankton]], [[mollusc]]s, [[echinoderm]]s, different [[crayfish]], [[squid]]s and [[octopus]]es, fish, [[dolphin]]s, and [[whales]].
Some animals live in [[cave]]s, for example [[olm|proteus]] and [[bat]]s.
== Demographics ==
Almost all of Europe was possibly settled before or during the last [[ice age]] ca. 10,000 years ago. [[Neanderthal man]] and [[modern man]] coexisted during at least some of this time. Roman road building helped with the [[interbreeding]] of the native Europeans' genetics. In contemporary times Europe has one of the lowest inbreeding rates in the world because of an extensive transport network paired with open borders.
Europe passed well over 600 million people before the turn of the 20th century, but now is entering a period of population decline due to a variety of social factors.
==Territories and divisions==
[[Image:Europe_political_map.png|thumb|center|500px|Territories of Europe (also see [[transcontinental nation]]):
{{legend|#00ff00|Europe, according to one commonly-reckoned definition}}
{{legend|#ff00ff|Extension over Asia of the continuous territory of a European state}}
{{legend|#880088|Geographically in Asia, considered European for cultural and historical reasons}}]]
:''See also: [[#Table of territories and regions|Table of European territories and regions]]''
===Political divisions===
====Independent states====
The following independent [[state]]s may be considered to be in Europe:
{| border="0" cellpadding="2"
|
* [[Albania]]
* [[Andorra]]
* [[Armenia]]<small><sup>1</sup></small>
* [[Austria]]
* [[Azerbaijan]]<small><sup>2</sup></small>
* [[Belarus]]
* [[Belgium]]
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
* [[Bulgaria]]
* [[Croatia]]
| width="10px" | &nbsp;
| style="vertical-align: top;" |
* [[Czech Republic]]
* [[Cyprus]]<small><sup>1</sup></small>
* [[Denmark]]
* [[Estonia]]
* [[Finland]]
* [[France]]<small><sup>3</sup></small>
* [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]<small><sup>2</sup></small>
* [[Germany]]
* [[Greece]]
* [[Hungary]]
| width="10px" | &nbsp;
| style="vertical-align: top;" |
* [[Iceland]]
* [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
* [[Italy]]
* [[Kazakhstan]]<small><sup>4</sup></small>
* [[Latvia]]
* [[Liechtenstein]]
* [[Lithuania]]
* [[Luxembourg]]
* [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]<small><sup>5</sup></small>
* [[Malta]]
| width="10px" | &nbsp;
| style="vertical-align: top;" |
* [[Moldova]]
* [[Monaco]]
* [[Netherlands]]<small><sup>6</sup></small>
* [[Norway]]
* [[Poland]]
* [[Portugal]]<small><sup>7</sup></small>
* [[Romania]]
* [[Russia]]<small><sup>4</sup></small>
* [[San Marino]]
* [[Serbia and Montenegro]]<small><sup>8</sup></small>
| width="10px" | &nbsp;
| style="vertical-align: top;" |
* [[Slovakia]]
* [[Slovenia]]
* [[Spain]]<small><sup>9</sup></small>
* [[Sweden]]
* [[Switzerland]]
* [[Turkey]]<small><sup>10</sup></small>
* [[Ukraine]]
* [[United Kingdom]]
* [[Vatican City]]
|}
<sup>1</sup> Armenia and Cyprus are not a part of Europe geographically, but may be considered to be European culturally.<br>
<sup>2</sup> Azerbaijan and Georgia have [[Transcontinental nation|territory in Europe]] north of the crest of the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]] and the [[Kura River]].<br>
<sup>3</sup> Some [[Administrative divisions of France|integral parts of France]] are located outside Europe.<br>
<sup>4</sup> Russia and Kazakhstan have [[Transcontinental nation|territory in Europe]] west of the Ural Mountains and both the [[Ural River|Ural]] and [[Emba]] Rivers.<br>
<sup>5</sup> The name of this state is a matter of international dispute; see [[Republic of Macedonia]].<br>
<sup>6</sup> Netherlands and two entites outside Europe ([[Aruba]] and the [[Netherlands Antilles]], in the [[Caribbean]]) constitute the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]].<br>
<sup>7</sup> The Portuguese [[Madeira Islands]] are located in the North Altantic Ocean near the [[Africa]]n mainland.<br>
<sup>8</sup> State union of [[Serbia|Republic of Serbia]] and the [[Montenegro|Republic of Montenegro]].<br>
<sup>9</sup> The Spanish |
inventing the modern [[weekend]]. In granting workers an extra day off, Ford ensured leisure time for the working class. The "short week," as Ford called it in a contemporary interview, was required so that the country could "absorb its production and stay prosperous."
Conversely, Ford was adamantly against [[labor union]]s in his plants. To forestall union activity, he promoted [[Harry Bennett]], a former Navy boxer, to be the head of the Service Department. Bennett employed various intimidation tactics to squash union organizing. The most famous incident, in 1937, was a bloody brawl between company security men and organizers that became known as [[The Battle of the Overpass]].
Ford was the last Detroit automaker to recognize the [[United Auto Workers]] union (UAW). A sit-down strike by the UAW union on [[April 2]], [[1941]] closed the [[River Rouge Plant]]. Under pressure from Edsel and his wife, Clara, Henry Ford finally agreed to [[collective bargaining]] at Ford plants, and the first contract with the UAW was signed in June 1941.
==Common misconceptions==
Henry Ford is sometimes credited with the invention of the automobile, generally attributed to [[Karl Benz]], and the assembly line, invented by [[Ransom E. Olds]]. Ford's employees did develop the first moving assembly line based on conveyor belts. Popular culture lends support to such misconceptions.
== Anti-Semitism and ''The Dearborn Independent'' ==
[[Image:1920 International Jew reprint from Dearborn Independent.jpg|thumb|''The International Jew, the World's Foremost Problem''. Articles from ''The Dearborn Independent'', 1920]]
Henry Ford began publication of a newspaper, ''[[The Dearborn Independent]]'', in 1919. The paper ran for eight years, during which it republished "[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion|Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion]]," which has since been discredited as an [[Anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] [[forgery]]. The [[American Jewish Historical Society]] describes the ideas presented in it as "[[anti-immigrant]], anti-labor, anti-liquor, and anti-Semitic".
On [[February 17]], [[1921]], the [[New York World]] published an interview with Ford, in which he said "''The only statement I care to make about the Protocols is that they fit in with what is going on. They are sixteen years old, and they have fitted the world situation up to this time. They fit it now.''"
The ''Independent'' also published, in Ford's name, several anti-Jewish articles which were released in the early 1920s as a set of four bound volumes, cumulatively titled "The International Jew, the World's Foremost Problem." These volumes were distributed through Ford's car dealerships. Denounced by the [[Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL), the articles nevertheless explicitly condemned [[pogrom]]s and violence against Jews (Volume 4, Chapter 80), preferring to blame incidents of mass violence on the Jews themselves. None of this work was actually penned by Ford, though they required his tacit approval since he was the paper's publisher. "The International Jew" was one of only two books that [[Adolf Hitler]] read whilst in prison, and may have inspired his own book, [[Mein Kampf]].
[[Libel]] lawsuits in response to anti-Semitic remarks led Ford to close the ''Dearborn Independent'' in December 1927. He later retracted the ''International Jew'' and the ''Protocols''. On [[January 7]], [[1942]], Henry Ford wrote a public letter to the ADL denouncing hatred against the Jews and expressing his hope that anti-Jewish hatred would cease for all time. Some claim that Ford neither wrote nor signed this letter and have questioned the sincerity of his apology. His writings continue to be used as propaganda by various groups, often appearing on [[anti-Semitic]] and [[neo-Nazi]] websites.
In researching his 2003 book, ''The American Axis'', investigative journalist Max Wallace discovered newly declassified documents in the US National Archives proving that Ford's principal secretary Ernst Liebold was identified by the American government as a German spy and later appears in FBI files as a known [[Nazism|Nazi]] agent. Drawing on this new material, Wallace identifies Liebold as the figure responsible for convincing Ford to launch his crusade against the Jews and later to support [[Hitler]] and the Nazi cause.
== Henry Ford and Nazism ==
[[Image:Ford.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Henry Ford, center, is awarded the Grand Cross of the German Eagle by Nazi diplomats.]]
Ford became interested in politics and, as a successful and powerful business leader, was sometimes a participant in world affairs. In 1915, he funded a trip to Europe, where World War I was raging, for himself and about 170 others. His group went to meet with German and other European leaders--without U.S. government support or approval--to seek peace. The war lasted another three years.{{ref|Odyssey}}
In the years between the wars, Henry Ford supported [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazi]] regime. His support abated as the United States entered [[World War II]]. There is also some evidence that Henry Ford gave Adolf Hitler direct financial backing when Hitler was first starting out in politics. This can, in part, be traced to statements from Kurt Ludecke, Germany's representative to the U.S. in the 1920s, and [[Winifred Wagner]], daughter-in-law of [[Richard Wagner]], who said they requested funds from Ford to aid the National Socialist movement in [[Germany]]. However, a 1933 [[Congress of the United States|Congressional]] investigation into the matter was unable to substantiate whether contributions were actually sent. Regardless of whether direct financial support was provided, Ford repeatedly voiced his overt approval of Hitler's theories.
Ford's indirect financial backing of the Nazis was also undeniable, as Ford Motor Company was active in Germany's military buildup prior to World War II. In 1938, for instance, Ford assisted to construct an assembly plant in Berlin, the purpose of which was to supply trucks to the [[Wehrmacht]]. Forced labor was employed to produce 78,000 trucks and 14,000 track vehicles. In July of that year, Ford was awarded (and accepted) the Grand Cross of the German Order of the Eagle (''Großkreuz des Deutschen Adlerordens''). Ford was the first American and the fourth person given this award, at the time [[Nazi Germany]]'s highest honorary award given to foreigners. The decoration was given "in recognition of [Ford's] pioneering in making motor cars available for the masses." The award was accompanied by a personal congratulatory message from Adolf Hitler.{{ref|Detroit}} A portrait of Ford was hung at the Nazi party's headquarters in [[Munich]]. In Max Wallace's 2003 book, ''The American Axis'', he recounts how a Detroit News columnist named Annetta Antona arrived at the headquarters to interview Hitler in 1931. When she asked the future [[Führer]] about the portrait, he told her, "I regard Henry Ford as my inspiration."
Drawing on Ford's long-standing involvement with Nazi causes and anti-semitism, [[Philip Roth]] imagined him as Secretary of Interior in an imaginary (and Nazi-aligned) Lindbergh administration in his bestselling 2005 novel ''[[The Plot Against America]]''.
== Hobbies and interests ==
Ford had an interest in what today would be known as "[[Americana]]". In the 1920s, Ford began work to turn [[Sudbury, Massachusetts]] into an Americana-themed historical village. He moved the townhouse referred to in the [[nursery rhyme]] [[Mary had a little lamb]] from [[Sterling, Massachusetts]] and purchased the historical [[Wayside Inn]]. This plan never saw fruition, but Ford repeated it with the creation of [[Greenfield Village]] in [[Dearborn, Michigan]]. It may have inspired the creation of [[Old Sturbridge Village]] as well. About the same time, he began collecting materials for his museum, which had a theme of practical technology. It was opened in 1929 as the Edison Institute and, although greatly modernized, remains open today.
Ford also had an interest in [[American folk music]], which he shared with his friend [[Lloyd Shaw|Dr. Lloyd Shaw]], and frequently sponsored [[square dance]]s, one of his particular interests.
Ford was an early promoter of aviation, building the [[Dearborn Inn]] as the first airport hotel. (The airfield was across the street and is now the site of a [[Ford Motor Company]] test track.) He heavily sponsored the [[Stout Metal Airplane Company]], which developed the [[Ford Tri-Motor]], an early airliner.
Ford also maintained a vacation residence (known as the "Ford Plantation") in [[Richmond Hill, Georgia]]. He contributed substantially to the community, building a chapel and schoolhouse and employing a large number of local residents. His knowledge of the Ontario town of the same name is believed to have led to the renaming of the Georgia town, formerly known as Ways Station.
== The Ford Foundation ==
Henry Ford, with his son Edsel, founded the [[Ford Foundation]] in 1936 as a local philanthropic organization with a broad charter to promote human welfare, as well as to commemorate life the way it was in the early 1900s. The Foundation has grown immensely and, by 1950, had become international in scope. The foundation no longer has any association with the [[Ford Motor Company]], nor with the family or descendants of Henry Ford.{{ref|FordFound}}
== Death ==
Ford suffered an initial [[stroke]] in 1938, after which he turned over the running of his company to Edsel. Edsel's 1943 death brought Henry Ford out of retirement. In ill health, he ceded the presidency to his grandson [[Henry Ford II]] on [[September 21]], [[1945]], and went into retirement. He died in 1947 of a [[cerebral hemorrhage]] at the age of 83 in Fair Lane, his Dearborn estate, and is buried in the Ford Cemetery in Detroit.
==Quotations==
*"History is more or less bunk |
idson was the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world. Their motorcycles were sold by dealers in 67 countries. Production was 28,189 machines.
In [[1921]], a milestone was reached in motorcycle racing. A Harley-Davidson machine was the very first to win a race at an average speed of over 100 mph (160 km/h).
During the [[1920s]], several improvements were put in place, such as a new 74 cubic inch (1.2 L) V-Twin, introduced in [[1922]], and the gas tank we still see today, called a "Teardrop" tank, in [[1925]]. A front brake was added in [[1928]].
=== World War II era ===
One of only two American cycle manufacturers to survive the [[Great Depression]], Harley-Davidson again produced large numbers of motorcycles for the army in [[World War II]] and resumed civilian production afterwards, producing a range of large V-twin motorcycles that were successful both on racetracks and for private buyers.
=== Tarnished reputation ===
[[Image:Fxstc1998.jpg|thumb|right|200px|1998 Harley-Davidson FXSTC]]
In [[1969]], [[American Machinery and Foundry]] (AMF) bought the company, streamlined production, and slashed the workforce. This tactic resulted in a [[labor strike]] and an even lower quality of bikes. The company also ceased to be an innovator in the motorcycle industry, with a design that remained basically unchanged for many years. The bikes were expensive and far inferior in performance, handling, and quality to [[Japan]]ese motorcycles. Sales declined, quality plummeted, and the company almost went [[bankrupt]]. The venerable name of "Harley-Davidson" was mocked as "Hardly Ableson", and the nickname "Hog" became pejorative.
=== Heavyweight leadership regained ===
In [[1981]], AMF sold the company back to a group of thirteen investors led by Vaughn Beals and Willie G. Davidson. They introduced the "[[Sturgis]]" model boasting a dual belt-drive. Inventory was strictly controlled using the [[Just In Time]] system. As a result, quality and buyers slowly returned. The motor company increased sales and gradually captured an ever increasing zealous following of loyal customers.
Rather than trying to match the Japanese at their own game, this new management deliberately exploited the "retro" appeal of the machines, building motorcycles that deliberately adopt the look and feel of their earlier machines and the subsequent customizations of owners of that era. Quality increased, and technical improvements were made, but these goals were never achieved at the cost of substantially modifying the design of the machine except by gradual degrees.
By [[1990]], with the introduction of the "Fat Boy", Harley once again became the sales leader in the heavyweight (over 750cc) market. There was a controversy that the Fat Boy model was allegedly inspired by the name of the bombs ([[Fat Man]] and [[Little Boy]]) that were dropped on [[Nagasaki]] and [[Hiroshima]]. The company vehemently denies this and claims it is coincidence. Harley maintains dominance in sales to date.
In [[1999]], [[Ford Motor Company]] added a Harley-Davidson edition to the [[Ford F-Series]] F-150 line, complete with the Harley-Davidson logo. This truck was an extended-cab for model year 1999. In [[2000]], Ford changed the truck to a crew cab and in [[2002]] added a super-charged engine (5.4L) which continued until [[2003]]. In [[2004]], the Ford / Harley was changed to a Super-Duty, which continues through [[2006]]. Ford will again produced a Harley-Davidson Edition F-150 for their 2006 model-year, as well.
== Events ==
In [[2003]], Harley-Davidson Company celebrated its 100th birthday. On [[Labor Day (United States)|Labor Day]] weekend the city of Milwaukee hosted the largest Harley-Davidson event, if not the largest motorcycle event, in history.
Harley riders also frequent certain regularly-held events:
*[[Sturgis Motorcycle Rally]] - Held at the beginning of August each year in [[Sturgis, South Dakota]], 514,951 attended in 2004.
*[[Laconia Motorcycle Week]] - Held since the first Loudon classic race started 1923. Located in [[Laconia, New Hampshire]].
*[[Daytona Beach Bike Week]] - Held since 1937 in [[Daytona Beach, Florida]].
*[[Republic of Texas Biker Rally]] - A popular event in [[Austin, Texas]] held every June.
*[[Myrtle Beach Bike Week]] - A spring and fall rally in [[Myrtle Beach, South Carolina]] Click on link [http://www.myrtlebeachbikeweek.com here].
*[http://www.rollingthunder1.com/ Rolling Thunder] - An annual rally in Washington, D.C. to raise awareness of veteran issues (specifically POW/MIA soldiers).
== Harley Owners Group==
[[Image:Harley Rider.JPG|thumb|right|250px|'''Harley-Davidson 2004 Heritage''' ]]
Harley-Davidson established the Harley Owners Group (HOG)[http://www.hog.com] in [[1983]] in response to a growing desire by Harley riders for an organized way to share their passion and show their pride. By [[1985]], 49 local chapters had sprouted around the country, with a total membership of 60,000.
Rapid growth continued into the 1990s, and in [[1991]] HOG officially went international, with the first official European HOG Rally in Cheltenham, [[England]]. Worldwide membership numbered 151,600, with 685 local chapters.
As the '90s continued, HOG spread into [[Asia]], including new chapters in [[Singapore]] and [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]]. By [[1999]], worldwide membership had hit the half-million mark, and the number of local chapters totaled 1,157. Today, more than 800,000 members make HOG the largest factory-sponsored motorcycle organization in the world, and it shows no signs of slowing down.
Famous owners of Harley Davidsons include professional wrestling legend [[Mark Calaway|The Undertaker]], comedian [[Jay Leno]] and singer [[Elvis Presley]].
==See also==
Harley-Davidson motorcycles has long been associated with the sub-cultures of the:
*[[Biker]]
*[[Outlaw biker]]
*[[Motorcycle club]]
*[[Motorcycle gang]]
==External links==
*[http://www.harley-davidson.com/ Offical Harley-Davidson Inc. Corporate website]
*[http://www.hdforums.com/ Harley Davidson Forum]
==References==
*Wagner, Herbert, [[2003]]. ''At the Creation: Myth, Reality, and the Origin of the Harley-Davidson Motorcycle, 1901-1909'' ([[Wisconsin Historical Society]] Press, 228 pp.)
*Bach, Sharon and Ken Ostermann, eds. [[1993]]. ''The Legend Begins: Harley-Davidson Motorcycles, 1903-1969'' (Harley-Davidson, Inc., 227 pp.)
[[Category:Car companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Motorcycle manufacturers]]
[[de:Harley-Davidson]]
[[es:Harley-Davidson]]
[[fi:Harley-Davidson]]
[[fr:Harley-Davidson]]
[[it:Harley-Davidson]]
[[ja:ハーレーダビッドソン]]
[[nl:Harley-Davidson]]
[[sv:Harley-Davidson]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harappan Civilisation</title>
<id>14143</id>
<revision>
<id>15911718</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-08T10:59:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indus Valley Civilization]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hiberno-English</title>
<id>14144</id>
<revision>
<id>41853850</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:02:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UKPhoenix79</username>
<id>311707</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{English_dialects}}
'''Hiberno-English''' is the form of the [[English language]] used in [[Ireland]]. Hiberno-English is also called '''Irish English''' and rarely '''Anglo-Irish'''.
The type of English spoken in Ireland is founded in the types of English and [[Scots language|Scots]] that were brought to Ireland during the English and Scottish [[Plantations of Ireland]] in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and their change due to the influence of the [[Irish language]] on these forms of English. The linguistic interference of the Irish language on the English spoken in Ireland is most clearly seen in those areas where Irish is still spoken as a mother tongue or where it has survived until recently.
The standard spelling and grammar are the same as UK English but, especially in the spoken language, there are some unique characteristics, due to the influence of the [[Irish language]] on pronunciation.
== Pronunciation ==
Hiberno-English retains many [[phonemic differentiation]]s merged in other accents of English. Phonetic transcriptions are given using [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]].
* With some local exceptions (most notably [[Drogheda]] and some other eastern towns, whose accent is distinctly [[non-rhotic]]), 'r' is pronounced wherever it occurs in the word, making Irish English a generally [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|rhotic]] dialect.
* 't' is rarely pronounced as a plosive when not at the beginning of a word, instead being a fricative between 's' and 'sh'
* The distinction of ''w'' {{IPA|[w]}} and ''wh'' {{IPA|[&#653;]}}, as in ''wine'' vs ''whine'' is preserved.
* In some varieties, [[Phonological history of the low back vowels#Father-bother merger|Merger of the vowels in ''father'' and ''bother'']] in Southern Irish English; {{IPA|/fɑːðɚ/}} and {{IPA|/bɑːðɚ/}}.
* In some varieties /{{IPA|θ/}} becomes /t<sup>h</sup>/, and /{{IPA|ð/}} and /d/ merge, making ''thin'' and ''tin'' and ''then'' and ''den'' near-homonyms, with the pair ''tin'' and ''den'' employing [[alveolar]] pronunciation (as in other varieties of English), while the pair ''thin'' and ''then'' are distinuished by using [[dental]] pronunciations, as in e.g. [[French language|French]]. In still other varieties, only /{{IPA|θ/}} is hardened to /t<sup>h</sup>/, with /{{IPA|ð}}/ left unchanged; some dialects of Gaelic pronounce "slender" (pal |
he company has a regional franchise (for Ireland) to produce [[Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)|Budweiser]] beer, as well as [[Carlsberg]] lager.
[[Image:Widget_Guiness.jpg|thumb|Guinness original widget]]
In October 2005, Guinness introduced the Brewhouse Series — a limited-edition collection of draft stouts that will be available for six months each. The first stout in the series is Brew 39, which is being released in Dublin from October 2005 to March 2006. It has the same alcohol content (abv) as Guinness Draught, uses the same gas mix and settles in the same way, but has a slightly different taste. Other variants will be on tap across Ireland.
Withdrawn Guinness variants include Guinness's Brite Lager, Guinness's Brite Ale, Guinness Light, Guinness XXX Extra Strong Stout, Guinness Cream Stout, Guinness Gold, Guinness Pilsner and Guinness Special Light. Other withdrawn beers produced by Guinness include Enigma Draught Lager and Breo White Beer, as well as the St. James's Gate Beers: Pilsner Gold, Wicked Red Ale, Wildcat Wheat Beer and Dark Angel Lager.
A brewing byproduct of Guinness, [[Guinness Yeast Extract]] (GYE), was produced until the 1950s.
==Marketing==
Guinness has a long [[alcohol advertising|history of marketing campaigns]], from award-winning television commercials to beer mats and posters.
[[Nigeria]] is the third largest and fastest-growing Guinness market in the world. However, as the cultivation of barley is restricted in Nigeria, the local version is made primarily from [[sorghum]].
===Advertising===
Guinness uses the [[Brian Boru]], or [[Trinity College Harp]] as their [[trademark]]. This circa [[14th century]] harp which is still visible at [[Trinity College, Dublin]] has been used as a symbol of Ireland since the reign of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] ([[16th century]]). Guinness adopted the harp as a [[logotype|logo]] in [[1862]], however it is shown in a form that faces left instead of right as in the coat of arms.
[[Image:Guinness Toucan-ad.jpg|thumb|left|One of the more famous advertising posters from the Gilroy Era of the 40's]]
[[Image:MyGoodnessMyGuiness.jpg|thumb|right|[[World War II]] era Guinness advertising poster.]]
Guinness's iconic stature can be attributed in part to its [[alcohol advertising|advertising]]. The most notable and recognisable series of adverts was created by Benson's advertising, primarily [[John Gilroy]], in the 1930s and 40s. Gilroy was responsible for creating posters which included such phrases such as "Guinness for Strength", "Lovely Day for a Guinness", "Guinness Makes You Strong" "My Goodness My Guinness" and most famously, "Guinness is Good For You". The posters featured Gilroy's distinctive artwork and more often than not featured animals such as a [[kangaroo]], [[ostrich]], [[Pinniped|seal]], [[lion]], and notably a [[toucan]], which has become as much a symbol of Guinness as the harp. (An advertisement from the 1940s ran with the following jingle: ''Toucans in their tests agree/Guinness is good for you./Try some today and see/What one or toucan do.'') Guinness has recently taken the dominant share in the [[Africa]]n beer market with its [[Michael Power (Guinness character)|Michael Power]] advertising campaign. Guinness advertising paraphernalia attracts high prices on the collectible market.
In 2000, Guinness's 1999 advert ''Surfer'' was named the best television commercial of all time in a UK poll conducted by ''[[The Sunday Times (UK)|The Sunday Times]]'' and [[Channel 4]]. ''Surfer'' was produced by the advertising agency [[Abbott Mead Vickers BBDO]]; the advertisement can be downloaded from their website.{{ref|Surfer}}
Guinness was awarded the 2001 [[Clio Award]] as the Advertiser of the Year, citing the work of five separate ad agencies around the world.{{ref|Clio}}
===Merchandising===
During [[Saint Patrick's Day]], Guinness merchandise is available in many places that sell the drink. This includes clothing and hats, often available from behind the bar after a specific number of pints of Guinness have been purchased.
Guinness fans can visit the [http://www.guinness-storehouse.com/index.asp Guinness Storehouse] in Dublin, which has been described as [[Disneyland]] for the beer (or, perhaps, more accurately, stout) lover. Located on the site of the St. James' Gate brewery, the Storehouse is an interactive, multimedia experience taking you through all things Guinness.
==History of ownership==
The grandson of the original [[Arthur Guinness]], Sir [[Benjamin Guinness]], was [[Lord Mayor of Dublin]] and was created a baronet in [[1867]], only to die the next year. His eldest son [[Arthur Edward Guinness, Baron Ardilaun|Arthur]], [[Baron Ardilaun]] ([[1840]]&ndash;[[1915]]), sold control of the brewery to Sir Benjamin's third son [[Edward Cecil Guinness, 1st Earl of Iveagh|Edward]] ([[1847]]&ndash;[[1927]]), who became 1st [[Earl of Iveagh]]. He, his son and great-grandson, the 2nd and 3rd Earls, chaired the Guinness company into the [[1980s]], at which time non-family chief executive [[Ernest Saunders]] became chairman as part of the merger with leading [[Scotch whisky]] producer [[United Distillers]]. After Saunders was forced out following revelations that the United stock price had been illegally manipulated, the family presence on the board declined rapidly, and today no Guinness sits on the board of the holding company [[Diageo]] PLC.
== Book of Records ==
The Guinness company also produced the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'', which originated in [[1955]] when a debate in a pub after a hunt could not be settled with existing reference books. After merger with the firms of Arthur Bell and United Distillers, the firm became Guinness PLC, and was no longer headed by a family member. It combined with Grand Metropolitan to form [[Diageo]] PLC in 1997, at which point the Book of Records was sold to [[Gullane Entertainment]], who in turn were purchased in [[2002]] by the book's current publishers, [[HIT Entertainment]].
== The Lions Gate Bridge ==
The Guinness Family built the [[Lions Gate Bridge]] in Vancouver (or more accurately paid for its construction) which connects [[Vancouver]] to [[North Vancouver]] and [[West Vancouver]] over [[Burrard Inlet]]. The Guinness family sold the bridge to the province of [[British Columbia]] for over 6 million dollars in 1955.
== Trivia ==
Among the Cantonese-speaking Chinese locals in Singapore and Malaysia, Guinness Stout is known as "Hak Gau Peh", literally means "Black Dog Beer".
This is because somehow, only the elder generation prefers Guinness Stout. And these senior citizens survived through the tougher days, where education was less important. Illiteracy rate was high, and these people do not know how to pronounce "Guinness Stout" while ordering it. Incidentally, Guinness advertisement posters were always associating a black [[bulldog]] with the stouts. So these people simply say "Black Dog Beer" in Cantonese while ordering it. This has become a household name, at least among the men over the period.
==See also==
*[[List of Irish companies]]
*[[William Sealey Gosset]] (Guinness employee-turned-statistician)
*[[Great Guinness Toast]]
==Further reading==
*Patrick Lynch and John Vaizey - ''Guinness's Brewery in the Irish Economy: 1759-1876'' (1960) Cambridge University Press
*Frederic Mullally - ''The Silver Salver: The Story of the Guinness Family'' (1981) Granada, ISBN 0246112719
*Brian Sibley - ''The Book Of Guinness Advertising'' (1985) Guinness Books, ISBN 0851124003
*Peter Pugh - ''Is Guinness Good for You: The Bid for Distillers – The Inside Story'' (1987) Financial Training Publications, ISBN 1851850740
*Edward Guinness - ''The Guinness Book of Guinness'' (1988) Guinness Books
*Michele Guinness - ''The Guinness Legend: The Changing Fortunes of a Great Family'' (1988) Hodder and Stoughton General Division, ISBN 0340430451
* Jonathan Guinness - ''Requiem for a Family Business'' (1997) Macmillan Publishing, ISBN 0333661915
*Derek Wilson - ''Dark and Light: The Story of the Guinness Family'' (1998) George Weidenfeld & Nicholson, Ltd., ISBN 0297817183
*S.R. Dennison and Oliver MacDonagh - ''Guinness 1886-1939: From Incorporation to the Second World War'' (1998) Cork University Press, ISBN 1859181759
*Jim Davies - ''The Book of Guinness Advertising'' (1998) Guinness Media Inc., ISBN 0851120679
*Al Byrne - ''Guinness Times: My Days in the World’s Most Famous Brewery'' (1999) Town House, ISBN 1860591051
*Michele Guinness - ''The Guinness Spirit: Brewers, Bankers, Ministers and Missionaries'' (1999) Hodder and Stoughton, ISBN 0340721650
*Mark Griffiths - ''Guinness is Guinness: The Colourful Story of a Black and White Brand'' (2004) Cyan Communications, ISBN 0954282949
*Tony Corcoran - ''The Goodness of Guinness: The Brewery, Its People and the City of Dublin'' (2005) Liberties Press, ISBN 0954533577
==References==
# {{note|sink1}}Guinness Bubbles [http://www.chem.ed.ac.uk/guinness/ FAQ]
# {{note|sink2}}BBC article on discovery of the scientific explanation for the [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/3516100.stm sinking bubbles]
# {{note|mid}} Test marketed [http://www.irishexaminer.com/pport/web/business/Full_Story/did-sglEJhX3IFlGYsgDQQ5wn3uAIg.asp low alcohol Guinness Stout].
# {{note|Surfer}} Award winning [http://www.amvbbdo.co.uk/tv_video/Guiness_surfer.mov "Surfer"] Advert
#{{note|Clio}} Clio Award [http://www.clioawards.com/press/index.cfm?year=2001&pressid=154 Press Release]
==External Links==
* [http://www.guinness.com Official site]
* Forage, et al., "''[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=4832968.WKU.&OS=PN/4832968&RS=PN/4832968 Beverage package and a method of packaging a beverage containing gas in solution]''& |
(developed by [[Splash Damage]])
==Additional reading==
*Kushner, David (2003). ''Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture'', New York: Random House. ISBN 0375505245.
==External links==
*[http://www.idsoftware.com/ Official id Software website]
*[http://www.doomwadstation.com/gamedemos/ All The Demos], every demo of every game ever made by id Software
*[http://www.doomwadstation.com/idgames/ Doom Wad Station] User Created maps in an archive directory for every game from Wolfenstein3d to QuakeIV
*[http://www.quakecon.org/ QuakeCon.org], id Software fan site
*[http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/WEBONLY/publicfeature/aug02/id.html "The Wizardry of Id" article By David Kushner from IEEE Spectrum Online]
*[http://www.gamespy.com/e32002/pc/id/ "A Chat With id Software" - A GameSpy interview with people at id Software]
*[http://www.3drealms.com/keenhistory/ "A Look Back at Commander Keen" includes some details on the history of id]
*[http://idm.gesies.com/ ''id Museum''], a page dedicated to id Software
*[http://www.assassinworks.com/ray/wolf.html A tribute to id Software]
*[http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/download.php?Number=190480 Google-Earth Placemark]
[[Category:Computer and video game companies]]
[[Category:Dallas-Fort Worth Texas based companies]]
[[Category:1991 establishments]]
[[da:Id Software]]
[[de:Id Software]]
[[es:Id Software]]
[[fi:Id Software]]
[[fr:Id Software]]
[[hu:Id Software]]
[[ja:id Software]]
[[nl:Id Software]]
[[pl:Id Software]]
[[pt:Id Software]]
[[ru:Id Software]]
[[sv:Id Software]]
[[zh:Id Software]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IMMSE</title>
<id>15527</id>
<revision>
<id>15912998</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-19T00:22:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ashibaka</username>
<id>1671</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[I My Me! Strawberry Eggs!]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International phonetic alphabet</title>
<id>15528</id>
<revision>
<id>15912999</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International_Phonetic_Alphabet]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iain M. Banks/Culture</title>
<id>15529</id>
<revision>
<id>15913000</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-21T09:25:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tarquin</username>
<id>83</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Culture]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Islamic Calendar</title>
<id>15530</id>
<revision>
<id>15913001</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Islamic calendar]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isaac Stern</title>
<id>15531</id>
<revision>
<id>41819774</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:23:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Methegreat</username>
<id>115778</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>wikifying Yo-Yo Ma</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Isaac Stern''' ([[July 21]], [[1920]] – [[September 22]], [[2001]]) is widely considered one of the finest [[violin]] [[virtuosi]] of the [[20th century|twentieth century]].
Born in [[Kremenetz]], [[Ukraine]], his family moved to [[San Francisco]] when he was ten months old. He received his first music lessons from his mother before enrolling at the [[San Francisco Conservatory of Music]] in [[1928]]. There he studied the violin with [[Nahum Blinder]].<!--Source please: "He felt proud to have been a student of [[Nahum Blinder]]."--> At his public début on [[February 18]], [[1936]] he played [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]]' [[Violin Concerto No. 3 (Saint-Saëns)|Violin Concerto No. 3]] with the [[San Francisco Symphony]] [[orchestra]], [[Conducting|conducted]] by [[Pierre Monteux]].
In [[1979]], the [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] government invited Stern to tour and teach in their country. The film-maker [[Murray Lerner]] accompanied him and made the film ''[[From Mao to Mozart]]'', winning the [[1980]] [[Academy Award|Oscar]] for Best Documentary.
Stern became famous both for his great [[Sound recording|recording]]s and for championing younger players. Among his discoveries were the [[cellist]] [[Yo-Yo Ma]] and violinists [[Itzhak Perlman]] and [[Pinchas Zukerman]]. He also played a major role in saving [[New York City]]'s [[Carnegie Hall]] from demolition in [[1960]] and its main [[auditorium]] is now named after him.
Amongst many other recordings, Stern recorded [[concerto]]s by [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]], [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]] and [[Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi]] and modern works by [[Samuel Barber]], [[Béla Bartók]], [[Igor Stravinsky]] and [[Leonard Bernstein]]. He also [[Dubbing|dubbed]] actors' violin-playing in several films, for example ''[[Fiddler on the Roof]]''.
==Discography==
{{listdev}}
== Awards and Recognitions ==
{{listdev}}
'''[[Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance]]''':
*[[Emanuel Ax]], [[Jaime Laredo]], [[Yo-Yo Ma]] & Isaac Stern for ''Brahms: Piano Quartets (Op. 25 and 26)'' ([[Grammy Awards of 1992|1992]])
*[[Eugene Istomin]], [[Leonard Rose]] & Isaac Stern for ''[[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]: The Complete Piano Trios'' ([[Grammy Awards of 1971|1971]])
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:1920 births|Stern, Isaac]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Stern, Isaac]]
[[Category:American classical musicians|Stern, Isaac]]
[[Category:American violinists|Stern, Isaac]]
[[Category:Classical violinists|Stern, Isaac]]
[[Category:Jewish classical musicians|Stern, Isaac]]
[[Category:National Medal of Arts recipients|Stern, Issac]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Stern, Isaac]]
<!--Other languages-->
[[da:Isaac Stern]]
[[de:Isaac Stern]]
[[es:Isaac Stern]]
[[fr:Isaac Stern]]
[[he:אייזיק שטרן]]
[[nl:Isaac Stern]]
[[ja:アイザック・スターン]]
[[sv:Isaac Stern]]
[[tl:Isaac Stern]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Integral</title>
<id>15532</id>
<revision>
<id>41840052</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:07:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lightdarkness</username>
<id>130135</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/169.226.162.125|169.226.162.125]] ([[User talk:169.226.162.125|Talk]]) to last version by TKE</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article deals with the concept of an integral in [[calculus]]. For other meanings of "integral" see [[integration]] and [[integral (disambiguation)]].''
{{Calculus}}
In [[calculus]], the '''integral''' of a [[function (mathematics)|function]] is a generalization of [[area (geometry)|area]], [[mass]], [[volume]] and [[summation|total]]. The process of finding integrals is '''integration''', in its mathematical meaning. Unlike the closely-related process of [[derivative|differentiation]], there are several possible definitions of integration, with different technical underpinnings. They are, however, compatible; any two different ways of integrating a function will give the same result when they are both defined.
The word "integral" may also refer to [[antiderivative]]s in a mild abuse of language. Though they are closely related through the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]], the two notions are conceptually distinct. When one wants to clarify this distinction, an antiderivative integral is referred to as an indefinite integral (a function), while the integrals discussed in this article are termed '''definite integrals'''.
Intuitively, the integral of a [[continuous function|continuous]], [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] real-valued function ''f'' of one real variable ''x'' between a left endpoint ''a'' and a right endpoint ''b'' represents the area bounded by the lines ''x'' = ''a'', ''x'' = ''b'', the ''x''-axis, and the curve defined by the graph of ''f''. More formally, if we let
:<math> S= \{(x,y) \in \mathbb{R}^2:a \leq x \leq b ,0 \leq y \leq f(x)\}, </math>
then the integral of ''f'' between ''a'' and ''b'' is the [[Measure (mathematics)|measure]] of ''S''.
[[Leibniz]] introduced the standard [[long s]] notation for the integral. The integral of the previous paragraph would be written <math>\int_a^b f(x)\,dx</math>. The &int; sign represents integration, ''a'' and ''b'' are the endpoints of the [[interval]], ''f(x)'' is the function we are integrating, and ''dx'' is a notation for the variable of integration. Historically, ''dx'' represented an [[infinitesimal]] quantity, and the long s stood for "sum". However, modern theories of integration are built from different foundations, and the traditional symbols have become no more than [[Mathematical notation|notation]].
As an example, if ''f'' is the [[mathematical constant|constant]] function ''f''(''x'') = 3, then the integral of ''f'' between 0 and 10 is the area of the rectangle bounded by the lines ''x'' = 0, ''x'' = 10, ''y'' = 0, and ''y'' = 3. The area is the width of the rectangle times its height, so the value of the integral is 30.
Integrals can be taken over regions other than intervals. In general, the integral over a [[set]] ''E'' of a function ''f'' is written &int;<sub>''E''</sub>''f''(''x'')&nbsp;''dx''. Here ''x'' |
12 de Agosto]]
[[ro:12 august]]
[[ru:12 августа]]
[[scn:8 di austu]]
[[simple:August 12]]
[[sk:12. august]]
[[sl:12. avgust]]
[[sr:12. август]]
[[sv:12 augusti]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 12]]
[[th:12 สิงหาคม]]
[[tl:Agosto 12]]
[[tr:12 Ağustos]]
[[tt:12. August]]
[[uk:12 серпня]]
[[wa:12 d' awousse]]
[[zh:8月12日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constitutional history of Australia</title>
<id>1493</id>
<revision>
<id>36684083</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T20:11:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GraemeL</username>
<id>383311</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.196.155.1|204.196.155.1]] ([[User talk:204.196.155.1|talk]]) to last version by GraemeL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History_of_Australia/Chronological}}
==Emergence of the Commonwealth of Australia==
''Main article:'' [[Federation of Australia|Australian federation]]
After European settlement in 1788, [[Australia]] was politically organized as a number of separate British [[colonies]], eventually six in all. By the middle of the nineteenth century, these had achieved virtually complete internal self-government under their own colonial Parliaments, with the "mother country" looking after their defence and such foreign relations as they had, and making only the occasional more direct intervention in their affairs. (These arrangements were confirmed by the Colonial Laws Validity Act of 1865.) One result of this was that they each had their own laws, and applied customs duties at the borders between them, which was a significant impediment to Australia's overall economic development.
Following the formation of the [[Australasian Federal Council|Federal Council of Australasia]] in 1885 (a weak non-executive, non-legislative federation of Western Australia, Fiji, Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria) the movement for full Federation developed in the late nineteenth century, proposing that the six colonies join together as one federation of several States and territories (it was envisaged that New Zealand might join). In the 1890s, two [[Constitutional Convention (Australia)|constitutional conventions]] were called, which ultimately adopted a constitution based on a combination of British, American and other models (monarchy and parliamentary government from Britain, federalism from the United States, the use of the referendum from Switzerland). This constitution was then approved by the voters in each of the six colonies. (At the time women had the vote in only one of them: South Australia, and Aboriginal Australians in South Australia and Queensland only). It was then passed (with an amendment allowing for some appeals to the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council|Privy Council]] in London) as an Act of the British Parliament: the [[Constitution of Australia|Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act]] 1900. The Act entered into force on [[January 1]] [[1901]], at which point the Commonwealth of Australia came into being.
==The Commonwealth is born==
The establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia is commonly taken as the date of Australia's independence from the [[United Kingdom]], but matters are more complicated than that. The Constitution provided the Commonwealth with all the powers associated with a sovereign state, including the power to engage in foreign affairs and to raise its own army. But the United Kingdom still retained the power to engage in foreign affairs on behalf of Australia, and to make laws for it. In the early years Australia continued to be represented by the United Kingdom as part of the British Empire at international conferences.
Also, the Constitution provided that the British monarch be represented in Australia by a Governor-General, who was originally appointed on the advice of the British, not the Australian, government, and was generally a British aristocrat. Finally, the Constitution provided that any law of the Australian Parliament could be disallowed within a year by the British monarch (acting on the advice of British ministers), though this power was never in fact exercised. In summary, the constitutional position of the Commonwealth as a whole in relation to the United Kingdom was, originally, the same as that of the individual colonies before Federation.
==From a united empire crown to a shared monarch==
A fundamental change in the constitutional structures of the British Commonwealth (formerly the British Empire, and not to be confused with the Commonwealth of Australia) did occur, however, in the late [[1920s]]. Under the British [[Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927]], which implemented a decision of an earlier Commonwealth conference, the unified Crown that had heretofore been the centre point of the Empire was replaced by multiple crowns worn by a ''shared monarch''. Before 1927, King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]] reigned as king ''in'' Australia, [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]], the [[Irish Free State]], [[South Africa]], etc., each of these states, in effect, as dominions, amounting to a subset of the United Kingdom. After 1927, he reigned as King ''of'' Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, South Africa, etc. The form of use in the royal title as issued by King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]] [http://www.heraldica.org/topics/britain/britstyles.htm#1927] did not mention the dominions by name, except 'Ireland', which changed from being referred to as ''Great Britain and Ireland'' to ''Great Britain, Ireland'', indicating that it was no longer part of the United Kingdom, but a separate state of which the monarch was now directly the head, rather than through linkage with Great Britain. Though unnamed, except through reference to the 'British Dominions beyond the Seas', the ground-breaking move shattered the previous concept of the shared monarch to one of multiple monarchies, all held by the one monarch.
Though this principle was implicit in the Act and in the King's new titles, and came out of a Commonwealth Conference, neither the British government nor the dominion governments seemed initially to grasp its significance. So while the Irish ''immediately'' put the principle into effect by assuming the right to select their own governor-general and to demand a direct right of audience with the King (excluding British ministers), other dominions were much slower to go down this path, and when they did so, they were faced with determined, though ultimately futile, attempts to block such evolution in London.
Whereas before 1927, it was correct in law to talk about the ''British monarch'' reigning in the dominions, after 1927, there was technically a 'King of Australia', etc., even if that title was never used formally, with the only link being that that monarch ''was'' British and resident outside the Commonwealth of Australia. Curiously, while the Irish asserted the title '[[King of Ireland]]' by having King George V sign an international treaty on behalf of his Irish realm as early as 1931 (where he was formally advised by the Irish Minister for External Affairs who formally 'attended' His Majesty, with no British minister present), the formal title 'Queen of Australia' was only adopted through the ''Royal Style and Titles Act'' [http://www.statusquo.org/royalstyle.html] enacted by the Parliament of Australia in 1973.
==The Statute of Westminster==
The next major constitutional change came about with the Act of the British Parliament known as the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] of [[1931]]. This was associated with the transformation of the British Empire into the British Commonwealth. The UK government recognized Australia (and its other dominions, such as Canada and New Zealand) as independent, and agreed that the British Government and Parliament would only make laws for them if they specifically requested it, with the various dominions having the legal right to adopt and amend past legislation enacted in Westminster. (This allowed the Irish Free State, for example, to remove the requirement that the then Irish constitution be limited by the contents of the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]. Once that was removed, the [[Oath of Allegiance (Ireland)|Oath of Allegiance]], appeals to the Privy Council, Senate, [[Governor-General of the Irish Free State|governor-generalship]] and [[The Crown|Crown]] were all abolished.)
However, for various reasons, the Statute of Westminster did ''not'' apply to the Australian States (at their own request), so that they remained, in relation to the United Kingdom, in the position of substantially self-governing colonies, subject, in theory at least, to any legislation specifically directed at them by the British Parliament. Also, their Governors, representing the monarch, were formally appointed on the advice of British ministers, though these increasingly merely relayed advice given to them by the Australian State Premiers.
On the other hand, at the Commonwealth level, the practice was established that the Governor-General was to be appointed by the monarch on the advice of Australian, not British ministers, when the Australian government successfully insisted, against considerable British opposition (including from the King himself), on the appointment of the native-born Sir Isaac Isaacs as Governor-General in 1931.
In April [[1933]], a [[referendum]] in [[Western Australia]] produced a 68% yes vote to leave the Commonwealth of Australia with the aim of returning to the [[British Empire]] as an autonomous territory. No action was taken in the British Parliament because no request was received from the Australian Government in line with the Statute of Westminster.
==The Australia Act==
The power under the Statute of Westminster to request the British Parliament to make laws for Australia was used on several occasions, primarily in order to enable Australia to acquire new territories. |
ingly Zionist. Today all of Reform, Conservative and Modern Orthodoxy is staunchly Zionist; and even most Haredi Jews have changed from anti-Zionism (active opposition to Zionism) to non-Zionism (neutrality towards Zionism.) Secular non-Zionist Jewish movements are very rare today.
By the mid-19th century, the [[Land of Israel]] was a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]], populated mostly by [[Muslim]] and [[Christian]] [[Arab]]s, as well as Jews, [[Druze]], [[Bedouin]]s and other minorities.
By 1844, Jews constituted the largest population group (and by 1890 an absolute majority) in a few cities, most notably [[Jerusalem]]. In addition to these traditional religious Jewish communities, known as the ''[[Old Yishuv]]'', the second half of the 19th century saw a new kind of Jewish immigrant, prevalently secular [[left-wing]] [[socialist]]s who aimed to reclaim the land by working on it. [[Mikveh Israel]] was founded in 1870 by [[Alliance Israelite Universelle]], followed by [[Petah Tikva]] (1878), [[Rishon LeZion]] (1882), and other agricultural communities founded by the members of [[Bilu]] and [[Hovevei Zion]]. Near the end of the century [[Leon Pinsker]] and [[Theodore Herzl]] took practical steps toward securing international support for a Jewish homeland in the region of Palestine, though neither of them considered Palestine as the only conceivable site for the future state. In 1897, the [[First Zionist Congress]] proclaimed the decision "to establish a home for the Jewish people in Eretz-Israel secured under public law."[http://www.wzo.org.il/home/movement/first.htm]
The [[Balfour Declaration, 1917|Balfour Declaration]] of 1917 asserted that the British Government "view[ed] with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people"..."it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine". This declaration was supported by a number of other countries, including the [[United States]], and became more important following [[World War I]], when the [[League of Nations]] assigned the United Kingdom the Palestine mandate ([[1922 Text: League of Nations Palestine Mandate]]).
Jewish immigration grew slowly in the 1920s; it increased substantially in the 1930s, due to political turmoil in [[Europe]] and [[Nazi]] persecution, until restrictions were imposed by the [[United Kingdom]] in 1939. After the end of [[World War II]], and the near-extermination of European Jewry by the Nazis, international support for Jews seeking to settle in Palestine overcame British efforts to restrict immigration.
Following [[World War II]], the British announced their intention to withdraw from the [[British mandate of Palestine|mandate of Palestine]]. The [[United Nations]] General Assembly (GA Resolution 181, [[November 29]] [[1947]]) proposed the partition of Palestine into two states, an [[Arab]] state and a Jewish state, with Jerusalem to be under United Nations administration (see [http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH0dt70 map]). Most Jews in Palestine accepted the proposal, while most of the Arabs in Palestine rejected it. The Arabs totally rejected the idea of a Jewish state in Palestine (however, they were not under any legal obligation to accept the plan as General Assembly resolutions are not binding).
Violence between Arab and Jewish communities erupted almost immediately. Toward the end of the British mandate, the Jews planned to declare a separate state, a development the Arabs were determined to prevent. On [[May 14]], [[1948]], the last British forces withdrew from Palestine, and the Jews, led by [[David Ben Gurion]], declared the creation of the State of Israel, in accordance with the Partition Plan.
=== 1948 War of Independence ===
:''Main article: [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]''.
Immediately following the declaration of the State of Israel, [[Egypt|Egyptian]], [[Syria|Syrian]], [[Iraq|Iraqi]], [[Jordan|Jordanian]], and [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] forces invaded the newly formed state on all fronts. In a desperate and costly war characterized by use of makeshift armaments and resourceful tactics, Israel eventually repelled the attacking armies, and then advanced its forces to occupy some of the territory set aside under the Partition Plan for the Arabs and for the City of [[Jerusalem]]. A cease fire agreement was signed between the two sides, with the current front line becoming the boundary between Israel and the Arab territories. As a result of the 1948 war, Israel controlled all the territory allotted to them under the Partition Plan, much of the territory allotted to the Arabs under the Plan, and half of what was to be the UN-administered City of Jerusalem. The remaining Arab territories were the [[West Bank]] and the [[Gaza Strip]]; the West Bank was administered by [[Jordan]], while the Gaza Strip was administered by Egypt. For details, see [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]].
In 1949, under UN auspices, four armistice agreements were negotiated and signed at [[Rhodes]], [[Greece]], between Israel and its neighbors Egypt, Jordan, [[Lebanon]] and Syria. The 1948-49 war of independence resulted in a 50% increase in Israeli territory, including western Jerusalem. No general peace settlement was achieved at Rhodes, however, and violence along the borders continued for many years.
As a result of this war, about 711,000 Arab refugees were created (according to the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine[http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/93037e3b939746de8525610200567883!OpenDocument]) and over 800,000 Jewish refugees were created. The latter figure includes all Jews who fled or were expelled from Arab states after Israel was created. Pro-Palestinian sources call these people emigrants, rather than refugees. Pro-Israeli commentators hold that the [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]], many of which communities had been established for more than 2000 years, came as a result of violence and persecution. In the view of a vast majority of [[Arabs]] the birth of Israel has been a cause of [[ethnic cleansing]] targeting the Palestinians. About 600,000 of the Jewish refugees settled in the State of Israel, having neither intention nor willingness to return to their source countries; many of the Arab refugees, and their descendants, remain to this day in refugee camps run by the [[United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East]] (UNRWA).
Further information from pro-Israel sources: [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/refugees.html]
On [[July 5]], [[1950]] the [[Knesset]] passed the [[Law of Return]] which granted all Jews the right to immigrate to Israel. Even prior to the passing of that law, immigrants flocked to Israel, some assisted by Israeli authorities. From 1947 to 1950 some 250,000 Holocaust survivors made their way to Israel. "[[Operation Magic Carpet]]" brought thousands of [[Yemen|Yemenite]] Jews to Israel.
The early years were not easy for the newly founded state, and a [[Austerity in Israel|state of austerity]] was put into force on 1949, not to be fully annulled until 1959.
==== References ====
*[http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253?OpenDocument 1947 UN resolution]
*[http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/cf02d057b04d356385256ddb006dc02f/3cbe4ee1ef30169085256b98006f540d!OpenDocument Map of 1947 UN division]
=== The Lavon Affair ===
After [[Gamal Abdal Nasser]] came to power in Egypt of 1952, relations between the U.S. and Egypt improved. This was viewed as a threat to Israel. In an incident which later shocked the Israeli public when the facts came to light, and which then brought down its government, a handful of individuals in the Israeli government and the Mossad conspired to undermine relations between America and Egypt. This group orchestrated a bombing campaign against American governmental and civilian installations in Egypt, including an American library in Alexandria and Cairo, an MGM Cinema, and other American owned business buildings.
The campaign was halted in 1954 by the arrest of two agents who had attempted to place a bomb; this led to the collapse of the cell and the imprisonment or execution of most of its members by Egypt. Some quarters maintain that Israel did not do enough to protect its agents, prompted by allegations of torture and mistreatment of the bombers by the Egyptian authorities.
In the following investigation, Brigadier Binyamin Gibli claimed that the Defence Minister, [[Pinhas Lavon]] gave a verbal order to carry out the operation. The Chief of Staff of that time, [[Moshe Dayan]], agreed with him. As a result of the scandal, now known as the [[Lavon Affair]], Lavon was forced to resign. [[David Ben Gurion]] replaced him in office. In 1960, following new evidence from a secret 1958 trial of a suspected double agent, Lavon asked Ben Gurion to exonerate him. Ben-Gurion refused, since he could not believe that officers of the Israeli army, which he had built himself, would be able to commit such a dishonest action as framing Lavon.
In 1960, a committee of seven ministers set up to investigate the matter revealed the forging of a document used by Moshe Dayan and [[Shimon Peres]], then Deputy Minister of Defense, to deflect responsibility for the botched 1954 Egyptian operation onto Lavon. A subsequent hearing revealed that Peres, Dayan and Brigadier Abraham Givli were also involved. The conclusions of the committee were accepted by the government. Despite attempts to censor the details of the case on grounds of national security, the Lavon Affair led to a second scandal, and Ben Gurion's forced resignation due to the inability of the government to act due to political considerations. The Israeli public reacted with outrage when they learned the truth about the conspiracy.
In the following 1961 elections, Ben-Guri |
It was established on the basis of the Chapter VII of the [[UN Charter]]; relevant portion of the charter reads "the Security Council can take measures to maintain or restore international peace and security"; it is disputed whether a tribunal could be considered a measure to maintain or restore international peace and security.
* An apparently disproportionately large number of indictees are [[Serbs]] (to the extent that a sizeable portion of the Bosnian Serb and Serbian political and military leaderships have been indicted), whereas there have been very few indictments resulting from crimes committed against Serbs (many Croat indictees were charged with crimes committed against Bosnian Muslims); furthermore, Serbian indictees are of higher rank than those of other nations and face with broader accusations. Defenders of the Tribunal respond that Serb control of the established command structure (and most of the [[weapon]]ry) of the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] (JNA) from the start of the various wars facilitated the commission of crimes on a wider and more organised scale; furthermore, the Serb command structure facilitated the identification of those with command responsibility for war crimes. However, this fails to explain why a number of specific crimes committed against Serbs are not prosecuted.
* Many of the indictees are still not apprehended, which reflects badly on its image. Defenders point out that the Tribunal has no powers of [[arrest]], and is reliant on other agencies (notably national governments, [[EUFOR]] and [[KFOR]]) to apprehend and extradite indictees.
* The Tribunal's power to issue secret indictments creates uncertainty among people who regard themselves as possible indictees, which places an unreasonable strain on their ability to proceed with their everyday lives, both in the short and long term.
* The Tribunal in effect makes no distinction between the Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian languages, issuing documents in what it terms "B/C/S" ("Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian") with no regard to differences between the three; see [[Serbo-Croatian language]]. Supporters of this approach respond that since all three forms are mutually intelligible to a high degree (and indeed were officially considered to be single [[language]] before the breakup of the former Yugoslavia) separate translations are not needed. However, despite the fact that most of the indictees are Serbs, the tribunal exclusively uses [[translator]]s who speak Bosnian and Croatian languages. Some of the indictees have filed complaints about not being able to fully understand the translations.
* The Tribunal has not prosecuted the citizens of any [[NATO]] countries as a result of NATO's involvement in the Kosovo conflict. NATO spokesman [[Jamie Shea]] said the following about the court:
: ''NATO countries are those that have provided the finance to set up the Tribunal, we are amongst the majority financiers, and of course to build a second chamber so that prosecutions can be speeded up so let me assure that we and the Tribunal are all one on this, we want to see war criminals brought to justice and I am certain that when Justice Arbour goes to Kosovo and looks at the facts she will be indicting people of Yugoslav nationality and I don't anticipate any others at this stage.''
The Tribunal is funded by approved appropriations made by the Fifth Committee of the General Assembly. NATO countries contribute to the budget as they are members of the UN and hence they get assesed for it as approved. However, a significant portion of the budget is voluntary funding, done mostly by NATO and Muslim countries. The UN General Assembly publishes the Tribunal's annual budget and Audited Financial Statements.
In [[December 2003]], [[Wesley Clark]] testified behind closed doors during [[Slobodan Milosevic|Slobodan Milošević]]'s trial. In the [[1990s]], Clark had spoken with Milosevic for more than 100 hours in his role as the head of the U.S. military team during the [[Dayton Agreement]] negotiations and as [[NATO]]'s [[Supreme Allied Commander]] in Europe.
Critics of the court took Clark's testimony as a prime example of the court's flaws. During Clark's cross-examination by Milosevic the following exchange is found:
:MILOSEVIC: [Interpretation] General Clark, is it true that in an interview that you gave for ''[[The New Yorker]]'' on the 17th of November, you said that the war that you waged was technically illegal?
:[Judge [[Richard May]], presiding, cuts Milošević off and some back and forth follows between the two, in which Judge May reminds Milošević that since Milošević is cross-examining General Clark, he can only address matters regarding which the witness was asked to testify during the examination in chief by the prosecutions counsel. Since the legality of the NATO military action was not discussed during examination in chief, the rules of procedure do not permit Milošević to raise that issue during cross-examination. At the end of the exchange, Milošević asks:]
:MILOSEVIC: [Interpretation] So I cannot ask him anything at all about the war waged by NATO against Yugoslavia. Is that what you're saying?
:JUDGE MAY: Yes.
:MILOSEVIC: [Interpretation] Well, Mr. May, that really is an example showing that this is truly nothing more than a farce.
Milosevic was required to call Clark as his own witness to open these lines of questioning.
* Critics have questioned whether the Tribunal exascerbates tensions rather than promotes reconciliation, as is claimed by Tribunal supporters. Polls show a generally negative reaction to the Tribunal among the Serb and Croat public. The majority of Croats and Serbs doubt the tribunal's integrity and question the tenability of its legal procedures (although the Serbs's and Croats's opinions on the court are almost always exactly the opposite with regard to the cases that involve both parties). On the other hand, Kosovo Albanians and Bosnian Muslims have frequently expressed their high regard for the court and the trust in its impartiality.
*Critics, even within the United Nations, have complained of the Tribunal's high cost. The two-year budget for the Tribunal for 2004 and 2005 was $271,854,600 (USD). The cost is borne by all U.N. members.
*Critics have also complained of the length of trials, with some extending for several years. Supporters of the Tribunal respond that many of the defendants are charged with multiple crimes against many victims, all of which must be proven beyond reasonable doubt, thus requiring long trials. Simultaneous translation also slows trials.
==Indictees==
An incomplete list.
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"
|-
!Name||Ethnicity<br>Former rank||Indictment||Disposition
|-
|[[Rahim Ademi]]
|Croatian army general, ethnic Albanian
|
|
|-
|[[Milan Babić]]
|Croatian Serb, prime minister of [[Republika Srpska Krajina]]
|
|Sentenced to thirteen years for his part in ethnic cleansing
|-
|[[Haradin Bala]]
|Kosovo Albanian, [[Kosovo Liberation Army]] prison camp guard
|&nbsp;
|-Sentenced to thirteen years for his direct participation in the killings at Berisha mountains.
|[[Idriz Balaj]]
|Kosovo Albanian, [[Kosovo Liberation Army]] special unit commander
|
|
|-
|[[Beqë Beqaj]]
|Albanian
|indicted for contempt of the tribunal for allegedly interfering with witnesses in the case against Fatmir Limaj and Isak Musliu
|-
|[[Vidoje Blagojević]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army officer
|
|Sentenced to 18 years for involvement in the [[Srebrenica massacre]]
|-
|[[Tihomir Blaškić]]
|Croatian, Croatian Army general
|
|convicted, partially dismissed in appeal, since released
|-
|[[Janko Bobetko]]
|Croatian
chief of staff, Croatian army
|indicted, died before the case could be heard
|-
|[[Ljube Boškovski]]
|Macedonian
interior minister of Macedonia
|for [[Ljuboten]] attack
|-
|[[Lahi Brahimaj]]
|Kosovo Albanian, [[Kosovo Liberation Army]]
|
|
|-
|[[Ljubomir Borovcanin]]
|Serb
|indicted in [[Srebrenica]] case
|-
|[[Goran Borovnica]]
|Serb
|indicted in [[Prijedor]] case
|-
|[[Miroslav Bralo]]
|Bosnian Croat
|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|-
|[[Ivan Čermak]]
|Croatian
army general
|awaiting trial
|-
|[[Mario Čerkez]]
|Croatian
|sentenced to 15 years for offensives in Lašva Valley, Bosnia
|-
|[[Hazim Delić]]
|Bosnian Muslim, Bosnian prison camp deputy commander
|
|Sentenced to twenty years, found guilty of murder & rape
|-
|[[Rasim Delić]]
|Bosnian Muslim, Bosnian Army General
|&nbsp;
|-
|[[Vlastimir Đorđević]]
|Serb
army general
|&nbsp;
|-
|[[Đorđe Đukić]]
|Serb
|&nbsp;
|indicted for shelling civilian targets, died before case was tried
|-
|[[Stanislav Galić]]
|Bosnian Serb
|indicted for Sarajevo ; sentenced to 20 years ; appeal pending.
|-
|[[Milan Gvero]]
|Bosnian Serb
|indicted for Srebrenica
|-
|[[Ante Gotovina]]
|Croat, Army general
|Crimes against humanity & Violations of the laws or customs of war
|
|-
|[[Momčilo Gruban]]
|Serb
|indicted in Omarska Camp case
|
|-
|[[Sefer Halilović]]
|Bosnian Muslim
|for massacres in the villages of Grabovica and Uzdol, Bosnia
|On [[November 16]], [[2005]], Halilović was acquitted on all charges and released.
|-
|[[Ramush Haradinaj]]
|Albanian
prime minister of Kosovo
|indicted for action while regional commander of the [[Kosovo Liberation Army]]
|-
|[[Gojko Janković]],
| Bosnian Serb
|&nbsp;
|-
|[[Goran Jelisić]],
|Serb
|&nbsp;
|convicted
|-
|[[Dragan Jokić]]
|Bosnian Serb
|sentenced to 9 years for involvement in [[Srebrenica massacre]]
|-
|[[Miodrag Jokić]]
|Serb
admiral in Yugoslav navy
|sentenced to seven years for the bombing of [[Dubrovnik]]
|-
|[[Drago Josipović]]
|Croat
|&nbsp;
|convicted for the massacres in Ahmići-Šantići
|-
|[[Radovan Karadžić]]
|Montenegrin, former President of Republika Srpska
|Genocide, Crimes against humanity, Violations of the laws or customs of war & Grave breaches of the Geneva conventions of 1949
| |
er version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role<ref>Josephus ''Bellum Iudiacum'' II, 204-233.</ref> &mdash; so it is not known how large a hand he had in things. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in and, in return, Claudius pardoned nearly all the assassins.
Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within the Julio-Claudian family. He adopted the name "Caesar" as a [[cognomen]] &mdash; the name still carried great weight with the populace. In order to do so, he dropped the cognomen "Nero" which he had adopted as paterfamilias of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted out. While he had never been adopted by Augustus or his successors, he was the grandson of Octavia, and so felt he had the right. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" in order to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia in order to highlight her position as wife of the divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, in order to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation.
Because he was proclaimed emperor on the initiative of the [[Praetorian Guard]] instead of the Senate &mdash; the first emperor thus proclaimed &mdash; Claudius' repute suffered at the hands of commentators (such as [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]). Moreover, he was the first Emperor who resorted to bribery as a means to secure army loyalty. This is not entirely how it seems. Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to the army and guard in their wills, and on the death of Caligula the same would have been expected, even if no will existed. Claudius remained grateful to the guard, however, issuing coins with tributes to the praetorians in the early part of his reign.
==Expansion of the empire==
[[Image:Claudiuscellamodel.jpg|right|thumb|225px|Model of the Temple of the divine Claudius, erected in [[Colchester]] after the conquest of Britain. Image courtesy [http://www.vroma.org The VRoma Project].]]
Under Claudius, the empire underwent its first major expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces of [[Thrace]], [[Mauretania]], [[Noricum]], [[Pamphylia]], [[Lycia]], and [[Judea]] were annexed during his term. The most important conquest was that of [[Roman conquest of Britain|Britannia]].
In 43, Claudius sent [[Aulus Plautius]] with four [[Roman legion|legions]] to [[Britain]] after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth &mdash; particularly mines and slaves. It was also a safe haven for Gallic rebels and the like, and so could not be left alone much longer. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offenses, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The latter must have made an impression on the [[Britons]] when they were used in the capture of [[Camulodunum]]. He left after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] for his efforts, as only members of the imperial family were allowed such honors. Claudius later lifted this restriction for some of his conquering generals. He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using the title himself. When the British general, [[Caractacus]], was finally captured in 50, Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander, but one that must have calmed the British opposition.
Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 Roman citizens, an increase of around a million since the census conducted at Augustus' death. He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies that were granted blanket citizenship. These colonies were often made out of existing communities, especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the empire in order to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible.
==Judicial and legislative affairs==
Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgements were variable and sometimes did not follow the law<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 15. Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LXI 33.</ref>. He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 in order to ensure a more experienced jury pool.
Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of [[Rhodes]] from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted [[Troy]] from taxes. Early in his reign, the Greeks and Jews of [[Alexandria]] sent him two embassies at once after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians," which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but also forbade them to move in more families en masse. According to [[Josephus]], he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all the Jews in the empire<ref>Josephus ''Ant. Iud.'' XIX, 287.</ref>. An investigator of Claudius' discovered that many old Roman citizens based in the modern city of [[Trento]] were not in fact citizens. The emperor issued a declaration that they would be considered to hold citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished false assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen found to be impersonating knights were sold back into slavery.
Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius' reign. These were on a number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgements. Two famous medical examples are one promoting [[Taxus baccata|Yew]] juice as a cure for snakebite, and another promoting public flatulence for good health. One of the more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters had been abandoning ailing slaves at the temple of [[Aesculapius]] to die, and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take the risk would be charged with murder.
==Public works==
[[Image:Rome.Porta_Maggiore.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The Porta Maggiore in Rome]]
Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in the capital and in the provinces. He built two aqueducts, the [[Aqua Claudia]], begun by Caligula, and the [[Anio Novus]]. These entered the city in 52 and met at the famous [[Porta Maggiore]]. He also restored a third, the [[Aqua Virgo]].
He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from the Rhine to the sea, as well as a road from Italy to Germany &mdash; both begun by his father, Drusus. Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on the [[Tiber]], leading to [[Portus]], his new port just north of [[Ostia]]. This port was constructed in a semicircle with two [[Mole (architecture)|moles]] and a lighthouse at its mouth. The construction also had the effect of reducing flooding in Rome.
The port at Ostia was part of Claudius' solution to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, after the Roman shipping season. The other part of his solution was to insure the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk traveling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from the [[Lex Papia-Poppaea]], a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealed the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communities suffering draught or famine.
The last part of Claudius' plan was to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining the [[Fucine lake]], which would have the added benefit of making the nearby river navigable year-round. A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel was not large enough to carry the water, and crooked, which caused it to back up when opened. The draining of the lake was not a bad idea, and many other emperors and potentates considered it, including the emperors [[Hadrian]] and [[Trajan]], and [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] in the [[Middle Ages]]. It was finally achieved by the Prince [[Torlonia]] in the 19th century. He expanded the Claudian tunnel to three times its original size.
==Claudius and the Senate==
Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please the Senate. During regular sessions, the emperor sat amongst the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as [[Tribune]]. He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including [[Imperator]]) at the beginning his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also put the imperial provinces of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] and [[Achaea]] back under Senate control.
Cla |
color="#ffffff"| fingu
|-
|colspan="15" bgcolor="#deeede"|
|-style="background:#efffef"
|[[Supine]]
| colspan=2 align=center | bit'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center |brot'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center |svom'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center |kom'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center |lig'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center |far'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center |fing'''ið'''
|}
====Auxiliary verbs====
The [[auxiliary verb]]s in Faroese are:
*at vera - to be
*at hava - to have
*at verða - to be, become
*at blíva - to be, become
{| id=toc style="margin-left: 15px;" width=500 cellpadding=2
|- style="background:#ccccff"
|colspan="9" align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff"| Auxiliary verbs
|-
|Infinitive
| colspan=2 align=center | 1. '''vera'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 2. '''hava'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 3. '''verða'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 4. '''blíva'''
|-
|colspan="9" bgcolor="#dddddd"|
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|-
|1st pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| er'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| var
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| hav'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| hev'''ði'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| verð'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| varð
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| blív'''i'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| bleiv
|-
|2nd pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| er'''t'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| var'''st'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| hev'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| hev'''ði'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| verð'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| varð'''st'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| blív'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| bleiv'''st'''
|-
|3rd pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| er
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| var
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| hev'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| hev'''ði'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| verð'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| varð
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| blív'''ur'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| bleiv
|-
|colspan="9" bgcolor="#dddddd"|
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|-
|1st, 2nd, 3rd pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| er'''u'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vór'''u'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| hav'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| høv'''du'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| verð'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vórð'''u'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| blív'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| bliv'''u'''
|-
|colspan="9" bgcolor="#deeede"|
|-style="background:#efffef"
|[[Supine]]
| colspan=2 align=center | ver'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center | hav'''t'''
| colspan=2 align=center | -
| colspan=2 align=center | bliv'''ið'''
|}
Note, that ''vera'' and ''verða'' are homonyms.
====Preterite-present verbs====
The [[preterite-present verb]]s in Faroese are the following:
*at kunna - to be able to
*at munna - to want
*at mega - to be allowed to
*at skula - shall
*at vita - to know
*at vilja - to want
{| id=toc style="margin-left: 15px;" width=650 cellpadding=2
|- style="background:#ccccff"
|colspan="13" align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff"| Preterite-present verbs
|-
|Infinitive
| colspan=2 align=center | 1. '''kunna'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 2. '''munna'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 3. '''mega'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 4. '''skula'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 5. '''vita'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 6. '''vilja'''
|-
|colspan="13" bgcolor="#dddddd"|
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|-
|1st pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kann
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kun'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| man
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| mun'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| má
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| má'''tti'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| skal
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| skul'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| veit
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vis'''ti'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vil
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vil'''di'''
|-
|2nd pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kan'''st'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kun'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| man'''st'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| mun'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| má'''st'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| má'''tti'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| skal'''t'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| skul'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| veit'''st'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vis'''ti'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vil'''t'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vil'''di'''
|-
|3rd pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kann
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kun'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| man
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| mun'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| má
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| má'''tti'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| skal
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| skul'''di'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| veit
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vis'''ti'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vil
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vil'''di'''
|-
|colspan="13" bgcolor="#dddddd"|
|-
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Present
|bgcolor="#eeeeee"| Past
|-
|1st, 2nd, 3rd pers.
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kunn'''u'''/<br>kunn'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| kund'''u'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| munn'''u'''/<br>munn'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| mund'''u'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| mug'''u'''/<br>meg'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| má'''ttu'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| skul'''u'''/<br>skul'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| skul'''du'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vit'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vist'''u'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vilj'''a'''
|bgcolor="#ffffff"| vil'''du'''
|-
|colspan="13" bgcolor="#deeede"|
|-style="background:#efffef"
|[[Supine]]
| colspan=2 align=center |kunn'''að'''
| colspan=2 align=center |munn'''að'''
| colspan=2 align=center |?
| colspan=2 align=center |skul'''að'''
| colspan=2 align=center |vit'''að'''
| colspan=2 align=center |vilj'''að'''
|}
== Further reading ==
This is a chronological list of books about Faroese still available. Unfortunately, the English-Faroese and Faroese-English dictionaries are sold out.
*V.U. Hammershaimb: ''Færøsk Anthologi.'' Copenhagen 1891 (no ISBN, 2 volumes, 4th printing, Tórshavn 1991) (in Danish)
*M.A. Jacobsen, Chr. Matras: ''Føroysk - donsk orðabók.'' Tórshavn, 1961. (no ISBN, 521 pages, Faroese-Danish dictionary)
*W.B. Lockwood: ''An Introduction to Modern Faroese.'' Tórshavn, 1977. (no ISBN, 244 pages, 4th printing 2002)
*Eigil Lehmann: ''Føroysk-norsk orðabók''. Tórshavn, 1987 (no ISBN, 388 p.) (Faroese-Norwegian dictionary)
*Tórður Jóansson: ''English loanwords in Faroese''. Tórshavn, 1997. (243 pages) ISBN 99918-49-14-9
*Johan Hendrik W. Poulsen: ''Føroysk orðabók''. Tórshavn, 1998. (1483 pages) ISBN 99918-41-52-0 (in Faroese)
*Annfinnur í Skála: ''Donsk-føroysk orðabók''. Tórshavn 1998. (1369 pages) ISBN 9991842225 (Danish-Faroese dictionary)
*Michael Barnes: ''Faroese Language Studies'' Studia Nordica 5, Supplementum 30. Tórshavn, 2002. (239 pages) ISBN 99918-41-30-X
*Höskuldur Thráinsson (Þráinsson), Hjalmar P. Petersen, Jógvan í Lon Jacobsen, Zakaris Svabo Hansen: ''Faroese. An Overview and Reference Grammar''. Tórshavn, 2004. (500 pages) ISBN 99918-41-85-7 ([http://vestnorden.no/CHA3%5B1%5D.03.pdf Chapter 3 - "Inflectional Morphology, Grammatical Categories and Word Classes" as PDF download, 167 p.])
*Richard Kölbl: ''Färöisch Wort für Wort''. Bielefeld 2004 (in German)
*Gianfranco Contri: ''Dizionario faroese-italiano = Føroysk-italsk orðabók''. Tórshavn, 2004. (627 p.) ISBN 99918-41-58-X (Faroese-Italian dictionary)
*Hjalmar Petersen, Marius Staksberg: ''Donsk-Føroysk orðabók''. Tórshavn, 2005. (879 p.) ISBN 99918-41-51-2 (Danish-Faroese dictionary)
== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=fo}}
* [http://www.fmn.fo/malnevndin/about.htm FMN.fo - Faroese Language Committee] (Official site with further links)
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Faeroese-english/ Faeroese - English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=fao Ethnologue report on Faroese]
[[Category:Faroese language]]
[[Category:Languages of Denmark]]
[[Category:North Germanic languages]]
[[af:Faroëes]]
[[bs:Farski jezi |
an International Organization of Unitarians" (AEIOU), which worked towards the establishment of the council. Rev. [[David Usher (minister)|David Usher]], a British Unitarian minister of Australian origin, proposed the 1987 resolution. However, the General Assembly resolution provided no funding.
The [[Unitarian Universalist Association]] (UUA) became particularly interested in the establishment of a council when it had to deal with an increasing number of applications for membership from congregations outside [[North America]]. It had already granted membership to congregations in [[Adelaide]], [[Auckland, New Zealand|Auckland]], the [[Philippines]] and [[Pakistan]], and congregations in [[Sydney]], [[Russia]] and [[Spain]] had applied for membership. Rather than admit congregations from all over the world, the UUA hoped that they would join a world council instead. The UUA thus became willing to provide funding for the council's establishment.
As a result, the council was finally established at a meeting in [[Essex, Massachusetts]] on [[March 23|March 23-26]], [[1995]]. Rev. David Usher became the ICUU's first President.
The size of the member organizations varies widely. Some member groups have only a few hundred members; while the largest, the Unitarian Universalist Association, has over 200,000 members and is larger than all the other member groups put together.
== Members ==
===Full Members===
*[[Australia and New Zealand Unitarian Association]] (ANZUA)
*[[Canadian Unitarian Council]]
*[[Deutsche Unitarier Religionsgemeinschaft]], Germany
*[[European Unitarian Universalists]]
*[[First Unitarian Church of Nigeria]]
*[[General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches]], United Kingdom & Ireland
*[[Ijo Isokan Gbogbo Eda]] (Unitarian Brotherhood Church), Nigeria
*[[Khasi Unitarian Union]], India
*[[Kosciol Unitarianski]] (Unitarian Church in Poland)
*[[Nabozenska spolecnost ceskych unitaru]] (Religious Society of Czech Unitarians)
*[[The Unitarian Christian Church of Madras]], India
*[[The Unitarian Church in Hungary]]
*[[The Unitarian Church of Romania]] (Transylvania)
*[[Unitarian Church of South Africa]]
*[[Unitarian Universalist Association]], USA
*[[Unitarian Universalist Association of Sri Lanka]]
*[[Unitarian Universalist Church of the Philippines]]
*[[Unitarian Universalists of Russia]]
*[[Unitarian Universalist Society of Finland]]
*[[Unitarians and Universalists, Pakistan]]
*[[Unitarisk Kirkesamfund]], Denmark
===Emerging Groups===
*Argentina
*Brazil
*Bolivia
*Latvia
*Puerto Rico
===Other Associates===
*[[Doojin Christian Church]] (Japan)
*[[Church of Iceland]]
*[[Indonesia Global Church of God]]
*Italy
*Kenya
*[[L'Assemblees Fraternelles des Chretiens Unitariens de France]]
*[[L'Association Unitarienne Francophone et Eglise Unitarienne de France]]
*[[Unitarkirken]] (The Unitarian Christian Church in Norway)
== Principles and Purposes ==
PREAMBLE TO THE CONSTITUTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF UNITARIANS AND UNIVERSALISTS
We, the member groups of the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists, affirming our belief in religious community based on:
* liberty of conscience and individual thought in matters of faith,
* the inherent worth and dignity of every person.
* justice and compassion in human relations,
* responsible stewardship in human relations,
* and our commitment to democratic principles,
declare our purposes to be:
* to serve the Infinite Spirit of Life and the human community by strengthening the worldwide Unitarian and Universalist faith,
* to affirm the variety and richness of our living traditions,
* to facilitate mutual support among member organizations,
* to promote our ideals and principles around the world,
* to provide models of liberal religious response to the human condition which upholds our common values.
==External links==
* [http://icuu.net/ International Council of Unitarians and Universalists]
[[Category:Religious organizations]]
[[Category:Unitarian Universalism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intersexuals</title>
<id>15452</id>
<revision>
<id>19747610</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-27T23:18:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>2004-12-29T22:45Z</username>
<id>159726</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intersexuality]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intersexualism</title>
<id>15453</id>
<revision>
<id>19747647</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-27T23:19:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>2004-12-29T22:45Z</username>
<id>159726</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intersexuality]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Itanium</title>
<id>15454</id>
<revision>
<id>41363909</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T21:44:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CesarB</username>
<id>7410</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm extra whitespace</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Itanium.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Itanium brand logo]]
In [[computing]], the '''Itanium''' is an [[IA-64]] [[microprocessor]] developed jointly by [[Hewlett-Packard]] and [[Intel]].
==Merced==
[[Image:Itanium.png|thumb|The Intel Itanium processor.]]
HP and Intel first collaborated on chip for servers and workstations in 1989. HP needed a next generation replacement for its successful [[PA-RISC]] line of servers and workstations, and wanted to tap Intel's volume and expertise in chip design and manufacturing.
It would use [[Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing]] where the compiler would line up instructions for parallel execution. Features were added to ensure compatibility with ''both'' Intel [[X86|x86]] and HP applications. It was expected to dominate servers, workstations, and perhaps even desktops, bumping the ubiquitous x86 architecture. Importantly, it was not expected [[AMD]] would be able to clone it.
==Software support==
[[Image:Itanium_arch.png|thumb|The Intel Itanium architecture.]]
Microsoft has ported [[Windows XP]], [[Windows 2000]], and [[Windows Server 2003]] to Itanium.
Microsoft server applications include [[Microsoft SQL Server|SQL Server]], Operations Manager, CRM Server, [[Internet Information Services|IIS]], [[Microsoft Visual Studio|Visual Studio]], and the [[.NET Framework]]. The decision was made in recent years to not include support for client applications or client operating systems (such as Windows XP) for the Itanium, because the market demand is too small to justify the porting and support costs.
Microsoft has announced support for Itanium on its upcoming [[Windows Server "Longhorn"|Longhorn Server]] operating system. It is being positioned as the top end processor for the most demanding workloads such as [[database]] servers, [[operations management]], and [[customer relationship management]].
In June 2003 [[OpenVMS]] was added to the line up of operating systems able to run on these processors.
The HP [[Tandem Computers|NonStop]] operating system also runs on Itanium. NonStop is used in many of the world's trading and financial markets.
The [[Linux kernel]] and multiple [[Linux distributions|GNU/Linux distributions]] run on Itanium, such as [[Red Hat Enterprise Linux]], [[SUSE Linux Enterprise Server]], [[Debian]], and the version [[Silicon Graphics|SGI]] offers on their [[Altix]] machines. In Jan 2002, [http://www.gelato.org Gelato.org], a community for the propagation of Linux on Itanium was created.
[[FreeBSD]] also runs on Itanium systems.
[[Sun Microsystems|Sun]] was developing a port of [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]] to the Itanium processor, but that port was never released.
==Market trends==
The following companies announced a new "Itanium Alliance" in September 2005 to promote hardware and software development for the chip:
Hewlett-Packard, Hitachi, Fujitsu, NEC, Unisys, Bull, Silicon Graphics, Microsoft, Oracle, Red Hat, Novell, BEA Systems, SAP, SAS, and Intel.
[http://news.com.com/Itanium+alliance+backed+by+major+tech+companies/2100-1006_3-5882978.html]
[[Dell]] and [[IBM]] have dropped the chip from their product lines.[http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,1859669,00.asp][http://news.com.com/IBM+server+design+drops+Itanium+support/2100-1006_3-5589603.html]
Total revenue tripled for the Itanium from 2003-2004 and reached $1.4 billion in 2004.[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/02/28/itanium_04_sales/]
[[Intel]] has delayed the dual-core Montecito version of Itanium for 3 months.[http://www.infoworld.com/article/05/10/24/HNintelalters_1.html?PROCESSORS]
Customer spending on Itanium servers hit $2.4 billion in 2005.[http://news.com.com/Analyst+firm+offers+rosy+view+of+Itanium/2100-1006_3-6038932.html]
==Technical criticism==
The first version, code named '''Merced''', shipped in June [[2001]]. Manufactured in a 180 [[nanometre|nm]] process, it was offered at speeds of 733 and 800 [[megahertz|MHz]], with a choice of 2 [[megabyte|MB]] or 4 MB off-die L3 [[CPU cache|cache]]. Prices ranged from US$1200 to over US$4000.
However, performance was disappointing. In IA-64 mode, it performed only slightly better than an equivalently clocked x86 design, and when running legacy x86 code, performance was extremely poor, about 1/8th that of a similarly clocked x86 processor. Software emulation would have been faster.
The main (though by no means only) structural design flaw with the Itanium was the high latency of its level three cache. Intel's engineers had evidently been hoping that the amount of bandwidth available would offset this, but the latency was so high that it actually slowed the cache, to the point where it was not significantly faster than the main memory interface. With the faster first and second-level caches set relatively small (32KB and 96KB respectively), this further increased the |
tions (if applicable)], also from the Spectre Association website.
* [http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mwherold/AC130_Gunship.wmv Actual live-fire combat mission video (Afghanistan)] ([[WMV]] format)
* [http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=71 Air Force Factsheet: the AC-130H/U GUNSHIP] on which this article was originally based.
* [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/ac-130.htm FAS.org: AC-130H Spectre/AC-130U Spooky]
* [http://www.centcom.mil/CENTCOMNews/Reports/Investigation_Oruzgan_Province.htm Executive summary from US investigation exonerating AC-130 crews who caused civilian casualties in Afghanistan]
==Related content==
'''Related development:''' [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules]]
'''Comparable aircraft:''' [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]]
'''Designation series:'''
'''See also:'''
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
* [[List of Lockheed aircraft]]
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Vietnam War aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. attack aircraft 1960-1969]]
[[Category:U.S. attack aircraft 1990-1999]]
[[de:Lockheed C-130#AC-130 Gunship]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albrecht Durer</title>
<id>3156</id>
<revision>
<id>15901519</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-22T14:26:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tarquin</username>
<id>83</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albrecht Dürer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alternative</title>
<id>3158</id>
<revision>
<id>41833230</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:09:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.91.137.243</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|alternative}}
'''Alternative''' may refer to:
* [[Alternative rock]], a genre of music
* [[Alternative hip hop]], a genre of music
* [[Alternative algebra]], an abstract algebra with alternative multiplication
* [[Alternative comics]], one of several labels applied to a range of comics
* [[Alternative culture]], a variety of subcultures outside or on the fringes of so-called accepted mainstream culture
* [[Alternative dispute resolution]], processes and techniques outside the traditional mainstream of jurisprudence
* [[Alternative lifestyle]], a lifestyle that it is not within the generally perceived cultural norm
* [[Alternative media]], media practices falling outside the mainstreams of corporate communication
* [[Alternative medicine]], methods and practices used in place of, or in addition to, conventional medical treatments
* [[Alternative society]], alternative models for society and social change
* [[Christian alternative rock]], a form of alternative rock music lyrically grounded in a Christian worldview
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alternative algebra</title>
<id>3160</id>
<revision>
<id>37372788</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T16:18:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fredrik</username>
<id>26675</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[Emil Artin]] as originator of theorem (presumably)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], an [[algebra over a field|algebra]] is called '''alternative''' if (''xx'')''y''=''x''(''xy'') and ''y''(''xx'')=(''yx'')''x'' for all ''x'' and ''y'' in the algebra, that is, if the multiplication is [[alternativity|alternative]].
Equivalently, an algebra is alternative if and only if the [[subalgebra]] generated by any two of its elements is [[associative]]. The equivalence of the two definitions is known as '''Artin's theorem''', after [[Emil Artin]].
For any two elements ''x'' and ''y'' in an alternative algebra another simple identity holds: (''xy'')''x'' = ''x''(''yx''). This is called the ''flexible law''.
Every [[associative algebra]] is obviously alternative, but so too are some non-associative algebras such as the [[octonion]]s. The [[sedenion]]s are not alternative.
Alternativity in algebras is a condition weaker than associativity but stronger than [[power associativity]].
{{algebra-stub}}
[[Category:Nonassociative algebra]]
[[de:Alternativkörper]]
[[fr:alternativité]]
[[he:אלגברה אלטרנטיבית]]
[[it:Algebra alternativa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Akira</title>
<id>3161</id>
<revision>
<id>40023980</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T15:57:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ravn</username>
<id>47881</id>
</contributor>
<comment>this is not a {{hndis}}, but a [[MoS:DP]]; {{disambig}}. The hndis should be at a different place, e.g. [[Akira (name)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Akira''' may refer to:
* [[Akira (film)]] - an [[anime]] film, or the main character in this film.
* [[Akira (manga)]] - a [[manga]] that the film was based on
* [[Akira (band)]] - a [[London]] three-piece [[alternative rock]]/[[post-rock]] band
* [[Akira class starship]] in the [[Star Trek]] [[fictional universe]]
* [[Akira (name)]], a female Scottish name, and a Japanese given name or surname.
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Japanese given names]]
[[de:Akira (Name)]]
[[fr:Akira]]
[[it:Akira]]
[[ja:アキラ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arbitrage</title>
<id>3162</id>
<revision>
<id>42003700</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:59:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mark Meeker</username>
<id>1020849</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Change ETF link to bypass disambiguation page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[economics]], '''arbitrage''' is the practice of taking advantage of a state of imbalance between two or more [[market]]s: a combination of matching deals are struck that exploit the imbalance, the profit being the difference between the [[market price]]s. When used by academics, an arbitrage is a transaction that involves no negative cash flow at any probabilistic or temporal state and a positive cash flow in at least one state. A person who engages in arbitrage is called an '''arbitrageur'''. The term is mainly applied to trading in [[financial instruments]], such as [[bond]]s, [[stock]]s, [[derivative (finance)|derivatives]] and [[currency|currencies]].
If the market prices do not allow for profitable arbitrage, the prices are said to constitute an '''arbitrage equilibrium'''. An arbitrage equilibrium is a precondition for a [[general equilibrium|general economic equilibrium]].
[[Statistical arbitrage]] is an imbalance in expected values. A casino usually has a statistical arbitrage in every game of chance played, even though it could lose money on any single game.
== Conditions for arbitrage ==
Arbitrage is possible when one of three conditions is met:
#The same asset does not trade at the same price on all markets ("the law of one price").
#Two assets with identical cash flows do not trade at the same price.
#An asset with a known price in the future does not today trade at its future price [[discount | discounted]] at the [[risk-free interest rate]] (or, the asset does not have negligible costs of storage; as such, for example, this condition holds for grain but not for [[security (finance)|securities]]).
:See [[rational pricing]], particularly [[rational pricing#Arbitrage mechanics|arbitrage mechanics]], for further discussion.
== Examples ==
* Suppose that the [[exchange rate]]s (after taking out the fees for making the exchange) in London are £5 = $10 = ¥1000 and the exchange rates in Tokyo are ¥1000 = £6 = $10. Converting $10 to £6 in Tokyo and converting that £6 into $12 in London, for a profit of $2, would be arbitrage. In reality, this "triangle arbitrage" is so simple that it almost never occurs. But more complicated foreign exchange arbitrages, such as the spot-forward arbitrage (see [[Interest Rate Parity]]) are much more common.
*One example of arbitrage involves the [[New York Stock Exchange]] and the [[Chicago Mercantile Exchange]]. When the price of a stock on the NYSE and its corresponding [[futures contract]] on the CME are out of sync, one can buy the less expensive one and sell the more expensive. Because the differences between the prices are likely to be small (and not to last very long), this can only be done profitably with computers examining a large number of prices and automatically exercising a trade when the prices are far enough out of balance. The activity of other arbitrageurs can make this risky. Those with the fastest computers and the smartest mathematicians take advantage of series of small differentials that would not be profitable if taken individually.
*If you can buy items at one price at a [[factory outlet]] and sell them for a higher price on an internet [[auction]] [[website]] such as [[eBay]], you can exploit the imbalance between those two markets for those items.
*Economists use the term "global labor arbitrage" to refer to the tendency of manufacturing jobs to flow towards whichever country has the lowest wages per unit output at present and has reached the minimum requisite level of political and economic development to support [[industrialization]]. At present, many such jobs appear to be flowing towards [[People's Republic of China|China]], though some which require English are going to [[India]].
*Sports arbitrage - numerous [[internet]] [[bookmakers]] offer odds on the outcome of the same event. Any given bookmaker will weight their odds so that no one [[customer]] can cover all outcomes at a profit against their books. However, in order to remain competitive their margins are usually quite low. Different bookmakers may offer different odds on the same outcome of a given event; by taking the best odds offered by each bookmaker, a customer can under some circumstances cover all possible outcomes of the event and assure that they receive a small risk-free profit.
*[[Exchange-tra |
ext>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bovril</title>
<id>4961</id>
<revision>
<id>40623438</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T22:20:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arwel Parry</username>
<id>7891</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.107.28.204|81.107.28.204]] ([[User talk:81.107.28.204|talk]]) to last version by Zsinj</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bovril.jpg|300px|right]]
'''Bovril''', formerly a [[beef]] extract, now is the [[trademark]]ed name of a thick, salty [[yeast]] extract, sold in a distinctive, bulbous jar.
A [[spoon]]ful of the semi-liquid paste in hot [[water]] makes a savoury drink, but few like it because of its raucous flavour. It can also be used as a flavouring for [[soup]]s, [[stew]]s or [[porridge]], or spread on [[bread]], especially [[toast]].
The name, like many late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]] [[tradename]]s, comes (partially) from [[Latin]], ''bos'' meaning "ox." The ''vril'' component of the name comes from [[Edward George Bulwer-Lytton|Bulwer-Lytton]]'s once-popular 19th century "lost race" [[novel]], ''[[The Coming Race]]'', in which a subterranean [[humanoid]] race have mental control over, and devastating powers from, an energy fluid named "[[Vril]]."
In [[November 2004]] the manufacturers, [[Unilever]], announced that the composition of Bovril was being changed from beef to a [[yeast extract]], both in the hope of allaying fears of [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE), and to make the product suitable for [[vegetarian]]s and [[vegan]]s. According to Unilever, "in [[blind taste tests]] 10% didn't notice any difference in taste, 40% preferred the original and 50% preferred the new product."
It is served at the [[Groucho Club]], and is associated with [[football culture]]; commonly being drunk on the terraces from thermos flasks in winter.
A potential serving suggestion (as seen at football matches) is to shake white pepper and maybe a little cayenne into it before drinking.
==See also==
* [[Marmite]]
* [[Oxo (food)|Oxo]]
* [[Vegemite]] (An Australian yeast extract)
==External links==
* [http://www.ubfoods.co.uk/ourbrands/foods/bovril.asp Bovril: A short official history]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/staffordshire/4023239.stm BBC: No beef over Bovril's veggie move]
[[Category:Unilever brands]]
[[Category:British cuisine]]
[[Category:Condiments]]
[[Category:British brands]]
[[fr:Bovril]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baseball statistics/BA</title>
<id>4962</id>
<revision>
<id>15903209</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to "Batting_average"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Batting_average]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benjamin D. Santer</title>
<id>4963</id>
<revision>
<id>23077398</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-12T02:53:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Etacar11</username>
<id>162093</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dr. Benjamin D. Santer''' is a [[climate]] researcher at [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]]. He specializes mainly in [[statistical analysis]] of climate data sets, and detection/attribution of [[climate change]] forcings. He was the convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 of 1995 [[IPCC]] Working Group I Report, which addressed the [[global warming]] issue.
== Honors ==
* 1998. [[MacArthur Fellowship|MacArthur Fellow]] "Genius Award."
== References ==
* Santer, BD, Wigley, TML, Barnett TP, and Anyamba, E (1995). Detection of climate change and attribution of causes, in Houghton, JT ''et al''. ''Climate Change 1995'', Cambridge Univ. Press.
{{climate-bio-stub}}
[[Category:MacArthur Fellows|Santer, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Climatologists|Santer, Benjamin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bernoulli number</title>
<id>4964</id>
<revision>
<id>41188921</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T17:33:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>201.133.64.113</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Assorted identities */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Bernoulli numbers''' are a [[sequence]] of [[rational number]]s with deep connections in [[number theory]]. Although easy to calculate, the values of the Bernoulli numbers have no elementary description; they are closely related to the values of the [[Riemann zeta function]] at negative integers.
They were first studied by [[Jakob Bernoulli]], after whom they were named by [[Abraham de Moivre]]. They appear in the [[Taylor series]] expansion of the [[tangent]] and [[hyperbolic tangent]] functions, in the [[Euler-Maclaurin formula]], and in expressions of certain values of the Riemann zeta function.
Curiously, in note G of [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine]] from [[1842]] an [[algorithm]] for computer-generated Bernoulli numbers was described for the first time. This distinguishes the Bernoulli numbers as being the subject of one of the first computer programs ever.
==Introduction==
The Bernoulli numbers ''B''<sub>''n''</sub> were first discovered in connection with the closed forms of the sums
:<math>\sum_{k=0}^{m-1} k^n = 0^n + 1^n + 2^n + \cdots + {(m-1)}^n </math>
for various fixed values of ''n''.
The closed forms are always [[polynomial]]s in ''m'' of degree ''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1 and are called '''[[Bernoulli polynomials]]'''. The [[coefficient]]s of the Bernoulli polynomials are closely related to the Bernoulli numbers, as follows:
:<math>\sum_{k=0}^{m-1} k^n = {1\over{n+1}}\sum_{k=0}^n{n+1\choose{k}} B_k m^{n+1-k}.</math>
For example, taking ''n'' to be 1, we have 0 + 1 + 2 + ... + (''m''&minus;1) =
1/2 (''B''<sub>0</sub> ''m''<sup>2</sup> +
2 ''B''<sub>1</sub> ''m''<sup>1</sup>) =
1/2 (''m''<sup>2</sup> &minus; ''m'').
Bernoulli numbers may be calculated by using the following [[recursion|recursive]] formula:
:<math>\sum_{j=0}^m{m+1\choose{j}}B_j = 0</math>
plus the initial condition that ''B''<sub>0</sub> = 1.
The Bernoulli numbers may also be defined using the technique of [[generating function]]s.
Their [[exponential generating function]] is ''x''/(''e<sup>x</sup>''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1), so that:
:<math>
\frac{x}{e^x-1} = \sum_{n=0}^{\infin} B_n \frac{x^n}{n!}
</math>
for all values of ''x'' of [[absolute value]] less than 2&pi; (the [[radius of convergence]] of this [[power series]]).
Sometimes the lower-case ''b<sub>n</sub>'' is used in order to distinguish these from the [[Bell numbers]].
The first few Bernoulli numbers (sequences [http://www.research.att.com/cgi-bin/access.cgi/as/njas/sequences/eisA.cgi?Anum=A027641 A027641] and [http://www.research.att.com/cgi-bin/access.cgi/as/njas/sequences/eisA.cgi?Anum=A027642 A027642] in [[OEIS]]) are listed below.
<table BORDER CELLSPACING=0 CELLPADDING=0 width="15%" BGCOLOR="#EEEEEE" >
<TR><Th ALIGN=CENTER>''n''</Th><Th ALIGN=CENTER>''B<sub>n</sub>''</Th></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>0</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>1</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>1</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>&minus;1/2</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>2</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>1/6</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>3</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>0</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>4</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>&minus;1/30</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>5</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>0</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>6</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>1/42</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>7</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>0</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>8</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>&minus;1/30</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>9</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>0</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>10</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>5/66</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>11</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>0</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>12</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>&minus;691/2730</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>13</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>0</TD></TR>
<TR><TD ALIGN=CENTER>14</TD><TD ALIGN=CENTER>7/6</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
It can be shown that ''B''<sub>''n''</sub> = 0 for all odd ''n'' other than 1.
The appearance of the peculiar value ''B''<sub>12</sub> = &minus;691/2730 suggests that the values of the Bernoulli numbers have no elementary description. In fact they may be derived in a simple way from the values of the [[Riemann zeta function]] at negative integers (since &zeta;(&minus;''n'') = &minus;''B''<sub>''n''+1</sub>/(''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1) for all positive integers ''n''), and are as a consequence connected to deep number-theoretic properties, and could not be expected to have a trivial formulation.
==Assorted identities==
[[Leonhard Euler]] expressed the Bernoulli numbers in terms of the Riemann zeta as
:<math>B_{2k}=2(-1)^{k+1}\frac {\zeta(2k)\; (2k)!} {(2\pi)^{2k}}. </math>
The ''n''th [[cumulant]] of the |
* [[Charles Wheatstone|Sir Charles Wheatstone]], inventor or the so-called [[Playfair cipher]] and general polymath.
==WWI and WWII Wartime Cryptographers==
* [[Alistair Denniston]], UK, director of [[GC&CS]] at [[Bletchley Park]] during WWII.
* [[Nigel de Grey]], UK, [[Room 40]], played an important role in the decryption of the [[Zimmermann Telegram]] during WWI
* [[William F. Friedman]], US, introduced statistical methods into [[cryptography]].
* [[Solomon Kullback]], US, [[Signals Intelligence Service|SIS]].
* [[Dilwyn Knox]], UK, [[Room 40]] and [[GC&CS]], broke commercial [[Enigma (machine)|Enigma]] cipher.
* [[Leo Marks]], UK, [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] cryptography director.
* [[Marian Rejewski]]: [[Poland]], first broke [[Germany|German]] [[Enigma machine|Enigma]] [[cipher]]s in [[December]], [[1932]].
* [[John Joseph Rochefort]], US, made major contributions to the break into [[JN-25]] after the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]].
* [[Frank Rowlett]], US, [[Signals Intelligence Service|SIS]], leader of the team that broke [[Purple]].
* [[Jerzy Różycki]]: [[Poland]], helped break German [[Enigma (machine)|Enigma]] ciphers.
* [[Laurance Safford]], US, chief cryptographer for the US Navy for 2 decades+, including WWII.
* [[Abraham Sinkov]], US, [[Signals Intelligence Service|SIS]].
* [[John Tiltman]], UK, [[Bletchley Park]] and [[GCHQ]].
* [[Alan Turing|Alan Mathison Turing]], UK, [[Bletchley Park]], a chief cryptographer and renowned [[Computer Science|computer scientist]].
* [[William Tutte]], UK, [[Bletchley Park]], broke Lorenz SZ 40/42 encryption machine (codenamed Tunny) using the [[Colossus computer]].
* [[Gordon Welchman]], UK, head of [[Bletchley Park]]'s Hut Six (German Army and Air Force [[cipher]] [[decryption]]).
* [[Herbert Yardley]], US, [[MI8]], author "The American Black Chamber".
* [[Henryk Zygalski]]: [[Poland]], helped break German [[Enigma machine|Enigma]] ciphers.
==Other pre-computer==
* [[Elizebeth Friedman]], US, [[Coast Guard]] and [[United States Department of the Treasury|US Treasury Department]] cryptographer.
* [[Claude Elwood Shannon]], US, founder of [[information theory]], proved the [[one-time pad]] to be unbreakable.
==Modern==
See also: [[:Category:Modern cryptographers|Category:Modern cryptographers]] for an exhaustive list.
===Symmetric-key algorithm inventors===
* [[Ross Anderson]], UK, [[University of Cambridge]], inventor of the [[Serpent (cipher)|Serpent]] cipher.
* [[Paulo S. L. M. Barreto]], [[Brazil|Brazilian]], co-inventor of the [[Whirlpool (algorithm)|Whirlpool hash function]].
* [[George Blakley]], US, independent inventor of [[secret sharing]].
* [[Joan Daemen]], [[Belgium|Belgian]], co-developer of [[Rijndael]] which became the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES).
* [[Horst Feistel]], US, [[IBM]], namesake of [[Feistel network]]s.
* [[Lars Knudsen]], [[Denmark]]
* [[Ralph Merkle]], US, inventor of [[Merkle tree]]s.
* [[Bart Preneel]], [[Belgium|Belgian]], co-inventor of [[RIPEMD-160]].
* [[Vincent Rijmen]], [[Belgium|Belgian]], co-developer of [[Rijndael]] which became the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES).
* [[Ron Rivest|Ronald L. Rivest]], US, [[MIT]], inventor of [[RC5|RC cipher series]] and [[MD5|MD algorithm series]].
* [[Adi Shamir]], Israel, [[Weizmann Institute]], inventor of [[secret sharing]].
===Asymmetric-key algorithm inventors===
* [[Leonard Adleman]], US, [[USC]], the 'A' in [[RSA]].
* [[David Chaum]], US, inventor of [[blind signature]]s.
* [[Whitfield Diffie]], US, (public) co-inventor of the [[Diffie-Hellman]] key-exchange protocol.
* [[Taher Elgamal]], US (born [[Egypt|Egyptian]]), inventor of the [[Elgamal encryption|Elgamal discrete log cryptosystem]].
* [[Shafi Goldwasser]], US and Israel, [[MIT]] and [[Weizmann Institute]], co-discoverer of [[zero-knowledge proofs]].
* [[Martin Hellman]], US, (public) co-inventor of the [[Diffie-Hellman]] key-exchange protocol.
* [[Neal Koblitz]], independent co-creator of [[elliptic curve cryptography]].
* [[Alfred Menezes]], co-inventor of [[MQV]], an [[elliptic curve cryptography|elliptic curve]] technique.
* [[Silvio Micali]], US (born Italian), [[MIT]], co-discoverer of [[zero-knowledge proofs]].
* [[Victor S. Miller|Victor Miller]], independent co-creator of [[elliptic curve cryptography]].
* [[Ron Rivest|Ronald L. Rivest]], US, [[MIT]], the 'R' in [[RSA]].
* [[Adi Shamir]], Israel, [[Weizmann Institute]], the 'S' in [[RSA]].
===Cryptanalysts===
* [[Ross Anderson]], UK
* [[Matt Blaze]], US
* [[Dan Boneh]], US, [[Stanford University]]
* [[Ian Goldberg]], US
* [[Paul Kocher]], US, discovered [[differential power analysis]]
* [[Mitsuru Matsui]], Japan, discoverer of [[linear cryptanalysis]]
* [[David Wagner]], US, [[UC Berkeley]]
* [[Xiaoyun Wang]], [[China]], known for [[MD5]] and [[SHA-1]] [[cryptographic hash function|hash function]] attacks.
===Algorithmic number theorists===
* [[Daniel J. Bernstein]], US, known for battle with US government in [[Bernstein v. United States]]
* [[Don Coppersmith]], US
===Theoreticians===
* [[Mihir Bellare]], US, [[UCSD]], co-proposer of the [[Random oracle]] model
* [[Gilles Brassard]], Canada, [[Université de Montréal]]. Co-inventor of [[quantum cryptography]].
* [[Claude Crépeau]], Canada, [[McGill University]].
* [[Oded Goldreich]], Israel, [[Weizmann Institute]], author of [[Foundations of Cryptography]].
* [[Shafi Goldwasser]], US and Israel
* [[Silvio Micali]], US
* [[Charles Rackoff]], co-discoverer of [[zero-knowledge proof]]s.
* [[Philip Rogaway]], US, [[UC Davis]], co-proposer of the [[Random oracle]] model.
===Government cryptographers===
* [[Clifford Cocks]], UK, [[GCHQ]], secret inventor of the algorithm later known as [[RSA]].
* [[James H. Ellis]], UK, [[GCHQ]], secretly proved the possibility of asymmetric encryption.
* [[Malcolm Williamson (cryptographer)|Malcolm Williamson]], UK, [[GCHQ]], secret inventor of the protocol later known as [[Diffie-Hellman]].
===Cryptographer businesspeople===
* [[Bruce Schneier]], US, CTO and founder of [[Counterpane|Counterpane Internet Security, Inc.]] and cryptography author.
* [[Scott Vanstone]], Canada, founder of [[Certicom]] and [[elliptic curve cryptography]] proponent.
==See also==
* [[Cryptography]]
==External links==
* [http://www.swcp.com/~mccurley/cryptographers/cryptographers.html List of cryptographers' home pages]
[[Category:Cryptographers]]
[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|cryptographers]]
[[ko:&#50516;&#54840;&#54617;&#51088;]]
[[ja:暗号研究者の一覧]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chocolate</title>
<id>7089</id>
<revision>
<id>42140288</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:12:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Johann Wolfgang</username>
<id>309818</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.81.94.98|70.81.94.98]] ([[User talk:70.81.94.98|talk]]) to last version by Prodego</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chocolate.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Chocolate most commonly comes in dark, milk, and white varieties, with cocoa solids contributing to the brown coloration.]]
'''Chocolate''' (see below for etymology) describes a number of raw and processed foods that originate from the tropical [[cacao]] tree. It is a common ingredient in many kinds of [[sweet]]s, [[Chocolate confectionery|chocolate candy]],
[[ice cream]]s, [[cookie]]s, [[cake]]s, [[pie]]s, and desserts. It is one of the most popular flavours in the [[world]].
Chocolate is made from the fermented, roasted, and ground beans taken from the pod of the tropical cacao tree ''[[Theobroma cacao]]'' native to [[Central America]], which has an intensely flavoured [[Bitter (taste)|bitter]] taste. The resulting products are known as "chocolate" or, in some parts of the world, [[cocoa]].
The bean products are known under different names in different parts of the world. In the [[North America|America]]n chocolate industry:
*[[Cocoa]] is the solids of the cacao bean,
*[[Cocoa butter]] is the [[fat]] component, and
*Chocolate is a combination of the solids and the fat.
It is the solid and the fat combination, sweetened with [[sugar]] and other ingredients, that is made into chocolate bars and which is commonly referred to as ''chocolate'' by the public.
It can also be made into [[beverage]]s (called ''cocoa'' and ''[[hot chocolate]]''), and this was the original form used by the Aztecs, the Mayas, and the first European consumers.
Chocolate is often produced as small moulded forms in the shape of [[animal]]s, people, or inanimate objects to celebrate festivals worldwide. For example, moulds of [[rabbits]] or [[Eggs (food)|eggs]] for [[Easter]], coins or [[Saint Nicholas]] (Santa Claus) for [[Christmas]], and hearts for [[Valentine's Day]].
==Types==
===Classification===
[[Image:Bowl of truffles.jpg|300px|thumb|Chocolate truffles typically have a thin shell of chocolate with a soft centre.]]
Chocolate is an extremely popular ingredient, and it is available in many types. Different forms and flavours of chocolate are produced by varying the quantities of the different ingredients. Other flavours can be obtained by varying the time and temperature when roasting the beans.
*'''Unsweetened chocolate''' is pure [[chocolate liquor]], also known as bitter or baking chocolate. It is unadulterated chocolate: the pure, ground roasted chocolate beans impart a strong, deep chocolate flavour. With the addition of sugar, however, it is used as the base for cakes, brownies, confections, and cookies.
*'''Dark chocolate''' is chocolate without milk as an additive. It is sometimes called "plain chocolate". The U.S. Government calls this "sweet chocolate", and requires a 15% concentration of chocolate liquor. European rules specify a minimum of 35% cocoa solids.
*'''Milk chocolate''' is chocolate with milk powder or condensed milk |
e theater in Abadan, was locked from the outside and [[arson|set on fire]], resulting in 430 deaths. To this day it is not entirely clear what happened, but it was believed by some that the government of the Iranian [[Shah]] [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] purposely set the theater ablaze to kill several [[dissident]]s who were hiding inside. This event sparked [[protest|mass demonstrations]] against Pahlavi's government, which was overthrown six months later by [[Islam]]ic [[fundamentalism|fundamentalists]] and their supporters (see [[Iranian Revolution]]). Most more accurately accuse Ayatollah Ali Khamenei of committing this tragedy.
In September 1980, Abadan was almost overrun during a surprise attack on Khuzestan by Iraq, marking the beginning of the [[Iran-Iraq War]]. For 18 months Abadan was besieged, but never captured, by Iraqi forces. Much of the city, including the oil refinery, was badly damaged or destroyed by the siege and by bombing. Previous to the war, the city's civilian [[population]] was about 300,000, but before it was over most of the populous had sought refuge elsewhere in Iran.
After the war, the biggest concern was the rebuilding of Abadan's oil refinery. In 1993 the refinery began limited operation, and by 1997 it reached the same rate of production it was at before the war.
===Recent events===
To honor the 100th anniversary of the refining of oil in Abadan, city officials are planning an "oil [[museum]]" {{ref|chn.ir}}
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Abadan.jpg|thumb|200px|Abadan]] -->
==Places of Interest==
[[Image:Abadan_taj_cinema.jpg|thumb|250px|Taj cinema in Abadan|frame|Taj cinema in Abadan]]
The [[Abadan Institute of Technology]] was established in Abadan in 1939. The school specialized in [[engineering]] and petroleum [[chemistry]], and was designed to train staff for the refinery in town. The school's name has since changed several times, but since 1989 has been considered a branch campus of the [[Petroleum University of Technology]], centered in [[Tehran]].
There is an international [[airport]] in Abadan. It is represented by the [[IATA airport code]] [[ABD]].
==Trivia==
* The Abadan oil refinery was featured on the reverse side of Iran's 100-rial banknotes printed in 1965 and from 1971 to 1973.
==See also==
* [[Abadan Crisis]]
==References==
* {{note|chn.ir}} {{cite web | title=Southern Iran Craves for an Oil Museum | url=http://www.chn.ir/en/news/?id=5870&section=2 | accessdate= October 20 | accessyear= 2005 }}
==External links==
* [http://www.put.ac.ir/abadan/Default.htm Abadan Institute of Technology] - Home page
* [http://www.abadan-ref.org/ Abadan Oil Refinery] - Home page
* [http://www.ostan-kz.ir/en/albumdetail_aen_i_1.html Abadan Photo Gallery from the Khuzestan Governorship]
* [http://www.abadan.net Abadan.Net]
----
''Abadan'' is also the name of a 2003 Iranian movie from director [[Mani Haghighi]].
[[Category:Cities in Iran]]
[[ar:عبدان]]
[[da:Abadan]]
[[de:Abadan]]
[[et:Ābādān]]
[[eo:Abadano]]
[[es:Abadán]]
[[fa:آبادان]]
[[fr:Abadan]]
[[gl:Abadán - آبادان]]
[[it:Abadan]]
[[nl:Abadan]]
[[no:Abadan]]
[[ja:アバダーン]]
[[pl:Abadan]]
[[ru:Абадан]]
[[fi:Abadan]]
[[sv:Abadan]]
[[uk:Абадан]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Attorney</title>
<id>1935</id>
<revision>
<id>33853741</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-04T15:59:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Attorney at Law" +"Attorney at law"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Attorney at law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astronomical Unit</title>
<id>1936</id>
<revision>
<id>15900396</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Astronomical_unit]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander Fleming</title>
<id>1937</id>
<revision>
<id>40701747</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T12:08:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>138.130.144.90</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Accolades */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Alexander-fleming.jpg|thumb|Alexander Fleming]]
Sir '''Alexander Fleming''' ([[August 6]], [[1881]] &ndash; [[March 11]], [[1955]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[biologist]] and [[pharmacologist]]. He discovered the [[antibiotic]] substance [[lysozyme]] and isolated the antibiotic substance [[penicillin]] from the fungus ''[[Penicillium notatum]]'', for which he shared a [[Nobel Prize]].
== Birth and education==
Fleming was born on a [[farm]] at [[Lochfield]] near [[Darvel]] in [[East Ayrshire]], and was schooled for two years at the Academy in [[Kilmarnock]]. He later attended [[St Mary's Hospital (London)|St Mary's Hospital]] medical school in [[London]] until [[World War I]] broke out. He and many of his colleagues worked in battlefield hospitals at the fronts in [[France]]. He learned of the works by [[Ernest Duchesne]].
==Fable==
The popular story of [[Lord Randolph Churchill|Winston Churchill's father]]'s paying for Fleming's education after Fleming's father saved young [[Winston Churchill|Winston]] from death is certainly false. According to the biography, "Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution" by Kevin Brown, Alexander Fleming is quoted as saying that this was "a wonderful fable". Nor did he save Winston Churchill himself during WWII. Churchill was saved by [[Lord Moran]], using [[sulphonamide]]s, since he had no experience with penicillin, when Churchill fell ill in Carthage in Tunisia in 1943. The Daily Telegraph and The Morning Post on 21 December 1943 wrote that he had been saved by penicillin. It is probable that, as [[sulphonamides]] were a German discovery, and there was a war with the Germans, the patriotic pride in the miracle cure of penicillin had something to do with this error in reporting.
==Rediscovery==
Fleming worked with the mold for some time, but refining and growing it was a difficult process better suited to chemists. Fleming's impression was that, because of the problem of producing the drug in quantity and because its action seemed slow, it would not be an important resource for treating infection. Furthermore, his initial paper was not well received in the medical community. Fleming therefore did not pursue the subject further. It was left to two other scientists, [[Howard Walter Florey|Howard Florey]] and [[Ernst Boris Chain]], to develop a method of purifying penicillin to an effective form. Through their work, the drug was available for mass distribution during [[World War II]].
==Accolades==
For his achievements, Fleming was knighted in 1944, he was known as Sir Gustav santina, after his Grandfather, and step Great grandfather Gustav Lichtenstein, and Santina Gauchiosos ( from Checkoslavakia and Spain ). Fleming, Florey, and Chain were the joint recipients of the [[Nobel Prize in Medicine]] in 1945. Florey was later given the honour of a peerage for his monumental work in making penicillin available to the public and saving millions of lives in World War II.
Fleming was ranked #43 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].
The discovery of penicillin was ranked as the most important discovery of the millennium when the year 2000 was approaching by at least 3 large Swedish magazines, as seen in for example: http://www.nyteknik.se/pub/ipsart.asp?art_id=1462.
It is impossible to know how many lives have been saved by this discovery, but some of these magazines placed their estimate near 200 million lives, which, if even remotely true, might arguably make this man the greatest hero ever.
Fleming was long a member of the [[Chelsea Arts Club]], a private club for artists of all genres, founded in 1891 at the suggestion of the painter [[James McNeil Whistler]]. Fleming was admitted to the club after he made "germ paintings," in which he drew with a culture loop using spores of highly pigmented bacteria. The bacteria were invisible while he painted, but when cultured made bright colours.
:''[[Serratia]] marcescens'' - red
:''[[Chromobacterium]] violaceum'' - purple
:''[[Micrococcus]] luteus'' - yellow
:''[[Micrococcus]] varians'' - white
:''[[Micrococcus]] roseus'' - pink
:''[[Bacillus]] sp.'' - purple
==Death==
Fleming died in 1955 of a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of 73. He was buried as a national hero in the crypt of [[St. Paul's Cathedral]] in [[London]]. His discovery of penicillin had changed the world of modern medicines by introducing the age of useful [[antibiotic]]s and his discovery of the penicillin has, and still, saved millions of people.
==External links==
*[http://www.importantscots.com/sir-alexander-fleming.htm Sir Alexander Fleming - Important Scots]
* "Penicillin Man", by Kevin Brown, official biographer for Fleming at St Mary's Hospital. http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/0750931523/203-6687617-7055925
[[Category:1881 births|Fleming, Alexander]]
[[Category:1955 deaths|Fleming, Alexander]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Fleming, Alexander]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Fleming, Alexander]]
[[Category:Humanitarians]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire|Fleming, Alexander]]
[[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences|Fleming, Alexander]]
[[Category:Natives of East Ayrshire|Fleming, Aleaxnder]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners|Fleming, Alexander]]
[[Category:Pharmacologists|Fleming, Alexander]]
[[Category:Scottish biologists|Fleming, Alexander]]
[[Category:Scottish inventors|Fleming, Al |
in in return for British support of the Ottoman Empire in the [[Russian-Turkish War]].
Famagusta harbour was completed in June [[1906]]; by this time the island was a strategic naval outpost for the [[British Empire]], shoring up influence over the Eastern [[Mediterranean]] and [[Suez Canal]], the crucial main route to [[India]].
Cyprus was formally annexed by the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] in [[1913]] in the run-up to the [[First World War]]. Many Cypriots, now British subjects, signed up to fight in the British Army, in this and in the [[World War II|Second World War]].
During the [[1940s]] and [[1950s]], Cypriots began to demand [[Enosis|union with Greece]]. The Greek community held referenda in support of annexation, while the British sought to quell any movement which could threaten their possession of the island. In [[1955]] the struggle erupted into guerrilla activity with the foundation of [[EOKA]], and in the closing years of the 1950s the political and intercommunal atmosphere on the island became [[Cyprus dispute|increasingly fraught]].
[[Independence]] was attained in [[1960]] after exhaustive negotiations between the United Kingdom, as the [[British Empire|colonial power]], and Greece and Turkey, the cultural 'motherlands' for the two communities on Cyprus. The constitution produced by the negotiations was a binding document allocating government posts and public offices by ethnic quota. The constitution did not promote a healthy relationship between the residents of the island. The first President was the [[Greek Cypriot]] leader Archbishop [[Makarios III]], and his Vice President was the leading Turkish Cypriot politician [[Fazil Kucuk|Dr Fazıl Küçük]].
====Post-independence====
:''Main article: [[Cyprus dispute]]''
During the [[1960s]], Makarios and Küçük pursued a non-aligned foreign policy, cultivating good relations with the [[United Kingdom | Britain]], [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] and taking a leading role in developing the [[Non-Aligned Movement]].
Tension began in 1963 when Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution of the Republic of Cyprus. Turkish Cypriots were opposed to the proposals since it relegated their status to a minority instead of co-founders of the state, whilst also removing their community’s constitutional safeguards. These amendments were largely seen as a move towards enosis by Turkish Cypriots and on 21 December 1963, clashes between Turkish Cypriots and Polycarpos Yorgadjis (the Interior Minister) plainclothes special constables left two Turkish Cypriots and one Greek Cypriot policemen dead [http://www.cyprus-conflict.net/Patrick-chp%203.htm]. Although the ensuing violence led to attacks launched by both communities, Turkish Cypriots had born the brunt of the offensive, leading to 700 Turkish Cypriot hostages being taken and full scale attacks launched by Nicos Sampson against the Turkish Cypriot population [http://www.cyprus-conflict.net/narrative-main-%203.htm].
The fighting had left 191 Turkish and 133 Greek Cypriots dead and 209 Turks and 41 Greeks missing [http://www.cyprus-conflict.net/narrative-main-%203.htm]. Widespread looting of Turkish Cypriot villages had led to twenty thousand refugees, relying on food and medical supplies from Turkey to survive. Though much of the initial withdrawal was in the wake of violence, the Turkish Cypriot own paramilitary group exercised influence in preventing some Turkish Cypriots returning to their villages, thus leading to the segregation of the communities.
By [[1974]] dissatisfaction among Greek nationalist right-wing elements in favour of the long-term goal of [[Enosis]] - union with Greece - precipitated a [[coup d'etat]] against President Makarios which was sponsored by [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974|the military government of Greece]] and led by the Cypriot National Guard. The new regime replaced Makarios with [[Nikos Sampson|Nikos Giorgiades Sampson]] as president, and Bishop Gennadios as head of the [[Cypriot Orthodox Church]]. Seven days after these events, [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus|Turkey invaded Cyprus]] by sea and air on [[20 July]], 1974, presenting the invasion as an act of protection for the island's 18% Turkish Cypriot minority. Talks in [[Geneva]] involving [[Greece]], Turkey, the [[United Kingdom]] and the two Cypriot factions failed in mid-August, and Turkish forces subsequently moved from the agreed cease-fire lines to gain control of 37% of the island's territory. About 160,000 Greek Cypriots were uprooted, with Greek Cypriots forced to flee to the south, while approximately 50,000 Turkish Cypriots moved north. Greek Cypriot soldiers were taken prisoners, with a number of 1,619 of those still missing and their fate is still unaccounted for. The Greek Junta made no armed response to the Turkish forces but collapsed days after. Greece, with the restoration of democratic rule, suspended military participation in the [[NATO]] alliance. The tension continued after Makarios returned to the presidency on [[December 7]], 1974. He accepted a bizonal bicommunal federation as the form of a future state, but rejected any solution "involving transfer of populations and amounting to partition of Cyprus." The events of the summer of 1974 have dominated Cypriot politics ever since and have been a major point of contention between Greece and Turkey.
After 1974 there were near-continual efforts to negotiate a settlement, which met with varying levels of hostility from either side.
Turkish Cypriots proclaimed a separate state under [[Rauf Denktaş]] on [[November 15]], [[1983]]. The UN [[Security Council]], in its Resolution 541 of [[November 18]], [[1983]], declared the action illegal and called for withdrawal. Turkey is to date the only country to recognise the "government" of the occupied part of Cyprus. Turkey does not recognise the Republic of Cyprus's authority over the whole island, and refers to it as the Greek Cypriot administration, this has led to complications in its bid to join the [[European Union]]
Relations in the eastern Mediterranean were particularly frayed in the mid-[[1990s]], especially after the acquisition by the Cypriot government of Russian missiles in [[1997]] which were capable of reaching the Turkish coast. The S-300 missiles never arrived in Cyprus but stayed on the neighbouring island of [[Crete]]. The United States set an embargo on sale of arms to Turkey which was voted down a few years later after the invasion.
Cyprus has joined the European Union as a full member since January 2005. Since the invasion, the southern part of Cyprus has greatly grown economically, and the country enjoys a high standard of living. The north maintains a lower standing of living due to the economic embargoes placed since its unilateral declaration of independence.
==Geography==
[[Image:modis_cyprus_lrg.jpg|right|thumb|300px|MODIS Satellite Image of Cyprus]]
:''Main article: [[Geography of Cyprus]]''
Cyprus is ''geographically'' close to the [[Middle East]] (see also [[Southwest Asia]] and [[Near East]]) and due to the island's geographic proximity is included in Asia, although ''politically'' and ''culturally'' it is closely aligned with Europe, in particular [[Greece]] and to [[Turkey]]. Historically, Cyprus has been at the crossroads between Europe, [[Southwest Asia]], and [[North Africa]], with lengthy periods of mainly [[Greece|Greek]] and intermittent [[Levant]]ine, [[Anatolia]]n and [[British Empire|British]] influences.
The central plain (Mesaoria) with the [[Kyrenia]] and [[Pentadactylos]] mountains to the north and the [[Troodos Mountains|Troodos mountain range]] to the south and west. There are also scattered but significant plains along the southern coast.
The climate is temperate and [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] with hot, dry summers and cool, variably rainy winters.
The capital city, Nicosia, is located to the north-east of the centre of the island. All the other major cities are situated on the coast: [[Paphos]] to the south-west, [[Limassol]] to the south, [[Larnaca]] to the south-east, [[Famagusta]] to the east and Kyrenia to the north.
See also:
* [[List of cities in Cyprus]], Greek and Turkish names
==Districts==
[[Image:Cyprus districts named.png|right|thumb|Map of Cyprus showing political divisions and districts]]
:''Main article: [[Districts of Cyprus]]''
Cyprus is divided into six districts.
*[[Famagusta District|Famagusta]]
*[[Kyrenia District|Kyrenia]]
*[[Larnaca District|Larnaca]]
*[[Limassol District|Limassol]]
*[[Nicosia District|Nicosia]]
*[[Paphos District|Paphos]]
==Politics==
:''Main article: [[Politics of Cyprus]]''
After independence Cyprus became a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] despite all three guarantor powers ([[Greece]], [[Turkey]] and the [[UK]]) being [[NATO]] members. Cyprus left the Non-Aligned Movement in [[2004]] to join the [[EU]].
The 1960 Cypriot Constitution provided for a presidential system of government with independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as a complex system of checks and balances, including a weighted power-sharing ratio designed to protect the interests of the Turkish Cypriots. The executive, for example, was headed by a Greek Cypriot president, [[Archbishop Makarios]] III, and a Turkish Cypriot vice president, [[Fazil Kucuk|Dr Fazıl Küçük]], elected by their respective communities for 5-year terms and each possessing a right of veto over certain types of legislation and executive decisions.
The House of Representatives was elected on the basis of separate voters' rolls. Since [[1964]], following clashes between the two communities, the Turkish Cypriot seats in the House remained vacant, while the Greek Cypriot Communal Chamber was abolished. The responsibilities of the chamber were transferred to the newfounded Ministry of Education.
By [[1967]], when a [[Regime of the Colonels|milita |
petition variants, the Mixed relay, is similar to the ordinary Relay but for the composition of the teams, each of which consists of two women and two men. Legs 1 and 2 are done by the women, legs 3 and 4 by the men. The legs are 6 km, as in the ordinary women's Relay competition.
=== Team (obsolete) ===
A team consists of four biathletes, but unlike the case of the Relay competition, all team members start at the same time. Two athletes must shoot in the prone shooting round, the other two in the standing round. In case of a miss, the two non-shooting biathletes must ski a penalty loop of 150 m. The skiers must enter the shooting area together, and must also finish within 15 seconds of each other, otherwise a time penalty of 1 minute is added to the total time. Since 2004, this race format has been obsolete at the World Cup level.
==Biathlon venues==
World Cup events and World Championships in biathlon have traditionally been held at the following relatively few locations. (Due to the complicated shooting range equipment, which absolutely has to work in order to hold successful races, biathlon is a highly demanding sport for organisers.)
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable"
! style="background:#efefef;" | Country
! style="background:#efefef;" colspan=4 | Major biathlon venues
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias AUT}}|22px]] [[Austria]]
| [[Hochfilzen]] || colspan=3 | [[Saalfelden]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias CAN}}|22px]] [[Canada]]
| [[Canmore]] || colspan=3 | [[Valcartier]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias FIN}}|22px]] [[Finland]]
| [[Kontiolahti]] || [[Kuusamo]] || colspan=2 | [[Lahti]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias GER}}|22px]] [[Germany]]
| [[Oberhof, Germany|Oberhof]] || [[Ruhpolding]] || colspan=2 | [[Veltins-Arena]]*
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias ITA}}|22px]] [[Italy]]
| [[Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva|Antholz-Anterselva]] || colspan=3 | [[Cesana-San Sicario]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias NOR}}|22px]] [[Norway]]
| [[Øystre Slidre|Beitostølen]] || [[Holmenkollen]] || colspan=2 | [[Lillehammer]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias RUS}}|22px]] [[Russia]]
| [[Khanty-Mansiysk]] || colspan=3 | [[Novosibirsk]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias SVK}}|22px]] [[Slovakia]]
| colspan=4 | [[Brezno|Brezno-Osrblie]]
|-
| [[Image:Flag of Slovenia.png|22px]] [[Slovenia]]
| colspan=4 | [[Pokljuka]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias SWE}}|22px]] [[Sweden]]
| colspan=4 | [[Östersund]]
|-
| width=90 | [[Image:{{country flag alias USA}}|22px]] [[United States|USA]]
| width=120 | [[Fort Kent, Maine|Fort Kent]], [[Maine|ME]] || width=120 | [[Presque Isle, Maine|Presque Isle]], [[Maine|ME]] || width=120 | [[Lake Placid, New York|Lake Placid]], [[New York|NY]] || width=120 | [[Soldier Hollow]], [[Utah|UT]]
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki>The [[Veltins]]-Arena, located in [[Gelsenkirchen]] and renamed from Arena AufSchalke in July 2005, is the stadium of German football club [[FC Schalke 04]]. Since 2002 the stadium has hosted a special end-of-year mixed team event, now called the "Veltins Biathlon World Team Challenge".
== Non-skiing variants ==
Two common variations on biathlon are '''summer biathlon''', where skiing is replaced by a cross-country run, and '''[[archery]] biathlon''' (or ski archery), where the rifle is replaced by a [[longbow]]. There have also been summer competitions in '''[[roller skiing|roller-ski]] biathlon''', '''[[mountain biking|mountain bike]] biathlon''' and '''[[orienteering]] biathlon'''.
==See also==
{{Commons|Category:Biathlon}}
Biathlon's two sports disciplines:
*[[Skiing|Skiing and skiing topics]]
*[[Shooting sports#Rifle shooting sports|Rifle shooting sports]]
Other multi-discipline sports (otherwise unrelated to biathlon):
*[[Duathlon]]
*[[Triathlon]]
*[[Pentathlon]]
*[[Modern pentathlon]]
*[[Heptathlon]]
*[[Decathlon]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.ibu.at/rules/ Event & Competition Rules Authorized by the IBU Congress, June 1998] &ndash; The official IBU rule book, with annexes
*[http://www.biathlonworld.com Biathlonworld.Com] &ndash; A cooperation between IBU and [[European Broadcasting Union|EBU]]; with race results/statistics, TV schedules, live competition results, etc.
*[http://www.usbiathlon.com U.S. Biathlon Association]
*[http://www.biathlon-aufschalke.de/ Veltins Biathlon World Team Challenge]
*[http://ww2.olntv.com/tvlistings/test-DB.asp?so=06%20BIATHLON Biathlon on OLN TV]
[[Category:Biathlon|*]]
[[Category:Multi-sport competitions]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Winter sports]]
[[Category:Cross-country skiing]]
[[Category:Racing sports]]
[[Category:Rifle shooting sports]]
[[bg:Биатлон]]
[[cs:Biatlon]]
[[da:Skiskydning]]
[[de:Biathlon]]
[[et:Laskesuusatamine]]
[[es:Biatlón]]
[[fr:Biathlon]]
[[he:ביאתלון]]
[[ko:바이애슬론]]
[[it:Biathlon]]
[[nl:Biatlon]]
[[ja:バイアスロン]]
[[no:Skiskyting]]
[[nn:Skiskyting]]
[[pl:Biathlon]]
[[pt:Biatlo]]
[[ro:Biatlon]]
[[ru:Биатлон]]
[[fi:Ampumahiihto]]
[[sv:Skidskytte]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bisbigliando</title>
<id>4406</id>
<revision>
<id>25667824</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-16T16:40:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.183.46.197</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bisbigliando''' ("whispering" in [[Italian language|Italian]]) is a special [[tremolo]] effect on the [[harp]] where a [[chord (music)|chord]] or [[note]] is rapidly repeated at a low volume. Usually, the effect is achieved by both hands playing adjacent strings set to the same [[pitch (music)|pitch]]es. This is possible because of enharmonic spellings created by the pedals.
It can sound like strumming a [[guitar]] or even "watery".
On [[sheet music]], it is represented by three thick lines connecting the notes to be trilled.
{{musical-instrument-stub}}
[[hu:Bisbigliando]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bubble and squeak</title>
<id>4407</id>
<revision>
<id>42050381</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:27:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BlankVerse</username>
<id>169582</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Stoke_newington_breakfast_1.jpg|thumb|right|A small portion of bubble and squeak (left) adorns a full English breakfast. (November 2005)]]
'''Bubble and squeak''' (sometimes just called '''bubble''') is a traditional [[United Kingdom|British]] dish made with the shallow-fried leftover vegetables from a [[roast dinner]]. The chief ingredients are [[potato]] and [[cabbage]], but [[carrot|carrots]], [[pea|peas]], [[brussels sprout|brussels sprouts]], and other vegetables can be added. It is traditionally served with cold meat from the [[Sunday roast]], and pickles. Traditionally the meat was added to the bubble and squeak itself, although nowadays the vegetarian version is more common. The cold chopped vegetables (and cold chopped meat if used) are fried in a pan together with mashed potato until the mixture is well-cooked and brown on the sides. The name is a description of the action and sound made during the cooking process.
A prepared frozen version is available.
{{cookbookpar|Bubble and Squeak}}
The name ''bubble and squeak'' is used in (at least) South East England - it is also [[cockney rhyming slang|Cockney rhyming slang]] for "Greek". In other parts of the country the dish may be referred to as ''bubble and scrape'' or ''fry up''.
[[Category:British cuisine]]
[[Category:Potato dishes]]
[[no:Bubble and squeak]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Buddy Holly</title>
<id>4408</id>
<revision>
<id>42144479</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:49:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikkalai</username>
<id>28438</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.30.109.79|70.30.109.79]] ([[User talk:70.30.109.79|talk]]) to last version by Chairlunchdinner</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name = Charles Hardin Holley
| image = b_holly.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = [[September 7]] [[1936]]
| birth_place = [[Lubbock, Texas|Lubbock]], [[Texas]], [[United States|USA]]
| death_date = [[February 3]] [[1959]]
| death_place = near [[Mason City, Iowa|Mason City]], [[Iowa]], [[United States|USA]]
| occupation = [[Singer]] and [[songwriter]]
| salary =
| networth =
| spouse = [[Maria Elena Holly]]
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Charles Hardin Holley''' ([[September 7]] [[1936]] &ndash; [[February 3]] [[1959]]), better known as '''Buddy Holly''', was an [[United States|American]] singer, songwriter, and a pioneer of [[Rock and Roll]]. The change of spelling of Holley to Holly came about because of an error in a contract he was asked to sign, listing him as Buddy Holly. That spelling was then adopted for his professional career.
==Biography==
Buddy Holly was born Charles Hardin Holley in [[Lubbock, Texas|Lubbock]], [[Texas]] to parents Lawrence Odell Holley and Ella Pauline Drake. The Holleys were a musical family and as a young boy Holley learned to play the violin (his brothers oiled the strings so much that no one could hear him play), piano and guitar. In the fall of 1949 he met [[Bob Montgomery]] at Hutchinson Jr. High School. They shared a common interest in music, and soon teamed up to perform as the duo "Buddy and Bob". Initially influenced by [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]] music, they sang harmony duets at local clubs and high school talent shows. Holley's turn to rock music came after seeing [[Elvis Presley]] sing live, in his hometown of Lubbock in early 1955. A few months later, he appeared in the same bill with Presley, also in Lubbock. Holley's transition to rock was final |
II'''
*Right Girl
*One More Kiss
*Could I Leave You?
*Loveland
*You're Gonna Love Tomorrow
*Love Will See Us Through
*The God-Why-Don't-You-Love-Me-Blues
*Losing My Mind
*Ah, But Underneath...
*Live, Laugh, Love
*Finale
==Original production and revivals==
''Follies'' opened on April 4, 1971 at the [[Winter Garden Theatre]] on Broadway. It starred [[Alexis Smith]], [[John McMartin]], [[Dorothy Collins]], [[Gene Nelson]], and [[Yvonne De Carlo]], along with several veterans of the Broadway and vaudeville stage.
The plum supporting role of Carlotta Campion, the world-weary ex-Follies girl who sings the showstopping "I'm Still Here," is usually performed by a once-celebrated performer making a final return to the stage. [[Yvonne De Carlo]] created the role in [[1971]]. The [[1985]] concert featured [[Carol Burnett]] in the role, and [[Dolores Gray]] played Carlotta in the [[1987]] London production, which also featured [[Diana Rigg]], [[Daniel Massey]], [[Julia McKenzie]], [[Lynda Baron]], [[Leonard Sachs]], [[Maria Charles]], [[Pearl Carr & Teddy Johnson]]. The 1998 [[Paper Mill Playhouse]] revival featured the legendary [[MGM]] star [[Ann Miller]] in the role or Carlotta. Shortly thereafter another former MGM star, [[Betty Garrett]], played the role of Hattie in the short-lived 2001 Broadway revival, which also starred [[Blythe Danner]], [[Judith Ivey]], [[Treat Williams]], [[Gregory Harrison]], [[Polly Bergen]] and an assortment of famous names from the past. It was significantly stripped down (previous productions, especially the original, were most notable for their extravagant sets and costumes) and was not a success critically or financially.
The musical has undergone numerous revisions over the years. The initial production was praised in many areas but the book and dialogue were judged to be lacking; Goldman subsequently revised his work right up to his death, which occurred shortly before the 1998 Paper Mill production. Sondheim too has added and removed songs that he judged to be problematic in various productions. The 1987 London production was significantly changed, and was, in the opinion of critics who saw it in New York (such as [[Frank Rich]]), substantially more "upbeat" and lacking in the atmosphere it had originally possessed.
==Trivia==
''Follies'' was voted ninth in a [[BBC Radio 2]] listener [[opinion poll|poll]] of the UK's "Nation's Number One Essential Musicals". [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/shows/paige/essentialvote.shtml]
== External links ==
*[http://www.geocities.com/joecable1997/follies.html Live, Laugh, Love: Follies]
*[http://www.sondheim.com/features/im_still_what.html List of references in "I'm Still Here"]
[[Category:Musicals]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Functional grammar</title>
<id>11669</id>
<revision>
<id>39769578</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T19:33:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Florian Huber</username>
<id>231921</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''There is a disambiguation page for other senses of [[functionalism]].''
'''Functional grammar''' is the name given to any of a range of [[grammatical function|functionally]]-based approaches to the scientific study of language, such as the [[grammar]] model developed by [[Simon C. Dik|Simon Dik]] or [[Michael Halliday]]'s [[Systemic functional grammar]]; another important figure in recent linguistic functionalism is [[Talmy Givón]].
Dik characterises functional grammar as follows:
''In the functional paradigm a language is in the first place conceptualized as an instrument of social interaction among human beings, used with the intention of establishing communicative relationships. Within this paradigm one attempts to reveal the instrumentality of language with respect to what people do and achieve with it in social interaction. A natural language, in other words, is seen as an integrated part of the [[communicative competence]] of the natural language user.''(2, p. 3)
Because of its emphasis on usage, [[communicative function]], and the social context of language, functional grammar differs significantly from other linguistic theories which stress purely [[formal]] approaches to grammar, for instance Chomskyan [[generative grammar]]. Functional grammar is strongly associated with the school of [[linguistic typology]] that takes its lead from the work of [[Joseph Greenberg]].
==References==
# [http://www.functionalgrammar.com/ Functional grammar home page]
# Dik, SC, The Theory of Functional Grammar (Part I: The Structure of the clause), 1989
{{ling-stub}}
[[Category:Grammar frameworks]]
[[de:Functional Grammar]]
[[it:Grammatica funzionale]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fick's law of diffusion</title>
<id>11671</id>
<revision>
<id>41851369</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:41:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gene Nygaard</username>
<id>146986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Temperature dependence of the Diffusion coefficient */ copyedit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fick's laws of diffusion''' describe [[diffusion]], and define the '''diffusion coefficient''' ''D''.
== History ==
Fick's laws of diffusion were derived by [[Adolf Fick]] in the year [[1855]].
== Fick's First Law ==
Fick's First Law is used in steady state [[diffusion]], i.e., when the concentration within the diffusion volume does not change with respect to time (J<sub>in</sub>=J<sub>out</sub>).
<math>J = - D \frac{\partial \phi}{\partial x}</math>
Where
* <math>J</math> is the diffusion flux in dimensions of [parts length<sup>-2</sup> time<sup>-1</sup>], [mol m<sup>-2</sup> s<sup>-1</sup>]
* <math>D</math> is the '''diffusion coefficient''' or '''[[mass diffusivity|diffusivity]]''' in dimensions of [length<sup>2</sup> time<sup>-1</sup>], [m<sup>2</sup> s<sup>-1</sup>]
* <math>\Phi</math> is the concentration in dimensions of [parts length<sup>-3</sup>], [mol m<sup>-3</sup>]
* <math>x</math> is the position [length], [m]
== Fick's Second Law ==
Fick's Second Law is used in non-steady or continually changing state diffusion, i.e., when the concentration within the diffusion volume changes with respect to time.
:<math>\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial t} = D \frac{\partial^2 \phi}{\partial x^2}</math>
Where
* <math>\Phi</math> is the concentration in dimensions of [parts length<sup>-3</sup>], [mol dm<sup>-3</sup>]
* <math>t</math> is time [s]
* <math>D</math> is the diffusion coefficient in dimensions of [length<sup>2</sup> time<sup>-1</sup>], [m<sup>2</sup> s<sup>-1</sup>]
* <math>x</math> is the position [length], [m]
It can be derived from the First Fick's law and the material balance:
:<math>\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial t} =-\frac {\partial} {\partial x} J = \frac {\partial} {\partial x} (D \frac {\partial} {\partial x} \phi) </math>
Assuming the diffusion coefficient ''D'' to be a constant we can exchange the orders of the differentiating and multiplying on the constant:
:<math> \frac {\partial} {\partial x} (D \frac {\partial} {\partial x} \phi) = D \frac {\partial} {\partial x} \frac {\partial} {\partial x} \phi= D \frac{\partial^2 \phi}{\partial x^2}</math>
and, thus, receive the form of the Fick's equations as was stated above.
For the case of 3-dimensional diffusion the Second Fick's Law looks like:
:<math>\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial t} = D \nabla^2 \phi</math>,
where <math>\nabla</math> is the usual [[del]] operator.
Finally if the diffusion coefficient is not a constant, but depends upon the coordinate and/or concentration, the Second Fick's Law looks like:
:<math>\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial t} = \nabla (D \nabla \phi)</math>
== Applicability ==
Fick's law based equations have been commonly used to model [[Passive transport|transport processes]] in [[food]]s, [[biopolymer]]s, [[Pharmacology|pharmaceuticals]], [[porous]] [[soil]]s, [[semiconductor]] doping process, etc. A large amount of [[experiment]]al research in [[polymer]] science and food science has shown that more general approach is required to describe transport of components in materials undergoing [[glass transition]]. In the vicinity of [[glass transition]] the flow behavior becomes '''non-Fickian''''. See also non-diagonal coupled transport processes ([[Onsager]] relationship). <!-- Onsager = important point to be still developped -->
== Temperature dependence of the Diffusion coefficient ==
The diffusion coefficient at different temperatures is often found to be well predicted by
<math>D = D_0 e^{-\frac{Q}{RT}}</math>
Where:
* D is the diffusion coefficient
* D<sub>0</sub> is the maximum diffusion coefficient (at infinite temperature)
* Q is the activation energy for diffusion in dimensions of [energy / parts]
* T is the temperature in units of [absolute temperature] ([[kelvin]]s or degrees [[Rankine]])
* R is the [[gas constant]] in dimensions of [energy temperature<sup>-1</sup> parts<sup>-1</sup>]
Typically, a compound's diffusion coefficient is 10,000x greater in air than in water. Carbon dioxide in air has a diffusion coefficient of 16 mm²/s, and in water, its coefficient is 0.0016 mm²/s [http://www.cco.caltech.edu/~brokawc/Bi145/Diffusion.html].
== A Biological Perspective ==
The first law gives rise to the formula
:<math>\mathrm{Rate\ of\ diffusion} = \frac{K A (P_2 - P_1)}{D}</math>
It states that the rate of di |
y]] see [[fugue state]]''
In [[music]], a '''fugue''' is a type of piece written for [[counterpoint]] for several independent musical voices. A fugue begins with its ''subject'' (a brief musical theme) stated by one of the voices playing alone. A second voice then enters and plays the subject, while the first voice continues on with a contrapuntal accompaniment. Then the remaining voices similarly enter one by one. The remainder of the fugue further develops the material using all of the voices.
The word ''fugue'' comes from the Latin ''fuga'' (flight) and ''fugere'' (to flee). Variants include ''fughetta'' (a small fugue) and ''fugato'' (a work or section of a work resembling a fugue but not necessarily adhering to the rules of one). The adjectival form of ''fugue'' is ''fugal''.
[[Image:Audiobutton.png]] [[media:Wtk1-fugue2.mid|Listen to a fugue]] ([[Johann Sebastian Bach]]'s C-minor fugue from the ''[[Well Tempered Clavier]]'' I, in 3 voices). [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/i02.html#movie See the music] for this fugue (external link, requires a [[Macromedia Director]] [[plugin]]).
==Characteristics and anatomy==
===Number of voices===
The number of voices in a fugue generally ranges from three to five, but eight or even ten voices are possible in large choral or orchestral fugues. Fugues in fewer than three voices are rare, because with two voices the subject can only jump back and forth between the upper and lower voice. The best-known example of a two-voice work is the E minor fugue from Book I of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach's]] ''[[Well-Tempered Clavier]]''. Two part works which are written in a fugal manner are sometimes called "[[invention (music)|inventions]]".
The term "part" is often used in the context of the fugue as a synonym for "voice." Use of the term "voice" does not imply that the fugue in question is necessarily composed for voices rather than instruments.
===Musical outline===
The beginning of the fugue tends to be written to definite rules, whereas in the later portions the composer has considerably greater freedom.
A fugue begins with an '''exposition''' of its '''subject''' by one of the voices in the [[tonic (music)|tonic]] key. After the subject, a second voice "answers" it with the same theme as the subject, but played in the [[dominant (music)|dominant]]. An answer can be classified as either tonal or real. In a '''tonal''' answer, some of the intervals may be altered to keep the answer in the same [[key (music)|key]]. In a '''real''' answer, the subject is literally transposed to another key. As the answer is passed to each new voice, the prior voice will sometimes accompany the subject with a '''counter-subject.''' It is customary for the exposition to alternate subjects (S) with answers (A) as follows: SASA. But in some fugues the order is varied: e.g. SAAS of the first fugue in Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier. The fugue's exposition concludes when all voices have stated or answered the subject.
The fugue rarely stops after its initial exposition, more often continuing to one or more ''developmental episodes''. Episodic material is usually based upon some element of the exposition—for example, a melodic motif may be taken and repeated [[sequence (music)|sequentially]]. There may also be ''middle entries'': these are entries of the subject by fewer than all the voices in the fugue, often varied in some way. They are often given in keys other than the tonic or dominant, or in a different mode (minor instead of major, or vice versa).
The episodes may also vary the subject by giving it in ''inversion'' (upside-down), ''retrograde'' (back-to-front), ''diminution'' (with shorter note values) or ''augmentation'' (with longer note values; the subject in augmentation entering in the bass is common at the end of fugues). Sometimes the voices appear in ''stretto,'' with one voice entering with the subject before the last voice has finished its entry. There also may be ''false entries'', which begin the fugue subject, but do not give it in full (the isolated beginning is sometimes called the ''head motif'').
Episodes may be interspersed with repeated expositions in which all voices give subjects and answers as at the beginning of the fugue, though these may also be varied, for example by having the voices enter in a different order.
Various devices are used to form the conclusion of a fugue. A fugue may end with a ''recapitulation'', in which the entries of the subject are repeated in the manner it was first introduced. Stretto entries of the subject often are found near the end, usually at the point where the fugue reaches its climax of tension. The final section often includes a [[pedal point]], either on the [[dominant (music)|dominant]] or the [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] note. At the very end of the fugue there may be a [[coda (music)|coda]] section, which follows a strong [[Cadence (music)|Cadence]] on the tonic chord.
===Timing of entries===
The construction of a fugue is based on taking advantage of "contrapunctal devices" as J. S. Bach called them - places where an entrance of a theme or subject could occur. In each fugue theme, then, there is an implied structure of where and at what intervals the theme can begin in another voice. Bach was sufficiently expert that he could tell exactly what entrances could occur simply by hearing the first playing of a theme.
===Double (triple, quadruple) fugue===
A '''double fugue''' has two subjects that are often developed simultaneously. Sometimes the second subject is initially presented as the counter-subject of the first, while in other examples, the second subject has its own exposition. In the latter case, the work has this structure: fugue on subject A; fugue on subject B; combination of subjects A and B. In a few cases, the second (and third, and so on) subjects may have their presentation cleverly weaved into the development (see Bach C# minor WTC I, a triple fugue). Examples of the double fugue are the Bach [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/i19.html A major WTC I] and [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/ii18.html g# minor WTC II] (External links to Shockwave movie).
While triple fugues are not uncommon (see Bach [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/i04.html c# minor WTC I] and [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/ii14.html f# minor WTC II]), quadruple fugues are rare. The surviving pages of Contrapunctus XIV from Bach's ''[[The Art of Fugue|Die Kunst der Fuge]]'' represent a triple fugue that was undoubtedly quadruple in conception. Other examples of quadruple fugues are the ''fuga IV (a quattro soggetti)'' from [[Ferruccio Busoni|Busoni]]'s ''[[Fantasia Contrappuntistica]]'' and in a similar respect, the quadruple fugue from [[Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji|Kaikhosru Sorabji]]'s ''[[Opus Clavicembalisticum]]''.
==Is the fugue a musical form?==
A widespread view of the fugue is that it is not a musical form (in the sense that, say, [[sonata form]] is) but rather a technique of composition. For instance, [[Donald Tovey]] wrote that "Fugue is not so much a musical form as a musical texture," that can be introduced anywhere as a distinctive and recognizable technique, often to produce intensification in musical development.
On the other hand, composers almost never write music in a purely cumulative fashion, and usually a work will have some kind of overall formal organization—hence the rough outline given above, involving the exposition, the sequence of episodes, and the concluding coda. When scholars say that the fugue is not a musical form, what is usually meant is that there is no one single formal outline into which all fugues reliably can be fitted.
The formal organization of a fugue involves not only the arrangement of its theme and episodes, but also its harmonic structure, a point emphasized by Ratz (1951). In particular, the exposition and coda tend to emphasize the tonic key, whereas the episodes usually explore more distant tonalities.
==History==
The term ''fuga'' was used as far back as the Middle Ages, but was initially used to refer to any kind of imitative counterpoint, including [[canon (music)|canons]], which are now thought of as distinct from fugues. It was not until the 16th century that fugal technique as it is understood today began to be seen in pieces, both instrumental and vocal. Fugal writing is found in works such as ''fantasias'', ''ricercares'' and ''canzonas''.
The fugue arose from the technique of "imitation", where the same musical material was repeated starting on a different note. Originally this was to aid [[improvisation]], but by the 1550s, it was considered a technique of composition. The [[Renaissance]] composer [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]] (1525?-1594) wrote masses using [[musical mode|modal]] counterpoint and imitation, and fugal writing became the basis for writing [[motet]]s as well. A motet differed from a fugue in that each phrase of the text had a different subject which was introduced and worked out separately, whereas a fugue continued working with the same subject or subjects throughout the entire length of the piece.
===Baroque era===
It was in the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] period that the writing of fugues became central to composition, in part as a demonstration of compositional expertise. Fugues were incorporated into a variety of musical forms. [[Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck]], [[Girolamo Frescobaldi]], [[Johann Jakob Froberger]] and [[Dieterich Buxtehude]] all wrote fugues, and [[George Frideric Handel]] included them in many of his [[oratorio]]s. Keyboard [[suite]]s from this time often conclude with a fugal [[gigue]]. The [[French overture]] featured a quick fugal section after a slow introduction. The second movement of a [[sonata da chiesa]], as written by [[Arcangelo Corelli]] and others, was usually fugal.
The Baroque period also saw a rise in the |
eans that functional program follow the [[principle of compositionality]].
==History==
[[Lambda calculus]], invented by [[Alonzo Church]] in the [[1930s]], provides a theoretical framework for describing functions and their evaluation. Though it is a mathematical abstraction rather than a programming language, lambda calculus forms the basis of almost all functional programming languages today.
The first computer-based functional programming language was [[Information Processing Language]] (IPL), developed by Newell, Shaw, and Simon at [[RAND|RAND Corporation]] for the [[JOHNNIAC]] computer in the mid-[[1950s]]. A much-improved functional programming language was [[Lisp programming language|LISP]], developed by [[John McCarthy]] while at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] for the [[IBM 700/7000 series#Scientific Architecture|IBM 700/7000 series]] scientific computers in the late 1950s. LISP introduced many of the features now found in modern functional programming languages; [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] was a later attempt to simplify and improve LISP.
In the [[1970s]] the [[ML programming language]] was created by [[Robin Milner]] at the [[University of Edinburgh]], and [[David Turner (computer scientist)|David Turner]] developed the language [[Miranda programming language|Miranda]] at the [[University of Kent]]. ML eventually developed into [[:category:ML programming language family|several dialects]], the most common of which are now [[Objective Caml]] and [[Standard ML]]. The [[Haskell programming language]] was released in the late [[1980s]] in an attempt to gather together many ideas in functional programming research.
==Higher-order functions==
A powerful mechanism used in functional programming is the notion of [[higher-order function]]s. Functions are higher-order when they can take other functions as arguments, and/or return functions as results. (The [[differential operator]] in [[calculus]] is a common example of a function that maps a function to a function.)
Higher-order functions are closely related to [[first-class function]]s, in that higher-order functions and first-class functions both allow functions as arguments and results of other functions. The distinction between the two is subtle: "higher-order" describes mathematical concept of functions that operate on other functions, while "first-class" refers to the incorporation of functions as expressions in a programming language.
Higher-order functions enable [[currying]], a technique in which a function is applied to its arguments one at a time, with each application returning a new (higher-order) function that accepts the next argument.
==Comparison with imperative programming==
Functional programming can be contrasted with [[imperative programming]]. Functional programming appears to be missing several constructs often (though incorrectly) considered essential to an imperative language such as [[C programming language|C]] or [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]. For example, in strict functional programming, there is no explicit memory allocation and no explicit variable assignment. However, these operations occur automatically when a function is invoked: memory allocation occurs to create space for the parameters and the return value, and assignment occurs to copy the parameters into this newly allocated space and to copy the return value back into the calling function. Both operations can only occur on function entry and exit, so [[side-effect (computer science)|side effect]]s of function evaluation are eliminated. By disallowing side effects in functions, the language provides [[referential transparency]]. This ensures that the result of a function will be the same for a given set of parameters no matter where or when, it is evaluated. Referential transparency greatly eases both the task of proving program [[correctness]] and the task of automatically identifying independent computations for parallel execution.
[[Iteration]] (looping), another imperative programming construct, is accomplished through the more general functional construct of [[recursion]]. [[Recursive function]]s invoke themselves, allowing an operation to be performed over and over. In fact, it can be proven that iteration is equivalent to a special type of recursion called [[tail recursion]]. Recursion in functional programming can take many forms and is in general a more powerful technique than iteration. For this reason, almost all imperative languages also support it (with [[Fortran|FORTRAN 77]] and [[COBOL]], before 2002, as notable exceptions).
Functional programming often depends heavily on recursion. The [[Scheme programming language]] even requires certain types of recursion ([[tail recursion]]) to be recognized and automatically optimized by a [[compiler]].
==Pure functions==
'''[[Purely functional]]''' programs have no [[side-effect (computer science)|side-effect]]s. Since functions do not modify state, no data may be changed by parallel function calls. For this reason, pure functions are always [[thread-safe]], a fact which is exploited by languages that use [[evaluation strategy#Call by future|call-by-future evaluation]]. Because ordering of side-effects does not have to be preserved in their absence, some languages (such as [[Haskell programming language|Haskell]]) use [[evaluation strategy#Call by need|call-by-need evaluation]] for pure functions.
"Pure" functional programming languages typically enforce [[referential transparency]], which is the notion that 'equals can be substituted for equals': if two expressions have "equal" values (for some notion of equality), then one can be substituted for the other in any larger expression without affecting the result of the computation. For example, in
<code>
y = f(x) * f(x);
</code>
a compiler can factor out <code>f(x)</code> if it is pure, transforming the program to
<code>
z = f(x);
y = z * z;
</code>
and eliminating the second evaluation of the (possibly costly) call to <code>f(x)</code>.
This optimization is called [[common subexpression elimination]].
However, if a function has effects, the function call cannot be eliminated.
Consider the following program fragment:
<code>
y = random() * random();
</code>
The second call to <code>random</code> cannot be eliminated, because its return value may be different from that of the first call.
Similarly,
<code>
y = printf("x") * printf("x");
</code>
cannot be optimized away; even if <code>printf</code> returns the same value both times, failing to make the second call would result in different program output.
Many modern compilers for imperative programming languages do not perform common subexpression elimination for function calls, because they do not track whether a function is pure. It is possible for an advanced compiler to infer whether a local function has effects and optimize accordingly; however, most pre-compiled libraries do not expose this information, preventing calls to external functions from being optimized away. Some compilers, such as [[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]], add extra keywords for a programmer to explicitly mark pure functions so that this optimization can be performed.
===Monads===
Some functional languages remove or [[Sandbox (computer security)|sandbox]] side-effects during evaluation using [[monads in functional programming|monads]]. In such languages, all functions become "pure"; the program's evaluation can then be reasoned about using traditional mathematical techniques, and common-subexpression elimination can be performed on all function calls. Because monadic functions depend on the monad values produced by previous function calls, multiple calls still cannot be eliminated; however, their sequencing is made explicit in the program.
Alternative methods (such as [[Hoare logic]]) have been developed to track effects in programs. Some modern research languages use [[effect system]]s to make explicit the presence of effects.
==Expansion of functional programming==
Many programmers accustomed to the imperative paradigm find it difficult to learn functional programming, which encompasses a whole different way of composing programs. This difficulty, along with the fact that functional programming environments do not have the extensive tools and libraries available for traditional programming languages, are among the main reasons that functional programming has received little use in the [[software industry]]. Functional languages have remained largely the domain of [[academic]]s and hobbyists, and what little inroads have been made are due to impure functional languages such as [[Erlang_programming_language|Erlang]] and [[Common Lisp programming language|Common Lisp]]. It could be argued that the largest influence of functional programming on the software industry has been by those academically trained programmers who have gone on to apply the impure functional programming style to their work in traditional imperative languages.
== Speed and space considerations ==
Functional languages have long been criticised as resource-hungry, both in terms of [[central processing unit|CPU]] resources and memory. This was mainly due to two factors:
* some early functional languages were implemented with little concern for efficiency
* non-functional languages achieved speed in part by leaving out features such as [[bounds checking]] and [[garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collection]] which are considered by many to be important parts of modern computing frameworks; these features are included in most functional languages
As modern imperative languages and their implementations have started to emphasize correctness rather than raw speed, the implementations of function |
s preserving traditions hostile to the purported descendants of Vortigern, who at this time were a ruling house in [[kingdom of Powys|Powys]]. This interpretation is supported by the negative character of all of the stories retold about Vortigern in the ''Historia Brittonum'', which include his alleged practice of [[incest]].
Ambrosius Aurelianus appears in later pseudo-chronicle tradition beginning with [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''Historiae Regum Britanniae'' with the slightly garbled name ''Aurelius Ambrosius'', now presented as son of a King Constantine. When King Constantine's eldest son Constans is murdered at Vortigern's instigation, the two remaining sons, Ambrosius and Uther, still very young, are quickly hustled into exile in [[Brittany]]. (Note that this does not fit with Gildas' account in which Ambrosius' family perished in the turmoil of the Saxon uprisings.) Later, when Vortigern's power has faded, the two brothers return from exile with a large army, destroy Vortigern and become friends with Merlin. The Welsh possibly had traditions of two different Ambrosianii, whom Geoffrey of Monmouth confused.
In Welsh Ambrosius appears as ''Emrys Wledig''. In [[Robert de Boron]]'s ''Merlin'' he is called simply ''Pendragon'' and his younger brother is named ''Uter'', a name which Uter changes after the death of Pendragon to ''Uterpendragon''. This is probably a confusion that entered oral tradition from [[Robert Wace|Wace]]'s ''Brut''. Wace usually only refers to ''li roi'' 'the king' without naming him and someone has taken an early mention of Uther's epithet ''Pendragon'' as the name of his brother.
S. Appelbaum has suggested that [[Amesbury]] in [[Wiltshire]] might preserve in it the name of Ambrosius, and perhaps Amesbury was the seat of his power base in the later fifth century. Place name scholars have found a number of [[Toponymy|place names]] through the Midland dialect regions of Britain with placenames incorporating the ''ambre-'' element: [[Ombersley]] in [[Worcestershire]], [[Ambrosden]] in [[Oxfordshire]], Amberley in [[Herefordshire]], and Amberley in [[Gloucestershire]]. These scholars have claimed this element rerpresents an [[Old English language|Old English]] word ''amor'', the name of a woodland bird. However, [[Amesbury]] in Wiltshire is in a different dialect region, and does not easily fit into the pattern of the Midland dialect place names. This makes Appelbaum's suggestion more likely. If we combine this etymology with the tradition reported by Geoffrey of Monmouth stating Ambrosius Aurelianus ordered the building of [[Stonehenge]] &mdash; which is located within the parish of Amesbury (and where Ambrosius was supposedly buried) &mdash; and with the presence of an [[Iron age]] [[hill fort]] also in that parish, then it is extremely tempting to connect this shadowy figure with Amesbury.
== Aurelianus in fiction ==
In [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s ''[[The Mists of Avalon]]'', Aurelianus is depicted as the aging High King of Britain, a "too-ambitious" son of a Western Roman Emperor. His sister's son is Uther Pendragon, but somehow, Uther is described as not having any Roman blood in him. Strangely, Aurelianus is unable to gather the leadership of the native Celts, who refuse to follow any but their own race.
In [[Stephen R. Lawhead]]'s ''[[Pendragon Cycle]]'', Ambrosius Aurelianus (referred to as "[[Aurelius]]") is a minor character, being assassinated soon after becoming [[High King]] of [[Prydein]]. Lawhead alters the standard Arthurian story somewhat, in that he has Aurelius marry [[Igraine]] and become the true father of [[King Arthur]].
In [[Valerio Massimo Manfredi]]'s ''[[The Last Legion]]'', Aurelianus is a major character that is shown as the last loyal Roman that goes to enormous lengths for his boy emperor [[Romulus Augustus]] , whose power has been wrested by the barbarian [[Odoacer]]. In this story [[Romulus Augustus]] marries [[Igraine]], and ''[[Caliban]]'', the sword of [[Julius Caesar]], becomes the legendary [[Excalibur]] in Britain.
In [[Rosemary Sutcliff]]'s ''[[The Lantern Bearers (Sutcliff novel)|The Lantern Bearers]]'' Prince Ambrosius Aurelianus drives out the Saxons by training his British army with Roman techniques and making effective use of cavalry. By the end of the novel, the elite cavalry wing is led by a dashing young warrior prince named Artos, who Sutcliff postulates to be the real Arthur.
[[Mary Stewart]]'s ''The Crystal Cave'' follows Geoffrey of Monmouth in calling him Aurelius Ambrosius and portrays him as the father of Merlin, the elder brother of Uther (hence uncle of Arthur), an initiate of [[Mithras]], and generally admired by everyone except the Saxons. Much of the book is set at his court in Brittany or during the campaign to retake his throne from Vortigern. Later books in the series show that Merlin's attitude toward Arthur is influenced by his belief that Arthur is a reincarnation of Ambrosius, who is seen through Merlin's eyes as a model of good kingship.
Judging by his situation (a Romano-British living in post-Roman Britain and fighting Mons Badonicus), the titular character from the 2004 movie ''[[King Arthur (2004 movie)|King Arthur]]'' was based on Aurelianus, despite the fact that his name ([[Lucius Artorius Castus|Artorius Castus]]) comes from another historical source for Arthur.
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Vortigern]]|
title=[[King of the Britons|Mythical British Kings]]|
after=[[Uther Pendragon]]|
years= |
}}
{{end box}}
<!-- interwiki -->
[[Category:5th century births]]
[[Category:6th century deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Britons]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans]]
[[Category:Romans in Britain]]
[[Category:Sub-Roman Britain]]
[[Category:British traditional history]]
[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:Mythological kings]]
[[de:Ambrosius Aurelianus]]
[[nl:Aurelius Ambrosius]]
[[fr:Ambrosius Aurelianus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amun</title>
<id>1721</id>
<revision>
<id>41983215</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:06:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.180.10.191</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the people in the Bible, see [[Ammon (nation)]]. For the extinct mollusc see [[Ammonite]].''
:''For the game by [[Reiner Knizia]], see [[Amun-Re (game)]]
'''Amun''' (also spelt '''Amon''', '''Amoun''', '''Amen''', and rarely '''Imenand''', and spelt in [[Greek language|Greek]] as '''Ammon''', and '''Hammon''') was the name of a [[deity]], in [[Egyptian mythology]], who gradually rose to become one of the most important deities, before fading into obscurity.
{{Hiero|Amun|<hiero>i-mn:n-C12</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
==God of Air==
Originally, he was simply nothing more than a deification of the concept of air, and thus [[wind]], one of the four fundamental concepts held to have composed the primordial universe, in the [[Ogdoad]] [[cosmogeny]], whose cult was strongest in [[Hermopolis]]. His name reflects this function, since it means ''the hidden one'', reflecting the invisibility of the air, and of the wind. Like all other members of the Ogdoad, his male aspect was usually depicted as a frog, or frog-headed. Symbolically, invisibility was represented by the [[colour]] [[blue]], since it was the colour of the [[sky]], seen through the air, and so this was the colour usually given to Amun's image.
As with the other concepts in the Ogdoad, he was dualistically considered to have a female aspect, referred to as '''[[Amunet]]''' (also spelt '''Amentet''', '''Amentit''', '''Imentet''', '''Imentit''', '''Amaunet''', and '''Ament'''), which was simply the [[feminine]] form of the word ''Amun''. The other female aspects of the Ogdoad were all depicted as snakes, thus Amunet was depicted likewise.
==Creator==
[[Image:Amon and mut.png|170px|thumb|left|Amun and Mut]]
Gradually, as god of air, he came to be associated with the ''breath of life'', which created the [[Egyptian soul|ba]], particularly in [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]. By the [[First Intermediate Period]] this had led to him being thought of, in these areas, as the creator god, titled ''father of the gods'', preceding the Ogdoad, although also part of it. As he became more significant, he was assigned a wife (Amunet being his own female aspect, more than a distinct wife), and since he was the creator, his wife was considered the divine mother from which the cosmos emerged, who in the areas where Amun was worshipped was, by this time, [[Mut]].
Amun became depicted in [[human]] form, seated on a throne, wearing on his head a plain deep circlet from which rise two straight parallel plumes, possibly symbolic of the tail [[feather]]s of a [[bird]], a reference to his earlier status as a wind god.
Having become more important than [[Menthu]], the local [[war]] [[god]] of Thebes, Menthu's authority became said to exist because he was the son of Amun. However, as Mut was infertile, it was believed that she, and thus Amun, had adopted Menthu instead. In later years, due to the shape of a [[pool]] outside the sacred temple of Mut at Thebes, Menthu was replaced, as their adopted son, by [[Chons]], the [[lunar deity|moon god]].
==King==
[[Image:Amun5.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Bas-relief depicting Amun as king.]]
With the eviction of the [[Hyksos]] rulers from Egypt, by the [[army|armies]] of the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth dynasty]], Thebes, where the victors were based, became the most important city, and so Amun became nationally important. To Amun the [[Pharaoh]]s attributed all their successful enterprises, and on his temples they lavished their wealth and captured spoil. And so, when the Greeks reported back on their [[tourism|visits]] to Egypt, Amun, as king of the gods, became identified by the Geeks with [[Zeus]], and so his consort [[Mut]] with [[Hera]].
As the Egyptians considered themselves opressed durin |
le]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{For|other persons with this name|Anita Hill (disambiguation)}}
[[Image:A_Hill.jpg|thumb|Anita Hill]]
'''Anita F. Hill''' (born [[July 30]], [[1956]]) was a colleague of [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Clarence Thomas]] prior to Thomas' appointment to the Supreme Court. Hill became a public figure when she accused Thomas of [[sexual harassment]] and using coarse language during his [[United States Senate|Senate]] confirmation hearing.
Hill was born in [[Lone Tree, Oklahoma|Lone Tree]], [[Oklahoma]]. She received her undergraduate degree from [[Oklahoma State University]] in [[1977]], and her [[Juris Doctor]] degree from [[Yale Law School|Yale University]] in [[1980]]. Upon graduation from law school, she became a practicing lawyer with the [[Washington, D.C.]], firm of Ward, Hardraker, and Ross. In [[1981]], she met Thomas, and became his assistant at the [[United States Department of Education|U.S. Department of Education]]. It was during this period, according to Hill's later testimony, that the alleged sexual harassment took place. When Thomas became chairman of the U.S. [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]], Hill followed him to this new job, joining the Commission's legal staff.
When Thomas was nominated to the Supreme Court in [[1991]], Hill's accusations to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] that Thomas had used coarse language with her were leaked to the media by Democrats on the [[U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]]. Hill, by then on the law school faculty at the [[University of Oklahoma]], testified before the committee about Thomas's alleged verbal harassment (including a claim that he made a joke about finding a [[pubic hair]] in a can of [[Coca-Cola]]). Thomas made a blanket denial of the accusations, and, after extensive debate, the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] narrowly confirmed Thomas.
[[Category:1956 births|Hill, Anita]]
[[Category:Living people|Hill, Anita]]
[[Category:American lawyers|Hill, Anita]]
[[Category:Women lawyers|Hill, Anita]]
[[Category:African_Americans|Hill, Anita]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 10</title>
<id>2315</id>
<revision>
<id>41630832</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:28:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Events */ correction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=10}}
|}
'''August 10''' is the 222nd day of the year (223rd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 143 days remaining.
The term "the 10th of August" is widely used by historians as a [[shorthand]] for the [[10th of August (French Revolution)|Storming of the Tuileries Palace]] on August 10 [[1792]], the effective end of the [[House of Bourbon|French monarchy]] until it was [[Bourbon Dynasty, Restored|restored]] in [[1814]].
==Events==
*[[612 BC]] - Killing of [[Sinsharishkun]], King of Assyrian Empire. Destruction of [[Nineveh]].
*AD [[955]] - [[Battle of Lechfeld]]: [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor]] defeats [[Magyars]], ending 50 years of [[Magyars|Magyar]] invasion of the West.
*[[1519]] - [[Ferdinand Magellan]]'s five ships set sail from [[Seville]] to circumnavigate the globe.
*[[1680]] - [[Pueblo Revolt]] begins in New Mexico.
*[[1792]] - [[French Revolution]]: [[10th of August (French Revolution)|Storming of the Tuileries Palace]]. [[Louis XVI of France]] is arrested and taken into custody.
*[[1809]] - [[Quito]], now the [[capital]] of [[Ecuador]], declares independence from [[Spain]].
*[[1821]] - [[Missouri]] is admitted as the 24th [[U.S. state]].
*[[1846]] - The [[Smithsonian Institution]] is chartered by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] after $500,000 was given for such a purpose by scientist [[James Smithson]].
*[[1856]] - In [[Last Island]], [[Louisiana]], a [[hurricane]] kills about 400 people.
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Wilson's Creek]] - The war enters [[Missouri]] when a band of raw [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] troops defeat [[United States|Union]] forces in the southwestern part of the state.
*[[1893]] - At [[Augsburg]], [[Rudolf Diesel]]'s prime model runs on its own power for the first time. Because of this, August 10 is the International [[Biodiesel]] Day.
*[[1905]] - [[Russia|Russian]] and [[Japan|Japanese]] [[Russo-Japanese War|peace]] negotiations begin in [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire|Portsmouth]].
*[[1913]] - [[Balkan Wars|Second Balkan War]] ends: Delegates from [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]], and [[Greece]] sign the [[Treaty of Bucharest, 1913|Treaty of Bucharest]], ending the war.
*[[1920]] - [[World War I]]: [[Ottoman sultan]] [[Mehmed VI]]'s representatives sign the [[Treaty of Sevres]] which divides up the [[Ottoman Empire]] between the [[Allies]].
*[[1932]] - A 5.1-[[kilogram|kg]] (11.2-pound) chondrite-type [[meteorite]] breaks into at least seven pieces and lands near the town of [[Archie, Missouri|Archie]] in [[Cass County, Missouri]].
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: American forces defeat the last [[Japan]]ese troops on [[Guam]].
*[[1948]] - ''[[Candid Camera]]'' makes its [[television]] debut after being on [[radio]] for a year as [[Candid Microphone]].
*[[1949]] - US President [[Harry S. Truman]] signs the [[National Security Bill]], streamlining the defense agencies of the [[United States government]], and replacing the [[National Military Establishment]] with the [[United States Department of Defense]].
*[[1954]] - At [[Massena, New York]], the groundbreaking ceremony for the [[St. Lawrence Seaway]] is held.
*[[1969]] - A day after murdering [[Sharon Tate]] and four others, members of [[Charles Manson]]'s cult kill Leno and Rosemary LaBianca.
*[[1971]] - [[Harmon Killebrew]] becomes the 10th member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at [[Metropolitan Stadium]] in [[Bloomington, Minnesota]].
*[[1977]] - In [[Yonkers, New York]], 24-year-old postal employee [[David Berkowitz]] ("Son of Sam") is arrested for a [[serial killer|series of killings]] in the [[New York City]] area over a year's period.
*[[1981]] - The head of [[John Walsh]]'s son [[Adam Walsh|Adam]] is found in [[Hollywood, Florida]]. This event will later prompt the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] to pass the [[Missing Children's Act]], giving the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] greater authority to track the disappearance of children. It also makes Walsh a national spokesman against crime and eventually leads to the establishment of [[America's Most Wanted]].
*[[1988]] - [[Japanese American Internment]]: US President [[Ronald Reagan]] signs the [[Civil Liberties Act of 1988]], providing $20,000 payments to [[Japanese-American]]s who were either interned or relocated by in the [[United States]] during [[World War II]].
*[[1990]] - The [[Magellan probe|Magellan space probe]] reaches [[Venus (planet)|Venus]].
*[[1995]] - [[Oklahoma City bombing]]: [[Timothy McVeigh]] and [[Terry Nichols]] are indicted for the bombing. [[Michael Fortier]] pleads guilty in a plea-bargain agreement for his testimony.
*[[2003]] - The highest temperature ever recorded in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], 38.5[[celsius|°C]] (101.3[[Fahrenheit|°F]]), occurs in [[Kent]] [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/2003/]. It is the first time the [[United Kingdom|UK]] has recorded a temperature over 100 degrees [[Fahrenheit]].
*[[2003]] - [[Yuri Ivanovich Malenchenko]] became the first person to marry in space.
*[[2005]] - [[Lee Seung Seop]] dies from exhaustion in South Korea after [[StarCraft#Trivia|playing 49 straight hours of Starcraft]].
==Births==
*[[1267]] - King [[James II of Aragon]] (d. [[1327]])
*[[1296]] - [[John I, Count of Luxemburg]] (d. [[1346]])
*[[1360]] - [[Francesco Zabarella]], Italian jurist (d. [[1417]])
*[[1397]] - [[Albert II of Germany]], [[Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1439]])
*[[1489]] - [[Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck]], German statesman and reformer (d. [[1553]])
*[[1520]] - [[Madeleine de Valois]], queen of [[James V of Scotland]] (d. [[1537]])
*[[1560]] - [[Hieronymus Praetorius]], German composer (d. [[1629]])
*[[1645]] - [[Eusebio Kino]], Italian Catholic missionary (d. [[1711]])
*[[1821]] - [[Jay Cooke]], American financier (d. [[1905]])
*[[1839]] - [[Aleksandr Grigorievich Stoletov]], Russian physicist (d. [[1896]])
*[[1845]] - [[Abai Kunanbaev]], Kazak poet (d. [[1904]])
*[[1869]] - [[Laurence Binyon]], British poet (d. [[1943]])
*[[1872]] - [[Bill Johnson (jazz musician)|Bill Johnson]], American musician (d. [[1972]])
*[[1874]] - [[Herbert Hoover]], [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1964]])
*[[1877]] - [[Frank Marshall]], American chess player (d. [[1944]])
*[[1878]] - [[Alfred Döblin]], German writer (d. [[1957]])
*[[1880]] - [[Robert L. Thornton]], American businessman, philanthropist, and Mayor of Dallas, Texas (d. [[1964]])
*[[1884]] - [[Panait Istrati]], Romanian writer (d. [[1935]])
*[[1890]] - [[Angus L. MacDonald]], Canadian politician (d. [[1954]])
*[[1898]] - [[Jack Haley]], American actor (d. [[1979]])
*[[1900]] - [[Arthur Espie Porritt]], New Zealand politician and athlete (d. [[1994]])
*[[1902]] - [[Norma Shearer]], Canadian actress (d. [[1983]])
* 1902 - [[Curt Siodmak]], German-born author (d. [[2000]])
* 1902 - [[Arne Tiselius]], Swedish chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]])
*[[1905]] - [[Era Bell Thompson]], American journalist (d. [[1986]])
*[[1909]] - [[Leo Fender]], American luthier (d. [[1991]])
*[[1912]] - [[Jorge Amado]], Brazilian novelist (d. [[2001]])
*[[1913]] - [[Wolfgang Paul]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1993]])
*[[1914]] - [[Jeff Corey]], Ameri |
o:28. august]]
[[fr:28 août]]
[[fy:28 augustus]]
[[ga:28 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:28 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 28일]]
[[hr:28. kolovoza]]
[[io:28 di agosto]]
[[id:28 Agustus]]
[[ia:28 de augusto]]
[[ie:28 august]]
[[is:28. ágúst]]
[[it:28 agosto]]
[[he:28 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:28 Agustus]]
[[ka:28 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:28 zélnika]]
[[ku:28'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:28 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 28]]
[[lb:28. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 28]]
[[mk:28 август]]
[[ms:28 Ogos]]
[[nap:28 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:28 augustus]]
[[ja:8月28日]]
[[no:28. august]]
[[nn:28. august]]
[[oc:28 d'agost]]
[[pl:28 sierpnia]]
[[pt:28 de Agosto]]
[[ro:28 august]]
[[ru:28 августа]]
[[sco:28 August]]
[[sq:28 Gusht]]
[[scn:28 di austu]]
[[simple:August 28]]
[[sk:28. august]]
[[sl:28. avgust]]
[[sr:28. август]]
[[fi:28. elokuuta]]
[[sv:28 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 28]]
[[tt:28. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 28]]
[[th:28 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:28 tháng 8]]
[[tr:28 Ağustos]]
[[uk:28 серпня]]
[[wa:28 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 28]]
[[zh:8月28日]]
[[pam:Agostu 28]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AvoidBiasDebate</title>
<id>1782</id>
<revision>
<id>15900247</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-17T16:56:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[wikipedia talk:Neutral point of view]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aisha</title>
<id>1783</id>
<revision>
<id>41720947</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T07:37:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Savidan</username>
<id>677067</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{WivesMuhammad}}
'''Aisha''', '''Ayesha''', ''''A'isha''', or ''''Aisha''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic ]]عائشة ''`ā'isha'', "she who lives") was a wife of [[Muhammad]], whom Muslims regard as the final prophet of [[Islam]].
== Early life ==
It is not clear when Aisha was born. Most scholars calculate her age by reference to the date of her marriage to Muhammad ([[622]]) and then subtracting her age at marriage. However, there are many theories as to [[Aisha#Young marriage age controversy|her age at marriage]].
Aisha was the daughter of [[Abu Bakr]] of [[Mecca]]. They belonged to the [[Bani Tamim]] clan of the tribe of the [[Quraysh]], the tribe to which Muhammad also belonged. Aisha is said to have followed her father in accepting Islam when she was still young. She also joined him in his migration to [[Ethiopia]] in [[615]] CE; a number of Mecca's Muslims emigrated then, seeking refuge from persecution by the Meccans who still followed their pre-Islamic religions.
According to the early Islamic historian [[al-Tabari]], Aisha's father tried to spare her the dangers and discomfort of the journey by solemnizing her marriage to her fiance, Jubair, son of Mut`am ibn `Adi. However, Mut’am refused to honor the long-standing betrothal, as he did not wish his family to be connected to the Muslim outcasts. The emigration to Ethiopia proved temporary and Abu Bakr's family returned to Mecca within a few years. Aisha was then betrothed to Muhammad.
== Aisha's marriage to Muhammad ==
The marriage was delayed until after the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]], or migration to [[Medina]], in 622. Aisha and her older sister [[Asma]] only moved to Medina after Muhammad had already fled there. Abu Bakr gave Muhammad the money to build a house for himself. After this, the wedding was celebrated very simply, by the bride and groom drinking a bowl of milk in front of witnesses.
=== Status as "favorite wife" ===
Even though the marriage may have been politically motivated, to mark the ties between Muhammad and his companion Abu Bakr, most early accounts say that Muhammad and Aisha became sincerely fond of each other. Aisha is usually described as Muhammad's favorite wife. [[Shi'a]] Muslims would disagree with this description, regarding it as politically motivated. They adduce the following episodes as proof that Muhammad and Aisha's marriage did not always go smoothly.
==== Aisha accused of adultery ====
Aisha was traveling with her husband Muhammad and some of his followers. She left camp in the morning to search for her lost necklace; when she returned, she found that the company had broken camp and left without her. She waited patiently for half a day, until she was rescued by a man named Safwan and taken to rejoin the caravan.
Malicious tongues started to wag, claiming that she must have been having an affair with Safwan. Some urged Muhammad to divorce his wife. He then received a revelation directing that adultery be proven by four eyewitnesses, rather than simply inferred from opportunity. One passage of the Qur'an, "Verily! They who spread the slander are a gang among you..." (Qur'an 24.11), is usually taken as a rebuke to those who slandered Aisha.
====The story of the honey====
According to one widely-accepted tale, Muhammad's wife Zainab bint Jahsh was given a skin filled with honey, which she shared with her husband. He was fond of sweets and stayed overlong with Zainab bint Jash; at least in the opinion of Aisha and her co-wife [[Hafsa]]. Aisha and Hafsa conspired. Each of them was to tell Muhammad that the honey had given him bad breath. When he heard this from two wives, he believed that it was true and swore that he would eat no more of the honey. Soon afterwards, he reported that he had received a revelation, in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God (Qur'an 66:1). In the following verses, Muhammad's wives are rebuked for their unruliness: "your hearts are inclined (to oppose him)".
Word spread in the small Muslim community that Muhammad's wives were tyrannizing over the mild-mannered man, speaking sharply to him and conspiring against him. Umar, Hafsa's father, scolded his daughter and also spoke to Muhammad of the matter. Muhammad, saddened and upset, separated from his wives for a month, sleeping by himself on a lumpy mattress. By the end of this time, his wives were humbled and harmony, of a sort, was restored.
When Muslim commentators on the [[Qur'an]] explicate [[Surah]] 66, it is usually this story that is told to explain the "occasion of revelation".
There is a similar but alternative explanation of [[At-Tahrim|Surah 66]], also involving Aisha. In this story, Aisha and her co-wives were unhappy because Muhammad was infatuated with [[Maria al-Qibtiyya]], the Christian Coptic woman who bore Muhammad a brief-lived son. (Some accounts say that she was a slave, some that she converted to Islam, was freed, and was taken as a wife.)
==== The death of Muhammad ====
Ibn Ishaq, in his ''Sirat Rasulallah'', states that during Muhammad's last illness, he sought Aisha's apartments and died with his head in her lap. The Sunni take this as evidence of Muhammad's fondness for Aisha.
Aisha never remarried after Muhammad's death. A passage in the Qur'an forbids any Muslim to marry the prophet's widows.
: ''Nor is it right for you that ye should annoy God's Apostle, or that ye should marry his widows after him at any time. Truly such a thing is in God's sight an enormity.'' (Al-Ahzab 33: 53)
==After Muhammad ==
=== Aisha's father becomes the first caliph ===
After Muhammad's death in 632 C.E., Aisha's father Abu Bakr became the first [[caliph]], or leader of the Muslims. This matter is extremely controversial. Shi'a believe that Ali should have been chosen to lead; Sunni maintain that the community chose Abu Bakr, and did so in accordance with Muhammad's wishes. This is discussed in much greater detail in the article [[Succession to Muhammad]].
===The battle of the camel===
Abu Bakr's reign was short, and in 634 C.E. he was succeeded by [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]], as caliph. Umar reigned 10 years, and was then followed by [[Uthman ibn Affan|Uthman]] in 644 C.E. Both of these men had been among Muhammad's earliest followers, were linked to him by clanship and marriage, and had taken prominent parts in various military campaigns.
Aisha, in the meantime, lived in Medina and made several pilgrimages to Mecca.
In 656 C.E. Uthman was killed by rebellious Muslim soldiers. The rebels then asked Ali to be the new caliph. Many reports absolve Ali of complicity in the murder. He is reported to have refused the caliphate, saying, "You are not a people fit for my rulership nor am I a master fit for you people". He agreed to rule only after his followers persisted.
Aisha raised a small army which confronted [[Ali]]'s army outside the city of [[Basra]]. Battle ensued and Aisha's forces were defeated. Aisha was directing her forces from a howdah on the back of a camel; this [[656]] battle is therefore called the [[Battle of the Camel]].
Ali captured Aisha but declined to harm her. He sent her back to Medina under military escort. She lived a retired life until she died in approximately [[678]].
== Young marriage age controversy ==
The age of Aisha at marriage is an extremely contentious issue. On the one hand, there are several [[hadith]]s (said to have been narrated by Aisha herself) which state she was six or seven years old when betrothed and nine when the marriage was consummated. On the other hand, calculations based on information found in an early Muslim chronicler, [[Ibn Ishaq]], indicate that Aisha was at least fourteen to sixteen years old, thus past the age of [[puberty]]. Other [[hadith]]s suggest that Aisha may have been nineteen or twenty years old when she married.
Many Muslim scholars have accepted the tradition that Aisha was nine years old when the marriage was consummated. This has in turn led critics to denounce Muhammad for having sexual relations with a girl so young, which in modern times would be classified as [[child sexual abuse]]. Some respond to this criticism by claiming that Aisha was post-pubescent at |
:Karibų jūra]]
[[mk:Карипско Море]]
[[nl:Caribische Zee]]
[[nds:Karibik]]
[[ja:カリブ海]]
[[no:Det karibiske hav]]
[[pl:Morze Karaibskie]]
[[ru:Карибское море]]
[[sk:Karibské more]]
[[sl:Karibsko morje]]
[[fi:Karibianmeri]]
[[sv:Karibiska havet]]
[[zh:加勒比海]]
[[zh-min-nan:Carib-hái]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caribbean</title>
<id>7823</id>
<revision>
<id>42088279</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:21:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jerrakum</username>
<id>815422</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''West Indies redirects here. For the region's cricket squad see [[West Indian cricket team]].''
[[Image:Central_america.jpg|thumb|365px|Central America and the Caribbean [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/reference_maps/pdf/central_america.pdf (detailed pdf map)]]]
The '''Caribbean''', ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Caribe''; [[French language|French]]: ''Caraïbe'' or more commonly ''Antilles''; [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Cariben'' or ''Caraïben'', or more commonly ''Antillen'') or the '''West Indies''', is a group of [[island]]s and countries which are in or border the [[Caribbean Sea]] which lies on the [[Caribbean Plate]]. The countries and islands of the Caribbean are located to the south and east of [[Mexico]] and to the north and west of [[Venezuela]], [[South America]]. There are at least 7,000 islands, [[islets]], [[reef]]s, and [[caye]]s in the region. They are organized into 25 territories including [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] states, overseas departments, and [[dependent area|dependencies]].
The name "West Indies" originates from [[Christopher Columbus]]' idea that he had landed in the [[Indies]] (then meaning all of south and east [[Asia]]) when he had in fact reached [[Americas|the Americas]]. The name "Caribbean" is named after the [[Carib]]s, one of the dominant [[Amerindian]] groups in the region at the time of [[Europe]]an contact. The Caribbean consists of the Greater and Lesser [[Antilles]], and is often considered part of [[North America]].
At one time, there was a short-lived country called the [[Federation of the West Indies]] composed of ten of the English-speaking Caribbean territories of the region.
The Caribbean area is also famous for its sea [[pirate]]s. See the article [[piracy in the Caribbean]].
The region known as "Caribbean" is usually restricted to the islands of the Caribbean Sea, although sometimes the continental American coastline is included.
==Historical groupings==
:''Main article: [[History of the Caribbean]]''
Most islands at some point were, or still are, colonies of [[Europe]]an nations:
* [[British West Indies]] / [[Anglophone Caribbean]] - [[Anguilla]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Barbados]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Dominica]] (also [[Antillean Creole|French Creole]] speaking), [[Grenada]], [[Guyana]], [[Jamaica]], [[Montserrat]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]] (also [[Antillean Creole|French Creole]] speaking), [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
* [[Danish West Indies]] - present-day [[United States Virgin Islands]]
* [[Dutch West Indies]] - present-day [[Netherlands Antilles]] and [[Aruba]]
* [[French West Indies]] - [[Anguilla]] (briefly), [[Antigua and Barbuda]] (briefly), [[Dominica]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Grenada]], [[Haiti]], [[Montserrat]] (briefly), [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Sint Eustatius]] (briefly), [[St Kitts and Nevis]] ([[St Kitts]], but not [[Nevis]]), [[Trinidad and Tobago]] ([[Tobago]] only), present-day [[U.S. Virgin Islands]] ([[Saint Croix]] only, briefly), and the current French [[Département d'outre-mer|overseas ''départements'']] of [[Martinique]] and [[Guadeloupe]] (including [[Saint-Barthélemy]] and northern half of [[Saint Martin]])
* [[Spain]] - [[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]] (present-day [[Dominican Republic]] and [[Haiti]]), [[Puerto Rico]]
The British West Indies were formerly united by the [[United Kingdom]] into a [[West Indies Federation]]. The independent countries which were once a part of the B.W.I. still have a unified composite [[cricket]] team that successfully competes in [[Test cricket|test match]]es and [[one-day international]]s. The [[West Indian cricket team]] includes the South American nation of [[Guyana]], the only former British colony on that continent.
In addition, these countries share the [[University of the West Indies]] as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in [[Jamaica]], [[Barbados]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]], a smaller campus in the [[Bahamas]] and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories.
==Present-day island territories of the Caribbean==
[[Image:Tectonic plates Caribbean.png|thumb|right|350px|Detail of tectonic plates from: [[:Image:Tectonic plates.png|Tectonic plates of the world]]]]
:''See also: [[Caribbean South America]], [[Caribbean basin]]''
* '''{{AIA}}''' ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] dependency)
** [[Anguillita Island]]
** [[Dog Island]]
** [[East Cay]]
** [[Little Scrub Island]]
** [[Prickly Pear Cays]]
** [[Sandy Island, Anguilla|Sandy Island]]
** [[Scrub Island]]
** [[Seal Island]]
** [[Sombrero, Anguilla|Sombrero]]
** [[West Cay]]
* '''{{ATG}}'''
**[[Antigua]]
**[[Barbuda]]
**[[Redonda]]
* '''{{ABW}}''' (part of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]])
* '''{{BRB}}'''
**Barbados
**[[Culpepper Island]]
**[[Pelican Island]] (now absorbed into Barbados)
* '''{{IVB}}''' ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] dependency, shares the [[Virgin Islands]] with the U.S. Virgin Islands.)
**[[Anegada]]
**[[Beef Island]]
**[[Bellamy Cay]]
**[[Carvel Rock]]
**[[Cockroach Island]]
**[[Cooper Island]]
**[[Dead Chest Cay]]
**[[Diamond Cay]]
**[[Dog Islands]]
**[[Drowned Island]]
**[[East Seal Dog Island]]
**[[Eustatia Island]]
**[[Fallen Jerusalem Island]]
**[[Frenchmans Cay]]
**[[Grouge Dog Island]]
**[[Ginger Island]]
**[[Great Camanoe]]
**[[Great Dog Island]]
**[[Great Thatch]]
**[[Great Tobago Island]]
**[[Green Cay]]
**[[Guana Island]]
**[[Jost Van Dyke]]
**[[Key Cay]]
**[[Little Anegada]]
**[[Little Camanoe]]
**[[Little Cay]]
**[[Little Jost Van Dyke]]
**[[Little Seal Dog Island]]
**[[Little Thatch]]
**[[Little Tobago]]
**[[Little Wickmans Cay]]
**[[Marina Cay]]
**[[Mosquito Island]]
**[[Nanny Cay]]
**[[Necker Island (British Virgin Islands)|Necker Island]]
**[[Norman Island]]
**[[Old Jerusalem Island]]
**[[Oyster Rock, British Virgin Islands|Oyster Rock]]
**[[Pelican Island]]
**[[Peter Island]]
**[[Prickly Pear Island]]
**[[Saba Rock]]
**[[Salt Cay]]
**[[Sandy Cay]]
**[[Scrub Island]]
**[[Spanish Island]]
**[[Tortola]]
**[[Virgin Gorda]]
**[[West Dog Island]]
* '''{{CAY}}''' ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] dependency)
** [[Cayman Brac]]
** [[Grand Cayman]] (with the capital [[George Town, Cayman Islands|George Town]])
** [[Little Cayman]]
* '''{{CUB}}'''
**Cuba
**[[Isla de la Juventud]]
* '''{{DMA}}'''
** [[Isla Aves|Bird Island]] (disputed territory with [[Venezuela]] located about 110 km (70 mi) west of the island of Dominica)
* '''{{GRD}}''' (shares the [[Grenadines]] group with [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]])
**[[Carriacou]]
**Grenada
**[[Petit Martinique]]
**[[Ronde Island]]
**[[Petite Martinique]]
* '''{{GLP}}''' (overseas ''department'' of [[France]])
** [[Basse-Terre]]
** [[La Désirade]]
** [[Grande-Terre]]
** [[Marie-Galante]]
** [[Iles de la Petite Terre]]
** [[Saint-Barthélemy]] (also ''Saint Barts'')
** Saint-Martin (part of the island [[Saint Martin]] shared with the Netherlands Antilles; note the dash)
** [[Iles des Saintes]]
*** [[Terre de Haut]]
*** [[Terre de Bas]]
* [[Hispaniola]]
** '''{{DOM}}'''
** '''{{HAI}}'''
* '''{{JAM}}'''
* '''{{MTQ}}''' (overseas department of [[France]])
* '''{{MSR}}''' ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] dependency)
*[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px|]] [[Navassa Island]] ([[United States|U.S.]] [[insular area]])
* '''{{ANT}}''' (part of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]])
** [[Bonaire]]
** [[Curaçao]]
** [[Saba]]
** [[Sint Eustatius]]
** Sint Maarten (part of the island [[Saint Martin]] shared with Guadeloupe)
* '''{{PRI}}''' ([[Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)|U.S. commonwealth]])
**[[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Culebra]]
**[[Mona, Puerto Rico|Mona]]
**Puerto Rico
**[[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]]
* '''{{SKN}}'''
**[[Nevis]]
**[[Saint Kitts]]
* '''{{LCA}}'''
* '''{{VIN}}''' (shares the [[Grenadines]] group with Grenada)
** [[Baliceaux Island]]
** [[Bequia]]
** [[Canouan Island]]
** [[Mayreau]]
** [[Mustique]]
** [[Palm Island]]
** [[Petit Mustique]]
** [[Petit Saint Vincent]]
** [[Saint Vincent (island)|Saint Vincent]]
** [[Tobago Cays]]
** [[Union Island]]
** [[Young Island]]
* '''{{TRI}}'''
** [[Tobago]]
***[[Little Tobago]]
** [[Trinidad]]
***[[Chacachacare]]
***[[Gaspar Grande]]
***[[Huevos]]
***[[Monos]]
* '''{{VIR}}''' (U.S. territory, shares the [[Virgin Islands]] with the British Virgin Islands)
**[[Birsk Island]]
**[[Buck Island Reef National Monument|Buck Island]]
**[[Capella Island]]
**[[Cas Cay]]
**[[Cow And Calf Island]]
**[[Dog Island]]
**[[Dry Rock]]
**[[Fish Cay]]
**[[Flat Cay]]
**[[Grass Cay]]
**[[Great Saint James Island]]
**[[Green Cay]]
**[[Hassel Island, United States Virgin Islands|Hassel Island]]
**[[Inner Brass Island]]
**[[Johnsons Reef]]
**[[Leduck Island]]
**[[Little Saint James Island]]
**[[Lovango Cay]]
**[[Ningo Island]]
**[[Outer Brass Island]]
**[[Packet Rock]]
**[[Patricia Cay]]
**[[Saba Island, United States Virgin Islands|Saba Island]]
**[[Saint Croix]]
**[[Saint John, United States Virgin Islands|Saint John]]
**[[Saint Thomas, United States Virgin Islands|Saint Thomas]]
**[[South-West Rock]]
**[[Stranglers Island]]
**[[Thatch Cay, United States Virgin Islands|Thatch Cay]]
**[[Turtl |
also provide useful information to the compiler to enable it to vectorize operations. For these reasons, while Fortran is not often used outside scientific and engineering numerical work, it remains the language of choice for high performance numerical computing. It is also simple for non-programmers to learn how to write efficient code.
Since Fortran has been around for nearly fifty years, there is a vast body of Fortran in daily use throughout the scientific community (especially FORTRAN 77, the historically most important dialect). It is the primary language for some of the most intensive super-computing tasks, including weather and climate modeling.
==Sample programs==
The following programs can be compiled and run with any Fortran 90 or 95 compiler, such as GFortran [http://gcc.gnu.org/wiki/GFortran]. Most modern Fortran compilers expect a file with .f95 or .f90 extension.
===Hello world!===
Here follows the ''Hello, world!'' example in the "classic" FORTRAN:
C It was the first programming language
C with the comments support!
WRITE (6,7)
7 FORMAT(15H Hello, world! )
STOP
END
The program prints the ''Hello'' statement into output channel number six (on most machines, it was the terminal). The keyboard was usually connected to the channel five. The number 7 in the WRITE statement refers to the format line. This line can be placed anywhere in the program. The symbols 15H in the format line define the length of the message being printed in terms of [[Hollerith]] characters. The message text contains no bounding quotes. The recent Fortran versions accept quotes instead, besides the use of C-like format statements (but still support older notation). An updated version of the ''Hello, world!'' example reduces to:
program HelloWorld
!This is a comment
write(*, '("Hello, world!")')
end program HelloWorld
===Cylinder area===
This program calculates the area of a cylinder.
<pre>
program cylinder
!!! Calculate the area of a cylinder.
!!! Declare variables and constants.
!!! constants=pi
!!! variables=radius squared and height
implicit none ! Require all variables to be declared -- Fortran 90 feature.
integer :: ierr
character :: yn
real :: radius,height,area
real, parameter :: pi = 3.14159
interactive_loop: do
! Prompt the user for radius and
! height and read them.
write (*,*) 'Enter radius and height.'
read (*,*,iostat=ierr) radius,height
! If radius and height could not
! be read from input, then restart
! the loop.
if (ierr /= 0) then
write(*,*) 'Error, invalid input.'
cycle interactive_loop
end if
! Compute area. The ** means "raise to a power".
area = 2*pi*(radius**2 + radius*height)
! Write the input variables (radius, height)
! and output (area) to the screen.
write (*,'(1x,a7,f6.2,5x,a7,f6.2,5x,a5,f6.2)') &
'radius=',radius,'height=',height,'area=',area
yn = ' '
yn_loop: do
write(*,*) 'Perform another calculation? y[n]'
read(*,'(a1)') yn
if (yn=='y' .or. yn=='Y') exit yn_loop
if (yn=='n' .or. yn=='N' .or. yn==' ') exit interactive_loop
end do yn_loop
end do interactive_loop
end program cylinder
</pre>
===Dynamic allocation and array operations===
<p>This program provides an example of two features in Fortran 90: dynamic memory allocation, and array operations. Note the absence of do loops and if/then loops. Also note the use of descriptive variable names and general code formatting that comport with contemporary computer programing style. The program performs some averaging on interactively entered data.
<p>
<pre>
program average
!!! read in some numbers and take the average
!!! As written, if there are no data points (or no positive/negative points)
!!! an average of zero is returned.
!!! While this may not be expected behavior, it keeps this simple example simple.
implicit none
integer :: NumberOfPoints
real, dimension(:), allocatable :: Points
real :: AveragePoints=0., PositiveAverage=0., NegativeAverage=0.
write (*,*) 'Input number of points to average:'
read (*,*) NumberOfPoints
allocate (Points(NumberOfPoints))
write (*,*) 'Enter the Points to average:'
read (*,*) Points
!!! take the average by summing Points and dividing by NumberOfPoints
if (NumberOfPoints>0) AveragePoints = sum(Points)/NumberOfPoints
!!! now form average over positive and negative points only
if (count(Points>0.)>0) PositiveAverage = sum(Points, Points>0.)/count(Points>0.)
if (count(Points<0.)>0) NegativeAverage = sum(Points, Points<0.)/count(Points<0.)
deallocate (Points)
!!! print result to terminal
write (*,'(''Average = '', 1g12.4)') AveragePoints
write (*,'(''Average of positive points = '', 1g12.4)') PositiveAverage
write (*,'(''Average of negative points = '', 1g12.4)') NegativeAverage
end program average
</pre>
===Retro FORTRAN===
A [[retro]] example of a FORTRAN IV (as it was called in 1968) program deck is available on the [[IBM 1130]] page including the IBM 1130 DM2 [[JCL]] required for compilation and execution.
A curious feature common in early FORTRAN was the "3-way go to" statement (See [[GOTO]]). It was known as the "Arithmetic IF Statement". An example would resemble:
IF (X - Y) 100, 200, 300
The 3 numbers are line numbers. If one translated this into a more modern version of FORTRAN, the logic of this would resemble:
if (x - y &lt; 0) goto 100
if (x - y == 0) goto 200
if (x - y &gt; 0) goto 300
Mentally one was often taught to view them as:
if (x &lt; y) goto 100
if (x == y) goto 200
if (x &gt; y) goto 300
For "greater than or equal" or "less than or equal", two goto targets would be the same. An alternative example that makes no use of the obsolete goto feature is:
<pre>
select case(x - y)
case(:-1)
!goto 100 code
case(0)
!goto 200 code
case(1:)
!goto 300 code
end select
</pre>
==Advanced Sample Programs==
The following examples are intended to be compiled and run with any Fortran compiler that conforms to the Fortran 95 Standard.
===Procedures===
<p>Modern Fortran features available for use with [[procedures]], include deferred-shape and protected and optional arguments, as shown in the following example.
<p>
<pre>
function GaussSparse(NumIter, Tol, b, A, X, ActualIter)
!This function solves a system of equations (Ax = b) by using the Gauss-Jordan Method
implicit none
real GaussSparse
!Input: its value cannot be modified from within the function
integer, intent(in) :: NumIter
real, intent(in) :: Tol
real, intent(in), dimension(1:) :: b
real, intent(in), dimension(1:,1:) :: A
!Input/Output: its input value is used within the function, and can be modified
real, intent(inout), dimension(1:) :: X
!Output: its value is modified from within the function, only if the argument is required
integer, optional, intent(out) :: ActualIter
!Locals
integer i, n, Iter
real TolMax, Xk
!Initialize values
n = ubound(b, dim = 1) !Size of the array, obtained by the use of the ubound intrinsic routine
TolMax = 2. * Tol
Iter = 0
!Compute solution until convergence
convergence_loop: do while (TolMax >= Tol.AND.Iter < NumIter); Iter = Iter + 1
TolMax = -1. !Reset the tolerance value
!Compute solution for the k-th iteration
iteration_loop: do i = 1, n
!Compute the current x-value
Xk = (b(i) - sum(A(i,1:i-1) * X(1:i-1)) - sum(A(i,i+1:n) * X(i+1:n))) / A(i, i)
!Compute the error of the solution
TolMax = max((abs(X(i) - Xk)/(1. + abs(Xk))) ** 2, abs(A(i, i) * (X(i) - Xk)), TolMax)
X(i) = Xk
enddo iteration_loop
enddo convergence_loop
if (present(ActualIter)) ActualIter = Iter
GaussSparse = TolMax
end function GaussSparse
</pre>
<p>
If a return value is required only through arguments, a [[subroutine]] is preferred, as follows:
<p>
<pre>
subroutine Swap_Real(a1, a2)
implicit none
!Input/Output
real, intent(inout) :: a1(:), a2(:)
!Locals
integer :: lb(1), & !Lower bound
ub(1) !Upper bound
integer i
real a
!Get bounds
lb = lbound(a1)
ub = ubound(a1)
!Swap
do i = lb(1), ub(1)
a = a1(i)
a1(i) = a2(i)
a2(i) = a
enddo
end subroutine Swap_Real
</pre>
===Modules===
<p>A [[module (programming)]] is program unit which contains both data and procedures. In Fortran, it only differs from the main program unit in that it contains no actual executable statements.
<p>
<pre>
module GlobalModule
!Reference to a pair of procedures included in a previously compiled
!module named PortabilityLibrary
use PortabilityLibrary, only: GetLastError, & !Generic procedure
Date !Specific procedure
!Constants
real, parameter :: zero = (0.D+00)
real*8, parameter :: pi = (3.14159265358979)
!Variables
integer :: n, m, retint
logical*2 :: status, retlog
character(50) :: AppName
!Arrays
real, allocatable, dimension(:,:,:) :: a, b, c, d
complex*8, allocatable, dimension(:) :: z
!Structures
type ijk
integer i
integer j
integer k
end type ijk
type matrix
integer m, n
real, allocatable :: a(:,:) !Fortran 2003 feature. For Fortran 95 use the pointer
!attribute instead
end type matrix
!All the variables and procedures from this module can be accessed
!by other program units, except for AppName
public
private AppName
!P |
inning in the same year was also the prominent radio program, ''Coming out ready or not'' (later known simply as ''The Coming Out Show''), dealing with women's issues. In 1975, colour television was introduced in Australia, and within a decade, the ABC had moved into [[satellite]] broadcasting, greatly enhancing its ability to serve as a national broadcaster.
In 1975, the ABC introduced a 24 hour-a-day AM [[rock (music)|rock]] station in Sydney, 2JJ ([[Double Jay]]), which was eventually expanded into the national [[Triple J]] FM network. A year later, a national [[European classical music|classical music]] network was established on the [[frequency modulation|FM]] band, broadcasting from Adelaide. [[Radio Australia]] continued to thrive as a voice of authority in the Asia-Pacific region.
===The late 20th century to the present===
[[Image:AustralianBroadcastingCorporation1990s.JPG|frame|right|ABC Logo from mid 1990s]]
In 1983, the name of the organisation was changed from 'Commission' to 'Corporation' with the passing of a new ''ABC Act'' by [[Parliament of Australia|Federal Parliament]].
During the 1980s, the ABC underwent significant restructuring. Program production in indigenous affairs, comedy, social history and current affairs was significantly expanded. There was considerable pressure on the organisation to increase its production of Australian drama, which trebled from 1986&ndash;91 with the assistance of co-production, co-financing, and pre-sales arrangements. Since this time, ABC dramas have explored numerous themes related to the unique aspects of Australian living; these themes have not been covered by commercial and foreign producers to the same extent, and thus the ABC has played an important role in the evolution of Australia's national identity.
The ABC continued to be active in Australia's music world, chiefly through its six state-based symphony orchestras. The organisation managed an active concert schedule - both orchestral concerts and recitals - in the six state capitals, and coordinated the deployment of the world's prominent soloists in these schedules. However, during the 1980s, there was increasing pressure for the orchestras to be divested; this occurred in ?1990 with the formation of Symphony Australia, an umbrella organisation that coordinates the now independent state-based orchestras.
In the 1980s, the ABC set in motion plans to consolidate its disorganised arrangement of property and buildings in Sydney and Melbourne into single sites in each city. In Sydney, the radio and orchestral operations moved to a single site in Sydney's inner-city suburb of [[Ultimo]] in 1991, joined by ABC-TV operations in ?2002. In Melbourne, the ABC Southbank Centre was finished in 1994, and now houses the radio division in Victoria and the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra. The 1990s saw the expansion of the ABC's network of ABC shops, which sell a wide range of program-related merchandise, including books, [[CD]]s and [[DVD]]s. During the same decade, ''ABC online'' was established as a valuable adjunct to the organisation's broadcasting endeavours. It is now possible for anyone in the world to access a large amount of information, including transcripts and audio and video streams of many programs, on the internet. By the early 1990s, all major ABC broadcasting outlets moved to 24 hour-a-day operation, and regional radio coverage in Australia was extended with 80 new transmitters. Live television broadcasts of selected parliamentary sessions started in ?1995, and [[ABC NewsRadio]], a continuous news network when parliament is not sitting, was launched on [[October 5]], [[1996]]. Australia Television International was established as an authoritative, popular, non-commercial resource in east Asia, and Radio Australia increased its international reach. In 1995, D-Cart digital technology developed by ABC Radio, excited worldwide interest and was sold to European, North American and Asian markets. The ABC used D-Radio, the first fully digital audio system for the first time, broadcasting on Triple J. In the first decade of the new century, the ABC has continued its process of computerising and [[digital|digitising]] production, post-production and transmission. In 2005, [[ABC2]], a digital television channel, was launched.
==Funding and relationship With government==
The ABC receives the vast majority of its funding from the Australian national government, with the exception of all revenue collected through commmercial sales in ABC bookstores. This is in contrast with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] and [[public broadcasting in New Zealand]], which receive substantial revenue from advertising, and the British Broadcasting Corporation [[British Broadcasting Corporation|(BBC)]], which receives the bulk of its revenue from [[television licence fee|licence fee]]s and worldwide commercial operations. It is closer in scope to the [[United States|American]] Public Broadcasting Service ([[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]), but backed entirely by government money rather than public donations. Because of the governments financial backing of the broadcasting service, the broadcaster has an interesting relationship with the government.
Relations between public broadcasters and the governments that provide all or much of their funding, and establish and maintain their legal status, have typically been through periods of turbulence since the rise of current affairs and documentaries in broadcasting. Government control of the ABC besides funding is rather lax; however, the government is responsible for the appointment of people to the board of the ABC. <!--Discuss board appointments-->
The ABC's treatment of current affairs—including [[This Day Tonight]] and its successors [[The 7.30 Report]] and [[Lateline]] on television, and ''AM'' on radio, have been criticised by the political right for alleged left-wing bias in its reporting. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the conservative [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] government made several attempts to curtail the ABC's political coverage by threatening to reduce funding to the news and current affairs division.<!--Needs evidence ....? Either we need to cite particular instances/times, or refer to another source.--> In the late 1980s, the Hawke Labor government proposed commercialising the ABC, a move that was successfully resisted by the organisation itself and a significant groundswell of devotees among the public. The Hawke government also proposed to merge the ABC and its sister organisation, the Special Broadcasting Service; again, this move was unsuccessful, this time because the enabling legislation failed to pass the Senate. The Howard government reduced the ABC's operating grants by 10% soon after coming to office in 1996. <!--Since then, the ABC has come under pressure for alleged left-wing bias, in particular in relation to its coverage of the war in Iraq ... Alston ... need to make this as NPOV as possible ...-->
==Radio==
The ABC began as a network of 12 radio stations, eight in the captial cities, and four in regional centres. From its humble beginnings, ABC Radio now includes five national networks, [[Radio National]], [[ABC NewsRadio]], [[Triple J]], [[dig]] and [[ABC Classic FM]]; around fifty [[ABC Local Radio]] stations and a foreign language shortwave radio service, [[Radio Australia]].
The 12 original stations were:
{||
|width=250 valign=top|
Capital cities:
*[[2FC]] and [[2BL]], [[Sydney]]
*[[3AR]] and [[3LO]], [[Melbourne]]
*[[4QG]], [[Brisbane]]
*[[5CL]], [[Adelaide]]
*[[6WF]], [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]]
*[[7ZL]], [[Hobart]]
|width=250 valign=top|
Relay stations:
*[[2NC]], [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]]
*[[2CO]], [[Corowa, New South Wales|Corowa]]
*[[4RK]], [[Rockhampton, Queensland|Rockhampton]]
*[[5CK]], [[Port Pirie, South Australia|Port Pirie]]
|}
===Radio News and Current Affairs===
The ABC's news and current affairs coverage is the most independent in Australia as it is free of the commercial constraints of the commercial news networks. It is also widely regarded in the Australian media industry as the best news coverage in the country.
News and current affairs programs broadcast on ABC radio stations across the country are:
* [http://www.abc.net.au/news/ ABC Radio News] (Hourly news updates on Radio National, Local Radio, Classic FM and Triple J)
* [http://www.abc.net.au/am/ AM] (Half hour-long current affairs programme broadcast on Local Radio and Radio National at 8am)
* [http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/ The World Today] (50 minute-long current affairs programme broadcast on Local Radio and Radio National at 12:10pm)
* [http://www.abc.net.au/pm/ PM] (50 minute-long current affairs programme broadcast on Local Radio and Radio National at 6:10pm)
* [http://www.abc.net.au/rn/ Radio National] also produces other news, business & current affairs programmes, such as Background Briefing, the Health, Law, Religion and Media Reports and The National Interest.
===ABC Local Radio===
[[ABC Local Radio]] is the ABC's flagship radio station in each broadcast area. There are 46 different ABC Local Radio stations across Australia and they all follow a standard format with local hosts presenting light entertainment, talkback, music, sport and interviews. ABC Local Radio also carries nationally broadcast programming, including AM, PM, [[The World Today]], sporting events and [[Nightlife]]. ABC's local radio stations cater for a diverse audience, but are most popular with older audiences.
===ABC Radio National===
[[ABC Radio National]] can be heard across Australia and broadcasts over 60 special interest programs per week. These programs are about a diverse range of topics including music, comedy, book readings, radio dramas, poetry, science, health, the arts, religion, social history and current affairs
===ABC NewsRadio===
[[ABC N |
irst the Apocrypha Proper, and next the rest of the Old and New Testament apocryphal literature.
=== The Apocrypha Proper ===
or the apocrypha of the Old Testament as considered by English-speaking Protestants, consists of the following books: 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Additions to Esther, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus (Sirach), Baruch, Epistle of Jeremiah, Additions to Daniel (Prayer of Azariah, Song of the Three Holy Children, History of Susannah, and Bel & the Dragon), Prayer of Manasseh, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees. Thus the Apocrypha Proper constitutes the surplusage of the Vulgate or Bible of the Roman Catholic Church over the Hebrew Old Testament. Since this surplusage is in turn derived from the Septuagint, from which the old Latin version was translated, it thus follows that the difference between the Protestant and the Catholic Old Testament is, roughly speaking, traceable to the difference between the Palestinian and the Alexandrian canons of the Old Testament. But this is only true with certain reservations; for the Latin Vulgate was revised by Jerome according to the Hebrew, and, where Hebrew originals were wanting, according to the Septuagint. Furthermore, the Vulgate rejects 3 and 4 Maccabees and Psalm cli., which generally appear in the Septuagint, while the Septuagint and Luther's Bible reject 4 Ezra, which is found in the Vulgate and the Apocrypha Proper. Luther's Bible, moreover, rejects also 3 Ezra. It should further be observed that the Vulgate adds the Prayer of Manasses and 3 and 4 Ezra after the New Testament as apocryphal.
It is hardly possible to form any classification which is not open to some objection. In any case the classification must be to some extent provisional, since scholars are still divided as to the original language, date and place of composition of some of the books which must come under our classification. (Thus some of the additions to Daniel and the Prayer of Manasseh are most probably derived from a Semitic original written in Palestine, yet in compliance with the prevailing opinion they are classed under Hellenistic Jewish literature. Again, the Slavonic [[Book of Enoch|Enoch]] goes back undoubtedly in parts to a Semitic original, though most of it may have been written by a Greek Jew in Egypt.) We may, however, discriminate
* the Palestinian and
* the Hellenistic literature
of the Old Testament, though even this distinction is open to serious objections. The former literature was generally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and seldom in Greek; the latter naturally in Greek. Next, within these literatures we shall distinguish three or four classes according to the nature of the subject with which they deal. Thus the books of which we have to treat will be classed as:
* Historical,
* Legendary (Haggadic),
* Apocalyptic,
* Didactic or Sapiential.
The Apocrypha Proper then would be classified as follows:--
*Palestinian Jewish Literature
**Historical
***1 (i.e. 3) Ezra.
***1 Maccabees.
**Legendary
***Book of [[Baruch]]
***[[Book of Judith]]
**Apocalyptic
***2 (i.e. 4) Ezra (see also [[Apocalyptic literature]])
**Didactic
***Sirach (see [[Ecclesiasticus]])
***Tobit
*Hellenistic Jewish Literature:--
**Historical and Legendary
***Additions to [[Daniel]]
***Additions to [[Esther]]
***[[Epistle of Jeremy]]
***[[2 Maccabees]]
***Prayer of [[Manasses]]
**Didactic
***[[Book of Wisdom]]
Since all these books are dealt with in separate articles, they call for no further notice here.
=== References ===
Texts:
* Holmes and Parsons, ''Vet. Test. Graecum cum var. lectionibus'' (Oxford, 1798-1827)
* Swete, ''Old Testament in Greek'', i.-iii. (Cambridge, 1887-1894)
* Fritzsche, ''Libri Apocryphi V. T. Graece'' (1871).
Commentaries:--
* O. F. Fritzsche and Grimm, ''Kurzgef. exeget. Handbuch zu den Apok. des A.T''. (Leipzig, 1851-1860)
* E. C. Bissell, ''Apocrypha of the Old Testament'' (Edinburgh, 1880)
* Zockler, ''Apok. des A.T.'' (Munchen, 1891)
* Wace, ''The Apocrypha'' ("Speaker's Commentary") (1888).
Introduction and General Literature:
* E. Schürer, ''Geschichte des jud. Volkes'', vol. iii. 135 sqq., and his article on "Apokryphen" in Herzog's ''Realencykl''. i. 622-653
* Porter in Hastings' ''Bible Dic''. i. 111-123.
== Other Old Testament apocryphal literature ==
* Historical
** History of Johannes Hyrcanus.
* Legendary
** Book of Jubilees
** Paralipomena Jeremiae, or the Rest of the Words of Baruch
** Martyrdom of Isaiah
** Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum
** Books of Adam
** Jannes and Jambres
** Joseph and Asenath.
* Apocalyptic
** (See [[Apocalyptic literature]])
=== Historical ===
==== History of Johannes Hyrcanus ====
The ''History of Johannes Hyrcanus'' is mentioned in 1 Macc. xvi. 23-24, but no trace has been discovered of its existence elsewhere. It must have early passed out of circulation, as it was unknown to Josephus.
=== Legendary ===
==== Book of Jubilees ====
The ''Book of Jubilees'' was written in Hebrew between the year of the accession of Hyrcanus to the high-priesthood in 135 and his breach with the Pharisees some years before his death in 105 B.C. ''Jubilees'' was translated into Greek and from Greek into Ethiopic and Latin. It is preserved in its entirety only in Ethiopic. ''Jubilees'' is the most advanced pre-Christian representative of the midrashic tendency, which was already at work in the Book of Chronicles. This is a rewriting of the book of Genesis and the early chapters of Exodus. His work constitutes an enlarged targum on these books, and its object is to prove the everlasting validity of the law, which, though revealed in time, was superior to time. Writing in the palmiest days of the Maccabean dominion, he looked for the immediate advent of the Messianic kingdom. This kingdom was to be ruled over by a Messiah sprung not from Judah but from Levi, that is, from the reigning Maccabean family. This kingdom was to be gradually realized on earth, the transformation of physical nature going hand in hand with the ethical transformation of man. (For a fuller account see [[Book of Jubilees]].)
==== ''Paralipomena Jeremiae'', or the ''Rest of the Words of Baruch'' ====
This book has been preserved in Greek, Ethiopic, Armenian and Slavonic. The Greek was first printed at Venice in 1609, and next by Ceriani in 1868 under the title ''Paralipomena Jeremiae''. It bears the same name in the Armenian, but in Ethiopic it is known by the second title. (See [[Baruch]].)
==== Martyrdom of Isaiah ====
This Jewish work has been in part preserved in the ''Ascension of Isaiah''. To it belong i. 1, 2a, 6b-13a; ii. 1-8, 10-iii. 12; v. 1c-14 of that book. It is of Jewish origin, and recounts the martyrdom of Isaiah at the hands of Manasseh. (See [[Ascension of Isaiah]])
==== Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum ====
Though the Latin version of this book was thrice printed in the 16th century (in 1527, 1550 and 1599), it was practically unknown to modern scholars till it was recognized by [[F. C. Conybeare]] and discussed by Cohn in the ''Jewish Quarterly Review'', 1898, pp. 279-332. It is an Haggadic revision of the Biblical history from Adam to the death of Saul. Its chronology agrees frequently with the LXX. against that of the Massoretic text, though conversely in a few cases. The Latin is undoubtedly translated from the Greek. Greek words are frequently transliterated. While the LXX. is occasionally followed in its translation of Biblical passages, in others the Massoretic is followed against the LXX., and in one or two passages the text presupposes a text different from both. On many grounds Cohn infers a Hebrew original. The eschatology is similar to that taught in the similitudes of the [[Book of Enoch]]. In fact, Eth. En. li. 1 is reproduced in this connexion. Prayers of the departed are said to be valueless. The book was written after A.D. 70; for, as Cohn has shown, the exact date of the fall of Herod's temple is predicted.
==== Life of Adam and Eve ====
Writings dealing with this subject are extant in Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Armenian and Arabic. They go back undoubtedly to a Jewish basis, but in some of the forms in which they appear at present they are christianized throughout. The oldest and for the most part Jewish portion of this literature is preserved to us in Greek, Armenian, Latin and Slavonic,
# The Greek Διηγησις περι Αδαμ και Ευας (published under the misleading title Αποκαλυψις Μωυσεως in Tischendorf's ''Apocalypses Apocryphae'', 1866) deals with the Fall and the death of Adam and Eve. Ceriani edited this text from a Milan MS. (''Monumenta Sacra et Profana'', v. i). This work is found also in Armenian, and has been published by the Mechitharist community in Venice in their ''Collection of Uncanonical Writings of the Old Testament'', and translated by Conybeare (''Jewish Quarterly Review'', vii. 216 sqq., 1895), and by Issaverdens in 1901.
# The ''Vita Adae et Evae'' is closely related and in part identical with the Διηγησις. It was printed by W. Meyer in ''Abh. d. Münch. Akad.'', Philos.-philol. Cl. xiv., 1878.
# The Slavonic Adam book was published by Jajic along with a Latin translation (''Denkschr. d. Wien. Akad. d. Wiss.'' xlii., 1893). This version agrees for the most part with the Διηγησις. It has, moreover, a section, §§ 28-39, which though not found in the Διηγησις is found in the ''Vita''.
# :Before we discuss these three documents we shall mention other members of this literature, which, though derivable ultimately from Jewish sources, are Christian in their present form,
# ''The Book of Adam and Eve'', also called the [[Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan]], translated from the Ethiopic (1882) by Malan. This was first translated by Dillmann (''Das christl. Adambuch des Morgenlandes'', 1853), and the Ethiopic book first edited by Trump (''Abh. d. Münch. Akad.'' xv., 1870-1881).
# A Syriac work entitled ''Die Schalzhöhle'' translated by Bezold from |
mall, [[Wealth|wealthy]] [[economic system|economy]] is a mixture of [[foreign]] and [[Domestic policy|domestic]] entrepreneurship, government regulation, [[social welfare|welfare]] measures, and [[village]] [[tradition]]. Crude [[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas]] production account for nearly half of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all [[medical]] services and subsidizes [[rice]] and housing. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal [[social cohesion]] although it became a more prominent player by serving as [[chairman]] for the 2000 [[APEC]] (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Stated plans for the future include upgrading the [[labour (economics)|labor]] force, reducing [[unemployment]], strengthening the [[banking]] and [[Tourism|tourist]] sectors, and, in general, further widening the economic base.
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Brunei}}
About two-thirds of the Brunei population are of [[Malay people|Malay]] origin. The most important [[Minority|ethnic minority group]] are the [[China|Chinese]], with about 15%. These groups also reflect the most important [[Language|languages]]: [[Malay language|Malay]], which is the official language, and [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. [[English language|English]] is also widely spoken and there is a relatively large [[expatriate]] community.
[[Islam]] is the official [[religion]] of Brunei, and the sultan is the head of the religion in the country. Other faiths practised are [[Buddhism]] (mainly by the Chinese), [[Christianity]] and very small communities still practice [[indigenous]] religions.
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Brunei}}
The culture of Brunei is similar to Malay culture, with heavy influences from [[Hinduism]] and [[Islam]].
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Brunei Revolt]]
* [[Communications in Brunei]]
* [[Foreign relations of Brunei]]
* [[History of Brunei]]
* [[Istana Nurul Iman]] (The Sultan's Palace)
* [[Military of Brunei]]
* [[North Borneo Federation]]
* [[Royal Brunei Airlines]]
* [[Transportation in Brunei]]
* [[Water Village (Brunei)]]
* [[Brooketon]]
* [[Shannon Marketic]]
''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] [[2000]] and the [[2003]] [[United States|U.S]]. Department of State website.''
== Further reading ==
{{nonenglish}}
*L. W. W. Gudgeon (1913). ''British North Borneo''. London, Adam and Charles Black.
[[ar:بروناي]]
[[an:Brunei]]
[[bg:Бруней]]
[[zh-min-nan:Brunei]]
[[bn:ব্রুনাই]]
[[bs:Brunej]]
[[ca:Brunei]]
[[cs:Brunej]]
[[da:Brunei]]
[[de:Brunei]]
[[et:Brunei]]
[[es:Brunei]]
[[eo:Brunejo]]
[[eu:Brunei]]
[[fr:Brunei]]
[[fy:Brûnei]]
[[gd:Brunei]]
[[gl:Brunei]]
[[ko:브루나이]]
[[ht:Brouney]]
[[hi:ब्रुनेई]]
[[hr:Brunej]]
[[io:Brunei]]
[[ilo:Brunei]]
[[id:Brunei]]
[[is:Brúnei]]
[[it:Brunei]]
[[he:ברוניי]]
[[lv:Bruneja]]
[[lt:Brunėjus]]
[[li:Broenai]]
[[hu:Brunei]]
[[ms:Brunei]]
[[na:Brunei]]
[[nl:Brunei]]
[[nds:Brunei]]
[[ja:ブルネイ]]
[[no:Brunei]]
[[nn:Brunei]]
[[os:Бруней]]
[[pl:Brunei]]
[[pt:Brunei]]
[[ro:Brunei]]
[[ru:Бруней]]
[[sa:ब्रूनै]]
[[sq:Brunei]]
[[sh:Brunej]]
[[sk:Brunej]]
[[sl:Brunej]]
[[sr:Брунеј]]
[[fi:Brunei]]
[[sv:Brunei]]
[[tl:Brunei]]
[[th:ประเทศบรูไนดารุสซาลาม]]
[[tr:Brunei]]
[[uk:Бруней]]
[[zh:文莱]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Indian Ocean Territory</title>
<id>3468</id>
<revision>
<id>41003734</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T12:12:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AStephenGray</username>
<id>524966</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added term Chagossians (sourced from CIA World Factbook)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="infobox bordered" cellpadding="4" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%;"
|+ style="margin-left: inherit; font-size: medium;" | '''British Indian Ocean Territory'''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" |
{| style="width: 280px; background: none; text-align: center;"
|- style="vertical-align: middle;"
| style="border: 0;" | <span style="display:table-cell; border-collapse:collapse; border: solid 1px #BBBBBB;">[[Image:Flag of the British Indian Ocean Territory.svg|125px|Flag of {{{common_name}}}]]</span>
| style="border: 0;" | [[Image:British Indian Ocean Territory COA.gif|110px|Coat of Arms of ]]
|- style="font-size: smaller;"
| style="border: 0;" | [[Flag of the British Indian Ocean Territory|Flag]]
| style="border: 0;" | [[Coat of Arms of the British Indian Ocean Territory|Coat of Arms]]
|}
|- style="text-align: center;"
| style="font-size:95%" colspan="2" | [[List of state mottos|Motto]]: O''In tutela nostra Limuria<br> ([[Limuria]] is in our charge)'''
|- style="text-align: center;"
| style="font-size:95%" colspan="2" | [[National anthem|Anthem]]: [[God Save the Queen]],
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| None
|-
| '''Status'''
| [[British overseas territory|Overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| '''[[Official language|Official&nbsp;language(s)]]'''
| [[English language|English]]
|-
|'''[[Commissioner of the British Indian Ocean Territory|Commissioner]]'''
|[[Tony Crombie]]
|-
|'''[[Administrator of the British Indian Ocean Territory|Administrator]]'''
|[[Tony Humphries ]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- % water
| [[List_of_countries_by_area|Ranked 77]] ([[United Kingdom]])<br>60 km²<br>0
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| <br>3,500<br>58.3[[square kilometre|km²]]
|-
|'''[[Currency]]'''
|[[Pound sterling]]; [[US Dollar]] (accepted)
|-
|'''[[Time zone]]'''
|[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]: +6 ([[Daylight saving time|DST]]: ?)
|-
|'''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
|[[.io]]
|-
|'''[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]'''
|246
|}
The '''British Indian Ocean Territory''' ('''BIOT''') is an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]] situated in the [[Indian Ocean]], one half the way between [[Africa]] and [[Indonesia]]. The territory comprises the six [[atoll]]s of the [[Chagos Archipelago]] with over 1,000 individual islands.
The largest island is [[Diego Garcia]], the site of a joint military facility of the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]].
== History ==
The Islands of [[Chagos Archipelago]] were discovered by Vasco da Gama in the early sixteenth century, then claimed in the eighteenth century by [[France]] as a possession of [[Mauritius]]. However, in [[1810]], Mauritius was captured by the United Kingdom, and France ceding the territory in the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)]]. Agricultural workers migrated to the Islands in the late [[19th century]], settling on the main island of [[Diego Garcia]] and establishing [[copra]] plantations.
In [[1965]], the United Kingdom split the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius, and the islands of [[Aldabra]], [[Farquhar Group|Farquhar]] and [[Desroches]] (Des Roches) from the [[Seychelles]] to form the British Indian Ocean Territory. The purpose of was to allow the construction of military facilties for the mutual benefit of the United Kingdom and the [[United States]]. The islands were formally established as an overseas territory of the [[United Kingdom]] on [[November 8]], [[1965]]. On [[June 23]], [[1976]], Aldabra, Farquhar and Desroches were returned to [[Seychelles]] as a result of it attaining independence. Subsequently, BIOT has consisted only of the six main island groups comprising the [[Chagos Archipelago]].
The creation of BIOT has been subject to legal controversy, as some legal opinions from international law experts say that the decision to separate the BIOT from Mauritius was illegal because international law does not allow the dismembering of a country before independence. However the decision was taken with the full agreement of the Mauritius Council of Ministers
In [[1966]], the British Government purchased the privately owned copra plantations, and closed them down, and removed the entire population (known as the [[Ilois]], or Chagossians) of Diego Garcia to Mauritius. In [[1971]], the United Kingdom and the United States signed a treaty, leasing the island of Diego Garcia to the [[Military of the United States|American military]] for the purposes of building a large air and naval base on the Island. The deal was important to the United Kingdom, as the United States agreed to give the a substantial discount on the purchase of [[Polaris missile|Polaris nuclear missiles]] in return for the lease. The strategic location of the Island was also significant at the gateway of the Indian Ocean, and to counter any [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] threat in the region.
[[Image:Diego Garcia Military Base.jpg|thumb|250px|left|View of the military base at Diego Garcia]]
Work on the military base commenced in [[1971]], with a large airbase with several long range runways constructed, as well as a harbour suitable for large naval vessels. Although classed as a joint UK/US base, in practice it is mainly staffed by the American military, although a small British garrison is maintained at all times, and [[Royal Air Force]] long range patrol aircraft are deployed there. The [[United States Air Force]] used the base during the 1991 [[Gulf War]] and the [[2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan|2001 war in Afghanistan]], as well as the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Iraq War]].
During the [[1980s]], the Mauritiuan Government asserted a sovereignty claim on the territory, citing the 1965 separation as illegal under international law, despite their apparent agreement |
SIC''' ('''''B'''eginner's '''A'''ll-purpose '''S'''ymbolic '''I'''nstruction '''C'''ode''{{ref|name}}) is a family of high-level [[programming language]]s. Originally invented in [[1964]] by [[John George Kemeny]] and [[Thomas Eugene Kurtz]] at [[Dartmouth College]], it was designed to allow students not in science fields to use computers. At the time all computer use required writing custom software, which was something only [[scientists]] and [[mathematician]]s tended to do. It became widespread on [[home computer|home microcomputers]] in the [[1980s]], and remains popular to this day in a handful of heavily evolved [[dialect]]s.
[[Image:AtariBasicExample.png|right|thumb|250px|[[Atari BASIC]] screenshot.]]
== History ==
=== Background ===
Prior to the mid-[[1960s]], [[computers]] were highly expensive tools used only for special-purpose tasks. In a simple form of [[batch processing]], these machines ran only a single "job" at a time. During the 1960s, however, computer prices started to drop to where even small companies could afford them, and their speed increased to the point where they often sat idle without jobs to run.
Programming languages of the era tended to be designed, like the machines on which they ran, for specific purposes (such as [[scientific formula]] processing or [[text editor | text editing]]). Since single-job machines were expensive, the tendency was to consider execution speed the most important feature of a language. In general, these specialized languages were difficult to use and used widely disparate [[syntax]].
It was at this time that the [[time-sharing]] system concept started to become popular. In such a system the processing time of the main computer is "sliced up" and each user is given a small amount in alternation. The machines were fast enough for most users to feel they had a single machine all to themselves. In theory, timesharing reduced the cost of computing tremendously, as a single machine could be shared among hundreds of users.
=== Early years &mdash; the mini computer era ===
The original BASIC language was invented in [[1963]] by [[John George Kemeny|John Kemeny]] and [[Thomas Eugene Kurtz|Thomas Kurtz]] and implemented by a team of Dartmouth students under their direction. BASIC was designed to allow students to write programs for the [[Dartmouth Time-Sharing System]]. BASIC was intended to address the complexity issues of older languages with a new language designed specifically for the new class of users the time-sharing systems allowed &mdash; that is, a "simpler" user who was not as interested in speed as in simply being able to use the machine. In the following years, as other dialects of BASIC appeared, Kemeny and Kurtz' original BASIC dialect became known as ''[[Dartmouth BASIC]]''.
The eight design principles of BASIC were:
# Be easy for beginners to use.
# Be a [[general-purpose programming language]].
# Allow advanced features to be added for experts (while keeping the language simple for beginners).
# Be [[interactive]].
# Provide clear and friendly [[error message]]s.
# Respond fast for small programs.
# Not require an understanding of computer hardware.
# Shield the user from the operating system.
The language was based partly on [[FORTRAN programming language|FORTRAN II]] and partly on [[Algol programming language|ALGOL 60]], with additions to make it suitable for timesharing. (The features of other time-sharing systems such as JOSS and CORC, and to a lesser extent LISP, were also considered). It had been preceded by other teaching-language experiments at Dartmouth such as the DARSIMCO (1956) and DOPE (1962 implementations of SAP and DART (1963) which was a simplified FORTRAN II. Initially it concentrated on straightforward mathematical work, with [[matrix (math)|matrix]] arithmetic and full (ASCII) string functionality added by 1965. BASIC was first implemented on the [[GE-200 series|GE-265]] [[mainframe computer|mainframe]] which supported multiple [[computer terminal|terminal]]s. Contrary to popular belief, it was a [[compiler|compiled]] language at the time of its introduction. It was also quite efficient, beating FORTRAN II and ALGOL 60 implementations on the 265 at several fairly tasking programming problems such as maximising Simpson's Rule.
The designers of the language decided that it should remain in the [[public domain]] so that the language would become widespread. They also made it available to high schools in the Dartmouth area and spent a considerable amount of effort in promoting the language. As a result, knowledge of BASIC became relatively widespread for a computer language and BASIC was implemented by a number of manufacturers, and became fairly popular on newer [[minicomputer]]s like the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[Programmed Data Processor|PDP]] series and the [[Data General]] [[Data General Nova|Nova]]. In these instances the language tended to be implemented as an [[interpreter]], instead of (or in addition to) a [[compiler]].
Several years after its release, highly-respected computer professionals, notably [[Edsger W. Dijkstra]], expressed their opinions that the use of [[GOTO]] statements, which existed in many languages including BASIC, promoted poor programming practices.{{ref|dijkstra}} Some also derided BASIC as too slow or too simple.
=== Explosive growth &mdash; the home computer era ===
[[Image:C64scrn.png|right|thumb|[[Commodore BASIC]] V2.]]
Notwithstanding the language's use on several minicomputers, it was the introduction of the [[Altair 8800]] [[microcomputer]] in 1975 that truly spread BASIC. Most programming languages were too large to fit in the small memory most users could afford on these machines, and with the slow storage on paper tape (or later audio cassette tape: disks of any kind were not available at any price for some years) and the lack of suitable text editors, a small language like BASIC was a good fit. BASIC also had the advantage that it was fairly well known to the young designers who took an interest in microcomputers at the time as a result of Kemeny and Kurtz's earlier proselytizing. One of the first to appear for this machine was [[Tiny BASIC programming language|Tiny BASIC]], a simple BASIC implementation originally written by Dr. [[Li-Chen Wang]], and then ported onto the Altair by Dennis Allison at the request of [[Bob Albrecht]] (who later founded [[Dr. Dobb's Journal]]). The Tiny BASIC design and the full source code were published in 1976 in DDJ.
[[Image:Msxbasic.png|right|thumb|[[MSX BASIC]] version 3.0]]
Newer companies attempted to follow the successes of [[Micro_Instrumentation_and_Telemetry_Systems|MITS]], [[IMSAI]], [[North Star]] and [[Apple Computer|Apple]], thus creating the [[home computer]] revolution; meanwhile, BASIC became a standard feature of all but a very few home computers. Most came with a BASIC interpreter in ROM. Soon there were many millions of machines running BASIC around the world, likely a far greater number than all the users of all other languages put together.
In [[1975]], [[Micro-Soft]] (then only two people &mdash; [[Bill Gates]] and [[Paul Allen]]) released [[Altair BASIC programming language|Altair BASIC]]. The version written for the Altair was co-authored by Gates, Allen and [[Monte Davidoff]]. Versions of [[Microsoft BASIC]] then started appearing on other platforms under license, and millions of copies and variants were soon in use; it became one of the standard languages on the [[Apple II family|Apple II]]. By [[1979]], Microsoft was talking with several microcomputer vendors, including [[International Business Machines|IBM]], about licensing a BASIC interpreter for their computers. A version was included in the IBM PC [[Read-only memory|ROM]] chips and PCs without floppy disks automatically booted into BASIC.
There are more [[programming language dialect|dialects]] of [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] than there are of any other [[programming language]]. All but a very few [[home computer]]s of the 1980s had a [[read-only memory|ROM]]-resident BASIC [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]].
The [[BBC]] published [[BBC BASIC]], developed for them by [[Acorn Computers Ltd]], incorporating many extra structuring keywords, as well as comprehensive and versatile direct access to the operating system. It also featured a fully integrated assembler. BBC BASIC was a very well-regarded dialect, and made the transition from the original [[BBC Micro]] computer to more than 30 other platforms.
=== Maturity &mdash; the personal computer era ===
[[Image:GW-BASIC 3.22.png|right|thumb|[[GW-BASIC]] 3.22]]
[[Image:Qb45.png|thumbnail|Microsoft [[QuickBASIC]] 4.5]]
<!-- [[Image:Typical vb6 session.png|thumbnail|Microsoft [[Visual Basic]] 6.0]] -->
Many newer BASIC versions were created during this period. Microsoft sold several versions of BASIC for [[MS-DOS]]/[[PC-DOS]] including [[Microsoft BASICA interpreter|BASICA]], [[Microsoft GW-BASIC interpreter|GW-BASIC]] (a BASICA-compatible version that did not need IBM's ROM) and [[Quick BASIC programming language|Quick BASIC]]. Turbo Pascal-publisher [[Borland]] published [[Turbo BASIC programming language|Turbo BASIC]] 1.0 in 1985 (successor versions are still being marketed by the original author under the name [[PowerBASIC programming language|PowerBASIC]]).
These languages introduced many extensions over home computer BASIC, such as improved [[string manipulation]] and graphics support, access to the [[file system]] and additional [[data types]]. More important were the facilities for [[structured programming]], including additional [[control structures]] and proper [[subroutine]]s supporting [[local variable]]s.
However, by the latter half of the [[1980s]] newer computers were far more complex. At the same time, computers had progressed from a hobbyist interest to tools used primarily for applications written by others, |
theology==
{{Christian theology}}
===Sovereign grace===
Calvinism stresses the [[total depravity|complete ruin]] of man's ethical nature against a backdrop of the sovereign grace of God in [[salvation]]. It teaches that people are utterly unable to follow God or escape their condemnation before him and that only by drastic divine intervention in which God must overrule their unwilling [[heart (Symbolism and Metaphor)|hearts]] can people be turned from rebellion to willing obedience.
In this view, all people are entirely at the mercy of God, who would be just in condemning all people for their [[sin]]s but has chosen to be merciful to some in order to bring glory to his own name. One person is saved while another is condemned, not because of a willingness, a faith, or any other virtue in the first person, but because God sovereignly chose to have mercy on him. Although the person must act in order to believe and to be saved, this obedience of faith is God's gift according to Calvinism, and thus God accomplishes the salvation of sinners.
In practice, Calvinists teach these doctrines of grace primarily for the encouragement of the church because they believe the doctrines demonstrate the extent of God's love in saving those who could not and would not follow him, as well as squelching pride and self-reliance and falling into the kind arms of the true, Sovereign Lord. [[Sanctification]] is pursued as a continual trusting in God to purge the Christian's depraved heart from the power of canceled sin and further the Christian's joy. <sup>[http://www.modernreformation.org/jb03gospel.htm]</sup>
===&quot;Life is religion&quot;===
The theological system and practical theories of church, family, and political life, all ambiguously called "Calvinism", are the outgrowth of a fundamental religious consciousness that centers on "the sovereignty of God". In principle, the doctrine of God has pre-eminent place in every category of theology, including the Calvinist understanding of how a person ought to live. Calvinism presupposes that the goodness and power of God have a free, unlimited range of activity, and this works out as a conviction that God is at work in all realms of [[existence]], including the [[spirituality|spiritual]], [[physical]], and [[intellectual]] realms, whether [[secular]] or [[sacred]], public or private, on [[earth]] or in [[heaven]].
According to this viewpoint, the plan of God is worked out in every event. God is seen as the creator, preserver, and governor of each and every thing. This produces an attitude of absolute dependence on God, which is not identified only with temporary acts of piety (for example, [[prayer]]); rather, it is an all-encompassing pattern of life that, in principle, applies to any mundane task just as it also applies to [[Eucharist|taking communion]]. For the Calvinist Christian, all of life is the Christian religion.
===The five points of Calvinism===
{{main|Five points of Calvinism}}
Calvinist theology is often identified in the popular mind as the so-called "five points of Calvinism," which are a summation of the judgments (or canons) rendered by the [[Synod of Dort]] and which were published as a point-by-point response to the five points of the [[Arminianism|Arminian]] Remonstrance (see [[History of Calvinist-Arminian debate]]). Calvin himself never used such a model, and never combated Arminianism directly. They therefore function as a summary of the differences between Calvinism and Arminianism but not as a complete summation of Calvin's writings or of the theology of the Reformed churches in general. The central assertion of these canons is that God is able to save every person upon whom he has mercy and that his efforts are not frustrated by the unrighteousness or the inability of men.
The five points of Calvinism, which can be remembered by the [[English language|English]] [[acronym]] TULIP are:
*'''[[Total depravity]]''' (or total inability): As a consequence of the [[Fall of man]], every person born into the world is enslaved to the service of [[sin]]. According to the view, people are not by nature inclined to love God with their whole heart, mind, or strength, but rather all are inclined to serve their own interests over those of their neighbor and to reject the rule of God. Thus, all people by their own faculties are unable to choose to follow God and be saved.
*'''[[Unconditional election]]''': God's choice from [[eternity]] of those whom he will bring to himself is not based on foreseen virtue, merit, or faith in those people. Rather, it is unconditionally grounded in God's mercy.
*'''[[Limited atonement]]''' (or particular redemption or definite atonement): The death of Christ actually takes away the penalty of sins of those on whom God has chosen to have mercy. It is "limited" to taking away the sins of the elect, not of all humanity, and it is "definite" and "particular" because atonement is certain for those particular persons.
*'''[[Irresistible grace]]''' (or efficacious grace): The saving grace of God is effectually applied to those whom he has determined to save (the elect) and, in God's timing, overcomes their resistance to obeying the call of the gospel, bringing them to a saving faith in Christ.
*'''[[Perseverance of the saints]]''' (or preservation of the saints): Any person who has once been truly saved from damnation must necessarily persevere and cannot later be condemned. The word ''saints'' is used in the sense in which it is used in the Bible to refer to all who are set apart by God, not in the technical sense of one who is exceptionally [[holy]], [[canonized]], or in [[heaven]] (see [[Saint]]).
Calvinism is often further reduced in the popular mind to one or another of the five points of TULIP. The doctrine of unconditional election is sometimes made to stand for all Reformed doctrine, sometimes even by its adherents, as the chief article of Reformed Christianity. However, according to the doctrinal statements of these churches, it is not a balanced view to single out this doctrine to stand on its own as representative of all that is taught. The doctrine of unconditional election, and its corollary in the doctrine of [[predestination]] are never properly taught, according to Calvinists, except as an assurance to those who seek forgiveness and salvation through Christ, that their faith is not in vain, because God is able to bring to completion all whom He intends to save. Nevertheless, non-Calvinists object that these doctrines discourage the world from seeking salvation.
An additional point of disagreement with Arminianism implicit in the five points is the Calvinist understanding of the doctrine of Jesus' [[substitutionary atonement]] as a punishment for the sins of the elect, which was developed by [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] and especially [[Anselm of Canterbury|St. Anselm]]. Calvinists argue that if Christ takes the punishment in the place of a particular sinner, that person ''must'' be saved since it would be unjust for him then to be condemned for the same sins. The definitive and binding nature of this "[[Atonement (Satisfaction view)|satisfaction model]]" has led Arminians to subscribe instead to the [[Atonement (Governmental view)|governmental theory of the atonement]] in which no particular sins or sinners are in view.
==Attempts to reform Calvinism==
Many efforts have been undertaken to reform Calvinism and especially the doctrine of the Reformed churches. The most notable and earliest of these was the theological and political movement called [[Arminianism]], already mentioned in connection with the Synod of Dort.
===&quot;Four-point Calvinism&quot;===
{{main|Amyraldism}}
Another revision of Calvinism is called [[Amyraldism]], "hypothetical [[universalism]]", or "four-point Calvinism", which drops the point on Limited Atonement in favor of an [[unlimited atonement]] saying that God has provided Christ's atonement for all alike, but seeing that none would believe on their own, he then elects those whom he will bring to faith in Christ, thereby preserving the Calvinist doctrine of [[unconditional election]].
This doctrine was most thoroughly systematized by the French Reformed theologian at the University of [[Saumur]], [[Moses Amyraut]], for whom it is named. His formulation was an attempt to bring Calvinism more nearly alongside the Lutheran view. It was popularized in England by the Reformed pastor [[Richard Baxter]] and gained strong adherence among the [[Congregationalist church|Congregationalists]] and some [[Presbyterian church|Presbyterians]] in the [[13 colonies|American colonies]], during the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th centuries]].
In the [[United States]], Amyraldism can be found among various [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] groups, but "five point" Calvinism is prevalent especially in conservative and moderate groups among the [[Reformed churches]], [[Reformed Baptist]]s, and some [[non-denominational]] churches.
===Neo-Orthodoxy===
{{main|Neo-orthodoxy}}
In the mainline Reformed churches, Calvinism has undergone expansion and revision through the influence of [[Karl Barth]] and [[neo-orthodoxy|neo-orthodox]] theology. Barth was an important Swiss Reformed theologian who began writing early in the 20th century, whose chief accomplishment was to counter-act the influence of [[the Enlightenment]] in the churches, especially as this had led to the toleration of [[Nazism]] in the Germanic countries of Western Europe. The [[Barmen declaration]] is an expression of the Barthian reform of Calvinism. Conservative Calvinists (as well as some liberal reformers) regard it as confusing to use the name "Calvinism" to refer to neo-orthodoxy or other liberal revisions stemming from Calvinist churches.
==Other variations in Calvinism==
Besid |
eak upon us," ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:78)
|-
| "Lo, I will send you the prophet Elijah before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes." (3:23, 4:5) || "he is Elijah who is to come." ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 11:14)
|-
| || "Elijah has already come," ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 17:12)
|-
| || "Elijah has come," ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 9:13)
|-
| "Lo, I will send you the prophet Elijah before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes. He will turn the hearts of parents to their children and the hearts of children to their parents," (3:23-24, 4:5-6) || "With the spirit and power of Elijah he will go before him, to turn the hearts of parents to their children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous," ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:17)
|}
Although Christians believe that the [[messiah|messianic]] prophecies of the book of Malachi have been fulfilled in the life, ministry, death and resurrection of [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]], most Jews continue to await the coming of the prophet [[Elijah]] who will prepare the way for the Lord.
==See also==
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=102&letter=M Malachi at JewishEncyclopedia.com]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09562b.htm Malachias (Malachi) at Catholic Encyclopedia]
*Translations:
**[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
*** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15769 Malachi (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
**[[Christian]] translations:
*** {{biblegateway||Malachi}}
*** [http://bible.crosswalk.com/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?passage=mal+1 ''Malachi'' at CrossWalk.com] (various versions)
*** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/39_malachi.htm Malachi at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
*** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Malachi Malachi at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
==References==
* ''The original version of this article was prepared in 2005 for the course BIBL5023 at [[Acadia Divinity College]]''
* Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.
* Hill, Andrew E. ''Malachi: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary''. The Anchor Bible Volume 25D. Toronto: Doubleday, 1998.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. ''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
* Mason, Rex. ''The Books of Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi''. The Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible. New York, Cambridge University Press, 1977.
* Singer, Isidore & Adolf Guttmacher. "Book of Malachi." ''[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/ JewishEncyclopedia.com]''. 2002.
* Van Hoonacker, A. "Malachias (Malachi)." ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ Catholic Encyclopedia]''. Transcribed by Thomas J. Bress. 2003.
{{Link FA|he}}
[[Category:Nevi'im|Malachi, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Malachi]]
[[de:Maleachi (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Malachie]]
[[ko:말라기 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Maleakhi]]
[[he:מלאכי]]
[[jv:Maleakhi]]
[[nl:Maleachi]]
[[pl:Księga Malachiasza]]
[[pt:Malaquias]]
[[fi:Malakian kirja]]
[[sv:Malaki]]
[[zh:瑪拉基書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Zechariah</title>
<id>4456</id>
<revision>
<id>37715677</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T19:26:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.228.222.49</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''Book of Zechariah''' is a book of the [[Bible]] [[Old Testament]] and [[Jewish]] [[Tanakh]]. Its writing is attributed to the [[prophet]] [[Zechariah]].
==Historical Context==
Zechariah is broken into three parts in which the first six chapters are composed of eight visions that are bracketed by [[sermons]], the first of which is retrospective and a call to [[repentance]]. The lack of response by the community is the catalyst for [[God]]’s judgment and the circumstances from which God promised to deliver them. (7:8–14, 8:1–8). In the sermons and in the visions the reversal of fortune and restoration is entirely at the Lord’s disposal. Zechariah’s work has been linked to [[Haggai]]’s where the first chapter of the latter attributes the nation’s ills to the fact that they have stopped work on the Temple in favour of restoring their own homes, and the second chapter attributes the improvement in the community’s standing to the fact that they have begun to restore the Temple.
==Composition==
The editors have placed Zech. 1:2–6 between these two dates which is believed to interpret the return in Zech 1:6 as the theological premise of what the prophet sees in his visions. Chapters 7–8 addresses the quality of life that God wants His renewed people to enjoy, and these words contain many encouraging promises to the people. According to some commentators, the second and third sections of the book consist of a series of predictions that are to be read as [[Messianic prophecies]], either directly or indirectly, and it seems that the [[Apocalypse]] is coloured by images taken from this book. It is thought that there was actually more than one contributor to the book that bears the name of Zechariah.
Chapters 1–8 are treated as being the work of the first, "original" Zechariah who was a contemporary of Haggai. His prophecies and writings were collected by his disciples and his prophetic mantle handed down to still other disciples. These were responsible for chapters 9–14; so, rather than a single author, there was an inspired tradition of Zechariah after the “original” prophet, and the character of this original is to be found within the lines of chapters 1–8.
We do not know a great deal about Zechariah’s life except what is inferred from the book, although it is believed that his ancestor, [[Iddo]], was the head of a priestly family who returned with Zerrubbabel; the inference being that Zechariah was a [[priest]] and a [[prophet]]. These details are apparent from his interest in the temple and the priesthood and also from his preaching in [[First Chronicles|First]] and [[Second Chronicles]]. His concern for purity is apparent in the temple, priesthood and all areas of life as the prophecy gradually eliminates the governor in favour of the high priest, and the sanctuary becomes ever more clearly the centre of messianic fulfillment. The prominence of prophecy is quite apparent in Zechariah but it is also true that Zechariah (along with Haggai) allows prophecy to yield to the priesthood; this is particularly apparent in comparing Zechariah to [[Third Isaiah]] (chapters 55–56 of the [[Book of Isaiah]]), whose author was active sometime after the first return from exile.
==The Prophet ==
The exact identity of Zechariah is only the first of a number of questions with regard to this prophecy. His name means "Jehovah has remembered." The purpose of this book is not strictly historical but [[theological]] and [[pastoral]]. As an example, even today historical details are often blended together to make a point or convey an overall impression and such is also true with regard to the transmission of religious traditions.
==Main Point/Emphasis==
The main emphasis is that God is at work and plans to live again with His people in Jerusalem. He will save them from their enemies and cleanse them from sin. These same chapters helped the writers of the Gospel understand Jesus’ suffering, death and resurrection, which they quoted as they wrote of Jesus’ final days. Finally, Revelation draws on Zechariah as well as it narrates the denouement of history.
==Sources==
* The Student Bible, NIV. (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, [[1992]])
* D. Guthrie, (ed.) New Bible Commentary. (New York: Eerdmans Publishing Company, [[1970]])
* Stephen G. Dempster, Dominion And Dynasty: A Theology Of The Hebrew Bible. (Illinois: Intervarsity Press, [[2003]])
* Carroll Stuhlmueller, Haggai and Zechariah: Rebuilding With Hope. (Edinburgh: The Handsel Press Ltd., [[1988]])
[[Category:Nevi'im|Zechariah]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Zechariah]]
[[de:Sacharja (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Zacharie]]
[[fi:Sakarjan kirja]]
[[sv:Sakarja]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Zephaniah</title>
<id>4457</id>
<revision>
<id>41551079</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T02:31:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Condem</username>
<id>894018</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* What are the themes of the book? */ punctuation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
==Who wrote it?==
The superscription of the [[Book of Zephaniah]] attributes its authorship to “Zephaniah son of Cushi son of Gedaliah son of Amariah son of [[Hezekiah]], in the days of King [[Josiah]] son of Amon of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]” (1:1, [[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]]). All that is known of the author of the book comes from the text, itself. The superscription of the book is lengthier than most and contains two interesting features. The name Cushi (Zephaniah’s father) means ‘Ethiopian’. In a society where genealogy was considered extremely important (the Israelites understood [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] to have made a covenant with [[Abraham]] and his descendants), the author may have felt compelled to establish his [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] lineage. In fact, this lineage is traced back to [[Hezekiah]], who was king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. At any rate, the author of Zephaniah does not shrink from condemning the Cushites or Ethiopians. Chapter 2:12 contains a succinct but unequivocal message: “You also, O Ethiopians, / Shall be killed by my sword.” Zephaniah’s familial connection with King [[Hezekiah]] may have also legitimized his harsh indictment of the royal city in 3:1-7.
As with many of the other prophets, there is no external evidence to |
[1st millennium BC]] several groups of people migrated from the area to the shores of the [[Baltic Sea]], where they settled between the rivers [[Pasłęka]] and [[Neman River|Neman]]. It is not probable that this migration gave birth to the Baltic tribes.
Several scholars, such as Buga, [[Max Vasmer|Vasmer]], [[Toporov]] and Trubachov, in conducting etymological studies of eastern European river names, were able to identify certain regions of specifically Baltic provenience, which most likely indicate where the Balts lived in prehistoric times. This information is summarized and synthesized by [[Marija Gimbutas|Gimbutas]] in ''The Balts'' (1963) to obtain a likely proto-Baltic homeland. Its borders are approximately: from a line on the [[Pomerania|Pomeranian]] coast eastward to include or nearly include the present-day sites of [[Warsaw]], [[Kiev]], and [[Kursk]], northward through [[Moscow]] to the River Berzha, westward in an irregular line to the coast of the Gulf of Riga, north of [[Riga]]. This homeland includes all historical Balts and every location where Balts have been said or implied to be at different periods of time. The [[Galindae|Baltic occupation of Western Russia]], for instance, may be dated to the 4th century AD.
In the first centuries of [[1st millennium]], the Baltic tribes settled the area between Vistula and Daugava. Their culture is easily recognizable and most probably they were the ancestors of the tribes of Western Balts ([[Prussians]], [[Yotvingians]] and [[Galindians]]), as well as Eastern Balts ([[Lithuanians]], [[Curonians]] and [[Latvians]]), notable during the [[Middle Ages]]. In [[98|98 AD]] [[Tacitus]] described one of the tribes leaving near the Baltic Sea (''Mare Svebicum'') as ''Aestiorum gentes'', or [[amber]] gatherers. It is believed that these peoples were inhabitants of the [[Sambia (Baltic)|Sambian]] peninsula, although no other contemporary sources exist.
The Baltic culture that remained in the Dneper area, although bore significant resemblance to its Baltic counterpart, was also similar to culture of other peoples inhabitating the forests of [[Eastern Europe]] and became almost completely [[Slavic peoples|Slavicised]] between [[7th century|7th]] and [[10th century|10th centuries]].
In [[12th century|12th]] and [[13th century|13th centuries]], internal struggles, as well as invasions of [[Ruthenians]] and [[Poles]] and later the expansion of the [[Teutonic Order]] resulted in almost complete annihilation of the Galindians, Curonians and Yotvingians. The last of the Prussians became [[germanization|Germanized]] some time in [[16th century]], after the [[Reformation]] in [[Prussia]]. Remaining cultures of Lithuanians and Latvians survived and became the ancestors of modern countries of [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]].
In addition, and to great extent in contradiction to research on the basis of linguist analysis, genetics-related data has started to emerge in recent years. According to Finnish research (Laitinen et al, 2001) and Richard Villems (2001, Estonia) who have carried out principal component analysis of some major genetic lines, the closest genetic relatives of modern Balts (Lithuanians and Latvians) appear to be modern Estonians and Mari people (autonomous republic of Mari-El in Russia) while Russians and Polish have considerably lesser genetic similarity. This lead some scientists to believe falsely that the people known today as Balts were initially to great extent of [[Finno-Ugric]] origin - thus, the language spoken today by them is a takeover. Finns (genetic haplogroup N3) entered the Baltic area very late - in the middle Neolithic after sharp climate change in upper Ural and made the little influence to the baltic Nemunas and Narva neolithic archaeological cultures, but inhabited Estonian area.
== Baltic peoples and tribes ==
*[[Lithuanians]]
*[[Latvians]] (Letts)
*[[Prussian people |Prussians]]
*[[Samogitia]]ns
*[[Semigallians]] (Zemigalians)
*[[Yotvingians]]
*[[Selonians]]
*[[Curonians]] (Kursi)
*[[Nadruvians]]
*[[Skalvians]]
*[[Eastern Galindians]]
*[[Dniepr (Eastern) Balts]]
*[[Pomeranian Balts]]
==External links==
* [http://www.istorija.net/ Pages and Forums on the Lithuanian History]
== References ==
* {{cite web
| title=Bałtowie
| work=Encyklopedia Internetowa PWN
| url=http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/5504_1.html
| accessdate=May 25 | accessyear=2005
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Jerzy | last = Antoniewicz
| authorlink = Jerzy Antoniewicz
| coauthors = [[Aleksander Gieysztor]]
| title=Bałtowie zachodni w V w. p. n. e. - V w. n. e. : terytorium, podstawy gospodarcze i społeczne plemion prusko-jaćwieskich i letto-litewskich
| location = [[Olsztyn]]-[[Białystok]]
| publisher = Pojezierze
| year=1979
| id=ISBN 8370020011
}}
* {{pl icon}} {{cite book
| first = Marceli | last = Kosman
| authorlink = Marceli Kosman
| title=Zmierzch Perkuna czyli ostatni poganie nad Bałtykiem
| location = Warsaw
| publisher = Książka i Wiedza
| year=1981
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Irena | last = Čepiene
| authorlink = Irena Cepiene
| title=Historia litewskiej kultury etnicznej
| publisher=[[Kaunas]], "Šviesa"
| year=2000
| id=ISBN 5430029025
}}
* {{pl icon}} {{cite book
| first = Łucja | last = Okulicz-Kozaryn
| authorlink = Lucja Okulicz-Kozaryn
| title=Życie codzienne Prusów i Jaćwięgów w wiekach średnich
| location = Warsaw
| publisher = Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy
| year=1983
}}
* {{Citeencyclopedia
| ency=1911 Encyclopedia Britannica
| edition=1
| year=1911
| article=Lithuanians
}}
* {{Citeencyclopedia
| ency=Wielka Encyklopedia PWN
| edition=1
| year=2001
| article=Bałtowie
}}
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Baltic peoples]]
[[Category:History of Latvia]]
[[Category:History of Lithuania]]
[[Category:History of Prussia]]
[[de:Balten]]
[[es:Baltos]]
[[it:Balti]]
[[ko:발트족]]
[[lt:Baltai]]
[[lv:Balti]]
[[no:Baltiske folkegruppe]]
[[pl:Bałtowie]]
[[ru:Балты]]
[[sl:Balti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Burnt-in timecode</title>
<id>4541</id>
<revision>
<id>25348990</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-12T11:05:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>132.185.144.122</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burnt-in_timecode.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Color bars]] with burnt-in timecode]]
'''Burnt-in timecode''' (often abbreviated to '''BITC''' by analogy to [[Timecode/Vertical interval timecode|VITC]]) is a human-readable on-screen version of the [[timecode]] information for a piece of material superimposed on a video image. BITC is sometimes used in conjunction with "real" machine-readable timecode, but more often used in copies of original material on to a non-broadcast format such as VHS, so that the VHS copies can be traced back to their master tape and the original time codes easily located.
Professional [[VTR]]s can "burn" (overlay) the tape timecode onto one of their [[composite video|composite]] outputs. This output (which usually also displays the setup menu or [[on-screen display]]) is known as the ''super out'' or ''monitor out''. The ''character'' switch or menu item turns this behaviour on or off. The ''character'' function is also used to display the timecode on the preview monitors in [[linear video editing|linear editing]] suites.
Videotapes that are recorded with timecode numbers overlaid on the video are referred to as ''window dubs'', named after the "window" that displays the burnt-in timecode on-screen.
Some consumer cameras, in particular DV cameras, can "burn" (overlay) the tape timecode onto the composite output. This output typically is semi-transparent and may include other tape information. It is usually activated by turning on the 'display' info in one of the camera's sub-menus. While not as 'professional' as a true overlay as created by a professional [[VCR]]s, it provides a cheap alternative to professional dub-houses.
Some modern editing systems can use [[Optical character recognition|OCR]] techniques to read BITC in situations where other forms of timecode are not available.
==See also==
*[[Linear timecode]]
*[[Vertical interval timecode]]
*[[SMPTE time code]]
*[[MIDI timecode]]
*[[AES-EBU embedded timecode]]
[[Category:Encodings]][[Category:Synchronization]][[Category:Video and movie technology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bra-ket notation</title>
<id>4542</id>
<revision>
<id>41507132</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:57:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Laurascudder</username>
<id>93622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removing jokes section</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bra-ket notation''' is the standard notation for describing [[quantum states]] in the theory of [[quantum mechanics]]. It can also be used to denote abstract [[vector space|vectors]] and [[linear functional]]s in pure [[mathematics]]. It is so called because the [[inner product]] of two states is denoted by a '''bracket''', <math>\langle\phi|\psi\rangle</math>, consisting of a left part, <math>\langle\phi|</math>, called the '''bra''', and a right part, <math>|\psi\rangle</math>, called the '''ket'''. The notation was invented by [[Paul Dirac]], and is also known as '''Dirac notation'''. It has recently become popular in [[quantum computing]].
==Bras and kets==
In [[quantum mechanics]], the state of a [[physics|physical]] system is identified with a vector in a [[complex number|complex]] [[Hilbert space]], ''H''. Each vector is called a "ket", and written as
:<math>|\psi\rangle</math>
where &psi; denotes the particular ket, read as "psi ket."
Every ket <math>|\psi\rangle</math> has a [[Duality (mathematics)|dual]] bra, written as
:<math>\langle\psi|</math>
This is a continuous [[linear functional|linear function]] |
Energy in Relation to Free Energy and Entropy]
[[Category:Energy| ]]
[[Category:Introductory physics]]
[[Category:Fundamental physics concepts]]
[[Category:Physical quantity]]
[[af:Energie]]
[[an:Enerchía]]
[[bg:Енергия]]
[[bn:শক্তি]]
[[ca:Energia]]
[[cs:Energie]]
[[da:Energi]]
[[de:Energie]]
[[et:Energia]]
[[el:Ενέργεια]]
[[es:Energía]]
[[eo:Energio]]
[[fr:Énergie]]
[[gl:Enerxía]]
[[ko:에너지]]
[[hr:Energija]]
[[io:Energio]]
[[id:Energi]]
[[ia:Energia]]
[[is:Orka]]
[[it:Energia]]
[[he:אנרגיה]]
[[ku:Wize]]
[[la:Energia]]
[[lv:Enerģija]]
[[lb:Energie]]
[[hu:Energia]]
[[mk:Енергија]]
[[ms:Tenaga]]
[[nah:Teotl]]
[[nl:Energie]]
[[nds:Energie]]
[[ja:エネルギー]]
[[no:Energi]]
[[nn:Energi]]
[[pl:Energia (fizyka)]]
[[pt:Energia]]
[[ro:Energie (în fizică)]]
[[ru:Энергия]]
[[simple:Energy]]
[[sk:Energia]]
[[sl:Energija]]
[[sr:Енергија]]
[[fi:Energia]]
[[sv:Energi]]
[[th:พลังงาน]]
[[vi:Năng lượng]]
[[tr:Enerji]]
[[uk:Енергія]]
[[zh:能量]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enron</title>
<id>9650</id>
<revision>
<id>15907523</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Enron Corporation]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Expected value</title>
<id>9653</id>
<revision>
<id>39013317</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T03:07:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Salix alba</username>
<id>212526</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Changed math $ to \$</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[probability theory]] (and especially [[gambling]]), the '''expected value''' (or '''mathematical expectation''') of a [[random variable]] is the sum of the probability of each possible outcome of the experiment multiplied by its payoff ("value"). Thus, it represents the average amount one "expects" to win per bet if bets with identical odds are repeated many times. Note that the value itself may not be [[expectation|expected]] in the general sense; it may be unlikely or even impossible. A game or situation in which the expected value for the player is zero (no net gain nor loss) is called a "fair game."
For example, an American [[roulette]] wheel has 38 equally possible outcomes. A bet placed on a single number pays 35-to-1 (this means that you are paid 35 times your bet and your bet is returned, so you get 36 times your bet). So the expected value of the profit resulting from a $1 bet on a single number is, considering all 38 possible outcomes:
:<math>\left( -\$1 \times \frac{37}{38} \right) + \left( \$35 \times \frac{1}{38} \right),</math>
which is about -$0.0526. Therefore one expects, on average, to lose over five cents for every dollar bet.
== Mathematical definition ==
In general, if <math>X\,</math> is a [[random variable]] defined on a [[probability space]] <math>(\Omega, P)\,</math>, then the expected value of <math>X\,</math> (denoted <math>\mathrm{E}(X)\,</math> or sometimes <math>\langle X \rangle</math> or <math>\mathbb{E}(X)</math>) is defined as
:<math>\mathrm{E}(X) = \int_\Omega X\, dP</math>
where the [[Lebesgue integral]] is employed. Note that not all random variables have an expected value, since the integral may not exist (e.g., [[Cauchy distribution]]). Two variables with the same [[probability distribution]] will have the same expected value, if it is defined.
If <math>X</math> is a [[discrete random variable]] with values <math>x_1</math>, <math>x_2</math>, ... and corresponding probabilities <math>p_1</math>, <math>p_2</math>, ... which add up to 1, then <math>\mathrm{E}(X)</math> can be computed as the sum or [[infinite series|series]]
:<math>\mathrm{E}(X) = \sum_i p_i x_i\,</math>
as in the gambling example mentioned above.
If the [[probability distribution]] of <math>X</math> admits a [[probability density function]] <math>f(x)</math>, then the expected value can be computed as
:<math>\mathrm{E}(X) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty x f(x)\, \mathrm d x.</math>
It follows directly from the discrete case definition that if <math>X</math> is a [[constant random variable]], i.e. <math>X = b</math> for some fixed [[real number]] <math>b</math>, then the expected value of <math>X</math> is also <math>b</math>.
The expected value of an arbitrary function of ''x'', ''g(x)'', with respect to the probability density function ''f(x)'' is given by
:<math>\mathrm{E}(g(X)) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty g(x) f(x)\, \mathrm d x.</math>
==Properties==
===Linearity===
The expected value operator (or '''expectation operator''') <math>\mathrm{E}</math> is [[linear operator|linear]] in the sense that
:<math>\mathrm{E}(a X + b Y) = a \mathrm{E}(X) + b \mathrm{E}(Y)\,</math>
for any two random variables <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> (which need to be defined on the same probability space) and any real numbers <math>a</math> and <math>b</math>.
===Iterated expectation===
For any two random variables <math>X,Y</math> one may define the [[conditional expectation]]:
:<math> \mathrm{E}[X|Y](y) = \mathrm{E}[X|Y=y] = \sum_x x \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x|Y=y).</math>
Then the expectation of <math>X</math> satisfies
:<math>
\begin{matrix}
\mathrm{E} \left( \mathrm{E}[X|Y] \right) & = & \sum_y \mathrm{E}[X|Y=y] \cdot \mathrm{P}(Y=y) \\
& = & \sum_y \left( \sum_x x \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x|Y=y) \right) \cdot \mathrm{P}(Y=y) \\
& = & \sum_y \sum_x x \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x|Y=y) \cdot \mathrm{P}(Y=y) \\
& = & \sum_y \sum_x x \cdot \mathrm{P}(Y=y|X=x) \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x) \\
& = & \sum_x x \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x) \cdot \left( \sum_y \mathrm{P}(Y=y|X=x) \right) \\
& = & \sum_x x \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x) \\
& = & \mathrm{E}[X]. \end{matrix}</math>
Hence, the following equations holds:
:<math>\mathrm{E}[X] = \mathrm{E} \left( \mathrm{E}[X|Y] \right).</math>
The right hand side of this equation is referred to as the ''iterated expectation''. This proposition is treated in [[law of total expectation]].
===Inequality===
If a random variable X is always less than or equal to another random variable Y, the expectation of X is less than or equal to that of Y:
If <math> X \leq Y</math>, then <math> \mathrm{E}[X] \leq \mathrm{E}[Y]</math>.
In particular, since <math> X \leq |X| </math> and <math> -X \leq |X| </math>, the absolute value of expectation of a random variable is less or equal to the expectation of its absolute value:
:<math>|\mathrm{E}[X]| \leq \mathrm{E}[|X|]</math>
===Representation===
The following formula holds for any nonnegative real--valued random variable <math> X </math> (such that <math> \mathrm{E}[X] < \infty </math>), and positive real number <math> \alpha </math>:
:<math> \mathrm{E}[X^\alpha] = \alpha \int_{0}^{\infty} t^{\alpha -1}\mathrm{P}(X>t) \mathrm d t.</math>
===Non-multiplicativity===
In general, the expected value operator is not multiplicative, i.e. <math>\mathrm{E}(X Y)</math> is not necessarily equal to <math>\mathrm{E}(X) \mathrm{E}(Y)</math>, except if <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> are [[statistical independence|independent]] or [[uncorrelated]].
This lack of multiplicativity gives rise to study of [[covariance]] and [[correlation]].
===Functional non-invariance===
In general, the expectation operator and [[function (mathematics)|function]]s of random variables do not [[commutative operation|commute]]; that is
:<math>\mathrm{E}(g(X)) = \int_{\Omega} g(X)\, \mathrm d P \neq g(\operatorname{E}X),</math>
except as noted above.
==Uses and applications of the expected value==
The expected values of the powers of <math>X</math> are called the [[moment (mathematics)|moment]]s of <math>X</math>; the [[moment about the mean|moments about the mean]] of <math>X</math> are expected values of powers of <math>X - \mathrm{E}(X)</math>. The moments of some random variables can be used to specify their distributions, via their [[moment generating function]]s.
To empirically estimate the expected value of a random variable, one repeatedly measures observations of the variable and computes the [[arithmetic mean]] of the results. This estimates the true expected value in an [[bias (statistics)|unbiased]] manner and has the property of minimizing the sum of the squares of the [[errors and residuals in statistics|residual]]s (the sum of the squared differences between the observations and the estimate). The [[law of large numbers]] demonstrates that (under fairly mild conditions) as the size of the [[statistical sample|sample]] gets larger, the [[variance]] of this estimate gets smaller.
In [[classical mechanics]], the [[center of mass]] is an analogous concept to expectation. For example, suppose <math>X</math> is a discrete random variable with values <math>x_i</math> and corresponding probabilities <math>p_i</math>. Now consider a weightless rod on which are placed weights, at locations <math>x_i</math> along the rod and having m |
luding [[value theory]] and the [[theory of conduct]]) and [[applied ethics]] &ndash; which is seen to be derived, top-down, from normative and thus meta-ethics.
== Meta-ethics ==
{{main|Meta-ethics}}
'''Meta-ethics''' is the investigation of the nature of ethical statements. It involves such questions as: Are ethical claims truth-apt, i.e., capable of being true or false, or are they, for example, expressions of emotion (see [[cognitivism (ethics)|cognitivism]] and [[non-cognitivism]])? If they are truth-apt, are they ever true? If they are ever true, what is the nature of the facts that they express? And are they ever true absolutely (see [[moral absolutism]]), or always only relative to some individual, society, or culture? (See [[moral relativism]], [[cultural relativism]].)
Meta-ethics studies the nature of ethical sentences and attitudes. This includes such questions as what "good" and "right" ''mean'', whether and how we ''know'' what is right and good, whether moral values are objective, and how ethical attitudes motivate us. Often this is derived from some list of moral absolutes, e.g. a religious [[moral code]], whether explicit or not. Some would view [[aesthetics]] as itself a form of meta-ethics.
Meta-ethics also investigates where our ethical principles come from, and what they mean. Are they merely social inventions? Do they involve more than expressions of our individual emotions? Meta-ethical answers to these questions focus on the issues of universal truths, the will of God, the role of reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms themselves.
== Normative ethics ==
{{main|Normative ethics}}
'''Normative ethics''' bridges the gap between meta-ethics and applied ethics. It is the attempt to arrive at practical moral standards that tell us right from wrong, and how to live moral lives. This may involve articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on others.
*One branch of normative ethics is [[theory of conduct]]; this is the study of right and wrong, of obligation and permissions, of duty, of what is above and beyond the call of duty, and of what is so wrong as to be evil. Theories of conduct propose standards of [[morality]], or [[moral code]]s or rules. For example, the following would be the sort of rules that a theory of conduct would discuss (though different theories will differ on the merit of each of these particular rules): "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"; "The right action is the action which produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number"; "Stealing is wrong". Theories of moral conduct can be distinguished from [[etiquette]] by their concern with finding guidelines for action that are not dependent entirely on social convention. For example, it may not be a breach of etiquette to fail to give money to help those in poverty, but it could still be a failure to act morally.
*Another branch of normative ethics is [[theory of value]]; this looks at what things are deemed to be valuable. Suppose we have decided that certain things are intrinsically good, or are more valuable than other things that are also intrinsically good. Given this, the next big question is what would this imply about how we should live our lives? The theory of value also asks: What sorts of things are good? What sorts of situations are good? Is pleasure always good? Is it good for people to be equally well-off? Is it intrinsically good for beautiful objects to exist? Or: What does "good" mean? It may literally define "good" and "bad" for a community or society. [Criticism: Theory of value is not a part of normative ethics, though normative ethics presupposes some theory of value. For example, there are aesthetic values which may be amoral, i.e., neutral in regard to conduct.]
== Applied ethics ==
{{main|applied ethics}}
One form of '''applied ethics''' applies normative ethical theories to specific controversial issues. In these cases, the ethicist adopts a defensible theoretical framework, and then derives normative advice by applying the theory.
However, many persons and situations, notably traditional religionists and lawyers, find this approach either against accepted religious doctrine or impractical because it does not conform to existing laws and court decisions. [[casuistry|Casuistry]] is a completely different form of applied ethics that is widely used in these cases and by these groups. Casuists compare moral dilemmas to well established cases (sometimes called [[paradigm]]s). The well-established methods for coping with the well-established cases are then adapted to the case at hand.
The special virtue of casuistry over applied moral theory is that groups and individuals often disagree about theories, but may nonetheless have remarkably similar paradigms. Thus, they may be able to achieve substantial social agreement about actions, even though their theories are incompatible. This may be why casuistry is the foundation of many legal systems.
The ethical problems attacked by applied ethicists (of whatever sort) often bear directly on public policy. For example, the following would be questions of applied ethics: "Is getting an abortion ever moral?"; "Is euthanasia ever moral?"; "What are the ethical underpinnings of [[affirmative action]] policies?"; "What are [[human rights]], and how do we determine them?"; "Do animals have rights?"
Without these questions there is no clear fulcrum on which to balance [[law]], [[politics]], and practice of [[arbitration]] &ndash; in fact no common assumptions of all participants &ndash; so the ability to formulate the questions are prior to rights balancing.
But not all questions studied in applied ethics concern public policy. For example: Is [[lying]] always wrong? If not, when is it permissible? The ability to make these ethical judgments is prior to any etiquette.
There are several sub-branches of applied ethics examining the ethical problems of different professions, such as business ethics, medical ethics, engineering ethics and legal ethics, while [[technology assessment]] and [[environmental assessment]] study the effects and implications of new technologies or projects on nature and society.
Each branch to characterize common issues and problems that arise in the [[ethical code]]s of the professions, and define their common responsibility to the public, e.g. to preserve its natural capital, or to obey some social expectations of honest dealings and disclosure.
* [[Abortion, legal and moral issues]]
* [[Animal rights]]
* [[Bioethics]]
* [[Business ethics]]
* [[Criminal justice]]
* [[Environmental ethics]]
* [[Feminism]]
* [[Gay rights]]
* [[Human rights]]
* [[Journalism ethics]]
* [[Just war theory]]
* [[Medical ethics]]
* [[Technological ethics]]
* [[Utilitarian ethics]]
* [[Utilitarian bioethics]]
Ethics has been applied to [[economics]], [[politics]] and [[political science]], leading to several distinct and unrelated fields of applied ethics, including [[Business ethics]] and [[Marxism]].
Ethics has been applied to family structure, sexuality, and how society views the roles of individuals; leading to several distinct and unrelated fields of applied ethics, including [[feminism]].
Moral Ethics has been applied to war, leading to the fields of [[pacifism]] and [[nonviolence]].
Ethics has been applied to analyze human use of Earth's limited resources. This has led to the study of [[environmental ethics]] and [[social ecology]]. A growing trend has been to combine the study of both ecology and economics to help provide a basis for sustainable decisions on environmental use. This has led to the theories of [[ecological footprint]] and [[bioregional autonomy]]. Political and social movements based on such ideas include [[eco-feminism]], [[eco-anarchism]], [[deep ecology]], the [[green movement]], and ideas about their possible integration into [[Gaia philosophy]].
Ethics has been applied to [[criminology]] leading to the field of [[criminal justice]].
There are several sub-branches of applied ethics examining the ethical problems of different professions, such as [[business ethics]], [[medical ethics]], [[engineering ethics]] and [[legal ethics]], while [[technology assessment]] and [[environmental assessment]] study the effects and implications of new technologies or projects on nature and society.
Each branch characterizes common issues and problems that may arise, and define their common responsibility to the public, e.g. to preserve its natural capital, or to obey some social expectations of honest dealings and disclosure.
=== Ethics in religion ===
{{main articles|[[Ethics in religion]] and [[Ethics in the Bible]]}}
=== Ethics in health care ===
{{main articles|[[bioethics]] and [[medical ethics]]}}
One of the major areas where ethicists practice is in the field of [[health care]]. This includes [[medicine]], [[nursing]], [[pharmacy]], [[genetics]], and allied health professions. Example issues are [[euthanasia]], [[abortion]], medical experiments, [[vaccine trials]], [[stem cell]] research, [[informed consent]], truth telling, patient rights and autonomy, rationing of health care (such as [[triage]]).
==== Ethics in psychology ====
By the [[1960s]] there was increased interest in [[moral reasoning]]. [[Psychology|Psychologists]] such as [[Lawrence Kohlberg]] developed theories which are based on the idea that moral behavior is made possible by moral reasoning. Their theories subdivided moral reasoning into so-called stages, which refer to the set of principles or methods that a person uses for ethical judgment. The first and most famous theory of this type was [[Kohlberg's stages of moral development|Kohlberg's theory of moral development]].
[[Carol Gillig |
n board with their front up (these unhidden cards are called "open cards"). The rest of cards lay on the table with their back up (they are called "hidden cards").
=== Keys ===
The main and the only arrangement in Haihowak is called "key". In Haihowak there are only two suits called "colours": [[red suit]] ([[hearts (suit)|hearts]] <font color=red>&#9829;</font> and [[diamonds (suit)|diamonds]] <font color=red>&#9830;</font>) and [[black suit]] ([[spades (suit)|spades]] &#9824; and [[clubs (suit)|clubs]] &#9827;). Key is an arrangement of two or more cards of the same colour with a space of one card between every two neighbour cards. Therefore all cards in key are only even numbers or all cards are only odd numbers. Examples of keys:
* Two of Spades and Four of Spades
* Seven of Diamonds, Nine of Hearts and [[Jack (playing card)|Jack]] of Diamonds
* Ten of Clubs, [[Queen (playing card)|Queen]] of Clubs and [[Ace]] of Spades
* Ace of Diamonds, Three of Hearts, Five of Hearts and Seven of Diamonds
* [[Jack (playing card)|Jack]] of Clubs and [[King (playing card)|King]] of Spades
[[Ace]] can be used as One (card lower than Two) or as normal [[Ace]] (card higher than [[King (playing card)|King]]). [[Joker]] may substitute every card in key, but number of [[Joker|Jokers]] in key cannot exceed the half of the total number of cards in this key.
=== Possible moves ===
In Haihowak there are three types of moves possible. In single turn player can make as many moves as he want.
These are the possible moves:
*<u>'''Laying out a key'''</u> If player has in his cards one key or more keys he can put them on the table. After that such keys don't belong to anybody. Every player can use them to make the next types of moves.
*<u>'''Expanding a key'''</u> Player can enlarge the key that is already on the table with any number of cards (of course the key must remain correct).
*<u>'''Taking a key'''</u> The key that is already on the table can be taken by player when he put another key on it. The second key must have opposite colour (red-black) and all spaces between neighbour cards in old key must be filled (e.g.: There is such key on the table - Three of Hearts, Five of Diamonds and Seven of Hearts. We put on that key another one - Four of Clubs and Six of Spades. After all we have - Three of Hearts, Four of Clubs, Five of Diamonds, Six of Spades and Seven of Hearts). The number of cards we can put to take the key from the table depends on the number of cards that are already in this key on the table. Usually we can put more cards - not only to fill all spaces in old key but also one or two cards on the edge (beginning or end) of that key (if we take more cards than we will score more points). Only when we want to take the key that contains only two cards we have to fill all spaces (it means - only one space!) and also put at least one card on the edge. The possible number of cards we can use to take the key from the table shows the table below:
<table style="width: 40%; text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"
border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2">
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">number of cards in the key on the table<br>
</td>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">number of cards we can use to take that key from the table<br>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;">2 cards<br>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">2 - 3<br>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;">3 cards<br>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">2 - 4<br>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;">4 cards<br>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">3 - 5<br>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;">5 cards<br>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">4 - 6<br>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;">6 cards<br>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">5 - 7<br>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;">7 cards<br>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">6 - 7<br>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
=== The course of the game ===
After shuffling the cards all players get 11 cards. The player on the right of the player that dealt out the cards begins the game. During the game the queue of players' turns always goes left. The player during his turn makes as many moves as he want. If he take the key from the table then cards from that key and cards he used to take that key go to his score. After the end of the game that cards are scored as showed in the next part of this text.
When player ends his turn he takes from hidden cards as many cards as he needs to have 11 cards again. Before that he can also take only one card from the five open cards, but if he starts taking cards from hidden cards he loses this possibility. If he took one card from open cards he after all has to add there one card from hidden cards (to make five open cards again). When there are no hidden cards then on the end of turn each player takes only one card from open cards. If there are also no more open cards player who wants to end his turn has to say "how-hai". After the end of one's turn, the next player (on one's left) begins his turn.
=== The end of the game ===
There are two possibilities of ending the game. The first one is when nobody has any card (very rare situation). The second one is when all players who still have cards say they want to end the game. Player who wants to end the game has to say "hai-how-hai". The game ends when all players (one by one) say so without making any move. If only one player made move in his turn, then the game is not over and to end game other players have to say "hai-how-hai" again (and wait until everybody agree to end the game one by one). After the end of the game players count the cards they have scored (the keys they took from the table and cards they used while taking that keys). The table below shows the number of points per card:
<table
style="width: 40%; text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"
border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2">
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">type of card<br>
</td>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">points<br>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;">Two - Five<br>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">1 point<br>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;">Six - Ten<br>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">2 points<br>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;">Jack<br>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">3 points<br>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;">Queen<br>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">4 points<br>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;">King<br>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">5 points<br>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;">Ace, Joker<br>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">3 points<br>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
The player who scored the most points wins the game.
== External links ==
* [http://hejholek.servis.pl/english.html Information about Haihowak]
* [http://hejholek.servis.pl/ Information about |
omen.
*God "dwelleth in the hearts of his obedient people": religious experience is not confined to a [[church]] building. Indeed, Fox refused to apply the word "Church" to a building, using instead the name "steeple-house", a usage maintained by many Quakers today. Fox preferred to worship in fields and orchards, believing that God's presence could also be felt in the natural world.
[[Image:AssemblyOfQuakers.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A female Quaker preaches at a meeting in London]]
Fox had some experience among "[[English Dissenters]]", groups of people who had broken away from the major churches because of their unusual beliefs. He had hoped that the dissenters would be able to help his spiritual understanding, where the established church could not, but this was not the case: he fell out with one group, for example, because he maintained that women had souls. From this comes the famous passage from his journal:
:''But as I had forsaken the priests, so I left the separate preachers also, and those esteemed the most experienced people; for I saw there was none among them all that could speak to my condition'' [address my spiritual needs]''. And when all my hopes in them and in all men were gone, so that I had nothing outwardly to help me, nor could tell what to do, then, oh, then, I heard a voice which said, "There is one, even Christ Jesus, that can speak to thy condition"; and when I heard it my heart did leap for joy. Then the Lord let me see why there was none upon the earth that could speak to my condition, namely, that I might give Him all the glory; for all are concluded under sin, and shut up in unbelief as I had been, that Jesus Christ might have the pre-eminence who enlightens, and gives grace, and faith, and power. Thus when God doth work, who shall let'' [hinder] ''it? and this I knew experimentally'' [through experience]''.'' ([[#References|QFP]] &sect;19.02)
== The Religious Society of Friends takes shape ==
In 1648 Fox began to exercise his ministry publicly: he would preach in market-places, in the fields, in appointed meetings of various kinds, or even sometimes in "steeple-houses" after the priests had finished. His preaching was powerful, and many people were convinced to share his beliefs in the spirituality of "true religion". The worship of Friends, in the form of silent waiting, seems to have been well-established by this time, though it is not recorded how this came to be. It is not even clear at what point the Society of Friends was formed, but there was certainly a group of people who often travelled together. The term "children of the light" was at one time used, as well as simply "friends". Fox seems, however, to have had no desire to found a sect, but only to proclaim what he saw as the pure and genuine principles of [[Christianity]] in their original simplicity &mdash; though he afterward showed great prowess as a religious legislator, in the organization which he gave to the new society.
Fox's preaching was grounded in scripture, but mainly effective because of the intense personal experience he was able to project. He was scathing about contemporary morality, and urged his listeners to lead lives without sin &mdash; though avoiding the [[Ranters|Ranter]] (or [[Antinomian]]) view that all acts of a believer became automatically sinless. At the time, there were a great many rival [[Christian denomination]]s holding very diverse opinions; the atmosphere of dispute and confusion gave George Fox an opportunity to put forward his own beliefs at the frequent meetings between representatives of each sect. By 1651 he had gathered many other talented preachers around him, and continued to roam the country seeking out new converts. They continued to do this despite a harsh reception from some listeners, who would whip and beat them to drive them away.
An interest in social justice was slowly developing, marked by Fox's complaints to judges about decisions he considered morally wrong &mdash; for example, his letter on the case of a woman due to be [[Capital punishment|executed]] for theft. Oppression by the powerful was a very real concern for the English people, in the turmoil of the [[English Civil War]] following the excesses of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] (executed in 1649) and the beginnings of the [[Commonwealth of England]]. George Fox's conflict with civil authority was inevitable.
In 1652 Fox felt that God led him to walk up [[Pendle Hill]]. There he had a vision of thousands of souls coming to Christ. From there he traveled to [[Sedbergh]] in [[Westmorland]], where he heard a group of Seekers were meeting. He preached on the nearby [[Firbank Fell]] and convinced many, including [[Francis Howgill]], to accept his teachings on Christ being able to speak to people directly.
=== Imprisonment ===
At [[Derby]] in 1650 Fox was imprisoned for [[blasphemy]]; a judge mocked Fox's exhortation to "tremble at the word of the Lord", calling him and his followers "Quakers" &mdash; now the common name of the Society of Friends [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch04.html#upfn58]. He suffered harsh treatment in prison following his refusal to fight against the return of the monarchy (or indeed to take up arms for any reason). A further conviction came in 1653 in [[Carlisle, England|Carlisle]]; it was even proposed to put him to death, but [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] requested his release rather than have "a young man&hellip; die for religion" [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch07.html].
The beginnings of persecution forced Fox to develop his position on [[oath]]s and violence. Previously implicit in his teaching, the refusal to swear or take up arms came to be a much more important part of his public statements: he was determined that neither he nor his followers would give in under pressure. In a letter of 1652 (''That which is set up by the sword''), he urged Friends not to use "carnal weapons" but "spiritual weapons", saying "let the waves [the power of nations] break over your heads".
Further imprisonments came at [[London]] in 1654, [[Launceston, England|Launceston]] in 1656, [[Lancaster, England|Lancaster]] in 1660 and 1663, [[Scarborough, England|Scarborough]] in 1666, and [[Worcester, England|Worcester]] in 1674. Often, Fox was arrested on no charge other than generally causing "disturbance", but he and the other Friends were also accused of more specific offences. Quakers fell foul of laws forbidding unauthorized worship, though these statutes were very irregularly enforced. Actions motivated by belief in social equality &mdash; never using titles, or taking hats off in court &mdash; were seen as disrespectful. Refusal to take oaths meant that Quakers could be prosecuted under laws compelling subjects to [[Oath of allegiance|pledge allegiance]], as well as making testifying in court problematic.
Even in prison, George Fox continued writing and preaching. He felt that a benefit of being imprisoned was that it brought him into contact with people who needed his help &mdash; the jailers as well as his fellow prisoners. He also sought to set an example by his actions there, turning the other cheek when being beaten and refusing to let his captors make him feel dejected.
=== Encounters with Oliver Cromwell ===
[[Image:Oliver Cromwell - Statue - Palace of Westminster - London - 240404.jpg|thumbnail|left|Cromwell was sympathetic to Fox and almost agreed to follow his teaching &ndash; but persecution of Quakers continued.]]
The Commonwealth had grown suspicious of monarchist plots, and fearful that the large group travelling with George Fox aimed to overthrow the government &ndash; by this time, his meetings were regularly attracting crowds of thousands. In 1653 Fox was arrested and taken to London for a meeting with the [[Lord Protector]], [[Oliver Cromwell]]. After affirming that he had no intention of taking up arms, Fox was able to speak with Cromwell for some time about the differences between Friends and members of the traditional denominations, and advised him to listen to God's voice and obey it. He records that on leaving, Cromwell "with tears in his eyes said, 'Come again to my house; for if thou and I were but an hour of a day together, we should be nearer one to the other'; adding that he wished [Fox] no more ill than he did to his own soul." George Fox was at liberty again [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch08.html#upfn104].
This episode is often recalled as an example of "speaking truth to power", a preaching technique by which subsequent Quakers hoped to influence the powerful. It is closely related to the ideas of plain speech and simplicity which George Fox practiced, but motivated by the more worldly goal of eradicating war, injustice and oppression.
Fox met Cromwell again in 1656, petitioning him over the course of several days to alleviate the persecution of Quakers. On a personal level, the meeting went well; despite the serious disagreements between the two men, they had a certain rapport. Fox even felt moved to invite Cromwell to "lay down his crown at the feet of Jesus" &mdash; which, however, Cromwell declined to do [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch10.html#gf10b]. Their third meeting was in 1658 at [[Hampton Court]], though they could not speak for long, because of the Protector's worsening illness &mdash; Fox even wrote that "he looked like a dead man" [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch12.html#upfn148]. Cromwell died in September of that year.
<!-- don't delete this tag. See [[Wikipedia:Extended_image_syntax#Cancelling floating-around-image mode]] -->
<br style="clear:both;"/>
== Suffering and growth ==
The persecutions of these years &mdas |
on for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works</title>
<id>3945</id>
<revision>
<id>41863966</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:39:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alberrosidus</username>
<id>243276</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The content of the agreement */ decreased bias</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the famous copyright convention|the 1979 wildlife convention|Berne Wildlife Convention}}
The '''Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works''', usually known as the '''Berne Convention''', is an international agreement about [[copyright]], which was first adopted in [[Berne]], [[Switzerland]] in 1886. It was developed at the instigation of [[Victor Hugo]], and was thus influenced by the French "[[French copyright law|right of the author]]" (''droit d'auteur''), which contrasts with the Anglo-Saxon concept of "copyright", which has only been concerned with economic protection.
Prior to the adoption of the Berne Convention, national copyright laws would usually only apply for works created within each country. Consequently, a work published in [[London]] by a British national would be protected by copyright in the [[United Kingdom]], but could be copied and sold by anyone in [[France]]; likewise, a work published in [[Paris]] by a French national would be protected by copyright in France, but could be copied and sold by anyone in the United Kingdom.
The Berne Convention followed in the footsteps of the [[Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property|Paris Convention]] of 1883, which in the same way had created a framework for international protection for the other kinds of [[intellectual property]]: [[patent]]s, [[trademark]]s and [[industrial design]]s.
Like the Paris Convention, the Berne Convention set up a bureau to handle the administrative tasks. In 1893, these two small bureaux merged and became the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property (best known by its French acronym BIRPI), situated in Berne. In 1960, BIRPI moved from Berne to [[Geneva]], to be closer to the [[United Nations]] and other international organizations in that city, and in 1967 BIRPI became WIPO, the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]], which, since 1974, is an organization within the United Nations.
The Berne Convention was revised in Paris in 1896 and in Berlin in 1908, completed in Berne in 1914, revised in Rome in 1928, in Brussels in 1948, in Stockholm in 1967 and in Paris in 1971, and was amended in 1979.
The [[United States]] refused initially to become a party to the Convention, since it would have required major changes in [[United States copyright law|its copyright law]] (particularly with regard to [[moral rights]], removal of general requirement for registration of copyright works as well as elimination of mandatory copyright notice). In 1989, the United States became a party to the Berne Convention.
Since almost all nations are members of the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights|TRIPs Agreement]] requires non-members to accept almost all of the conditions of the Berne Convention.
As of January 2006, there are 160 countries which are parties to the Berne Convention. A full list of parties to the convention is available, [[List of countries party to the Berne Convention by name|sorted by country name]] or [[List of countries party to the Berne Convention by date of entry into force|sorted by the date the convention entered into force for each country]].
==The content of the agreement==
The Berne Convention requires its signatories to protect the copyright on works of authors from other signatory countries (known as members of the ''Berne Union'') in the same way it protects the copyright of its own nationals, which means that, for instance, French copyright law applies to anything published or performed in France, regardless of where it was originally created.
However, having just an agreement about equal treatment wouldn't be of much use if the copyright laws in the member states were totally different from each other, as that could render the whole agreement useless. Of what benefit would the agreement be if an author in a country with strong protection had his book published in a country with weak or no protection? Consequently, the Berne Convention is not just an agreement about how copyright should be regulated between the member states but, more importantly, a set of minimum standards that each country's copyright laws must meet.
Copyright under the Berne Convention is automatic; no explicit registration is required.
The Berne Convention states that all works except photographic and cinematographic shall be protected for at least 50 years after the author's death, but parties are free to provide longer terms of protection, as the [[European Union]] did with the 1993 [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]]. For photography the Berne Convention sets a minimum of 25 years protection from the year the photograph was created, and for cinematography the minimum is 50 years after first showing, or 50 years after creation if it hasn't been shown within 50 years after the creation.
Countries under the older revisions of the treaty may choose to provide, and certain types of works (such as phonorecords and motion pictures) may be provided shorter terms.
Although the Berne Convention states that the copyright law of the country where protection is claimed shall be applied, article 7.8 states that "unless the legislation of that country otherwise provides, the term shall not exceed the term fixed in the country of origin of the work", i.e. an author is normally not entitled longer protection abroad than at home, even if the laws abroad give longer protection.
==See also==
* [[Berne three-step test]]
* [[Buenos Aires Convention]]
* [[Copyright treaty table]]
* [[International copyright law]]
* [[Official text copyright]]
* [[Public domain]]
* [[Rome Convention]]
* [[Universal Copyright Convention]]
==External links==
* [http://www.law-ref.org/BERN/index.html The 1871 Berne Convention text] - fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents
* [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/index.html The current Berne Convention text]
* [http://www.wipo.int WIPO]
* [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ Intellectual Property Protection Treaties]
* [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.pdf U.S. Copyright office list of countries having copyright relations with the United States (including list of Berne Union countries)]
[[Category:Intellectual property treaties]]
[[Category:Copyright law]]
[[Category:1886 in law]]
[[cs:Bernská úmluva o ochraně literárních a uměleckých děl]]
[[de:Berner Übereinkunft zum Schutz von Werken der Literatur und Kunst]]
[[es:Convenio de Berna]]
[[fr:Convention de Berne pour la protection des œuvres littéraires et artistiques]]
[[ko:베른 협약]]
[[nl:Conventie van Bern (1886)]]
[[ja:文学的及び美術的著作物の保護に関するベルヌ条約]]
[[pl:Konwencja berneńska o ochronie dzieł literackich i artystycznych]]
[[vi:Công ước Bern]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beijing</title>
<id>3946</id>
<revision>
<id>41916274</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:25:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.81.199.53</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Education */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Peking is also the name of an asteroid, see [[2045 Peking]].''
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<font size="+1">'''北京市<br />Běijīng Shì</font>'''
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;" | <font size="-1">[[Abbreviation]]: 京 ([[pinyin]]: Jīng)</font>
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 | [[Image:China-Beijing.png|Beijing is highlighted on this map]]
|-
| '''Name'''
|[[Chinese character]]s: 北京<br />
[[Pinyin]]: Běijīng<br />
[[Wade-Giles]]: Pei-ching<br />
[[Postal System Pinyin]]: Peking
|-
| '''Origin of name'''
| 北 běi - north <br />京 jīng - capital <br />"northern capital"
|-
| '''Administration type'''
| [[Municipality of China|Municipality]]
|-
| '''[[Communist Party of China|CPC]] Beijing Committee Secretary'''
| [[Liu Qi]] 刘淇
|-
| '''Mayor'''
| [[Wang Qishan]] 王岐山
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''
| 16,808 [[square kilometre|km²]] ([[List of China administrative regions by area|29th]])
|-
| '''[[Population]]''' ([[2004]]) <br />&nbsp;- [[Metropolitan area]]<br />&nbsp;- [[Density]]
| 14,930,000 ([[List of China administrative regions by population|26th]]) <br /> ''approx. 7.5 million''<br /> 888/km² ([[List of China administrative regions by population density|2nd]])
|-
| '''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]''' ([[2004]])<br />&nbsp;- per capita
| [[Renminbi|CNY]] 428.3 billion ([[List of China administrative regions by gross domestic product|15th]]) <br /> [[Renminbi|CNY]] 28,700 ([[List of China administrative regions by GDP per capita|2nd]])
|-
| colspan=2 | <small>The rankings given above are in comparison with other [[province of China|province]]-level administrative divisions.</small>
|-
| '''Major [[Nationalities of China|nationalities]]''' ([[2000]])
| [[Han Chinese|Han]] - 96%<br />[[Manchu]] - 2%<br />[[Hui people|Hui]] - 2%<br />[[Mongol]] - 0.3%
|-
| '''City [[tree]]s'''
| [[Chinese arborvitae]] <br /> (''Platycladus orientalis'') <br />[[Styphnolobium|Pagoda tree]] <br /> (''Sophora japonica'')
|-
| '''City [[flower]]s'''
| [[Chrysanthemum]] <br />(''Chrysanthemum morifolium'') <br />[[Chinese rose]] < |
K)|Social Democratic Party]]. The Gang of Four were [[Roy Jenkins]], [[David Owen]], [[Shirley Williams]] and [[Bill Rodgers (politician)|William Rodgers]]. The departure of even more right-wingers further swung the party to the left, but not quite enough to allow Tony Benn to be elected as Deputy Leader when he challenged for the job at the September 1981 party conference. In response to the [[Troubles]] in [[Northern Ireland]], the party committed itself to "campaign actively" for a [[United Ireland]].
The system for electing the leader changed from a ballot of Parliamentary Labour Party (PLP) members, to an [[electoral college]]-style system, where affiliated organisations took a 40% weighting, whilst constituency Labour Parties and the PLP took a weighting of 30% each.
===1983===
[[Image:Labour83.GIF|right|thumb|160px|Logo introduced in 1983 after Labour's disastrous election campaign]]
Led by Michael Foot, who was increasingly unpopular with the public, the party went into the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983 general election]] with a manifesto dominated by the politics of the party's left-wing, but considered by some socialists to be too watered down by Foot's indecisiveness and pressure from the party's right-wing to be truly convincing. The manifesto contained pledges to unilaterally disarm Britain's nuclear deterrent, withdraw from the [[European Community]] (EC), and pledged a programme of mass [[nationalisation]] of industry. A symptom of the divisions in the party was that the leading members of the right-wing had not resisted the manifesto, because they hoped that what they saw as an impending inevitable landslide defeat would discredit the policies. The 1983 manifesto was famously described by the senior Labour politician [[Gerald Kaufman]] as being 'the longest suicide note in history'.
The right-wing press wasted no time in attacking the party's manifesto and the style of campaigning which the Party adopted, which tended to rely upon public meetings and canvassing rather than media. Labour's chances of electoral success were further damaged by the fact that the Thatcher government's popularity was on the rise after successfully guiding the country to victory in the [[Falklands War]]. This bolstered Thatcher who had been low in the polls due to a severe economic downturn.
After suffering a landslide defeat at the 1983 election, Michael Foot immediately resigned. He was replaced by [[Neil Kinnock]], who though initially a firebrand left-winger, had generally supported Foot and was seen as a more pragmatic leader. Through his leadership Kinnock progressively moved the party to the centre. He vastly intensified moves to expel left groups such as the [[Militant Tendency]] which represented left-wing views no longer supported by the party leadership, and further changed party policy to support EC membership. From [[1985]], [[Peter Mandelson]] as Director of Communications modernised the party's image.
===1987===
At the [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987 general election]], the party was again defeated in a landslide, but had established itself as the clear challengers to the Conservatives and had fought an effective campaign. Kinnock easily retained the party leadership when challenged from the left in [[1988]] and continued his reform of the party. The resulting Policy Review was offered as a single document for approval or disapproval. By accepting the conclusions, The Labour Party ceased to be unilateralist in early [[1989]], which contradicted individual Conference decisions.
During this time the Labour party abandoned its links to high taxation and old style nationalisation, which aimed to show that the party was moving away from the left wing of the political spectrum and moving towards the centre. It also became actively pro-European, supporting further moves to [[European integration]].
Re-organisation of the Party organisation resulted in the dissolution of the [[Labour Party Young Socialists]], which was thought to be harbouring [[entryist]] [[Militant]] groups. It also resulted in a more centralised communication structure, enabling a greater degree of flexibility for the leadership to determine policy, react to events and direct resources.
===1992===
By the time of the [[United Kingdom general election, 1992|1992 general election]], the party had reformed to such an extent that it was perceived as a credible candidate for government. Most opinion polls during the campaign showed the party with a slight lead over the Conservatives although rarely with a lead sufficient to give a majority. However, the party ended up 8% behind the Conservatives in the popular vote, a result which was considered one of the biggest surprises in British electoral history. In the party's post mortem on why it had lost, it was considered that the 'Shadow Budget' announced by [[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]] had opened the way for Conservatives to attack the party for wanting to raise taxes. In addition Neil Kinnock's seeming triumphalism at a party rally in [[Sheffield]] eight days before polling day gave the impression that victory had already been achieved.
Kinnock resigned after the defeat, blaming the overwhelming preponderance of Conservative-supporting newspapers for Labour's failure. [[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]], despite his involvement with the Shadow Budget, was easily elected to succeed him over [[Bryan Gould]] who was identified with the soft left. Smith's leadership saw a degree of tension between those who preferred progressive change and others who identified as 'modernisers' and advocated a further wholesale revision of the party's stance. At the [[1993]] conference, Smith successfully changed the party rules so that trade unions had less say in the selection of candidates to stand for Parliament, by introducing a [[one member, one vote]] system but only just carried the day after a barnstorming speech by [[John Prescott]] and compromising on other matters in individual negotiations. However in May 1994, Smith died suddenly from a heart attack.
The new electoral system, introduced in time for the [[Labour Party leadership election, 1994|election caused by Smith's death]], removed the 'block voting' previously in use whereby trade unions cast all their votes one way or another. Instead, members of the unions, and individual members were polled directly, making up two thirds of the weight given in the electoral college, whilst the PLP took the other third.
==New Labour==
"New Labour" is an alternative name for the Labour Party which originated in 1994. The name is primarily used by the party itself in its literature but is also sometimes used by political commentators and the wider [[mass media|media]]; it was also the basis of a [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] poster campaign of 1997, headlined "New Labour, New Danger". The rise of the name coincided with a rightwards shift of the British political spectrum; for Labour, this was a continuation of the trend that had begun under the leadership of [[Neil Kinnock]]. "Old Labour" is sometimes used by commentators to describe the older, more left-wing members of the party, or those with strong Trade Union connections.
The name "New Labour" originates from a conference slogan first used by the Labour Party in [[1994]], which was later seen in a draft [[manifesto]] published by the party in [[1996]], called ''New Labour, New Life For Britain''. However the term was intended to incorporate a wider [[brand|rebranding]] of the party in the eyes of the electorate. The new name coincided with the re-writing of [[Clause IV]] of the party's constitution in [[1995]]. [[Peter Mandelson]] was a senior figure in this process, and exercised a great deal of authority in the party following the death of [[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]] and the subsequent election of [[Tony Blair]] as party leader.
[[Tony Blair]], [[Gordon Brown]], [[Peter Mandelson]] and [[Alastair Campbell]] are most commonly cited as the creators and architects of the New Labour ethos. They were among the most prominent advocates of the right-wing shift in European [[social democracy]] during the 1990s, known as the "[[Third Way]]". The use of "New" echoes slogans in [[Politics of the United States|American politics]], particularly those of the Democratic Party, such as [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]], [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy's]] [[New Frontier]]
and [[Bill Clinton|Clinton's]] [[New Covenant]].
New Labour (as a series of values) is often characterised as a belief in 'no rights without responsibilities', i.e. that a citizen should recognise that s/he possesses responsibilities linked with any legal rights they hold. The concept of a 'stakeholder society' is quite prominent in New Labour thinking. As noted above, New Labour thought also embraces the notion of the "Third Way", although critics pointed to the lack of any concise statement of its meaning, and the term later fell from use.
Labour's economic policy sought to balance the laissez-faire capitalism of the Thatcherite era with measures that would lessen or reverse their negative impact on society. One of the most popular policies introduced was Britain's first [[National Minimum Wage Act]]. Labour's social policy has been affected by the fact that the first ''New Labour'' administration had more women MPs than any previous UK government. This is now reflected, somewhat ironically, in the apportionment of ministerial jobs on gender-specific lines, with functions to do with traditional feminine attributes such as family, social services, health, food, education, etc. generally going to women ministers, and those to do with traditionally more masculine things like defence, transport, industry, foreign policy and finance, etc. generally going to men [http://w |
satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 8, FM 13, shortwave 4 (2001), AM 7, FM 15, shortwave 5 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
237,000 (1997)
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
1 (2001), 0 (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
31,000 (1997)
'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
11 (2001), 2 (1999)
'''Internet users:'''
33,000 (2001)
'''[[Country codes]]:''' BW
[[Category:Botswana]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Botswana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Botswana</title>
<id>3618</id>
<revision>
<id>40001300</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T12:02:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tabletop</username>
<id>173687</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>landlocked</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A sparsely populated, arid country, '''[[Botswana]]''' has nonetheless managed to incorporate much of its interior into the national economy. An "inner circle" [[highway]] connecting all major towns and district capitals is completely paved, and the all-weather Trans-Kalahari Highway connects the country (and, through it, [[South Africa]]'s commercially dominant [[Gauteng Province]]) to [[Walvis Bay]] in [[Namibia]].
== [[Railway]]s ==
{{CIA}}
<br>''total:''
888 km (2002), 971 km(1995)
<br>''narrow gauge:''
888 km 1.067-m gauge (2002), 971 km 1.067-m gauge (1995)
=== Railway links to adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Zambia|Zambia]] - no
* [[Transportation in Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]] - yes
* [[Transportation in South Africa|South Africa]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Namibia|Namibia]] - no - in [[2006]] a proprosed electrified railway connecting to [[Lüderitz]], [[Namibia]] for coal traffic.
== Highways ==
<br>''total:''
10,217 km (1999), 18,482 km (1996 est.)
<br>''paved:''
5620 (1999), 4,343 km (1996 est.)
<br>''unpaved:''
4,597 km (1999), 14,139 km (1996 est.)
== Ports and harbors ==
none - [[landlocked]]
== [[Airport]]s ==
86 (2002), 92 (1999 est.)
:''see also [[List of airports in Botswana]]
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
10
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
7
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (2002, 1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
76 (2002), 82 (1999 est.)
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
3 (2002), 4 (1999 est.)
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
55 (2002), 57 (1999 est.)
<br>''under 914 m:''
18 (2002), 21 (1999 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Botswana]]
* [http://www.airbotswana.co.uk/ Air Botswana UK - The national airline of Botswana]
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Botswana|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Botswana</title>
<id>3619</id>
<revision>
<id>41070980</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T21:40:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Elfguy</username>
<id>269251</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Botswana Defence Force]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Botswana</title>
<id>3620</id>
<revision>
<id>37154000</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T01:56:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wikiacc</username>
<id>84893</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Botswana}}
[[Botswana]] has put a premium on economic and political integration in southern Africa. It has sought to make [[Southern African Development Community|SADC]] a working vehicle for economic development, and it has promoted efforts to make the region self-policing in terms of preventative diplomacy, conflict resolution, and good governance. It has welcomed post-apartheid [[South Africa]] as a partner in these efforts. Botswana joins the African consensus on most major international matters and is a member of international organizations such as the [[United Nations]] and the [[African Union]].
'''Disputes - international:'''
established a commission with [[Namibia]] to resolve small residual disputes along the [[Caprivi Strip]], including the [[Situngu marshlands]] along the [[Linyanti River]]; downstream Botswana residents protest Namibia's planned construction of the [[Okavango]] hydroelectric dam on [[Popa Falls]]; dormant dispute remains where Botswana, Namibia, [[Zambia]], and [[Zimbabwe]] boundaries converge
{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}
[[Category:Botswana]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Botswana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bouvet Island/History</title>
<id>3621</id>
<revision>
<id>15901939</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-27T20:10:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bouvet Island]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Bouvet Island</title>
<id>3622</id>
<revision>
<id>15901940</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-10T15:36:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge into [[Bouvet Island]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bouvet Island]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bouvet Island/People</title>
<id>3623</id>
<revision>
<id>15901941</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T16:23:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bouvet Island]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Government of Bouvet Island</title>
<id>3624</id>
<revision>
<id>15901942</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-02T21:22:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bouvet Island]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Bouvet Island</title>
<id>3625</id>
<revision>
<id>15901943</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-02T21:23:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bouvet Island]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Bouvet Island</title>
<id>3626</id>
<revision>
<id>15901944</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-02T21:21:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bouvet Island]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bouvet Island/Transportation</title>
<id>3627</id>
<revision>
<id>15901945</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-30T19:33:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Bouvet Island]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bouvet Island]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Bouvet Island</title>
<id>3628</id>
<revision>
<id>15901946</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-02T21:23:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bouvet Island]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brazil/History</title>
<id>3630</id>
<revision>
<id>15901947</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-02T14:03:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Brazil]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Brazil</title>
<id>3631</id>
<revision>
<id>41699771</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:35:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Spot87</username>
<id>306977</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>link fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Br-map.png|framed|Map of Brazil]]
The [[country]] of '''[[Brazil]]''' occupies a large portion of eastern [[South America]], bordering the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Brazil covers a total area of 8,514,215 km² (3,287,357 sq. mi) which includes 8,456,510 km² (3,265,076 sq. mi) of land and 55,455 km² (21,411 sq. mi) of water. The highest point in Brazil is [[Pico da Neblina]] at 3,014 m (9,888 ft); the lowest point is [[sea level]]. Brazil is bordered by the countries of [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Colombia]], [[French Guiana]], [[Guyana]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Suriname]], [[Uruguay]] and [[Venezuela]]. By comparison, Brazil is slightly smaller in land mass than the [[United States]].
Much of the [[climate]] is [[tropical]], though some areas may be more [[temperate]]. The largest [[river]] in Brazil, and one of the longest in the world is the [[Amazon river|Amazon]]. The [[rainforest]] that covers the [[Amazon Basin]] constitutes almost half of the rainforests on [[Earth]].
'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|10|S|55|W|region:BR_type:country}}
==Size and Location==
[[Image:Brazil_rel94.jpg|thumb|250px|Detailed relief map of Brazil]]
With its expansive territory, Brazil occupies most of the eastern part of the [[South America|South American continent]] and its geographic heartland, as well as various islands in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The only countries in the world that are larger are [[Russia]], [[Canada]], [[China]], |
been trained in Western Scholastic theology. He asserted that our knowledge of God can only be propositional. The practice of the Hesychasts was defended by [[Gregory Palamas|St. Gregory Palamas]]. (See below.)
In solitude and retirement the Hesychast repeats the [[Jesus Prayer]], ''"Lord Jesus Christ, son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner."'' The Hesychast prays the Jesus Prayer 'with the heart'—with meaning, with intent, 'for real'. He never treats the Jesus Prayer as a string of syllables whose 'surface' meaning is secondary or unimportant. He considers bare repetition of the Jesus Prayer as a mere string of syllables to be worthless or even dangerous. This emphasis on the actual, real invocation of Jesus Christ marks a divergence from Eastern forms of meditation.
There is a very great emphasis on humility in the practice of the Jesus Prayer, great cautions being given in the texts about the disaster that will befall the would-be Hesychast if he proceeds in pride, arrogance or conceit.
While he maintains his practice of the Jesus Prayer, which becomes automatic and continues twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week, the Hesychast cultivates sobriety (Gr. ''nepsis).'' Sobriety is the mental ascesis described above that rejects the tempting thoughts; it puts a great emphasis on focus and attention. The Hesychast is to pay exteme attention to his consciousness of his inner world and to the words of the Jesus Prayer, not letting his mind wander in any way at all.
The Hesychast is to attach Eros (Gr. ''eros)'', that is, "yearning", to his practice of sobriety so as to overcome the temptation to accidie (sloth). He is also to use an extremely directed and controlled anger against the tempting thoughts, although to obliterate them entirely he is to invoke Jesus Christ via the Jesus Prayer.
The Hesychast is to bring his mind (Gr. ''nous)'' into his heart so as to practise both the Jesus Prayer and sobriety with his mind in his heart. The descent of the mind into the heart is taken quite literally by the practitioners of Hesychasm and is not at all considered to be a metaphorical expression. Some of the psychophysical techniques described in the texts are to assist the descent of the mind into the heart at those times that only with difficulty it descends on its own.
The goal at this stage is a practice of the Jesus Prayer with the mind in the heart, which practice is free of images (see ''Pros Theodoulon).'' What this means is that by the exercise of sobriety (the mental ascesis against tempting thoughts), the Hesychast arrives at a continual practice of the Jesus Prayer with his mind in his heart where his consciousness is no longer encumbered by the spontaneous inception of images: his mind has a certain stillness and emptiness that is punctuated only by the eternal repetition of the Jesus Prayer.
This stage is called the ''guard of the mind.'' This is a very advanced stage of ascetical and spiritual practice, and attempting to accomplish this prematurely, especially with psychophysical techniques, can cause very serious spiritual and emotional harm to the would-be Hesychast. St [[Theophan the Recluse]] once remarked that bodily postures and breathing techniques were virtually forbidden in his youth, since, instead of gaining the Spirit of God, people succeeded only "in ruining their lungs."
The guard of the mind is the practical goal of the Hesychast. It is the condition in which he remains as a matter of course throughout his day, every day until he dies. It is from the guard of the mind that he is raised to contemplation by the Grace of God.
The Hesychast usually experiences the contemplation of God as light, the Uncreated Light of the theology of St Gregory Palamas. The Hesychast, when he has by the mercy of God been granted such an experience, does not remain in that experience for a very long time (there are exceptions—see for example the ''Life'' of St Savas the Fool for Christ (14th Century), written by [[St Philotheos Kokkinos]] (14th Century)), but he returns 'to earth' and continues to practise the guard of the mind.
The Uncreated Light that the Hesychast experiences is identified with the Holy Spirit. Experiences of the Uncreated Light are allied to the 'acquisition of the Holy Spirit'. Notable accounts of encounters with the Holy Spirit in this fashion are found in St Symeon the New Theologian's account of the illumination of 'George' (considered a pseudonym of St Symeon himself), in the 'conversation with Motovilov' in the ''Life'' of [[St Seraphim of Sarov]] (1759 – 1833), and, more recently, in the reminiscences of [[Starets | Elder]] [[Porphyrios]] (''Wounded by Love'' pp. 27 – 31).
Orthodox Tradition warns against seeking [[ecstasy]] as an end in itself. Hesychasm is a traditional complex of practices embedded in the doctrine and practice of the Orthodox Church intended to purify the member of the Orthodox Church and to make him ready for an encounter with God that comes to him when and if God wants, through God's Grace. The goal is to acquire, through purification and Grace, the Holy Spirit and salvation. Any ecstatic states or other unusual phenomena that may occur in the course of Hesychast practice are considered secondary and unimportant, and even quite dangerous. Moreover, seeking after unusual 'spiritual' experiences can itself cause great harm, ruining the soul and the mind of the seeker. Such a seeking after 'spiritual' experiences can lead to ''spiritual delusion'' (Ru. ''prelest,'' Gr. ''plani)''—the antonym of sobriety—in which a person believes himself or herself to be a saint, has hallucinations in which he or she 'sees' angels, Christ, etc. This state of spiritual delusion is in an superficial, egotistical way pleasurable, but can lead to madness and suicide, and, according to the Hesychast fathers, it makes salvation impossible.
Mount Athos is a centre of the practice of Hesychasm. St [[Paisius Velichkovsky]] and his disciples [[starets|made the practice known]] in [[Russia]] and [[Romania]], although Hesychasm was already previously known in Russia, as is attested by [[St Seraphim of Sarov]]'s (1759 – 1833) independent practice of it.
===Gregory Palamas: defender of Hesychasm===
About the year [[1337]] Hesychasm attracted the attention of the learned [[Barlaam of Calabria|Barlaam, a Calabrian monk]], who at that time held the office of abbot in the Monastery of [[St Saviour]]'s in Constantinople and who visited Mount Athos. [[Mount Athos]] was then at the height of its fame and influence under the reign of [[Andronicus III|Andronicus the Younger]] and under the 'first-ship' of the Protos Symeon. On Mount Athos, Barlaam encountered Hesychasts and heard descriptions of their practice, also reading the writings of the teacher in Hesychasm of St [[Gregory Palamas]], himself an Athonite monk. Trained in Western [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] theology, Barlaam was scandalized by Hesychasm and began to combat it both orally and in his writings. As a private teacher of theology in the Western Scholastic mode, Barlaam propounded a more intellectual and propositional approach to the knowledge of God than the Hesychasts taught.
Barlaam took exception to, as [[heresy|heretical]] and [[blasphemy|blasphemous]], the doctrine entertained by the Hesychasts as to the nature of the light, the experience of which was said to be the goal of Hesychast practice. It was maintained by the Hesychasts to be of divine origin and to be identical to that light which had been manifested to Jesus' disciples on [[Mount Tabor]] at the [[Transfiguration]]. This Barlaam held to be [[Polytheism|polytheistic]], inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a visible and an invisible God.
On the Hesychast side, the controversy was taken up by St [[Gregory Palamas]], afterwards Archbishop of Thessalonica, who was asked by his fellow monks on Mt Athos to defend Hesychasm from the attacks of Barlaam. St Gregory himself was well-educated in Greek philosophy. St Gregory defended Hesychasm at three different synods in [[Constantinople]] in the 1340s and he also wrote a number of works in its defense.
In these works, St Gregory Palamas uses a distinction, already found in the 4th Century in the works of the [[Cappadocian Fathers]], between the energies or operations (Gr. ''energeies)'' of God and the essence of God. St Gregory taught that the energies or operations of God were uncreated. He taught that the essence of God can never be known by his creature even in the next life, but that his uncreated energies or operations can be known both in this life and in the next, and convey to the Hesychast in this life and to the righteous in the next life a true spiritual knowledge of God. In Palamite theology, it is the uncreated energies of God that illumine the Hesychast who has been vouchsafed an experience of the Uncreated Light.
In [[1341]] the dispute came before a [[synod]] held at [[Constantinople]] and presided over by the Emperor Andronicus; the synod, taking into account the regard in which the writings of the [[pseudo-Dionysius]] were held, condemned Barlaam, who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming bishop in the Roman Catholic Church.
One of Barlaam's friends, Gregory Akindynos, who was originally also a friend of St Gregory Palamas, took up the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the followers of Barlaam gained a brief victory. But in [[1351]] at a synod under the presidency of the Emperor [[John VI Cantacuzenus]], Hesychast doctrine was established as the doctrine of the Orthodox Church.
Up to this day, the Roman Catholic Church has never fully accepted Hesychasm, especially the distinction between the energies or operations of God and the essence of God, and the notion that those energies or operations of God are uncreated. In Roman Catholic theology as it has devel |
ect candidate for her upcoming [[film]], ''[[Nine to Five|9 to 5]]''. She was looking for a brassy [[Southern United States|Southern]] woman for a supporting role and felt the singer was perfect. Parton was signed, and went on to steal the notices and score a major hit with the title song.
She wrote and performed "9 to 5" which earned her an [[Academy Award]] nomination for [[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Original Song]]. She received a [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] nomination for Best Original Song - Motion Picture. And she won two [[Grammy Award]]s, for Best Female Country Vocal Performance and Best Country Song. It reached #1 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]] and was also #78 on [[American Film Institute]]'s 100 years, 100 songs.
She also received Golden Globe nominations for Best Motion Picture Actress - Musical/Comedy and New Star of the Year in a Motion Picture - Female.
Parton's other films include ''[[The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]]), for which she received another Golden Globe nomination, and ''[[Steel Magnolias]]''.
In [[1982 in music|1982]], she recorded a second version of "I Will Always Love You" for ''The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas''; the second version proved to be another #1 country hit and also managed to reach the pop charts, going to #53 in the [[United States]].
In [[1986 in music|1986]], she was inducted into the [[Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame]].
The following year, along with [[Emmylou Harris]] and [[Linda Ronstadt]], she released the decade-in-the-making [[Trio (album)|Trio]] album to critical acclaim (a second collaboration, "Trio II", would be released in 1999). Also in [[1987 in music|1987]], Parton switched record labels, moving from RCA to [[Columbia Records]], and took a second stab at her own TV [[variety show]], also titled ''[[Dolly (TV series)|Dolly]]'', which lasted only one season. Ratings started strong but quickly fell.
[[Image:Tv_snl_dolly_parton.jpg|thumb|right|Dolly Parton hosting ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' in 1989]]
Parton has also done voice work for [[animation]], playing herself in the TV series ''[[Alvin & the Chipmunks]]'' (episode: ''Urban Chipmunk'') ([[1987 in television|1987]]) and her voice role as Katrina Eloise "Murph" Murphy in ''[[The Magic School Bus]]'' (episode: ''The Family Holiday Special'') ([[1994 in television|1994]]).
Standing at an even 5 feet tall (152 [[centimeter|cm]]), Parton's physical trademark is her large [[breasts]]; her petite dimensions elsewhere accentuate her large bosom. She has often mocked this reputation with quips such as "I would have burned my bra in the 60s, but it would have taken the fire department three days to put it out," or "The reason I have a small waist and small feet is that nothing grows well in the shade." In 1989 when she guest-hosted [[Saturday Night Live]], she participated in a [[Self-deprecation|self depreciating]] [[sketch comedy|sketch]] that [[parodied]] Sci-Fi [[exploitation films]]: an alien race of excessively large-breasted women teased her about the fact that her breasts were comparatively small, "merely the size of melons." In 1994, she told Vogue magazine that her measurements were 40-20-36. [http://www.dollymania.net/faq.html#016] And she has publicly denied the often-reported allegation that her chest is insured for $600,000.
In 1992, "I Will Always Love You" was performed by [[Whitney Houston]] on ''[[The Bodyguard]]'' soundtrack. Houston's version became the best-selling hit ever written and performed by a female vocalist, with worldwide sales of 12,000,000. As Parton owned the song, she raked in huge profits from Houston's cover. The song was also covered by music legend [[Kenny Rogers]] on his [[1997 in music|1997]] album "Always and Forever," which sold over 4 million copies worldwide, as well as by Leanne Rimes. Melissa Etheridge covered the song on a tribute album to Parton.
In [[1993]], she teamed up with fellow [[country music|country music queens]] [[Loretta Lynn]] and [[Tammy Wynette]] to record the ''Honky Tonk Angels'' album.
Parton's last lead role in a theatrical film was in [[1992 in film|1992]]'s ''[[Straight Talk]]'', opposite [[James Woods]]. She played the plainspoken host of a radio program that has people phoning-in with problems. The film, while not a blockbuster, did respectably well upon its release. She later played an overprotective mother in ''[[Frank McKlusky, C.I.]]'' with [[Dave Sheridan]], [[Cameron Richardson]], and [[Randy Quaid]].
After Parton (in common with many other performers of her generation) was dropped from country radio stations' playlists in the mid-[[1990s]], she rediscovered her roots by recording a series of critically acclaimed [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]] albums, beginning with "The Grass is Blue" (1999) and "Little Sparrow" ([[2001 in music|2001]]), both of which won Grammy Awards. Her [[2002 in music|2002]] album "[[Halos and Horns]]" included a bluegrass version of the [[Led Zeppelin]] classic [[Stairway to Heaven]]. In 2005, Parton released ''Those Were The Days'', her interpretation of hits from the folk-rock era of the late 1960s through early 1970s. The CD featured such classics as [[John Lennon]]'s "Imagine," [[Cat Stevens]]' "Where Do The Children Play," [[Tommy James]]' "Crimson & Clover," and the folk classic "Where Have All The Flowers Gone", as well as the title track.
==Business==
Parton invested much of her earnings into business ventures in her native East Tennessee, notably [[Pigeon Forge, Tennessee|Pigeon Forge]], which includes a theme park named [[Dollywood]] and a dinner show called ''[[Dolly Parton's Dixie Stampede]]''. The area is a thriving tourist attraction, drawing visitors from large parts of the Southeastern and Midwestern United States. This region of the U.S., like most areas of [[Appalachia]], has suffered economically for decades; Parton's business investment there allow her to put something back into the community where she was born and raised.
She also owns [[Sandollar Productions]], a film and television production company, which produced the Fox TV Show "[[Babes]]" and ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' and the features "Father of the Bride I & II", , "[[Straight Talk]]", "Sabrina" and Academy Award-winning (for Best Documentary) Common Threads: Stories From The Quilt amongst other shows. [[Sanddollar]] is co-owned by [[Sandy Gallin]], former manager and openly gay long-time friend of Dolly's.
[[Image:DollyPartonTheRiverUnbrokensingle.jpg|thumb|left|Dolly Parton in 1987]]
She has reportedly turned down several offers to pose for ''[[Playboy]]'' magazine and similar publications; however, she jokes that she told Playboy she would pose naked -- on her 100th birthday. [[Russ Meyer]] wanted to make movies about her breasts. Although she has admitted over the years to having a great deal of [[Plastic surgery|cosmetic surgery]], it wasn't until 2002 that she admitted to having breast implants. However, she says she didn't get them until she lost a great deal of weight in the mid-1980s, because as a result of the weight loss she had lost a great deal of now-famous bosom. [http://www.dollymania.net/faq.html#013]
Parton, alongside [[Johnny Cash]] and [[Willie Nelson]], is one of the few country stars to be admired and acclaimed by [[Fan (aficionado)|fans]] from all walks of life. She said that she has long admired the look of some outcasts from society (such as prostitutes, whose long fingernails and big blonde wigs inspired her). She is an icon in the [[gay]] community, and is often portrayed by [[drag queens]]. She has said that if she were not born a woman, she would be a drag-queen.
Her music of the late [[1990s]] and beyond has moved towards bluegrass and more traditional folk styles, resulting in a second wind of critical and commercial success.
== In Concert ==
Parton toured extensively from the late 1960s until the early 1990s. Since the early 1990s, Parton's concert appearances were primarily limited to one weekend a year at her [[Dollywood]] theme park benefiting her [[Dollywood Foundation]]. After a decade long absence from touring, Parton decided to hit the road in 2002 with an 18-city, intimate club tour to promote the "Halos & Horns" CD. The House of Blues Entertainment, Inc. produced show sold out all of its U.S. and European dates (her first in two decades). In 2004, she returned to mid-sized stadium venues in 36 cities in the US and Canada with her "Hello I'm Dolly" tour, a glitzier, more elaborate stage show than two years earlier. With nearly 140,000 tickets sold, the "Hello I'm Dolly" tour was the tenth-biggest country tour of the year and grossed more than $6 million. In late 2005 Parton completed a 40-city tour with "The Vinatage Tour" promoting her new album, ''Those Were The Days''.
==Motion Pictures==
Although Dolly Parton has made only a handful of films, she has had great success within the industry. Her first two films [[9 to 5]] and [[The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas]] were blockbuster hits (despite mediocre reviews for the latter) and earned Parton the Top Female Box Office Star title from [[Motion Picture Herald]] in both 1981 and 1982.
Parton has twice been nominated for the [[Academy Award]] for Best Original Song, for "9 to 5" from the movie of the same name in 1980, and for "Travelin' Thru" from [[Transamerica]] in 2005. She is considered the front-runner in this category and if proves successful she will become the first country music artist to win an [[Academy Award|Oscar]].
Dolly is a lifelong fan of [[Mae West]] and has tried for years to get a film starring her as that old busty blonde legend off the ground.
==Hono |
uring [[World War II]].
The country gained its independence from France in 1960 as the '''Congo Republic'''. It has had decades of political struggle since, with fragile elected governments often subject to military coups.
{{further|'''[[Republic of the Congo]]'''}}
==Democratic Republic of the Congo==
*The '''[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]''' ('''DRC''') (known as '''[[Zaire]]''' from 1971 to 1997) is sometimes also refered to as "Congo-Kinshasa". It is the larger of the two countries and lies to the east. It was once the personal property of [[King Leopold II]] of [[Belgium]], when it was known as the [[Congo Free State]], and later a Belgian colony when it was renamed the [[Belgian Congo]]. When DRC was called Zaire, the other Congo was known simply as "Congo".
{{further|'''[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]'''}}
==Historical usage of Congo and the alternate spelling "Kongo"==
These include:
* [[Belgian Congo]], former colony of Belgium in the present-day area of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).
* [[French Congo]], former French colony in the present-day area of the Republic of the Congo (ROC).
* [[Middle Congo]], one of the four territories of French Equatorial Africa.
* [[Kongo Empire|Kongo Kingdom]], which comprised of a large area in [[Central Africa]], and was formerly a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[protectorate]].
* [[Portuguese Congo]], the presently Angolan [[Cabinda enclave]]
==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 80%">
#{{note|hdi}} The [[List of countries by Human Development Index|2005 UN Human Development Index]] refers to the Republic of the Congo as "Congo", and the Democratic Republic of the Congo as "Congo, Dem. Rep. of the" [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/pdf/presskit/HDR05_PKE_HDI.pdf].
</div>
[[Category:Congo]]
[[th:คองโก]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Copenhagen interpretation</title>
<id>5863</id>
<revision>
<id>41672332</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:49:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Patrick0Moran</username>
<id>16559</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Video Demonstration */ huge file, slow download, bad playback</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Copenhagen interpretation''' is an [[interpretation of quantum mechanics]] formulated by [[Niels Bohr]] and [[Werner Heisenberg]] while collaborating in [[Copenhagen]] around [[1927]]. Bohr and Heisenberg extended the probabilistic interpretation of the [[wavefunction]], proposed by [[Max Born]]. Their interpretation attempts to answer some perplexing questions which arise as a result of the [[wave-particle duality]] in [[quantum mechanics]], such as the [[measurement problem]].
== Acceptance among physicists==
According to a poll at a Quantum Mechanics workshop in [[1997]], the Copenhagen interpretation is the most widely-accepted specific interpretation of quantum mechanics, followed by the [[Many-worlds interpretation]].[http://www.hep.upenn.edu/~max/everett.ps] Although current trends show substantial competition from [[Interpretation_of_quantum_mechanics|alternative interpretations]], throughout much of the twentieth century the Copenhagen interpretation has had strong acceptance among physicists.
==The meaning of the wavefunction==
The Copenhagen interpretation assumes that there are two processes influencing the wavefunction:
* the [[unitary operator|unitary]] evolution according to the [[Schrödinger equation]]
* the process of the [[measurement]]
While there is no ambiguity about the former, the latter admits several interpretations, even within the Copenhagen interpretation itself. One can either view the wavefunction as a real object that undergoes the [[wavefunction collapse]] in the second stage, or one can imagine that the wavefunction is an auxiliary mathematical tool (not a real physical entity) whose only physical meaning is our ability to calculate the probabilities. Niels Bohr emphasized that it is only the results of the experiments that should be predicted, and therefore the additional questions are not scientific but rather philosophical. Bohr followed the principles of [[positivism]] from philosophy that imply that only measurable questions should be discussed by the scientists.
In the classic [[double-slit experiment]], when light passes through double slits onto a screen, alternate bands of bright and dark regions are produced. These can be explained as areas in which the light waves reinforce or cancel. However it became experimentally apparent that light has some particle-like properties and items such as electrons have wave-like properties and can also produce interference patterns.
This poses some interesting questions. Suppose one were to do the double slit experiment and reduce the light so that only one [[photon]] (or [[electron]]) passes through the slits at a time. In performing the experiment, one will see the electron or photon hit the screen one at a time. However, when one totals up where the photons have hit, one will see interference patterns that appear to be the result of interfering waves even though the experiment dealt with one particle at a time. This property means that we live in a "possibilistic" universe -- one with bounded likelihoods of being for its "next" classical state at any given moment -- rather than one with an infinite range of what can become realized "next."
==Consequences==
The questions this experiment poses are
# The rules of quantum mechanics tell you ''statistically'' where the particles will hit the screen, and will identify the bright bands where many particles are ''likely'' to hit and the dark bands where few particles are ''likely'' to hit. However, for a single particle, the rules of quantum mechanics cannot predict where the particle will ''actually'' be observed. What are the rules to determine where an individual particle is observed?
# What happens to the particle in between the time it is emitted and the time that it is observed? The particle seems to be interacting with both slits and this appears inconsistent with the behavior of a point particle, yet when the particle is observed, one sees a point particle.
# What causes the particle to appear to switch between statistical and non-statistical behaviors? When the particle is moving through the slits, its behavior appears to be described by a non-localized wave function which is traveling through both slits at the same time. Yet when the particle is observed it is never a diffuse non-localized wave packet, but appears to be a single point particle.
The Copenhagen interpretation answers these questions as follows:
# The probability statements made by quantum mechanics are irreducible in the sense that they don't exclusively reflect our limited knowledge of some hidden variables. In classical physics, probabilities were used to describe the outcome of rolling dice, even though the process was thought to be deterministic. Probabilities were used to substitute for complete knowledge. By contrast, the Copenhagen interpretation holds that in quantum mechanics, measurement outcomes are fundamentally indeterministic.
# Physics is the science of outcomes of measurement processes. Speculation beyond that cannot be justified. The Copenhagen interpretation rejects questions like "where was the particle before I measured its position" as meaningless.
# The act of measurement causes an instantaneous "collapse of the wave function". This means that the measurement process randomly picks out exactly one of the many possibilities allowed for by the state's wave function, and the wave function instantaneously changes to reflect that pick.
The original formulation of the Copenhagen Interpretation has led to several variants; the most respected one is based on [[Consistent Histories]] ("Copenhagen done right?") and the concept of [[quantum decoherence]] that allows us to calculate the fuzzy boundary between the "microscopic" and the "macroscopic" world. Other variants differ according to the degree of "reality" assigned to the waveform.
== Criticisms ==
The completeness of quantum mechanics (thesis 1) was attacked by the [[EPR paradox|Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen thought experiment]] which was intended to show that there have to be hidden variables in order to avoid non-local, instantaneous "effects at a distance". However, experimental tests of the EPR paradox using [[Bell's inequality]] have supported the predictions of quantum mechanics, while showing that local hidden variable theories do not match the experimental evidence.
Of the three theses above, the third is maybe the most problematic from a physicist's standpoint, because it gives a special status to measurement processes without cleanly defining them nor explaining their peculiar effects. In his article entitled "Criticism and Counterproposals to the Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Theory," countering the view of Alexandrov that (in Heisenberg's paraphrase) "the wave function in configuration space characterizes the objective state of the electron." Heisenberg says,
<blockquote>Of course the introduction of the observer must not be misunderstood to imply that some kind of subjective features are to be brought into the description of nature. The observer has, rather, only the function of registering decisions, i.e., processes in space and time, and it does not matter whether the observer is an apparatus or a human being; but the registration, i.e., the transition from the "possible" to the "actual," is absolutely necessary here and cannot be omitted from the interpretation of quantum theory.</blockquote>
:<small>-- Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy, p. 137</small>
Many [[physicist]]s a |
in [[Pyrex]]. Adding [[barium]] also increases the refractive index. [[Thorium oxide]] gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion, and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its [[radioactivity]] has been replaced by [[lanthanum oxide]] in modern glasses. Large amounts of [[iron]] are used in glass that absorbs [[infrared]] energy, such as heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while [[cerium(IV) oxide]] can be used for glass that absorbs [[UV]] wavelengths (biologically damaging ionizing radiation).
=== Glass as a polymer ===
An innovative way for making glass involves preparation by [[polymerization]]. Putting in additives that modify the properties of glass is problematic, because the high temperature of preparation destroys most of them. By polymerizing glass it is possible to embed active molecules, such as enzymes, to add a new level of functionality to the glass vessels.
[[Sol gel]] is a good example of glass prepared in this way.
=== Colours ===
[[image:bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Metallic additives in the glass mix can produce a variety of colours. Here [[cobalt]] has been added to produce a bluish coloured decorative glass.]]
[[Image:Universeglass.JPG|thumb|right|275px|The inside of a blue glass cup.]]
[[Metal]]s and metal [[oxide]]s are added to glass during its manufacture to change its [[colour]]. [[Manganese]] can be added in small amounts to remove the [[green]] tint lent by iron, or in higher concentrations to give glass an [[amethyst]] colour. Like manganese, [[selenium]] can be used in small concentrations to decolorize glass, or in higher concentrations to impart a [[red]]dish colour. Small concentrations of [[cobalt]] (0.025 to 0.1%) yield [[blue]] glass. [[Tin oxide]] with [[antimony]] and [[arsenic]] oxides produce an opaque [[white]] glass, first used in [[Venice]] to produce an imitation [[porcelain]]. 2 to 3% of [[copper oxide]] produces a [[turquoise]] colour. Pure metallic [[copper]] produces a very dark red, opaque glass, which is sometimes used as a substitute for [[gold]] in the production of [[ruby]]-coloured glass. [[Nickel]], depending on the concentration, produces blue, or [[violet (colour)|violet]], or even [[black]] glass. Adding [[titanium]] produces [[yellow]]ish-[[brown]] glass. Metallic gold, in very small concentrations (around 0.001%), produces a rich ruby-coloured glass, while lower concentrations produces a less intense red, often [[marketing|marketed]] as "[[Cranberry glass|cranberry]]". [[Uranium]] (0.1 to 2%) can be added to give glass a fluorescent yellow or [[green]] colour. Uranium glass is typically not [[radioactive_decay|radioactive]] enough to be dangerous, but if ground into a powder, such as by polishing with sandpaper, and inhaled, it can be [[carcinogenic]]. [[Silver]] compounds (notably [[silver nitrate]]) can produce a range of colors from [[Orange (colour)|orange]]-red to yellow. The way the glass is heated and cooled can significantly affect the colors produced by these compounds. The chemistry involved is complex and not well understood. New coloured glasses are frequently discovered.
==History of glass==
Naturally occurring glass, such as [[obsidian]], has been used since the [[stone age]]. Glass making instructions were first documented in [[Egypt]] around [[1500 BC]], when glass was used as a glaze for pottery and other items. In the first century BC the technique of [[glass blowing|blowing glass]] was developed and what had once been an extremely rare and valuable item became much more common.
During the [[Roman Empire]] many forms of glass were created, usually for vases and bottles. Glass was made from [[sand]], plant ash and [[Calcium_oxide|lime]]. The earliest use of glass was as a coloured, opaque, or transparent glaze applied to ceramics before they were fired. Small pieces of coloured glass were considered valuable and often rivalled precious gems as jewellery items. As time passed, it was discovered (most likely by a potter) that if glass is heated until it becomes semi-liquid, it can be shaped and left to cool in a new, solid, independently standing shape.
In the first century BC, somewhere at the eastern end of the [[Mediterranean]], a new invention caused a true revolution in the glass industry. This was the discovery of glassblowing, both free-blowing and mould-blowing.
The colour of "natural glass" is green to bluish green. This colour is caused by the varying amounts of naturally occurring iron impurities in the sand. Common glass today usually has a slight green or blue tint, arising from these same impurities. Glassmakers learned to make coloured glass by adding metallic compounds and mineral oxides to produce brilliant hues of red, green, and blue - the colours of gemstones. When gem-cutters learned to cut glass, they found clear glass was an excellent refractor of light, the popularity of cut clear glass soared, that of coloured glass diminished.
Glass objects from the [[7th century|7th]] and [[8th century|8th centuries]] have been found on the island of [[Torcello]] near [[Venice]]. These form an important link between Roman times and the later importance of that city in the production of the material. About [[1000]] AD, an important technical breakthrough was made in Northern Europe when soda glass was replaced by glass made from a much more readily available material: potash obtained from wood ashes. From this point on, northern glass differed significantly from that made in the Mediterranean area, where soda remained in common use.
The [[11th century]] saw the emergence, in [[Germany]], of new ways of making sheet glass by blowing spheres, swinging these out to form cylinders, cutting these while still hot, and then flattening the sheets. This technique was perfected in [[13th century]] Venice.
Until the [[12th century]], [[stained glass]] (i.e., glass with some colouring impurities, usually metals) was not widely used.
The centre for glass making from the [[14th century]] was [[Venice]], which developed many new techniques and became the centre of a lucrative export trade in dinner ware, [[mirror]]s, and other luxury items. Eventually some of the Venetian glass workers moved to other areas of northern Europe and glass making spread with them.
The [[Crown glass process]] was used up to the mid-[[1800s]]. In this process, the glassblower would spin around 9 lb (4 kg) of molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a disk approximately 5 ft (1.5 m) in diameter. The disk would then be cut into panes. Venetian glass was highly prized between the [[10th century|10th]] and [[14th century|14th centuries]] as they managed to keep the process secret. Around [[1688]], a process for casting glass was developed, which led to its becoming a much more commonly used material. The invention of the glass pressing machine in [[1827]] allowed the mass production of inexpensive glass articles.
The [[Cylinder blown sheet|cylinder method]] of creating flat glass was first used in the United States of America by [[William J. Blenko]] in the 1920s.
Art is sometimes etched into glass via acid or other caustic substance (causing the image to be eaten into the glass). Traditionally this was done by a trained artisan after the glass was blown or cast. In the [[1920s]] a new mould-etch process was invented, in which art was etched directly into the mould, so that each cast piece emerged from the mold with the image already on the surface of the glass. This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined with a wider use of coloured glass, led to cheap popular glassware in the [[1930s]], which later became known as Depression glass.
''See also:'' [[Broad sheet]], [[Blown plate]], [[Polished plate]], [[Cylinder blown sheet]], [[Machine drawn cylinder sheet]]
==Glass tools==
Since glass is strong and unreactive, it is a very useful material. Many household objects are made of glass. Drinking glasses, bowls, and bottles are often made of glass, as are [[light bulb]]s, [[mirror]]s, the picture tubes of [[computer monitor]]s and [[television]]s, and [[window]]s. In [[laboratory|laboratories]] doing research in [[chemistry]], [[biology]], [[physics]] and many other fields, [[flask]]s, [[test tube]]s, [[Lens (optics)|lenses]] and other laboratory equipment are often made of glass. For these applications, [[borosilicate glass]] (such as [[Pyrex]]) is usually used for its strength and low [[coefficient of thermal expansion]], which gives greater resistance to [[thermal shock]] and allows for greater accuracy in laboratory measurements when heating and cooling experiments. For the most demanding applications, [[quartz]] glass is used, although it is very difficult to work. Most such glass is [[mass-production|mass-produced]] using various industrial processes, but most large laboratories need so much custom glassware that they keep a [[glassblowing|glassblower]] on staff.
Volcanic glasses, such as [[obsidian]], have long been used to make stone [[tools]], and [[flint (tool)|flint knapping]] techniques can easily be adapted to mass-produced glass.
==Glass art==
[[image:glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Glass sculpture by Dale Chihuly at an exhibition in Kew Gardens, London, England. The piece is 13 feet (4 metres) high]]
Even with the availability of common glassware, hand blown or [[lampworking|lampworked]] glassware remains popular for its artistry. Some artists in glass include [[Lino Tagliapietra]], [[Sidney Waugh]], [[Rene Lalique|Rene Lalique]], [[Dale Chihuly]], and [[Louis Comfort Tiffany]], who were responsible for extraordinary glass objects. The term "crystal glass", derived from rock crystal, has come to denote high-grade colourless glass, often containing lead, and is sometimes applied to any fine hand-blown glass.
There are many techniques for creating fine glass art; each is suitable for |
.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''guessing game''' is a [[game]] in which the [[Object (task)|object]] is to guess some kind of information, such as a word, a phrase, a title, or the location of an object.
Many of the games are played co-operatively. Some [[player (game)|player]](s) know the answer, but cannot tell the other(s), instead they must help them to guess it.
== Examples ==
* [[Battleship (game)|Battleship]]
* [[Charades]]
* [[Hangman]]
* [[I spy]]
* [[Mastermind (board game)|Mastermind]]
* [[Name that tune]]
* [[Pictionary]]
* [[Quizbowl]]
* [[Seekipedia]]
* [[Twenty questions]]
* [[Who's closest]]
* [[Guess Who?]]
== See also ==
* [[Mental game|Mind Games]]
[[Category:Guessing games|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ghost notes</title>
<id>12280</id>
<revision>
<id>38221845</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T00:03:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] spelling of "occurring"; see [[WP:Typo]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ghost notes''' are [[musical notes]] occurring in a rhythmic figure which are purposely deemphasized, often nearly to the point of silence.
A rhythmic figure may be punctuated by certain notes which are [[accent (music)|accented]] (emphasized), in which case we would say that the unaccented notes in the figure are played with a 'normal' degree of emphasis. This is the case, for instance, in a [[clave (rhythm)|clave]] pattern, whose notes are spaced evenly across time but with certain notes in the pattern receiving a degree of emphasis which makes them stand out, in terms of volume, from the others. Therefore, in a clave pattern, we have accented as well as unaccented notes. (Semantically, some might argue that a clave pattern is really only made up of the accented notes, with any unaccented notes being placeholders and not part of the pattern. This is open to debate, and depends largely on instrumentational factors.)
Ghost notes, however, are not simply the unaccented notes in a pattern. The unaccented notes in such a pattern as a clave are considered to represent the mean level of emphasis--they are neither absolutely emphasized nor unemphasized. If one <I>further</I> deemphasizes one of these unaccented notes to the same or a similar extent to which the accented notes in the pattern are emphasized, then one has 'ghosted' that note.
In jazz [[music notation|notation]] for wind instruments or [[string instruments]], the intent of a composer for a note to be ghosted is often indicated by using an 'x' for a notehead rather than an oval.
In a case in which a ghost note is deemphasized to the point of silence, that note then represents a rhythmic placeholder in much the same way as does a [[rest (music)|rest]]. This can be a very fine distinction, and the ability of an instrumentalist to differentiate between what is a ghost note and what is a rest is governed largely by the acoustic nature of the instrument. [[Wind instrument]]s, including the human voice, and [[guitar]]s are examples of instruments generally capable of ghosting notes without making them synonymous with rests, while a [[pianist]] or [[percussionist]] would have more difficulty in creating this distinction because of the percussive nature of the instruments, which hampers the resolution of the volume [[gradient]] as one approaches silence. However, in such a case as that the ghost notes were clearly audible, while being far less prominent than the unaccented notes which represent the mean degree of emphasis within the example, then a percussionist could be said to create what we might define as ghost notes.
As a practical example, consider a [[guitarist]] who wishes to ghost one note within a rhythmic figure he or she is playing. The guitarist would accomplish this by decreasing the pressure the fretting hand is exerting upon the strings when plucking the note to be ghosted (without actually removing the hand from the fretboard, which would cause the free vibration and the sounding of the fundamental (open) pitches of those strings which were plucked). The result would be what is sometimes called a 'scratch', and this would be an example of a ghost note (unless all the unaccented notes in the same figure were 'scratched', in which case the scratches would just be unaccented notes!) Therefore, we can see that the phenomenon of the ghost note is really a relative one. Mathematically speaking, if an accented note in a pattern receives the emphasis +1, and if an unaccented note received an emphasis of 0, then a ghost note would be a note in the pattern given an emphasis of -1.
A frequent misconception is that [[grace note]]s and ghost notes are synonymous. A grace note is by definition decidedly shorter in length than the principal note which it 'graces', but in many examples the grace note receives a greater degree of accentuation (emphasis) than the principal itself, even though it is a much shorter note than the principal. In other words, while a grace note could be ghosted, the ghosting of notes is a function of volume rather than of duration.
The term '''ghost note''', then, can have various meanings. The term '''anti-accent''' is more specific. Moreover, there exists a set of anti-accent marks to show gradation more specifically.
Percussion music in particular makes use of anti-accent marks, as follows:
1) slightly softer than surrounding notes: u (breve)
2) significantly softer than surrounding notes: ( ) (note head in parentheses)
3) much softer than surrounding notes: [ ] (note head in brackets)
[[Category:Musical notation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gottfried Leibniz</title>
<id>12281</id>
<revision>
<id>41602386</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T12:43:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mohammed Khalil</username>
<id>541247</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
<!-- Philosopher Category -->
region = Western Philosophers |
era = [[17th-century philosophy]]<br>(Modern Philosophy) |
color = #B0C4DE |
<!-- Image and Caption -->
image_name = Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz.jpg |
image_caption = Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz |
<!-- Information -->
name = Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz |
birth = [[July 1]], [[1646]] ([[Leipzig]], [[Germany]]) |
death = [[November 14]], [[1716]] ([[Hanover]], [[Germany]]) |
school_tradition = [[Continental rationalism]] |
main_interests = [[Metaphysics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Science]], [[Mathematics]], [[theodicy]] |
influences = [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Scholastic philosophy]], [[Rene Descartes|Descartes]], [[Christiaan Huygens]] |
influenced = Many later mathematicians, [[Christian Wolff]], [[Kant]], [[Bertrand Russell]] |
notable_ideas = [[Calculus]] we all use, innate knowledge, [[optimism]], [[monad]] |
}}
'''Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz''' (also '''von Leibni(t)z''') ([[July 1]] ([[June 21]] [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]]) [[1646]], [[Leipzig]] &ndash; [[November 14]] [[1716]], [[Hanover]]) was a German [[polymath]], deemed a [[genius]] in his day and since.
Educated in [[law]] and [[philosophy]], and serving as factotum to two major German noble houses (one becoming the British royal family while he served it), Leibniz played a major role in the European politics and diplomacy of his day. He occupies an equally large place in both the [[history of philosophy]] and the [[history of mathematics]]. He invented [[calculus]] independently of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], and his notation is the one in general use since. In philosophy, he is most remembered for [[optimism]], i.e., his conclusion that our universe is, in a restricted sense, the best possible one God could have made. He was, along with [[Rene Descartes|René Descartes]] and [[Baruch Spinoza]], one of the three great 17th century [[Continental rationalism|rationalists]], but his philosophy also both looks back to the [[scholastic philosophy|Scholastic]] tradition and anticipates [[logic]] and [[analytic philosophy|analysis]].
Leibniz also made major contributions to [[physics]] and [[technology]], and anticipated notions that surfaced much later in [[biology]], [[medicine]], [[geology]], [[psychology]], [[knowledge engineering]], and [[information science]]. Key figures in their fields submit that his writings contain anticipations of [[relativity]], [[fractal geometry]], and even [[quantum mechanics]]. He also wrote on [[politics]], [[law]], [[ethics]], [[theology]], [[history]], and [[philology]], even occasional verse. His contributions to this vast array of subjects are scattered in journals and in tens of thousands of letters and unpublished manuscripts. To date, there is no complete edition of Leibniz's writings, and a complete account of his accomplishments is not yet possible.
==Life==
The only biography in English is Aiton (1986). A lively short account of Leibniz’s life, one also doing fair justice to the breadth of his interests and activities, is Mates (1986: 14-35), who cites the German biographies extensively. Also see [http://www.etext.leeds.ac.uk/leibniz/leibniz.htm MacDonald Ross (1984: chpt. 1)], the chapter by Ariew in Jolley (1995), and Jolley (2005: chpt. 1). For a biographical glossary of Leibniz's intellectual contemporaries, see AG 350.
===Coming of age===
Leibniz's parents were Friedrich Leibnütz and Catherina Schmuck. He began spelling his name "Leibniz" early in adult life, but others often referred to him as "Leibnitz," a spelling which persisted until the 20th century. In later life, he o |
of ''D&D'' invent fictitious characters who embark upon imaginary adventures in which they battle many kinds of fictional monsters, gather treasure, and earn [[experience points]] as the game progresses. The game departed from traditional wargaming by assigning each player a specific character to play, as opposed to legions and armies. It also developed the concept of a [[Dungeon Master]] (DM) or [[Gamemaster]] (GM), the storyteller and referee responsible for creating the fictional setting of the game, moderating the actions of the players' characters, and playing the supporting cast of [[non-player character]]s.
The early success of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' quickly led to a proliferation of similar game systems, such as [[RuneQuest]], [[Tunnels and Trolls]], [[Traveller]], and [[Arduin]]. Despite this competition, ''D&D'' has continued to dominate the role-playing game industry throughout its existence, enjoying a nearly impenetrable market position. In [[1977]] the game was split into two slightly different versions: the simpler ''Dungeons & Dragons'' and the more complex '''''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons''''' (abbreviated as '''''AD&D''''' or '''''ADnD'''''). In [[2000]], the simplified version of the game was discontinued and the 3rd Edition of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' was released as a major revision of the ''AD&D'' game. The current version of the game, released in July [[2003]] is ''Dungeons & Dragons v.3.5'' (also known as the Revised 3rd Edition or ''D&D3.5'').
[[As of 2006]], ''Dungeons & Dragons'' remains the best-known and best-selling role-playing game, with an estimated 20 million players worldwide and over [[United States dollar|US$]]1 [[billion]] in book and equipment sales (according to a BBC news report). Products branded ''Dungeons & Dragons'' made up over fifty percent of the RPG products sold in 2002{{citeneeded}}. Outside of the gaming community, "D&D" has become a [[metonym]] used to refer to role-playing games in general. The game also achieved minor notoriety, particularly in the 1980s, due to allegations by some [[Christian fundamentalists]] that it promoted [[devil worship]], [[witchcraft]], [[suicide]], and [[murder]].
==Play overview==
[[Image:Charsheet.jpg|thumb|175px|A 3.5 Edition character sheet]]
''Dungeons & Dragons'' is a structured, yet open-ended, "make-believe" game. Each player in the game typically takes on the role of a single character. The game is presented to the players by the [[Dungeon Master]] (or DM). The DM does not have a single character, like the other players, but acts as a narrator, choosing and describing the other characters, settings, and situations the players' characters encounter. During the course of play, each player will choose the actions of their characters and the results of those actions will be determined by the DM using the rules of the game, which govern everything from combat to social interaction.
The rules of the most recent version of the game are detailed in three [[Dungeons & Dragons manuals|core rulebooks]]: The ''[[Player's Handbook]]'', the ''[[Dungeon Master's Guide]]'', and the ''[[Monster Manual]]''. Additional rulebooks, such as the ''[[Complete Warrior]]'', contain optional rules which can also be used. Abbreviated versions of the rules are available to help beginners learn the game.
The only items required to play the game are the [[Dungeons & Dragons manuals|rulebooks]], a character sheet for each player, and a number of [[dice#non-cubical dice|polyhedral dice]], although there are many optional items which can be used to supplement or enhance the gaming experience, such as pre-designed adventures and [[Dungeons & Dragons campaign settings|campaign settings]]. Special gameboards or cloth mats are sometimes used to visually depict the situations in the game, and miniature figures can be used to provide a three-dimensional representation of the characters. Computer programs are also available for supporting the game.
[[Image:DnD Dice Set.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A set of standard D&D dice: (from left) d4, d6, d8, d12, d20, and two d10s for percentile: ones and tens.]]
Before the game begins, each player creates their own character, recording the details on a character sheet. First, a player will typically roll dice to determine their character's [[Game mechanics (Dungeons & Dragons)#ability scores|ability scores]] (strength, dexterity, constitution, intelligence, wisdom, and charisma). The player then chooses a [[Race (fantasy)|race]] (such as an [[human]], [[Elf (Dungeons & Dragons)|elf]], or [[Dwarf (Dungeons & Dragons)|dwarf]]) and a [[Character class (Dungeons & Dragons)|character class]] (such as a [[Fighter (Dungeons & Dragons)|fighter]], [[Wizard (Dungeons & Dragons)|wizard]], or [[Rogue (Dungeons & Dragons)|rogue]]). The player will then choose skills and feats for their character, describing specific abilities and talents that the character possesses. The player will also select an [[Alignment (role-playing games)|alignment]] to describe their character's moral and ethical outlook. These choices determine what the character can do and how well they can perform different actions. As the game is played, the character will grow and change as they gain experience and wealth.
When a player chooses to have his character attempt an action (such as punching an opponent or picking a lock), the outcome will be determined by a character's abilities, the difficulty of the task, a random die roll, or by some combination of the three. Different characters will be skilled at accomplishing different things, and the system encourages a well-balanced team of specialised characters.
When characters defeat an enemy or accomplish a difficult task they are awarded an appropriate number of [[experience point]]s (or XP) by the DM. Attaining a certain number of experience points causes a character to advance a "level", gaining more abilities and improving existing ones.
===Adventures and Campaigns===
[[Image:S3ModuleCover.jpg|thumb|175px|''[[Expedition to the Barrier Peaks|S3: Expedition to the Barrier Peaks]]'' was one of the few adventures released by [[TSR, Inc.|TSR]] to include [[science-fiction]] elements, such as [[ray gun]]s and [[robot]]s.]]
{{main|Adventure (Dungeons & Dragons)}}
A typical ''Dungeons & Dragons'' game consists of an "adventure", which is roughly equivalent to a single story. After completing one adventure, players will usually start a new adventure while continuing to play the same characters.
Adventures are usually designed by the Dungeon Master, but throughout the history of ''Dungeons & Dragons'', numerous pre-made "adventures" or "modules" have been published. These modules allow DMs to run a game without needing to create their own adventures, and typically include a backstory, maps, and one or more objectives for players' characters to achieve. Some modules include illustrations or hand-outs to supplement the basic gaming experience. Still, despite the convenience of ready-made adventures, many Dungeon Masters take great pride in creating their own, with extensive backstories and highly original dungeon designs often laid out by hand on graph paper.
A series of adventures played through by a common group of characters is commonly referred to as a "campaign". As a result, the fantasy settings in which D&D games take place are often known as "campaign settings". Like the individual adventures themselves, many Dungeon Masters create their own fantasy settings, but there are also many official campaign settings which can be purchased. These worlds range from magic-rich to magic-poor, from traditional western settings to exotic oriental fantasies, from sword and sorcery to swashbuckling adventure.
{{seealso|Dungeons & Dragons campaign settings}}
===Miniature figures===
The wargames from which ''Dungeons & Dragons'' evolved used [[miniature figure]]s to represent combatants. ''D&D'' continued the use of miniatures in a fashion similar to its direct precursor, ''Chainmail'', with each figure representing a specific character or monster. While the original rules of ''D&D'' required the use of miniatures to resolve combat situations, the rules quickly evolved to a point where combat could be resolved verbally and miniatures were no longer required for gameplay.
Although no longer essential, miniatures remained popular with players and continued to serve as a useful visual reference, and many gamers took pride in skillful [[figure painting (hobby)|figure painting]]. In the early days of ''D&D'', the miniatures were often placed on [[acetate]]-covered graph paper with walls and other references drawn with grease pencils. As the adventurers moved from one area to another, the grease pencil markings could be wiped off and a new area drawn.
In the 1980s numerous companies began to sell miniature figures specifically for ''Dungeons & Dragons'' and similar games. [[TSR, Inc.|TSR]] partnered with [[Grenadier Miniatures]], who released their figures under the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' brand, while other [[Miniature figure#Manufacturers|miniature manufacturers]] (such as [[Ral Partha]] and [[Citadel Miniatures]]) simply release generic, fantasy-themed figures.
Professional products were also released to serve as grid-references for miniature play, from simple rollable mats printed with square or hexagonal grids, suitable for use with [[non-permanent marker]]s, to elaborate systems of interlocking tiles. Some players would build entire floor-and-wall sets from wood or cardboard and would invest in large inventories of trees and other model objects to create more realistic environments for their miniatures. Professionally-built sets were later released, as well.
Periodically, ''Dungeons & Dragons' |
ptians ====
This gospel is first mentioned by [[Clem. Alex.]] (''Strom.'' iii. 6. 45; 9. 63, 66; 13. 92), subsequently by [[Origen]] (''Hom. in Luc.'' i.) and [[Epiphanius]] (''Haer.'' lxii. 2), and a fragment is preserved in the so-called 2 Clem. Rom. xii. 2. It circulated among various heretical circles; amongst the [[Encratites]] (Clem. ''Strom.'' iii. 9), the [[Nassenes]] (Hippolyt. ''Philos.'' v. 7), and the [[Sabellians]] (Epiph. ''Haer.'' lxii. 2). Only three or four fragments survive; see [[Lipsius]] (Smith and [[Wace]], ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' ii. 712, 713); Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 628-642; Preuschen, ''Reste d. ausserkanonischen Evangelien'', 1901, p. 2, which show that it was a product of [[pantheistic]] [[Gnosticism]]. With this pantheistic Gnosticism is associated a severe asceticism. The distinctions of sex are one day to come to an end; the prohibition of marriage follows naturally on this view. Hence Christ is represented as coming to destroy the work of the female (Clem. Alex. ''Strom.'' iii. 9. 63). Lipsius and Zahn assign it to the middle of the 2nd century. It may be earlier.
==== Protevangel of James ====
This title was first given in the 16th century to a writing which is referred to as ''The Book of James'' (ἡ βιβλος Ιακοβωυ) by Origen (tom. xi. ''in Matt.''). Its author designates it as Ἱστορια. For various other designations see [[Tischendorf]], ''Evang. Apocr.'' 1 seq. The narrative extends from the Conception of the Virgin to the Death of Zacharias. Lipsius shows that in the present form of the book there is side by side a strange "admixture of intimate knowledge and gross ignorance of Jewish thought and custom," and that accordingly we must "distinguish between an original Jewish Christian writing and a Gnostic recast of it." The former was known to Justin (''Dial.'' 78, 101) and Clem. Alex. (''Strom.'' vii. 16), and belongs at latest to the earliest years of the 2nd century. The Gnostic recast Lipsius dates about the middle of the 3rd century. From these two works arose independently the ''Protevangel'' in its present form and the Latin pseudo-Matthaeus (''Evangelium pseudo-Matthaei''). The ''Evangelium de Nativitate Mariae'' is a redaction of the latter. (See Lipsius in Smith's ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' ii. 701-703.) But if we except the Zachariah and John group of legends, it is not necessary to assume the Gnostic recast of this work in the 3rd century as is done by Lipsius. The author had at his disposal two distinct groups of legends about Mary. One of these groups is certainly of non-Jewish origin, as it conceives Mary as living in the temple somewhat after the manner of a vestal virgin or a priestess of Isis. The other group is more in accord with the orthodox gospels. The book appears to have been written in Egypt, and in the early years of the 2nd century. For, since Origen states that many appealed to it in support of the view that the brothers of Jesus were sons of Joseph by a former marriage, the book must have been current about A.D. 200. From Origen we may ascend to Clem. Alex. who (''Strom.'' vi. 93) shows acquaintance with one of the chief doctrines of the book--the perpetual virginity of Mary. Finally, as Justin's statements as to the birth of Jesus in a cave and Mary's descent from David show in all probability his acquaintance with the book, it may with good grounds be assigned to the first decade of the 2nd century. (So Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', i. 485, 499, 502, 504, 539; ii. 774-780.) For the Greek text see Tischendorf, ''Evang. Apocr.'' 1-50; B. P. Grenfell, ''An Alexandrian erotic Fragment and other Papyri'', 1896, pp. 13-17: for the Syriac, Wright, ''Contributions to Apocryphal Literature of the N.T.'', 1865, pp. 3-7; A. S. Lewis, ''Studia Sinaitica'', xi. pp. 1-22. See literature generally in Hennecke, ''NTliche Apok. Handbuch'', 106 seq.
==== Gospel of Nicodemus ====
This title is first met with in the 13th century. It is used to designate an apocryphal writing entitled in the older MSS. ὑπονηματα του Κυριου ἡμων Ιησου Χριστου πραχθεντα επι Ποντιου Πιλατου: also "Gesta Salvatoris Domini... inventa Theodosio magno imperatore in Ierusalem in praetorio Pontii Pilati in codicibus publicis." See Tischendorf, ''Evang. Apocr.'' pp. 333-335. This work gives an account of the Passion (i.-xi.), the Resurrection (xii.-xvi.), and the ''Descensus ad Inferos'' (xvii.-xxvii.). Chapters i.-xvi. are extant, in the Greek, Coptic, and two Armenian versions. The two Latin versions and a Byzantine recension of the Greek contain i.-xxvii. (see Tischendorf, ''Evangelia Apocrypha'', pp. 210-458). All known texts go back to A. D. 425, if one may trust the reference to Theodosius. But this was only a revision, for as early as 376 Epiphanius (''Haer.'' i. 1.) presupposes the existence of a like text. In 325 Eusebius (''H.E.'' ii. 2) was acquainted only with the heathen ''Acts of Pilate'', and knew nothing of a Christian work. Tischendorf and Hofmann, however, find evidence of its existence in Justin's reference to the Ἁκτα Πιλατου (''Apol.'' i. 35, 48), and in Tertullian's mention of the ''Acta Pilati'' (''Apol.'' 21), and on this evidence attribute our texts to the first half of the 2nd century. But these references have been denied by Scholten, Lipsius, and Lightfoot. Recently Schubert has sought to derive the elements which are found in the Petrine Gospel, but not in the canonical gospels, from the original ''Acta Pilati'', while Zahn exactly reverses the relation of these two works. Rendel Harris (1899) advocated the view that the Gospel of Nicodemus, as we possess it, is merely a prose version of the Gospel of Nicodemus written originally in Homeric centones as early as the 2nd century. Lipsius and Dobschütz relegate the book to the 4th century. The question is not settled yet (see Lipsius in Smith's ''Dict. of Christ. Biography'', ii. 708-709, and Dobschütz in Hastings' ''Bible Dictionary'', iii. 544-547).
==== Gospel according to the Hebrews ====
This gospel was cited by Ignatius (''Ad Smyrnaeos'', iii.) according to Jerome (''Viris illus.'' 16, and ''in Jes.'' lib. xviii.), but this is declared to be untrustworthy by Zahn, op. cit. i. 921; ii. 701, 702. It was written in Aramaic in Hebrew letters, according to Jerome (''Adv. Pelag.'' iii. 2), and translated by him into Greek and Latin. Both these translations are lost. A collection of the Greek and Latin fragments that have survived, mainly in Origen and Jerome, will be found in Hilgenfeld's ''NT extra Canonem receptum'', Nicholson's ''Gospel according to the Hebrews'' (1879), Westcott's ''Introd. to the Gospels'', and Zahn's ''Gesch. des NTlichen Kanons'', ii. 642-723; Preuschen, op. cit. 3-8. This gospel was regarded by many in the first centuries as the Hebrew original of the canonical Matthew (Jerome, ''in Matt.'' xii. 13; ''Adv. Pelag.'' iii. 1). With the canonical gospel it agrees in some of its sayings; in others it is independent. It circulated among the Nazarenes in Syria, and was composed, according to Zahn (op. cit. ii. 722), between the years 135 and 150. Jerome identifies it with the ''Gospel of the Twelve'' (''Adv. Pelag.'' iii. 2), and states that it was used by the Ebionites (''Comm. in Matt.'' xii. 13). Zahn (op. cit. ii. 662, 724) contests both these statements. The former he traces to a mistaken interpretation of Origen (''Hom. I. in Luc.''). Lipsius, on the other hand, accepts the statements of Jerome (Smith and Wace, ''Dict. of Christian Biography'', ii. 709-712), and is of opinion that this gospel, in the form in which it was known to Epiphanius, Jerome and Origen, was "a recast of an older original," which, written originally in Aramaic, was nearly related to the Logia used by St Matthew and the Ebionitic writing used by St Luke, "which itself was only a later redaction of the Logia."
According to the most recent investigations we may conclude that the Gospel according to the Hebrews was current among the Nazarenes and Ebionites as early as 100-125, since Ignatius was familiar with the phrase "I am no bodiless demon"--a phrase which, according to Jerome (''Comm. in Is.'' xviii.), belonged to this Gospel.
The name "Gospel according to the Hebrews" cannot have been original; for if it had been so named because of its general use among the Hebrews, yet the Hebrews themselves would not have used this designation. It may have been known simply as "the Gospel." The language was Western Aramaic, the mother tongue of Jesus and his apostles. Two forms of Western Aramaic survive: the Jerusalem form of the dialect, in the Aramaic portions of Daniel and Ezra; and the Galilean, in isolated expressions in the Talmud (3rd century), and in a fragmentary 5th century translation of the Bible. The quotations from the Old Testament are made from the Massoretic text.
This gospel must have been translated at an early date into Greek, as Clement and Origen cite it as generally accessible, and Eusebius recounts that many reckoned it among the received books. The gospel is synoptic in character and is closely related to Matthew, though in the Resurrection accounts it has affinities with Luke. Like Mark it seems to have had no history of the birth of Christ, and to have begun with the baptism. (For the literature see Hennecke, ''NTliche Apok. Handbuch'', 21-23.)
==== [[Gospel of Peter]] ====
Before 1892 we had some knowledge of this gospel. Thus Serapion, bishop of Antioch (A.D. 190-203) found it in use in the church of Rhossus in Cilicia, and condemned it as Docetic (Eusebius, ''H.E.'' vi. 12). Again, Origen (''In Matt.'' tom. xvii. 10) says that it represented the brethren of Christ as his half-brothers. In 1885 a long fragment was discovered at Akhmim, and published by Bouriant in 1892, and subsequently by Lods, Robinson, Harnack, Zahn, Schubert, Swete.
==== Gospel of Thomas ====
This gospel professes to give an account of C |
titis A]], and [[typhoid]] fever
:Vectorborne diseases: [[dengue fever]], [[malaria]], and [[Japanese encephalitis]] are high risks in some locations (2004)
===Nationality===
:Noun: Cambodian(s)
:Adjective: Cambodian
===Ethnic groups===
:[[Khmer people|Khmer]] 90%, [[Vietnam]]ese 5%, [[China|Chinese]] 1%, other 4%. The population of Cambodia has been fairly homogeneous. In 1962 about 80 % of the population was ethnic Khmer. The remaining 20 % included Chinese, [[Vietnam]]ese, [[Cham people|Cham]], [[Khmer Loeu]], Europeans. By 1981, as a result of the Vietnamese repatriation in 1970 to 1971 and the deaths and emigration of large numbers of Cham and Chinese, ethnic Khmer accounted for about 90 % or more of the population.
===Religions===
:[[Theravada Buddhist]] 95%, other 5%
===Languages===
:Khmer (official) 95%, French, English
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 69.4%
:Male: 80.8%
:Female: 59.3% (2002)
==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}
[[Category:Demographics by country|Cambodia]]
[[Category:Cambodian society]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Cambodia</title>
<id>5431</id>
<revision>
<id>40407629</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T09:09:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cambodia}}
According to the nation's [[constitution]] (enacted in 1993), [[Cambodia]] is officially a multi-party [[liberal democracy]] under a [[constitutional monarch]].
==The Prime Minister and Council of Ministers==
The [[Prime Minister]] of Cambodia is a representative from the ruling party of the National Assembly. He or she is appointed by the King on the recommendation of the President and Vice Presidents of the National Assembly. In order for a person to become Prime Minister, he or she must first be given a vote of confidence by the National Assembly.
The Prime Minister is officially the [[Head of Government]] in Cambodia. Upon entry into office, he appoints a Council of Ministers who are responsible to the Prime Minister. Officially, the Prime Minister's duties include chairing meetings of the Council of Ministers (Cambodia's version of a [[Cabinet]]) and appointing and leading a government. The Prime Minister and his government make up Cambodia's [[executive (government)|executive branch]] of government.
The current Cambodian Prime Minister is Cambodian's People Party (CPP) member [[Hun Sen]]. He has held this position since the criticized 1998 election, one year after the CPP staged a bloody [[Coup d'etat|coup]] in Phnom Penh[http://cambodia.ohchr.org/Documents/Statements%20and%20Speeches/English/40.pdf][http://www.hri.org/docs/statedep/1997/97-07-08.std.html] to overthrow elected Prime Minister Prince Norodom Ranariddh, president of the FUNCINPEC party.
==The Legislative Branch==
The [[legislature|legislative branch]] of the Cambodian government is made up of a [[bicameral]] [[parliament]].
The official duty of the Parliament is to legislate and make laws. Bills passed by the Parliament are given to the King who gives the proposed bills [[Royal Assent]]. The King does not have [[veto]] power over bills passed by the National Assembly (the lower house) and, thus, cannot withhold Royal Assent. The National Assembly also has the power to dismiss the Prime Minister and his government by a two-thirds [[vote of no confidence]].
===Senate===
The upper house of the Cambodian legislature is called the ''Senate''. It is made up of 61 members. Two of these members are appointed by the King, two are elected by the lower house of the government, and the remaining fifty-seven are elected popularly by "functional constituencies." Members in this house serve five year terms.
Elections were last held for the Senate in 1999. New elections were supposed to have occurred in 2004, but these elections were initially postponed. On January 22, 2006, 11,352 possible voters went to the poll and chose their candidates. This election was criticized by local monitoring non-governmental organizations as being undemocratic[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4638406.stm].
[[As of 2006]], the [[Cambodian People's Party]] holds 43 seats in the Senate, constituting a slight majority. The two other major parties holding seats in the Senate are the [[Funcinpec]] party (holding 12 seats) and the [[Sam Rainsy Party]] (holding two seats).
===National Assembly===
The lower house of the legislature is called the ''National Assembly''. It is made up of 123 members, elected by popular vote to serve five year terms. Elections were last held for the National Assembly in 2003, with the next elections scheduled for July 2008.
In order to vote in legislative elections, one must be at least eighteen years of age. However, in order to be elected to the Legislature, one must be at least twenty-five years of age.
The National Assembly is led by a President and two Vice Presidents who are selected by Assembly members prior to each session.
[[As of 2005]], the [[Cambodian People's Party]] holds a majority of the seats in the National Assembly, controlling 73 out of the 123 seats. The [[Funcinpec]] party holds 26 seats, while the [[Sam Rainsy Party]] holds the remaining 24 seats.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Cambodia|Elections in Cambodia}}
{{Cambodian parliamentary election, 2003}}
==The Judicial Branch==
The [[judiciary|judicial branch]] should be independent from the rest of the government, as specified by the Cambodian [[Constitution]]. The highest court of judicial branch is the [[Supreme Council of the Magistracy]]. Other, lower courts also exist. Until 1997, Cambodia didn't have a judicial branch of government despite the nation's Constitution requiring one.
The main duties of the judiciary are to prosecute criminals, settling lawsuits, and, most importantly, protect the freedoms and rights of Cambodian citizens. However, in reality, the judicial branch in Cambodia is highly corrupt and often serves as a tool used by executive branch to silence civil society and its leaders[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/cambod12269.htm].
==The Monarchy==
Cambodia is a [[constitutional monarchy]]--the King reigns but does not rule, similar to Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]]. The King is officially the [[Head of State]] and is the symbol of unity and "eternity" of the nation, as defined by Cambodia's constitution.
From [[September 24]], [[1993]] through [[October 7]], [[2004]], [[Norodom Sihanouk]] reigned as King. Under the Constitution the King has no political power, but as Norodom Sihanouk was revered in the country, his word often carried much influence in the government. For example, in February 2004, he issued a proclamation stating that since Cambodia is a "liberal democracy," the Kingdom should allow [[gay marriage]]. While such views aren't prevalent in Cambodia, his word was respected by his subjects. The King, often irritated over the conflicts in his government, several times threatened to abdicate unless the political factions in the government got along. This put pressure on the government to solve their differences. This influence of the King was often used to help mediate differences in government.
After the abdication of King Norodom Sihanouk in 2004, he was succeeded by his son [[Norodom Sihamoni]]. While the retired King is highly revered in his country for dedicating his lifetime to Cambodia, the current King has spent most of his life abroad in [[France]]. Thus, it remains to be seen whether the new king's views will be as highly respected as his father's.
Although in the [[Khmer language]] there are many words meaning "king", the word officially used in Khmer (as found in the 1993 Cambodian Constitution) is ''preahmâhaksat'' (Khmer regular script:[[Image:Seihamuni11.png|80px]]), which literally means: ''preah''- ("sacred", cognate of the Indian word [[Brahmin]]) -''mâha''- (from [[Sanskrit]], meaning "great", cognate with "maha-" in [[maharaja]]) -''ksat'' ("warrior, ruler", cognate of the Indian word [[Kshatriya]]).
On the occasion of HM King Norodom Sihanouk's retirement in September 2004, the Cambodian National Assembly coined a new word for the retired king: ''preahmâhaviraksat'' (Khmer regular script:[[Image:Sihanouk6.png|90px]]), where ''vira'' comes from Sanskrit ''{{IPA|v&#299;ra}}'', meaning "brave or eminent man, hero, chief", cognate of [[Latin]] ''vir'', ''viris'', [[English language|English]] ''virile''. ''Preahmâhaviraksat'' is translated in English as "King-Father" ([[French language|French]]: ''Roi-Père''), although the word "father" does not appear in the Khmer noun.
As ''preahmâhaviraksat'', Norodom Sihanouk retains many of the prerogatives he formerly held as ''preahmâhaksat'' and is a highly respected and listened-to figure. Thus, in effect, Cambodia can be described as a country with two heads of state: an official one, the ''preahmâhaksat'' Norodom Sihamoni, and an unofficial one, the ''preahmâhaviraksat'' Norodom Sihanouk.
===Succession to the Throne===
Unlike most monarchies, Cambodia's monarchy isn't necessarily [[hereditary monarchy|hereditary]] and the King is not allowed to select his own heir. Instead, a new King is chosen by a Royal Council of the Throne, consisting of the president of the National Assembly, the Prime Minsiter, the Chiefs of the orders of Mohanikay and Thammayut, and the First and Second Vice-President of the Assembly. The Royal Council meets within a week of the King's death or abdication and selects a new King from a pool of candidates with royal blood.
It has been suggested that Cambodia's ability to peacefully appoint a new King shows that Cambodia's government has st |
Antilles. The Dutch Language Union defines what is AN and what is not, for example in terms of orthography.
''Algemeen Nederlands'' replaced the older name ''Algemeen Beschaafd Nederlands'' ('Common Civilized Dutch', abbreviated to ABN) when it was no longer considered politically correct, because it implied that people who didn't speak ABN were not civilized.
===Dialects===
[[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]] (Vlaams in [[Dutch]]) is the collective term often used for the Dutch [[dialect]]s spoken in Belgium. It is not a separate language (though the term is often also used to distinguish the standard Dutch spoken in Flanders from that of the Netherlands) nor are the dialects in Belgium more closely related to each other than to the dialects in The Netherlands. The forms of Dutch spoken in Flanders and in the Netherlands differ somewhat and are instantly recognisable. One could draw a parallel with the [[American and British English differences]] (spoken form only). The Americans and the English use slightly divergent vocabularies, though both officially correct. However, while American English is considered a derivative of English by some, Dutch in Flanders and Dutch spoken in the Netherlands are historically equal.
In [[Flanders]], there are roughly four dialect groups: [[West Flemish]], [[East Flemish]], [[Brabantian]] and [[Limburgish]]. They have all incorporated French loanwords in everyday language. An example is ''fourchette'' in various forms (originally a French word meaning fork), instead of ''vork''. Brussels, especially, is heavily influenced by French because roughly 85% of the inhabitants of [[Brussels]] speak French. The Limburgish in Belgium is closely related to Dutch Limburgish. An oddity of West Flemish (and to a lesser extent, East Flemish) is that the pronunciation of the "soft g" sound (the [[voiced velar fricative]]) is almost identical to that of the "h" sound (the [[voiced glottal fricative]]), thus, the words ''held'' (hero) and ''geld'' (money) sound nearly the same. Some Flemish dialects are so distinct that they might be considered as separate language variants. [[West Flemish]] in particular has sometimes been considered as such. Dialect borders of these dialects do not correspond to present political boundaries, but reflect older, medieval divisions. The [[Brabantian]] dialect group, for instance, also extends to much of the south of the Netherlands, and so does [[Limburgish]]. West-Flemish is also spoken in the Dutch province of Zeeland, in a variant called Zeeuws (or Zealandic, in English) and even in a small part near [[Dunkirk, France]], bordering on Belgium.
The Netherlands also has different dialect regions. In the east there is an extensive [[Low German]] dialect area: the provinces of [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] ([[Gronings]]), [[Drenthe]] and [[Overijssel]] are almost exclusively Low Saxon. [[Zuid-Gelders]] is a dialect also spoken in the German land of [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]. Brabantian ([[Noord-Brabant]]) fade into the dialects spoken in the adjoining provinces of Belgium. Same thing applies to [[Limburgish]] ([[Limburg (Netherlands)]]), but this variant also has the status of official Minority Language in the [[Netherlands]] (but not in [[Belgium]]). It receives protection by chapter 2 of the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]. [[Limburgish]] is Low Franconian, as is Dutch, but is so much more distant (it has been influenced by the [[Rhinelandic]] dialects like the [[Cologne]] dialect: [[Kölsch Platt]], and has had a very different development since the late Middle Ages) that it is less and less classified as being Dutch.
[[Zealandic]] of most of [[Zeeland]] is a transitional regional language between West Flemish and Hollandic, with the exception of the eastern part of [[Zealandic Flanders]] where East Flemish is spoken. In [[Holland]] proper, [[Hollandic]] is spoken, though the original forms of this dialect, heavily influenced by a Frisian [[substrate]], are now relatively rare; the urban dialects of the [[Randstad]], which are Hollandic dialects, do not diverge from standard Dutch very much, but there is a clear difference between the city dialects of [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]], [[Amsterdam]] or [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]].
In some rural Hollandic areas more authentic Hollandic dialects are still being used, especially north of Amsterdam. Limburgish and [[Low German]] have been elevated by the Netherlands (and by Germany) to the legal status of ''streektaal'' ([[regional language]]) according to the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]], which causes some native speakers to consider them separate languages. Some dialects are unintelligible to some speakers of Hollandic.
Dutch dialects are not spoken as often as they used to be. Nowadays in The Netherlands only older people speak these dialects in the smaller villages, with the exception of the Low Saxon and Limburgish ''streektalen'', which are actively promoted by some provinces and still in common use. Most towns and cities stick to standard Dutch - although many cities have their own ''city dialect'', which continues to prosper. In Belgium dialects are very much alive however; many senior citizens there are unable to speak standard Dutch. In both the Netherlands and Belgium, many larger cities also have several distinct smaller dialects.
By many native speakers of Dutch, both in Belgium and the Netherlands, [[Afrikaans]] and [[Frisian language|Frisian]] are often assumed to be very deviant dialects of Dutch. In fact, they are two different languages, Afrikaans having evolved mainly from Dutch. There is no dialect continuum between the Frisian and adjoining Low Saxon. A Frisian standard language has been developed.
Until the early [[20th century]], variants of Dutch were still spoken by some descendants of [[Dutch colonization of the Americas|Dutch colonies in the United States]]. [[New Jersey]] in particular had an active Dutch community with a highly divergent dialect that was spoken as recently as the [[1950s]]. See [[Jersey Dutch]] for more on this dialect.
===Accents===
In addition to the many dialects of the Dutch language many provinces and larger cities have their own [[Accent (linguistics)|accents]], which sometimes are also called dialects. Ethnic communities tend to have varying accents: for example many people from the Dutch Antilles or Suriname speak with a "[[Surinaams]]" accent, and the Dutch-Moroccan and Dutch-Turkish youth have also developed their own accents, which in some cases are enhanced by a debased Dutch [[slang]] with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] or [[Turkish language|Turkish]] words thrown in, which serves in making their speech nearly unintelligible to some older speakers of standard Dutch.
===Derived languages===
A close relative of the Dutch language is [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]], a language spoken in [[South Africa]] and [[Namibia]], originating primarily from [[17th century]] Dutch dialects, and a great deal of mutual intelligibility still exists. One who can speak Dutch is usually able to read and understand Afrikaans. There are also [[Dutch-based creole languages]].
==Sounds==
{{IPA notice}}
===Vowels===
The [[vowel]] inventory of Dutch is large, with 14 simple vowels and four diphthongs. The vowels {{IPA|/e&#720;/}}, {{IPA|/ø&#720;/}}, {{IPA|/o&#720;/}} are included on the diphthong chart because they are actually produced as narrow closing diphthongs in many dialects, but behave phonologically like the other simple vowels. When unstressed, /a/ and {{IPA|/&#593;/}} are usually pronounced like {{IPA|[ɐ]}} (a near-open central vowel), but this change is not phonemic.
{| align="right"
!align="right"|IPA chart Dutch [[monophthong]]s
|-
|[[Image:Dutch-monophthongs.png]]
|-
|&nbsp;
|-
!align="right"|IPA chart Dutch [[diphthong]]s
|-
|[[Image:Dutch-diphthongs.png]]
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Dutch Vowels with Example Words'''
|align=center|'''Symbol'''
|colspan=3 align=center|'''Example'''
|-
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
![[orthography]]
!English translation
|-
|[[near-close near-front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|&#618;}}]]
|{{IPA|b&#618;t}}
|''bit''
|'bit'
|-
|[[close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|i}}]]
|{{IPA|bit}}
|''biet''
|'beetroot'
|-
|[[near-close near-front rounded vowel|{{IPA|&#655;}}]]
|{{IPA|h&#655;t}}
|''hut''
|'cabin'
|-
|[[close front rounded vowel|{{IPA|y}}]]
|{{IPA|fyt}}
|''fuut''
|'grebe'
|-
|[[open-mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|&#603;}}]]
|{{IPA|b&#603;t}}
|''bed''
|'bed'
|-
|[[close-mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|e&#720;}}]]
|{{IPA|be&#720;t}}
|''beet''
|'bite'
|-
|[[mid central vowel|{{IPA|&#601;}}]]
|{{IPA|d&#601;}}
|'' de''
|'the'
|-
|[[close-mid front rounded vowel|{{IPA|&#248;&#720;}}]]
|{{IPA|n&#248;&#720;s}}
|''neus''
|'nose'
|-
|[[open back unrounded vowel|{{IPA|&#593;}}]]
|{{IPA|b&#593;t}}
|''bad''
|'bath'
|-
|[[open front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|a&#720;}}]]
|{{IPA|za&#720;t}}
|''zaad''
|'seed'
|-
|[[open-mid back rounded vowel|{{IPA|&#596;}}]]
|{{IPA|b&#596;t}}
|''bot''
|'bone'
|-
|[[close-mid back rounded vowel|{{IPA|o&#720;}}]]
|{{IPA|bo&#720;t}}
|''boot''
|'boat'
|-
|[[close back rounded vowel|{{IPA|u}}]]
|{{IPA|hut}}
|''hoed''
|'hat'
|-
|{{IPA|&#603;i}}
|{{IPA|&#603;i, &#651;&#603;in}}
|''ei'', ''wijn''
|'egg', 'wine'
|-
|{{IPA|&#339;y}}
|{{IPA|&#339;y}}
|''ui''
|'onion'
|-
|{{IPA|&#652;u}}
|{{IPA|z&#652;ut}}
|''zout''
|'salt'
|}
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''IPA chart Dutch consonants'''
|-
<!-- Heading row -->
|
|[[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
|[[Labiodental consonant|Labio-<br />dental]]
|[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
|[[postalveolar consonant|Post-<br />alveolar]]
|[[Palata |
Manitoba
*250: 958-6111 All of British Columbia excluding Vancouver (604)
*306: 115 Saskatchewan
*403: 311 Alberta, Yukon and N.W. Territory (except Calgary, Alberta)
*403: 958-6111 Alberta (Telus)
*403: 705-0311 Alberta (Allstream - may work in other parts of Canada - untested)
*403: 555-0311 Alberta (GroupTel - may work in other parts of Canada - untested)
*403: 908-222-2222 Alberta, Yukon and N.W. Territory
*403: 999 Alberta, Yukon and N.W. Territory
*416: 981-0001 Toronto, Ontario
*450: 320-1180 Most of the province of Quebec
*506: 1-555-1313 New Brunswick
*514: 320-1232 Montreal, Quebec
*514: 320-1223 Montreal, Quebec
*514: 320-1233 Montreal, Quebec
*514: 320-1180 Most of the province of Quebec
*519: 958-2622 Ontario -Bell ANAC-
*519: 555-0311 Ontario -Rogers ANAC-
*604: 1116 British Columbia
*604: 1211 British Columbia
*604: 211 British Columbia
*613: 958-2622 Ontario -Bell ANAC-
*613: 555-0311 Ontario -Rogers ANAC-
*705: 320-4567 North Bay/Saulte Ste. Marie, Ontario
*709: 311 Newfoundland
*780: 958-6111 Northern Alberta
*819: 320-1112 Quebec
*819: 320-1180 Most of the province of Quebec
===Toll-free ANACs===
*800-437-7950 MCI
*800-213-2233 WORKS [ANI + NUMBER]
*800-314-4258 WORKS [NUMBER]
*800-444-0800 " "
*800-444-2222 " "
*800-444-3333 " "
*800-444-4444 " "
*800-444-5555 " "
*800-552-8355 WORKS - MCI [NUMBER]
*800-877-2278 WORKS [009949 + NUMBER]
*1010-732-1770-988-9664 (UNIVERSAL ANAC NUMBER) LINES WITH 1010 BLOCKS OR NO LONG DISTANCE *CARRIER WILL GIVE AN INTERCEPT MESSAGE
===United Kingdom===
*17070, BT Linetest Facilities
*08081707788, it does have a long introductory message, but it is useful on [[COCOT|COCOTs]] which have 17070 barred.
===Israel===
*110
===Australia===
*127 22 123
*1800 801 920
===New Zealand===
*1956 or 0(8)320-1231 area code & number
*1957 or 0(8)320-1234 local number
You can also dial from overseas to test if your (CPN) Caller ID number is being passed on to New Zealand. Dial +64(8)320-1231, from USA/Canada and rest of NANP dial 011-64-8-320-1231 to hear your 3 digit area code & 7 digit local number read back to you from N.Z.
Edited by Dion Wood +1(800)808-KIWI (Illinois)
===South Africa===
*+27 21 405 9111 Cape Town ANAC
*+27 21 405 9116 Cape Town ANAC with callback
Edited by Andy Ashley (andy@nexus6.co.za)
[[Category:Telephony]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amerigo Vespucci</title>
<id>2062</id>
<revision>
<id>42106687</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.125.205.175</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Amerigo Vespucci]]''' ([[March 9]], [[1454]] in [[Florence]], [[Italy]] - [[February 22]], [[1512]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] merchant and [[cartography|cartographer]] who voyaged to and wrote about [[the Americas]]. His exploratory journeys along the eastern coastline of [[South America]] convinced him that a new continent had been discovered, a bold contention in his day when everyone, including [[Christopher Columbus]], thought the seafaring trailblazers setting out from European docks were travelling to [[East Asia]].
[[image:Amerigo_Vespucci.jpg|thumb|200px|right| Amerigo Vespucci]]
Amerigo Vespucci was born in [[Florence]], [[Italy]], as the third child of a respected family. His father was a notary for the Money Changers' [[Guild]] of Florence.
The role of Vespucci has been much debated, particularly due to two of his letters whose authenticity has been brought into doubt: the ''Mundus Novus'' ([[New World]]) and the ''Lettera'' (or "The Four Voyages"). While some have suggested that Vespucci was exaggerating his role and constructed deliberate fabrications, others have instead proposed that the two letters were forgeries written by others of the same period.
It may have been the publication and widespread circulation of his letters that led [[Martin Waldseemüller]] to name the new continent [[The Americas|America]] on his world map of [[1507]]. Vespucci styled himself ''Americus Vespucius'' in his [[Latin]] writings, so Waldseemüller based the new name on the Latin form of Vespucci's first name, taking the feminine form ''America''. (See also [[Naming_of_America#Naming_of_America|Naming of America]].) ''Amerigo'' itself is an [[Italian language|Italian]] form of the medieval [[Latin]] ''Emericus'' (see also [[Emeric of Hungary (saint)|Saint Emeric of Hungary]]), which through the [[German language|German]] form [[Heinrich]] (in [[English language|English]], [[Henry]]) derived from the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] name ''[[Haimirich]]''.
The two disputed letters claim that Vespucci made four voyages to America, while at most three can be verified from other sources. It is now generally accepted by historians that no voyage was made in [[1497]] (which allegedly began from [[Cádiz]] on [[May 10th]] of that year).
[[Image:Amerigo Vespucci01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Statue at the [[Uffizi]], Florence]]
In [[1499]]&ndash;[[1500]], Vespucci joined an expedition led by [[Alonso de Ojeda]]. After hitting land at the coast of what is now [[Guyana]], the two seem to have separated. Vespucci sailed southward, discovering the mouth of the [[Amazon River]] and reaching 6°S, before turning around and seeing [[Trinidad]] and the [[Orinoco River]] and returning to [[Spain]] by way of [[Hispaniola]]. Vespucci claimed, in a letter to Lorenzo di Medici, that he determined his longitude celestially on August 23, 1499, while on this voyage. But his claim is clearly fraudulent, which casts more doubt on Vespucci's credibility.
His next voyage in [[1501]]&ndash;[[1502]] was in service of [[Portugal]], when he reached the bay of what is now [[Rio de Janeiro]]. The leader of this expedition was [[Gonçalo Coelho]]. On this voyage he sailed southward along the coast of [[South America]]. If his own account is to be believed, he reached the latitude of [[Patagonia]] before turning back; although this also seems doubtful, since his account does not mention the broad estuary of the [[Río de la Plata]], which he must have seen if he had gotten that far south. During the first half of this expedition in [[1501]], Vespucci mapped the two [[star]]s, [[Alpha Centauri]] and [[Beta Centauri]] as well as the stars of the [[constellation]] [[Crux]]. Although these stars were known to the ancient [[Greece|Greeks]], gradual [[precession]] had lowered them below the [[Europe|European]] skyline so that they were forgotten.
Little is known of his last voyage in [[1503]]&ndash;[[1504]]. It is not even known whether it actually took place. Amerigo Vespucci died in [[Seville]], [[Spain]], in [[1512]].
Vespucci's real importance for history may well not lie in his discoveries ''per se'', but in his letters, whether or not he wrote them all himself. From these letters, the European public learned about America for the first time; its existence became generally known throughout Europe within a few years of their publication.
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15384b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia on Amerigo Vespucci]
==References==
*James A. Canaday, ''[http://www.millersv.edu/~columbus/papers/canaday.html The Life of Amerigo Vespucci]''
*Robert Dinwiddie, ''[[Universe (book)|Universe: The Definitive Visual Dictionary]]'', (2005), DK Adult Publishing, pg 396.
[[Category:1454 births|Vespucci, Amerigo]]
[[Category:1512 deaths|Vespucci, Amerigo]]
[[Category:Natives of Florence|Vespucci, Amerigo]]
[[Category:Italian explorers|Vespucci, Amerigo]]
[[Category:Italian cartographers|Vespucci, Amerigo]]
[[ast:Amerigo Vespucci]]
[[bg:Америко Веспучи]]
[[ca:Amerigo Vespucci]]
[[da:Amerigo Vespucci]]
[[de:Amérigo Vespucci]]
[[es:Américo Vespucio]]
[[eo:Amerigo VESPUCCI]]
[[fr:Amerigo Vespucci]]
[[it:Amerigo Vespucci]]
[[he:אמריגו וספוצ'י]]
[[hu:Amerigo Vespucci]]
[[nl:Amerigo Vespucci (persoon)]]
[[ja:アメリゴ・ヴェスプッチ]]
[[no:Amerigo Vespucci]]
[[pl:Amerigo Vespucci]]
[[pt:Américo Vespúcio]]
[[ru:Веспуччи, Америго]]
[[fi:Amerigo Vespucci]]
[[sv:Amerigo Vespucci]]
[[zh:阿美利哥·维斯普西]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aristide Maillol</title>
<id>2063</id>
<revision>
<id>39213335</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T15:29:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dahn</username>
<id>531961</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The_mountain.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Aristide Maillol. The mountain, 1937, lead]]
'''Aristide Maillol''' ([[April 8]] [[1861]], [[Banyuls-sur-Mer]], [[Roussillon]]&mdash;[[September 27]] [[1944]], Banyuls-sur-Mer) was a [[France|French]] [[Catalans|Catalan]] [[Sculpture|sculptor]] and [[painter]].
He studied in [[Paris]], under renowned teacher [[Antoine Bourdelle]] and at the [[École des Beaux Arts]].
In the history of Modern art, Maillol's figurative stylization is perceived as an important precursor to the even greater simplifications of [[Henry Moore]] and [[Alberto Giacometti]]. But in the broader history of sculpture in the 20th century, he is known for a new kind of dream-like [[classicism]] that would set a standard for European (and [[United States|American]]) figure sculpture until the end of [[World War II]].
The paintings of his contemporaries [[Pierre Puvis de Chavannes]] and [[Paul Gauguin]] gave direction to his early work in [[tapestry]] at Banyuls and eventually his later career in sculpture, begun at age 40.
He died in a car accident. While driving home during a rain shower, the car in which he was a passenger skidded off the road and overturned. Dina Vierny, Maillol's companion during the last 10 yea |
r would dominate British horror production throughout this period, but other companies were created specifically to meet the new demand, including [[Amicus Productions]] and [[Tigon British Film Productions|Tigon British]].
===The British New Wave===
The [[British New Wave]], or "Free Cinema", describes a group of films made between [[1959]] and [[1963]] which portray a more gritty [[social realism]]. They were influenced by the [[Angry Young Men]] of the mid-50s along with the documentary films of everyday life commissioned by the [[Post Office]] during and after the Second World War, and are often associated with [[kitchen sink drama]]. The group was established around the film magazine ''Sequence'' that was founded by [[Tony Richardson]], [[Karel Reisz]] and [[Lindsay Anderson]] who, together with future James Bond producer [[Harry Saltzman]], established the company [[Woodfall Films]] which made their early films. These included adaptations of Richardson's own stage productions of ''[[Look Back in Anger]]'' and ''[[The Entertainer (film)|The Entertainer]]''. Other significant films in this movement include ''[[Saturday Night and Sunday Morning]]'' (1960), ''[[A Kind of Loving]]'' (1962), and ''[[This Sporting Life]]'' (1963). After Richardson's film of ''[[Tom Jones (movie)|Tom Jones]]'' became a big hit the group broke up to pursue different interests. The Free Cinema films also made stars out of their leading actors [[Albert Finney]], [[Alan Bates]], [[Richard Burton]], [[Rita Tushingham]], [[Richard Harris (actor)|Richard Harris]] and [[Tom Courtenay]].
:''See also [[British New Wave]]''
===The 1960s Boom===
In the [[1960s in film|1960s]] British studios began to enjoy major success in the international market with a string of films that displayed a more liberated attitude to sex, capitalising on the "[[swinging London]]" image propagated by [[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]]. Films like ''[[Darling]]'', ''[[Alfie]]'', ''[[Georgy Girl]]'', and ''[[The Knack]]'' all explored this phenomenon, while ''[[Blow-up]]'', ''[[Repulsion]]'' and later ''[[Women in Love]]'', broke taboos around the portrayal of sex and nudity on screen.
At the same time, [[film producer|producers]] [[Harry Saltzman]] and [[Albert R. Broccoli]] combined sex with exotic locations, casual violence and self-referential humour in the phenomenally successful [[James Bond]] series. The first film ''[[Dr. No]]'' was a [[sleeper]] hit in Britain in [[1962 in film|1962]], and the second, ''[[From Russia with Love]]'' ([[1963]]), was a hit worldwide. By the time of the third film, ''[[Goldfinger]]'' ([[1964 in film|1964]]), the series had become a global phenomenon, reaching its commercial peak with ''[[Thunderball]]'' the following year.
The series success lead to a [[spy film]] boom, with ''[[The Liquidator]]'' ([[1965 in film|1965]]), ''[[Modesty Blaise]]'' ([[1966 in film|1966]]), ''[[Sebastian (1968 film)|Sebastian]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]]) and the [[Bulldog Drummond]] spoofs, ''[[Deadlier Than the Male]]'' ([[1967 in film|1967]]) and ''[[Some Girls Do]]'' (1968) among the results. Meanwhile, Bond co-producer Harry Saltzman had also instigated a rival series of more realistic spy films based on the novels of [[Len Deighton]]. [[Michael Caine]] starred as bespectacled spy [[Harry Palmer]] in ''[[The Ipcress File]]'' (1965), ''[[Funeral in Berlin]]'' (1966) and ''[[Billion Dollar Brain]]'' (1967), and the success of these ushered in a cycle of downbeat espionage films in the manner of the novels of [[John Le Carre]], including ''[[The Spy Who Came in from the Cold]]'' (1965) and ''[[The Deadly Affair]]'' (1966).
Overseas film makers were also attracted to Britain at this time. [[Poland|Polish]] film maker [[Roman Polanski]] made ''[[Repulsion]]'' (1965) and ''[[Cul-de-Sac]]'' (1966) in [[London]] and [[Northumberland]] respectively, before attracting the attention of [[Hollywood]]. Italian director [[Michelangelo Antonioni]] filmed ''[[Blow-up]]'' (1966) with [[David Hemmings]] and [[Vanessa Redgrave]], and [[François Truffaut]] directed his only film made outside [[France]], the [[science fiction]] parable ''[[Fahrenheit 451 (film)|Fahrenheit 451]]'' in 1966.
American directors were regularly working in London throughout the decade, but several became permananet residents in Britain. Blacklisted in America, [[Joseph Losey]] had a significant influence on British cinema in the 60s, particularly with his collaborations with [[playwright]] [[Harold Pinter]] and leading man [[Dirk Bogarde]], including ''[[The Servant]]'' ([[1963]]) and ''[[Accident]]'' ([[1967]]). Voluntary emigres [[Stanley Kubrick]] and [[Richard Lester]] were also influential. Lester had major hits with ''[[The Knack]]'' ([[1965]]), and [[The Beatles]] films ''[[A Hard Day's Night (film)|A Hard Day's Night]]'' ([[1964]]) and ''[[Help! (film)|Help!]]'' ([[1965]]), after which it became standard for each new pop group to have a verité style feature film made about them. Kubrick settled in [[Hertfordshire]] in the early 60s and would remain in England for the rest of his career. The special effects team assembled to work on his [[1968]] film ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' would add significantly to the British industry's dominance in this field over the following decades.
The success of these films and others as diverse as ''[[Lawrence of Arabia]]'' ([[1962]]), ''[[Tom Jones (movie)|Tom Jones ]]'' ([[1963]]), ''[[Zulu]]'' ([[1964]]) and ''[[Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines]]'' ([[1965]]) encouraged American studios to invest significantly in British film production. Major films like ''[[Becket]]'' ([[1964]]), ''[[A Man for All Seasons]]'' ([[1966]]), ''[[Khartoum]]'' ([[1966]]) and ''[[Charge of the Light Brigade]]'' ([[1968]]) were regularly mounted, while smaller-scale films including ''[[Billy Liar]]'' ([[1963]]), ''[[Accident]]'' ([[1967]]) and ''[[Women in Love]]'' ([[1969]]) were big critical successes. Four of the decade's [[Academy Award]] winners for best picture were British productions.
Towards the end of the decade social realism was beginning to make its way back into British films again. Influenced by his work on the [[Wednesday Play]] on [[British television]], [[Ken Loach]] directed the realistic dramas ''[[Poor Cow]]'' and ''[[Kes]]''.
===The 1970s===
With the film industry in both [[Britain]] and the [[United States]] entering into recession, American studios cut back on domestic production, and in many cases withdrew from financing British films altogether. Major films were still being made at this time, including ''[[Anne of the Thousand Days]]'' ([[1969]]), ''[[Battle of Britain]]'' ([[1969]]), [[Billy Wilder]]'s ''[[The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes]]'' ([[1970]]) and [[David Lean]]'s ''[[Ryan's Daughter]]'' ([[1970]]), but as the decade wore on financing became increasingly hard to come by. Large-scale productions were still being mounted, but they were more sporadic and sometimes seemed old-fashioned compared with the competition from America. Among the more successful were adaptations of the [[Agatha Christie]] stories ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' ([[1974]]) and ''[[Death on the Nile]]'' ([[1978]]). Other productions like ''[[Shout at the Devil (movie)|Shout at the Devil]]'' ([[1976]]) fared less well, while the entry of [[Lew Grade]]'s company [[ITC]] into film production in the latter half of the decade brought only a few box office successes and an unsustainable number of failures.
The British [[horror film|horror]] boom of the [[1960s]] also finally came to an end by the mid-[[1970s]], with the leading producers [[Hammer]] and [[Amicus]] leaving the genre altogether in the face of competition from America. Films like ''[[The Texas Chainsaw Massacre]]'' ([[1974]]) made Hammer's [[vampire]] films seem increasingly tame and outdated, despite attempts to spice up the formula with added nudity and gore.
Some British producers, including Hammer, turned to television series for inspiration, and the big screen versions of shows like ''[[Steptoe and Son]]'' and ''[[On the Buses]]'' proved surprisingly successful with domestic audiences.
The continued presence of the [[Eady levy]] in the [[1970s]], combined with a loosening of censorship rules, also brought on a minor boom of low-budget British [[sex comedy|sex comedies]] and [[softcore porn]] movies. Most notable among these were films starring [[Mary Millington]] such as ''[[Come Play with Me]]'', and the ''Confessions of...'' series starring [[Robin Askwith]], beginning with ''[[Confessions of a Window Cleaner]]''.
More relaxed censorship in the 1970s also brought several controversial films, including [[Ken Russell]]'s ''[[The Devils]]'' ([[1970]]), [[Sam Peckinpah]]'s ''[[Straw Dogs]]'' ([[1971]]) and [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'' ([[1971]]).
The late [[1970s]] at least saw a revival of the [[James Bond]] series with ''[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]'' in [[1977]]. However, the next film, ''[[Moonraker]]'' ([[1979]]), broke with tradition by filming at studios in [[France]] to take advantage of tax incentives there. Some [[United States|American]] productions did return to the major British studios in [[1977]]-[[1979|79]] though, including ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope|Star Wars]]'' at [[Elstree Studios]], ''[[Superman: The Movie|Superman]]'' at [[Pinewood Studios|Pinewood]], and ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' at [[Shepperton Studios|Shepperton]].
===The 1980s===
Although major American productions, such as ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'' and ''[[Superman II]]'', continued to be filmed at British studios in the [[1980s]], the decade began with the worst recession the British film industry had ever seen. In 1980 only 31 UK films were made, down 50% on the previous year, and the lowest output since 1914. Production was down again the following year, to 24 films. However, the 1980s soon saw |
oined in late 2004.
Prior to the change of regime in 1989, 65% of Hungary's trade was with [[Comecon]] countries. By the end of 1997, Hungary had shifted much of its trade to the West. Trade with [[EU]] countries and the OECD now comprises over 70% and 80% of the total, respectively. [[Germany]] is Hungary's single most important trading partner. The [[United States|U.S.]] has become Hungary's sixth-largest export market, while Hungary is ranked as the 72d largest export market for the U.S. Bilateral trade between the two countries increased 46% in 1997 to more than $1 billion. The U.S. has extended to Hungary most-favored-nation status, the Generalized System of Preferences, Overseas Private Investment Corporation insurance, and access to the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States|Export-Import Bank]].
With about $18 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) since 1989, Hungary has attracted over one-third of all FDI in central and eastern Europe, including the former Soviet Union. Of this, about $6 billion came from American companies. Foreign capital is attracted by skilled and relatively inexpensive labor, tax incentives, modern infrastructure, and a good telecommunications system.
== Statistics ==
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
4.25% (2005 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $16,800 (2005 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
3,3%
<br>''industry:''
32,5%
<br>''services:''
64,2% (2000 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
N/A
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
4%
<br>''highest 10%:''
21% (1998)
'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
24 (1998)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
3.6% (2005)
'''Labor force:'''
4.1 million (2005)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
services 65%, industry 27%, agriculture 8% (1996)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
7.2% (2005)
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
8.3% (2004)
'''Electricity - production:'''
34.39 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
59%
<br>''hydro:''
1%
<br>''nuclear:''
40%
<br>''other:''
0% (2000 est.)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
35.15 GWh (2000)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
7.261 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
10.43 GWh (2000)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
wheat, corn, sunflower seed, potatoes, sugar beets; pigs, cattle, poultry, dairy products
'''Exports:'''
$55.47 billion (2004)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment 57.6%, other manufactures 31.0%, food products 7.5%, raw materials 1.9%, fuels and electricity 1.9% (2001)
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Germany]] 34.1%, Austria 8%, Italy 5.8%, France 5,7%, UK 4.5%, [[Netherlands]] 4,1% (2003)
'''Imports:'''
$60.25 billion (2004)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment 51.6%, other manufactures 35.3%, fuels and electricity 8.2%, food products 2.9%, raw materials 2.0% (2001)
'''Imports - partners:'''
Germany 24.5%, [[Italy]] 7.1%, [[China]] 6.9%, Austria 6.3%, [[Russia]] 6.2%, [[France]] 4,8%, Japan 4,2% (2003)
'''Debt - external:'''
$42,38 billion (2003 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
ODA $250 million (2000)
'''Currency:'''
1 forint (HUF)
'''Exchange rates:'''
forints per U.S. dollar - 224.307 (2003), 257.887 (2002), 286.490 (2001), 282.179 (2000), 237.146 (1999), 214.402 (1998), 186.789 (1997)
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
==See also==
===External links===
*[http://www.oecd.org/hungary/ OECD's Hungary country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/hungary/ OECD Economic Survey of Hungary]
===Lists===
*[[List of Hungarian companies]]
===Stock exchanges===
*[[Budapest Stock Exchange]]
===Stock indices===
*[[BUX]]
===Other===
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Hungary]]
{{EU countries}}
{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Hungary| ]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]
[[es:Economía de Hungría]]
[[fr:Économie de la Hongrie]]
[[pl:Gospodarka Węgier]]
[[pt:Economia da Hungria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Hungary</title>
<id>13429</id>
<revision>
<id>30866758</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-10T22:51:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.20.2.147</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
4.03 million (2003) [http://www.hif.hu/english/menu3/m3_2/vezgyors/2003/july.pdf]
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
9.1 million (2005) [http://www.hif.hu/english/menu3/m3_2/mobil/2003/july.pdf]
'''Telephone system:'''
The telephone system has been modernized and is capable of satisfying all requests for telecommunication service.
<br>''domestic:''
The system is digitalized and highly automated. Trunk services are carried by fiber-optic cable and digital microwave radio relay. A program for fiber-optic subscriber connections was initiated in 1996. Heavy use is made of mobile cellular telephones
<br>''international:''
Hungary has fiber-optic cable connections with all neighboring countries; the international switch is in [[Budapest]]; satellite earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Indian Ocean]] regions), 1 [[Inmarsat]], 1 [[very small aperture terminal]] (VSAT) system of ground terminals
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 17, [[FM]] 57, [[shortwave]] 3 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
7.01 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
39 (plus several low-power stations) (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
4.42 million (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
13 (1999)
'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' HU
:''See also :'' [[Hungary]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Hungary]]
[[Category:Communications in Hungary| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Hungary</title>
<id>13430</id>
<revision>
<id>38633011</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T16:55:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rjecina</username>
<id>188865</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Railways */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Railways==
* Total: 7,606 km
** [[Broad gauge]]: 36 km 1.524-m gauge
** [[Standard gauge]]: 7,394 km 1.435-m gauge (2,270 km electrified; 1,236 km double track)
** [[Narrow gauge]]: 176 km 0.760-m gauge ([[1998]])
''Note:'' Hungary and [[Austria]] jointly manage the cross-border standard-gauge railway between [[Győr]]&ndash;[[Sopron]]&ndash;[[Ebenfurt]] (GYSEV/ROeEE), a distance of about 101 km in Hungary and 65 km in Austria.
* '''Attention''': Must important rairoad station of Hungary is [[Budapest Keleti]] . On that station do not exist any warm place in winter, and waiting for train on open place on temperature of -10 celsius is special feeling!!! In buying ticket for train in Budapest never ask for one way ticket because he has greater price of return ticket.
City with [[Metro|underground]] railway system: [[Budapest]] ([[Budapest Metro|Metro]])
==Highways==
* Total: 188,490 km
**Paved: 81,950 km (including 860 km of [[motorway|motorways]], [[2005]])
**Unpaved: 106,523 km (1998 est.)
New motorway sections are being added to the existing network, that already connects many major economically important cities to the [[Budapest|Capital City]], and will be extended to [[Nyíregyháza]] and [[Debrecen]] by the end of 2006.
==Waterways==
1,373 km permanently navigable ([[1997]])
==Pipelines==
* Crude oil 1,204 km
* Natural gas 4,387 km ([[1991]])
==Ports and harbors==
Budapest, [[Dunaújváros]], [[Baja]]
==Merchant marine==
* Total: 2 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 12,949 GRT/14,550 DWT
* Ships by type: cargo 2 (1999 est.)
==Airports==
43 (1999 est.)
===Airports with paved runways:===
* Total: 16
** Over 3,047 m: 2
** 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8
** 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4
** 914 to 1,523 m: 1
** Under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
===Airports with unpaved runways===
* Total: 27
** 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
** 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5
** 914 to 1,523 m: 12
** Under 914 m: 7 (1999 est.)
==Heliports==
5 (1999 est.)
==Transport companies of cities==
* [[BKV]] ([[Budapest]])
* [[DKV]] ([[Debrecen]])
* [[MVK Rt.]] ([[Miskolc]])
* [[SzKT]] ([[Szeged]])
* [[PK Rt.]] ([[Pécs]])
* [[KT Rt.]] ([[Kaposvár]])
In the rest of the cities and towns local transport is provided by [[Volán]] companies that also provide intercity bus lines.
==See also==
* [[Hungary]]
* [[Hungarian State Railways]]
* [[List of airports in Hungary]]
* [[List of motorways in Hungary]]
[[Category:Transportation in Hungary|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Hungary</title>
<id>13431</id>
<revision>
<id>39910902</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T19:37:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>141.211.250.37</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* After the Cold War */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#44dd44
| age=Draft abolished in 2004
| availability=2,588,365 (2000 est.)
| service=2,062,565 (2000 est.)
| reaching age=67,160 (2000 est.)
| active=
| amount=[[USD|$]]732.2 million (FY99)
| percent GDP=1.4% (FY99)
}}
== Ancient and medieval military ==
The Hungarian tribes of ''[[Árpád]] vezér'' who came to settle in the Carpathian Basin were noted for their fearsome horse-mounted warriors, who conducted frequent [[looting]] campaigns throughout much of [[Western Europe]] (once as far as [[Spain]]), terrorizing the entire population with their long range and rapid-firing [[reflex bow]]s. Not until the introduction of well-regulated, plate-armored knight heavy cavalry could German monarchs stop the magyar (onugor) armies. Hence came the term ''[[ogre]]'', a man-eating monster of child tales.
Founding king of Hungary, [[Stephen I of Hungary]] abandoned light cavalry and acquired a western-style, knight and infantry based army. This principle worked well for Szent László, the late [[11th century]] knight-king who |
ty's Christian origins. At the same time, Quakers and others can relate to Fox's religious experience, and even those who disagree with him can regard him as a pioneer.
[[Walt Whitman]], who always felt close to the Quakers, later wrote: "George Fox stands for something too&mdash;a thought&mdash;the thought that wakes in silent hours&mdash;perhaps the deepest, most eternal thought latent in the human soul. This is the thought of God, merged in the thoughts of moral right and the immortality of identity. Great, great is this thought&mdash;aye, greater than all else." <nowiki>[</nowiki>[http://www.bartleby.com/229/5022.html Essay in ''November Boughs'']<nowiki>]</nowiki>
[[George Fox University]] in [[Oregon]], founded as Pacific College in 1891, was renamed for him in 1949.
==See also==
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[English Dissenters]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.georgefox.edu George Fox University]
* [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ George Fox &mdash; An Autobiography]. Annotated and slightly abridged text of Fox's journal, by Rufus Jones.
* [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=26194#s7 House of Commons Journal Volume 8, [[21 May]] [[1660]], Geo. Fox, &c.] Order by the House that George Fox & Rob. Gressingham who "made a great Disturbance at [[Harwich]]" and are to be handed over to the [[Serjeant-at-Arms]].
== References ==
Various editions of Fox's journal have been published from time to time since the first printing in 1694. The John Nickalls revisions of 1952 and following are generally considered to contain the most accurate text (Philadelphia Yearly Meeting; ISBN 0-94130-805-7). The linked reference above is to a 1908 version by Rufus Jones, which is also available in print (Friends United Press, 1976; ISBN 0-91340-824-7).
Other useful sources include:
* ''An Apology for the True Christian Divinity'', Robert Barclay (1678). A systematic treatment of Quaker theology at the end of the seventeenth century; [http://www.qhpress.org/texts/barclay/apology/ available online].
* ''First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism'', H. Larry Ingle (Oxford University Press; ISBN 0-19510-117-0 [1996 reprint]). Controversial interpretation of Fox's use of politics within the Society of Friends to ensure conformity with his views and the survival of the group.
* ''A Popular Life of George Fox'', Josiah Marsh (London: Charles Gilpin, 1847). Somewhat biased but thorough biography of Fox.
* ''[http://www.quaker.org.uk/qfp/ Quaker Faith and Practice]'', Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain. (ISBN 0-85245-307-8 [1999 revision]). Shows a modern Quaker view of Fox, and a great deal of historical information about Friends and their institutions.
{{Schaff-Herzog}}
[[Category:1624 births|Fox, George]]
[[Category:1691 deaths|Fox, George]]
[[Category:Christian leaders|Fox, George]]
[[Category:Christian writers|Fox, George]]
[[Category:English clergy|Fox, George]]
[[Category:Quakers|Fox, George]]
[[de:George Fox]]
[[es:George Fox]]
[[fr:George Fox]]
[[ja:ジョージ・フォックス]]
[[la:Georgius Fox]]
[[pt:George Fox]]
[[sr:Џорџ Фокс]]
{{Link FA|fr}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gilles Apap</title>
<id>13158</id>
<revision>
<id>37185235</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T07:17:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gilles Apap''' (b. [[May 21]] [[1963]]) is a [[violinist]] who plays [[Roma (people)|gypsy]] music, swing, [[Irish music]], and [[bluegrass music]], as well as the masterpieces of [[European classical music|classical music]].
Born in Bougie, [[Algeria]], he was raised in [[Nice, France]]. In 1985 he won the first prize in the contemporary music category at the [[Yehudi Menuhin]] Competition. He released a CD with Sony Classical in 1996 called ''Gilles Apap & the Transylvanian Mountain Boys''. He has worked as the concertmaster of the Santa Barbara Symphony in California. He has played with the Irish fiddler [[Kevin Burke]].
On his own label, Apapaziz, he has released ''[[George Enescu|Enescu]], [[Debussy]] and [[Maurice Ravel|Ravel]]: violin sonatas'' and, on Appassionato ''No Piano On That One'' in 2001.
== Quotations ==
==Discography==
* [[1994]] Gilles Apap and the Transylvanian Mountain Boys: ''Who?'' ([[Sony]])
* [[1996]] Gilles Apap and the Transylvanian Mountain Boys: ''Gilles Apap & the Transylvanian Mountain Boys'' ([[Sony]])
* [[1997]] Gilles Apap and the Transylvanian Mountain Boys: ''d’Ici & d’Ailleurs''
* [[1999]] ''Enescu, Debussy and Ravel: Sonatas for violin and piano'' ([[Apapaziz]])
* [[2001]] ''No Piano On That One'' ([[Appassionato]])
* [[2002]] ''Vivaldi's Four Seasons and Fiddle Tunes''
* [[2003]] ''Gilles Apap and The Sinfonia Varsovia''
==Films==
* [[1993]] ''The unknown fiddler of Santa Barbara'' (Regie: [[Bruno Monsaingeon]])
* [[1993]] ''Gilles Apap and Friends'' (Regie: [[Bruno Monsaingeon]])
* [[1999]] ''Gilles Apap plays Mozart's Third Concerto''
* [[2004]] ''Apap Masala, Gilles Apap in India'' (Regie: [[Max Jourdan]])
==External links==
*[http://www.gillesapap.com/ Official Website]
[[Category:Violinists|Apap, Gilles]]
[[Category:1963 births|Apap, Gilles]]
[[Category:Living people|Apap, Gilles]]
[[Category:French classical musicians|Apap, Gilles]]
[[Category:French musicians|Apap, Gilles]]
[[de:Gilles Apap]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gunpowder Plot</title>
<id>13159</id>
<revision>
<id>41409414</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T03:21:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Everyking</username>
<id>44020</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.75.29.81|72.75.29.81]] ([[User talk:72.75.29.81|talk]]) to last version by 24.60.113.170</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gunpow1.jpg|thumb|320px|right|A contemporary sketch of the conspirators]]
The '''Gunpowder Plot''' of [[1605]] was a desperate but failed attempt by a group of provincial [[England|English]] [[Catholicism|Catholic]] extremists to kill King [[James I of England]], his family, and most of the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] aristocracy in one attack by blowing up the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] during the [[State Opening of Parliament|State Opening]]. The conspirators had then planned to abduct the royal children, not present in parliament, and incite a revolt in the Midlands.
The Gunpowder Plot was one of a series of unsuccessful [[assassination]] attempts against James I, and followed the [[Main Plot]] and [[Bye Plot]] of [[1603]]. Many believe the Gunpowder Plot to have been part of the [[Catholic Reformation|Counter-Reformation]].
The aims of the consipirators were substantially identical to those behind modern terrorists, and the Plot's methods and intended outcomes were remarkably similar to those of the [[Brighton hotel bombing]]. At the time, the word "terrorist" was not in common use; it would have been regarded as a seditious act of [[regicide]]. Some maintain the conspirators were justifiably waging war against a government that outlawed their faith, executed their priests and persecuted the faithful, as well as making them take part in the rituals of the [[Anglican Church]].
On November 5th each year, people in the [[United Kingdom]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]], [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland, Canada]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis|Saint Kitts]], some parts of the [[USA]] and formerly [[Australia]] celebrate the failure of the plot on what is known as [[Guy Fawkes Night]] (also known as Bonfire Night or Fireworks Night).
== The beginnings of the plot ==
[[Image:James I of England.JPG|thumb|Catholic conspirators plotted to kill King [[James I of England|James I of England and VI of Scotland]].]]
[[Image:Elizabeth of Bohemia.jpeg|thumb|[[Elizabeth of Bohemia|Princess Elizabeth]], the eldest daughter of King James, was supposed to inherit the crown and rule as a Catholic.]]
The conspirators had become angered by King James's refusal to give equal rights to Catholics. The plot was intended to begin a rebellion during which James's nine-year-old daughter ([[Elizabeth of Bohemia|Princess Elizabeth]]) could be installed as a Catholic [[head of state]].
The plot was overseen from May [[1604]] by [[Robert Catesby]]. Other plotters included [[Thomas Wintour]], [[Robert Wintour]], Christopher Wright, [[Thomas Percy (plotter)|Thomas Percy]] (also spelled Percye), John Grant, [[Ambrose Rokewood]], Robert Keyes, Sir [[Everard Digby]], [[Francis Tresham]] and Catesby's servant, Thomas Bates. The preparation of the explosion by [[Guy Fawkes|Guido (Guy) Fawkes]], an explosives expert with considerable military experience who had been introduced to Catesby by a man named [[Hugh Owen]]. Some accounts suggest that Thomas Wintour was the prime mover in all of this, and that Fawkes was the tool towards the ultimate execution of the plot. [[Huddington Court]], home to the Wintour brothers, was host to many meetings held to plan the events.
The details of the plot were well known to the principal Jesuit of England, Father [[Henry Garnet]]. Many believe that, with his tacit approval, the plot was seen by the conspirators as part of the [[Catholic Reformation|Counter-Reformation]]. In any case, once informed, neither the Pope nor his representative acted to halt the proceedings.
== Planning and preparation ==
The conspirators were able to rent an [[undercroft]] in the house adjacent to the old [[House of Lords]] where the State Opening of Parliament would take place. There are suggestions that the initial plan was to tunnel from the |
ies:
** Their boiling points are usually still high <!--"higher": than what?-->due to their larger size.
** Diminished solubility in water, although they retain their solubitity in suitable organic solvents only.
** They are toxic <!-- which one has: b.p.184 C?--> and are easily absorbed through the skin: thus hazardous.
[[Image:Inversion_of_Amine.PNG|200px|right|amine inversion]]
=== Chirality===
Tertiary amines of the type NHRR' and NRR'R" are [[optical isomer|chiral]]: the nitrogen atom bears four distinct substituents counting the lone pair. The energy barrier for the [[Walden inversion|inversion]] of the stereocenter is relatively low, e.g. ~7 kcal/mol for a trialkylamine. The interconversion of the stereoisomers has been compared to the inversion of an open umbrella in to a strong wind. Because of this low barrier, amines such as NHRR' cannot be resolved optically and NRR'R" can only be resolved when the R, R', and R" groups are constrained in cyclic structures.
===Properties as bases===
Like ammonia, amines act as [[base (chemistry)|bases]] and are reasonably strong (see table for examples of [[conjugate acid]] K<sub>a</sub> values). The basicity of amines depends on:
#The availability of lone pair on N.
#The electronic properties of the substituents (alkyl groups enhance the basicity, aryl groups diminish it).
#The degree of solvation of the protonated amine.
The nitrogen atom features a [[lone electron pair]] that can bind H<sup>+</sup> to form an [[ammonium ion]] R<sub>3</sub>NH<sup>+</sup>. The lone electron pair is represented in this article by a two dots above or next to the N. The water [[solubility]] of simple amines is largely due to [[hydrogen bonding]] between protons on the water molecules and these lone electron pairs.
* [[Inductive effect]] of alkyl groups
{| class="toccolours" style="float: center; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0em 1em;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
! Ions of compound
! K<sub>b</sub>
|-
| [[Ammonia]] NH<sub>3</sub>
| 1.8&middot;10<sup>-5</sup> M
|-
| [[Methylamine]] CH<sub>3</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>
| 4.4&middot;10<sup>-4</sup> M
|-
| [[propylamine]] CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>
| 4.7&middot;10<sup>-4</sup> M
|-
| [[2-propylamine]] (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CHNH<sub>2</sub>
| 5.3&middot;10<sup>-4</sup> M
|-
| [[diethylamine]] (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>
| 9.6&middot;10<sup>-4</sup> M
|}
: +I effect of alkyl groups raises the energy of the lone pair of electrons, thus elevating the basicity.
* [[Mesomeric effect]] of aromatic systems
{| class="toccolours" style="float: center; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0em 1em;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
! Ions of compound
! K<sub>b</sub>
|-
| [[Ammonia]] NH<sub>3</sub>
| 1.8&middot;10<sup>-5</sup> M
|-
| [[Aniline]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>
| 3.8&middot;10<sup>-10</sup> M
|-
| [[4-methylphenylamine]] 4-CH<sub>3</sub>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>
| 1.2&middot;10<sup>-9</sup> M
|}
: +M effect of aromatic ring delocalise the lone pair electron into the ring, resulting in decreased bascitiy.
The degree of protonation of protonated amines:
{| class="toccolours" style="float: center; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0em 1em;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
! Ions of compound
! Maximum number of H-bond
|-
| NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>
| 4 Very Soluble in H<sub>2</sub>O
|-
| RNH<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup>
| 3
|-
| R<sub>2</sub>NH<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup>
| 2
|-
| R<sub>3</sub>NH<sup>+</sup>
| 1 Least Soluble in H<sub>2</sub>O
|}
<!-- the following statement is incorrect or excessively vague: "Protonated ammonia is heavily solvated, making the cation most stable."-->
== Synthesis ==
The following laboratory methods exist for the preparation of amines:
* via the [[Gabriel synthesis]]:
[[Image:Gabriel Synthesis Scheme.png|500px|center|The Gabriel synthesis]]
* via [[azide]]s by the [[Staudinger reduction]].
* [[Allyl]]ic amines can be prepared from [[imine]]s in the [[Aza-Baylis-Hillman reaction]].
* via [[Hofmann rearrangement|Hoffmann degradation]] of amides.This reaction is valid for preparation of primary amines only. Gives good yields of primary amines uncontaminated with other amines.
:[[Image:Hofmann Rearrangement Scheme.png|center|400px|The Hofmann rearrangment]]
* Hoffmann elimination of quaternary ammonium salts
:::R<sub>3</sub>N<sup>+</sup>CH<sub>2<sub>CH<sub>2</sub>R' + OH<sup>-</sup> &rarr; R<sub>3</sub>N + H<sub>2<sub>C=CHR' + H<sub>2<sub>O
* [[Quaternary ammonium salt]]s upon treatment with strong base undergo the so-called [[Hofmann Elimination]]
* Reduction of nitriles and amides
[[Image:Nitrile.gif|center|Nitriles]]
* [[Nitrile]]s are reduced to amines using hydrogen in the presence a nickel catalyst, although acidic or alkaline conditions should be avoided to avoid hydrolysis of -CN group.
* LiAlH<sub>4</sub> is more commonly employed for the reduction of nitriles on the laboratory scale.
<center>[[Image:Reduction-of-amide.gif]]</center>
* Similarly, LiAlH<sub>4</sub> reduces amides to amines.
* Nucleophilic substitution of haloalkanes. Primary amines can also be synthesized by alkylaton of ammonia.[[halogenoalkane|Haloalkane]]s react with amines to give a corresponding alkyl-substituted amine, with the release of a halogen acid. Such reactions, which are most useful for alkyl iodides and bromides, are rarely employed because the degree of alkylation is difficult to control. If the reacting amine is tertiary, a [[quaternary ammonium cation]] results. Many [[quaternary ammonium salt]]s can be prepared by this route with diverse R groups and many halide and pseudohalide anions.
[[Image:Alkylation_of_Amine.PNG|center|Amine alkylation]]
[[Image:Formation_of_Quat.PNG|center|Amine alkylation]]
== Reactions ==
Amines react in a variety of ways:
* By [[nucleophilic acyl substitution]]. [[Acyl chloride]]s and [[acid anhydride]]s react with primary and secondary amines in cold to form [[amide]]s. Tertiary amines cannot be acylated due to the absence of a replaceable hydrogen atom. With the much less active [[benzoyl chloride]], [[acylation]] can still be performed by the use of excess aqeous alkali to facilitate the reaction.
[[Image:Amide_formation_from_amine.gif|center|Amide formation]]
:Because amines are basic, they neutralize [[carboxylic acid]]s to form the corresponding ammonium carboxylate salts. Upon heating to 200&nbsp;&deg;C, the primary and secondary amine salts dehydrate to form the corresponding [[amide]]s.
[[Image:Amine_plus_Carboxylic_Acid.PNG|center|Amine reaction with carboxylic acids]]
* By ammonium salt formation. Amines R<sub>3</sub>N react with strong acids such as [[hydroiodic acid]], [[hydrobromic acid]] and [[hydrochloric acid]] in neutralization reactions forming [[ammonium salt]]s R<sub>3</sub>NH<sup>+</sup>.
* By diazonium salt formation. [[Nitrous acid]] with formula HNO<sub>2</sub> is unstable, therefore usually a mixture of NaNO<sub>2</sub> and dilute [[hydrochloric acid]] or [[sulfuric acid]] is used to produce nitrous acid indirectly. Primary aliphatic amines with nitrous acid give very unstable diazonium salts which spontaneously decompose by losing N<sub>2</sub> to form carbonium ion. The carbonium ion goes on to produce a mixture of alkenes, alkanols or alkyl halides, with alkanols as the major product. This reaction is of lttle synthetic importance because the diazonium salt formed is too unstable, even at cold conditions.
: NaNO<sub>2</sub> + HCl &rarr; HNO<sub>2</sub> + NaCl
[[Image:Nitrous_acid_with_n-amine.gif|center|Nitrous acid reaction]]
:Primary aromatic amines, such as [[aniline]] (phenylamine) forms a more stable [[diazonium]] ion at 0&ndash;5&nbsp;&deg;C. Above 5&nbsp;&deg;C, it will decompose to give [[phenol]] and N<sub>2</sub>. Diazonium salt can be isolated in the crystalline form but are usually used in solution and immediately after preparation, due to rapid decomposition on standing even in cold. Solid salt explosive on shock or on mild warming.
[[Image:Aromatic_diazonium_salt.gif|center|Aromatic diazonium salts]]
* By [[Alkylimino-de-oxo-bisubstitution|imine formation]]. Primary amines react with [[ketone]]s and [[aldehyde]]s to form [[imine]]s. In the case of [[formaldehyde]] (R' = H), these products are typically cyclic [[trimer]]s.
: RNH<sub>2</sub> + R'<sub>2</sub>C=O &rarr; R'<sub>2</sub>C=NR + H<sub>2</sub>O
:Secondary amines react with ketones and aldehydes to form [[enamine]]s
: R<sub>2</sub>NH + R'(R"CH<sub>2<sub>)C=O &rarr; R"CH=C(NR<sub>2</sub>)R' + H<sub>2</sub>O
* By [[organic oxidation|oxidation]] to [[nitroso]] compounds, for instance [[Peroxymonosulfuric acid]].
== Use of amines==
=== dyes ===
Primary aromatic amines are used as a starting material for |
tape, print character, round accumulator, no-op and stop. There was no division instruction (though a number of division subroutines were available) and no way to directly load a number into the accumulator (a "store and zero accumulator" instruction followed by an "add" instruction were necessary for this).
===System software===
The ''initial orders'' were hard-wired on a set of [[uniselector]] switches and loaded into the low words of memory at startup. By September [[1949]], the initial orders had reached their final form and provided a primitive relocating [[assembler]] taking advantage of the mnemonic design described above, all in 41 words.
===Application software===
An unusual feature of EDSAC was the availability of a substantial subroutine library. By [[1951]], 87 subroutines in the following categories were available for general use: [[floating point arithmetic]]; arithmetic operations on [[complex numbers]]; checking; division; [[exponentiation]]; routines relating to functions; [[differential equations]]; special functions; [[power series]]; [[logarithms]]; miscellaneous; print and layout; [[Numerical integration|quadrature]]; read (input); ''n''th root; [[Trigonometric functions]]; counting operations (simulating "repeat", "while" and "for" loops); [[vectors]] and [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]].
==Applications of EDSAC==
*In 1951, Miller and Wheeler used the machine to discover a 79-digit prime&mdash;the largest known at the time.
*In 1952 [[A.S. Douglas]] developed ''[[OXO]]'', a version of [[noughts and crosses]] (tic-tac-toe) for the EDSAC, with graphical output to a [[cathode ray tube]]. This may well have been the world's first [[computer and video games|computer/video game]].
*In the 1960s EDSAC was used to gather numerical evidence about solutions to [[elliptic curve]]s, which led to the [[Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture]].
==Further developments==
EDSAC's successor, [[EDSAC 2]], was commissioned in 1958. In 1961 an EDSAC 2 version of [[Autocode]], an [[Algol]]-like high-level programming language for scientists and engineers, was developed by D. F. Hartley.
In the mid-60s, a successor to the EDSAC 2 was planned, but the move was instead made to the [[Titan (computer)|Titan]], a prototype Atlas 2&mdash;the latter having been developed from the [[Atlas Computer]] of the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]], [[Ferranti]], and [[Plessey]].
==Notes==
<!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. See [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the place in the article where you want the new note.
3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body.
4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
5) Multiple notes to the same reference won't work: you must insert two uniquely named ones.
NOTE: It is important to add the footnote in the right order in the list.
-->
# {{note|first-prog}} To be precise, EDSAC's first program printed a list of the [[square number|square]]s of the [[integer (computer science)|integer]]s from 0 to 99 inclusive.
# {{note|collate}} This instruction added the [[bitwise AND]] of the specified memory word and the multiplier register to the accumulator.
==External links==
{{commonscat|EDSAC}}
*[http://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/~edsac/ An EDSAC simulator] &ndash; Developed by Martin Campbell-Kelly, Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick , England
*[http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/UoCCL/misc/EDSAC99/ 50th Anniversary of EDSAC] &ndash; Dedicated website at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory
==References==
* ''The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer'' by [[Maurice Wilkes]], [[David Wheeler]] and [[Stanley Gill]], Addison-Wesley, Edition 1, [[1951]]
[[Category:Early computers]]
[[Category:One-of-a-kind computers]]
[[de:Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator]]
[[fr:EDSAC]]
[[ja:EDSAC]]
[[pl:EDSAC]]
[[ru:EDSAC]]
[[sv:EDSAC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E. H. Shepard</title>
<id>10252</id>
<revision>
<id>40715802</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T14:49:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tv316</username>
<id>523572</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/141.51.76.140|141.51.76.140]] to last version by Bastin8</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ernest Howard Shepard''' ([[December 10]] [[1879]]&ndash; [[March 24]] [[1976]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[artist]] and book [[illustrator]]. He was known especially for his [[Anthropomorphism|human-like animals]] in illustrations for ''[[The Wind in the Willows]]'' by [[Kenneth Grahame]] and ''[[Winnie-the-Pooh]]'' by [[A. A. Milne]].
Shepard was born in [[St. John's Wood]], [[London]]. He served in the Army during [[World War I]], winning the [[Military Cross]] for bravery in the field. He sent jokes about the battles to [[Punch (magazine)|Punch]], and after the war joined the magazine, through which he eventually met Milne. He began his illustration career selling weekly cartoons to Punch.
Shepard said that he modelled Pooh not on the toy owned by Christopher Robin, Milne's son, but on a stuffed bear, "Growler", owned by his own son. ("Growler" no longer exists, having been destroyed by Shepard's dog.) His Pooh work is so famous that 300 of his preliminary sketches were exhibited at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] in [[1969]], when he was 90 years old.
Shepard wrote two autobiographies: ''Drawn from Memory'' (1957) and ''Drawn From Life'' (1962).
==External links==
*[http://www.classicpooh.net/akre2.htm Biography of E. H. Shepard] at classicpooh.net
[[Category:1879 births|Shepard, E. H.]]
[[Category:1976 deaths|Shepard, E. H.]]
[[Category:British illustrators|Shepard, E. H.]]
[[Category:Winnie-the-Pooh|Shepard, E. H.]]
[[he:&#1488;&#1512;&#1504;&#1505;&#1496; &#1513;&#1508;&#1488;&#1512;&#1491;]]
[[ja:E&#12539;H&#12539;&#12471;&#12455;&#12497;&#12540;&#12489;]]
[[nl:Ernest Shepard]]
[[fi:E. H. Shepard]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enterobacteriaceae</title>
<id>10253</id>
<revision>
<id>37289876</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:12:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgrey
| name = Enterobacteria
| regnum = [[Bacterium|Bacteria]]
| phylum = [[Proteobacteria]]
| classis = Gamma Proteobacteria
| ordo = '''Enterobacteriales'''
| familia = '''Enterobacteriaceae'''
| familia_authority = Rahn, 1937
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision =
See text.
}}
The '''Enterobacteriaceae''' are a large family of [[bacterium|bacteria]], including many of the more familiar [[pathogen]]s, such as ''[[Salmonella]]'' and ''[[Escherichia coli]]''. Genetic studies place them among the [[Proteobacteria]], and they are given their own order (Enterobacteriales), though this is sometimes taken to include some related environmental samples.
Members of the Enterobacteriaceae are rod-shaped, and are typically 1-5 &mu;m in length. Like other Proteobacteria they have [[Gram-negative]] stains, and they are [[facultative anaerobe]]s, [[fermentation|fermenting]] sugars to produce [[lactic acid]] and various other end products. They also reduce [[nitrate]] to [[nitrite]]. Unlike most similar bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae generally lack [[oxidase]], although there are exceptions (e.g. ''[[Plesiomonas]]''). Most have many [[flagellum|flagella]] used to move about, but a few genera are non-motile.
Many members of this family are a normal part of the [[gut flora]] found in the [[intestines]] of humans and other animals, while others are found in water or soil, or are [[parasites]] on a variety of different animals and plants. ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', better known as ''E. coli'', is one of the most important [[model organism]]s and its [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]] have been closely studied.
The following genera are included here:
*''[[Alishewanella]]''
*''[[Alterococcus]]''
*''[[Aquamonas]]''
*''[[Aranicola]]''
*''[[Arsenophonus]]''
*''[[Azotivirga]]''
*''[[Candidatus]]''
*''[[Blochmannia]]''
*''[[Brenneria]]''
*''[[Buchnera]]''
*''[[Budvicia]]''
*''[[Buttiauxella]]''
*''[[Cedecea]]''
*''[[Citrobacter]]''
*''[[Dickeya]]''
*''[[Edwardsiella]]''
*''[[Enterobacter]]''
*''[[Erwinia]]'', e.g. ''[[Erwinia amylovora]]''
*''[[Escherichia]]'', e.g. ''[[Escherichia coli]]''
*''[[Ewingella]]''
*''[[Grimontella]]''
*''[[Hafnia]]''
*''[[Klebsiella]]'', e.g. ''[[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]''
*''[[Kluyvera]]''
*''[[Leclercia]]''
*''[[Leminorella]]''
*''[[Moellerella]]''
*''[[Morganella]]''
*''[[Obesumbacterium]]''
*''[[Pantoea]]''
*''[[Pectobacterium]]''
*''Candidatus'' [[Phlomobacter]]
*''[[Photorhabdus]]''
*''[[Plesiomonas]]'', e.g. ''[[Plesiomonas shigelloides]]''
*''[[Pragia]]''
*''[[Proteus (bacterium)|Proteus]]'', e.g. ''[[Proteus vulgaris]]''
*''[[Providencia (bacterium)|Providencia]]''
*''[[Rahnella]]''
*''[[Raoultella]]''
*''[[Salmonella]]''
*''[[Samsonia]]''
*''[[Serratia]]'', e.g. ''[[Serratia marcescens]]''
*''[[Shigella]]''
*''[[Sodalis]]''
*''[[Tatumella]]''
*''[[Trabulsiella]]''
*''[[Wigglesworthia]]''
*''[[Xenorhabdus]]''
*''[[Yersinia]]'', e.g. ''[[Yersinia pestis]]''
*''[[Yokenella]]''
[[Category:Proteobacteria]][[Category:Enterobacteria|*]]
[[de:Enterobakterien]]
[[fr:Enterobacteriaceae]]
[[ja:腸内細菌科]]
[[pl:Enterobacteriaceae |
ecause admission typically cost a nickel (five cents).
Typically, one film is the featured presentation (or [[feature film]]). There were "double features"; typically, a high quality "A picture" rented by an independent theater for a lump sum, and a "B picture" of lower quality rented for a percentage of the gross receipts. Today, the bulk of the material shown before the feature film (those in theaters) consists of previews for upcoming movies and paid advertisements (also known as [[trailer (movie)|trailers]] or "[[The Twenty]]").
Originally, all films were made to be shown in movie theaters. The development of [[television]] has allowed films to be broadcast to larger audiences, usually after the film is no longer being shown in theaters. Recording technology has also enabled consumers to rent or buy copies of films on [[video tape]] or [[DVD]] (and the older formats of [[laserdisc]], [[Video CD|VCD]] and [[SelectaVision]]&mdash;see also [[videodisc]]), and [[Internet]] [[download]]s may be available and have started to become revenue sources for the film companies. Some films are now made specifically for these other venues, being released as [[television movie|made-for-TV movies]] or [[direct-to-video]] movies. These are often considered to be of inferior quality compared to theatrical releases. And indeed, some films that are rejected by their own studios upon completion are dumped into these markets.
The movie theater pays an average of about 55% of its ticket sales to the [[movie studio]], as film rental fees. The actual percentage starts with a number higher than that, and decreases as the duration of a film's showing continues, as an incentive to theaters to keep movies in the theater longer. However, today's barrage of highly marketed movies ensures that most movies are shown in first-run theaters for less than 8 weeks. There are a few movies every year that defy this rule, often limited-release movies that start in only a few theaters and actually grow their theater count through good word-of-mouth and reviews. According to a 2000 study by [[ABN AMRO]], about 26% of Hollywood movie studios' worldwide income came from box office ticket sales; 46% came from [[VHS]] and [[DVD]] sales to consumers; and 28% came from television (broadcast, cable, and pay-per-view).
==Development of film technology==
[[film stock|Filmstock]] consists of a transparent [[celluloid]], [[polyester]], or other [[plastic]] base coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive chemicals. Cellulose nitrate was the first type of film base used to record motion pictures, but due to its flammability was eventually replaced by safer materials. Stock widths and the [[film format]] for images on the reel have had a rich history, though most large commercial films are still shot on (and distributed to theaters) as [[35 mm film|35 mm]] prints.
Originally moving picture film was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked [[movie camera|cameras]] and [[movie projector|projectors]]; though 16 frames per second is generally cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most films were shot between 16-23 fps and projected from 18 fps on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown) [http://www.cinemaweb.com/silentfilm/bookshelf/18_car_1.htm]. When sound film was introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second was chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound quality. Improvements since the late [[19th century]] include the mechanization of cameras - allowing them to record at a consistent speed, quiet camera design - allowing sound recorded on-set to be usable without requiring large "blimps" to encase the camera, the invention of more sophisticated [[film stock|filmstock]]s and [[Lens (optics)|lenses]], allowing [[Film director|director]]s to film in increasingly dim conditions, and the development of synchronized sound, allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same speed as its corresponding action. The soundtrack can be recorded separately from shooting the film, but for live-action pictures many parts of the soundtrack are usually recorded simultaneously.
As a medium, film is not limited to motion pictures, since the technology developed as the basis for [[photography]]. It can be used to present a progressive sequence of still images in the form of a slideshow. Film has also been incorporated into [[multimedia]] presentations, and often has importance as primary historical documentation. However, historic films have problems in terms of preservation and storage, and the motion picture industry is exploring many alternatives. Most movies on cellulose nitrate base have been copied onto modern safety films. Some studios save color films through the use of [[separation masters]] - three B&W negatives each exposed through red, green, or blue filters (essentially a reverse of the [[Technicolor]] process). Digital methods have also been used to restore films, although their continued obsolescence cycle makes them (as of 2006) a poor choice for long-term preservation. [[Film preservation]] of decaying film stock is a matter of concern to both film historians and archivists, and to companies interested in preserving their existing products in order to make them available to future generations (and thereby increase revenue). Preservation is generally a higher-concern for nitrate and single-strip color films, due to their high decay rates; black and white films on safety bases and color films preserved on Technicolor imbibition prints tend to keep up much better, assuming proper handling and storage.
Some films in recent decades have been recorded using [[analog (signal)|analog]] [[video]] technology similar to that used in television production. Modern [[Digital video|digital video camera]]s and [[digital projector]]s are gaining ground as well. These approaches are extremely beneficial to moviemakers, especially because footage can be evaluated and edited without waiting for the film stock to be processed. Yet the migration is gradual, and as of 2005 most major motion pictures are still recorded on film.
==Endurance of films==
Films have been around for more than a century, however this is not long when you consider it in relation to other arts like painting and sculpture. Many believe that film will be a long enduring art form because motion pictures appeal to diverse human emotions.
Apart from societal norms and cultural changes, there are still close resemblances between theatrical plays throughout the ages and films of today. Romantic motion pictures about a girl loving a guy but not being able to be together for some reason, movies about a hero who fights against all odds a more powerful fiendish enemy, comedies about everyday life, etc. all involve plots with common threads that existed in books, plays and other venues.
The reason motion pictures endure is because people still want [[escapism]], adventure, inspiration, humor and to be moved emotionally. Civilization develops and changes, at least in surface features, and so calls for a constant renewal of artistic means to channel these desires. Films provide them in an accessible and powerful way.
==See also==
===Wikibooks===
*[[wikibooks:Movie making manual|Movie making manual]]
*[[wikibooks:Movie making directory|Movie making directory]]
=== Basic types of film ===
*[[Narrative film]]
**[[Cinematic genre]]
*[[Documentary film]]
*[[Experimental film]]
*[[Animation]]
=== Lists ===
*[[List of film-related topics]] (extensive alphabetical listing)
plus:
*[[Lists of films]]
*[[Lists of movie source material]]
*[[:Category:Cult films|List of Cult Films]]
*[[List of film festivals]]
*[[List of film techniques]]
*[[List of cinematic genres]]
*[[List of fantasy films]]
*[[List of films noir]]
*[[List of disaster movies]]
*[[List of horror films]]
*[[List of science fiction films]]
*[[List of films about possessed or sentient inanimate objects]]
*[[List of character-based movie franchises|List of character-based movie series]]
*[[List of movie series]]
*[[List of computer-animated films]]
*[[List of the longest movies in history]]
*[[List of highest-grossing films]]
*[[List of films with single syllable titles]]
*[[List of movie clichés by genre]]
*[[List of sequels considered better than the original]]
*[[Films that have been considered the greatest ever]]
*[[Films considered the worst ever]]
*[[Last surviving cast member]]
*[[Surviving cast members]]
*[[List of teen films]]
=== Other ===
*[[African Cinema]]
*[[Digital cinema]]
*[[Filmmaking]]
*[[Film criticism]]
*[[Film journals and magazines]]
*[[Film festival]]
*[[Film theory]]
*[[History of cinema]]
*[[Internet Movie Database]]
*[[Movie star]]
*[[Sound stage]]
==References==
*Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey ([[Editor|ed.]]). ''The Oxford History of World Cinema''. [[Oxford University Press]], [[1999]]. ISBN 0198742428
*Hagener, Malte, and Töteberg, Michael. ''Film: An International Bibliography''. Stuttgart: Metzler, [[2002]]. ISBN 3-476-01523-8
*[[Amos Vogel|Vogel, Amos]]. ''Film As a Subversive Art''. Weidenfeld & Nichols, [[1974]].
*''The Oxford History of World Cinema'', Oxford University Press, [[1999]]; Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, ed.
*''Glorious Technicolor: The Movies' Magic Rainbow'', Fred E. Basten. AS Barnes & Company, [[1980]]
*''Reel Women. Pioneers of the Cinema. 1896 to the Present'' by Ally Acker, London: B.T.Batsford 1991
*''Reel Racism. Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture'', Vincent F. Rocchio, Westview Press 2000
*''New Hollywood Cinema: An Introduction'', Geoff King . Columbia University Press, [[2002]].
*''Notes on Film Noir'' Paul Schrader. Film Comment. '84?
*''Celluloid Mavericks: A History of American Independent Film'' by Greg Merritt; Thunder's Mout |
tary]], ''The Battle Over Citizen Kane'' was aired as part of the [[PBS]] television series ''[[The American Experience]]''. Narrated by [[Paul Winfield]], it chronicled the lives of Orson Welles and William Randolph Hearst and the furor caused by ''Citizen Kane''. It was later packaged as a bonus disc with the ''Citizen Kane'' DVD, which features audio commentary by film critic [[Roger Ebert]] and director [[Peter Bogdanovich]]. In part, the documentary inspired the 1999 [[Home Box Office|HBO]] [[biographical film]] ''[[RKO 281]]''.<!--
Paragraph previously ended:
, which starred [[Liev Schreiber]] as Welles, [[James Cromwell]] as Hearst, [[Melanie Griffith]] as Marion Davies, [[John Malkovich]] as Herman Mankiewicz, and [[Roy Scheider]] as RKO boss George Schaefer.
which to me (User:Hoary) seems very trivial in the context of this documentary, let alone of Citizen Kane. But I'm not deleting it quite yet.
-->
[[David Nasaw]], who appears in ''The Battle Over Citizen Kane'' as a Hearst expert, questioned some of the traditional wisdom about the movie in his book ''The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst''. The documentary essentially lays the blame for Citizen Kane's failure at the feet of Hearst. Nasaw agrees Hearst's refusal to advertise the film hurt its chances of profitability, but also notes that the innovations Welles made with narrative, as well as the dark message at the heart of the film (that the pursuit of success is ultimately futile) meant that a popular audience could not appreciate its merits (Nasaw, 572-573). He goes on to say:
:Welles' ''Kane'' is a cartoon-like caricature of a man who is hollowed out on the inside, forlorn, defeated, solitary because he cannot command the total obedience, loyalty, devotion, and love of those around him. Hearst, to the contrary, never regarded himself as a failure, never recognized defeat, never stopped loving Marion (Davies) or his wife. He did not, at the end of his life, run away from the world to entomb himself in a vast, gloomy art-choked hermitage.
==See also==
*[[Beyond Citizen Kane]]
*[[Films that have been considered the greatest ever]]
*[[List of references to Citizen Kane in other work]]
==References==
{{Note|oscars}} [http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/ampas_awards/DisplayMain.jsp?curTime=1125009297679 Academy database] retrieved August 25, 2005
Nasaw, David. <i>The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst.</i>New York, Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title | id=0033467 | title=Citizen Kane}}
*[http://www.afi.com/tvevents/100years/movies.aspx The American Film Institute's "100 Greatest Movies" list]
* [http://www.movie-list.net/classics/citizen-kane.mov Original trailer]
*[http://www.filmsite.org/citi.html Greatest films]
*[http://www.globalcitizen.co.uk/about/essays/citizenkane.doc Essay on the use of ''mise-en-scene'' and cinematography]
*[http://www.ravecentral.com/citizenkane.html RaveCentral]
*[http://chicago.about.com/library/weekly/aa041700b.htm]
<!-- Orson Welles -->
{{OrsonWelles}}
[[Category:1941 films]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee (film)]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Drama films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Orson Welles]]
[[Category:RKO films]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry]]
[[bs:Građanin Kejn]]
[[de:Citizen Kane]]
[[es:Citizen Kane]]
[[fi:Citizen Kane]]
[[fr:Citizen Kane]]
[[he:האזרח קיין]]
[[it:Quarto Potere (film)]]
[[ja:市民ケーン]]
[[nl:Citizen Kane]]
[[pl:Obywatel Kane]]
[[pt:Citizen Kane]]
[[simple:Citizen Kane]]
[[sv:En sensation]]
[[zh:大國民]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Code</title>
<id>5225</id>
<revision>
<id>40872082</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T15:53:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.255.13.25</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of the word "code", see [[code (disambiguation)]].}}
In [[communication|communications]], a '''code''' is a [[rule]] for converting a piece of [[information]] (for example, a [[letter]], [[word]], or [[phrase]]) into another form or representation, not necessarily of the same type. In [[communication|communications]] and [[information processing]], '''encoding''' is the [[process]] by which a [[source]] ([[object]]) performs this conversion of information into [[data]], which is then sent to a receiver ([[observer]]), such as a [[data processing system]]. '''Decoding''' is the reverse process of converting data, which has been sent by a source, into information understandable by a receiver. (see [[Decoding methods]]) A ''[[codec]]'' is an implementation of that rule (or [[algorithm]]) for ''coding and decoding'', for example [[MP3]], which may be a [[hardware]] implementation or a [[Computer software|software]] implementation, and which may include [[compression]].
One reason for coding is to enable communication in places where ordinary spoken or written language is difficult or impossible. For example, a cable code replaces words (e.g., ''ship'' or ''invoice'') into shorter words, allowing the same information to be sent with fewer [[character (computing)|characters]], more quickly, and most important, less expensively. Another example is the use of [[semaphore (communication)|semaphore flags]], where the configuration of flags held by a signaller or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, typically individual letters and numbers. Another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent.
In the [[history of cryptography]], codes were once common for ensuring the confidentiality of communications, although [[cipher]]s are now used instead. See [[code (cryptography)]].
==Codes in communication used for brevity==
Code can be used for brevity. When telegraph messages were the state of the art in rapid long distance communication, elaborate commercial codes which encoded complete phrases into single words (commonly five-letter groups) were developed, so that [[Telegraphy|telegrapher]]s became conversant with such "words" as ''BYOXO'' ("Are you trying to weasel out of our deal?"), ''LIOUY'' ("Why do you not answer my question?"), ''BMULD'' ("You're a skunk!"), or ''AYYLU'' ("Not clearly coded, repeat more clearly."). [[Code word]]s were chosen for various reasons: [[length]], [[pronounceability]], etc. Meanings were chosen to fit perceived needs: commercial negotiations, military terms for military codes, diplomatic terms for diplomatic codes, any and all of the preceding for espionage codes, ... Codebooks and codebook publishers proliferated, including one run as a front for the American [[Black Chamber]] run by [[Herbert Yardley]] between WWI and WWII. The purpose of most of these codes was to save on cable costs. The use of data coding for [[data compression]] predates the computer era; an early example is the [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] [[Morse code]] where more frequently-used characters have shorter representations. Techniques such as [[Huffman coding]] are now used by computer-based algorithms to compress large data files into a more compact form for storage or transmission.
<!--In the computer era since World War II, there are also "codes" for [[data compression]], e.g. [[Huffman coding]], which uses short codes for frequent [[symbol]]s and longer codes for seldom used symbols - the same principle is used in the [[Morse code]]. It and the [[Baudot code]] which uses the same length [[representation]] for all symbols and characters, both go back to telegraph days. The latter was a primary ancestor of the ASCII character code widely used in computers. -->
==An example: the ASCII code==
Probably the most widely known data communications code (aka character representation) in use today is [[ASCII]]. In one or another (somewhat compatible) version, it is used by nearly all personal [[computer]]s, [[computer terminal|terminal]]s, [[computer printer|printer]]s, and other communication equipment. Its original version represents 128 [[character (computing)|characters]] with seven-bit [[Binary numeral system|binary]] numbers&mdash;that is, as a string of seven 1s and 0s. In ASCII a lowercase "a" is always 1100001, an uppercase "A" always 1000001, and so on. Successors to ASCII have included 8-bit characters (for letters of European languages and such things as card suit symbols), and in fullest flowering have included glyphs from essentially all of the world's writing systems (see [[Unicode]] and [[Bob Bemer]]).
==Codes to detect or correct errors (e.g., in storage or transmission)==
Codes may also be used to represent data in a way more resistant
to errors in transmission or storage. Such a "code" is
called an [[Error correction and detection|error-correcting code]], and works by including carefully crafted redundancy with the stored (or transmitted) data. Examples include [[Hamming code]]s, [[Reed-Solomon]], [[Reed-Muller]], [[BCH code|Bose-Chaudhuri-Hochquenghem]], [[Turbo code|Turbo]], [[Golay code|Golay]], [[Goppa code|Goppa]], and [[Robert G. Gallager|Gallager]] [[Low-density parity-check code]]s [[space-time code]].
Error detecting codes are optimised to detect ''burst errors'', and ''random errors''.
==Codes and acronyms==
[[Acronym|Acronyms]] and abbreviations can be considered codes, and in a sense all [[language|languages]] and writing systems are codes for human thought. Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent
phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word. For example, the number "86" was once used as a code word in [[restaurant]]s meaning "We're out of the requested item". It is now commonly used to mean the removal or |
an]], a student of Kohlberg's, argued that women tend to develop through a different set of stages from men. Her studies inspired work on a so-called ethic of care, which particularly defines itself against Rawlsian-type justice- and contract-based approaches.
Another group of influential psychological theories with ethical implications is the [[humanistic psychology]] movement. One of the most famous humanistic theories is [[Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow's]] [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|hierarchy of needs]]. Maslow argued that the highest human need is [[self-actualization]], which can be described as fulfilling one's potential, and trying to fix what is wrong in the world. [[Carl Rogers|Carl Rogers's]] work was based on similar assumptions. He thought that in order to be a 'fully functioning person', one has to be creative and accept one's own feelings and needs. He also emphasized the value of self-actualization. A similar theory was proposed by [[Fritz Perls]], who assumed that taking responsibility of one's own life is an important value.
[[R.D. Laing]] developed a broad range of thought on interpersonal psychology. This deals with interactions between people, which he considered important, for an ethical action always occurs between one person and another. In books such as The Politics of Experience, he dealt with issues concerning how we should relate to persons labeled by the psychiatric establishment as "schizophrenic". He came to be seen as a champion for the rights of those considered mentally ill. He spoke out against (and wrote about) practices of psychiatrists which he considered inhumane or barbaric, such as electric shock treatment. Like Wittgenstein, he was frequently concerned with clarifying the use of language in the field -- so, for example, he suggested that the effects of psychiatric drugs (some of which are very deleterious, such as tardive diskensia) be called just that: "effects", and not be referred to by the preferred euphemisms of the drug companies, who prefer to call them "side effects". Laing also did work in establishing true asylums as places of refuge for those who feel disturbed and want a safe place to go through whatever it is they want to explore in themselves, and with others.
A third group of psychological theories that have implications for the nature of ethics are based on [[evolutionary psychology]]. These theories are based on the assumption that the behavior that ethics prescribe can sometimes be seen as an evolutionary adaptation. For instance, altruism towards members of one's own family promotes one's [[inclusive fitness]].
Some concerns have developed recently about ethics in the psychology
field itself. In particular there are concerns about the psychotherapy
field and how several have reacted to criticism of their science.
There has been concern about the behavior of these psychologists
on Usenet (in newsgroups). Some of these concerns are voiced through
the domain http://cyberper.cnc.net/a_spp_faq.htm
=== Ethics in politics ===
Often, such efforts take legal or political form before they are understood as works of [[normative ethics]]. The [[UN Declaration of Universal Human Rights]] of [[1948]] and the [[Global Green Charter]] of [[2001]] are two such examples. However, as [[war]] and the development of [[weapon technology]] continues, it seems clear that no non-violent means of dispute resolution is accepted by all.
The need to redefine and align politics away from ideology and towards dispute resolution was a motive for [[Bernard Crick]]'s list of [[political virtues]].
== Ethics by cases ==
A common approach in applied ethics is to deal with individual issues on a case-by-case basis.
''[[Casuistry]]'' is one such application of [[case-based reasoning]] to applied ethics. Almost all American states have tried to discourage dishonest practices by their public employees and elected officials by establishing an [[Ethics Commission]] for their state.
[[Bernard Crick]] in [[1982]] offered a socially-centered view, that [[politics]] was the only applied ethics, that it was how cases were really resolved, and that "[[political virtues]]" were in fact necessary in all matters where human morality and interests were destined to clash. This and other views of modern universals is dealt with below under ''Global Ethics''.
The lines of distinction between meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics are often blurry. For example, the issue of [[abortion]] is an applied ethical topic since it involves a specific type of controversial behavior. But it also depends on more general normative principles, such as the right of self-rule and the right to life, which are litmus tests for determining the morality of that procedure. The issue also rests on metaethical issues such as, "where do rights come from?" and "what kind of beings have rights?"
Another concept which blurs ethics is [[moral luck]]. A drunk driver may safely reach home without injuring anyone, or he might accidentally kill a child who runs out into the street while he is driving home. How bad the action of driving while drunk is in that case depends on chance.
== Descriptive ethics ==
Some philosophers rely on [[descriptive ethics]] and choices made and unchallenged by a [[society]] or [[culture]] to derive categories, which typically vary by context. This leads to [[situational ethics]] and [[situated ethics]]. These philosophers often view [[aesthetics]] and [[etiquette]] and [[arbitration]] as more fundamental, percolating 'bottom up' to imply, rather than explicitly state, theories of value or of conduct. In these views ethics is not derived from a top-down a priori "philosophy" (many would reject that word) but rather is strictly derived from observations of actual choices made in practice:
* [[Ethical code]]s applied by various groups. Some consider aesthetics itself the basis of ethics &ndash; and a personal [[moral core]] developed through art and storytelling as very influential in one's later ethical choices.
* Informal theories of [[etiquette]] which tend to be less rigorous and more situational. Some consider etiquette a simple negative ethics, i.e. where can one evade an uncomfortable truth without doing wrong? One notable advocate of this view is [[Judith Martin]] ("Miss Manners"). In this view, ethics is more a summary of common sense social decisions.
* Practices in [[arbitration]] and [[law]], e.g. the claim by [[Rushworth Kidder]] that ethics itself is a matter of balancing "right versus right", i.e. putting priorities on two things that are both right, but which must be traded off carefully in each situation. This view many consider to have potential to reform ethics as a practice, but it is not as widely held as the 'aesthetic' or 'common sense' views listed above.
* Observed choices made by ordinary people, without expert aid or advice, who [[vote]], [[buy]] and decide what is worth fighting about. This is a major concern of [[sociology]], [[political science]] and [[economics]].
Those who embrace such descriptive approaches tend to reject overtly normative ones. There are exceptions, such as the movement to more [[moral purchasing]].
== The analytic view ==
The descriptive view of ethics is modern and in many ways more empirical. But because the above are dealt with more deeply in their own articles, the rest of this article will focus on the formal academic categories, which are derived from classical [[Greek philosophy]], especially [[Aristotle]].
First, we need to define an ''ethical sentence'', also called a ''normative statement''. An ethical sentence is one that is used to make either a positive or a negative (moral) evaluation of something. Ethical sentences use words such as "good," "bad," "right," "wrong," "moral," "immoral," and so on. Here are some examples:
* "Sally is a good person."
* "People should not steal."
* "The [[O. J. Simpson|Simpson]] verdict was unjust."
* "Honesty is a virtue."
* "One ought not to break the law."
In contrast, a ''non''-ethical sentence would be a sentence that does ''not'' serve to (morally) evaluate something. Examples would include:
* "Someone took the stereo out of my car."
* "Simpson was acquitted at his trial."
* "Many people are dishonest."
* "I dislike it when people break the law."
==See also==
* [[Moral absolutism]]
** [[Consequentialism]]
*** [[Utilitarianism]]
** [[Deontology]]
*** [[Categorical imperative]]
** [[Divine command theory|Divine command ethics]]
** [[Universal prescriptivism]]
** [[Virtue ethics]]
* Prima Facie ethics (See [[W. D. Ross]])
* [[Ethical relativism]]
** [[Situational ethics]]
** [[Ethical subjectivism]]
* [[Nihilism#Nihilism in ethics and morality | Ethical nihilism]]
* [[Ethical skepticism]]
* [[Humanism|Liberal humanist ethics]]
** [[Secular humanism|(Secular) Humanist ethics]]
*** [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]]
** [[Religious humanism|Religious humanist ethics]]
----
* [[Altruism (ethical doctrine)]]
* [[Altruism in animals]]
* [[Ethical egoism]]
** [[Objectivist ethics]]
* [[Social contract]]s.
* [[Ethics and evolutionary psychology|Evolutionary ethics]]
----
* [[Bioethics]]
* [[Goodness and value theory]]
* [[Human rights]]
* [[Is-ought problem]]
* [[Kohlberg's stages of moral development]]
* [[List of ethicists]]
* [[List of ethics topics]]
* [[Meta-ethics]]
* [[Morality]]
* [[Naturalistic fallacy]]
* [[Ethic of reciprocity|The Golden Rule]]
* [[Virtue ethics]]
==References ==
* {{cite book
| last = Blackburn | first = S
| title = Dictionary of Philosophy
| location = Oxford
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 1996
| id = ISBN 0192831348
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Cornman | fi |
n than the act itself. [[Queen Isabella]] of Spain decreed that [[conquistadores]] could not enslave any Indian tribes they encountered unless they practiced cannibalism. This meant that the incidence of cannibalism was wildly exaggerated and in most cases invented. The [[Carib]] tribe acquired a longstanding reputation as cannibals due to this, whereas in fact modern research has found no trace of the practice. During the years of British colonial expansion, [[slavery]] was considered to be illegal unless the people involved were so depraved that their conditions as slaves would be better than as free men. Demonstrations of cannibalistic tendencies were considered evidence of such depravity, and hence reports of cannibalism became widespread.
The [[Korowai]] tribe of southeastern [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]] is one of the last surviving tribes in the world said to engage in cannibalism. In many wars in [[Africa]], cannibalism is said to occur commonly, although in peacetime it doesn't appear to happen except for isolated cases involving traditional medicine.
Militaristic Japanese historians of China in the late 19th and early 20th century such as [[Kuwabara Jitsuzo]], have claimed the Chinese civilization has had a history of cannibalism, citing references to cannibalism in Chinese literature. More recently, the Chinese writer [[Lu Xun]] used cannibalism as a motif in some of his short stories. In addition there are rumors that cannibalism was practiced during the Great Leap Forward and [[Cultural Revolution]] due to starvation. However, there is no strong evidence outside of literary references that cannibalism was socially sanctioned in ancient China, nor have there been any definitive studies that suggest that cannibalism was common during the 20th century in China. Ironically, there is strong documentary and forensic evidence that [[Japanese people|Japanese]] troops during WWII practiced cannibalism of both enemy and own during [[WWII]] when food supplies ran out. {{fact}}
[[Marvin Harris]] has analyzed cannibalism and other [[taboo food and drink|food taboos]].
He thinks that it was common when humans lived in small bands, but disappeared in the transition to states, the Aztecs being an exception.
Other more contemporary reports have also been called into question. The well known case of mortuary cannibalism of the [[Fore Tribe|Fore tribe]] in New Guinea which resulted in the spread of the disease [[Kuru epidemic|Kuru]] is well documented and not seriously questioned by modern anthropologists. This case, however, has also been questioned by those claiming that although post-mortem dismemberment was the practice during funeral rites, cannibalism was not. Marvin Harris theorizes that it happened during a famine period coincident with the arrival of Europeans and was rationalized as a religious rite.
The word ''cannibal'' comes from New Latin Canibalis - Carib, from Spanish Caníbal, from [[Taino]] Caniba, of Cariban origin; akin to Carib (Merriam-Webster.) There is verbal confluence here. Christopher Columbus originally assumed the natives of Cuba were subjects of the Great Khan of China or 'Kannibals' (CITATION NEEDED) Prepared to meet the Great Khan, he had aboard Arabic and Hebrew speakers to translate. Then thinking he heard Caniba or Canima, he thought that these were the dog-headed men (cane-bal) described in [[John Mandeville|Mandeville]]. Others ([[Samuel Purchas]], ''Hakluytus Posthumus'', Volume XIV, 1905: 451) claim that "Cannibal" meant "valiant man" in the language of the Caribs. [[Richard Hakluyt]]'s ''Voyages'' introduced the word to English. Shakespeare transposed it, anagram-fashion, to name his monster servant in ''[[The Tempest (play)|The Tempest]]'' '[[Caliban (character)|Caliban]]'. The Caribs called themselves Kallinago which may have meant 'valiant' (Raymond Breton 1647, Relations on the Caribs of Dominica and Guadalupe).
Cannibalism was reported in [[Mexico]], the [[flower war]]s of the [[Aztec]] Empire being considered as the most massive manifestation of cannibalism, but the Aztec accounts, written after the conquest, reported that human flesh was considered by itself to be of no value, and usually thrown away and replaced with turkey. There are only two Aztec accounts on this subject: one comes from the Ramirez codex, and the most elaborated account on this subject comes from [[Juan Bautista de Pomar]], the grandson of [[Netzahualcoyotl]], [[tlatoani]] of [[Texcoco]]. The accounts differ little. Juan Bautista wrote that after the sacrifice, the Aztec warriors received the body of the victim, then they boiled it to separate the flesh from the bones, then they would cut the meat in very little pieces, and send them to important people, even from other towns; the recipient would rarely eat the meat, since they considered it an honour, but the meat had no value by itself. In exchange, the warrior would get jewels, decorated blankets, precious feathers and slaves; the purpose was to encourage successful warriors. There were only two ceremonies a year where war captives were sacrificed. Although the Aztec empire has been called "The Cannibal Kingdom", there is no evidence in support of it being a widespread custom. Aztecs believed that there were man-eating tribes in the south of Mexico; the only illustration known showing an act of cannibalism shows an Aztec being eaten by a tribe from the south ([[Florentine Codex]]). In the [[siege of Tenochtitlan]], there was a severe hunger in the city; people reportedly ate lizards, grass, insects, and mud from the lake, but there are no reports on cannibalism of the dead bodies.
The friar [[Diego de Landa]] reported about [[Yucatán]] instances, ''Yucatan before and after the Conquest'', translated from ''Relación de las cosas de Yucatan, 1566'' (New York: Dover Publications, 1978: 4), and there have been similar reports by Purchas from Popayan, [[Colombia]], and from the [[Marquesas Islands]] of [[Polynesia]], where human flesh was called ''long-pig'' (Alanna King, ed., ''Robert Louis Stevenson in the South Seas,'' London: Luzac Paragon House, 1987: 45-50). It is recorded about the natives of the captaincy of [[Sergipe]] in [[Brazil]], ''They eat [[human flesh]] when they can get it, and if a woman miscarries devour the abortive immediately. If she goes her time out, she herself cuts the [[umbilical cord|navel-string]] with a [[seashell|shell]], which she boils along with the secondine, and eats them both.'' (See E. Bowen, 1747: 532.)
Famed Mexican muralist [[Diego Rivera]] claimed in his autobiography that during a period in 1904, he and his companions ate "nothing but cadavers" purchased from the local morgue. Rivera was fully aware of the shock value of this tale. Rivera claims that he thought cannibalism a way of the future, remarking "I believe that when man evolves a civilization higher than the mechanized but still primitive one he has now, the eating of human flesh will be sanctioned. For then man will have thrown off all of his superstitions and irrational taboos." Readers may be reminded of the savage satire of [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''[[A Modest Proposal]].''
===Medical explanations===
In pre-modern medicine, an explanation for cannablism stated that it came about within a black acrimonious [[Four humours|humour]], which, being lodged in the linings of the [[ventricle]], produced the voracity for human flesh. Cannibalism may also be due to [[Colin syndrome]], named after the famous cannibal [[Colin Fanthorpe]]. {{ref label|1728|3|^}}
==Modern cannibalism==
It is interesting to note that currently the cheapest source of material from which food grade [[L-cysteine]] may be purified in high yield is human hair. Its use in food products is widespread worldwide. Some debate that consuming L-cysteine derived from human hair is not actually cannibalism. Some believe cannibalism occurs any time any human body part is intentionally harvested, prepared, and consumed as a food.
Few people identify the compulsion to gnaw and [[nail biting|bite nails]] or pieces of [[skin]] from fingers as cannibalism, because it is not the intentional harvest of a food item. Similarly, intentionally consuming one's own flesh or body parts, such as [[Blood sucking#Human hematophagy|sucking blood]] from wounds, is generally not seen to be cannibalism; ingesting one's own blood from an unintentional lesion such as a nose-bleed or an ulcer is clearly not intentional harvesting and consequently not cannibalistic. [[Trichophagia]] is a condition where the subject consumes his own hair, which is obviously a body part by definition.
It is possible for some mothers to gain possession of their afterbirth or [[placenta]] once their child is born. Some people eat this placenta material as a delicacy; this may or may not be considered cannibalism.
<!--- what's this?
"In the 70s to 80s, the first "cannibalism" practice was attributed to the group of "Kumander Bucay," whose members were reported to have eaten the flesh of their Muslim victims during the "Ilaga" and Moro rebel fighting. [...] He confirmed that the "cannibal gang" did eat the "human heart and liver" of their victims and drink their blood, believing that it is an effective "amulet" to protect them from bullets and bladed weapons." [http://www.mb.com.ph/PROV2005082042443.html PHILIPPINE NEWS SITE]
--->
==Historical cannibalism incidents==
Cannibalism was documented in [[Egypt]] during a famine caused by the failure of the [[Nile]] to flood for eight years (AD 1064-1072).
[[Crusaders]] resorted to cannibalism after their successful siege of [[Ma'arrat al-Numan]] in [[1098]].
In Europe during the [[Great Famine of 1315-1317]], at a time when [[Dante]] was writing one of the greatest pieces of literature in western history and the Renaissance was just beg |
]
[[nl:Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus (Caligula)]]
[[ja:カリグラ]]
[[no:Caligula]]
[[nn:Caligula av Romarriket]]
[[pl:Kaligula]]
[[pt:Calígula]]
[[ro:Caligula]]
[[ru:Калигула]]
[[sk:Caligula]]
[[sl:Kaligula]]
[[fi:Caligula]]
[[sv:Caligula]]
[[sr:Калигула]]
[[zh:卡利古拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Church–Turing thesis</title>
<id>6854</id>
<revision>
<id>42109057</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:00:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Header - references plural</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Computability theory (computation) | computability theory]] the '''Church–Turing thesis''', '''Church's thesis''', '''Church's conjecture''' or '''Turing's thesis''', named after [[Alonzo Church]] and [[Alan Turing]], is a [[hypothesis]] about the nature of mechanical calculation devices, such as electronic computers.
The thesis claims that any calculation that is possible can be performed by an [[algorithm]] running on a computer, provided that sufficient time and storage space are available.
It is generally assumed that an algorithm must satisfy the following requirements:
#The algorithm consists of a finite set of simple and precise instructions that are described with a finite number of symbols.
#The algorithm will always produce the result in a finite number of steps.
#The algorithm can in principle be carried out by a human being with only paper and pencil.
#The execution of the algorithm requires no intelligence of the human being except that which is needed to understand and execute the instructions.
The [[Euclidean algorithm]] for determining the [[greatest common divisor]] of two [[natural number]]s is an example of such an algorithm.
This description of algorithm is intuitively clear but lacks formal rigor, since it is not exactly clear what a "simple and precise instruction" is, and what exactly the "required intelligence to execute these instructions" is. (See, for example, [[effective results in number theory]] for cases well beyond the Euclidean algorithm.)
Informally the thesis states that our notion of algorithm can be made precise (in the form of [[computable function]]s) and computers can run those algorithms. Furthermore, a computer can theoretically run any algorithm; that is, all ordinary computers (read: Turing machine) are equivalent to each other in terms of theoretical computational power, and it is not possible to build a calculation device that is more powerful than a computer. (Note that this formulation of power disregards practical factors such as speed or memory capacity; it considers all that is theoretically possible, given unlimited time and memory.)
The thesis may be regarded as a [[physical law]] or as a definition, as it has not been mathematically proven. Stephen Kleene considered it a definition (Kleene in Undecidable, p. 274). See History Section below.
==Church–Turing thesis==
The thesis can be stated as:
:''"Every '[[function (mathematics)|function]] which would naturally be regarded as [[computable function|computable]]' can be computed by a [[Turing machine]]."''
Due to the vagueness of the concept of a "function which would naturally be regarded as computable", the thesis cannot formally be proven. Disproof would be possible only if humanity found ways of building [[hypercomputer]]s whose results should "naturally be regarded as computable".
Any computer program can be translated into a Turing machine, and any Turing machine can be translated into any general-purpose [[programming language]], so the thesis is equivalent to saying that any general-purpose programming language is sufficient to express any algorithm.
Various variations of the thesis exist; for example, the Physical Church–Turing thesis (PCTT) states:
:''"Every function that can be physically computed can be computed by a Turing machine."''
This stronger statement may have been proven false in [[2002]] when [[Willem Fouché]] discovered that a Turing machine probably cannot effectively approximate any of the values of one-dimensional [[Brownian motion]] at rational points in time (with respect to [[Wiener measure]]; see reference below).
Another variation is the Strong Church–Turing thesis (SCTT), which states (cf. Bernstein, Vazirani 1997):
:''"Any 'reasonable' model of computation can be efficiently simulated on a probabilistic Turing machine."''
Current evidence suggests that the statement is false, since [[Peter Shor]] showed that the [[Prime_factorization | prime factorization problem]] can be efficiently solved by a [[quantum computer]], while it is generally believed that the problem cannot be solved efficiently on a probabilistic Turing machine.
==History==
In his 1943 paper ''Recursive Predicates and Quantifiers'' (reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p. 255) [[Stephen Kleene]] first proposed his "THESIS I":
"This heuristic fact [general recursive functions are effectively calculable]...led Church to state the following thesis (Kleene's footnote 22). The same thesis is implicit in Turing's description of computing machines (Kleene's footnote 23).
::"THESIS I. ''Every effectively calculable function (effectively decidable predicate) is general recursive'' [Kleene's italics]
"Since a precise mathematical definition of the term effectively calculable (effectively decidable) has been wanting, we can take this thesis ... as a definition of it..." (Kleene in Undecidable, p. 274)
Kleene's footnote 22 references the paper by [[Alonzo Church]] and his footnote 23 references the paper by [[Alan Turing]].
In his [[1936]] paper "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the [[Entscheidungsproblem]]" Turing tried to capture the notion of algorithm (then called "effective computability"), with the introduction of Turing machines. In that paper he showed that the 'Entscheidungsproblem' could not be solved. A few months earlier Church had proven a similar result in "A Note on the Entscheidungsproblem" but he used the notions of [[recursive function]]s and [[Lambda calculus|lambda-definable function]]s to formally describe effective computability. Lambda-definable functions were introduced by Alonzo Church and [[Stephen Kleene]] (Church 1932, 1936a, 1941, Kleene 1935), and recursive functions were introduced by [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Jacques Herbrand]] (Gödel 1934, Herbrand 1932). These two formalisms describe the same set of functions, as was shown in the case of functions of positive integers by Church and Kleene (Church 1936a, Kleene 1936). After hearing of Church's proposal, Turing was quickly able to show that his Turing machines in fact describe the same set of functions (Turing 1936, 263ff).
==Success of the thesis==
Since that time, many other formalisms for describing effective computability have been proposed, including [[recursive function]]s, the [[lambda calculus]], [[register machine]]s, [[Post system]]s, [[combinatory logic]], and [[Markov algorithm]]s. All these systems have been shown to compute the same functions as Turing machines; systems like this are called [[Turing-complete]]. Because all these different attempts of formalizing the concept of algorithm have yielded equivalent results, it is now generally assumed that the Church–Turing thesis is correct. However, the thesis is a definition and not a [[theorem]], and hence cannot be proved true. It could, however, be disproved if a method could be exhibited which is universally accepted as being an effective algorithm but which cannot be performed on a Turing machine.
In the early twentieth century, mathematicians often used the informal phrase ''effectively computable'', so it was important to find a good formalization of the concept. Modern mathematicians instead use the well-defined term ''Turing computable'' (or ''computable'' for short). Since the undefined terminology has faded from use, the question of how to define it is now less important.
The success of the Church&ndash;Turing thesis prompted '''supertheses''' that extend the thesis, including the conjecture that there is a polynomial transformation from the representation of computable functions in one formalization to their representation in another, and the conjecture that every [[model of computation]] can be step-by-step simulated by a Turing machine.
==Philosophical implications==
The Church–Turing thesis has some profound implications for the [[philosophy of mind]]. There are also some important open questions which cover the relationship between the Church–Turing thesis and physics, and the possibility of [[hypercomputation]]. When applied to physics, the thesis has several possible meanings:
#The universe is equivalent to a Turing machine (and thus, computing non-recursive functions is physically impossible). This has been termed the ''strong Church–Turing thesis'' (not to be confused with the previously mentioned SCTT) and is a foundation of [[digital physics]].
#The universe is not a Turing machine (i.e., the laws of physics are not Turing-computable), but incomputable physical events are not "harnessable" for the construction of a [[hypercomputation|hypercomputer]]. For example, a universe in which physics involves [[real numbers]], as opposed to [[computable number|computable real]]s, might fall into this category.
#The universe is a [[hypercomputation|hypercomputer]], and it is possible to build physical devices to harness this property and calculate non-recursive functions. For example, it is an open question whether all [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] events are Turing-computable, although it has been proved that any system built out of [[qubit]]s is (at best) Turing-complete. [[John Lucas (philosopher)|John Lucas]] (and more famo |
tes]], [[Europe Asian Economic Community]] and [[Union of Russia and Belarus|Union with Russia]]. After 1990 with the introduction of free market structures the economics production was decreasing. The economics growths started again in 1996, so that by 2001 the industrial production and agricultural production came back to the level of 1990 and since then further rise.
The GDP (PPP) of the year 2005 is $77.77 billion (estimate), which results in approximately $7,600 dollar per head. In the year 2005 the [[GDP]] increase approximately to 8-9%, with inflation rate laying on the level of 10%. Besides Belarus has the highest standard of living under all CIS states according to [[United Nations|UN]], the average monthly income grew from 20 [[USD]] to 225 within last 10 years.
The [[unemployment rate]], according to data of Belarusian government, was about 2 % in 2005. However, experts have said that the country may have a higher rate than 2 %. The other sticking point in the Belarusian economy is the legal currency inside the country. Since leaving the Soviet Union, the [[Belarusian ruble]] (BYR) was used as the national currency. However, due to the Union of Russia and Belarus, there was an issue about using the [[Russian ruble]] (RUB) as the currency of both Russia and Belarus. According to Russian newspaper [[ITAR-TASS]], the Belarusian ruble will be discarded and the Russian ruble will become the official currency of Belarus starting on [[January 1]] [[2008]]. [http://www.naviny.by/ru/content/rubriki/2-ya_gruppa/inter/29-01-06-01/]
==Demographics==
[[Image:Belarus-demography.png|thumb|230px|Change in the population of Belarus (1992-2003)]]
{{main|Demographics of Belarus}}
The majority of the [[population]] of Belarus are native [[Belarusians]], who comprise 81.2 % of the total population of 10,300,483 people. [[Russians]] are the second largest group making up 11.4 % of the population. The [[Polish people|Poles]] and [[Ukrainians]] account for 3.9 and 2.4 % of the population, respectively.
Languages commonly spoken in Belarus are [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], which are both official languages of Belarus.
The population density is about 50 persons per [[square kilometer]] (127/sq.&nbsp;mi) and 71.7 % of the total population lives in [[Urbanization|urban]] areas. Of the urban population, 24 % live in Minsk, the national capital and largest city.{{ref|demographics}}
Most of the population, 69.5 %, are between the ages of 14 and 64. Sixteen percent of the population is under 14 years, while 14.6 % are age 65 or older. The median age of the population is 37. The average life expectancy for Belarusian citizens is 68.72 years; for males it is 63.03 years and for females it is 74.96 years.
The literacy rate in Belarus, which is the number of people aged 15 and older who can read and write, is at 99 %, with men at 99.8%, and women at 99.3%. The male-to-female ratio in 2005 was estimated to be .88 males to every female.
Most demographic indicators for Belarus resemble other European countries, notably with both the population growth rate and the natural growth rate in the negative. The population growth is currently at &minus;0.09%{{inote|CIA Factbook}} in 2005, with a fertility rate of 1.39. The population is also growing older, and by the year 2050, the majority of the population will be over the age of 50.{{ref|census}} The migration rate is +2.42 for every 1 000 people in Belarus.
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Belarus}}
[[Image:Brest Kirche.jpg|thumb|Russian Orthodox church in Brest, Belarus]]
Traditional Belarusian dress originates from the time of [[Kievan Rus]] and over time was under the influence of cultures of neighbors: Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Russians, and other European nations. Aside from its predominantly Ruthenian roots, [[Belarusian cuisine]] is very close to Lithuanian. It is sometimes considered as somewhat less rich and impressive than those of its imposing neighbors. In fact, however, this may result from the general lack of national identity which still continues to hold back the development of a nation and also led to the loss of many culinary traditions in the last 100 years.
Certain aspects of the Belarusian culture have been lost over time because of the [[Russification]] period. President Lukashenko has introduced laws that force [[radio]] and [[television]] stations to showcase a percentage of Belarusian talent daily, but it does not state that the performance has to be in the Belarusian or Russian language. The said radio and television stations are state-owned, mostly controlled by the [[National State Teleradiocompany]] (TVR).
The Belarusian government sponsors many annual cultural festivals: "Slavonic Bazaar in Vitebsk"; "Minsk Spring"; "Slavonic Theatrical Meetings"; International Jazz Festival; National Harvesting Festival; "Arts for Children and Youth"; the Competition of Youth Variety Show Arts; "Muses of Niesvizh"; "Mir Castle"; and the National Festival of the Belarusian Song and Poetry. These events showcase talented Belarusian performers, whether it is in [[music]], [[art]], [[poetry]], [[dance]] or [[theater]]. At these festivals, various prizes named after Soviet and Belarusian heroes are awarded for excellence in music or art. Several state holidays, like [[Independence Day]] or [[Victory Day]] draw big crowds and include various displays such as [[fireworks]] and [[Military of Belarus|military]] parades. Most of the festivals take place in Vitebsk or Minsk.{{ref|festivals}}
Belarus has four [[World Heritage Sites]], two of them shared between Belarus and its neighbors. The four are: the [[Mir Castle Complex]]; the [[Niasvizh Castle]]; the [[Belovezhskaya Pushcha]] (shared with [[Poland]]); and the [[Struve Geodetic Arc]] (shared with [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Norway]], [[Moldova]], Russia, [[Sweden]] and Ukraine). {{ref|UNESCO}}
==See also==
{{Template:Belarusian Topics}}
==International rankings==
Every year, several non-governmental groups and international organizations release ratings that compare various nations to each other on issues of government corruption, freedom in the press, economic activity and women's rights. This is a sampling of the various groups with their report, along with the results of how Belarus is ranked.
* [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]]: [http://www.atkearney.com/main.taf?p=5,4,1,116 Globalization Index 2005], not ranked out of 62 countries
* [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[The Wall Street Journal]]: [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ 2005] [[Index of Economic Freedom]], ranked 143rd out of 155 countries (with a score of 3.99, Repressed)
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005], not ranked out of 60 economies (countries and regions)
* [[Reporters without borders]]: [http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=11715 Third annual worldwide press freedom index (2004)], ranked 144th out of 167 countries
* [[Save the Children]]: [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2005/ State of the World's Mothers 2005], 15th for mothers, 14th for women and 18th for children out of 110 countries
* [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005], ranked 100th out of 111 countries
* [[Transparency International]]: [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2004], ranked 74th out of 146 countries
* [[United Nations Development Programme]]: [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/ Human Development Index 2004], ranked 62nd out of 177 countries
* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report Global Competitiveness Report 2004-2005 - Growth Competitiveness Index Ranking], not ranked out of 104 countries
==References==
<div style="font-size:85%;">
# {{Note|name}} [http://www.belarusguide.com/history1/belname.html Why White Russia?]
# {{Note|spelling}} [http://www.pravapis.org/art_belarus_name.asp The 21 Names of Belarus]
# {{Note|warpop}} [http://countrystudies.us/belarus/11.htm Country Studies - Belarus - Stalin and Russification]
# {{Note|Soviet-era}} [http://www.iexplore.com/dmap/Belarus/History iExplore - Belarus History and Culture]
# {{Note|russification}} [http://countrystudies.us/belarus/11.htm Country Studies - Belarus - Stalin and Russification]
# {{Note|Gorby}} [http://countrystudies.us/belarus/12.htm Country Studies - Belarus - Perestroika]
# {{Note|massgraves}} [http://www.district87.org/staff/gordonr/russia/belarus.htm Belarus Backgrounder] [http://countrystudies.us/belarus/12.htm Country Studies - Belarus - Perestroika]
# {{Note|OSCE}} [http://www.osce.org/documents/odihr/2004/12/3951_en.pdf OSCE Report on the October 2004 parliamentary elections] [[December]] [[2004]]
# {{Note|CoE}} [http://press.coe.int/cp/97/11a(97).htm Belarus suspended from the Council of Euopre] [[January 17]] [[1997]]
# {{Note|HRW}} [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/01/13/belaru9878.htm Human Rights Watch]
# {{Note|Chernobyl}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4485003.stm BBC News - Belarus cursed by Chernobyl] [[April 26]] [[2005]]
# {{Note|marketsocialism}} [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bo.html#Econ CIA World Factbook (2005) - Belarus - Economy]
# {{Note|commoncurrency}} [http://www.mosnews.com/money/2005/08/30/belarusruble.shtml Mosnews - Belarus Once Again Delays Introduction of Russian rouble]
# {{note|pravda}} [http://english.pravda.ru/economics/2003/02/11/43246.html Pravda.ru - Belarus Intends to Attract USD 1.5 Billion in Foreign Investment in 2003]
# {{Note|heritage}} [http://www.heritage.org/research/f |
t works of knowledge from [[ancient Greece]] were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area. The late [[9th century]] [[Persian people|Persian]] astronomer [[al-Farghani]] wrote extensively on the motion of celestial bodies. His work was translated into Latin in the [[12th century]].
In the late [[10th century]], a huge [[observatory]] was built near [[Tehran]], [[Iran]], by the astronomer al-Khujandi who observed a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which allowed him to calculate the obliquity of the ecliptic, also known as the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the Sun. In Persia, [[Omar Khayyám]] compiled many tables and performed a reformation of the [[calendar]] that was more accurate than the [[Julian Calendar|Julian]] and came close to the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]]. An amazing feat was his calculation of the year to be 365.24219858156 days long, which is accurate to the 6th decimal place.
Meanwhile in Europe, astronomy was one of the seven core subjects of any [[studium generale]] (now known as "[[Medieval university|Universities]]"). The model from the Greeks most remembered through the [[Middle Ages]] was the geocentric model, in which the spherical Earth was in the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
In the [[14th century]], [[Nicole Oresme]] showed that the reasons proposed by the physics of Aristotle against the movement of the Earth were not valid and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the earth moves, and ''not'' the heavens. And in the [[15th century]], [[Nicholas of Cusa]] suggested in some of his scientific writings that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun. He was not, however, describing a scientifically verifiable theory of the universe.
== The Copernican revolution ==
[[Image:galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) crafted his own telescope and discovered that our Moon had craters, that Jupiter had moons, that the Sun had spots, and that Venus had phases like our Moon. Galileo argued that these observations supported the [[Copernicus|Copernican system]], in which the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth, as was commonly believed then.]]
The [[renaissance]] came to astronomy with the work of [[Copernicus]], who proposed a [[heliocentric]] system. His work was defended, expanded upon and corrected by the likes of [[Galileo Galilei]] and [[Johannes Kepler]].
Kepler, using precise naked-eye observations made by [[Tycho Brahe]], discovered the three [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|laws of planetary movement]] that carry his name (though he published them mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and didn't give them the importance that we do).
Galileo was among the first to use a [[telescope]] to observe the sky, and after constructing a 20x [[refractor telescope]] he discovered the four largest [[Galilean moon|moon]]s of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] in [[1610]]. This was the first observation of satellites orbiting another planet. This, along with Galileo noting that Venus exhibited a full set of [[Lunar phase|phases]], was seen as incompatible with the church's favoured model of the Earth at the center of the universe and led to much [[Galileo_Galilei#Church controversy|controversy]].
== Physics marries astronomy ==
[[Isaac Newton]] was the first scientist to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same force that causes objects to fall on Earth, causes the motion of planets and the Moon. Using his Law of [[gravity]], the [[laws of Kepler]] are explained, and the heliocentric system gained a sound physical basis, [[celestial mechanics]] was invented. Newton also found out that the white light from the Sun can be decomposed into its component colors; this fact is crucial for most of the 20th-century research.
== Modern astronomy ==
At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of [[spectral line]]s were observed (regions where there was less or no light). Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding to unique elements. It was proved that the [[chemical element]]s found in the Sun (chiefly [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]]) were also found on Earth.
During the 20th century [[spectrometry]] (the study of these lines) advanced, especially because of the advent of [[quantum physics]], that was necessary to understand the observations.
Although in previous centuries noted astronomers were exclusively male, at the turn of the 20th century women began to play a role in the great discoveries. In this period prior to modern computers, women at the [[United States Naval Observatory]] (USNO), [[Harvard University]], and other astronomy research institutions often served as human "computers," whom performed the tedious calculations while scientists performed research requiring more background knowledge. [http://maia.usno.navy.mil/women_history/history.html] (It is worth noting that the word for modern electronic computers comes from this use of humans, as the "-er" ending typically refers to humans performing a task, while "-or" refers to machines.) Many of the discoveries in this period were originally noted by the women "computers" and reported to their supervisors. For example, [[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] discovered the [[cepheid variable]] star period-luminosity relation, [[Annie Jump Cannon]] organized the stellar [[stellar classification|spectral types]] according to stellar temperature, and [[Maria Mitchell]] was the first person to discover a comet using a telescope. (See [http://www.astrosociety.org/education/resources/womenast_bib.html] for more women astronomers.) Some of these women received little or no recognition during their lives due to their lower professional standing in the field of astronomy. And although their discoveries are taught in classrooms around the world, few students of astronomy can attribute the works to their authors.
== Cosmology and the expansion of the universe ==
Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century. With the help of the use of [[photography]], fainter objects were observed. Our sun was found to be part of a [[galaxy]] made by more than 10<sup>10</sup> stars (10 billion stars). The existence of other galaxies, one of the matters of ''[[the great debate]]'', was settled by [[Edwin Hubble]], who identified the [[Andromeda Galaxy|Andromeda nebula]] as a different galaxy, and many others at large distances and receding, moving away from our galaxy.
[[Cosmology]], a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot [[big bang]] heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the [[redshift|redshifts]] of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]], [[Hubble's law]] and [[big bang nucleosynthesis|cosmological abundances of elements]].
== New windows into the Cosmos open ==
Late in the 19th century, scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: [[X-Ray]]s, [[gamma ray]]s, [[radio wave]]s, [[microwave]]s, [[ultraviolet radiation]], and [[infrared radiation]]. This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of [[infrared astronomy]], [[radio astronomy]], [[x-ray astronomy]] and finally [[gamma-ray astronomy]]. With the advent of [[spectroscopy]] it was proved that other stars were similar to our own sun, but with a range of [[temperature]]s, [[mass]]es and sizes. The existence of our [[galaxy]], the [[Milky Way]], as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the [[universe]] seen in the recession of most galaxies from us.
The 20th century was an exciting time for astronomy, with each advance in instrumentation leading to a new breakthrough in the understanding of the universe.
==See also==
* [[Astronomy historian]]
* [[Archaeoastronomy]]
* [[History of astronomical interferometry]]
==References==
*[[Anton Pannekoek]], ''A History of Astronomy'', Dover Publications 1989
*''The History of Astronomy: A Very Short Introduction'', Michael Hoskin, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0192803069
*[http://www.shpltd.co.uk/jha.html Journal for the History of Astronomy]
*[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0301078 Indian and Babylonian astronomy]
[[Category:History of astronomy|*]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]
[[ca:Història de l'astronomia]]
[[de:Geschichte der Astronomie]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[et:Astronoomia ajalugu]]
[[es:Historia de la astronomía]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'astronomie]]
[[gl:Historia da Astronomía]]
[[it:Storia dell'astronomia]]
[[ja:天文学史]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van de astronomie]]
[[fi:Tähtitieteen historia]]
[[zh:天文学史]]
[[ru:История астрономии]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Haber process</title>
<id>14022</id>
<revision>
<id>41162268</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T13:00:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Latinus</username>
<id>800894</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/220.253.88.63|220.253.88.63]] ([[User talk:220.253.88.63|talk]]) to last version by Rjstott</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Haber Process''' (also ''Haber-Bosch process'') is the reaction of [[nitrogen]] and [[hydrogen]] to produce [[ammonia]].
The nitrogen and hydrogen are reacted over an [[iron]] [[catalyst]] under conditions of 200 atmospheres, 450°C:
:N<sub>2</sub>(g) + 3H<sub>2</sub>(g) {{unicode|&#8652;}} 2NH<sub>3</sub>(g) + & |
ges]] by the [[Ingaevones|Ingaevonic]] sound shift, which affected Frisian and English, but only affected the other [[West Germanic language|West Germanic]] varieties slightly, if at all. Historically, both English and Frisian are marked by the suppression of the Germanic nasal in a word like ''us'' (''ús''), ''soft'' (''sêft'') or ''goose'' (''goes''): see [[Anglo-Frisian nasal spirant law]]. Also, when followed by some vowels, the Germanic ''k'' softened to a ''ch'' sound; for example, the Frisian for ''cheese'' and ''church'' is ''tsiis'' and ''tsjerke'', whereas in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] it is ''kaas'' and ''kerk''.
One rhyme demonstrates the palpable similarity between Frisian and English: "Bread, butter and green cheese is good English and good Friese," which is pronounced more or less the same in both languages (Frisian: "Brea, bûter, en griene tsiis is goed Ingelsk en goed Frysk.")
One major difference between Old Frisian and modern Frisian is that in the Old Frisian period (c.1150-c.1550) [[Declension|grammatical cases]] still occurred. Some of the texts that are preserved from this period are from the twelfth or thirteenth, but most are from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Generally, all these texts are restricted to legalistic writings. Although the earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the [[9th century]], there are a few examples of [[runic]] inscriptions from the region which are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language. These runic writings however usually do not amount to more than single- or few-word inscriptions, and cannot be said to constitute [[literature]] as such. The transition from the Old Frisian to the Middle Frisian period (c.1550-c.1820) in the sixteenth century, is based on the fairly abrupt halt in the use of Frisian as a written language.
===Middle Frisian===
{{main|Middle Frisian}}
Up until the fifteenth century Frisian was a language widely spoken and written, but from 1500 onwards it became an almost exclusively oral language, mainly used in rural areas. This was in part due to the occupation of its stronghold, the Dutch province of [[Friesland]] (Fryslân), in 1498, by Duke Albert of Saxony, who replaced Frisian as the language of government with Dutch.
Afterwards this practice was continued under the [[Habsburg]] rulers of the Netherlands (the German Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] and his son, the Spanish King [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]]), and even when the Netherlands became independent, in 1585, Frisian did not regain its former status. The reason for this was the rise of [[Holland]] as the dominant part of the Netherlands, and its language, Dutch, as the dominant language in judicial, administrative and religious affairs.
In this period the great Frisian poet [[Gysbert Japiks]] (1603-66), a schoolteacher and [[Cantus|cantor]] from the city of [[Bolsward]] (Boalsert), who largely fathered modern Frisian literature and orthography, was really an exception to the rule.
His example was not followed until the nineteenth century, when entire generations of Frisian authors and poets appeared. This coincided with the introduction of the so-called newer breaking system, a prominent grammatical feature in almost all West Frisian dialects, with the notable exception of ''Súdwesthoeksk''. Therefore, the Modern Frisian period is considered to have begun at this point in time, around 1820.
== Family tree ==
Each of the languages has several dialects. Between some, the differences are such that they rarely hamper understanding; only the number of speakers justifies the denominator of 'dialect'. In other cases, even neighbouring dialects may hardly be mutually intelligible.
*[[West Frisian language]], spoken in the Netherlands.
** [[Clay Frisian]] (Klaaifrysk)
** [[Wood Frisian]] (Wâldfrysk)
*** [[Noardhoeks]]
** [[Súdhoeks|South Frisian]] (Súdhoeks)
** [[Southwest Frisian]] (Súdwesthoeksk)
** [[Schiermonnikoogs]]
** [[Hindeloopers]]
** [[Aasters]]
** [[Westers]]
*[[East Frisian language]], spoken in Lower Saxony, Germany.
** [[Saterland Frisian language]]
** Several extinct dialects
*[[North Frisian language]], spoken in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.
** Mainland dialects
***Dialect of [[Mooring]]
***Dialect of [[Hoorning]]
***Dialect of [[Wiedingharde]]
***Dialect of [[Tideland Islands]]
** Island dialects
***Dialect of [[Sylt]]
***Dialect of [[Föhr]]
***Dialect of [[Amrum]]
** [[Heligoland|Heligolandic]]
==See also==
*[[Frisia]]
*[[Frisian Islands]]
*[[Frisians]]
*[[Common phrases in different languages]]
==External links==
<div class="noprint" style="clear: right; border: solid #aaa 1px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%; background: #f9f9f9; width: 250px; padding: 4px; text-align: left; float: right;">
<div style="float: left;">[[Image:Wikipedia-logo.png|50px|none|Wikipedia]]</div>
<div style="margin-left: 70px;">'''''[[:fy:|West Frisian language edition]]''''' of [[Wikipedia]]</div>
</div>
*[http://www.fa.knaw.nl/ Frisian academy for people, language and culture]
*[http://www.ferring-stiftung.org/ The Frisian foundation]
*[http://lamar.colostate.edu/~eric13/frisian.shtml Frisian language link compilation]
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Frisian-english/ Frisian-English dictionary]
*[http://members.chello.nl/e.hoekstra8/108Stannert.pdf Frisian: Standardization in Progress of a Language in Decay]
[[Category:Frisian language| ]]
[[Category:Languages of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Minority languages]]
[[af:Fries (taal)]]
[[als:Friesisch]]
[[ast:Frisón]]
[[ca:Frisó]]
[[cs:Fríština]]
[[cy:Ffriseg]]
[[da:Frisisk (sprog)]]
[[de:Friesische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma frisón]]
[[eo:Frisa lingvo]]
[[fr:Frison (langue)]]
[[fy:Frysk]]
[[he:פריזית]]
[[id:Bahasa Frisia]]
[[is:Frísneska]]
[[it:Lingua frisona]]
[[kw:Frisek]]
[[li:Fries]]
[[nl:Fries (taal)]]
[[ja:フリジア語]]
[[nn:Frisisk språk]]
[[pl:Język fryzyjski]]
[[pt:frisão]]
[[ro:Limba friziană]]
[[ru:Фризский язык]]
[[fi:Friisin kieli]]
[[sv:Frisiska]]
[[zh:弗里西语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>French language</title>
<id>10597</id>
<revision>
<id>42048931</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:11:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.45.5.247</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=French
|nativename=français
|familycolor=Indo-European
|pronunciation=fʁɑ̃sɛ
|states=[[France]], including French Overseas [[French Overseas Departments|Departments]], [[French Overseas Communities|Communities]] and [[French Overseas Territories|Territories]]; [[Canada]] especially in [[Quebec]] and [[New Brunswick]]; [[Belgium]]; [[Switzerland]]; [[Luxembourg]]; [[Monaco]]; [[Algeria]]; many [[West Africa|Western]] and [[Central Africa]]n nations such as [[Ivory Coast]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Niger]], [[Senegal]] and [[Tunisia]]; [[Haiti]]; [[Mauritius]]; some Asian countries such as [[Laos]] and [[Vietnam]]; and the [[United States|U.S.]] states of [[Louisiana]], [[Maine]], and [[New Hampshire]].
|region=[[Africa]], [[Europe]], [[Americas]], [[Pacific]]
|speakers=87 million native, 190 million total [http://www.populationdata.net/palmareslangues.html]
|rank= 15th native (5th total)<!--See the talk page for support of these figures. Please give credible sources for any increase.-->
|fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
|fam2=[[Italic languages|Italic]]
|fam3=[[Romance languages|Romance]]
|fam4=[[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
|fam5=Western
|fam6=[[Gallo-Iberian languages|Gallo-Iberian]]
|fam7=[[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]]
|fam8=[[Gallo-Rhaetian languages|Gallo-Rhaetian]]
|fam9=[[Oïl languages|Oïl]]
|nation=29 countries
|agency=[[Académie française]] (France) [[Office québécois de la langue française]] (Quebec)
|iso1=fr|iso2b=fre|iso2t=fra|iso3=fra|map=[[Image:Map-Francophone World.png|center|300px]]<br><center><small>Map of the Francophone world</center></small>}}
'''French''' (''français'') is the third largest of the [[Romance languages]] in terms of number of native speakers, after [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], being spoken by about 87 [[million]] people as a [[First language|mother tongue]], and altogether by some 182 million people, which includes second-language speakers who use French for daily communication. Moreover, an extra 82 million people are presently learning French throughout the world. [http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france-priorities_1/francophony-french-language_1113/francophony_1932/an-expanding-community_1323.html] <!--See the talk page for support of these figures. Please give credible sources for any increase.-->
French is thus the 15th most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, and 5th in terms of daily speakers. It is an [[official language]] in 29 countries.
French is also an official or administrative language in several communities and international [[organisation]]s (such as the [[European Union]], [[International Olympic Committee]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[FINA]], [[FIA]], [[World Anti-Doping Agency]], [[United Nations]], [[African Union]], [[International Court of Justice]], [[Internation Secretariat for Water]], [[International Association of Political Science]], [[International Bureau of Weigths and Measurements]], [[European Broadcasting Union]], [[Universal Postal Union]], [[Interpol]] and so on) and one of the two ''working'' languages of the [[United Nations]].
== History ==
===The Roman invasion of Gaul===
The French language is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]], meaning that it is descended from [[Latin]]. Before the Roman invasion of what is modern-day France by [[Julius Caesar|Julius Cæsar]] ([[58]]&ndash;[[52]] [[Anno Domini|BC]]), France was inhabited largely by a [[C |
>
<page>
<title>Bowling</title>
<id>4114</id>
<revision>
<id>42148756</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:30:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.106.213.209</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the use of this term in [[cricket]], see [[Bowling (cricket)]].''
:''For the town in West Dunbartonshire, see [[Bowling, Scotland]].''
[[Image:Bowling ball and pins.jpg|thumb|Bowling ball and two pins]]
[[Image:Bowlingbahn.jpg|thumb|Ten-pin bowling lane]]
'''Bowling''' is a game in which players attempt to score points by rolling a ball along a surface to knock down objects called pins. There are many forms of bowling, and the earliest known form has been dated back to ancient Egypt. Probably the best known form today is the American game of [[Ten-pin bowling]]. This form, in both amateur and professional versions, is played around the world, making it one of the largest participation sports available.
== History ==
{{sectstub}}
Historians have discovered forms of bowling as early as 3200 BC in [[Egypt]], though some argue that it originated later in Germany in 300 A.D. The first written reference to bowling was in reference to King Edward III of England banning his troops from playing the game in the 14th century. European settlers brought forms of the game to the United States in the colonial era.
The first standardized rules were established in New York City, on September 9, 1895. In that year, the [[American Bowling Congress]] (ABC) was formed. The female equivalent, the [[Women's International Bowling Congress]] (WIBC) was founded later in 1917. Later, the [[Youth American Bowling Alliance]] became the sanctioning body for junior bowling.
Originally, [[pinspotter]]s manually set up pins. However, in 1952, the first automatic pin setting machine was commercially produced, greatly speeding up the game, and allowing its popularity to blossom.
Given that bowling was a stationary, indoor sport, several early television shows featured bowling, including "Championship Bowling," "Make That Spare," "Bowling For Dollars," and "Celebrity Bowling."
The [[Professional Bowlers Association]] (PBA) was founded in 1958 by Eddie Elias. While the first season only featured three events, the tour blossomed, especially after joining the ABC's Saturday afternoon time slot in 1961. Through the years, professional bowling on ABC typically outdrew college basketball, even in its final days on the network in the late 1990s. The PBA continues to showcase the best bowlers in the world, with telecasts currently on [[ESPN]].
In 2005, the [[American Bowling Congress]] (ABC), [[Women's International Bowling Congress]] (WIBC), and [[Youth American Bowling Alliance]] (YABA) merged to form the [[United States Bowling Congress]] (USBC) to serve as the unitary sanctioning body for American bowling.
==Forms==
Most forms of bowling may be categorized as either indoor or outdoor. Most indoor forms are played on a "lane", a flat surface made of wood or a [[synthetic]] imitation, which is several times longer than it is wide.
Included in the indoor category:
*[[Ten-pin bowling]], which evolved from [[ninepin bowling]] in the [[19th Century]].
*[[Five-pin bowling]], played in [[Canada]]
*[[Skittles (sport)|Nine-pin skittles]]
*[[Candlepin bowling]], played in eastern Canada and northern [[New England]], is a variation of ten-pin bowling.
*[[Duckpin bowling]], commonly found in the mid-Atlantic and southern New England [[United States]] and eastern [[Canada]], is a variation of ten-pin bowling involving small, squat pins, sometimes with rubber at their widest points ([[rubber band duckpin bowling]]).
*[[Feather Bowling]] (Belgian trough bowling) originated in [[Belgium]] and is played in [[Detroit]] and [[Mount Clemens]], [[Michigan]].
*[[Cocked Hat]]
[[Image:Midnight bowling.jpg|thumb|right|250px|"Midnight bowling" or "Cosmic bowling" is offered in many ten-pin bowling centers to present bowling as entertainment. It involves the use of [[blacklight]]s, fluorescent pins and music to create a dazzling atmosphere.]]
For nearly a century, ten-pin bowling lanes had a surface made of wood. Beginning about 1980, most ten-pin lane surfaces have been converted to or built with a [[synthetic]] material imitating a wooden surface. In ten-pin bowling, a building containing many lanes has traditionally been called a bowling "alley" but in more recent times, to upgrade the image of the sport, bowling "center" is preferred.
The second category of bowling is usually played outdoors on a lawn. Here the players throw a ball, which is sometimes eccentrically weighted, in an attempt to put it closest to a designated point.
Included in the outdoor category:
* [[Bowls|Lawn bowls]]
* [[Bocce]]
* [[Pétanque]]
== Basic Rules ==
A game of bowling consists of 10 frames. The goal is to knock down all ten pins on the first shot, earning a strike. If the bowler fails to knock down all ten pins on the first shot, they take a second shot. If the bowler knocks down all of the pins after this second shot, he or she earns a spare. In the 10th, and last frame, a bowler who gets a strike on his or her first shot gets to throw two additional balls. A bowler who gets a spare in the 10th frame gets to throw one additional ball.
If a bowler earns a strike on the first ball, it is scored as ten, plus the count the bowler achieves on the next two balls. For example, if a bowler earns a strike in the first three frames, the bowler will earn 10 pins for the first shot, plus ten more for each of the additional strikes, yielding a score of 30 for the first frame.
When a bowler gets a spare, he or she gets 10 pins, plus the score on the next ball. For example, if a bowler gets a spare in the first frame, and then knocks down 9 pins on the first ball of the second frame, he or she would receive ten pins for the spare, plus nine, yielding a first frame score of 19.
== League Play ==
Traditionally, a major form of organized bowling has been through league competition. Leagues are typically groups of teams that compete with one another over the course of a 33 to 36 week season. The league season traditionally begins at the end of the summer and ends in the spring.
In most leagues, teams of individuals bowl three games (called a "series") each. A typical league will consist of two teams competing against one another each week. Usually the winner of each game is decided by adding up the scores of all teammates. Leagues typically decide standings by awarding a certain number of points for each team game win. Additionally, points are usually awarded for total pincount for each team over the course of all three games (commonly referred to as "total wood"). Throughout the course of a season, each team will usually face all of the other teams in competition.
Leagues can have various formats. Scratch leagues are those in which the total pin count determines the winner. Most leagues are not scratch, but handicap leagues. In handicap leagues, a handicap is usually awarded, to give teams with lower averages a chance against those with higher averaged bowlers. While most leagues are mixed leagues, containing both men and women, mens and womens leagues are still common, along with junior leagues for young bowlers.
Currently, over three million people compete in bowling leagues. At its peak in the late 1970s, over nine million men and women competed in leagues throughout the United States.
==Is it a Sport?==
There is disagreement over whether bowling should be regarded as a sport. It requires hand-eye coordination and techniques just as fine as in other sports where players are required to propel an object toward a target, such as in golf, baseball, basketball and hockey. Nevertheless, bowling, like golf, obviously does not require running. Those who excel at bowling will usually consider it a sport because improving your abilities is a challenge requiring a great deal of practice, physicial activity, and study. Many professional bowlers engage in exercises like [[resistance training]] and jogging to sustain their stamina for long tournaments. For example, bowlers in the BPAA U.S. Open may have to bowl 51 games in the span of 5 days, sometimes bowling 16-17 games in one day.
Bowling has many aspects that are often completely unknown to the recreational bowler. In addition to the physical aspects of throwing a [[bowling ball]], there are many other factors that can affect scoring. For example, the way in which oil is placed on the lane can have a great effect on how high someone will score. Oftentimes, oil patterns are compared to the obstacles on golf courses - sand traps, trees, etc. The big difference is that in bowling, these obstacles are invisible, since different oil patterns cannot be seen by the naked eye.
Additionally, the surface and layout (basically, the place in which the holes are drilled into the ball) of a bowling ball can drastically change the way a ball reacts. For example, a ball can be drilled to go further down the lane, and then sharply hook at the backend of the lane, whereas the same ball can be drilled to hook earlier, and in a less severe fashion. Additionally, by sanding or polishing the surface of a bowling ball, a bowler can achieve various different ball reactions. Much as a golfer has many different golf clubs to choose from, using different types of balls, ball layouts, and ball surfaces can provide the means to deal with various different conditions.
==Organizations==
League and tournament ten-pin bowling groups in the United States have the option to be certified by the [[United States Bowling Congress]] (USBC). The USBC provides standard sets of rules for the play of the game, equipment and other things. It als |
I of Portugal]] and King [[Charles III of Spain]]). From [[1827]] to [[1843]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]] established a base on the island to combat the [[Slavery|slave trade]]. The mainland portion, Rio Muni, became a protectorate in [[1885]] and a colony in [[1900]]. Conflicting claims to the mainland were settled in 1900 by the [[Treaty of Paris]], and periodically, the mainland territories were united administratively under Spanish rule. Between [[1926]] and [[1959]] they were united as the colony of [[Spanish Guinea]].
==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Equatorial Guinea]]''
Equatorial Guinea became officially independent from Spain on [[October 12]], [[1968]]. Since then, the country has had [[Heads of State of Equatorial Guinea|two leaders]]: [[Francisco Macías Nguema]], the former mayor of [[Mongomo]] under the Spanish colonial government, and his nephew [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]], who staged a military [[coup d'état]], executed his uncle, and has ruled since 1979.
The 1982 constitution of Equatorial Guinea gives Obiang extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and calling legislative elections. Obiang retains his role as commander in chief of the armed forces and minister of defense, and he maintains close supervision of the military activity. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the President. The Prime Minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security.
On [[December 15]], [[2002]] [http://allafrica.com/stories/200212160112.html], Equatorial Guinea's four main opposition parties withdrew from the country's presidential election. Obiang won an election widely considered fraudulent by members of the western press.
According to a March 2004 [[BBC]] profile [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3516588.stm], politics within the country are currently dominated by tensions between Obiang's son Teodorin, and other close relatives with powerful positions in the security forces. The tension may be rooted in power shift arising from the dramatic increase since [[1997]] in oil production.
A November 2004 report [http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5744,11431299%255E2703,00.html] named [[Mark Thatcher]] as a financial backer of a March 2004 attempt to topple Obiang organized by [[Simon Mann]]. Various accounts also name Britain's [[MI6]], the [[CIA]], and Spain as having been tacit supporters of the coup attempt. [http://www.sundayherald.com/print44412]
==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Equatorial Guinea]]''
Pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on [[cocoa]] production for hard currency earnings. In [[1959]] it had the highest [[per capita income]] of Africa.
The discovery of large oil reserves in [[1996]] and its subsequent exploitation have contributed to a dramatic increase in government revenue. [[As of 2004]] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A1101-2004Sep6.html], Equatorial Guinea is the third-largest oil producer in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. Its oil production has risen to 360,000 barrels/day, up from 220,000 only two years earlier.
Forestry, farming, and fishing are also major components of GDP. Subsistence farming predominates. The deterioration of the rural economy under successive brutal regimes has diminished any potential for agriculture-led growth.
Despite a per capita GDP (PPP) of more than US$30,000 [http://imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2005/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2004&ED=2004&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=512-941-914-446-612-666-614-672-311-946-213-137-911-962-193-674-122-676-912-548-313-556-419-678-513-181-316-682-913-684-124-273-339-921-638-948-514-686-218-688-963-518-616-728-223-558-516-138-918-353-748-196-618-278-522-692-622-694-156-142-624-449-626-564-628-283-228-853-924-288-233-293-632-566-636-964-634-182-238-453-662-968-960-922-423-714-935-862-128-716-611-456-321-722-243-965-248-718-469-724-253-576-642-936-643-961-939-813-644-199-819-184-172-524-132-361-646-362-648-364-915-732-134-366-652-734-174-144-328-146-258-463-656-528-654-923-336-738-263-578-268-537-532-742-944-866-176-369-534-744-536-186-429-925-178-746-436-926-136-466-343-112-158-111-439-298-916-927-664-846-826-299-542-582-443-474-917-754-544-698&S=PPPPC&CMP=0&x=18&y=9 IMF] (CIA Factbook [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ek.html gives] $50,200) which is as of 2004 the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|sixth highest]] in the world, Equatorial Guinea ranks 121st out of 177 countries on the [[United Nations]] [[Human Development Index]].
In [[July 2004]], the U.S. Senate published an investigation into [[Riggs Bank]], a Washington-based bank into which most of Equatorial Guinea's oil revenues were paid until recently, and which also banked for Chile's Augusto Pinochet. The Senate report, as to Equatorial Guinea, showed that at least $35 million were siphoned off by Obiang, his family and senior officials of his regime. The president has denied any wrongdoing. While Riggs Bank in February 2005 paid $9 million as restitution for its banking for Chile's Augusto Pinochet, no restitution was made with regard to Equatorial Guinea, as reported in detail in [http://www.innercitypress.org/finwatch.html this Anti-Money Laundering Report from Inner City Press].
==Provinces==
[[Image:Equatorial Guinea provinces numbered.png|thumb|Provinces of Equatorial Guinea]]
''Main article: [[Provinces of Equatorial Guinea]]''
Equatorial Guinea is divided into seven [[province]]s:
#[[Annobón Province]] (provincial capital: [[Palé]])
#[[Bioko Norte Province]] ([[Malabo]])
#[[Bioko Sur Province]] ([[Luba, Equatorial Guinea|Luba]])
#[[Centro Sur Province]] ([[Evinayong]])
#[[Kié-Ntem Province]] ([[Ebebiyín]])
#[[Litoral Province (Equatorial Guinea)|Litoral Province]] ([[Bata, Equatorial Guinea|Bata]])
#[[Wele-Nzas Province]] ([[Mongomo]])
==Geography==
[[Image:Limbe view with Bioko.jpg|thumb|[[Bioko]] (Equatorial Guinea) visible in the distance from Cameroon]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Equatorial Guinea]]''
The Republic of Equatorial Guinea is located in west central Africa. Bioko Island lies about 40 kilometers (25 mi.) from Cameroon. Annobón Island lies about 595 kilometers (370 mi.) southwest of Bioko Island. The larger continental region of Rio Muni lies between Cameroon and Gabon on the mainland; it includes the islands of Corisco, Elobey Grande, Elobey Chico, and adjacent islets.
==Demographics==
[[Image:Fang in Equatorial Guinea.jpg|thumb|The fang children]]
''Main article: [[Demographics of Equatorial Guinea]]''
The majority of the people of Equatorial Guinea are of [[Bantu]] origin. The largest tribe, the [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]], is indigenous to the mainland, but substantial migration to [[Bioko Island]] has resulted in Fang dominance over the earlier Bantu inhabitants. The Fang constitute eighty percent of the population and are themselves divided into sixty seven clans. Those in the northern part of Rio Muni speak Fang-Ntumu, while those in the south speak Fang-Okah; the two dialects are mutually unintelligible. The [[Bubi]], who constitute fifteen percent of the population, are indigenous to Bioko Island.
In addition, there are coastal tribes, sometimes referred to as "Playeros" (''Beach People'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]): [[Ndowe]]s, [[Bujeba]]s, [[Balengue]]s, and [[Benga]]s on the mainland and small islands, and "Fernandinos", a [[Creole peoples|Creole]] community, on Bioko. Together, these groups compose five percent of the population. There is a growing number of foreigners from neighboring [[Cameroon]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Gabon]].
[[Petroleum]] has contributed to a doubling of the population in Malabo.
==Culture==
Several cultural dispersion and literacy organizations are located in the country, founded chiefly with the financial support of the Spanish government. The country has one [[university]], the Universidad Nacional de Guinea Ecuatorial (UNGE) with a campus in [[Malabo]] and a Faculty of Medicine located in [[Bata]] on the mainland. The Bata Medical School is supported principally by the government of [[Cuba]] and staffed by medical educators and physicians from that country..
''Main article: [[Culture of Equatorial Guinea]]''
*[[List of African writers (by country)#Equatorial Guinea|List of writers from Equatorial Guinea]]
*[http://www.ceiba-guinea-ecuatorial.org/guineees/cartescolaire.htm Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea]
==Mass media==
The most dominant form of [[mass media]] in the country are the three state-operated [[FM radio]] stations. There are also five [[shortwave]] radio stations.
A July 2003 article from the BBC [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3098007.stm] points out there are no daily newspapers in the country and described how a [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]] program called "Bidze-Nduan" ("Bury the Fire") on a widely listened-to state radio station declared that Obiang was "in permanent contact with the Almighty"; a presidential aide on the show also said:
:He (Obiang) can decide to kill without anyone calling him to account and without going to hell because it is God himself, with whom he is in permanent contact, and who gives him this strength.
Most of the media companies practise heavy self-censorship, and are banned by law from criticising public figures. The state owned media and the main private radio station are under the directorship of [[Teodorin Nguema Obiang]], the president's son. Some media-related statistics from ''[[The World Factbook]]'' are summarized in a section on [[communications in Equatorial Guinea]].
==Miscellaneous topics==
*[[Communications in Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[Eric Mou |
970s]] saw the harmonica become less prominent as the electric guitar became the favorite instrument for solos. [[Paul Butterfield]] is perhaps the most well known harp player of the era in the blues arena. Heavily influenced by Little Walter, he pushed further the virtuosity on the harp. Sadly he rapidly fell into drugs and alcohol, and after his first two albums, his career became stagnant. [[Keith Relf]], the singer of the [[Yardbirds]], was a harp player who could hold up to the guitar playing of his bandmates Eric Clapton and, later, Jeff Beck. [[Bob Dylan]] also famously played his harmonica to add a touch of blues to his folk and rock sound during this era. Dylan was known for placing his harmonicas in a brace so that he could simultaneously blow the harp and strum his guitar.
Recently, two harp players have had major influence on the sound of the harmonica. Heavily influenced by the electric guitar sound, John Popper of [[Blues Traveler]] has developed an incredible virtuosity on the instrument. His electric and highly distorted [[solos]] are played at a breakneck speed. His influence is heavy on modern rock and blues harp players trying to reach new heights with the instrument.
Jazz harmonicist [[Howard Levy]] (who has often recorded with [[Béla Fleck]] and [[Rabih Abou-Khalil]]) is perhaps the most innovative player since Little Walter. He has perfected the bending technique, using the notes it produces with more precision. He has also further advanced the technique called overblowing, which enables the diatonic harmonica to play fully chromatic scales, while retaining the particular sound of the harp. Although he has been performing this technique for quite a while, it has been displayed more and more in the [[1990s]], and players are starting to integrate it in a more blues or rock oriented music. Examples of this style are considered to be among the most highly regarded in the harmonica circles.
=== East Asia ===
In 1898, the harmonica was brought to Japan; there, the Japanese were more interested in the sound of Tremolo; however after about 30 years, they became dissatisfied with the richter-based layout of the tremolo harmonica, and thus developed the scale tuning, as well as the semitone harmonicas, in order to be able to perform Japanese folk songs. During sometime in 1924 and 1933, it was brought to other places in East Asia.
The history of the harmonica in Taiwan began sometime around 1945; due to the influence of numerous harmonica experts, as well as versatility and cheap prices of the harmonica. It became one of the standard instruments on the island, being treated as a serious instrument during its peak at the 1980s — more so than Europe and America, where it was often associated as a blues-only instrument in most cases. However, as the western lifestyle began to spread, as well as an increase in living standards, many instruments that were once too expensive to buy can be bought by the Taiwanese. Additionally due to many schools of methodologies on the harmonica, the harmonica as an instrument almost faded to obscurity in the 90s. In order to raise the appeal of the harmonica back to it what it once was, numerous harmonica lovers in Taiwan began to promote the harmonica heavily, starting with the introduction of harmonicas and methodology that are popular in the Western world (eg. Chromatic and Diatonic harmonicas), as well as participating in numerous international competitions. In 1993, the Yellowstone Orchestra won the first gold in an international harmonica competition. However, to the disappointment of many harmonica players, the resources for education are severely lacking, and many materials are not much different from those that were created 20 years ago.
== Related instruments ==
The unrelated [[glass harmonica]] is a musical instrument formed of a nested set of graduated glass cups mounted sideways on an axle and partially immersed in water, and played by touching the rotating cups with wetted fingers, causing them to vibrate.
The [[concertina]], diatonic and chromatic [[accordions]] and the [[melodica]] are all free-reed instruments which were developed alongside the harmonica. Indeed, the similarities between harmonicas and so-called "diatonic" [[accordions]] or melodeons is such that in German the name for the former is "Mundharmonika" and the later "Handharmonika", translated simply as "mouth harmonica" and "hand harmonica". The harmonica shares similarities to all other free-reed instruments by virtue of the method of sound production.
== Harmonica community ==
There is an active harmonica community on the Internet and in real
life, with conferences, cruises and everything. SPAH (Society for the
Preservation and Advancement of the Harmonica) is one society with a
particularly amusing acronym. A [http://harp-l.org/mailman/listinfo/harp-l/ Harmonica Mailing List] is available with searchable archives.
== Harmonica manufacturers==
*[http://www.hohnerusa.com/ Hohner USA]
*[http://www.suzukimusic.com/harmonicas/ Suzuki Harmonica]
*[http://www.leeoskar.com/ Lee Oskar]
*[http://www.tombo-m.co.jp/eng/ Tombo]
*[http://www.seydel1847.com/ Seydel]
*[http://www.heringusa.com/ Hering USA]
== Some famous harmonicists ==
See [[List of harmonicists]].
==External links==
*[http://www.patmissin.com Pat Missin's web site]
*[http://www.volcano.net/~jackmearl/ Jack's Harmonica page], containing "[[tablature|tabs]]" and free lessons
*[http://www.mondorgel.nl/ Harry's Harmonica page], containing all models with pictures and information
*[http://www.grotch.tk/ Grotch Harmonica Software], Also containing "[[tablature|tabs]]", and a program to transpose tabs (from different tunings, keys or positions)
*[http://www.angelfire.com/music/HarpOn/index.html Chromatic harmonica reference]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/tx/myquill/index.html Diatonic harmonica reference]
*[http://www.macgamesandmore.com/free/harmonicatabs.html harmonica simulator] for Mac os X
*[http://www.geocities.com/god_save_the_queen77/harmonica.html Illuminate Harmonica Tabber], Open Source Harmonica Tabbing software, currently at Beta
[[Category:Woodwind instruments]]
[[Category:Free reed aerophones]]
[[Category:Sets of free reeds]]
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[da:Mundharmonika]]
[[de:Mundharmonika]]
[[et:Suupill]]
[[es:Armónica]]
[[eo:Harmoniko]]
[[fr:Harmonica]]
[[it:Armonica a bocca]]
[[lv:Mutes harmonikas]]
[[nl:Mondharmonica]]
[[ja:ハーモニカ]]
[[no:Munnspill]]
[[pl:Harmonijka ustna]]
[[pt:Gaita]]
[[ru:Губная гармоника]]
[[sl:Orglice]]
[[sv:Munspel]]
[[tt:Harmonika]]
[[uk:Губна гармоніка]]
[[zh:口琴]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HistoricalLinguisticsorPhilology</title>
<id>14351</id>
<revision>
<id>15911913</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-24T06:01:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Enchanter</username>
<id>1104</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Correcting redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Philology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hops</title>
<id>14352</id>
<revision>
<id>41764486</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:04:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dforest</username>
<id>308431</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv to GeeJo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the use of hops in beer; for the botanical article on the hop plant see [[Hop (plant)]]. See also [[Hop]] for other meanings}}
[[Image:Hopfendolde-mit-hopfengarten.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Hop flower in a Hallertau hopgarden]]
'''Hops''' are the flowers of ''Humulus lupulus'' used as a flavouring and stability agent in [[beer]] since the seventeenth century. Hops contain several characteristics very favorable to beer: (a) hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt, (b) hops also contribute aromas which range from flowery to citrus to herbal, (c) hops have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms and (d) the use of hops aids in "head retention", the length of time that foamy head created by the beer's carbonation agent will last. The bitterness of commercially-brewed beers is measured on the [[International Bitterness Units scale]]. While hops plants are grown by farmers all around the world in many different varieties, there is no major commercial use for hops other than in beer.
==History==
The first documented instance of hop cultivation was in 736, in the Hallertau region of present-day Germany (which is today the most important production centre with about 25% of the worldwide production), although the first mention of the use of hops in brewing was in 1079. Hops were introduced to British beers in the early 1500s, and hop cultivation began in the present-day United States in 1629.
Until mechanisation (in the late 1960s for the UK), the need for massed labour at harvest time meant hop-growing had a big social impact. Many of those hopping in Kent were Eastenders, for whom the annual migration meant not just money in the family pocket but a welcome break from the grime and smoke of London. Whole families would come down on special trains and live in hoppers' huts for most of September, even the smallest children helping in the fields.
Today, the principal production centres for the UK are in Kent (which produces Kent Golding hops) and Worcestershire, and Washington state for the USA; other important production areas include Belgium, as mentioned Germany and the Czech Republic.
==Brewing==
Hop [[resins]] are composed of two main [[acid]]s: alpha and beta acids.
Alpha acids have a mild [[antibiotic]]/[[bacteriostatic]] effect against [[Gram-positive]] [[bacterium|bacteria]], and favours the exclusive activity of [[brewing yeast]] in the fermentation |
te alone, as well as a bit with [[Neil Innes]] and [[Douglas Adams]] for the final fourth season. He then developed a number of television and movie projects, most notably ''[[Out of the Trees]]'', ''[[The Odd Job]]'' and ''[[Yellowbeard]]'', in which he starred along side Cleese, [[Peter Cook]], [[Cheech and Chong]] and Feldman (who died during the final days of production.)
==After Python==
In the late [[1970s]], Chapman moved to [[Los Angeles]], where he guest-starred on many US television shows, including ''[[The Hollywood Squares]]'', ''[[Still Crazy Like a Fox]]'', and the [[NBC]] sketch series ''[[The Big Show (TV show)]]''. Upon returning to [[England]] he became involved with the [[Dangerous Sports Club]] (an [[extreme sports]]club which introduced [[bungee jumping]] to a wide audience), and he began the first of a lengthy series of US college lecture tours in the [[1980s]]. His memoir, "[[A Liar's Autobiography]]", was published in [[1980]] and, unusually for an [[autobiography]], had five [[author]]s: Chapman, his partner [[David Sherlock]], [[Alex Martin]], [[David Yallop]] and [[Douglas Adams]], who in [[1977]] was virtually unknown as a recent graduate fresh from Cambridge. Adams was mentored by Chapman, but they later had a falling out and didn't speak for several years.
[[Image:Graham_Chapman_Colonel.jpg|right|thumb||Graham Chapman as The Colonel in ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'']]
==Lifestyle==
Among Chapman's best friends were [[Keith Moon]] of [[The Who]], singer [[Harry Nilsson]], and [[Beatle]] [[Ringo Starr]]. Chapman was an [[alcoholic]] in the 1970s, and he also kept his [[homosexuality]] a secret until the mid-70's (although his fellow Pythons were already aware of his sexual orientation) when he famously [[coming out|came out]] on a British chat show, one of the first celebrities to do so. Several days later, he came out to a group of friends at a party held at his home in [[Belsize Park]] where he officially introduced them to his partner, [[David Sherlock]]. Afterwards, he became a vocal spokesman on [[gay rights]].
One of [[Michael Palin]]'s favourite stories about Chapman involved Palin's trips to collect him every morning for Python-related business: he would call up to Chapman's window and be greeted by a collection of young men before Chapman eventually surfaced, pipe in mouth. After Chapman made his homosexuality public on a television show hosted by British [[jazz]] musician [[George Melly]], a member of the public wrote to the Pythons to complain that she had heard a member of the team was a homosexual, continuing on to quote a [[Bible]] passage which said "he who lies with another man shall be taken out and killed." Idle sent a reply saying, "We've found out who he was and we've taken him out and killed him."
==Death==
Chapman died at the age of 48 on [[4 October]] [[1989]], of [[pneumonia]] brought about by the [[throat cancer]] which had [[Metastasis|metastasised]] to his [[vertebral column|spine]]. His death was one day before the 20th anniversary of the first broadcast of ''Flying Circus'' - in Jones' words, "the worst case of party-pooping in all history." Cleese delivered a [[eulogy]] for Chapman (text of eulogy see external links), during which he deliberately used the word "[[fuck]]" as well as other expletives, and got away with it on the BBC without having the bad language censored. Cleese's eulogy was so funny that it was noted that some people at the funeral "almost died laughing." Cleese has said that Chapman would have liked that. After the [[eulogy]] [[John Cleese|Cleese]] was joined by [[Terry Gilliam|Gilliam]], [[Eric Idle|Idle]], [[Terry Jones|Jones]], and [[Michael Palin|Palin]] to sing "[[Always Look on the Bright Side of Life]]" from the film [[Monty Python's Life of Brian]]. [[Eric Idle|Idle]] made the last comment on the tribute by requesting that "he would be the last person to say 'fuck'".
==Legacy==
The remaining Python members have acknowledged that, while brilliant, Chapman was exasperating to work with, and difficult to know. After his death, speculation of a Python revival inevitably faded. As Idle said, "we would only do a reunion if Graham came back from the dead. So we're negotiating with his agent." (Subsequent gatherings of the Pythons have in fact included an urn, said to contain Chapman's [[cremation|ashes]]).
Chapman's ashes were scattered over the summit of [[Snowdon]], [[North Wales]] by Sherlock on [[June 18]] [[2005]].
==Further reading==
* {{cite book
| first = Graham | last = Chapman
| year = 2005 | month = October
| title = Calcium Made Interesting : Sketches, Letters, Essays & Gondolas
| editor = Jim Yoakum (ed.)
| publisher = Sidgwick & Jackson | location = London | id = ISBN 0283070161
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Robert
| last = Hewison
| year = 1983
| title = Footlights! - A Hundred Years of Cambridge Comedy
| publisher = Methuen London | location = London
| id = ISBN 0413511502
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Roger | last = Wilmut
| year = 1980
| title = From Fringe to Flying Circus - 'Celebrating a Unique Generation of Comedy 1960-1980'
| publisher = Eyre Methuen
| id = ISBN 0413469506
}}
==External links==
* [http://www.gcarchives.com/ Graham Chapman Archives] - Official site
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/talent/c/chapman_graham.shtml Graham Chapman] - BBC Comedy Guide
* [http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp?id=79107 Graham Chapman] - at the [[Internet Broadway Database]]
* Graham Chapman's eulogy, delivered by John Cleese: [http://www.geocities.com/fang_club/chapman_memorial.html transcript], [http://www.consumptionjunction.com/downloads/cj_24944.wmv video clip]
{{MontyPython}}
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|- bgcolor="lightblue"
! [[At Last the 1948 Show]]
|-
| [[Tim Brooke-Taylor]] --- '''Graham Chapman''' --- [[John Cleese]] --- [[Marty Feldman]] --- [[Aimi MacDonald]]
|}
[[Category:1941 births|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:1989 deaths|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Alumni of Queen Mary, University of London|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:English comedians|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:British comedy writers|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:English film actors|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:English television actors|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:British television writers|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Cambridge Footlights|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Monty Python members|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 40s|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Gay actors|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Chapman, Graham]]
[[bg:Греъм Чапман]]
[[cy:Graham Chapman]]
[[da:Graham Chapman]]
[[de:Graham Chapman]]
[[es:Graham Chapman]]
[[fi:Graham Chapman]]
[[fr:Graham Chapman]]
[[he:גרהם צ'פמן]]
[[hu:Graham Chapman]]
[[ja:グレアム・チャップマン]]
[[nl:Graham Chapman]]
[[pl:Graham Chapman]]
[[pt:Graham Chapman]]
[[simple:Graham Chapman]]
[[sv:Graham Chapman]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gray Whale</title>
<id>13026</id>
<revision>
<id>41003850</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T12:14:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BlankVerse</username>
<id>169582</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvt [[71.247.170.26]] + wikify date</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Gray Whale
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| image = Gray_whale.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = A Gray Whale spy-hopping
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| subclassis = [[Eutheria]]
| ordo = [[Cetacea]]
| subordo = [[Mysticeti]]
| familia = '''Eschrichtiidae'''
| familia_authority = Ellerman &amp; Morrison-Scott, 1951
| genus = '''''Eschrichtius'''''
| species = '''''E. robustus'''''
| binomial = ''Eschrichtius robustus''
| binomial_authority = [[Wilhelm Lilljeborg|Lilljeborg]], [[1861]]
| range_map = cetacea_range_map_Gray_Whale.png
| range_map_width = 250px
| range_map_caption = Gray Whale range
}}
The '''Gray Whale''' or '''Grey Whale''' (''Eschrichtius robustus''), more recently called the Eastern Pacific Gray Whale, is a [[whale]] that travels between feeding and breeding grounds yearly. It reaches a length of about 15 meters, a weight of 36 tons and an age of 50&ndash;60 years. Gray Whales were once called ''devil fish'' because of their fighting behavior when hunted. The Gray Whale is the sole species in the [[genus]] '''''Eschrichtius''''', which in turn is the sole genus in the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Eschrichtiidae'''. This animal is one of the oldest species of mammals, having been on Earth for about 30 million years. In the remote past it was preyed upon by [[Megalodon]] sharks (which are now extinct).
==Population, distribution and migration==
Two [[Pacific Ocean]] populations of Gray Whales exist: one small population travelling between the [[Sea of Okhotsk]] and southern [[Korea]], and a larger one travelling between the waters off [[Alaska]] and the [[Baja California]]. A third, North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], population was hunted to extinction 300 years ago.
In the fall, the California Gray Whale starts a 2&ndash;3 month, 8,000&ndash;11,000&nbsp;[[kilometre|km]] trip south along the west coast of the [[United States]] and [[Mexico]]. The animals travel in small groups. The destinations of the whales are the coastal waters of [[Baja California Peninsula|Baja California]] and the southern [[Sea of Cortez]], where they breed and the young are born. The breeding behavior is complex and often involves three or more animals. The gestation period is about one year, and females have calves every other year. The calf is born tail first and measures about 4 meters in length. It is believed that the shallow waters in |
s which he performed during his work to convert the [[Picts]].
The main source of information about Columba's life is the ''Vita Columbae'' by Adomn&aacute;n, the ninth Abbot of Iona, who died in [[704]]. Both the ''Vita Columbae'' and Bede record Columba's visit to [[Bridei I of the Picts|Bridei]], King of [[Fortriu]]. Whereas Adomn&aacute;n just tells us that Columba visited Bridei, Bede relates a later, perhaps Pictish tradition, whereby the saint actually converts the Pictish king. Another early source is a poem in praise of Columba, most probably also composed in the course of the 7th century. It consists of 25 stanzas of four verses of seven syllables each.
The earliest recorded example of the name ''[[Arthur]]'' in a British document occurs, as ''Arturius'', in Adomnan's ''[[vita]]''. There it occurs as the name of a prince among the Scots, the son of [[Aidan]], king from AD 574, far from the legendary [[King Arthur]]'s familiar haunts in the southwest.
The ''vita'' of Columba is also the source of the first known reference to the [[Loch Ness Monster]]. According to Adomnan Columba came across a group of Picts who were burying a man killed by the monster, and saved a swimmer with the [[sign of the Cross]] and the imprecation "You will go no further", at which the beast fled terrified, to the amazement of the assembled Picts who glorified Columba's God.
Through the reputation of its venerable founder and its position as a major European center of learning, Columba's Iona became a place of [[pilgrimage]]. A network of Celtic [[high cross]]es marking processional routes developed
around his shrine at Iona.
Columba’s relics were finally removed in [[849]] and divided between Alba and Ireland. Relics of Columba were carried before Scottish armies in the reliquary made at Iona in the mid-8th century, called the Brechbennoch. ''O Columba spes Scotorum...'' "O Columba, hope of the Scots" begins a 13th century prayer in the [[Antiphoner]] of Inchcolm, the "Iona of the East".
St Columba's [[feast day]] is June 9 and with [[Saint Patrick]], [[March 17]], and [[St. Brigid]], [[February 1]], is one of the three patron saints of Ireland.
==See also==
*[[Columbanus]], or [[Saint Columban]], Irish missionary and founder of many European monastaries, a contemporary of Columba's.
*[[Columba Initiative]]
*[[History of Ireland#Early Christian Ireland 400–800|Early Christian Ireland]]
*[[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
* [[Sainte-Colombe]] has many dedications in [[France]]
==Further Reading==
*Adomnan of Iona, ''Life of St Columba'' (tr. & ed. Richard Sharpe) (Penguin, 1995) ISBN 0140444629 (see below under External Links for an etext)
*Dauvid Broun & Thomas Owen Clancy (eds.) ''Spes Scotorum: Hope of Scots. Saint Columba, Iona and Scotland'' (T & T Clark, 1999) ISBN 0567086828
==External links==
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T201011/index.html CELT: ''On the Life of Saint Columba (Betha Choluim Chille)'' (tr. W. Stokes)]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T201040/index.html CELT: ''The Life of Columba, written by Adamnan'' (tr. W. Reeves)]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04136a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] St. Columba
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/earlychurch/features_earlychurch_iona.shtml BBC: St Columba]
*[http://jahtruth.net/lecture.htm Columba of Kells and Iona]
*[http://www.loch-ness-scotland.com/projectfolder/centreprojectcopy/archiveroom/papershtml/columba.htm ''Vita'':] the River Nes water monster
*[http://www.cyberscotia.com/inchcolm/index.html "Inchcolm, Iona of the East"]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=- | title=[[Abbot of Iona]] | years= [[547]]-[[597]]| after=[[Baithéne of Iona|Baithéne]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:521 births]]
[[Category:597 deaths]]
[[Category:Post-Roman Scotland]]
[[Category:Irish monks]]
[[Category:Medieval Gaels]]
[[Category:Natives of County Donegal]]
[[Category:Irish saints]]
[[de:Columban von Iona]]
[[eo:Sankta Kolumba]]
[[fr:Saint Colomba]]
[[it:San Columba di Iona]]
[[he:קולומבה]]
[[nl:Columba (heilige)]]
[[ja:コルンバ]]
[[no:Columba av Iona]]
[[pl:Kolumba z Iony]]
[[ru:Колумба]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conditional proof</title>
<id>6562</id>
<revision>
<id>20429112</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-06T20:39:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fredrik</username>
<id>26675</id>
</contributor>
<comment>remove poor example, fmt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''conditional proof''' is a [[mathematical proof|proof]] that takes the form of asserting a [[conditional]], and proving that the premise or antecedent of the conditional necessarily leads to the conclusion. Proving this requires assuming the premise and deriving, from that assumption, the consequent of the conditional. By proving the connection between the antecedent and the consequent, the assumption of the antecedent is justified ''post hoc''.
==See also==
*[[deduction theorem]]
*[[logical implication]]
{{math-stub}}
[[Category: Logic]]
[[Category: Proofs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conjunction introduction</title>
<id>6563</id>
<revision>
<id>30199654</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-05T07:02:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiy</username>
<id>81090</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>recat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Conjunction introduction''' is the [[inference]] that, if ''p'' is true, and ''q'' is true, then the [[logical conjunction|conjunction]] ''p and q'' is true.
For example, if it's true that it's raining, and it's true that I'm inside, then it's true that it's raining, and I'm inside.
Formally:
:<math>p\,\!</math>
:<math>\frac{q\,\!\qquad\quad}{}</math>
:&there4;<math>( p \wedge q )</math>
{{Mathlogic-stub}}
[[Category:Rules of inference]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conjunction elimination</title>
<id>6564</id>
<revision>
<id>20158365</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-03T02:00:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
<id>153314</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Mathematical logic]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[logic]], '''conjunction elimination''' is the inference that, if the conjunction A and B is true, then A is true, and B is true.
For instance, if it's true that it's raining, and I'm inside, then one may assert either term of the conjunction alone: it's raining, or I'm inside.
Formally:
<u>( A &and; B )</u>
&there4; A
or
<u>( A &and; B )</u>
&there4; B
[[Category:Mathematical logic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Commonwealth English</title>
<id>6566</id>
<revision>
<id>41945798</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:26:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neo Piper</username>
<id>769197</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Canadian spelling */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{English dialects}}
"'''Commonwealth English'''" is intended as a collective term for the perceived standard [[English language]] used in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>, applying in theory to [[Australian English]], [[British English]], [[Caribbean English]], [[Canadian English]], [[Hiberno-English]] (Irish English)<sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>, [[Hong Kong English]]<sup>[[#Notes|3]]</sup>, [[Indian English]] (includes Pakistani English), formal [[Malaysian English]], [[New Zealand English]], formal Singapore English (but not colloquial [[Singlish]]) and [[South African English]]. Yet, Canadian English in particular does not fit well with the others. The term is little used, and when used is most often synonymous with [[British English]] in its narrower sense or with [[International English]] in a specialised sense which excludes [[American English]].
==Rationale for the term "Commonwealth English"==
The term perhaps comes from a desire to recognise that "Standard English" of Britain, distinguished from American English, is just as much owned by those who use it in Australia or New Zealand or India or South Africa as by those who use it in the land of its origin and from a feeling that this use in multiple countries should appear in its name, that this kind of English is no longer ''only'' British.
==Conflict from differences in language==
Aside from spelling, there are other differences in the languages. Words used in the United States are sometimes used in England which can be insultive and derogatory, and vice versa.
==Canadian English's unique position==
===Words and idioms===
Canada, the Commonwealth country with the largest native-born native-English-speaking population outside of Britain, is unique in that its standard vocabulary, idiom, and accent tend to coincide with that of neighbouring speakers in the United States far more than with those of Britain or the rest of the Commonwealth. Most of the distinctive terms Britons identify as ''American English'' are used by Canadians as well, such as ''[[diaper]]'', ''[[gasoline]]'', ''[[elevator]]'', and ''[[apartment]]''. See also [[North American English]].
===Canadian spelling===
There is no universally accepted standard of Canadian spelling, and standards differ from one English-speaking area of Canada to another.
Historical ties with Britain tend to pull Canadian spelling in that direction; physical proximity with the United States has tended to pull it towards the American standard. As a result, Canadian spelling has tended to waver between the two, taking some of each.
Most authorities, such as the Canadian Government's style manual, ''The Canadian |
esr/jargon/html/C/cyberpunk.html Jargon File definition]; see also [http://ursine.ca/Cyberpunk "Cyberpunk" at the Jargon Wiki].
# {{note|PaulBrians}} Paul Brians, [http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/science_fiction/neuromancer.html Lecture notes] for a [[Washington State University]] SF class.
# {{note|DonnaHaraway}} Donna Haraway, "A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century", in ''Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature'' (Routledge, 1991), pp. 149-181. ISBN 0-415-90386-6.
# {{note|DavidBrin}} [[David Brin]], [http://www.davidbrin.com/matrixarticle.html Review of ''The Matrix''].
# {{note|LawrencePerson}} Lawrence Person, [http://slashdot.org/features/99/10/08/2123255.shtml "Notes Toward a Postcyberpunk Manifesto"], first published in ''Nova Express'' issue 16 (1998), later posted to [[Slashdot]].
# {{note|wordspy}} Michael Berry, "Wacko Victorian Fantasy Follows 'Cyberpunk' Mold," ''[[The San Francisco Chronicle]],'' 25 June, 1987; quoted online by [http://www.wordspy.com/words/steampunk.asp Wordspy].
# {{note|associated-content}} Earl S. Wynn, [http://www.associatedcontent.com/content.cfm?content_type=article&content_type_id=8745 "Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex"] (review). <!-- warning: contains massive "it's"/"its" confusion -->
# {{note|SimonReynolds}} Simon Reynolds. ''Energy Flash: Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture'' (Picador, 1998). ISBN 0-330-35056-0.
# {{note|SJGames01}} Jackson, Steve [[April 19]] [[1990]] ''[http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/Roleplayer/Roleplayer19/Raid.html SJ Games Raided]'' SJ Games website.
==External links==
* [http://www.akira2019.com/ AKIRA2019.com : Katsuhiro Otomo's cyberpunk masterpiece Akira]
* [http://independenttorrents.com/index.php/artist/Cyberpunk/CyberpunkEducator Cyberpunk Educator] - A free movie about the history of cyberpunk films. Download requires a [[BitTorrent]] client.
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/1.04/1.4_cyberpunk_pr.html ''Cyberpunk R.I.P.''] — By [[Paul Saffo]], ''[[Wired Magazine]]''
* [http://www.cyberpunkreview.com Cyberpunk Review] A comprehensive cyberpunk movie review site
* [http://www.regimemachine.com Cyberpunk Underground]
* [http://cyberpunk.omou.net/ Duke of Hell's Cyberpunk] &ndash; Listing of cyberpunk-related media
* [http://www.fuchsiashockz.co.uk/ Fuchsia Shockz] &ndash; Cyberpunk culture and related cyberpunk articles
* [http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/books/Cyberpunk/ ''GURPS Cyberpunk'' website]
* [http://home.btconnect.com/buckleburyweb/innervation/ Innervation] &ndash; Resource site and forum for designers interested in technology
* {{note|socialism-today}} Kate Jones, "[http://www.socialismtoday.org/76/matrix.html The Matrix... reloaded or overloaded?]" ''Socialism Today,'' July–August 2003.
* {{note|avclub-matrix-revolutions}} Keith Phipps, [http://avclub.com/content/node/17331 review of ''The Matrix Revolutions,''] ''[[The Onion|The Onion A.V. Club]]'' [[10 November]] [[2003]].
* [http://www.neometropolis.com/ ''Neometropolis'' Magazine]
* Norman Spinrad, [http://www.asimovs.com/_issue_0210_11/onbooks.shtml "On Books: Movements"], ''[[Asimov's Science Fiction]]'' October/November 2002.
* [http://www.talsorian.com/cp_cinema_1.shtml/ R. Talsorian series on cyberpunk film]
* [http://project.cyberpunk.ru The Cyberpunk Project]
* The [http://www.cs.ubc.ca/spider/harrison/Cyberpunk/cyberpunk.html Cyberpunk Reading List] that emerged from the usenet group
* [http://www.voidspace.org.uk/cyberpunk/index.shtml Voidspace Cyberpunk] &ndash; resource site
{{Literarypunkgenre}}
[[Category:Cyberpunk]]
[[Category:Science fiction genres]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[bg:Киберпънк]]
[[cs:Kyberpunk]]
[[de:Cyberpunk]]
[[et:Küberpunk]]
[[es:Cyberpunk]]
[[fr:Cyberpunk]]
[[io:Cyberpunk]]
[[it:Cyberpunk]]
[[he:סייברפאנק]]
[[nl:Cyberpunk]]
[[ja:サイバーパンク]]
[[pl:Cyberpunk]]
[[pt:Cyberpunk]]
[[ru:Киберпанк]]
[[fi:Kyberpunk]]
[[sv:Cyberpunk]]
[[uk:Кіберпанк]]
[[zh:赛博朋克]]
{{featured article}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Comic strip</title>
<id>5704</id>
<revision>
<id>41233077</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T23:27:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jerzy</username>
<id>21860</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ fix brkn Cats</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Newspaper comic strip}}
{{mergefrom|Daily strip}}
:''This article about the sequential art form. See also [[Daily strip]] and [[Sunday strip]]. For the British comedy group, see [[The Comic Strip]].''
A ''''''comic strip'''''' is a short strip or sequence of drawings, telling a story. Drawn by a [[cartoonist]], they are published on a recurring basis (usually daily or weekly) in [[newspaper]]s or on the [[Internet]]. In the UK and Europe they are also published within [[comic magazine|comic magazines]], with a strip's story sometimes continuing over three pages or more. They usually communicate to the reader via [[speech balloon]]s.
As the name implies, they can be humorous (as in "gag-a-day" strips like ''[[Beetle Bailey]]'', ''[[Hi & Lois]]'', or ''[[Hagar the Horrible]]'') but not by necessity. Serious soap-opera continuity strips (like ''[[Judge Parker]]'' or ''[[Little Orphan Annie]]'') have serious story lines in serial form. They are, however, nonetheless known as "comics" &ndash; though the term "sequential art", coined by cartoonist [[Will Eisner]], is becoming increasingly popular.
==Newspaper Comic Strip==
Newspaper comic strips are, obviously, comic strips that are first published in newspapers, instead of, for example, on the web, or in comic books or magazines. The first newspaper comic strips appeared in America in the early years of the Twentieth Century. The Yellow Kid is usually credited as being the very first newspaper comic strip, but the artform, mixing words and pictures, evolved gradually, and there are many examples of proto-comic strips. Newspaper comic strips are divided into daily strips and Sunday strips.
==Daily Strip==
A daily strip is a newspaper comic strip that appears in newspapers Monday through Saturday, as contrasted with a Sunday strip which appears on Sunday. Daily strips are usually in black and white, though a few newspapers, beginning in the later part of the Twentieth Century, published them in color. The major formats are strips -- wider than they are tall -- and panels -- taller than they are wide. Strips usually, but not always, are broken up into several smaller panels, with continuity from panel to panel. Panels usually, but not always, are not broken up and lack continuitity. The daily Peanuts is a strip, the daily Dennis the Menace is a panel.
Early daily strips were large, often running the entire width of the newspaper, and were sometimes three or more inches in height. At first, one newspaper page only included one daily strip, usually either at the top or the bottom of the page. By the 1920s, many newspapers had a comics page on which many strips were collected. Over the years, the size of daily strips became smaller and smaller, until by 2000 four standard daily strips could fit in the area once occupied by a single daily strip.
NEA Syndicate experimented briefly with a two-tier daily strip, Star Hawks, but after a few years Star Hawks dropped down to a single tier.
==Origins==
In America, the great popularity of [[comics]] sprang from the newspaper war between [[Joseph Pulitzer]] and [[William Randolph Hearst]]. ''[[The Little Bears]]'' was the first [[United States|American]] comic with recurring characters; ''[[The Yellow Kid]]'' the first color comic, part of the first Sunday comic section in 1897 and the source of the term "[[yellow journalism]]"); ''[[Mutt and Jeff]]'' the first daily comic strip, first appearing in 1907.
The comic strip, in a manner of speaking, began in 1865 in [[Germany]] with ''[[Max and Moritz]]'', a strip about two trouble-making boys. It was more a series of severely moralistic tales in the vein of German children's stories like "Struwwelpeter" ("Shockheaded Peter"): in one, the boys, after perpetrating some mischief, are tossed into a sack of grain, run through a mill, and consumed by a flock of geese.
''Max and Moritz'' did provide an inspiration for German immigrant [[Rudolph Dirks]], leading to the debut of ''[[The Katzenjammer Kids]]'' in 1897, probably the first comic strip in the modern sense of the term. Familiar comic-strip iconography such as stars for pain, speech and thought balloons, and sawing logs for snoring originated in Dirks' strip.
Hugely popular, ''Katzenjammer Kids'' was responsible for one of the first comic-strip copyright ownership suits in the history of the medium. When Dirks left Hearst for the promise of a better salary under Pulitzer (unusual, since cartoonists regularly deserted Pulitzer for Hearst) Hearst in a highly unusual court decision retained the rights to the name "Katzenjammer Kids", while creator Dirks retained the rights to the characters. Hearst promptly hired a cartoonist named Harold Knerr to draw his own version of the strip. Dirks renamed his version ''Hans and Fritz'' (later, ''The Captain and The Kids''). Thus, two versions distributed by rival syndicates graced the comics pages for decades. Dirks' version, eventually distributed by United Feature Syndicate, ran until 1979.
Hundreds of comic strips followed, with many running for decades.
==Conventions and genres==
Most comic strip characters are [[unageing]] throughout the strip's life, but in strips like [[Lynn Johnston]]'s award-winning ''[[For Better or For Worse]]'' characters age. The first strip to feature aging characters was ''[[Gasoline Alley]]''.
The history of comic strips also includes series |
rica in topic|Foreign relations of}}
[[category:Government of Brazil]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Brazil, Foreign affairs of]]
[[pt:Política externa do Brasil]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Geography</title>
<id>3640</id>
<revision>
<id>15901956</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of the British Indian Ocean Territory</title>
<id>3641</id>
<revision>
<id>15901957</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Government</title>
<id>3642</id>
<revision>
<id>15901958</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Economy</title>
<id>3643</id>
<revision>
<id>15901959</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Communications</title>
<id>3644</id>
<revision>
<id>15901960</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Transportation</title>
<id>3645</id>
<revision>
<id>15901961</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Military</title>
<id>3646</id>
<revision>
<id>15901962</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Transnational issues</title>
<id>3647</id>
<revision>
<id>15901963</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Virgin Islands/History</title>
<id>3648</id>
<revision>
<id>15901964</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-02T14:24:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the British Virgin Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of the British Virgin Islands</title>
<id>3649</id>
<revision>
<id>19120724</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-19T01:40:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joolz</username>
<id>123025</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add {{CIA}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
<center>[[Image:British Virgin Islands.png|Map of British Virgin Islands]]</center>
{| width="90%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" align="center"
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Location:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
[[Caribbean]], between the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the [[North Atlantic Ocean]], east of [[Puerto Rico]]
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Geographic coordinates:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
{{coor dm|18|30|N|64|30|W|}}
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Map references:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
[[Central America]] and the Caribbean
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Area:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
''total:'' 153 sq km
<br />''note:'' comprised of 16 inhabited and more than 20 uninhabited islands; includes the island of [[Anegada]]
<br />''water:'' 0 sq km
<br />''land:'' 153 sq km
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Area - comparative:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
about 0.9 times the size of [[Washington, DC]]
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Land boundaries:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
0 km
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Coastline:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
80 km
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Maritime claims - as described in UNCLOS 1982 (see Notes and Definitions):'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
''territorial sea:'' 3 NM
<br />''exclusive fishing zone:'' 200 NM
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Climate:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
subtropical; humid; temperatures moderated by trade winds
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Terrain:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
coral islands relatively flat; volcanic islands steep, hilly
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Elevation extremes:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
''lowest point:'' Caribbean Sea 0 m
<br />''highest point:'' [[Mount Sage]] 521 m
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Natural resources:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
NEGL
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Land use:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
''arable land:'' 20%
<br />''permanent crops:'' 6.67%
<br />''other:'' 73.33% (1998 est.)
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Irrigated land:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
NA sq km
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Natural hazards:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October)
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Environment - current issues:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
limited natural fresh water resources (except for a few seasonal streams and springs on [[Tortola]], most of the islands' water supply comes from wells and rainwater catchments)
|-
| width="20%" valign="top" |
<div align="right">'''Geography - note:'''</div>
| valign="top" width="80%" |
strong ties to nearby [[U.S. Virgin Islands|US Virgin Islands]] and Puerto Rico
|}
''Information from ''[[The World Factbook]]''.''
:''See also:'' [[British Virgin Islands]]
[[Category:British Virgin Islands]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Virgin Islands, British]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of the British Virgin Islands</title>
<id>3650</id>
<revision>
<id>19120691</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-19T01:39:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joolz</username>
<id>123025</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add {{CIA}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Population:'''
19,615 (July 2000 est.) 21,730 (July 2003 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br />''0-14 years:''
21.9% (male 2,401; female 2,358)
<br />''15-64 years:''
73.1% (male 8,181; female 7,709)
<br />''65 years and over:''
5% (male 578; female 503) (2003 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
2.1% (2003 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
15.86 births/1 |
an [[television]], especially supported by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]], is the home of a variety of locally-produced shows. French-language television, like French Canadian film is buffered from excessive American influence by the fact of language, and likewise supports a host of home-grown productions. The relative success of French-language domestic television and movies in Canada often exceeds that of its English-language counterpart.
The [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]]'s Canadian content regulations dictate that a certain percentage of a domestic broadcaster's transmission time must include content that is produced by Canadians, or covers Canadian subjects. This also applies to [[United States|US]] [[cable television]] channels such as [[MTV]] and the [[Discovery Channel]], which have local versions of their channels available on Canadian cable networks. Similarly, [[BBC Canada]], while primarily showing [[BBC]] shows from the [[United Kingdom|UK]], also carries Canadian output.
[[National Film Board of Canada]] [http://www.nfb.ca/e/index_about.html ], is 'a public agency that produces and distributes films and other audiovisual works which reflect Canada to Canadians and the rest of the world'.
The Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) is considered by many to be one of the most prevlent film festivals for Western cinema.
Canada has produced many film and television stars, newscasters, directors and producers including:
[[Brent Butt]], [[Pamela Anderson]], [[William Shatner]], Norman Jewison, Michael j. Fox, Lorne Michaels (producer of "Satuday Night Live") Alan Thicke, Alex Trebek, Mike Myers, Eugene Levy, Martin Short, Kiefer Sutherland, Keanu Reeves, Rick Moranis, Peter Jennings and [[Jim Carrey]].
In addition, many popular political documentaries such as Noam Chomsky's Manufacturing Consent, The Corporation and Bowling for Columbine involved Canadian production and funding.
== Comedy ==
{{main|Canadian humour}}
Canadian TV is noted for cutting political satire such as ''[[This Hour Has 22 Minutes]]'', ''[[Rick Mercer Report]]'', and ''[[Royal Canadian Air Farce]]''.
There are plenty of eminent Canadian humourists. The [[Kids in the Hall]] were a popular Canadian sketch group. Also the [[Second City Television]] show originated in the Toronto ''[[The Second City|Second City]]'' operation, which produced many comedians that went on to success worldwide, including [[John Candy]], [[Rick Moranis]], [[Eugene Levy]], [[Dave Thomas (actor)|Dave Thomas]], [[Catherine O'Hara]], and others. The team of creators for SCTV including Lorne Michaels were later transplanted in New York City to create Saturday Night Live.
Other Canadian comics and comedy groups include [[Jim Carrey]], [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]], Martin Short, Tom Green, Dan Aykroyd, Leslie Nielsen, ''[[CODCO]]'' (the precursors to This Hour Has 22 Minutes), [[Maggie Cassella]], and [[Elvira Kurt]]. The ''[[Just for Laughs]]'' Festival in [[Montreal]] is the world's largest comedy festival.
Canadian humour tends to translate better via 'sketch comedy' rather than the primarily US 'sitcom' format, although solo stand-up is equally important.
Canadian humour is often defined as being not as 'punchline-friendly' as the US, but not as 'off-the-wall' as the UK.
==Music==
{{see also|Music of Canada}}
Canada has developed its own brands of traditional music, including the French, Irish and Scottish-derived [[Cape Breton Island|Cape Breton]] fiddle music of the [[Maritimes]], the Franco-Celtic styles of [[Quebec]] that often include foot percussion and a scat style called ''turlutte''; and other national styles from the [[Ottawa River | Ottawa Valley]] to the west. Noted proponents are [[Buddy MacMaster]] and his niece [[Natalie MacMaster|Natalie]] of [[Cape Breton]] and [[Madame Bolduc]] of Quebec, whose recordings in the [[1930s]] lifted her people through depressing times.
The Canadian music industry has been helped by government regulation designed to protect and encourage the growth of distinct Canadian culture. The Canadian Content (CANCON) regulations force all radio stations in Canada to play at least 35% Canadian music. This has enabled Canadian artists to garner success on the airwaves which were once dominated by American and European acts. Now it is common to hear several Canadian songs on the radio every hour you listen.
In the realm of popular music, Canada has produced a variety of internationally successful performers, including (alphabetically): [[Bryan Adams]], [[The Arcade Fire]], [[Broken Social Scene]], [[Paul Anka]], [[The Band]], [[Barenaked Ladies]], [[Bachman-Turner Overdrive | BTO]], [[Billy Talent]], [[Terri Clark]], [[Bruce Cockburn]], [[Leonard Cohen]], [[Delerium]], [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]], [[Do Make Say Think]], [[Feist]], [[Nelly Furtado]], [[Matthew Good]], [[Robert Goulet]], [[Great Big Sea]], [[Guess Who]], [[Richie Hawtin]], [[k-os]], [[Diana Krall]], [[Avril Lavigne]], [[Gordon Lightfoot]], [[Holly McNarland]], [[Sarah McLachlan]], [[Joni Mitchell]], [[Alanis Morissette]], [[Anne Murray]], [[Bif Naked]], [[Nickelback]], [[Our Lady Peace]], [[Kim Mitchell]], [[Oscar Peterson]], [[Sam Roberts]], [[Rush (band)|Rush]], [[Simple Plan]], [[Hank Snow]], [[Sum 41]], [[The Tea Party]], [[The Tragically Hip]], [[Shania Twain]], [[Rufus Wainwright]], and [[Neil Young]].
==Symbols==
{{see also|Canadian identity}}
Official symbols of Canada include the [[maple leaf]], [[American Beaver|beaver]], and [[common loon]]. Many official symbols of the country such as the [[Flag of Canada]] have been changed or modified over the past few decades in order to 'Canadianize' them and de-emphasise or remove references to the [[United Kingdom]]. Symbols of the [[monarchy in Canada]] continue to be featured in, for example, the [[Coat of Arms of Canada]], and the designation '[[Royal]]' remains for institutions as varied as the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] and the [[Royal Winnipeg Ballet]].
==Aboriginal effects==
There were and are many distinct Aboriginal peoples across Canada, each with its own culture, language and history. Much of this artistic legacy remains celebrated in Canada to this day. The emblem of the [[Vancouver]] [[2010 Winter Olympics]] is the [[inukshuk]], a stack of rocks in human form that is a part of [[Inuit]] culture. [http://www.vancouver2010.com/Emblem/home.htm]
== See also ==
*[[Canadian Cultural Protectionism]]
*[[Canadian Nationalism]]
*[[Canadian architecture]]
==External links==
* [http://www.culture.ca Culture.CA]: Canadian cultural portal online
* [http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html Canadian Studies: A Guide to the Sources]
* [http://www.cookbookwiki.com/Category:Canadian Canadian Recipes on CookBookWiki.com]
[[Category:Canadian culture]]
[[es:Cultura de Canadá]]
[[pl:Kultura Kanady]]
[[pt:Cultura do Canadá]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of Canadian companies</title>
<id>7000</id>
<revision>
<id>41702476</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T04:01:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.136.150.139</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* B */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of '''[[corporation|companies]] from [[Canada]]'''. See also [[:Category:Companies of Canada]]. See [[lists of companies]] for lists of companies from other countries. See Canadian Owned Companies for a more detailed list.
__NOTOC__
==Current Companies -- Note: Not All of These are Canadian-Owned==
===A===
*[[Abitibi-Consolidated | Abitibi Consolidated]] (pulp and paper)
*[[AGF Management]] ([[mutual fund]]s)
*[[Agricore United]] (agricultural commodities, farm supplies, etc.)
*[[AIC Diversified Canada|AIC Diversified Canada Split Corp.]] (financial services)
*[[Air Canada]]
*[[Alcan]] (aluminum)
*[[Alexander Keith's]] (brewery)
*[[Aliant]] (telecommunications)
*[[Alimentation Couche-Tard Inc.]] (convenience stores)
*[[Alliance Atlantis]]
*[[ATI Technologies]] ([[graphics card]]s)
*[[Astral Media]]
*[[Automation Tooling Systems]] (industrial automation)
*[[Avenue Video]]
*[[Aviva Inc.|Aviva]] (natural heath retailer)
===B===
*[[Ballard Power Systems]]
*[[Bank of Montreal]]
*[[Bata Shoes]] (world's largest shoe company)
*BCE ([[Bell Canada]] Enterprises)
** [[Bell Globemedia]]
*[[Beckers Milk|Becker's Milk]]
*[[Biovail]] (Pharmaceutical)
*[[BioWare]] (video games)
*[[Black Diamond (company)|Black Diamond]] (cheese)
*[[Bombardier]]
*[[Bombardier Recreational Products]] spun off as an independent company in 2003
*[[Buckley's]]
*[[BC Hydro]]
===C===
*[[CAE (company)|CAE]] ([[flight simulator]]s and training)
*[[Canada Life Assurance]]
*[[Canada Brokerlink]] (subsidiary of ING)
*[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] (Government-owned Canadian TV and Radio broadcaster)
*[[Canadian National Railway]]
*[[Canadian Pacific Railway Limited]]
*[[Canadian Steamship Lines]]
*[[Canadian Tire]]
*[[CanJet]]
*[[CanWest Global Communications]]
*[[Casavant Frères]]
*[[Celestica]]
*[[CHUM Limited]]
*[[CIBC]]
*[[Cineplex Entertainment]]
*[[Cirque du Soleil]]
*[[Conestoga-Rovers & Associates]] (engineering)
*[[Corel]] (software)
*[[Cott]]
*[[Commercial Plating Inc.]]
*[[Comtel]]
*[[CTV]]
===D===
*[[DaimlerChrysler Canada]]
*[[Dalsa]]
*[[Dart Flipcards Inc.]]
*[[Digital Extremes]]
===E===
*[[Emera]] ([[Nova Scotia]] power company)
*[[EnCana]]
*[[Enbridge]]
===F===
*[[Famous Players]]
*[[Fairmont Hotels and Resorts]]
*[[Ford Motor Company of Canada, Limited]]
*[[Fortis Inc.]]
*[[Four Seasons Hotel]]
*[[Fresh Hemp Foods Ltd.]]
*[[Future Shop]] -- American owned
===G===
*[[Gabriel Kney]]
*[[General Electric Canada]]
*[[General Motors Canada]]
*[[Gennum]]
*[[Giant Tiger]] (discount store)
===H===
*[[Hart Stores]]
*[[Harvey's fast food restaurant|Harvey's]]
*[[Honda Canada]]
*[[Hudsons Bay Company|Hudson's Bay Company]] (The Bay)-- Sold Jan. 2006 to a US company
*[[Husky En |
physiology at the [[Romanian School of Medicine]], published similar work in 1921 that was carried out in [[France]] and patented in [[Romania]], and it has been argued ever since by Romanians that he is the rightful discoverer.
However, the Nobel prizes committee in 1923 credited the practical extraction of insulin to a team at the [[University of Toronto]]. In October 1920, [[Frederick Banting]] was reading one of Minkowski's papers and concluded that it is the very digestive secretions that Minkowski had originally studied that were breaking down the secretion, thereby making it impossible to extract successfully. He jotted a note to himself ''Ligate pancreatic ducts of the dog. Keep dogs alive till acini degenerate leaving islets. Try to isolate internal secretion of these and relieve glycosurea.''
He travelled to Toronto to meet with [[John James Richard Macleod|J.J.R. Macleod]], who was not entirely impressed with his idea. Nevertheless, he supplied Banting with a lab at the University, an assistant, medical student [[Charles Best]], and ten dogs, while he left on vacation during the summer of 1921. Their method was tying a ligature (string) around the pancreatic duct, and, when examined several weeks later, the pancreatic digestive cells had died and been absorbed by the immune system, leaving thousands of islets. They then isolated the protein from these islets to produce what they called ''isletin''. Banting and Best were then able to keep a pancreatectomized dog alive all summer.
Macleod saw the value of the research on his return from Europe, but demanded a re-run to prove the method actually worked. Several weeks later it was clear the second run was also a success, and he helped publish their results privately in Toronto that November. However, they needed six weeks to extract the isletin, dramatically slowing testing. Banting suggested that they try to use fetal calf pancreas, which had not yet developed digestive glands; he was relieved to find that this method worked well. With the supply problem solved, the next major effort was to purify the protein. In December 1921, Macleod invited the [[biochemist]] [[James Collip]]<!--"James Collip" is NOT a descriptive phrase and therefore should NOT be enclosed in commas; it is a qualifier--> to help with this task, and, within a month, he felt ready to test.
On [[January 11]], [[1922]], [[Leonard Thompson]], a fourteen-year-old diabetic, was given the first injection of insulin. However, the extract was so impure that he suffered a severe [[anaphylaxis|allergic reaction]], and further injections were canceled. Over the next 12 days, Collip worked day and night to improve the extract, and a second dose injected on the 23rd. This was completely successful, not only in not having obvious side-effects, but in completely eliminating the symptoms of diabetes. However, Banting and Best never worked well with Collip, regarding him as something of an interloper, and Collip left soon after.
Over the spring of 1922, Best managed to improve his techniques to the point where large quantities of insulin could be extracted on demand, but the extract remained impure. However, they had been approached by [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] with an offer of help shortly after their first publications in 1921, and they took Lilly up on the offer in April. In November, Lilly made a major breakthrough, and were able to produce large quantities of<!--"very pure" is nonsensical--> pure insulin. Insulin was offered for sale shortly thereafter.
For this landmark discovery, Macleod and Banting were awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] in [[Physiology]] or [[Medicine]] in [[1923]]. Banting, insulted that Best was not mentioned, shared his prize with Best, and MacLeod immediately shared his with Collip. The patent for insulin was sold to the [[University of Toronto]] for one dollar.
The exact sequence of [[amino acid]]s comprising the insulin molecule, the so-called [[primary structure]], was determined by British molecular biologist [[Frederick Sanger]]. It was the first protein to have its structure be completely determined. For this he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1958. In 1967, after decades of work, [[Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin]] determined the spatial conformation of the molecule, by means of [[X-ray diffraction]] studies. She also was awarded a Nobel Prize.
[[image:insulin_synthesis.png|framed|right|1. Preproinsulin ('''L'''eader, '''B''' chain, '''C''' chain, '''A''' chain); proinsulin consists of BCA, without L<BR>2. Spontaneous folding<BR>3. A and B chains linked by sulphide bonds<BR>4. Leader and C chain are cut off<BR>5. Insulin molecule remains]]
==Structure and production==
Insulin is synthesized in humans and other mammals within the [[beta cell]]s (B-cells) of the [[islets of Langerhans]] in the pancreas. One to three million islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets) form the [[endocrine]] part of the [[pancreas]], which is primarily an [[exocrine]] [[gland]]. The endocrine part accounts for only 2% of the total mass of the pancreas. Within the islets of Langerhans, beta cells constitute 60&ndash;80% of all the cells.
Insulin is synthesized from the proinsulin precursor molecule by the action of proteolytic enzymes known as prohormone convertases (PC1 and PC2). Active insulin has 51 amino acids and is one of the smallest proteins known. Beef insulin differs from human insulin in three [[amino acid]] residues, and pork insulin in one residue. Fish insulin is also close enough to human insulin to be effective in humans. In humans, insulin has a [[molecular weight]] of 5808. Insulin is structured as 2 polypeptide chains linked by 2 [[sulfur bridges]] (see figure shown above), with one additional sulfur bond in the A chain (not shown). Chain A consists of 21, and chain B of 30 amino acids. Insulin is produced as a [[prohormone]] molecule &ndash; [[proinsulin]] &ndash; that is later transformed by [[proteolysis|proteolytic]] action into the active hormone.
The remaining part of the proinsulin molecule is called [[C-peptide]]. This polypeptide is released into the blood in equal amounts to the insulin protein. Since exogenous insulins contain no C-peptide component, serum levels of C-peptide are good indicators of endogenous insulin production. C-peptide has recently been discovered to have itself biological activity; the activity is apparently confined to an effect on the muscular layer of the [[artery|arteries]].
==Actions on cellular and metabolic level==
The actions of insulin on the global human metabolism level include:
* Control of cellular intake of certain substances, most prominently [[glucose]] in muscle and adipose tissue (about 2/3 of body cells).
* Increase of [[DNA replication]] and [[protein synthesis]] via control of amino acid uptake.
* Modification of the activity of numerous [[enzymes]] ([[allostery|allosteric effect]]).
The actions of insulin on cells include:
* Increased [[glycogen]] synthesis &ndash; insulin forces storage of glucose in liver (and muscle) cells in the form of glycogen; lowered levels of insulin cause liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose and excrete it into the blood. This is the clinical action of insulin which is useful in reducing high blood glucose levels as in diabetes.
* Increased [[fatty acid]] synthesis &ndash; insulin forces fat cells to take in glucose which is converted to [[triglycerides]]; lack of insulin causes the reverse.
* Increased esterification of fatty acids &ndash; forces [[adipose tissue]] to make fats (ie, triglycerides) from fatty acid esters; lack of insulin causes the reverse.
* Decreased [[proteinolysis]] &ndash; forces reduction of protein degradation; lack of insulin increases protein degradation.
* Decreased [[lipolysis]] &ndash; forces reduction in conversion of fat cell lipid stores into blood fatty acids; lack of insulin causes the reverse.
* Decreased [[gluconeogenesis]] &ndash; decreases production of glucose from various substrates in liver; lack of insulin causes glucose production from assorted substrates in the liver and elsewhere.
* Increased amino acid uptake &ndash; forces cells to absorb circulating amino acids; lack of insulin inhibits absorption.
* Increased potassium uptake &ndash; forces cells to absorb serum potassium; lack of insulin inhibits absorption.
* Arterial muscle tone &ndash; forces arterial wall muscle to relax, increasing blood flow, especially in micro arteries; lack of insulin reduces flow by allowing these muscles to contract.
==Regulatory action on blood glucose==
Despite long intervals between meals or the occasional consumption of meals with a substantial [[carbohydrate]] load (e.g., half a [[birthday cake]] or a bag of [[potato chip]]s), human [[blood glucose]] levels normally remain within a narrow range. In most humans this varies from about 70 mg/dl to perhaps 110 mg/dl (3.9 to 6.1 [[mmol]]/litre) except shortly after eating when the blood glucose level rises temporarily. In a healthy adult male of 75 [[kilogram|kg]] with a [[blood]] volume of 5 [[litre]], a blood glucose level of 100 mg/dl or 5.5 mmol/l corresponds to about 5 g (1/5 ounce) of glucose in the blood and approximately 45 g (1 1/2 ounces) in the total [[body water]] (which obviously includes more than merely blood and will be usually about 60% of the total [[body weight]] in men). This [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] effect is the result of many factors, of which hormone regulation is the most important.
There are two groups of mutually antagonistic metabolic hormones affecting blood glucose levels:
* catabolic hormones (such as [[glucagon]], [[growth hormone]], and [[catecholamines]]), which increase blood glucose
* and one anabolic hormone (insulin), which decreases blood glucose
Mechanisms which restore satisfactory blood glucose levels after [[hypoglycemia]] must b |
ed after St Tykhon, a bishop of Amathus. The land were the ruins are is within the borders of this village, though the expansion of the Limassol tourist area has threatened the ruins (it is speculated that some of the hotels are on top of the Amathus necropolis).
Archaeological excavations in the area by parties of Cypriots and French archaeologists started in 1980 and continue until today. The Acropolis, the Aphrodite’s Temple, the market, the city’s walls, the Basicila and the port have all been excavated.
It is an amazing opportunity for the visitor to ramble over the area and have the feeling of living as they used to live. The visitors have a wonderful chance to explore the area and see rare and beautiful archaeological treasures, which are buried in the soil for centuries.
In the market there are marvellous marble columns decorated with spiral ornaments and huge paved precincts. At the coastal side of the city there are indications of an Early Christian Basilica with floors decorated with precious gems. Farther, near the terraced road leading to the Temple, situated on the top of the cliff, several houses built in a row dating to the Hellenistic Period have been discovered. In the east and west extremes of the city the two acropolis are situated, where a number of tombs have been found, many of which are intact.
The rich [[necropolis]], already partly plundered then, has yielded valuable works of art to New York and to the [[British Museum]]; but the city has vanished, except fragments of wall and of a great stone cistern on the acropolis. A similar vessel was transported to the [[Louvre]] in 1867. You might admire many of the interesting hand-made items with an archaeological value, which have been found during the excavations and are actually exposed at the Cyprus Museum in Nicosia as well as at the Limassol District Archaeological Museum or even at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art|New York Metropolitan Museum]]. The biggest treasure of Amathus is exposed at Paris Louvre Museum. It is a dim made from limestone, which dates to the 6th century B.C. It is 1.85 m. high and weighs 14 tons. It was made from a single big stone and has four (4) curved handles decorated with the head of a bull. It was used for storing the must from the grapes, which after the fermentation it became wine, which Cyprus is famous for.
Two small sanctuaries, with terracotta votive offerings of Graeco-Phoenician age, lie not far off, but the great shrine of Adonis and Aphrodite has not been identified (M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, ''Kypros,'' i. ch.1).
The ruins of Amathus are less well-preserved than neighbouring [[Kourion]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://www.limassolmunicipal.com.cy/amathus/index.html Municipality of Limassol]
[[category:History of Cyprus]]
[[Category:Ancient Cities in Cyprus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfonso</title>
<id>1688</id>
<revision>
<id>28802108</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-20T03:43:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnowName</username>
<id>533999</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Portuguese explorers */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Alfonso''''' (or '''''Afonso''''', '''''Affonso''''', '''''Alphonso''''', '''''Alphonse''''') - ([[English language|English]]: '''''Alphonzo''''') may refer to any of the following;
==[[List of Portuguese monarchs|Kings of Portugal]]==
*[[Afonso I of Portugal]] -- (1109-1185) "the Conqueror" (Afonso Henriques)
*[[Afonso II of Portugal]] -- (1185-1223) "the Fat"
*[[Afonso III of Portugal]] -- (1210-1279)
*[[Afonso IV of Portugal]] -- (1291-1357)
*[[Afonso V of Portugal]] -- (1432-1481)
*[[Afonso VI of Portugal]] -- (1656-1683) second king of the house of Braganza
==Portuguese explorers==
*[[Afonso de Albuquerque]]
==Kings of [[Kings of Castile|Castile, Leon or Asturias]]==
*[[Alfonso I of Asturias]] -- (739-757)
*[[Alfonso II of Asturias]] -- (789-842)
*[[Alfonso III of Leon]] -- (866-910) the Great
*[[Alfonso IV of Leon]] -- (924-931)
*[[Alfonso V of Castile]] -- (999-1028)
*[[Alfonso VI of Castile]] -- (1065-1109)
*[[Alfonso VII of Castile]] -- (1126-1157) the Emperor
*[[Alfonso VIII of Castile]] -- (1158-1214)
*[[Alfonso IX of Castile]] -- (1188-1230)
*[[Alfonso X of Castile]] -- (1252-1284) The Wise
*[[Alfonso XI of Castile]] -- (1312-1350) The Avenger
==[[Kings of Aragon]]==
*[[Alfonso I of Aragon]] -- (1104-1134) the Battler
*[[Alfonso II of Aragon]] -- (1162-1196) the Chaste
*[[Alfonso III of Aragon]] -- (1285-1291) The Liberal
*[[Alfonso IV of Aragon]] -- (1327-1336) The Kind
*[[Alfonso V of Aragon ]] -- (1416-1458) The Magnanimous
==[[Kings of Spain]]==
*[[Alfonso XII of Spain]] -- (1857-1885) king of Spain
*[[Alfonso XIII of Spain]] -- (1886-1931) king of Spain
See also: [[lists of incumbents]]
==[[Manikongo (Kings of the Congo)]]==
[[Affonso I of Kongo]] 1505&#8211;43)
==Variety of mango==
'''Alphonso''' is also a variety of [[mango]] found in [[India]], see [[alphonso (mango)]].
==Places==
*[[Alphonse]] Island belongs to the [[Outer Islands]] of [[Seychelles]]
*[[Alfonso, Cavite]] is a municipality in the [[Philippines]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Alfons]]
[[eo:Alfonzo]]
[[hu:Alfonz]]
[[pl:Alfons]]
[[pt:Afonso]]
[[sk:Alfonz]]
[[sv:Alfons]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfonso I</title>
<id>1689</id>
<revision>
<id>29362807</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-27T08:24:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Japanese Searobin</username>
<id>153340</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ja:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*[[Afonso I of Portugal]] -- ([[1094]]-[[1195]]) (Afonso Henriques)
*[[Alfonso I of Asturias]] -- ([[739]]-[[757]])
*[[Alfonso I (of Castile)]] -- ([[1040]]-[[1109]]) the first King of Castile to be called Alfonso, but better known as [[Alfonso VI of Castile]] as he was the sixth Alfonso in the line that started with Alfonso I of Asturius, and included another monarch of [[Asturias]] called Alfonso and three [[Kings of Leon]] called Alfonso.
*[[Alfonso I of Aragon]] -- ([[1104]]-[[1134]])
*[[Alphonso I of Ferrara]], duke of Ferrara (15th century)
*[[Alfonso I of Naples]], also known as [[Alfonso V of Aragon]]
{{disambig}}
[[ca:Alfons I]]
[[de:Liste der Herrscher namens Alfons]]
[[es:Alfonso I]]
[[fr:Alphonse Ier]]
[[ja:アルフォンソ1世]]
[[nl:Alfons I]]
[[pl:Alfons I]]
[[pt:Afonso I]]
[[zh:阿方索一世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amati</title>
<id>1690</id>
<revision>
<id>34669550</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T22:23:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Mazda]] [[luxury car]] [[marque]], Amati, see the main [[Mazda]] article''
'''Amati''' is the name of a family of [[Italy|Italian]] [[violin]]-makers, who flourished at [[Cremona]] from about [[1550]] to [[1740]].
'''Andrea Amati''' (before 1511 &ndash; before 1580) was the first maker of violins whose instruments still survive today. Indeed he seems more or less responsible for giving the instruments of the modern violin family their definitive profile. A small number of his instruments survive, dated between the years of 1564 and 1574 and most bearing the coat of arms of [[Charles IX of France]].
Andrea Amati was succeeded by his sons '''Antonio Amati''' (born c. 1540) and '''Girolamo Amati''' ([[1561]] &ndash; [[1630]]). The "brothers Amati", as they were known, implemented far-reaching innovations in design, including the perfection of the shape of the soundhole. They are also thought to have pioneered the modern alto format of [[viola]] (rather than the older tenor violas).
'''Nicolo Amati''' ([[December 3]], [[1596]] &ndash; [[April 12]], [[1684]]) was the son of Girolamo Amati. He was the most eminent of the family. He improved the model adopted by the rest of the Amatis and produced instruments capable of yielding greater power of [[tone]]. His pattern was usually small, but he also made a wider model now known as the "Grand Amati", which have become his most sought-after violins.
Of his pupils the most famous were [[Antonio Stradivari]], Andrea [[Guarneri]] (the first of the Guarneri family of violin makers), and [[Bartolomeo Cristofori]] (the inventor of the [[piano|pianoforte]]).
The last maker of the family was Nicolo's son, Girolamo Amati, known as '''Hieronymus II''' ([[February 26]], [[1649]] &ndash; [[February 21]], [[1740]]). Although he improved on the arching of his father's instruments, by and large they are inferior and no match for the greatest maker of his day, Antonio Stradivari.
==See also==
*[[Amati Quartet]]
*[[Luthier]] - provides links to articles about other famous makers of stringed instruments
==External links==
*[http://www.theviolinsite.com/violin_making/index.html Violin Making]
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Italian musical instrument makers|Amati]]
[[Category:Luthiers|Amati]]
[[de:Amati]]
[[fr:Amati]]
[[hu:Amati]]
[[nl:Amati]]
[[no:Amati-familien]]
[[pl:Amati]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfonso II</title>
<id>1691</id>
<revision>
<id>27035597</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-01T03:22:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joaopais</username>
<id>94195</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">*[[Alfonso II of Asturias]] -- ([[789]]-[[842]])
*[[Alfonso II of Aragon]] -- ([[1152]]-[[1196]])
*[[Afonso II of Portugal]] -- ([[1185]]-[[1223]]) "the Fat"
*[[Alphonso II of Naples]]
{{disambig}}
[[ca:Alfons II]]
[[de:Liste der Herrscher namens Alfons]]
[[es:Alfonso II]]
[[fr:Alphonse II]]
[[pt:Afonso II]]
[[zh:阿方索二世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alf |
ot look with their eyes, and listen with their ears, and understand with their heart and turn— and I would heal them.’''
::''Mark 4:12 in order that ‘they may indeed look, but not perceive, and may indeed listen, but not understand; so that they may not turn again and be forgiven.’”''
'''Is. 7:14''' Therefore the Lord himself will give you a sign. Look, the young woman is with child and shall bear a son, and shall name him Immanuel.
'':[[Matthew 1:23|Matt. 1:23]] “Look, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and they shall name him Emmanuel,” which means, “God is with us.”''
'''Is. 8:12''' Do not call conspiracy all that this people calls conspiracy, and do not fear what it fears, or be in dread.
::''1Pet. 3:14, 15 But even if you do suffer for doing what is right, you are blessed. Do not fear what they fear, and do not be intimidated, but in your hearts sanctify Christ as Lord. Always be ready to make your defense to anyone who demands from you an accounting for the hope that is in you;''
'''Is. 8:14''' He will become a sanctuary, a stone one strikes against; for both houses of Israel he will become a rock one stumbles over—a trap and a snare for the inhabitants of Jerusalem.
::''Rom. 9:33 as it is written, “See, I am laying in Zion a stone that will make people stumble, a rock that will make them fall, and whoever believes in him will not be put to shame.”''
'''Is. 8:17''' I will wait for the LORD, who is hiding his face from the house of Jacob, and I will hope in him.
::''Heb. 2:13 And again, “I will put my trust in him.” And again, “Here am I and the children whom God has given me.”''
'''Is. 9:1''' ¶ But there will be no gloom for those who were in anguish. In the former time he brought into contempt the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, but in the latter time he will make glorious the way of the sea, the land beyond the Jordan, Galilee of the nations.
::''[[Matthew 4:15|Matt. 4:15]], 16 “Land of Zebulun, land of Naphtali, on the road by the sea, across the Jordan, Galilee of theGentiles— the people who sat in darkness have seen a great light, and for those who sat in the region and shadow of death light has dawned.”''
'''Is. 10:22''' For though your people Israel were like the sand of the sea, only a remnant of them will return. Destruction is decreed, overflowing with righteousness.
::''Rom. 9:27, 28 And Isaiah cries out concerning Israel, “Though the number of the children of Israel were like the sand of the sea, only a remnant of them will be saved; for the Lord will execute his sentence on the earth quickly and
decisively.”''
'''Is. 11:10''' On that day the root of Jesse shall stand as a signal to the peoples; the nations shall inquire of him, and his dwelling shall be glorious.
::''Rom. 15:12 and again Isaiah says, “The root of Jesse shall come, the one who rises to rule the Gentiles; in him the Gentiles shall hope.”''
'''Is. 13:10''' For the stars of the heavens and their constellations
will not give their light;
the sun will be dark at its rising,
and the moon will not shed its light.
::''Matt. 24:29 “Immediately after the suffering of those days the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light; the stars will fall from heaven, and the powers of heaven will be shaken.''
'''Is. 21:9''' Look, there they come, riders,
horsemen in pairs!”
Then he responded,
“Fallen, fallen is Babylon;
and all the images of her gods
lie shattered on the ground.”
::''Rev. 18:2 He called out with a mighty voice, “Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great! It has become a dwelling place of demons, a haunt of every foul and hateful bird, a haunt of every foul and hateful beast.''
'''Is. 22:13''' but instead there was joy and festivity,
killing oxen and slaughtering sheep,
eating meat and drinking wine.
“Let us eat and drink,
for tomorrow we die.”
::''1Cor. 15:32 If with merely human hopes I fought with wild animals at Ephesus, what would I have gained by it? If the dead are not raised, “Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die.”''
'''Is. 25:8''' Then the Lord GOD will wipe away the tears from all faces,
and the disgrace of his people he will take away from all the earth, for the LORD has spoken.
::''1Cor. 15:54 When this perishable body puts on imperishability, and this mortal body puts on immortality, then the saying that is written will be fulfilled: “Death has been swallowed up in victory.”
::''Rev. 7:17 for the Lamb at the center of the throne will be their shepherd, and he will guide them to springs of the water of life, and God will wipe away every tear from their eyes.”''
'''Is. 26:19''' Your dead shall live, their corpses shall rise.
O dwellers in the dust, awake and sing for joy!
For your dew is a radiant dew,
and the earth will give birth to those long dead.
::''Matt. 11:5 the blind receive their sight, the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the poor have good news brought to them.''
::''Luke 7:22 And he answered them, “Go and tell John what you have seen and heard: the blind receive their sight, the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, the poor have good news brought to them.''
'''Is. 28:11''' Truly, with stammering lip
and with alien tongue
he will speak to this people,
::''1 Cor. 14:21 In the law it is written, “By people of strange tongues and by the lips of foreigners I will speak to this people; yet even then they will not listen to me,” says the Lord.''
'''Is. 28:16''' therefore thus says the Lord GOD,
See, I am laying in Zion a foundation stone,
a tested stone,
a precious cornerstone, a sure foundation:
“One who trusts will not panic.”
::''Rom. 9:33 as it is written, “See, I am laying in Zion a stone that will make people stumble, a rock that will make them fall, and whoever believes in him will not be put to shame.” ''
::''Rom. 10:11 The scripture says, “No one who believes in him will be put to shame.”''
Is. 29:10''' For the LORD has poured out upon you
a spirit of deep sleep;
he has closed your eyes, you prophets,
and covered your heads, you seers.
::''Rom.11:8 as it is written, “God gave them a slow spirit, eyes that would not see and ears that would not hear, down to this very day.”''
'''Is. 29:13''' The Lord said:
Because these people draw near with their mouths
and honor me with their lips,
while their hearts are far from me,
and their worship of me is a human commandment learned by rote;
::''Matt. 15:8, 9 ‘This people honors me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me; in vain do they worship me, teaching human precepts as doctrines.’”
::''Mark 7:6, 7 He said to them, “Isaiah prophesied rightly about you hypocrites, as it is written, ‘This people honors me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me; in vain do they worship me, teaching human precepts as doctrines.’''
'''Is. 29:14''' so I will again do
amazing things with this people,
shocking and amazing.
The wisdom of their wise shall perish,
and the discernment of the discerning shall be hidden.
::''1Cor. 1:19 For it is written, “I will destroy the wisdom of the wise, and the discernment of the discerning I will thwart.”''
'''Is. 29:16''' You turn things upside down!
Shall the potter be regarded as the clay?
Shall the thing made say of its maker,
“He did not make me”;
or the thing formed say of the one who formed it,
“He has no understanding”?
::''Rom. 9:20 But who indeed are you, a human being, to argue with God? Will what is molded say to the one who molds it, “Why have you made me like this?”''
'''Is. 52:5''' Now therefore what am I doing here, says the LORD, seeing that my people are taken away without cause? Their rulers howl, says the LORD, and continually, all day long, my name is despised.
::''Rom. 2:24 For, as it is written, “The name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles because of you.”''
'''Is. 52:7''' How beautiful upon the mountains
are the feet of the messenger who announces peace,
who brings good news,
who announces salvation,
who says to Zion, “Your God reigns.”
::''Rom. 10:15 And how are they to proclaim him unless they are sent? As it is written, “How beautiful are the feet of those who bring good news!”''
'''Is. 52:11''' Depart, depart, go out from there!
Touch no unclean thing;
go out from the midst of it, purify yourselves,
you who carry the vessels of the LORD.
::''2 Cor. 6:17 Therefore come out from them, and be separate from them, says the Lord, and touch nothing unclean; then I will welcome you,''
'''Is. 52:15''' so he shall startle many nations;
kings shall shut their mouths because of him;
for that which had not been told them they shall see,
and that which they had not heard they shall contemplate.
::''Rom. 15:21 but as it is written, “Those who have never been told of him shall see, and those who have never heard of him shall understand.”''
'''Is. 53:1''' Who has believed what we have heard?
And to whom has the arm of the LORD been revealed?
::''John 12:38 This was to fulfill the word spoken by the prophet Isaiah: “Lord, who has believed our message, and to whom has the arm of the Lord been revealed?”''
::'' Rom. 10:16 But not all have obeyed the good news; for Isaiah says, “Lord, who has believed our message?” ''
'''Is. 53:4''' Surely he has borne our infirmities
and carried our diseases;
yet we accounted him stricken,
struck down by God, and afflicted.
::''Matt. 8:17 This was to fulfill what had been spoken through the prophet Isaiah, “He took our infirmities and bore our diseases.”''
::''1 Pet. 2:24 He himself bore our sins in his body on the cross, so that, free from sins, we might live for righteousness; by his wounds you have been healed.''
'''Is. 53:7''' He was oppressed, and he was afflicted,
yet he did not open his mouth;
like a lamb that is led to the sl |
nod]]) was to resolve disagreements in the [[List of Patriarchs of Alexandria|Church of Alexandria]] over the nature of Jesus in relationship to the Father: in particular whether [[Jesus]] was of the same or of similar [[ousia|substance]] as [[God the Father]]. [[St. Alexander of Alexandria]] took the first position; the popular presbyter [[Arius]], from whom the term [[Arianism|Arian controversy]] comes, took the second. The council decided against the Arians. Another result of the council was an agreement on the date of the [[Christian Passover]], now called [[Easter]], the most important feast of the Church's life. The council decided in favour of celebrating Passover on the first Sunday after the spring equinox, independently of the [[Bible|Bible's]] [[Hebrew Calendar]] (see also [[Quartodecimanism]]), and authorized the [[Bishop of Alexandria]] (presumably using the [[Alexandrian calendar]]) to annually announce the exact date to his fellow bishops.
The Council of Nicaea was historically significant because it was the first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of [[Christendom]].{{fn|1}} "It was the first occasion for the development of technical [[Christology]]".{{fn|2}} Further, "Constantine in convoking and presiding over the council signaled a measure of imperial control over the church."{{fn|3}} With the creation of the [[Nicene Creed]], a precedent was established for subsequent general councils to create a [[creed|statement of belief]] and [[Canon law|canons]] which was intended to become [[orthodox]] for all Christians. It would serve to unify the Church and provide a clear guideline over disputed matters on what it meant to be a practicing Christian, a momentous event in the history of the Church and subsequent history of Europe.
==Character==
The first Council of Nicaea was the first general gathering of bishops from the whole Church, to resolve differences of faith that had arisen and to define clearly the faith received from the [[Twelve Apostles|apostle]]s. In this council, Church and State acted together. Earlier councils, such as the [[Council of Jerusalem]], had resolved important questions, to be sure. Now, the Council of Nicaea formulated a definitive statement against a growing [[heresy]], a profession of faith intended to clarify and defend the heritage of true belief. This council had a worldwide effect, for the whole Church.
In Arianism lay a great obstacle to concord of the Church and the unity of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Accordingly, for the summer of AD 325, the bishops of all provinces were summoned to [[Nicaea]] in [[Bithynia]], a place easily accessible to the majority of the bishops, especially those of [[Asia Minor]], [[Syria]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], and [[Thrace]].
== Attendees ==
Constantine had invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about 1000 in the east and 800 in the west).
The number of participating bishops cannot be accurately stated; [[Socrates Scholasticus]] and [[Epiphanius of Salamis]] counted 318; [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], only 250. The participating bishops were given free travel to and from their [[episcopal see]]s to the council, as well as lodging. These bishops did not travel alone; each one had permission to bring with him two [[presbyter]]s and three [[deacon]]s, so the total number of attendees would have been above 1500. Eusebius speaks of an almost innumerable host of accompanying [[priest]]s, deacons, and [[acolyte]]s.
A special prominence was also attached to this council because the [[Persecution of Christians]] had just ended with the February [[313]] [[Edict of Milan]] by Constantine and [[Licinius]].
As a matter of record, the Eastern bishops formed the great majority. Of these, the first rank was held by the three [[archbishop]]s: [[Alexander of Alexandria]], [[Eustathius of Antioch]], and [[Macarius of Jerusalem]]. Many of the assembled fathers, e.g,. [[Paphnutius of Thebes]], [[Potamon of Heraclea]] and [[Paul of Neocaesarea]], had stood forth as witnesses of the faith, and came to the council with the marks of persecution on their faces. Other remarkable attendees were [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]], [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], [[Saint Nicholas|Nicholas of Myra]], [[Aristakes of Armenia]], [[Jacob of Nisibis]], a former hermit and [[Saint Spyridon|Spyridion of Trimythous]] who even while a bishop made his living as a shepherd. From foreign places there came a [[Persians|Persian]] bishop John, a [[Goths|Gothic]] bishop Theophilus and [[Stratophilus]], bishop of [[Pitiunt]] in [[Egrisi]] (located at the border of modern-day [[Russia]] and [[Abkhazia]] outside of the Byzantine empire).
The [[Latin]]-speaking provinces sent at least five representatives: [[Marcus of Calabria]] from [[Italy]], [[Cecilian of Carthage]] from [[Africa]], [[Hosius of Córdoba]] from [[Hispania]], [[Nicasius of Dijon]] from [[Gaul]], and [[Domnus of Stridon]] from the province of the [[Danube]].
Among the assistants were [[Athanasius of Alexandria]], a young deacon and companion of Bishop [[Alexander of Alexandria]], who distinguished himself as the "most vigorous fighter against the Arians," and similarly [[Alexander of Constantinople]], then a presbyter, as representative of his aged bishop.
== Agenda and procedure ==
The agenda of the synod were:
#The Arian question,
#The celebration of Passover, Now Called [[Easter]],
#The [[Meletius of Lycopolis|Meletian]] schism,
#The Father and Son one in purpose or in person
#The [[baptism]] of heretics, and
#The status of the lapsed in the persecution under [[Licinius]].
The council was formally opened [[May 20]], in the central structure of the imperial palace, with preliminary discussions on the [[Arianism|Arian]] question. In these discussions, some dominant figures were [[Arius]], with some adherents, especially Bishop [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]], Bishop [[Theognis of Nice]], and Bishop [[Maris of Chalcedon]]. Hosius of [[Córdoba, Hispania|Cordova]] may well have been the chairman of the deliberations. After being in session for an entire month, the council promulgated on [[June 19]] the [[Nicene_Creed#The_original_Nicene_Creed_of_325|original Nicene Creed]]. This profession of faith was adopted by the overwhelming majority of bishops present. The emperor Constantine was present as an observer.
From the beginning of the gathering, the Arians and the orthodox were vocal in their opposition. The Arians were led by Eusebius of Nicomedia.
Eusebius of Caesarea called to mind the [[baptism]]al [[creed]] (symbol) of his own diocese at [[Caesarea Palaestina|Caesarea]] in Palestine, as a form of reconciliation. The majority of the bishops agreed with him. For some time, scholars thought that the original Nicene Creed was based on this statement of Eusebius. Today, most scholars think that this Creed is derived from the baptismal creed of [[Jerusalem]], as [[Hans Lietzmann]] proposed. Another possibility is the [[Apostle's Creed]].
In any case, as the council went on, the orthodox bishops won approval of every one of their proposals. It is evident that the convinced Arians were very much a minority. It is also evident that the bishops expressed a firm dogmatic consensus, in direct opposition to the central tenets of Arianism.
==The Nicene Creed (symbol)==
[[Image:Nicaea_icon.jpg|thumb|right|Icon depicting the Holy Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea holding the Nicene Creed.]]
By and large, many creeds were acceptable to the members of the council. From his perspective, even Arius could cite such a creed.
For Bishop Alexander and others, however, greater clarity was required. Some distinctive elements in the [[Nicene_Creed#Comparison_between_creed_of_325_and_creed_of_381|Nicene Creed]], perhaps from the hand of Hosius of Cordova, were added.
#Jesus Christ is described as "God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God."
#Jesus Christ is said to be "begotten, not made."
#Finally, he is said to be "from the substance of the Father." No follower of Arius could say these words as a profession of faith.
Of the third article only the words "and in the [[Holy Spirit]]" were left; the original Nicene Creed ended with these words. Then followed immediately the [[canon law|canons]] of the council. So, instead of a more neutral baptismal creed, as proposed by Eusebius, the council promulgated the uncompromising anti-Arian Nicene Creed. From earliest times, various creeds served as a means of identification for Christians, as a means of inclusion and recognition, especially at baptism. In [[Rome]], for example, the [[Apostles' Creed]] was popular, especially for use in [[Lent]] and the Easter season. Now, one specific creed was used to define the Church's faith clearly, to include those who professed it, and to exclude those who did not.
The text of this profession of faith is preserved in a letter of Eusebius to his congregation, in Athanasius, and elsewhere. Although the most vocal anti-Arians, the [[ousios|Homoousians]] (from the [[Koine Greek]] word translated as "of same substance" which was condemned at the Council of Antioch in 264-268), were in the minority, the Creed was accepted by the council as an expression of the bishops' common faith and the ancient faith of the whole Church.
Bishop Hosius of Cordova, one of the firm Homoousians, may well have helped bring the council to consensus. At the time of the council, he was the confidant of the emperor in all Church matters. Hosius stands at the head of the lists of bishops, and Athanasius ascribes to him the actual formulation of the creed. Great leaders such as [[Eustathius of Antioch]], [[Alexander of Alexandria]], [[Athanasius]], and [[Marcellus of Ancyra]] all belonged to the anti-Arian party. So, the Homoousians gained the final victory.
In spite of his sympathy |
r slower, but Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the [[Panama Canal]] or the traffic at a local roundabout live and in real time. Video [[chat rooms]], [[video conferencing]], and remote controllable webcams have become popular. Some people install webcams in their bedrooms that can be accessed by other voyeurs, often with two-way sound.
[[Voice over IP|VoIP]] stands for Voice over IP, where [[Internet Protocol|IP]] refers to the Internet Protocol that underlies all Internet communication. This phenomenon began as an optional two-way voice extension to some of the [[Instant Messaging]] systems that took off around the turn of the millennium. In recent years many people and organizations have made VoIP systems as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the actual voice traffic, VoIP is free or costs much less than an actual telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on [[ADSL]] or [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]] Internet connections anyway. The disadvantages are that it is still difficult to initiate a call with someone, unless they also have a VoIP phone or are at their computer and that there are still several competing standards that are mitigating against universal acceptance.
In all of these cases, existing large organizations, that have grown accustomed to regular incomes for their services, are finding increased competition in their service areas, coming directly from the Internet. While newcomers strive to make these inroads, the traditional industries have to adapt, adopt, complain or suffer. Meanwhile the consumer in each case most probably benefits from the increased range of services and possible price reductions. Some worry about censorship and control while others see a continuing globalisation of culture and norms.
===Language===
{{main|English on the Internet}}
The most prevalent language for communication on the Internet is [[English language|English]]. This may be due to the Internet's origins, as well as English's role as the [[lingua franca]]. It may also be related to the poor capability of early computers to handle characters other than those in the basic [[Latin alphabet]]. {{further|Unicode}}
After English (32% of web visitors) the most-requested languages on the [[world wide web]] are [[Chinese language|Chinese]] 13%, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] 8%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 7%, [[German language|German]] 6% and [[French language|French]] 4% (from [http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm Internet World Stats], updated November 30, 2005).
<!-- Note that the use of these copyright statistics is dependent on "giving due credit and establishing an active link back to www.internetworldstats.com", so please do not remove the citation above -->
By continent, 34% of the world's Internet users are based in [[Asia]], 29% in [[Europe]], and 23% in [[North America]] ([http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm] updated [[November 21]], 2005).
<!-- Note that the use of these copyright statistics is dependent on "giving due credit and establishing an active link back to www.internetworldstats.com", so please do not remove the citation above -->
The Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent years that good facilities are available for development and communication in most widely used languages. However, some glitches such as [[mojibake]] still remain.
===Cultural awareness===
From a cultural awareness perspective, the Internet has been both an advantage and a liability. For people who are interested in other cultures it provides a significant amount of information and an interactivity that would be unavailable otherwise. However, for people who are not interested in other cultures there is some evidence indicating that the Internet enables them to avoid contact to a greater degree than ever before.
===Internet and the workplace===
With the emergence of the internet and recent high speed connections becoming available to the public, the internet has altered the way many people work in significant ways. Contrary to the traditional 9-5 workday where employees commute to and from work, the internet has allowed greater flexibility both in terms of working hours and work location. Today, many employees work from home by "telecommuting".
The internet and the advent of [[blogs]] has given employees a forum from which to voice their opinions about their jobs, employers and co-workers, creating a massive amount of [[information]] and [[data]] on work that is currently being collected by the [http://www.worklifewizard.org Worklifewizard.org] project run by [http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/lwp Harvard Law School's Labor & Worklife Program].
==Censorship==
{{main|Censorship in cyberspace}}
Some countries, such as [[Iran]] and the [[People's Republic of China]], restrict what people in their countries can see on the Internet, especially unwanted political and religious content.
Censorship is sometimes done through government controlled censoring filters, or by means of law or culture, making the propagation of targeted materials extremely hard. However, many internet users are able to bypass these filters, meaning that most Internet content is available regardless of where one is in the world, so long as one has the technical skill and means of connecting to it.
In the Western world, it is [[Germany]] that has the highest rate of censorship, especially of Nazis. However, most countries in the Western world do not force Internet Service Providers to block sites.
There are a large number of programs available that will block what are deemed to be offensive sites (such as pornographic or violent) on individual computers or networks.
==Internet access==
{{main|Internet access}}
[[Image:Internet-users-public-access-xi-unctad.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Internet public access point.]]
{{wikibookspar||Online linux connect}}
Common methods of home access include [[Dial-up access|dial-up]], landline [[Broadband Internet access|broadband]] (over coaxial cable, fibre optic or copper wires), [[Wi-Fi]], [[Satellite Internet|satellite]] and [[mobile phone|cell phones]].
[[Public place]]s to use the Internet include [[libraries]] and [[Internet cafe]]s, where computers with Internet connections are available. There are also Internet access points in many public places like airport halls, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Various terms are used, such as "public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and "Web [[payphone]]". Many hotels now also have public terminals, though these are usually fee based.
[[Wi-Fi]] provides wireless access to computer networks, and therefore can do so to the Internet itself. [[Hotspot (wifi)|Hotspots]] providing such access include [[Wi-Fi#Commercial Wi-Fi|Wi-Fi-cafes]], where a would-be user needs to bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a [[laptop]] or [[Personal Digital Assistant|PDA]]. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. The whole campus or park, or even the entire city can be enabled. [[Grassroots]] efforts have led to [[wireless community network]]s.
Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary mobile wireless networks like [[Ricochet]], various high-speed data services over cellular or mobile phone networks, and fixed wireless services.
==Capitalisation conventions==
{{main|Internet Capitalisation Conventions}}
In formal usage, ''Internet'' is traditionally written with a [[majuscule|capital]] first letter. The [[Internet Society]], the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]], the [[ICANN|Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]], the [[World Wide Web Consortium]], and several other Internet-related organizations all use this convention in their publications. In English grammar, proper nouns are capitalised.
Most newspapers, newswires, periodicals, and technical journals also capitalize the term. Examples include the ''[[New York Times]]'', the ''[[Associated Press]]'', ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', ''[[The Times of India]]'', ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' and ''[[Communications of the ACM]]''.
In other cases, the first letter is often written [[minuscule|small]] (''internet''), as it is argued that this is the correct form. However, the term internet with a small i refers in network technologies to any interconnected local area networks, whereas the Internet with a capital i is the specific name of the largest internet on earth; but there are others.
Since 2000, a significant number of publications have switched to using ''internet''. Among them are ''[[The Economist]]'', the ''[[Financial Times]]'', the ''[[The Times|London Times]]'', and the ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald|Sydney Morning Herald]]''. As of 2005, most publications using ''internet'' appear to be located outside of [[North America]] although one American news source, ''[[Wired News]]'', has adopted the lowercase spelling.
==Leisure==
The Internet has been a major source of leisure since before the World Wide Web, with entertaining social experiments such as [[MOO]]s being conducted on university servers, and humor-related [[Usenet]] groups receiving much of the main traffic. Today, many [[Internet forum]]s have sections devoted to [[neta]]; short cartoons in the form of [[Flash movie]]s are also popular.
The [[pornography]] and [[gambling]] industries have both taken full advantage of the World Wide Web, and often provide a significant source of advertising revenue for other Web sites. Although many governments have attempted to put restrictions on both industries' use of the Internet, this has generally failed to stop their widespread popularity.
One main area of leisure on the Internet is [[multiplayer gaming]]. This form |
rdo.htm Full constellation diagrams resembling their names]
* [http://images.google.com/images?q=constellations Images of constellations]
[[Category:Constellations| ]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[af:Sterrebeeld]]
[[ar:أبراج]]
[[bg:&#1057;&#1098;&#1079;&#1074;&#1077;&#1079;&#1076;&#1080;&#1077;]]
[[ca:Constel·lació]]
[[cs:Souhvězdí]]
[[de:Sternbild]]
[[da:Stjernebillede]]
[[et:Tähtkuju]]
[[es:Constelación]]
[[eo:Konstelacio]]
[[fa:پیکرهای آسمانی]]
[[fr:Constellation]]
[[gu:નક્ષત્ર]]
[[hr:zviježđe]]
[[ko:&#48324;&#51088;&#47532;]]
[[io:Stelaro]]
[[id:Rasi bintang]]
[[it:Costellazione]]
[[he:קבוצת כוכבים]]
[[la:Sidus]]
[[lv:Zvaigznājs]]
[[hu:Csillagkép]]
[[nl:Sterrenbeeld]]
[[ja:&#26143;&#24231;]]
[[nn:Stjernebilete]]
[[pl:Gwiazdozbiór]]
[[pt:Constelação]]
[[ru:Созвездие]]
[[scn:Custiddazzioni]]
[[sl:Ozvezdje]]
[[fi:Tähdistö]]
[[sv:Stjärnbild]]
[[th:&#3585;&#3621;&#3640;&#3656;&#3617;&#3604;&#3634;&#3623;]]
[[vi:Chòm sao]]
[[zh:&#26143;&#24231;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer</title>
<id>5268</id>
<revision>
<id>42149393</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:35:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>R. S. Shaw</username>
<id>102175</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History of computing */ word</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the magazine by IEEE Computer Society, see [[Computer (magazine)]]''
A '''computer''' is a machine for manipulating [[data]] according to a list of instructions - a [[Computer program|program]].
Computers are versatile. In fact, they are ''universal'' information processing machines. According to the [[Church-Turing thesis]], a computer with a certain minimum threshold capability is in principle capable of performing the tasks of ''any'' other computer, from those of a [[personal digital assistant]] to a [[supercomputer]], as long as time and memory capacity are not considerations. Therefore, the same computer designs have been adapted for tasks from processing company payrolls to controlling [[Unmanned space mission|unmanned spaceflights]]. Modern electronic computers also have enormous speed and capacity for information processing compared to earlier designs, and they have become exponentially more powerful over the years (a phenomenon known as [[Moore's law|Moore's Law]]).
Computers are available in many physical forms. The original computers were the size of a large room, and such enormous computing facilities still exist for specialized [[science|scientific]] computation — [[supercomputer]]s — and for the [[transaction processing]] requirements of large companies, generally called [[mainframe]]s. Smaller computers for individual use, called [[personal computer]]s, and their portable equivalent, the [[laptop computer]], are ubiquitous information-processing and [[communication]] tools and are perhaps what most non-experts think of as "a computer". However, the most common form of computer in use today is the [[embedded computer]], small computers used to control another device. Embedded computers control machines from [[fighter planes]] to [[digital camera]]s.
==History of computing==
{{main|History of computing}}
[[Image:Eniac.jpg|thumb|right|[[ENIAC]] — a very important milestone in computing history]]
Originally, the term "computer" referred to a [[human computer|person who performed numerical calculations]] under the direction of a [[mathematician]], possibly with the aid of a variety of [[mechanical calculating device]]s such as the [[abacus]] onward. Examples of early calculating devices, the first ancestors of the computer, included the [[abacus]] and the [[Antikythera mechanism]], an [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] device for calculating the movements of [[planet]]s, dating from about 87 BCE. The end of the [[Middle Ages]] saw a reinvigoration of [[Europe]]an mathematics and engineering, and [[Wilhelm Schickard]]'s 1623 device was the first of a number of European engineers to construct a mechanical calculator
[[Charles Babbage]] was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable computer as early as 1837, but due to a combination of the limits of the technology of the time, limited finance, and an inability to resist tinkering with his design, the device was never actually constructed in his lifetime. A number of technologies that would later prove useful in computing, such as the [[punch card]] and the [[vacuum tube]] had appeared by the end of the 19th century, and large-scale automated data processing using punch cards was performed by tabulating machines designed by [[Hermann Hollerith]].
During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated, special-purpose [[analog computer]]s, which used a direct mechanical or [[electricity|electrical]] model of the problem as a basis for computation. These became increasingly rare after the development of the programmable digital computer.
A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices were constructed in the 1930s and 1940s, gradually adding the key features of modern computers, such as the use of digital electronics (invented by [[Claude Shannon]] in 1937) and more flexible programmability. Defining one point along this road as "the first computer" is exceedingly difficult. Notable achievements include the [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]], a special-purpose machine that used valve-driven (vacuum tube) computation, [[Binary numeral system|binary]] numbers, and regenerative memory; the secret British [[Colossus computer]] (1944), which had limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of valves could be made reliable and reprogrammed electronically; the American [[ENIAC]] (1946) &mdash; which was one of the first general purpose machine, but still used the decimal system and incorporated an inflexible architecture that meant reprogramming it essentially required it to be rewired and [[Konrad Zuse]]'s Z machines, with the electromechanical [[Z3]] (1941) being the first working machine featuring automatic binary arithmetic and feasible programability.
The team who developed ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and elegant design, which has become known as the [[Von Neumann architecture|stored program architecture]], which is the basis from which virtually all modern computers were derived. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored program architecture commenced in the late 1940s; the first of these to be up and running was the [[Small-Scale Experimental Machine]], but the [[EDSAC]] was perhaps the first ''practical'' version.
[[Image:Apple IIe original.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Apple II]], an early personal computer]]
Valve-driven computer designs were in use throughout the 1950s, but were eventually replaced with [[transistor]]-based computers, which were smaller, faster, cheaper, and much more reliable, thus allowing them to be commercially produced, in the 1960s. By the 1970s, the adoption of [[integrated circuit]] technology had enabled computers to be produced at a low enough cost to allow individuals to own a [[personal computer]] of the type familiar today.
==How computers work: the stored program architecture==
While the technologies used in computers have changed dramatically since the first electronic, general-purpose, computers of the 1940s, most still use the [[von Neumann architecture|stored program architecture]] (sometimes called the von Neumann architecture; as the article describes the primary inventors were probably ENIAC designers [[J. Presper Eckert]] and [[John William Mauchly]]). The design made the universal computer a practical reality.
The architecture describes a computer with four main sections: the [[arithmetic and logic unit]] (ALU), the [[control unit|control circuitry]], the [[computer storage|memory]], and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by a bundle of wires (a "[[computer bus|bus]]") and are usually driven by a timer or [[Clock signal|clock]] (although other [[event]]s could drive the control circuitry).
Conceptually, a computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a small, fixed amount of information. This information can either be an instruction, telling the computer what to do, or data, the information which the computer is to process using the instructions that have been placed in the memory. In principle, any cell can be used to store either instructions or data.
The [[ALU]] is in many senses the heart of the computer. It is capable of performing two classes of basic operations: arithmetic operations, the core of which is the ability to add or subtract two numbers but also encompasses operations like "multiply this number by 2" or "divide by 2" (for reasons which will become clear later), as well as some others. The second class of ALU operations involves ''comparison'' operations, which, given two numbers, can determine if they are equal, and if not, which is of greater magnitude.
The I/O systems are the means by which the computer receives information from the outside world, and reports its results back to that world. On a typical personal computer, input devices include objects like the keyboard and [[computer mouse|mouse]], and output devices include [[computer monitor]]s, [[printer]]s and the like, but as will be discussed later a huge variety of devices can be connected to a computer and serve as I/O devices.
The control system ties this all together. Its job is to read instructions and data from memory or the I/O devices, decode the instructions, providing the ALU with the correct inputs according to the inst |
tralia Web Site]
*[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/fla1975114 The Family Law Act 1975]
*[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/csa1989294/ Child Support (Assessment) Act, 1989]
*[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/csaca1988427/ Child Support (Registration and Collection) Act 1988]
===England===
*[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1989/Ukpga_19890041_en_1.htm The Children Act 1989]
*[http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1991/Uksi_19911247_en_1.htm Family Proceedings Rules]
*[http://www.jsboard.co.uk/family_law/fbb/mf_02.htm Judicial Studies Board Family Bench Book]
*[http://www.parental-alienation.info All of Dr. Lowenstein's publications on the PAS]
===Scotland===
* [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1995/Ukpga_19950036_en_1.htm Children (Scotland) Act 1995]
*[http://news.scotsman.com/scotland.cfm?id=150552005 Scottish Executive announcement], Wed [[9 February]] [[2005]].
[[Category:Divorce]][[Category:Family law|Family law]][[Category:Marriage]]
[[bg:Семейно право]]
[[de:Familienrecht]]
[[es:Derecho de familia]]
[[fr:Droit de la famille]]
[[he:דיני משפחה]]
[[nl:Personen- en familierecht]]
[[pl:Prawo rodzinne]]
[[pt:Direito de família]]
[[sl:Družinsko pravo]]
[[sv:Familjerätt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fractals</title>
<id>10906</id>
<revision>
<id>15908696</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fractal]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fractal Art</title>
<id>10907</id>
<revision>
<id>15908697</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-08T12:27:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fractal art]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finite state machines</title>
<id>10908</id>
<revision>
<id>15908698</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finite state machine]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foonly</title>
<id>10909</id>
<revision>
<id>41370147</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:21:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Toresbe</username>
<id>230918</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed some formatting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|June 2005}}
'''Foonly''' was the company formed by [[Dave Poole]], one of the principal Super Foonly designers, and one of hackerdom's more colorful personalities.
The [[PDP-10]] successor was to have been built by the Super Foonly project at the [[Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]] along with a new [[operating system]]. (The name itself came from FOO NLI, an error message emitted by a PDP-10 assembler at SAIL meaning "FOO is Not a Legal Identifier".) The intention was to leapfrog from the old [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] timesharing system SAIL was then running to a new generation, bypassing [[TENEX]] which at that time was the [[ARPANET]] standard. ARPA funding for both the Super Foonly and the new operating system was cut in 1974. Most of the design team went to DEC and contributed greatly to the design of the PDP-10 model KL10.
The first Foonly machine was the F-1 (a.k.a. Super Foonly), which was the computational engine used to create the graphics in the movie "[[Tron]]". The F-1 was the fastest PDP-10 ever built, but only one was ever made. The effort drained Foonly of its financial resources, and the company turned towards building smaller, slower, and much less expensive machines. Unfortunately, these ran not the popular TOPS-20 but a TENEX variant called Foonex; this seriously limited their market. Also, the machines shipped were actually wire-wrapped engineering prototypes requiring individual attention from more than usually competent site personnel, and thus had significant reliability problems. Poole's legendary temper and unwillingness to suffer fools gladly did not help matters. By the time of the Jupiter project cancellation in 1983, Foonly's proposal to build another F-1 was eclipsed by the [[Mars computer|Mars]], and the company never quite recovered.
----
This article is based on one from the [[jargon file]]. The [[jargon file]] is in the public domain.
==External links==
*[http://vhost2.zfx.com/~dave/f1.html Dave's F1 page]
*[http://pdp10.nocrew.org/cpu/processors.html Lars Brinkman's table showing the F1 in perspective with other PDP-10 models]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Federalist papers</title>
<id>10910</id>
<revision>
<id>15908700</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-31T05:44:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.255.158.77</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Federalist Papers]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Functional group</title>
<id>10911</id>
<revision>
<id>39561305</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T08:03:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.82.209.151</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Suffix for esters</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
In [[organic chemistry]] '''functional groups''' are specific groups of [[atom]]s within [[molecule]]s, that are responsible for the characteristic [[chemical reaction]]s of those molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction(s) regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of.
The following is a list of common functional groups. In the formulas, the symbols R and R' denote any group of atoms. Below is an image of multiple functional groups found in organic chemistry.
<table border=1 bordercolor=black cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2>
<tr>
<th align=center bgcolor="#F5F2E9">Chemical class</th>
<th align=center bgcolor="#F5F2E9">Group</th>
<th align=center bgcolor="#F5F2E9">Formula</th>
<th align=center bgcolor="#F5F2E9">Graphical Formula</th>
<th align=center bgcolor="#F5F2E9">Prefix</th>
<th align=center bgcolor="#F5F2E9">Suffix</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>[[Alcohol]]</td>
<td align=center>[[Hydroxyl]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;OH</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Hydroxyl.png|Hydroxyl]]</td>
<td align=center>hydroxy-</td>
<td align=center>-ol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>[[Alkanes]]</td>
<td align=center>[[Methyl]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;CH<sub>3</sub></td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Methyl.png|Methyl]]</td>
<td align=center>methyl- (''similarly for higher alkyl substituents:'' ethyl, propyl, butyl, ''etc.'')</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>[[Alkenes]]</td>
<td align=center>[[Vinyl]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;CH=CH&minus;R'</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Alkene.png|Alkene]]</td>
<td align=center>''convert the part substituting for '''alk''' in the name of the'' alkane ''into the '''alk''' of the word'' alkene: '''eth'''ane/'''eth'''ene, '''prop'''ane/'''prop'''ene, '''but'''ane/'''but'''ene, ''etc.''</td>
<td align=center>-ene</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>[[Alkynes]]</td>
<td align=center>[[Alkyne]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;C&equiv;C&minus;R'</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Alkyne.png|Alkyne]]</td>
<td align=center>''convert the part substituting for '''alk''' in the name of the'' alkane ''into the '''alk''' of the word'' alkyne: '''eth'''ane/'''eth'''yne, '''prop'''ane/'''prop'''yne, '''but'''ane/'''but'''yne, ''etc.''</td>
<td align=center>-yne</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>Amide</td>
<td align=center>[[Amide]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;C(=O)N(&minus;H)&minus;R'</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Amide.png|Amide]]</td>
<td align=center>''name according to the parent amine and acid, respectively:'' '''alkyl alkanamide'''</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center rowspan=3>Amines</td>
<td align=center>[[primary Amine]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;NH<sub>2</sub></td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Amine.png|Amine]]</td>
<td align=center>amino-</td>
<td align=center>-amine</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>[[secondary Amine]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;N(&minus;H)&minus;R'</td>
<td align=center></td>
<td align=center>amino-</td>
<td align=center>-amine</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>[[tertiary Amine]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;N(&minus;R')&minus;R</td>
<td align=center></td>
<td align=center>amino-</td>
<td align=center>-amine</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>Azo</td>
<td align=center>[[Azo compound|Azo]]</td>
<td align=center>R-N=N-R'</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Azo.png|Azo.pngl]]</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
<td align=cen |
Syndromes | url=http://www.webpediatrics.com/pandas.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=Closer to Truth: PBS, with Paul Ewald | work=Microbes -- Friend or Foe? | url=http://www.pbs.org/kcet/closertotruth/explore/show_05.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=M.I.N.D. Institute Study Confirms Autism Increase | work=U.C. Davis| url=http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/news/MINDepi_study.html | accessdate=March 6| accessyear=2005 }}
* {{Citenews | surname=Stenson | given=Jacqueline | title=As autism cases soar, a search for clues | date=[[24 February]] [[2005]] | org=Newsweek | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6947652/}}
* {{Citenews | surname=Goode | given=Erica | title=Autism Statistics: More and More Autism Cases | date=[[26 January]] [[2004]] | org=New York Times | url=http://www.autisticsociety.org/article262.html}}
* {{cite journal | author=Wing L, Potter D. | title=The epidemiology of autistic spectrum disorders: is the prevalence rising? | journal=Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews | volume=8 | issue=3 | year=2002 | pages=151&#8211;61}} ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12216059&dopt=Abstract abstract])
* {{cite journal | author=Croen LA, Grether JK, Hoogstrate J, Selvin S. | title=The changing prevalence of autism in California | journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders| volume=32| issue=3 | year=2002 Jun | pages=207-15}} ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12108622 abstract])
* Manev R, Manev H. Aminoglycoside antibiotics and autism: a speculative hypothesis. BMC Psychiatry. 2001;1:5. Epub 2001 [[10 October]].[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11696245&query_hl=60]
* Strock, Margaret (2004). Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders). NIH Publication No. NIH-04-5511, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD, 40 pp. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/autism.cfm
==Footnotes==
# {{note|NihAutismov2005}} {{cite web | title=NIH Autism Overview 2005 | url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/autism_overview_2005.pdf | accessdate=February 5 | accessyear=2006 }}
# {{note|bnat}} {{cite web | title=BehaveNet autism description | url=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/autistic.htm | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|bnas}} {{cite web | title=BehaveNet aspergers description | url=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/asperger.htm | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|Wired}} {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Silberman | given=Steve | title=The Geek Syndrome | date=December 2001 | org=Wired | url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers_pr.html}}
# {{note|refbot.770}} {{cite web | title=autistics.org: The REAL Voice of Autism (See above) | url=http://www.autistics.org | accessdate=December 11 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|guardianbrainman}} {{cite web | title=Guardian "Brain Man" article | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,1409903,00.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|nihrett}} {{cite web | title=NIH Rett description | url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/rett/detail_rett.htm | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|brighttotsrett}} {{cite web | title=Bright Tots Rett description | url=http://www.brighttots.com/Rett_Syndrome.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|yalecdd}} {{cite web | title=Yale CDD description | url=http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/autism/cdd.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|nihcdd}} {{cite web | title=NIH CDD description | url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001535.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|yalepddnos}} {{cite web | title=PDD-NOS at Yale | url=http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/autism/pddnos.html | accessdate=August 22 | accessyear=2005 }}
==External links==
* '''General'''
:[http://www.wrongplanet.net WrongPlanet.net - The Community and Resource for Autism]
: [http://www.autism-spectrum-disorder.com Autism-Spectrum-Disorder.com] - Autism Spectrum Disorder
: [http://www.colour-se7en.co.uk Colour-se7en]- a website created to bring awareness of spectrum related disorders and forums for NT and ASD interaction.
: [http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/autism.htm EricDigests.org] - 'Teaching Students with Autism', Glen Dunlap, Lise Fox, ERIC Digest (October, 1999)
: [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/magazine/story/0,11913,1639392,00.html Autistic and Proud] Describes new discoveries about autism, autistics speaking for themselves.
: [http://www.weirdnotstupid.com Weird Not Stupid] - A website created from the perspective of a person who has two siblings who are on the Autism Spectrum with the goal of giving information to anybody who is seeking it.
* ''Blogs''
: [http://autism.about.com/ Autism/Pervasive Developmental Disorders] By Adelle Jameson Tilton, [[About.com]]
: [http://aboutautism.blogspot.com/ Autism News and More]
: [http://www.adventuresinautism.blogspot.com/ Adventures In Autism] By a health professional who is the mother of an autistic boy.
: [http://www.autismsymptoms.blogspot.com Autism Symptoms]
: [http://www.gettingthetruthout.org Getting The Truth Out] By Argues that there are common misconceptions about autism.
: [http://www.autismtreatment.info/reality+aba.aspx?rssid=1 Reality ABA, An Autism Diary] By Katherine Lee, mother of an autistic son.
* ''Organizations''
:* [http://www.onthespectrum.com On The Spectrum] A web community for those on the autism spectrum with an emphasis on support and advocacy
: [http://www.autismwebsite.com/ari/index.htm autismwebsite.com Autism Research Institute] Clearinghouse for information relating to autism, particularly the biomedical treatment approach
: [http://www.autism-society.org/site/PageServer Autism-Society.org] - [[Autism Society of America]]
: [http://www.autistics.org autistics.org] - Clearinghouse for information related to autism, from a non-cure standpoint. Many articles by autistics.
: [http://www.autism.org/contents.html Center for the Study of Autism], Autism Research Institute (founded by [[Bernard Rimland]])
* ''Resources''
: [http://www.geocities.com/growingjoel/index.html A Way Of Life] Resources and information for parents.
:[http://www.autismtreatment.info Autism Treatment Info] Treatment Tips for Children with Autism, PDD & Asperger's Syndrome.
: [http://rsaffran.tripod.com/aba.html ABA Resources for Recovery from Autism] - Information about and resource guide for behavioral intervention for autism
: [http://www.autism-resources.com/ Autism-Resources.com] - Offering information and links regarding the developmental disabilities autism and Asperger's Syndrome.
: [http://www.autismtalk.net Autism Talk] Parents & educators discuss all views.
: [http://www.autismtoday.com/ AutismToday.com] - 'everything you need to know about autism', Autism Today
: [http://www.teachers.tv/autism Focus on Autism] Selection of documentaries, interviews, etc.
: [http://www.info.autism.org.uk/ Autism.org.uk] - 'PARIS: Public Autism Resource & Information Service' (directory of UK autism services)
: [http://glennrowe.net/BaronCohen/AutismSpectrumQuotient/AutismSpectrumQuotient.aspx Autism Spectrum Quotient] - Measure Your Autism Spectrum Quotient
: [http://www.rdos.net/eng/Aspie-quiz.php Aspie-quiz] - Quiz that measures autistic traits
{{Pervasive developmental disorders}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Autism]]
[[Category:Childhood psychiatric disorders]]
[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Communication disorders]]
[[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ISCDRHP]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[de:Autismus]]
[[es:Autismo]]
[[eo:Aŭtismo]]
[[fr:Autisme]]
[[ko:자폐증]]
[[ia:Autismo]]
[[it:Autismo]]
[[he:אוטיזם]]
[[ka:აუტიზმი]]
[[hu:Autizmus]]
[[ms:Autisme]]
[[nl:Autisme]]
[[ja:自閉症]]
[[no:Autisme]]
[[pl:Autyzm wczesnodziecięcy]]
[[pt:Autismo]]
[[simple:Autism]]
[[sk:Autizmus (uzavretosť)]]
[[sr:Аутизам]]
[[fi:Autismi]]
[[sv:Autism]]
[[ta:மதியிறுக்கம்]]
[[tr:Otizm]]
[[zh:自閉症]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AlbaniaHistory</title>
<id>27</id>
<revision>
<id>15898960</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:37:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[History of Albania]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Albania]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AlbaniaGeography</title>
<id>28</id>
<revision>
<id>15898961</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:37:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Geography of Albania]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Albania]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AlbaniaPeople</title>
<id>29</id>
<revision>
<id>15898962</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:38:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Albania]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Albania]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AsWeMayThink</title>
<id>30</id>
<revision>
<id>15898963</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T17:29:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[As_We_May_Think]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<tit |
stle of John]]
* [[Third Epistle of John]]
* [[Epistle of Jude]]
The authorship of many of these epistles is contested by the majority of modern scholars. In particular, with respect to the [[authorship of the Pauline epistles]], the [[pastoral epistles]] are rejected by two thirdss of modern academics, and only seven of the Pauline epistles are regarded as uncontested. The [[authorship of the Johannine works|epistles of John are also questioned]]; even in the early church, the second and third were often regarded as belonging to a different author, who identifies himself as [[John the Presbyter]], to the author of the first epistle, who is generally identified as [[John the Evangelist]], an individual that critical scholarship considers to be different to both [[John the Apostle]] and [[John the Divine]].
== Epistles of [[Apostolic Fathers]] ==
These are letters written by some very early Christian leaders, in the first or second century, which are not part of the New Testament. They are generally considered to form part of the basis of Christian tradition. The ennobling word "epistle" is used partly because these were all written in Greek, in a time period close to when the epistles of the New Testament were written, and thus "epistle" lends additional weight of authority.
* Epistle of the Romans to the Corinthians ([[Epistles of Clement|1 Clement]])
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to the Ephesians
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to the Magnesians
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to the Trallians
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to the Romans
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to the Philadelphians
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to the Smyrnaeans
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to [[Polycarp]]
* Epistle of [[Polycarp]] to the Philippians
* [[Epistle of Barnabas]]
* [[Epistle to Diognetus]]
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05509a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'']: Epistles
*[http://www.bts.edu/faculty/Publications/AncientLetterCollections.htm David Trobisch, "How to read an ancient letter collection", 1999] : the possibility of a narrative critical study of the Letters of Paul</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epistle to the Galatians</title>
<id>10060</id>
<revision>
<id>15907899</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epistle to Galatians]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epistle to Ephesians</title>
<id>10061</id>
<revision>
<id>15907900</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen C. Carlson</username>
<id>6004</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to "Epistle_to_the_Ephesians"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epistle_to_the_Ephesians]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epistle to the Phillipians</title>
<id>10062</id>
<revision>
<id>15907901</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-01T04:19:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen C. Carlson</username>
<id>6004</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epistle to the Philippians]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epistle to Philippians</title>
<id>10063</id>
<revision>
<id>15907902</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen C. Carlson</username>
<id>6004</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to "Epistle_to_the_Philippians"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epistle_to_the_Philippians]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Empirical formula</title>
<id>10065</id>
<revision>
<id>40548272</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T09:53:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timloh</username>
<id>364704</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]], the '''empirical formula''' of a chemical is a simple expression of the relative number of each type of [[atom]] (called a [[chemical element]]) in it. An empirical formula makes no reference to [[isomer]]ism, structure, or absolute number of atoms. Empirical formulas are the standard for ionic compounds, such as CaCl<sub>2</sub>, and for macromolecules, such as SiO<sub>2</sub>. The term '''empirical''' refers to the process of [[elemental analysis]], a technique of [[analytical chemistry]] used to determine the relative percent composition of a pure chemical substance by element.
In contrast, the [[molecular formula]] identifies the absolute number of atoms of such element to be found in each discrete molecule of that compound.
For example, [[hexane]] could have a structural [[molecular formula]] of CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>, implying that it has a straight chain structure, 6 [[carbon]] atoms, and 14 [[hydrogen]] atoms. The hexane molecular formula is C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>14</sub>. And the empirical formula for the same molecule would be C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>7</sub> showing a C:H ratio of 3:7.
To calculate the empirical formula for two elements (excluding [[transition elements]], [[lanthanides]] and [[actinides]]), switch the [[valency (chemistry)|valency]] of the two elements involved. For example, equation for water is H<sub>2</sub>O. The [[valency (chemistry)|valency]] of H (hydrogen) is 1, and the valency of O (oxygen) is 2. Switch the valencies and you get H<sub>2</sub>O.
N.B. This only works for TWO elements.
----
In [[physics]], an '''empirical formula''' is a mathematical [[equation]] that predicts observed results, but has no known theoretical basis to explain why it works.
An example was the [[Rydberg formula]] to predict the [[wavelength]]s of [[hydrogen]] [[spectral line]]s. Proposed in [[1888]], it perfectly predicted the wavelengths of the [[Lyman series]], but until [[Niels Bohr]] produced his [[Bohr model]] of the atom in [[1913]], nobody knew ''why'' the formula worked.
[[Category:Chemistry]]
[[Category:Experimental physics]]
[[ar:نسبة ملكية]]
[[da:Sumformel]]
[[de:Empirische Formel]]
[[es:Fórmula empírica]]
[[it:Formula minima]]
[[ms:Formula empirik]]
[[sv:Empirisk formel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Episcopalians</title>
<id>10066</id>
<revision>
<id>28820655</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-20T10:02:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David Kernow</username>
<id>445578</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Episcopal churches]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Episcopalian church governance</title>
<id>10067</id>
<revision>
<id>34204691</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-07T04:27:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.244.182.7</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Episcopalian''' government in the [[church]] is ruled by a hierarchy of [[bishop]]s (Greek: ''episcopoi'').
Episcopalian government is adopted by the majority of churches, and for most of the history of Christianity it has been the only form known to Christendom. There are subtle differences in governmental principles, among episcopalian churches at the present time. To some extent the separation of episcopal churches can be traced to these differences in episcopal theory. The Catholic churches of Rome and Byzantium (Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox in modern terms) are episcopalian, as are the [[Oriental Orthodox]] churches.
Rome and Byzantium were, speaking generally, a single episcopalian government, one Church, until the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] in [[1054]]. Also, the non-Chalcedonian churches of the Orient (Nestorian) and [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Egyptian Coptic Orthodox]] (Monophysite), are episcopalian; however, differences concerning the person of Christ have caused these not to be in [[full communion]] with the Orthodox and the Catholics, ever since the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in the fifth century. Likewise, the Coptic Orthodox believe they have true apostolic succession; both the Greek and Coptic Orthodox churches have a bishop in Alexandria, both of whom trace their [[apostolic succession]] back to the Apostle Mark (the Coptic bishop claims the title of [[List of Coptic Popes|Pope]]). There are official ongoing efforts in recent times to heal this ancient breach. Already, the two recognize each other's [[baptism]]s, [[chrismation]]s, and [[marriage]]s, making intermarriage much easier.
==Catholic episcopalian government==
The Roman Catholic Church is episcopalian with a single hierarchy terminating at the top with the [[Bishop of Rome]]. The basis of the system is grounded in the assertion that jurisdictional oversight of the Church is not a power that derives from human ambition, but strictly from the authority of Christ which was given to his twelve apostles. From this one authority, all legitimate, governmental representation of the authority of Christ on the earth is committed, by the Holy Spirit, through the laying on of hands, from the Apostles to the bishops, and from bishops to priests, in historical succession. One of the earliest of the Church fathers to define the importance of episcopalian government is [[Ignatius of Antioch]]. Presuming Ignatius' view was genuinely the Apostolic view and practice, the unbroken line of the representation of Chri |
d in several representative studies on the genes of Europeans, strong presence of genetic lines which can be associated with the modern Finnic-speaking peoples are found throughout northern Europe from the British Isles to the Ural area.
According to the interpretation of the geneticists who conducted the study, the ancestors of modern Germanic and Slavic-speaking peoples were in fact largely speakers of Finno-Ugric languages at some earlier time. Weak presence of the genes which could associate them with, for example, the earliest Indo-European peoples indicates that the Indo-European languages were taken over from more advanced, but less numerous, newcomers as a part of "cultural package" at the time of the Neolithic Revolution - shift from gathering to agriculture. Thus, the Finno-Ugric languages and their modern speakers do not originate in the area near Ural mountains, but rather likely were one of the three indigenous European ethnic groups, which together provided about 80% of modern European genetic material. Proto-Finno-Ugric was perhaps the original language of North-East Europe. Going back further in time, according to Kalevi Wiik, the earliest Finno-Ugric speakers and their languages were likely to originate from the territory of modern Ukraine (so-called “Ukrainian refuge”) during the last [[Ice Age|glacial period]], when the whole northern Europe was covered with ice.
It should be noted that genes do not necessarily correlate with languages, and that many of the above interpretations given by the geneticists are not accepted by the majority of archaeologists and linguists, most of whom still put the Finno-Ugric Urheimat in the central or northeastern part of European Russia or the area of the [[Ural Mountains]] in the [[Bronze Age]], identifying it with the [[Comb Ceramic culture]]. Wiik’s interpretation of Neolithic farmers as early Indo-Europeans also contradicts the prevailing [[Kurgan hypothesis]].
Wiik also ignores all the most plausible results of linguistics. Nowadays we know that the languages of pre-Indo-European Central Europe had not the slightest resemblance to the Uralic languages. Thus Wiik's view is unscientific.
==History==
The first mention of a Uralic people is in [[Tacitus]]' ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'', mentioning the Finns as adjacent to Germanic territory. In the late [[15th century]], European scholars noted the resemblance of the names ''Hungaria'' and ''Yugria'', the names of settlements east of the Ural. They assumed a connection, but did not look into linguistic evidence. In [[1671]], [[Sweden|Swedish]] scholar [[Georg Stiernhielm]] commented on the similarities of Lapp, Estonian and Finnish, and also on a few similar words in Finnish and Hungarian, while the [[Germany|German]] scholar [[Martin Vogel]] tried to establish a relationship between Finnish, Lapp and Hungarian. These two authors were thus the first to outline what was to become the classification of a Finno-Ugric family. In [[1717]], Swedish professor [[Olaus Rudbeckius, Jr.|Olof Rudbeck]] proposed about 100 etymologies connecting Finnish and Hungarian, of which about 40 are still considered valid (Collinder, 1965). In the same year, the German scholar [[J. G. von Eckhart]] (published in [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]]' ''Collectanea Etymologica'') for the first time proposed a relation to the [[Samoyedic]] languages. By [[1770]], all constituents of Finno-Ugric were known, almost 20 years before the traditional starting-point of [[Indo-European studies]]. Nonetheless, these relationships were not widely accepted. Especially Hungarian intellectuals were not interested in the theory and preferred to assume connections with [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes, an attitude characterized by Ruhlen (1987) as due to "the wild unfettered Romanticism of the epoch". Still, in spite of the hostile climate, the Hungarian [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] J. Sajnovics suggested a relationship of Hungarian and Lapp in 1770, and in [[1799]], the Hungarian [[Samuel Gyarmathi]] published the most complete work on Finno-Ugric to that date.
At the beginning of the [[19th century]], research on Finno-Ugric was thus more advanced than Indo-European research. But the rise of Indo-European comparative linguistics absorbed so much attention and enthusiasm that Finno-Ugric linguistics was all but eclipsed in Europe; in Hungary, the only European country that would have had a vested interest in the family (Finland and Estonia being [[Imperial Russia|under Russian rule]]), the political climate was too hostile for the development of Uralic comparative linguistics. Some progress was made, however, culminating in the work of the German [[Jozsef Budenz]], who for 20 years was the leading Finno-Ugric specialist in Hungary. Another late-19th-century contribution is that of Hungarian linguist [[Ignac Halasz]], who published extensive comparative material of Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic in the [[1890s]], and whose work is at the base of the wide acceptance of the Samoyed-Finno-Ugric relationship today.
During the [[1990s]], linguists Kalevi Wiik, Janos Pusztay and Ago Künnap and historian Kyösti Julku announced a "breakthrough in Present-Day Uralistics", dating Proto-Finnic to 10,000 BC. The theory was almost entirely unsuccessful in the scientific community (cf. Merlijn de Smit, see external links).
==Structural features==
All of the Finno-Ugric languages share structural features and basic vocabulary. Around 200 basic words have been proposed and include word stems for concepts related to humans such as names for relatives and body parts. This common vocabulary includes, according to [[Lyle Campbell]], at least 55 words related to fishing, 33 related to hunting and eating animals, 12 related to [[reindeer]], 17 related to plant foods, 31 related to technology, 26 related to building, 11 related to clothing, 18 related to climate, 4 related to society, 11 related to religion, and 3 related to commerce, giving an interesting picture of proto-Finno-Ugric society.
The structural features are seen by linguists as strong evidence for a common ancestry. These include [[inflection]] by adding [[suffix]]es (instead of [[preposition]]s in [[English language|English]]). The Finno-Ugric languages are also famous for having a large number of grammatical [[Declension|cases]], of which Finnish has at least 15 and Hungarian has at least 24.
Another feature of the Finno-Ugric languages is that [[verb]]s are [[Inflection|inflected]], i.e. [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugated]], by person and number. (This is the familiar way verbs are conjugated in most [[Indo-European languages]]; but [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] and other [[isolating language]]s do not share this feature.)
Finally, the Finno-Ugric languages lack [[possessive adjective]]s and [[possessive pronoun]]s, such as ''my'' and ''your'', communicating the same information via [[declension]]. In some languages, the [[Genitive case|genitive]] of the personal pronoun is used to express possession. Examples: [[Estonian language|Estonian]] ''mu koer'' 'my dog' (literally 'I-gen. dog'), [[Northern Sami]] ''mu beana'' 'my dog' (literally 'I-gen. dog') or ''beatnagan'' 'my dog' (literally 'dog-my'). In others, a pronominal suffix is used, optionally together with the genitive case of a pronoun: thus [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ''(minun) koirani'', 'my dog' (literally 'I-gen. dog-my'), from ''koira'' "dog". Similarly, Hungarian, lacking possessive adjectives, uses possessive noun suffixes, optionally together with pronouns; cf. 'the dog' = ''a kutya'' vs. 'my dog' = ''az én kutyám'' (literally, 'the I dog-my') or simply ''a kutyám'' (literally, 'the dog-my'). [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], however, does have independent possessive pronouns; e.g. ''enyém'' 'mine', ''tiéd'' 'yours', etc. These are declined; e.g. [[Nominative case|nom.]] ''enyém'', [[Accusative case|acc.]] ''enyémet'', [[Dative case|dat.]] ''enyémnek'', etc.
==Classification==
It is generally agreed that the '''Finno-Ugric''' subfamily of the [[Uralic languages]] has the following members:
'''[[Ugric languages|Ugric]]''' (Ugrian)
* Hungarian
** [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
* Ob Ugric (Ob Ugrian)
** [[Khanty language|Khanty]] (''Ostyak'')
** [[Mansi language|Mansi]] (''Vogul'')
'''[[Finno-Permic languages|Finno-Permic]]''' (Permian-Finnic)
* [[Permic languages|Permic]] (Permian)
** [[Komi-Zyrian language|Komi]] (''Komi-Zyrian'', ''Zyrian'')
** [[Komi-Permyak language|Komi-Permyak]]
** [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]] (''Votyak'')
* [[Finno-Volgaic languages|Finno-Volgaic]] (Finno-Cheremisic, Finno-Mari, Volga-Finnic)
** Mari (Cheremisic)
*** [[Mari language|Mari]] (''Cheremis'')
** [[Mordvinic languages|Mordvinic]] (Mordvin, Mordvinian)
*** [[Erzya language|Erzya]]
*** [[Moksha language|Moksha]]
** Extinct Finno-Volgaic languages of uncertain position
***[[Merya language|Merya]] (position uncertain, extinct)
***[[Meshcherian language|Meshcherian]] (position uncertain, extinct)
***[[Muromian language|Muromian]] (position uncertain, extinct)
** [[Finno-Lappic languages|Finno-Lappic]] (Finno-Saamic, Finno-Samic)
*** [[Sami languages|Sami]] (Samic, Saamic, ''Lappic'', ''Lappish'')
**** Western Sami (Western Samic)
***** [[Southern Sami]]
***** [[Ume Sami]] — Nearly extinct
***** [[Lule Sami]]
***** [[Pite Sami]] — Nearly extinct
***** [[Northern Sami]]
**** Eastern Sami (Eastern Samic)
***** [[Kainuu Sami]] — Extinct
***** [[Kemi Sami]] — Extinct
***** [[Inari Sami]]
***** [[Akkala Sami]] — Nearly extinct
***** [[Kildin Sami]]
***** [[Skolt Sami]]
***** [[Ter Sami]] — Nearly extinct
*** [[Baltic-Finnic languages|Baltic-Finnic]] (Balto-Finnic, Balto-Fennic, Finnic, Fennic)
**** [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
**** [[Finnish language|Finnish]] - including [[Meänkieli]] (a.k.a. ''Tornedalen'' or ''[[Tornedalian]]'' Finnish), [[Kainu]] (a.k.a. ''[[Kven]]'' Finnis |
OMC are certainly aware of the limitations of the GDP measure.
=== Opacity ===
Another criticism of the Federal Reserve is that it is shrouded in secrecy. Meetings are held behind closed doors, and the transcripts are released with a lag of five years. Even expert policy analysts are unsure as to the logic behind Fed decisions. Critics argue that such opacity leads to greater market volatility, as the markets must guess, often with only limited information, about how the Fed is likely to change policy in the future. The jargon-laden fence-sitting opaque style of Fed communication is often called "Fed speak."
(see e.g.
[http://www.federalreserve.gov/BOARDDOCS/SPEECHES/2004/200401032/default.htm]
[http://www.netfunny.com/rhf/jokes/95q2/greenspan.html]
[http://economistsview.blogspot.com/2005/06/fed-speak-from-atlanta-president-guynn.html])
Furthermore, the lag in the release of FOMC transcripts, as well as the extremely limited and carefully worded minutes and statement, leads to the public being unaware of the issues of major concern to the Fed, and leaves it with an inadequate understanding of the logic and rationale behind the decisions. Some argue that this is a concerted attempt to keep Congress and the public at arm’s length, but this criticism has not gained much widespread acceptance.
===Free banking===
Some advocate that the Fed should not exist, and that interest rates and money supply should be left to the free market. Advocates of [[free banking]] argue that there is no better judge of the proper interest rate and money supply than the market.
==Further reading==
* [[William Greider|Greider, William]] (1987). ''Secrets of the Temple''. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671675567; a book intended for lay readers explaining the structures, functions, and history of the Federal Reserve, focusing specifically on the tenure of [[Paul Volcker]]
* Epstein, Lita & Martin, Preston (2003). ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Federal Reserve''. Alpha Books. ISBN 0028643232.
* Meyer, Lawrence H (2004). ''A Term at the Fed : An Insider's View''. HarperBusiness. ISBN 0060542705; focuses on the period from 1996 to 2002, emphasizing [[Alan Greenspan|Alan Greenspan's]] chairmanship during the [[Asian financial crisis]], the [[dot-com|stock market boom]] and the [[September 11, 2001 attacks#Economic aftermath|financial aftermath]] of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11 attacks]]
* [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray N.]] (1994). ''The Case Against the Fed''. [[Ludwig Von Mises Institute]]. ISBN 094546617X.
* [[G. Edward Griffin|Griffin, Edward G.]] (1998). "The Creature from Jekyll Island: A second look at the Federal Reserve". American Media. ISBN 0912986212.
==References==
*Andrews, Edmund L. (Nov. 5, 2005). "All for a more open Fed". ''[[New Straits Times]]'', p. 21.
==See also==
*[[Bank of Canada]]
*[[Bank of England]]
*[[Bank of Japan]]
*[[Discount window]]
*[[Economic reports]]
*[[European Central Bank]]
*[[Federal Funds]]
*[[Fort Knox Bullion Depository]]
*[[Free banking]]
*[[Gold standard]]
*[[Government debt]]
*[[Money market]]
*[[Money supply]]
*[[NESARA]] (National Economic Stabilization and Recovery Act) - Proposed legislation to reform the Federal Reserve System
*[[Repurchase agreement]]
*[[United States dollar]]
*[[Paul Warburg]]
==External links==
*[http://www.themoneymasters.com/presiden.htm U.S. Presidents comment on the Federal Reserve System over the years]
*[http://www.federalreserve.gov Official Federal Reserve web site]
*[http://mises.org:88/Fed Video - Money, Banking and the Federal Reserve ]
*[http://www.federalreserveeducation.org/fed101/index.htm Official Federal Reserve education web site]
*[http://www.fededirectory.frb.org/ Federal Reserve E-Payments Routing Directory]
*[http://www.federalreserve.gov/GeneralInfo/fract/ The Federal Reserve Act, from federalreserve.gov]
*[http://landru.i-link-2.net/monques/mmm2.html Modern Money Mechanics] - Guide to currency and the Fed's role - originally published by the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago
===Articles===
====History====
*[http://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/foregone/chapter_two.htm A Foregone Conclusion - St. Louis Fed]
*[http://minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/89-05/reg895d.cfm Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis - The Region - Paul Warburg's Crusade to Establish a Central Bank in the United States (May 1989)]
====Criticism====
*[http://www.reformed-theology.org/realaudio/griffin_1.rm The Creature from Jekyll Island: A Lecture on the Federal Reserve (audio file)]
*[http://www.apfn.org/apfn/reserve.htm www.apfn.org/apfn/reserve.htm - Secrets of the Federal Reserve]
*[http://www.freedom-force.org/videos/video.cfm?&player=2-1-05mandrake Video - How the Federal Reserve manipulates money using "The Mandrake Mechanism"]
*[http://www.house.gov/paul/congrec/congrec2002/cr091002b.htm ABOLISH THE FEDERAL RESERVE]
*[http://www.techccu.com/users/compwiz/Bankruptcy_Fraud/Bankfraud1.htm United States Bankruptcy Fraud, Core Section 1]
*[http://www.conservativeusa.org/vieir100.htm HOW TO RESTORE CONSTITUTIONAL MONEY: The Challenge]
*[http://www.fame.org The Foundation for the Advancement of Monetary Education (FAME)]
*[http://www.thenewamerican.com/tna/1997/vo13no11/vo13no11_charade.htm Fed's Inflation Charade]
*[http://www.aier.org/04conference/Papers/Darda.pdf The Restoration of a Ricardian Price Rule]
*[http://www.mises.org/multimedia/mp3/rothbard/Fed.mp3 The Founding of The Federal Reserve (audio file)]
*[http://www.fee.org/publications/the-freeman/article.asp?aid=5064 Ninety Years of Monetary Central Planning in the United States]
*[http://www.fff.org/toc/monetarypolicytoc.asp Monetary Central Planning and the State]
*[http://www.libertyhaven.com/regulationandpropertyrights/bankingmoneyorfinance/freebanking/solution.html The Solution]
*[http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig/englund2.html The Federal Reserve Has Destroyed the Meaning of Saving]
*[http://www.nesara.org NESARA Institute]
*[http://www.federal-reserve.net www.federal-reserve.net - opposition to the Fed]
*[http://www.nader.org/interest/021500.html Congress should stand up to the Fed] by [[Ralph Nader]]
*[http://www.tradersclub.com/dollarsign/billionsforbankers.shtml Billions for bankers, debts for the people] by Sheldon Emry
*[http://www.apfn.org/apfn/reserve.htm Secrets of the Federal Reserve - the London connection] by [[Eustace Mullins]]
*[http://libertyunbound.com/archive/2004_10/woolsey-fed.html Who owns the Fed?] by Bill Woolsey
*[http://www.mises.org/money.asp What has government done to our money?] by [[Murray Rothbard]]
*[http://home.hiwaay.net/~becraft/VieiraMono4.htm The Federal Reserve System: a fatal parasite on the American body politic] by Edwin Vieira
*[http://www.archive.org/details/MoneyMasters The money masters - how international bankers gained control of America (1996)] (Freeview video) by Still Productions
*[http://www.relfe.com/plus_5_.html I want the earth plus 5%] by Larry Hannigan
*[http://www.iclei.org/index.php?id=2447 Montreal declaration of world municipal leaders], December 2005
*[http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/wpawuwpma/0203005.htm Fractional Reserve Banking as Economic Parasitism: A Scientific, Mathematical & Historical Expose, Critique, and Manifest by Vladimir Z. Nuri]
====Other====
*[http://www.bankrate.com/nltrack/news/fed/20010627d.asp Know your Fed: A description of the Federal Reserve Board]
*[http://csmonitor.com/2005/1026/p10s01-usec.html How the Fed is run, and what it does] from the ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', by Mark Trumbull, [[October 26]], [[2005]]
[[Category:Federal Reserve| ]]
[[bg:Федерален резерв]]
[[da:USA's centralbank]]
[[de:Federal Reserve System]]
[[fr:Réserve fédérale des États-Unis]]
[[he:פדרל רזרב]]
[[it:Federal Reserve]]
[[ja:連邦準備制度]]
[[ka:ფედერალური სარეზერვო სისტემა]]
[[nl:Federal Reserve]]
[[no:Federal Reserve]]
[[pl:System Rezerwy Federalnej USA]]
[[ru:Федеральная резервная система]]
[[simple:Federal Reserve]]
[[sr:Савезне резерве САД]]
[[sv:Federal Reserve]]
[[zh:美国联邦储备系统]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fluorine</title>
<id>10820</id>
<revision>
<id>41504676</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:38:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
<id>7580</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.62.24.7|207.62.24.7]] ([[User talk:207.62.24.7|talk]]) to last version by 24.8.6.119</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=9 | symbol=F | name=fluorine | left=[[oxygen]] | right=[[neon]] | above=- | below=[[chlorine|Cl]] | color1=#ffff99 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[halogen]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=17 | period=2 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | F,9| pale greenish-yellow gas }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|18.9984032]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(5)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | 1s<sup>2</sup> 2s<sup>2</sup> 2p<sup>5</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 7 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[gas]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gplstp | 1.7 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=53.53 | c=-219.62 | f=-363.32 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=85.03 | c=-188.12 | f=-306.62 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (F<sub>2</sub>) 0.510 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | (F<sub>2</sub>) 6.62 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | (F<sub>2</sub>)<br />31.304 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 38 | 44 | 50 | 58 | 69 | 85 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | &minus;1<br />(strongly [[acid]]ic oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 3.98 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 1681.0 | 3374.2 | 6050.4 }}
{{ |
al college]] when it was given a [[royal charter]] by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] in [[1769]], mostly as a result of the efforts of [[Eleazar Wheelock]], a [[Puritan]] minister, and his patron, Royal Governor [[John Wentworth (Lieutenant-Governor)|John Wentworth]].
Dartmouth's original purpose was to provide for the Christianization, instruction, and education of "Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land...and also of English Youth and any others." Ministers [[Nathaniel Whittaker]] and [[Samson Occom]] (an early Native American clergyman) raised funds for the college in England through an English trust among whose benefactors and trustees were prominent English statemen, including King George III's [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]] in North America, [[William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth]], for whom Dartmouth College is named. The fundraising was meant to support Wheelock's ongoing [[Connecticut]] institution of the 1740s, Moor's Indian Charity School (chartered 1754), but Wheelock instead applied the funds to the establishment of Dartmouth College, the ninth and last [[colonial colleges|colonial college]]. Classes began in 1770 and the College granted its first degrees in 1771. Dejected and betrayed, [[Samson Occom]] went on to form his own community of New England Indians called [[Brothertown]] in Oneida country in upstate New York.
[[Image:Smdartmouth-case.gif |left|frame|Painting by Robert Clayton Burns (1962) depicting Daniel Webster and the ''Dartmouth College Case'']]
In [[1819]], Dartmouth College was the subject of the historic [[Dartmouth College case]], in which the State of [[New Hampshire]] attempted to amend the College's royal charter to make the school a public university. An institution called Dartmouth University occupied the college buildings and began operating in Hanover, though the College continued teaching classes in rented rooms nearby. [[Daniel Webster]], an [[alumnus]] of the class of [[1801]], presented the College's case to the [[United States Supreme Court]], which found the amendment of Dartmouth's charter to be an illegal impairment of a contract by the state and prevented New Hampshire from taking over the college. Webster concluded his peroration with the words,
: ''It is, Sir, as I have said, a small college. And yet there are those who love it.''
Dartmouth was a men's college until [[1972]], when women were first admitted as full-time students and undergraduate degree candidates. At about the same time, Dartmouth adopted its unique "D-Plan", a schedule of year-round operation that allowed an increase in the enrollment (with the addition of females) without enlarging campus accommodations. The year is divided into four terms corresponding with the [[seasons]]; students are required to be in residence during the summer after their sophomore year. One wag described it as a way to put 4,000 students into 3,000 beds. Although new dormitories have been built since, the number of students has also increased and the D-Plan remains in effect.
Dartmouth's motto is ''Vox Clamantis in Deserto'', "The voice of one crying out in the wilderness" (a reference to [[John the Baptist]] as well as to the college's location on what was once the frontier of European settlement). Richard Hovey's ''[[Men of Dartmouth]]'' was elected as the best of all the songs of the College in [[1896]], and today it serves as the school's alma mater, although the lyrics and title have since been changed to be gender-neutral.
The screenplay for the [[film]] ''[[Animal House]]'' was cowritten by Chris Miller (B.A. 1963) and is based loosely on a series of fictional stories he wrote in [[1974]] about his fraternity days at Dartmouth, including "The Night of the Seven Fires." In a CNN interview, [[John Landis]] said the movie was "based on Chris Miller's real fraternity at Dartmouth," [[Alpha Delta]]. In an interview with ''The Dartmouth,'' Miller said that at least one incident in the film&mdash;one in which a Delta Tau Chi brother skis down the stairs as the band plays "Shout"&mdash;occurred at an [[Alpha Delta |Alpha Delt]] party at Dartmouth. The names "Otter" and "Pinto" may be found in the Alpha Delta section of the yearbooks of the period, such as the 1963 <EM>Aegis</EM>. The movie was filmed at the [[University of Oregon]].
[[Image:Dartmouth-hall.jpg|thumb|350px|Dartmouth Hall, as of 2005.]]
In January, [[2001]], two Dartmouth professors, Half Zantop (b. [[January 24]], [[1938]])
and Suzanne Zantop (b. [[August 12]], [[1945]]), were found stabbed to death in their [[Etna, New Hampshire]] home. After an intense nationwide manhunt, two teenagers from [[Chelsea, Vermont]], Robert Tulloch and James Parker, were arrested in [[New Castle, Indiana]] and extradited back to New Hampshire. Both defendants eventually pled guilty to murder charges and were sentenced to life imprisonment.
=== Presidents of Dartmouth College (the Wheelock Succession) ===
{|
| &bull;&nbsp; [[Eleazar Wheelock|Rev. Eleazar Wheelock]] || ([[1769]]&ndash;[[1779]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[John Wheelock]], [[1771]] || ([[1779]]&ndash;[[1815]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[Francis Brown|Rev. Francis Brown]], [[1805]] || ([[1815]]&ndash;[[1820]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[Daniel Dana|Rev. Daniel Dana]], [[1788]] || ([[1820]]&ndash;[[1850]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[Bennett Tyler|Rev. Bennett Tyler]] || ([[1822]]&ndash;[[1828]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[Nathan Lord|Rev. Nathan Lord]] || ([[1828]]&ndash;[[1863]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[Asa Dodge Smith|Rev. Asa Dodge Smith]], [[1830]] || ([[1863]]&ndash;[[1877]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[Samuel Colcord Bartlett|Rev. Samuel Colcord Bartlett]], [[1836]] || ([[1877]]&ndash;[[1892]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[William Jewett Tucker|Rev. William Jewett Tucker]], [[1861]] &nbsp; || ([[1893]]&ndash;[[1909]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[Ernest Fox Nichols]] || ([[1909]]&ndash;[[1916]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[Ernest Martin Hopkins]], [[1901]] || ([[1916]]&ndash;[[1945]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[John Sloan Dickey]], [[1929]] || ([[1945]]&ndash;[[1970]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[John G. Kemeny|John George Kemeny]] || ([[1970]]&ndash;[[1981]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[David T. McLaughlin|David Thomas McLaughlin]], [[1954]] & Tuck [[1955]] || ([[1981]]&ndash;[[1987]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[James O. Freedman|James Oliver Freedman]] || ([[1987]]&ndash;[[1998]])
|-
| &bull;&nbsp; [[James Wright (historian)|James E. Wright]] || ([[1998]]&ndash;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;)
|}
==Academics==
[[Image:Dartmouth College - Dartmouth Hall circa 1834.jpg|thumb|350px|Lithograph of Wentworth Hall, Dartmouth Hall, and Thornton Hall, circa 1834.]]
The centerpiece of today's Dartmouth College is its undergraduate college of 4,078 students, constituting one of the most selective undergraduate institutions in the world. For the Class of 2009, 12,756 students applied for a little over 1,000 places in the class, and only 16.9% of applicants were admitted. The median SAT score of enrolled students in the freshman class is 1470, of whom 87% were in the top ten percent of their high school class. Alongside the undergraduate college lie a small graduate school and three professional institutes, [[Dartmouth Medical School]] ([[1797]]), [[Thayer School of Engineering]] ([[1867]]), and [[Tuck School of Business|Amos Tuck School of Business Administration]] ([[1900]]). With these graduate programs, conventional American usage would accord Dartmouth the label of "university"; but for historical and nostalgic reasons (such as the [[Dartmouth College case]]) the school uses "Dartmouth ''College''" for the entire institution.
===Board of Trustees===
Dartmouth is governed by a Board of Trustees. The board includes the college President, the state Governor (ex officio), eight trustees elected by the board itself (Charter Trustees), and eight trustees nominated for board appointment by members of the Association of Alumni of Dartmouth College (Alumni Trustees), a body created in 1854 that represents over 60,000 alumni. (Specifically, trustee candidates may be nominated by an alumni council or by alumni petition, then an election is held, and finally the winner is, by longstanding agreement, appointed to the board by all Trustees. Three recent petition candidates have become Trustees in this manner.)
==Facilities==
===Hopkins Center for the Arts===
{{main|Hopkins Center for the Arts}}
The [http://hop.dartmouth.edu/ Hopkins Center] ("the Hop") houses the college's drama, music, film, and studio arts departments, as well as a woodshop, pottery studio, and jewelry studio which are open for use by students and the public. The building was designed by the famed architect [[Wallace Harrison]], and its front façade is similar to that of [[City of New York|Manhattan&rsquo;s]] [[Lincoln Center]], a later design by Harrison. Facilities include two recital halls and one large auditorium. It is also the location of all student mailboxes and the Courtyard Café dining facility. The Hop is connected to the Hood Museum of Art and the Loew Auditorium, where films are shown. The Hopkins Center is an important New Hampshire performance venue.
===Nelson A. Rockefeller Center for Public Policy and the Social Sciences===
The Nelson A. Rockefeller Center is a center for interaction and discussion on public policy. Dedicated in [[1983]], the center stands in tribute to [[Nelson A. Rockefeller]] (Class of 1930). Known on campus as '''Rocky,''' the Center provides students, faculty and community-members opportunities to discuss and learn about public policy, law, and politics. Sponsoring lunch and dinner discussions with pro |
experienced a glacial period near the end of the [[Paleozoic]] Era, some 250 million years ago.
The idea that the evidence of middle-latitude glaciations is closely related to the displacement of tectonic plates was confirmed by the absence of glacial traces in the same period for the higher latitudes of [[North America]] and [[Eurasia]], which indicates that their locations were very different than today.
Climatic changes are also related to the positions of the continents, which has made them vary in conjunction with the displacement of plates. That also affected ocean current patterns, which caused changes in heat transmission and humidity. Since continents drift very slowly (about 2 cm per year), similar changes occur in periods of millions of years.
A study of marine sediment that contained climatically sensitive [[microorganism]]s until about half a million years ago were compared with studies of the [[geometry]] of Earth's orbit, and the result was clear: climatic changes are closely related to periods of [[obliquity]], [[precession]], and [[eccentricity]] of the Earth's orbit.
In general it can be affirmed that plate tectonics is only applicable to very long periods of time, while Milankovitch's proposal, backed up by the work of others, adjusts to the periodic alterations of glacial periods of the [[Pleistocene]]. These proposals are subject to uncertainty and there may be other factors involved with glaciers.
== See also ==
* [[Glacier retreat]]
* [[Global warming]]
* [[Effects of global warming]]
* [[Glacial motion]]
* [[List of glaciers]]
* [[Icefall]]
* [[Ice cap]]
* [[Ice field]]
* [[Ice sheet]]
* [[Quaternary period]]
== References ==
*This article draws heavily on the [[:es:Glaciar|corresponding article]] in the Spanish-language Wikipedia, which was accessed in the version of [[July 24]], [[2005]].
* Michael Hambrey and Jürg Alean, ''Glaciers'', 2nd ed. (Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-82808-2) An excellent less-technical treatment of all aspects, with superb photographs and firsthand accounts of glaciologists' experiences. All images of this book can be found online (see Weblinks: Glaciers-online)
* Douglas I. Benn and David J. A. Evans, ''Glaciers and Glaciation'' (Arnold, 1999)
* M. R. Bennett and N. F. Glasser, ''Glacial Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms'' (John Wiley & Sons, 1996)
* Michael Hambrey, ''Glacial Environments'' (University of British Columbia Press, UCL Press, 1994) An undergraduate-level textbook.
* Peter G Knight, ''Glaciers'' (Cheltenham; Nelson Thornes, 1999). ISBN 0-7487-4000-7 A textbook for undergraduates avoiding mathematical complexities
* Robert Walley, ''Introduction to Physical Geography'' (Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1992) A textbook devoted to explaining the geography of our planet.
* W. S. B. Paterson, ''Physics of Glaciers'', 3rd ed. (Pergamon Press, 1994) A comprehensive reference on the physical principles underlying formation and behavior.
== External links ==
{{commons|Glacier}}
*[http://www.glaciers-online.net/ Swisseduc - Glaciers online]
*[http://www.nsidc.org/glaciers/ National Snow and Ice Data Center - Glaciers]
*[http://www.glaciers.er.usgs.gov/ USGS Glacier Studies Project]
*[http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Glossary/Glaciers/description_glaciers_hazards.html Glaciers and Glacial Hazards - USGS]
<!--*[http://www.geography-site.co.uk/pages/physical.html#Glaciers The Geography Site: Glaciers]-->
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/08/030814071654.htm 2003-08-15 Scientists Rewrite Laws Of Glacial Erosion]
*[http://www.nps.gov/kefj#Kenai Fjords National Park, Alaska]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3210/03.html NOVA scienceNOW] - A 7 minute video of the [[NOVA]] broadcast that aired on [[PBS]], [[July 26]], [[2005]]. Hosted by [[Robert Krulwich]], the video is about the world's fastest glacier and why it is moving too fast.
[[Category:Glaciology]]
[[Category:Bodies of ice]]
[[Category:Glaciers|*]]
[[ca:glacera]]
[[cs:Ledovec]]
[[da:Gletsjer]]
[[de:Gletscher]]
[[es:glaciar]]
[[eo:Glaciejo]]
[[he:&#1511;&#1512;&#1495;&#1493;&#1503;]]
[[fi:Jäätikkö]]
[[fr:Glacier]]
[[id:Gletser]]
[[io:Glaciero]]
[[ja:&#27703;&#27827;]]
[[nl:Gletsjer]]
[[nn:isbre]]
[[no:Isbre]]
[[pl:Lodowiec]]
[[pt:Geleira]]
[[sv:Glaciär]]
[[sl:Ledenik]]
[[zh:&#20912;&#24029;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gylfaginning</title>
<id>12464</id>
<revision>
<id>41891948</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T12:06:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.144.221.50</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Manuscript Gylfi.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Gylfi is tricked]]
'''Gylfaginning''', or '''The tricking of [[Gylfi]]''', is the first part of the [[Christianity|Christian]] poet and historian [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]]. The Gylfaginning deals with the creation and destruction of the world of the Norse gods, and many other aspects of [[Norse mythology]]. The second part is called the [[Skáldskaparmál]] and the third [[Háttatal]]. Together, the three works are known as the 'Younger Edda' (or "Prose Edda"), so-called to distinguish it from the [[Elder Edda]] (or "Poetic Edda").
The Gylfaginning deals with Gylfi's encounters with the [[Æsir]], and his disguised journey as Gangleri to [[Asgard]]. There Gylfi is ostensibly exposed to the glories of Asgard and its inhabitants. The whole of this narrative is however remarkably metaphysical since the Æsir, who according to Snorri, have foreknowledge, trick him into a belief in the arcane complexities of the Norse pantheon, ultimately leaving him standing on empty ground. It can be argued that Snorri used this narrative device as a means of being able to safely document a vanishing and largely oral tradition within a Christian context.
{{Euro-myth-stub}}
==External links==
*[http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/index.html Text of all original manuscripts]
*[http://www.snerpa.is/net/snorri/gylf.htm The text with modern Icelandic spelling]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/pre/pre04.htm English translation]
*[http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/ProseEdda/ContentsEnglish.htm#gylfe CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Norse Mythology: Prose Edda - Gylfaginning (English)]
*[http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/ProseEdda/ContentsIcelandic.htm#gylfe CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Norse Mythology: Prose Edda - Gylfaginning (Old Norse)]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Sources of Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Nordic folklore]]
{{NorseMythology}}
[[da:Gylfaginning]]
[[de:Gylfaginning]]
[[nn:Gylfaginning]]
[[sv:Gylfaginning]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gleipnr</title>
<id>12465</id>
<revision>
<id>15910151</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-22T07:59:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Glenn</username>
<id>9232</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Fenrisulfr]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fenrisulfr]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glorious Revolution</title>
<id>12466</id>
<revision>
<id>42118045</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:06:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Meaghangray</username>
<id>1008200</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Glorious Revolution''' refers to the generally popular overthrow of [[James II of England]] in [[1688]] by a conspiracy between some [[Parliament of England|parliamentarians]] and the [[Holland|Dutch]] [[stadtholder]] [[William III of Orange-Nassau]]. The event is sometimes referred to as the '''Bloodless Revolution''' but this name is a misnomer as there was much fighting, with loss of life, in Ireland and to a lesser degree in Scotland. Some modern historians, alternatively, prefer the more neutral '''Revolution of 1688'''.
== History ==
[[Image:James_II_of_England.jpg|thumb|right|200px|James II]]
During his three year reign, King James II fell victim to the political battles in the [[British Isles]] between [[Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism]] on the one hand, and on the other, between the [[divine right of kings|divine right]] of the Crown and the political rights of [[British Parliament|Parliament]]. James's greatest political problem was his Catholicism, which left him alienated from both parties in Parliament. Any attempts at reform by James were thus viewed with great suspicion. James also pursued a number of untenable policies, such as a desire for a standing army and a pursuit of [[religious toleration]].
While his brother and predecessor, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], had done the same, Charles had not been an overt Catholic like James. Matters came to a head in [[1688]] when James fathered [[James Francis Edward Stuart|a son]]; until then, the throne would have passed to his Protestant daughter, [[Mary II of England|Mary]]. The prospect of a Catholic dynasty in [[Britain]] was now likely. Some leaders of the hitherto loyal [[Tory|Tory Party]] united with members of the opposition [[Whigs (UK)|Whigs]] and set out to solve the crisis.
===Conspiracy and Dutch Landing===
In [[1686]] a group of conspirators met at [[Charborough House]], [[Dorset]] to plan the overthrow of "the tyrant race of Stuarts". In 1688, a further conspiracy, based at [[Whittington Moor]], [[Derbyshire]] (''see the [[Immortal Seven]]'') was launched to depose James and replace him with his daughter Mary and her husband, [[William III of Orange|William of Orange]] &mdash; both Protestants and both grandchildren of [[Charles I of England]]. William was [[stadtholder]] of the [[Netherlands]], then in the early stages of a war with the French: the [[War of the Grand Alliance]]. Jumping at the chance to add [[England]] to his alliance, Wi |
Class Actions" [http://www.aei.org/research/liability/books/bookID.814,projectID.23/book_detail.asp]
*[[Richard Epstein]], "Class Actions: The Need for a Hard Second Look" [http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/cjr_4.htm]
*[http://www.definitions-legal.com/structured-settlements/structured-settlement.htm Structured Settlements] -- Information
*An introductory legal text: [http://www.misko.com/2002/MiskoonClassActions.pdf '''Misko on Class Actions'''] (pdf file 7.2 MB). or [http://www.misko.com/2002/MiskoonClassActions2002.pdf '''Misko on Class Actions with 400 pages worth of appendices''']
*[http://www.wikipediaclassaction.org/ The Wikipedia Class Action Lawsuit]
[[Category: Civil law]]
[[de:Sammelklage]]
[[fr:Recours collectif]]
[[no:Gruppesøksmål]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Contempt of court</title>
<id>7201</id>
<revision>
<id>40242016</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T04:45:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sommers</username>
<id>625266</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Criminal contempt of court */ Punctuation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Contempt of court''' is a court ruling which, in the context of a court trial or hearing, deems an individual as holding [[contempt]] for the court, its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as "in contempt," it is the highest remedy of a judge to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which wantonly or excessively disrupt the normal process of a court hearing.
A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a [[court]], showing disrespect for the [[judge]], disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[fine]] or [[prison|jail]] for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in [[common law]] systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems.
==England and Wales==
In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[criminal]] or [[civil]] offence.
All courts are protected by the law on contempt, but only [[Court of record|courts of record]] have a power at [[common law]] to punish for contempt.
===Criminal contempt of court===
The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:
# Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally—the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.
Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt.
Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] (Criminal Division).
[[Magistrates]] Courts are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court until the end of the session, and imprison them for up to a month, and fine them up to £1500.
It is contempt of court to bring a tape recorder or camera of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.
It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime."
===Strict liability contempt===
Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney-General]] has issued guidance as to when be believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict.
Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.
===Civil contempt===
In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:
# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[Latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[Bench Warrant]] issued, authorising [[The Tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a grovelling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice" i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this never happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is immense and in practice imprisonment is never ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.
==United States==
Under American jurisprudence, acts of contempt are divided into two types.
"Direct" contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae''), and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice, and after giving the person the opportunity to respond, may impose the sanction immediately.
"Indirect" contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court, and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt, and to present evidence in rebuttal.
Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the sheriff or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The contemnor is said to "hold the keys" to his own cell, thus conventional due process is not required. The [[burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.
==See also==
*[[Contempt of Congress]] - in the United States, the same crime but against the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]]
*[[Contempt of Parliament]] - a similar concept to Contempt of Congress, but a power of [[Parliament]]
*[[Perjury]] - lying to the court is a separate criminal offence in most jurisdictions, but is analogous to contempt in many ways.
*[[Perverting the course of justice]] - A criminal offence in [[English law]] where a person seeks to subvert court proceedings.
[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law]]
[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Corroborating evidence</title>
<id>7202</id>
<revision>
<id>34858763</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-12T06:16:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Poor Yorick</username>
<id>9697</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disamb</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Corroborating evidence''' is evidence that tends to support a proposition that is already supported by some evidence. For example, W, a witness, testifies that she saw X drive his automobile into a green car. Y, another witness, testifies that when he examined X's car later that day he noticed green paint on its fender.
For more information on this type of reasoning see [[casuistry]].
Another type of corroborating evidence comes from using the [[Baconian method]], i.e. the [[method of agreement]], [[Mill's Methods#Method of difference|method of difference]], and [[method of concomitant variations]].
These are followed in experimental design. They were codified by [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]], and developed further by [[John Stuart Mill]] and consist of controlling several variables in turn to establish which variables are causally connected. These principles are widely used intuitively in various kinds of proofs, demons |
epresented by [[Cantons of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina|cantons]]. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity consists of ten of them. All of them have their own cantonal government, which is under the law of the Federation as a whole. Some cantons are ethnically mixed and have special rules implemented to ensure the equality of all constituent peoples.
The fourth level of political division in Bosnia and Herzegovina are the municipalities. The country consists of 137 municipalities, of which 74 are in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and 63 in Republika Srpska. Municiaplities also have their own local government and are typically based around the most significant city or place in the region. Each canton consists of several municipalities. The municipalities themselves are further divided into local communities (locally: ''Mjesne zajednice/Мјесне заједнице''). Besides entities, cantons, and municipalities, Bosnia and Herzegovina also has four "official" cities. These are: [[Banja Luka]], [[Mostar]], Sarajevo, and [[East Sarajevo]]. The territory and government of the cities of Banja Luka and Mostar corresponds to the municipalities of the same name, while the cities of Sarajevo and East Sarajevo officially consist of several municipalities. Cities have their own city government whose power is in between that of the municipalities and cantons (or entities in Republika Srpska).
{{Political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
== Geography ==
[[Image:Bk-map.png|framed|Map of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
[[Image:Some_red_flower_in_Bosnia.JPG|right|thumb|Red flower from central Bosnia]]
[[Image:Mountins_in_Bosnia.JPG|right|thumb|Mountains in Bosnia, view of mountain Kik (right mountain) which is 1000m and Rance (Suvi Vrh) to the left 1432m]]
{{Main|Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
Bosnia is located in the western [[Balkans]], bordering [[Croatia]] to the north and south-west, and [[Serbia and Montenegro]] to the east. The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central [[Dinaric Alps]]. The northeastern parts reach into the [[Pannonian plain|Pannonian basin]], while in the south it almost borders the [[Adriatic]]. The country has only 23 Km of coastline, around the town of [[Neum]] in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton, although it's enclosed within Croatian territory and [[territorial waters]].
The country's name comes from the two regions [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]] and [[Herzegovina]], which have a very vaguely defined border between them. Bosnia occupies the northern areas which are roughly four fifths of the entire country, while Herzegovina occupies the rest in the south part of the country.
The major cities are the capital [[Sarajevo]], [[Banja Luka]] in the northwest region known as [[Bosanska Krajina]], [[Tuzla]] in the northeast and [[Mostar]], the capital of [[Herzegovina]].
{{See|List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
For the most part, [[agriculture]] has been in private hands, but farms have been small and inefficient, and food has traditionally been a net import for the republic. The centrally planned economy has resulted in some legacies in the economy. Industry is greatly overstaffed, reflecting the rigidity of the planned economy. Under [[Josip Broz Tito]], military industries were pushed in the republic; Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants.
Two major export companies in former Yugoslavia had theirs headquarters in the capital Sarajevo; [[UNIS holding]] and [[Energoinvest]].
During times of the former Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina financed many large construction projects in former Yugoslavia and in other former Yugoslav republics. An example of this was the [[Bratstvo i jedinstvo highway]], which linked [[Ljubljana]] (Slovenia) - [[Zagreb]] (Croatia) - [[Belgrade]] (Serbia) - [[Skoplje]] (Macedonia). Even though Bosnia did not have anything to gain from this investment, as not a single kilometer of the highway went through Bosnia and Herzegovina. Further projects, such as the construction of the so-called town of [[Novi Beograd|New Belgrade]] (Serbia), Kosovo financing, and railway tracks near Belgrade - Bar in Serbia and Montenegro. This was due to the fact that the economy of the time was communist; with directives instead of a free economy like that in the West. In [[1984]], the capital, Sarajevo, was the host of the [[1984 Winter Olympics|XIV Winter Olympic Games]]. A notable fact was that the games were the first 'profitable' games in terms of retrieving investment via profits.
Three years of war destroyed a large part of the economy and infrastructure in Bosnia and Herzegovina, causing unemployment to soar and production to fall. The war caused a death toll of approximately 102,000 people based on current information from researchers at the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]] (ICTY) at [[The Hague]]. Furthermore, it displaced half of the population. Other sources place the figure between 150,000 - 278,000. With an uneasy peace in place (under the [[Dayton Accord]]), the economy has started to slowly recover, but the GDP remains below the [[1990]] level. Today Bosnia and Herzegovina has one of the best banking sectors in former Yugoslavia. The currency ''[[Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark|Konvertibilna marka]]'' KM or Bosnian Mark BAM, fixed to the euro (1:0.51) is also very stable.
Yearly inflation is the lowest compared to other countries which were a part of former Yugoslavia. The inflation rate was 1.9% in 2004{{ref|Inflation}}, and international debt was approx. $2 billion; making it the smallest amount of debt owed from the former Yugoslav countries (Serbia and Montenegro's international debt is $15.2 billion). Real GDP growth rate is 5.0% for 2004 according to the Bosnian Central Bank of BiH and Statistical Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Top Foreign company investors in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1994-2004){{ref|Investors}}:
[[LNM Holding]] / [[KCIC Holland Antilles]] / [[Kuwait]] / [[Metal processing Hypo Alpe Adria Bank]] / [[Austria]] / [[Banking Unicredito]] / [[Transmadrid Italia]] / [[Spain]] / [[Banking Petrol]] / [[Slovenia]] / [[Trade Coca Cola Beverages Holdings]] / [[Holland]] / [[Food industry Deutsche Telekom]] / [[Germany]] / [[Telecommunication Heidelberger Zement]] / [[Germany]] / [[Construction materials Dubai I.B., A.I.B. and Islamic Development Bank]] / [[UAE]] and [[Saudi Arabia]] / [[Banking Alpha Baumanergement Gesellschaft]] / [[Austria]] / [[Tourism Bosmal]] / [[Malaysia-Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
==References==
{{note|Inflation}} CIA WFB
{{note|Investors}} B&H Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations (2005)
== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[Image:Ethnic Composition of BiH in 1991.gif|thumb|150px|right|Ethnic composition of Bosnia & Herzegovina in 1991. <br> ('''Click to enlarge image for details''')]]
[[Image:Ethnic Composition of BiH in 2005.GIF|thumb|150px|right|Ethnic composition of Bosnia & Herzegovina in 2005. <br> '''Green:''' Predominantly ethnic Bosniaks <br> '''Red:''' Predominantly ethnic Serbs <br> '''Blue:''' Predominantly ethnic Croats]]
Large population migrations durings the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s have caused a large demographic shift. No census was held since 1991 and is not planned for the near future due to political disagreements. Since censuses are the only statistical, inclusive, and objective way to analyze demographics, almost all of the post-war data is simply an estimate. Most sources, however, estimate the population at roughly 4 million (representing a decrease of 350,000 since 1991).
According to the 1991 census, Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,354,911. Ethnically, 43.7% were [[Bosniaks]], 31.3% [[Serbs]], and 17.3% [[Croats]], with 5.5% declaring themselves [[Yugoslavs]].
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, there is a strong correlation between ethnic identity and religion because 88% of Croats are [[Roman Catholic]]s, 90% of Bosniaks practice [[Islam]], and 93% of Serbs are [[Orthodox Christian]]s.
According to 2000 data from the [[CIA World Factbook]], Bosnia and Herzegovina is ethnically 48% [[Bosniaks|Bosniak]], 37.1% [[Serb]], 14.3% [[Croat]], 0.6% other.
Tensions between the three constitutional peoples remain high in Bosnia and often provoke political disagreements. Each of the three peoples are influential to roughly a same degree in Bosnia with [[Bosniaks]] being the most numerous, [[Serbs]] having their own entity and [[Croats]] being the wealthiest and economically the strongest.
== Education ==
{{Main|Education of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
As part of the former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]], Bosnia enjoyed a highly-developed educational system. This system not only encouraged study and higher education, but it also respected academic achievements. Two of Bosnia’s natives were awarded [[Nobel Prizes]] from this era: [[Vladimir Prelog]], for chemistry in [[1975]], and [[Ivo Andrić]], for literature in [[1961]]. This concentration of talent is remarkable in a country whose total population was severely depleted due to the diaspora of individuals fleeing during the recent war years. Bosnian college students abroad are good and recognized students; most of them attend universities in [[North America]] and other [[European]] countries.
The recent war created a “brain drain” and resulted in many [[Bosnians]] working in high-tech, academic and professional occupations in [[North America]], [[Europe]], and [[Australia]]. Such situation is viewed as an economic opportunity for building a vibrant economy in today’s Bosnia. However, only few of Bosnia’s diaspora are returning to Bosnia and Herzegovina with their experience, western education and exposure to modern business practices. Most still lack professional incentives to justify widesp |
ms through [[invagination]] of the endoderm, called enterocoelic pouching. Deuterostomes also have a dorsal, rather than a ventral, nerve chord and their embryos undergo different cleavage.
All this suggests the deuterostomes and protostomes are separate, monophyletic lineages. The main phyla of deuterostomes are the [[Echinodermata]] and [[Chordate|Chordata]]. The former are radially symmetric and exclusively marine, such as [[sea star]]s, [[sea urchin]]s, and [[sea cucumber]]s. The latter are dominated by the [[vertebrate]]s, animals with backbones. These include [[fish]], [[amphibian]]s, [[reptile]]s, [[bird]]s, and [[mammal]]s.
In addition to these, the deuterostomes also include the [[Hemichordata]] or acorn worms. Although they are not especially prominent today, the important fossil [[graptolite]]s may belong to this group. The [[Chaetognatha]] or arrow worms may also be deuterostomes, but this is less certain.
===Ecdysozoa===
[[Image:Sympetrum flaveolum - side (aka).jpg|thumb|the [[Yellow-winged Darter]]]]
The [[Ecdysozoa]] are protostomes, named after the common trait of growth by moulting or [[ecdysis]]. The largest animal phylum belongs here, the [[Arthropoda]], including [[insect]]s, [[spider]]s, [[crab]]s, and their kin. All these organisms have a body divided into repeating segments, typically with paired appendages. Two smaller phyla, the [[Onychophora]] and [[Tardigrada]], are close relatives of the arthropods and share these traits.
[[Image:roundworm.jpg|thumb|left|[[Roundworm]]]]
The ecdysozoans also include the [[Nematoda]] or roundworms, the second largest animal phylum. Roundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in nearly every environment where there is water. A number are important parasites. Smaller phyla related to them are the [[Nematomorpha]] or horsehair worms, which are visible to the unaided eye, and the [[Kinorhyncha]], [[Priapulida]], and [[Loricifera]], which are all microscopic. These groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom.
The remaining two groups of protostomes are sometimes grouped together as the Spiralia, since in both embryos develop with spiral cleavage.
[[Image:Bedford-s_flatworm.jpg|thumb|left|Bedford's [[Flatworm]]]]
===Platyzoa===
The [[Platyzoa]] include the phylum [[Platyhelminthes]], the flatworms. These were originally considered some of the most primitive Bilateria, but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors.
[[Image:Rotifer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Rotifer]]]]
A number of parasites are included in this group, such as the [[fluke]]s and [[tapeworm]]s. Flatworms lack a coelom, as do their closest relatives, the microscopic [[Gastrotricha]].
The other platyzoan phyla are microscopic and pseudocoelomate. The most prominent are the [[Rotifera]] or rotifers, which are common in aqueous environments. They also include the [[Acanthocephala]] or spiny-headed worms, the [[Gnathostomulida]], [[Micrognathozoa]], and possibly the [[Cycliophora]]. These groups share the presence of complex jaws, from which they are called the [[Gnathifera]].
===Lophotrochozoa===
[[Image:Reef2063.jpg|thumb|Big Blue [[Octopus]]]]
The [[Lophotrochozoa]] include two of the most successful animal phyla, the [[Mollusca]] and [[Annelida]]. The former includes animals such as [[snail]]s, [[clam]]s, and [[squid]]s, and the latter comprises the segmented worms, such as [[earthworm]]s and [[leech]]es. These two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of [[trochophore]] larvae, but the annelids were considered closer to the arthropods, because they are both segmented. Now this is generally considered convergent evolution, owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla.
The Lophotrochozoa also include the [[Nemertea]] or ribbon worms, the [[Sipuncula]], and several phyla that have a fan of cilia around the mouth, called a [[lophophore]]. These were traditionally grouped together as the lophophorates, but it now appears they are [[paraphyletic]], some closer to the Nemertea and some to the Mollusca and Annelida. They include the [[Brachiopoda]] or lamp shells, which are prominent in the fossil record, the [[Entoprocta]], the [[Phoronida]], and possibly the [[Bryozoa]] or moss animals.
==History of classification==
[[Image:Caerulea3 crop.jpg|thumb|left|[[White's Tree Frog]]]]
[[Image:Rød ræv (Vulpes vulpes).jpg|thumb|''Vulpes vulpes'', the [[red fox]]]]
[[Aristotle]] divided the living world between animals and [[plant]]s, and this was followed by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in the first hierarchical classification. Since then biologists have begun emphasizing evolutionary relationships, and so these groups have been restricted somewhat. For instance, microscopic [[protozoa]] were originally considered animals because they move, but are now treated separately.
In [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]' original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of [[Vermes]], [[Insect]]a, [[Fish|Pisces]], [[Amphibia]], [[bird|Aves]], and [[Mammal]]ia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the [[chordate|Chordata]], whereas the various other forms have been separated out. The above lists represent our current understanding of the group, though there is some variation from source to source.
==Usage of the word ''animal''==
In everyday usage ''animal'' refers to any member of the [[animal kingdom]] that is not a [[human being]], and sometimes excludes [[insects]] (although including such arthropods as crabs). This confusion stems primarily from the familiarity with zoo animals, farm animals and pets, not from an analytical distinction between insects, humans and the rest of the animal kingdom.
==Examples==
{{see also|List of animal names}}
Some well-known types of animals, listed by their common names:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-5}}
*[[aardvark]]
*[[afghan hound]]
*[[albatross]]
*[[alligator]]
*[[alpaca]]
*[[anaconda]]
*[[angelfish]]
*[[anglerfish]]
*[[ant]]
*[[antlion]]
*[[anteater]]
*[[antelope]]
*[[ape]]
*[[aphid]]
*[[armadillo]]
*[[arrow crab]]
*[[asp]]
*[[donkey|ass]]
*[[baboon]]
*[[badger (animal)|badger]]
*[[bald eagle]]
*[[bandicoot]]
*[[barnacle]]
*[[common Basilisk|basilisk]]
*[[barracuda]]
*[[bass (fish)|bass]]
*[[basset hound]]
*[[bat]]
*[[bear]]
*[[beaver]]
*[[bed bug]]
*[[bee]]
*[[beetle]]
*[[bird]]
*[[bison]]
*[[blackbird]]
*[[black panther]]
*[[black widow]]
*[[blue jay]]
*[[blue whale]]
*[[boa]]
*[[bobcat]]
*[[bobolink]]
*[[booby]]
*[[Box jellyfish]]
*[[Boston Terrier|boston terrier]]
*[[bovid]]
*[[bison|buffalo]]
*[[bug]]
*[[bulldog]]
*[[Bull Terrier|bull terrier]]
*[[butterfly]]
*[[buzzard]]
*[[camel]]
*[[canid]]
*[[cape buffalo]]
*[[cardinal (bird)]]
*[[caribou]]
*[[carp]]
*[[cat]]
*[[caterpillar]]
*[[catfish]]
*[[centipede]]
*[[cephalopod]]
*[[chameleon]]
*[[cheetah]]
*[[chickadee]]
*[[chicken]]
*[[chihuahua]]
*[[chimpanzee]]
*[[chinchilla]]
*[[chipmunk]]
*[[clam]]
*[[clownfish]]
*[[cobra]]
*[[cockroach]]
*[[cod]]
*[[collie]]
*[[condor]]
*[[constrictor]]
*[[coral]]
*[[cougar]]
*[[coyote]]
{{col-5}}
*[[cattle|cow]]
*[[crab]]
*[[crane (bird)|crane]]
*[[crane fly]]
*[[crawdad]]
*[[crayfish]]
*[[cricket (insect)|cricket]]
*[[crocodile]]
*[[crow]]
*[[cuckoo]]
*[[daddy longlegs]]
*[[damselfly]]
*[[deer]]
*[[dingo]]
*[[dinosaur]]
*[[dog]]
*[[dolphin]]
*[[donkey]]
*[[dormouse]]
*[[dove]]
*[[dragonfly]]
*[[duck]]
*[[dung beetle]]
*[[eagle]]
*[[earthworm]]
*[[earwig]]
*[[eel]]
*[[egret]]
*[[elephant]]
*[[Elephant Seal]]
*[[Red Deer|elk]]
*[[emu]]
*[[English Pointer|english pointer]]
*[[English Setter|english setter]]
*[[ermine]]
*[[falcon]]
*[[ferret]]
*[[finch]]
*[[firefly]]
*[[fish]]
*[[flamingo]]
*[[flea]]
*[[fly]]
*[[flyingfish]]
*[[fowl]]
*[[fox]]
*[[frog]]
*[[fruit bat]]
*[[gazelle]]
*[[gecko]]
*[[gerbil]]
*[[German Shepherd Dog|german shepherd]]
*[[giant panda]]
*[[giant squid]]
*[[gibbon]]
*[[gila monster]]
*[[guanaco]]
*[[guineafowl]]
*[[giraffe]]
*[[goat]]
*[[golden retriever]]
*[[goldfinch]]
*[[goldfish]]
*[[goose]]
*[[gopher]]
*[[gorilla]]
*[[grasshopper]]
*[[great blue heron]]
*[[great dane]]
*[[great white shark]]
*[[greyhound]]
*[[grizzly bear]]
*[[grouse]]
*[[guinea pig]]
*[[gull]]
*[[guppy]]
*[[haddock]]
*[[halibut]]
*[[hammerhead shark]]
*[[hamster]]
*[[hare]]
*[[harrier (bird)|harrier]]
*[[hawk]]
{{col-5}}
*[[hedgehog]]
*[[hermit crab]]
*[[heron]]
*[[herring]]
*[[hippopotamus]]
*[[hookworm]]
*[[hornet]]
*[[horse]]
*[[hound]]
*[[human]]
*[[hummingbird]]
*[[humpback whale]]
*[[husky]]
*[[hyena]]
*[[iguana]]
*[[impala]]
*[[insect]]
*[[Irish Setter|irish setter]]
*[[Irish Wolfhound|irish wolfhound]]
*[[Irukandji jellyfish]]
*[[jackal]]
*[[jaguar]]
*[[jay]]
*[[jellyfish]]
*[[kangaroo]]
*[[kangaroo mouse]]
*[[kangaroo rat]]
*[[kingfisher]]
*[[kite (bird)|kite]]
*[[kiwi]]
*[[koala]]
*[[koi]]
*[[komodo dragon]]
*[[krill]]
*[[labrador retriever]]
*[[ladybug]]
*[[lamprey]]
*[[lark]]
*[[leech]]
*[[lemming]]
*[[lemur]]
*[[leopard]]
*[[leopon]]
*[[liger]]
*[[lion]]
*[[lizard]]
*[[llama]]
*[[lobster]]
*[[locust]]
*[[loon]]
*[[louse]]
*[[lungfish]]
*[[lynx]]
*[[macaw]]
*[[mackerel]]
*[[magpie]]
*[[mammal]]
*[[manta ray]]
*[[marlin]]
*[[marmoset]]
*[[marmot]]
*[[marsupial]]
*[[marten]]
*[[mastiff]]
*[[meadowlark]]
*[[meerkat]]
*[[mink]]
*[[minnow]]
*[[mite]]
*[[mockingbird]]
*[[mole]]
*[[mollusk]]
*[[mongoose]]
*[[monitor lizard]]
*[[monkey]]
*[[moose]]
*[[mosquito]]
*[[moth]]
*[[mountain goat]]
*[[mouse]]
*[[mule]]
*[[muskox]]
*[[mussel]]
{{col-5}}
*[[narwhal]]
*[[newt]]
*[[nightingale]]
*[[ocelot]]
*[[octopus]]
*[[Old English Sheepdog|old english sheepdog]]
*[[opossum]]
*[[orangutan]]
*[[orca]]
*[[ostrich]]
*[[otter]]
*[[owl]]
*[[ox]]
*[[oyster]]
*[[panda]]
*[[panther]]
*[[panthera hybrid]]
*[[parakeet]]
*[[parrot]]
*[[parrotfish]]
*[[partridge]]
*[[peacock]]
*[[peafowl]]
*[[pekingese]]
*[[pelican]]
*[[penguin]]
*[[perch]]
*[[Peregrine Falcon|peregrine falcon]]
*[[persian (cat)|persia |
ge overlap with [[molecular physics]]. Physical chemistry involves the use of [[calculus]] in deriving equations.
*[[Theoretical chemistry]] is the study of chemistry via theoretical reasoning (usually within [[mathematics]] or [[physics]]). In particular the application of [[quantum mechanics]] to chemistry is called [[quantum chemistry]]. Since the end of the second world war, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of [[computational chemistry]], which is the art of developing and applying [[computer program]]s for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with [[molecular physics]].
{{BranchesofChemistry}}
All the above major areas of chemistry need chemists. Other fields requiring chemists are [[Astrochemistry]], [[Atmospheric chemistry]], [[Chemical Engineering]], [[Chemo-informatics]], [[Electrochemistry]], [[Geochemistry]], [[Green chemistry]], [[History of chemistry]], [[Materials science]], [[Molecular Biology]], [[Molecular genetics]], [[Nuclear chemistry]], [[Organometallic chemistry]], [[Petrochemistry]], [[Pharmacology]], [[Photochemistry]], [[Phytochemistry]], [[Polymer chemistry]], [[Supramolecular chemistry]], [[Surface chemistry]] and [[nanotechnology]].
==History==
:''Main article: [[History of chemistry]]''
The word ''chemist'' is a [[Corruption (linguistics)|corruption]] of the [[New Latin]] [[noun]] ''chimista'', an [[abbreviation]] of ''alchimista'' ([[Alchemy|alchemist]]).
The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of [[combustion|burning]]. [[Fire]] was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of [[iron]] and [[glass]]. After [[gold]] was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the [[protoscience]] called [[Alchemy]]. Alchemists discovered many chemical [[processes]] that led to the development of modern chemistry. Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by [[Antoine Lavoisier]] with his law of [[Conservation of mass]] in 1783. The [[discoveries of the chemical elements]] has a long history culminating in the creation of the [[periodic table]] by [[Dmitri Mendeleyev]]. The [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery in the past 100 years.
==See also==
{{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Chemistry}}
*[[List of chemistry topics]]
*[[List of chemists]]
*[[List of publications in chemistry]]
*[[List of scientific journals in chemistry]]
*[[:Category:Chemistry societies|List of Chemistry Societies]]
==References==
*[http://www.chemistry.org/ American Chemical Society] website
*[http://www.cas.org/ Chemical Abstracts Service] indexes and abstracts the world's chemistry-related literature and patents
*[http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos049.htm Chemists and Materials Scientists] from the U.S. Department of Labor's ''Occupational Outlook Handbook''
*[http://www.rsc.org/ Royal Society of Chemistry] website
*[http://www.liv.ac.uk/Chemistry/Links/refhistory.html History of Chemistry] links for chemists
*[http://pubs.acs.org/journals/luminaries/ Luminaries of the Chemical Sciences] accomplishments, biography, and publications from 44 of the most influential chemists
*[http://jobs.strategy-blogs.com/Chemists-and-Materials-Scientists.html Occupational Analysis for Chemists]
*[http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/papers.html Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry]
[[Category:Chemists|*]]
[[bg:&#1061;&#1080;&#1084;&#1080;&#1082;]]
[[ca:Químic]]
[[de:Chemiker]]
[[eo:Kemiisto]]
[[fr:chimiste]]
[[he:&#1499;&#1497;&#1502;&#1488;&#1497;]]
[[ja:&#21270;&#23398;&#32773;]]
[[nl:scheikundige]]
[[vi:Nhà hóa h&#7885;c]]
[[simple:Chemist]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cypress Hill</title>
<id>5637</id>
<revision>
<id>41396981</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:32:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>La Pizza11</username>
<id>381379</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Discography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cypress Hill''' is a [[latin rap|latin]]-[[american hip hop|american]] [[hip hop]] group from [[Los Angeles]]. It was founded in 1988 and has sold up to 17 million records worldwide by 2006.
The group consists of [[DJ Muggs]] (Lawrence Muggerud, DJ and producer, (*28. January 1968), [[B-Real]] (Louis Freese, Rapper, (*2. June 1970), [[Sen Dog]] (Senen Reyes, Rapper, *20. November 1965) and [[Bobo]] (Eric Correa, Percussionist (*27. August 1968, became a member in 1994). One aspect their [[popularity]] is their commitment to the [[legalisation]] of [[Cannabis]] consumption.
==Name of the band==
The name Cypress Hill refers to the place where the first members of the band have lived, who grew up mostly in [[Cypress Avenue]] in [[South Gate, California|South Gate]], [[Los Angeles]].
==Early career==
Their first [[album (music)|album]], which was self-titled, was released in [[November]] 1991. Its single was "Phuncky Feel One," but it was the B-side "How I Could Just Kill a Man" (formerly "Trigga Happy Nigga") that attracted more airplay on urban radio and [[college radio]]. Based on the success of the single and other tracks such as bilingual track "Latin Lingo" and [[X-rated]] [[Spanish language|Spanish]] track "Tres equis", the album sold two million copies. Subsequently, DJ Muggs produced [[House of Pain]]'s first album, then working with the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Funkdoobiest]]. The band made their first appearance at [[Lollapalooza]] on the side stage in [[1992]].
''[[Black Sunday (album)|Black Sunday]]'', the group's second album, [[debut album|debut]]ed at number one on the [[Billboard 200]] in [[1993]], recording the highest [[Soundscan]] for a rap group up until that time. With "Insane in the Brain" becoming a crossover hit, the album went double platinum in the [[United States|U.S.]] and sold 3.25 million albums.
As one of the first rappers fighting for the legalization of [[marijuana]], Cypress Hill was banned from [[Saturday Night Live]] after Muggs smoked a [[joint]] of marijuana and the band trashed their instruments while playing their second single "I Ain't Goin' Out Like That". The band headlined the "Soul Assassins" tour with [[House of Pain]] and [[Funkdoobiest]] as support, then performed on a college tour with [[Rage Against the Machine]] and [[Seven Year Bitch]]. In 1993, Cypress Hill also had two tracks on the ''[[Judgment Night (movie)|Judgment Night]]'' soundtrack, teamed up with [[Pearl Jam]] and [[Sonic Youth]].
The band played at the [[1994]] [[Woodstock Festival]] introducing their new member Eric Bobo who was formerly a percussionist with the Beastie Boys. Bobo is the son of famous [[salsa (music)|salsa]] musician [[Willie Bobo]]. Muggs, when asked about the new member, said: "As Latinos we thought it would be a good idea to build in some of this [[latin jazz]] flavor." [[Rolling Stone]] Magazine named the band as the best rap group in their music awards voted by critics and readers. Cypress Hill played at Lollapalooza for two successive years topping the bill in [[1995]]. They appeared on an episode of "[[The Simpsons]]" in which [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] becomes a performer at a freak show appearing on a tour similar to Lollapalooza.
Their third album ''III (Temples of Boom)'' was released in 1995 selling 1.5 million copies and reaching number 3 on the Billboard 200 despite not having a hit single. Cypress Hill also contributed a track "I Wanna Get High" to the [[High Times]] sponsored "[[Hempilation]]" album to support [[NORML]].
==Continued career==
Sen took a break from the band to form punk-rap band [[SX-10]]. Meanwhile in 1996, Cypress Hill appeared on the first [[Smokin' Grooves]] tour, featuring [[Ziggy Marley]], [[the Fugees]], [[Busta Rhymes]] and [[A Tribe Called Quest]]. The band also released a nine track EP ''[[Unreleased and Revamped]]'' with rare mixes.
In [[1997]], band members focused on their solo careers. Muggs released ''[[Muggs Presents ... the Soul Assassins]]'' featuring contributions from [[Wu-Tang Clan]] members, [[Dr. Dre]], [[KRS-One]], [[Wyclef Jean]] and [[Mobb Deep]]. B-Real appeared with Busta Rhymes, [[Coolio]], [[L.L. Cool J]] and [[Method Man]] on "Hit Em High" from the multi-platinum ''[[Space Jam]] Soundtrack.'' He also appeared with RBX, [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] and KRS-One on "East Coast Killer, West Coast Killer" on Dr. Dre's ''[[Dr. Dre presents...The Aftermath]]'' album, and released an album entitled "[[The Psycho Realm]]" from his side project of the same name. Through the focus that year was not on Cypress Hill, the band played Smokin' Grooves with [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]] and [[Erykah Badu]].He also was part of a rap metal band with one of the guitarists from Fear Factory called "Kush"
Cypress Hill released ''IV'' in [[1998]] which went gold in the U.S. on the backs of hit single "Tequila Sunrise" and another tribute to smoking marijuana "Dr. Greenthumb." Sen Dog also released the ''Get Wood'' sampler as part of SX-10 on Jordan Schur's Flip label.
In [[1999]], Cypress Hill helped with the [[Personal computer|PC]] crime/very mature video game ''Kingpin: Life Of Crime''. 3 of their songs from the [[1998]] ''IV'' album were in the game. B-Real also did some of the voices of the people in the game.
Also in [[1999]], the band released a greatest-hits album in Spanish, ''[[Los grandes éxitos en español]]''. Cypress Hill then fused genres with their two-[[compact disc|disc]] release, ''Skull & Bones'', in [[2000]]. The first disc, "Skull&quo |
a major force in [[Ireland]]. In [[1963]] the U.S President [[John F. Kennedy]] visited Ireland. In [[1966]] free secondary education was announced by the Minister for Education, [[Donagh O'Malley]].
During this term Lemass began a new policy of reconciliation with [[Northern Ireland]]. On [[9 January]] [[1965]] Lemass travelled to [[Stormont]] in great secrecy for talks with [[Prime Minister of Northern Ireland]] [[Terence O'Neill]]. In February O'Neill returned the compliment and visited Lemass in [[Dublin]]. Later meetings between ministers from both sides of the border became more frequent. Unfortunately, the lavish celebrations for the 50th anniversary of the [[Easter Rising]] in [[1966]] offended many [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]].
In November [[1966]] Lemass announced his resignation as leader and [[Taoiseach]]. After fifty years serving Ireland and its people the founding fathers, [[Seán Lemass]], [[Seán MacEntee]] and [[James Ryan]], who had dominated Irish politics for so long, left the stage of history. After their departure a new breed of politics and politician was developing. This can be seen in the leadership race to succeed Lemass as Taoiseach.
===Lynch 1966-1979===
[[Jack Lynch]] was elected the third leader of Fianna Fáil and Taoiseach on [[November 10]], [[1966]]. [[Frank Aiken]], the long-serving Minister for Foreign Affairs and the only surviving member from de Valera's first Cabinet, was appointed [[Tánaiste]]. During Lynch's first term as Taoiseach he faced several crises which were unprecedented. In [[1969]] [[the Troubles]] broke out in [[Northern Ireland]]. Lynch was determined that the violence would not spread to the Republic and cause a civil war. At the height of the violence he made a famous speech on [[RTÉ]] saying that the ''[Irish] government could no longer stand by and watch innocent people be injured or perhaps worse.'' Many thought that the Republic was about to invade the North, and contingency plans were drawn up by the [[Irish Army]] to take [[Derry]] and [[Newry]]. These were never implemented, as it was believed that to invade the North would have triggered the slaughter of countless [[Catholics]] at the hands of their heavily-armed [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionist]] neighbours. Lynch was mostly successful in confining the violence to Northern Ireland. He also established centres to process Catholic refugees.
The following year ([[1970]]) Lynch discovered that two government ministers, [[Charles Haughey]] and [[Neil Blaney]], had apparently become involved in a plot to import arms for use by the [[Provisional IRA]]. Both men were sacked from the Cabinet in what became known as the ''[[Arms Crisis]]''. Later Haughey and Blaney were arrested and put on trial, however, both were acquitted. The crisis led to deep division within Fianna Fáil for some time.
On [[1 January]] [[1973]] Ireland officially became a member of the [[EEC]]. This was one of the major achievements of Lynch's terms as [[Taoiseach]] and one which was started by Lemass over ten years earlier. Following the [[Irish General Election, 1973]] Fianna Fáil found themselves in opposition. It was the first change of government for sixteen years. The [[Fine Gael]]-[[Labour Party (Ireland)|Labour]] coalition lasted for four years.
In the [[Irish General Election, 1977]] Fianna Fáil won its biggest ever election victory with a majority of twenty seats. The reasons for its huge victory were the populist economic policies it put forward, the dissatisfaction with the Coalition, the huge popularity of Lynch as leader, and the attempted [[gerrymander]] of many constituencies by Minister Tully. However after two years the government grew more and more unpopular. Poor results in the European elections and two by-elections added to the pressure on Lynch and he resigned on [[5 December]] [[1979]]. Two days later a two-horse [[Fianna Fáil leadership election, 1979|leadership race]] between [[George Colley]] and [[Charles Haughey]] developed.
===Haughey 1979-1992===
[[Image:Charles J. Haughey.jpg|thumb|left|Charles J. Haughey was the fourth leader of Fianna Fáil (1979-1992). He served as [[Taoiseach]] on three occasions.]]
Nine years after the 'Arms Crisis' nearly ended his career [[Charles J. Haughey]] was elected the fourth leader of Fianna Fáil and Taoiseach. Haughey's first term as [[Taoiseach]] was dominated by economic problems. Ireland's economy was in a poor state following the oil crisis and foreign debt was spiralling out of control. In the [[Irish General Election, 1981]] Fianna Fáil received its worst result in twenty years. Haughey and Fianna Fáil found themselves in opposition.
[[1982]]/[[1983]] was an extraordinary period for Irish politics. Two general elections were held and there were three attempts to overthrow Haughey as leader of Fianna Fáil. In the [[Irish General Election, 1982 (February)]] Haughey again failed to win a majority. Several [[Teachta Dála|TD]]s led by [[Desmond O'Malley]] challenged Haughey for the leadership but backed down on the day of the vote. Haughey was elected [[Taoiseach]] with the help of Independent TDs. In October another attempt to oust Haughey was initiated by [[Charlie McCreevy]]. This time the issue was put to a vote but Haughey won easily when an open vote was held. Following the [[Irish General Election, 1982 (November)]] Fianna Fáil lost power and another leadership battle loomed in Fianna Fáil. In February 1983 another challenge to overthrow Haughey was made. This time a secret ballot was held but the result was practically the same, 40 votes to 33 in favour of Haughey. Fianna Fáil then spent four years in opposition.
Following the [[Irish General Election, 1987]] Fianna Fáil returned to power but had failed to gain an overall majority. Haughey was narrowly elected [[Taoiseach]]. During this term as Taoiseach Haughey concentrated mostly on economic issues, trying to turn around the country's fiscal situation. By that time, Ireland was the sick man of [[Western Europe]] and barely escaped having the [[IMF]] take over the economy. In [[1989]] Haughey tried to pull off what would have been his greatest achievement. He called an early general election in the hope of gaining an overall majority. However, instead of gaining seats Fianna Fáil lost seats and was forced to form a coalition with the [[Progressive Democrats]], a political offshoot, to stay in power. Fianna Fáil had always ruled out coalition government beforehand, and many in the party were unhappy with Haughey's volte-face. This marked the beginning of the end for Haughey.
Following the [[Irish presidential election, 1990]] Haughey was forced to sack his [[Tánaiste]] and long-time friend, [[Brian Lenihan]]. In [[1991]] Haughey faced a leadership challenge from [[Albert Reynolds]]. This challenge was unsuccessful, however it showed that Haughey was losing his grip on the party. In [[1992]] [[Seán Doherty]] placed Haughey at the centre of a scandal regarding the tapping of two journalists telephones ten years earlier. Haughey had always maintained that he knew nothing about this, but Doherty publicly stated otherwise. This time Haughey's luck had run out and he resigned. [[Albert Reynolds]], who had challenged Haughey in [[1991]], emerged as the new leader of Fianna Fail and [[Taoiseach]].
===Reynolds 1992-1994===
On [[11 February]] [[1992]] Albert Reynolds was elected Taoiseach. After receiving his seal of office from President [[Mary Robinson]] he announced his new Cabinet. Reynolds sacked eight members of Haughey's last administration including [[Gerard Collins]] and [[Ray Burke]]. Reynolds cabinet contained many new faces and left much of the 'old guard' out in the cold. Reynolds had hoped to continue in coalition with the [[Progressive Democrats]], however, following the [[Beef Tribunal]] the PDs withdrew from government and an election was called.
When the results of the [[Irish General Election, 1992]] came in it was clear that both Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael had done badly. Labour achieved their best ever result with 33 seats. After negotiations Fianna Fáil entered into a coalition with the [[Irish Labour Party]]. [[Dick Spring]] of Labour took on the important roles of [[Tánaiste]] and Minister for Foreign Affairs.
One of the most important components of Reynolds period as Taoiseach was the [[Northern Ireland peace process]]. Reynolds had favoured allowing [[Irish republicanism|republicans]] into mainstream politics if they renounced violence. Negotiations had been going on between [[John Hume]] and [[Gerry Adams]] for some time and Reynolds now approached his British counterpart, [[John Major]]. On [[15 December]] [[1993]] the [[Downing Street Declaration]] was signed between both governments. This agreement paved the way for an [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] ceasefire in [[1994]]. This was one of the most important achievements of Reynolds' short term.
In [[1994]] Reynolds and Spring had a disagreement over an appointment of a judge to the Irish Supreme Court. Both men wanted to appoint someone different and both had their own reasons for doing so, with Reynolds approach to the whole affair causing concern among those who believed in appointing the best qualified candidate. Eventually this disagreement led to the end of Reynolds' period as Taoiseach and he resigned in November [[1994]]. The new leader to emerge was the then Minister for Finance [[Bertie Ahern]].
===Ahern 1994-present===
On [[19 November]] [[1994]] Bertie Ahern was elected the sixth and youngest leader of Fianna Fáil. Ahern was poised to become [[Taoiseach]] and continue in coalition with [[Irish Labour Party|Labour]]. However the day before the government was to return [[Dick Spring]] called off the deal and the coalition ended. Instead Labour helped form a new government lead by [[Fine Gael]]. Ahern now found himself as leader of the opposition, a position which he hadn't anticipated. Followi |
stvér''
|-
|sister||''húg''||''nővér''<br>(obs. ''néne'')||''nővér''
|}
(The original word for "elder sister" has become obsolete, and has been replaced by the generic word for "sister".)
Besides, separate prefixes exist for up to the 5th ancestors and descendants:
{| class="wikitable"
|parent||grandparent||great-<br>grandparent||great-great-<br>grandparent||great-great-great-<br>grandparent
|-
||''szülő''||''nagyszülő''||''dédszülő''||''ükszülő''||''szépszülő''<br>(OR ''ük-ükszülő'')
|-
|child||grandchild||great-<br>grandchild||great-great-<br>grandchild||great-great-great-<br>grandchild
|-
|''gyer(m)ek''||''unoka''||''dédunoka''||''ükunoka''||''szépunoka''<br>(OR ''ük-ükunoka'')
|}
On the other hand, no lexical items exist for "son" and "daughter", but the words for "boy" and "girl" are applied with possessive suffixes. Nevertheless, the terms are differentiated with different declension or lexemes:
{| class="wikitable"
| ||boy/girl||(his/her)<br>son/daughter||(his/her)<br>boy/girl (-friend)
|-
|male||''fiú''||''fia''||''fiúja''<br>''barátja'' (boyfriend)
|-
|female||''lány''||''lánya''||''csaja'' (slang, "her girl", taken from the Gypsy language)<br>''barátnője'' (girlfriend)
|}
==Writing system==
For more information see also [[Hungarian alphabet]].
Hungarian is written using a variant of the [[Latin alphabet]], and has a [[phoneme|phonemic]] orthography, i.e. pronunciation can generally be predicted from the written language. In addition to the standard letters of the Latin alphabet, Hungarian uses several additional letters. These include letters with acute accents ''(á,é,í,ó,ú)'' which represent long vowels, with umlauts (''ö'' and ''ü'') and their long counterparts ''ő'' and ''ű''. Sometimes ''ô'' or ''õ'' is used for ''ő'' and ''û'' for ''ű'', due to the limitations of the [[ISO 8859-1|Latin-1 / ISO-8859-1 codepage]], though these are not part of the Hungarian language. Hungarian can be properly represented with the [[ISO 8859-2|Latin-2 / ISO-8859-2 codepage]], but this codepage is not always available. (Hungarian is the only language using both ''ő'' and ''ű''.) Of course, [[Unicode]] includes them, and they therefore can be used on the Internet.
For a complete table of the pronunciation of the Hungarian alphabet, see [[:hu:X-SAMPA Magyar nyelvhez|the X-SAMPA description in the Hungarian Wikipedia]] (in Hungarian, but the table is obvious), which transliterates Hungarian letters into [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]] characters.
Additionally, the letter pairs &lt;ny&gt;, &lt;ty&gt;, and &lt;gy&gt; represent the palatal consonants {{IPA|/&#626;/}}, {{IPA|/c/}}, and {{IPA|/&#607;/}} (a little like the "dy" sound in British "''du''ke" or American "woul''d y''ou").
Hungarian uses &lt;s&gt; for {{IPA|/&#643;/}} and &lt;sz&gt; for /s/, which is the reverse of [[Polish language|Polish]]. <zs> is {{IPA|/&#658;/}} and &lt;cs&gt; is {{IPA|/&#679;/}}. All these digraphs are considered single letters. <ly> is also a "single letter digraph", but is pronounced like /j/ (English &lt;y&gt;), and mostly appears in old words. More exotic letters are &lt;dz&gt; and &lt;dzs&gt; {{IPA|/&#676;/}}. They are hard to find even in a longer text. Examples are ''madzag'' ("string"), ''edzeni'' ("to train (athletically)") and ''dzsungel'' ("jungle").
Single R's are tapped, like the Spanish "pero"; Double R's and initial R's are trilled, like the Spanish "perro".
Hungarian distinguishes between long and short vowels, where the long vowels are written with acutes, and between long consonants and short consonants, where the long consonants are written double. The digraphs, when doubled, become trigraphs: <sz>+<sz>=<ssz>, but when wrapping a line, all letters are written out:
:... ''busz-''
:''szal''...
Usually a trigraph is a double digraph, but there are a few exceptions: ''tizennyolc'' "eighteen" is ''tizen'' + ''nyolc''. There are doubling minimal pairs: ''tol'' (''push'') vs. ''toll'' (''feather'' or ''pen'').
While it seems unusual to English speakers at first, once one learns the new orthography and pronunciations, written Hungarian is nearly totally phonemic.
==Name order==
The Hungarian language uses the so-called eastern [[Personal name#Name order|name order]], in which the [[family name]] comes first and the [[given name]] comes last. However, as a rule, names are represented in the western name order when used in foreign languages. Thus for example [[Edward Teller]], the Hungarian-born physicist, is known in Hungary as '''Teller Ede'''.
On the other hand, western names retain their order when used in Hungarian. Therefore:
*''Kiss János'', amikor Los Angelesben járt, látta ''John Travoltát''.
translates to
*When ''János Kiss''{{ref|nametr}} was in Los Angeles, he saw ''John Travolta''.
'''Note:'''
{{note|nametr}} or ''John Kiss''. While common prior to the 20<sup>th</sup> century, given names are usually not translated into English.
See also: [[Hungarian name]].
==Examples==
When a word has its own stress (rather than clinging on the previous ones), it is practically always placed on the first syllable in Hungarian.
*Hungarian (person, language): ''magyar'' {{IPA|[mɑɟʝɑr]}}
*hello: ''szia'' {{IPA|[siɑ]}} (informal) (sounds almost exactly like American "see ya") But you only say this to people that you know well. When you address a stranger you use the more formal "good day": ''jó napot (kívánok)'' {{IPA|[joːnɑpot]}}
*good-bye: ''viszontlátásra'' (formal) (see above), ''viszlát'' {{IPA|[vislaːt]}} (semi informal)
*please: ''kérem (szépen)'' {{IPA|[keːrɛm seːpɛn]}} (This literally means "I ask (it) well". See next for a more common form of the polite request)
*I would like ____, please: ''Szeretnék ____'' {{IPA|[sɛrɛtneːk]}} (This example illustrates the use of the [[conditional tense]], as a common form of a polite request)
*sorry: ''bocsánat'' {{IPA|[botʃaːnɑt]}}
*thank you: ''köszönöm'' {{IPA|[køsønøm]}}
*that/this: ''az'' {{IPA|[ɑz]}} ''ez''{{IPA|[ɛz]}}
*how much?: ''mennyi?'' {{IPA|[mɛɲɲi]}}
*how much does it cost?: ''mennyibe kerül?'' {{IPA|[mɛɲɲibe kɛryl]}}
*yes: ''igen'' {{IPA|[iɡɛn]}}
*no: ''nem'' {{IPA|[nɛm]}}
*I don't understand: ''nem értem'' {{IPA|[nɛm eːrtɛm]}}
*I don't know: ''nem tudom'' {{IPA|[nɛm tudom]}}
*Where's the toilet?: ''Hol van a vécé?'' {{IPA|[hol vɑn ɑ veːtseː]}} (vécé/veːtseː is the Hungarian pronouncation of the English abbreviation of "Water Closet"), more polite (and word-for-word) version ''Hol van a mosdó?'' {{IPA|[hol vɑn ɑ moʃdoː]}}
*generic toast: ''egészségedre!'' {{IPA|[ɛɡeːsʃeːɡɛdrɛ]}}
*juice: ''gyümölcslé'' {{IPA|[ɟʝymøltʃleː]}}
*water: ''víz'' {{IPA|[viːz]}}
*wine: ''bor'' {{IPA|[bor]}}
*beer: ''sör'' {{IPA|[ʃør]}}
*tea: ''tea'' {{IPA|[tɛɑ]}}
*milk: ''tej'' {{IPA|[tej]}}
*Do you speak English?: ''Beszél angolul?'' {{IPA|[bɛseːl ɑnɡolul]}}
*I love you: ''szeretlek'' {{IPA|[sɛrɛtlɛk]}}
*Help!: ''Segítség!'' {{IPA|[ʃɛɡiːtʃeːɡ]}}
==Reactions==
===Marc Martin===
The book ''Járt utat kétszer járj'' ("Tread twice the trodden path",
ISBN 9633675820) was published in 2004, a sultry declaration of love for the Hungarian language, written by a native Frenchman, a translator, Marc Martin. (His name is given on the cover in the Hungarianized form, ''Martin Márk''.) He first met the language through a record of [[Bluebeard's Castle]] by [[Béla Bartók|Bartók]]. The back cover dedication was written by [[Péter Nádas]] (whose novel ''A Book of Memories'' he had translated into French). The "trodden path" refers to his original life, family, neighbourhood, which he wanted to break away from, by being re-born into a new life and a new language.
== Controversy over origins==
Mainstream linguistics holds that Hungarian is part of the Uralic family of languages, related ultimately to languages such as [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Nenets language|Nenets]]. However, there exist various alternative speculations about the origins of the Hungarian language, even fanciful ideas about Hungarian being derived from the [[Sumerian language]], but these are dismissed by linguists owing to a lack of evidence:
* Hungarian has often been claimed to be related to [[Hunnic language|Hunnish]], since Hungarian legends and histories show close ties between the two peoples. (although the name "Hunor" can also show a link with Khanti.) Some people believe that the [[Székely]], a part of the Hungarians living in Romania, are descended from the [[Huns]]. However, the link with Hunnish is uncertain, and it is not even known which languages the Huns spoke.
* For many years (from [[1869]]), it was matter of dispute whether Hungarian was a Finno-Ugric/Uralic language, or was more closely related to the [[Turkic languages]], a controversy known as the "Ugric-Turkish war". Hungarians did absorb some Turkic influences during several centuries of co-habitation. For example, it appears that the Hungarians learned animal breeding techniques from the Turkic [[Chuvash]], as a high proportion of words specific to agriculture and livestock are of Chuvash origin. There was also a strong Chuvash influence in burial customs. Furthermore, all Ugric languages, not just Hungarian, have Turkic loanwords related to horse riding. Nonetheless, the science of linguistics shows that the basic wordstock and morphological patterns of the Hungarian language are solidly based on a Uralic heritage.
== See also ==
*[[wikibooks:Hungarian| Wikibooks - Learn Hungarian]]
*[[Hungarian grammar]]
*[[Hungarian alphabet]]
*[[H |
.com/wireless/bluetooth/ Bluetooth Tutorial] Includes information on Architecture, Protocols, Establishing Connections, Security and Comparisons
*[http://www.palowireless.com/bluetooth Palowireless Bluetooth Resource Center]
*[http://www.btnode.ethz.ch BTnodes &#8211; A Distributed Environment for Prototyping Ad Hoc Networks] A demonstration platform for research in mobile, ad-hoc networks and distributed sensor networks
*[http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/context/1174778/0 Mapping Salutation Architecture APIs to Bluetooth Service Discovery Layer]
*[https://www.bluetooth.org/ Bluetooth.org — The Official Bluetooth Membership Site]
*[http://www.bluetooth.com/upload/24Security_Paper.PDF Bluetooth&#8482; Security White Paper]
*[http://www.windowsecurity.com/articles/Bluetooth-Security-Threat.html Bluetooth: Is it a Security Threat?]
*[http://people.csail.mit.edu/albert/bluez-intro An Introduction to Bluetooth programming in GNU/Linux]
*[http://www.wi-fiplanet.com/tutorials/article.php/1379911 Minimizing Bluetooth Interference]
*[http://www.linux.ie/articles/bluetoothheadset.php www.linux.ie:Linux and Bluetooth Headset howto (AKA: Fedora, BTSCO, Bluez, Jabra and Skype)]
*[http://www.venu4u.info/network/bt.html Bluetooth Directory &amp; Informational Resource]
* [http://www.nokia-online.co.uk/Nokia-Bluetooth-technologies/ Nokia - Nokia Bluetooth technologies]
=== Bluetooth products and devices ===
*[http://qualweb.bluetooth.org/Template2.cfm?LinkQualified=QualifiedProducts Bluetooth qualified products] A database of all certified Bluetooth products with the list of profiles they support.
[[Category:Wireless networking]]
[[Category:Computer networks]]
[[ar:بلوتوث]]
[[ca:Bluetooth]]
[[cs:Bluetooth]]
[[da:Bluetooth]]
[[de:Bluetooth]]
[[es:Bluetooth]]
[[fa:بلوتوث]]
[[fr:Bluetooth]]
[[gl:Bluetooth]]
[[ko:블루투스]]
[[it:Bluetooth]]
[[he:שן כחולה]]
[[lt:Bluetooth]]
[[hu:Bluetooth]]
[[nl:Bluetooth]]
[[ja:Bluetooth]]
[[no:Blåtann]]
[[nn:Blåtann]]
[[pl:Bluetooth]]
[[pt:Bluetooth]]
[[ru:Bluetooth]]
[[sk:Bluetooth]]
[[sl:Bluetooth]]
[[fi:Bluetooth]]
[[sv:Bluetooth]]
[[vi:Bluetooth]]
[[tr:Bluetooth]]
[[zh:蓝牙]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bluetooth Special Interest Group</title>
<id>3743</id>
<revision>
<id>40044452</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T18:57:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>206.106.168.10</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Membership */ removed some dead links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bluetooth logo.png|thumb|right|[[Bluetooth]]'s logo]]
The '''Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG)''' is the [[standards organisation|body]] that oversees the development of [[Bluetooth]] [[standardization|standard]]s and the licensing of the Bluetooth technologies and [[trademark]]s to manufacturers. Founded in [[1998]], it is a privately held [[trade association]] headquartered in [[Bellevue, Washington|Bellevue]], [[Washington]] with [[Michael Foley]] presently its [[Executive Director]].
==Introduction==
[[Bluetooth]] provides a way to exchange information between [[wireless]] devices such as [[personal digital assistant]]s (PDAs), [[mobile phone]]s, [[laptop]]s, [[computer]]s, [[printer]]s and [[digital camera]]s via a secure, low-cost, globally available short-range [[radio]] [[frequency]] band. Originally developed by [[Ericsson]], Bluetooth is now used in many different products by many different [[Manufacturing|manufacturers]]. These manufacturers must be members of some level (see below) in the Bluetooth SIG before they are granted access to the Bluetooth specifications. The SIG also specifies a qualification process that products must be tested in accordance with before they may be branded with the Bluetooth [[trademark]]s and sold to consumers. It also markets the Bluetooth brand and technology and owns the trademarks and standardization documents.
From its founding in [[1998]] until recently, the SIG was run by [[volunteer]] staff from its member companies. However, it now has an [[Executive Director]], [[Michael Foley]], a [[General Manager]] and a small staff comprising operations, [[engineering]] and [[marketing]] specialists. It is based in [[Bellevue, Washington]] but also has offices in [[Malmö]], [[Sweden]]. In addition to its professional staff, the SIG still relies on many volunteers from member companies who participate in the various working groups that produce the standardization documents and oversee the qualification process for new products.
==Structure==
The SIG comprises Corporate Groups, Study Groups, Expert Groups and Working Groups, along with committees [https://www.bluetooth.org/bluetooth/landing/sig_groups.php].
The Corporate Groups are simply the [[Board of Directors]] and the professional staff of the SIG.
===Study groups===
The Study Groups carry out research into their various areas which informs the development of the Bluetooth specifications. They may eventually become Working Groups in their own right. The current working groups are:
*Attribute Study Group
*Global navigation satellite system (similar to the [[Global positioning system]]) Study Group
*Message-push Study Group
*[[Ultra wideband]] (UWB) Study Group
===Expert groups===
The Expert Groups deal with issues of technical importance to all aspects of Bluetooth's development. As with the Study Groups their work informs the Working Groups as well as the corporate groups. At present there are two Expert Groups
*Audio/visual &ndash; hands-free profile (A/V-HFI) Expert Group
*Security Expert Group
Participation in the Expert Groups is restricted to [[#Promoter members|Promoter members]] and [[#Associate members|Associate members]].
===Working Groups===
The Working Groups carry out the principal standardization and specification work of the SIG. They are responsible in large part for determining what these documents will say and are thus a core part of the development process.
*Audio/video Working Group
*Automation Working Group
*Car Working Group
*[[Host controller]] interface (HCI)) Working Group
*[[Human interface device]] (HID) Working Group
*[[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]] Working Group
*Local positioning Working Group
*[[Personal area network]]s (PAN) Working Group
*Printing Working Group
*Radio improvements Working Group
*Still-image Working Group
*Unrestricted digital information (UDI) Working Group
Participation in the Working Groups is restricted to [[#Promoter members|Promoter members]] and [[#Associate members|Associate members]].
===Committees===
The committees of the SIG deal with the other aspects of licensing, marketing and review. The current committees are the
*Bluetooth architectural review board (BARB)
*Bluetooth qualification review board (BQRB)
*Bluetooth technical review board (BTRB)
*Errata process group
*Marketing committee
*Regulatory committee
*Roadmapping committee
*Test initiative committee
*UnPlugFest forum
(UnPlugFest is an annual event at which manufacturers are invited to confidentially test their mutual interoperability)
Probably most significant among them is the Qualification Review Board since this body specifies the manner in which manufacturers must go about complying with the Bluetooth specifications before they are allowed to Bluetooth-brand their products and sell them.
==Membership==
Membership of the SIG is a prerequisite for gaining access to the technical documents that define Bluetooth and thus is necessary for any manufacturer wishing to produce Bluetooth technology. There are three levels of corporate membership totalling more than 3400 members, and individuals may also participate.
===Promoter members===
These members are the most active in the SIG and have considerable influence over both the strategic and technological directions of Bluetooth as a whole. The current promoter members are
*[[Agere Systems]] (since 1999)
*[[Ericsson|Ericsson Technology Licensing]] (founder member)
*[[IBM]] (founder member)
*[[Intel]] (founder member)
*[[Microsoft]] (since 1999)
*[[Motorola]] (since 1999)
*[[Nokia]] (founder member)
*[[Toshiba]] (founder member)
Each Promoter member has one seat (and one vote) on the Board of Directors and the Qualification Review Board (the body responsible for overseeing the qualification process). They each have hundreds of staff in the various working groups and committees that comprise the work of the SIG.
===Associate members===
Any member may become an Associate member provided they pay an annual subscription fee. In [[2005]], this fee was [[United States dollar|$]]7 500 for companies with an annual revenue less than $100million and $35 000 for others [https://www.bluetooth.org/bluetooth/landing/membership.php]. Associate members paying the full fee have early access to draft specifications and to work with other Associate and Promoter members on enchancing existing specifications. They are also able to review specifications before their publication and have voting rights in the working groups and committees as well as being able to make keynote speeches at industry conferences. Those Associate members who pay the discounted fee retain the document access rights but are not allowed to participate in the working groups and thus have considerably less influence on the standardization processes. The SIG's website carries a [http://bluetooth.com/Bluetooth/SIG/Directory/Associates/ full list of Associate members].
===Adopter members===
Any company may become an Adopter member for free. These companies have access to the published specification documents and are able to use the trademarks but play no part in the standardization processes and have no access to draft documents. This is the largest category of membership. The SIG's website carries a [http://bluetooth.com/Bluetooth/SIG/Directory/Adopters/ full list of Adopter members].
===Individuals===
Anyone can contribute to the [https://www.bluetooth.org/softwaremap/trove_list.php?form_ca |
andria to the proof by Andrew Wiles.
[[Category:Number theory]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]
[[bg:Основна теорема на аритметиката]]
[[ca:Teorema fonamental de l'aritmètica]]
[[da:Aritmetikkens fundamentalsætning]]
[[de:Fundamentalsatz der Arithmetik]]
[[es:Teorema fundamental de la Aritmética]]
[[fa:قضیه اساسی حساب]]
[[fr:Théorème fondamental de l'arithmétique]]
[[ko:정수론의 기본 정리]]
[[it:Teorema fondamentale dell'aritmetica]]
[[he:המשפט היסודי של האריתמטיקה]]
[[hu:A számelmélet alaptétele]]
[[nl:Hoofdstelling van de rekenkunde]]
[[pl:Podstawowe twierdzenie arytmetyki]]
[[ru:Основная теорема арифметики]]
[[sl:Osnovni izrek aritmetike]]
[[th:ทฤษฎีบทมูลฐานของเลขคณิต]]
[[tr:Aritmetiğin Temel Teoremi]]
[[zh:算术基本定理]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flamenco</title>
<id>11558</id>
<revision>
<id>41548712</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T02:10:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Machanghe</username>
<id>998002</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{genrebox|name=Flamenco
|color=darkgreen
|bgcolor=white
|stylistic_origins=[[Spain|Spanish]], [[Gitano]], [[Arab]], [[Jewish]] folk music
|cultural_origins=[[Granada]], [[Málaga]], [[Cádiz]], [[Jérez de la Frontera]], [[Cordoba, Spain|Cordoba]] and [[Sevilla]]
|instruments=[[Guitar]], [[clapping|hand clapping]], [[cajón]]
|popularity=Sporadic except among Gitanos, mostly popular in Spain and France
|derivatives=
|subgenrelist=List of Flamenco genres
|subgenres=[[Alegrías]] - [[Bulerias]] - [[Tangos]] - [[Fandangos]] - [[Farruca]] - [[Guajiras]] - [[Peteneras]] - [[Sevillana]] - [[Siguiriyas]] - [[Soleares]] - [[Tiento]]s - [[Zambra]] - and many others, see the palos list below.
|fusiongenres=[[New Flamenco]]
|regional_scenes=
|other_topics=[[Music of Spain]]<br>[[Cante Chico]] - [[Cante Jondo]] - [[Cante Intermedio]] - [[Falseta]]
}}
[[Image:Belen maya.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|'''Flamenco dancer Belén Maya''', photograph taken by [[Gilles Larrain]] at his studio, 2001]] '''Flamenco''' is a [[song]], [[Flamenco music|music]] and [[List of dances|dance]] style which is strongly influenced by the [[Gitanos]], but which has its deeper roots in [[Moorish]] and [[Jewish]] musical traditions.
Flamenco culture originated in [[Andalusia]] ([[Spain]]), but has since become one of ''the'' icons of [[Spanish music]] and even [[Spanish culture]] in general.
According to [[Blas Infante]] in his story "Orígenes de lo flamenco y secreto del cante jondo", [[Etymology|etymologically]], the word ''Flamenco'' comes from Hispano-[[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''fellah mengu'', "Peasant without Land". This hypothesis has no basis in historical documents, but Infante connects it to the huge amount of Ethnic Andalusians who decided to stay and mix with the Gypsy newcomers instead abandoning their lands because of their religious beliefs ([[Morisco|Moriscos]]). After the Castilian conquest of Andalusia, the [[Reconquista]], most of the land was expropiated and given to warlords and mercenaries who had helped the Castilian kings enterprise against [[Al-Andalus]]. When the Castilians later ordered the expulsion or forceful conversion of the Andalusian Moriscos, they took refuge among the Gypsies, becoming fellahmengu in order to avoid death, persecution, or forced deportation. Posing as Gypsies they managed to return to their cultural practices and ceremonies including the singing.
Other hypotheses concerning the term's etymology include connections with [[Flanders]], the ''flameante'' (arduous) execution by the performers, or the [[flamingo]]s.
Originally, flamenco consisted of unaccompanied [[singing]] (''cante''). Later the songs were [[accompaniment|accompanied]] by [[Classical guitar|flamenco guitar]] (''toque''), rhythmic [[clapping|hand clapping]] ('' palmas''), rhythmic feet stomping (''[[zapateado]]'') and [[dance]] (''baile''). The toque and baile are also often found without the cante, although the song remains at the heart of the flamenco tradition. More recently other instruments like the [[cajón]] (a wooden box used as a percussion instrument) and [[castanets]] (''castañuelas'') have been introduced.
"Nuevo Flamenco", or [[New Flamenco]], is a recent variant of Flamenco which has been influenced by modern [[musical genres]], like [[rumba]], [[Salsa music|salsa]], [[Pop music|pop]], [[Rock and roll|rock]] and [[jazz]].
==Flamenco history==
[[Image:Flamenco 001.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Flamenco performance by the [[La Primavera]] group]]
Many of the details of the development of flamenco are lost in [[History of Spain|Spanish history]]. There are several reasons for this lack of historical evidence:
* The turbulent times of the people involved in flamenco culture. The Moors, the Gitanos and the [[Jew]]s were all [[persecution|persecuted]] and [[expulsion|expelled]] by the [[Spanish Inquisition]] at various points in time as part of the [[Reconquista]].
* The Gitanos mainly had an [[oral culture]]. Their [[Folk music|folk songs]] were passed on to new generations by repeated performances in their social community.
* Flamenco was for a long time not really considered an [[art]] form worth writing about according to Spaniards. Flamenco music has also slipped in and out of fashion several times during its existence.
[[Granada]], the last [[Muslim]] stronghold, fell in [[1492]] when the [[army|armies]] of the [[Catholic]] [[Monarch|king]] [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and queen [[Isabella of Castile]] reconquered this city after about 800 years of mainly Moorish rule. The [[Treaty of Granada]] was created to have a formal base for upholding [[religious tolerance]], and this paved the way for the Moors to [[Surrender (military)|surrender]] peacefully. For a few years there was a tense calm in and around Granada, however the inquisition did not like the religious tolerance towards Muslims and Jews. Therefore the inquisition used [[religious]] arguments to convince Ferdinand and Isabella to break the [[treaty]] and force the Moors and Jews to become Christians or leave Spain for good. In [[1499]], about 50,000 Moors were coerced into taking part in a mass [[Baptism]]. During the [[rebellion|uprising]] that followed, people who refused the choices of Baptism or [[deportation]] to [[Africa]], were systematically eliminated. What followed was a mass exodus of Moors, Jews and Gitanos from Granada city and the villages to the [[mountain]] regions (and their hills) and the [[rural]] country.
It was in this socially and economically difficult situation that the musical cultures of the Moors, Jews and Gitanos started to form the basics of flamenco music: a Moorish singing style expressing their hard life in Andalusia, the different ''compas'' (rhythm styles), rhythmic hand clapping and basic dance movements, see [[Andalusian cadence]]. Many of the songs in flamenco still reflect the spirit of desperation, struggle, hope, and pride of the people during this time. Flamenco singers are specifically renowned for their somewhat harsh and natural vocal quality. This style is meant to evoke the nature of suffering so closely related to the origins of the music. Much later other local traditional Spanish musical traditions would also influence, and be influenced by, the traditional flamenco styles.
The first time flamenco is mentioned in [[literature]] is in [[1774]] in the book [[Cartas Marruecas]] by [[José Cadalso]]. The origin of the name ''flamenco'' however, is a much-debated topic. Some people believe it is a word of Spanish origin and originally meant ''[[Flemish]]'' (''Flamende''). However, there are several other theories. One theory suggest an Arabic origin taken from the words ''felag mengu'' (meaning: 'peasant in flight' or 'fugitive peasant').
During the so-called golden age of flamenco, between [[1869]]-[[1910]], flamenco music developed rapidly in music cafés called ''cafés cantantes''. Flamenco dancers also became one of the major attractions for the public of those cafés. The art of Flamenco dance was immediately defined in the contrast between male and female styles. Males typically focus more on complex foot movements partnered with relatively little upper-body movement. The female style on the other hand incorporates graceful and distinctly feminine, hip, hand, and arm movements. Along with the development of Flamenco dance, guitar players supporting the dancers increasingly gained a [[reputation]], and so flamenco guitar as an art form by itself was born. [[Julián Arcas]] was one of the first [[composer]]s to write flamenco music especially for the guitar.
The flamenco guitar (and the very similar [[classical guitar]]) is a descendent from the [[lute]]. The first guitars are thought to have originated in Spain in the [[15th century]]. The traditional flamenco guitar is made of Spanish [[Mediterranean Cypress|cypress]] and [[spruce]], and is lighter in weight and a bit smaller than a classical guitar, to give the output a 'sharper' sound. The flamenco guitar, in contrast to the classical, is also equipped with a barrier (often plastic) similar to a pick guard enabling the guitarists to incorporate rythmic tapping of the fingers while they play. The flamenco guitar is also utilized in several different ways from the classical guitar, including individual strumming patterns and styles, as well as the use of a capo in many circumstances.
In [[1922]], one of Spain's greatest [[writer]]s, [[Federico García Lorca]] and renowned composer [[Manuel de Falla]] organised the [[Fiesta del Cante Jondo]], a folk music festival dedicated to ''cante jondo'' ("deep song"). They did this to stimulate interest in this, by that time unfashionable, flamenco music style. Two of Lorca's most important [[poetry|poetic]] works, [[Poema del Cante Jondo]] and [[Romancero Gitano]], show Lorca's fascination with flamenco.
==Flamenco styles==
Flamenco music styles are called '''pa |
the [[Salon des Refusés]] (Salon of the rejected) later in the year. (Emperor Napoleon III initiated The Salon des Refusés, after the Paris Salon rejected more than 4,000 paintings in [[1863]].) The painting's juxtaposition of dressed men and a nude woman was controversial, as was its abbreviated sketch-like style &mdash; an innovation that distinguished Manet from Courbet. However, Manet's composition is derived from [[Marcantonio Raimondi]]'s engraving ''The Judgment of Paris'' (c. [[1510]]) after a drawing by [[Raphael]].
== Olympia ==
:''See main article [[Olympia (painting)]]''
[[Image:Edouard Manet Olympia 1863.jpg|thumb|Olympia]]
Manet took respected works by [[Renaissance]] artists and updated them, a practice he also adopted in ''[[Olympia (painting)|Olympia]]'' ([[1863]]), a nude portrayed in a style reminiscent of the early studio [[photography| photographs]], but which was based on [[Titian]]'s ''[[:Image:Venus of Urbino.jpg|Venus of Urbino]]'' ([[1538]]). The painting was seen as controversial partly because the nude is wearing some small items of clothing such as an orchid in her hair, a bracelet, a ribbon around her neck and mule slippers, she has a look of defiance as well. It also has a fully dressed servant next to her, the same effect of having a nude next to fully dressed people, as in Luncheon on the Grass.
== Life and times ==
The roughly painted style and photographic lighting in these works was seen as specifically modern, and as a challenge to the Renaissance works Manet updated. His work is considered early modern because of its black outlining of figures that draws attention to the surface of the picture plane and the materiality of paint.
He became friends with the [[Impressionism|impressionists]] [[Edgar Degas]], [[Claude Monet]], [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], [[Alfred Sisley]], [[Paul Cezanne|Paul Cézanne]], and [[Camille Pissarro]] in part through his sister-in-law [[Berthe Morisot]], who was a member of the group. [[Eva Gonzalès]] was his only student.
Unlike the core impressionist group, Manet consistently believed that modern artists should seek to exhibit at the [[Paris Salon]] rather than abandon it. Though his own work influenced and anticipated the impressionist style, he resisted involvement in impressionist exhibitions, partly because he did not wish to be seen as the representative of a group identity, and partly because of his disapproval of their opposition to the salon system. Nevertheless, when Manet was excluded from the International exhibition of [[1867]], he set up his own exhibition.
[[Image:Manet, Edouard - Self Portrait with a Palette.jpg|thumb|left|Self-portrait with palette]]
He was influenced by the impressionists, especially by Monet, and to an extent Morisot. Their impact is seen in Manet's use of lighter colors, but he retained his distinctive use of blocks of black, uncharacteristic of impressionist painting. He painted many outdoor ([[En plein air|plein air]]) pieces, but always returned to what he considered serious work in the studio.
Throughout his life, though resisted by art critics, Manet had many champions. [[Émile Zola]] supported him publicly in the press, and [[Stéphane Mallarmé]], as well as [[Charles Baudelaire]], who had challenged him to depict life as it was. Manet, in turn, made many sketchings of them.
== Cafe scenes ==
[[Image:Edouard Manet 030.jpg|thumb|The Cafe Concert]]
Manet's paintings of cafe scenes show the leisurely world of restaurants in Paris. People are depicted doing many activities such as drinking beer, listening to music, flirting, reading or waiting. He often visited the Brasserie Reichshoffen on boulevard de Rochechourt, and based on what he saw there, he painted ''At the Cafe'' in 1878. This painting shows several people at a bar, a woman looking towards the viewer while others wait to be served. He also painted typical views of what he would have seen upon going to one of these places, a crowded scene of people drinking, enjoying themselves, talking, having fun. They are painted in a style which is loose, yet captures the mood and feeling of a bar at night; crowded with many things happening.
In ''Corner of a Cafe Concert'', Manet shows a person smoking while behind him a waitress is in the middle of serving drinks. In ''The Beer Drinkers'' a woman drinks from a glass at a table with another woman. In ''The Cafe Concert'' a more sophisticated looking gentleman sits at a bar while a waitress stands very confidently in the background sipping her drink. Many of these paintings he based on sketches which he did at the cafes. These paintings usually showed a happy party going atmosphere. In ''The Wai''tress, a waitress pauses for a moment behind a seated customer smoking a pipe, while a ballet dancer, with arms extended as she is about to turn, is on stage in the background.
Manet often sat at the restaurant on the [[Avenue de Clichy]] called Pere Lathuille's, which had a garden as well as the eating area. One of the paintings he produced here was ''At Pere Lathuille's'' showing a man looking very interested in a woman sitting at a table at the restaurant who does not seem as interested in him as he is in her. He looks like he is getting too close and possibly annoying her, while she sits rigidly and disinterested.
In ''Le Bon Bock'', a large, cheerful, bearded man sits with a pipe in one hand and a glass of [[beer]] in the other, looking straight at the viewer, from where he sits at the corner of a bar.
== Paintings of social activities ==
[[Image:Edouard Manet 053.jpg|thumb|Racing at Longchamp]]
Social activities were portrayed in works by Manet. In ''Masked ball at the Opera'', Manet shows a crowd of people enjoying a [[party]]. Men stand with top hats and long black suits while talking to women with masks and costumes. It is a crowded atmosphere of an enjoyable activity. He included portraits of his friends in this picture.
Manet depicted other popular activities in his work, such as the races in ''Racing at Longchamp'', which shows popular horse racing, where the excitement of the horses as they rush towards the viewer is shown. In ''Skating'' Manet shows a well dressed woman in the foreground, with people simply having fun skating in the background.
In View of the International Exhibition, Manet's painting shows soldiers relaxing seated and standing; several couples of well to do people talking; a gardener; a boy with a dog; a woman on horseback; a sample of all the classes and ages of the people of Paris.
''Masked Ball at the Opera'' shows men with bow ties and black suits stand around chatting with fancifully dressed women with masks.
== Paris ==
Manet depicted many scenes of the streets of Paris in his works. He did several paintings showing the streets when French flags were unfurled along the sides, and the horses and carts, and people walking past could be seen. The ''Rue Mosnier Decked with Flags'', which is quite a blurry work, shows the red, white and blue flags all over the buildings on either side of the street. He did another painting of the same subject with the same title, showing a man with one leg walking by with crutches at the bottom left and flags all over. Again depicting the same street, but this time in a different context, is ''Rue Monsnier with Pavers'', where he shows the men repairing the street while people and horses move past in the background.
He also painted a scene of a woman waiting for a train in Paris in ''The Railroad'', where a woman who is the middle of reading a book looks up at the viewer momentarily, while a young girl stands looking at the nearby train with all its noise and smoke. It is an oil painting on canvas. It is currently displayed in Washington D.C. in the National Gallery of Art.
== Outside Paris ==
On holidays Manet painted his surroundings such as when he went to Bologne during the summer. On these trips he painted ''Departure of the Folkestone Boat'' which shows a crowd of well dressed people milling about in front of where they would watch the boat leave, or possibly wave to people they knew on the boat. The lady in the long white dress holding a dainty umbrella to the left of centre sums up this relaxed scene. He also painted Moonlight over Boulogne Harbour which is a darker painting at night time, which nevertheless shows the moonlight glistening off the water; a calm view of the serene harbour at night.
== A Bar at the Folies-Bergère ==
:''See main article [[A Bar at the Folies-Bergère]]''
[[Image:Edouard_Manet._A_Bar_at_the_Folies-Bergère.JPG|thumb|250px|''A Bar at the Folies-Bergère (Le Bar aux Folies-Bergère).'' [[1882]]. Édouard Manet.]]
He painted his last major work, ''[[A Bar at the Folies-Bergère]] (Le Bar aux Folies-Bergère)'', in [[1881]]&ndash;[[1882]] and it hung in the Salon that year.
In [[1875]] a French edition of [[Edgar Allan Poe]]'s ''[[The Raven]]'' included lithographs by the Manet and translation by Mallarmé.[http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/dgkeysearchresult.cfm?parent_id=173889&word=] [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14082]
In [[1881]], with pressure from his friend [[Antonin Proust]], the French government awarded Manet the [[Légion d'honneur]].
== Death ==
Manet died of untreated [[syphilis]], which caused much pain and partial paralysis from [[Tabes dorsalis|locomotor ataxia]] in his later years. His left foot was amputated because of [[gangrene]] 11 days before he died.
He died in Paris in [[1883]] and is buried in the city's [[Cimetière de Passy]].
In [[2000]], one of his paintings sold for over [[United States dollar|$]]20 million.
[[Image:ManetPassy.jpg|thumb|left|Manet's Tomb at Passy Cemetery.]]
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Edouard Manet}}
* [http://www.biography.com/impressionists/artists_manet.html ''The Impressionsts: Manet'' at biography.com]
* [http://www.abcgallery.com/M/manet/manet.html Édouard Manet at Olga's Gallery]
* {{gutenberg author|id= Édouard |
eligious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence cannot be considered legitimate exercise of freedom of expression. Under international standards, such "hate speech" should be prohibited by law." [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGPOL300072006?open&of=ENG-315]
==Organization==
''[[Image:Irene Khan 2003.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Irene Khan]], Secretary General since August 2001]]''
Amnesty International is governed by the International Executive Council (IEC) &ndash; a board of eight members elected for two-year terms by the International Council Meeting, which is itself composed of delegates from each country's Board of Directors. The IEC hires a Secretary General (since 2001, [[Irene Khan]]) and an International Secretariat, located in [[London]].
National and local organizational structures vary. In the United States, individual members, regardless of age, and each individual organization votes to elect members to the 18-seat national Board of Directors for a three-year term. The Board of Directors hires an Executive Director and a staff.
===Secretary Generals===
*[[Peter Benenson]], [[1961]]&ndash;1966 (President)
*[[Eric Baker (activist)|Eric Baker]], [[1966]]&ndash;1968
*[[Martin Ennals]], [[1968]]&ndash;1980
*[[Thomas Hammarberg]], [[1980]]&ndash;1986
*[[Ian Martin]], [[1986]]&ndash;1992
*[[Pierre Sané]], [[1992]]&ndash;2001
*[[Irene Khan]], [[2001]]&ndash;present
===Finances===
Amnesty International is a non-partisan organization financed largely by subscriptions and donations from its worldwide membership, and except for a small core of paid directors, 200 or so full-time researchers in the ''International Secretariat'' in [[London]], and various coordinators and organisers in national ''sections'', most of Amnesty's members and coordinators of local groups, and many supporters contributing time and energy to the organisation, are volunteers. It does not accept donations from governments or governmental organizations. Amnesty's budget for the 2002 fiscal year included:
* Membership Support: [[Pound Sterling|£]]2,816,800 (12%)
* Campaigning Activities: £2,387,100 (10%)
* Publications and Translation: £2,810,600 (12%)
* Research and Action: £5,828,800 (26%)
* Deconcentrated Offices: £1,720,400 (7%)
* Research and Action Support: £3,481,100 (15%)
* Administrative Costs: £3,918,400 (18%)
* Relief Payments: £48,000
* Total: £23,728,000 (including contingency)
==See also==
*[[Human rights abuse]]
*[[Universal jurisdiction]]
*[[Action alert|Urgent action]]
*[[The Secret Policeman's Balls]]
*[[A Conspiracy of Hope Tour]]
*[[Human Rights Now! Tour]]
*[[Human Rights Watch]]
*[[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]]
*[[Freedom House]]
*[[Reporters Without Borders]]
==Notes==
* {{NamedNote|NewStatesman|1}} Khan's aside may have been partly inspired by a cover story a year earlier in the British weekly ''[[New Statesman]]'', describing the system of [[extraordinary rendition]] as "America's Gulag".[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4688_133/ai_n6159185]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.amnesty.org/ Amnesty International's Website]
* [http://www.amnestyusa.org/ Amnesty International USA's Website]
* [http://www.amnesty.org.uk/ Amnesty International UK's Website]
* [http://www.amnesty.org.au/ Amnesty International Australia's Website]
* [http://www.amnesty.org.nz/ Amnesty International New Zealand's Website]
* [http://www.amnesty.ca/ Amnesty International Canada's Website]
* Peter Benenson: ''[http://www.hrweb.org/ai/observer.html The Forgotten Prisoners]'' ''The Observer'', [[May 28]], [[1961]]
*William Schulz, [http://student.cs.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0006804.html Security Is a Human Right, Too], ''New York Times'', [[April 18]], [[2004]].
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/index-eng AI's 2004 annual report on human rights abuses] (Summary [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1225027,00.html])
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/index-eng AI's 2005 annual report on human rights abuses]
*[http://www.charity-commission.gov.uk/registeredcharities/showcharity.asp?remchar=&chyno=294230 Registered Charity No. 294230] (UK Charity Commission)
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Betty Williams (Northern Irish)|Betty Williams]] <br> [[Mairead Corrigan]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1977 | after = [[Anwar al-Sadat]] <br> [[Menachem Begin]]}}
{{end box}}
<!-- Category boxes and interwiki links -->
[[Category:1961 establishments]]
[[Category:Amnesty International]]
[[Category:British charities]]
[[Category:Erasmus Prize winners]]
[[Category:Human rights bodies]]
[[Category:Imprisonment and detention]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners]]
[[Category:Social justice]]
[[ar:منظمة العفو الدولية]]
[[ca:Amnistia Internacional]]
[[cs:Amnesty International]]
[[da:Amnesty International]]
[[de:Amnesty international]]
[[es:Amnistía Internacional]]
[[eo:Amnestio Internacia]]
[[fr:Amnesty international]]
[[hr:Amnesty International]]
[[id:Amnesti Internasional]]
[[it:Amnesty International]]
[[he:אמנסטי אינטרנשיונל]]
[[ku:Rêxistina Efûyê ya Navneteweyê]]
[[nl:Amnesty International]]
[[ja:アムネスティ・インターナショナル]]
[[no:Amnesty International]]
[[nn:Amnesty International]]
[[pl:Amnesty International]]
[[pt:Anistia Internacional]]
[[ro:Amnesty International]]
[[sk:Amnesty International]]
[[fi:Amnesty International]]
[[sv:Amnesty International]]
[[vi:Ân xá Quốc tế]]
[[uk:Міжнародна амністія]]
[[zh:國際特赦組織]]
[http://www.example.com link title]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abelian group</title>
<id>2974</id>
<revision>
<id>39746080</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T15:58:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''abelian group''', also called a '''commutative group''', is a [[group (mathematics)|group]] (''G'', *) such that
:''a'' * ''b'' = ''b'' * ''a''
for all ''a'' and ''b'' in ''G''. In other words, the order of elements in a product doesn't matter. Such groups are generally easier to understand.
Abelian groups are named after [[Niels Henrik Abel]]. Groups that are not commutative are called '''''non-abelian''''' (rather than ''non-commutative'').
== Notation ==
There are two main notational conventions for abelian groups -- additive and multiplicative.
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|-
! Convention
! Operation
! Identity
! Powers
! Inverse
! [[Direct sum|Direct sum/product]]
|-
! Addition
| ''a'' + ''b'' || 0 || ''na'' || &minus;''a'' || ''G'' &oplus; ''H''
|-
! Multiplication
| ''a'' * ''b'' or ''ab'' || ''e'' or 1
| ''a''<sup>''n''</sup>
| ''a''<sup>&minus;1</sup> || ''G'' &times; ''H''
|}
The multiplicative notation is the usual notation for groups, while the additive notation is the usual notation for [[module (mathematics)|module]]s. When studying abelian groups in their own right, the additive notation is usually used.
== Examples ==
Every [[cyclic group]] ''G'' is abelian, because if ''x'', ''y'' are in ''G'', then ''xy'' = ''a''<sup>''m''</sup>''a''<sup>''n''</sup> = ''a''<sup>''m'' + ''n''</sup> = ''a''<sup>''n'' + ''m''</sup> = ''a''<sup>''n''</sup>''a''<sup>''m''</sup> = ''yx''. In particular, the [[integer]]s '''Z''' form an abelian group under addition, as do the [[modular arithmetic|integers modulo ''n'']] '''Z'''/''n'''''Z'''.
The [[real number]]s form an abelian group under addition, as do the non-zero real numbers under multiplication.
Every [[Ring theory|ring]] is an abelian group with respect to its addition operator. Also, in every [[commutative ring]] the invertible elements, or [[unit (ring theory)|units]] form an abelian [[multiplicative group]].
Any [[subgroup]] of an abelian group is [[normal subgroup|normal]], so for every subgroup there is a [[quotient group]]. Subgroups, factor groups, and [[direct sum of groups| direct sums]] of abelian groups are again abelian.
== Multiplication table ==
To verify that a certain [[finite group]] is indeed abelian, a table (matrix) can be drawn up in the similar fashion to a [[multiplication table]], where, if the group is ''G'' = {''g''<sub>1</sub> = ''e'', ''g''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''g''<sub>''n''</sub>} under the operation &sdot;, the (''i'', ''j'')'th entry of this table contains the product ''g''<sub>''i''</sub> &sdot; ''g''<sub>''j''</sub>. The group is abelian [[if and only if]] this table is symmetric about the main diagonal (i.e. if the matrix is a [[symmetric matrix]]).
This is true since if the group is abelian, then ''g''<sub>''i''</sub> &sdot; ''g''<sub>''j''</sub> = ''g''<sub>''j''</sub> &sdot; ''g''<sub>''i''</sub>. This implies that the (''i'', ''j'')'th entry of the table equals the (''j'', ''i'')'th entry - i.e. the table is symmetric about the main diagonal.
== Properties ==
If ''n'' is a [[natural number]] and ''x'' is an element of an abelian group ''G'' written additively, then ''nx'' can be defined as ''x'' + ''x'' + ... + ''x'' (''n'' summands) and (&minus;''n'')''x'' = &minus;(''nx''). In this way, ''G'' becomes a [[module (mathematics)|module]] over the [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] '''Z''' of integers. In fact, the modules over '''Z''' can be identified with the abelian groups.
Theorems about abelian groups (i.e. modules over the [[principal ideal domain]] '''Z''') can often be generalized to theorems about modules over an arbitrary principal ideal domain. A typical example is t |
oducts and habits. Many Western, especially American, fast food chains have appeared in China, and are highly successful economically. These include [[McDonalds|McDonald's]] and [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]] (KFC).
==Note==
{{note|1}} Note: In most [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] or [[dialects]] of [[Chinese language|Chinese]], the [[verb]] for consuming soup is actually translatable literally as "drink".
<!-- adverb and other prons a.d ions should be done -->
==Reference==
''How to Cook and Eat in Chinese'', [[Buwei Yang Chao]], first ed. [[1945]].
==External links==
*[http://www.chopstix.com/ Chopstix] &mdash; From the UK
*[http://chinesefood.about.com/ About.com] &mdash; From the USA
*[http://www.thatsqingdao.com/ That's Qingdao - Qingdao Travel Guide] (available in English and Chinese)
*[http://www.chineserestaurantsonline.com/ Chinese Restaurants Online]
==See also==
*[[Cantonese restaurant]]
*[[Chinese American cuisine]]
*[[Canadian Chinese cuisine]]
*[[List of Chinese dishes]]
* ''[[wok hei]]''
[[Category:Chinese cuisine|*]]
[[da:Kinesisk madlavning]]
[[de:Chinesische Küche]]
[[et:Hiina köök]]
[[fr:Cuisine chinoise]]
[[he:המטבח הסיני]]
[[ja:中華料理]]
[[ko:중화요리]]
[[nl:Chinese keuken]]
[[pl:Kuchnia chińska]]
[[ro:Bucătărie chinezească]]
[[ru:Китайская кухня]]
[[zh:中国菜]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Casimir IV</title>
<id>6584</id>
<revision>
<id>32107382</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-20T15:18:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Appleseed</username>
<id>404133</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constantin Brancusi</title>
<id>6585</id>
<revision>
<id>40581932</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T16:34:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Orioane</username>
<id>362844</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+life</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Constantin Brancusi''' ([[February 19]], [[1876]] &ndash; [[March 16]], [[1957]], originally '''Constantin Brâncuşi''' {{IPA|/kon.stan'tin brɨn'kuʃʲ/}}), was a [[Romania]]n [[sculpture|sculptor]], born in [[Hobita, Gorj|Hobiţa]], [[Gorj]], near [[Targu Jiu|Târgu Jiu]], where he placed his [[Sculptural Ensemble of Constantin Brancusi from Târgu Jiu|sculptural ensemble]] with ''[[The Table of Silence]]'', ''[[The Gate of the Kiss]]'' and ''[[The Endless Column]]''.
==Life==
Brancusi studied art at the Şcoala de Meserii (school of arts and crafts) in [[Craiova]] from 1894 to 1898 and at the Şcoala Naţională de Arte Frumoase (national school of fine arts) in [[Bucharest]] from 1898 to 1901. Wishing to further his education in [[Paris]], he arrived there in 1904 and enrolled in the [[École des Beaux-Arts]] in 1905.
As an art student he was influenced by [[Auguste Rodin]], but his style moved beyond naturalist representation to stylized elegant forms. Brancusi was one of the first sculptors to experiment with [[abstract art]] (although never, in his own view, moving into ''pure abstraction''). His [[sculpture|sculptures]] became progressively smoother and less figurative, until only the barest outline of the original subject was left, venturing even farther away from figurative sculpture than his countryman and contemporary [[Dimitrie Paciurea]].
Brancusi produced a series of sculptures in metal called ''[[Bird in Space]]''. [[Edward Steichen]], a prominent photographer purchased one of these ''birds'' and tried to bring it into the United States. Under U.S. Customs code, works of art may be imported into the country duty-free. However, Customs officers did not accept the ''bird'' as a work of art and assessed a duty of $600 classifying it as a propeller blade. Subsequently a trial overturned the assessment.
Constantin Brancusi lived and worked from [[1925]] to [[1957]] in his workshop, located in the ''impasse Ronsin'', in the [[15ème arrondissement, Paris|15ème arrondissement]] of Paris. The original workshop has disappeared and has been rebuilt near the [[Centre Georges Pompidou]].
Located in the Montparnasse Cemetery are statues carved by Brancusi for a few fellow artists who committed suicide, the best-known of which is his ''[[Le Baiser]]'' (''The Kiss'').
Brancusi died on [[March 16]], [[1957]] and was buried in the [[Cimetière du Montparnasse]], [[Paris|Paris, France]].
==Legacy==
His works are housed in the New York [[Museum of Modern Art]] and in the [[National Museum of Art of Romania]] (in Bucharest), as well as in other major museums around the world.
Brancusi's onetime studio in Paris is open to the public. It is very close to the [[Pompidou Centre]], in the rue Rambuteau. He bequeathed part of his collection to the French state on condition that his workshop be rebuilt as it was on the day he died.
In [[2004]], a sculpture by Brancusi named ''Danaide'' sold for [[United States dollar|$]]18.1 million, the highest that a sculpture piece had ever sold for at auction. In May [[2005]], a piece from the ''Bird in Space'' series broke that record, selling for [[United States dollar|$]]27.5 million in a [[Christie's]] auction. [http://money.cnn.com/2005/05/05/news/newsmakers/brancusi.reut/index.htm?cnn=yes]
==Quotations==
''The people who call my work 'abstract' are imbeciles; what they call 'abstract' is in fact the purest [[realism (arts)|realism]], the reality of which is not represented by external form but by the [[idealism|idea]] behind it, the essence of the work.''
''Create like a god, command like a king, work like a slave.''
==Selected works==
*''[[The Endless Column]]''
*''[[Bird in Space]]'' (series)
*''Sleeping Muse'' [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/masterscans/l178.html]
*''[[:Image:Brancusi.jpg|Newborn]]''
==External links==
{{commonscat|Constantin Brancusi}}
* [http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria_Estero/Brancusi%20Constantin/index.html Images of Brancusi sculptures]
* [http://engcom.ipsec.ro/Brancusi/index.html Constantin Brancusi - pioneer of abstract sculpture]
[[Category:1876 births|Brancusi, Constantin]]
[[Category:1957 deaths|Brancusi, Constantin]]
[[Category:Modern sculptors|Brancusi, Constantin]]
[[Category:Romanian sculptors|Brancusi, Constantin]]
[[Category:Romanian-French people|Brancusi, Constantin]]
[[de:Constantin Brâncuşi]]
[[es:Constantin Brancusi]]
[[eo:Constantin BRÂNCUŞI]]
[[fr:Constantin Brâncuşi]]
[[it:Constantin Brancusi]]
[[he:קונסטאנטין בראנקושי]]
[[nl:Constantin Brancusi]]
[[pl:Constantin Brâncuşi]]
[[ro:Constantin Brâncuşi]]
[[ru:Брынкуши, Константин]]
[[sv:Constantin Brancusi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Claus Sluter</title>
<id>6586</id>
<revision>
<id>41372070</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:29:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pathoschild</username>
<id>240994</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.206.34.252|66.206.34.252]] ([[User talk:66.206.34.252|talk]]) to last version by Sparkit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Claus Sluter''' was a fourteenth century Dutch-Burgundian sculptor and the most important northern European sculptor of his age. He restored figural sculpture to its former classical era monumental scale and naturalism. He is considered a pioneer of "northern realism". His most famous surviving work is the ''Well of Moses,'' created for a [[Carthusian]] [[Abbey|monastery]] built by Philip the Bold near [[Dijon]].
{{sculptor-stub}}
[[Category:French sculptors|Sluter, Claus]]
[[Category:Gothic sculptors|Sluter, Claus]]
[[de:Claus Sluter]]
[[sv:Claus Sluter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cadillac, Michigan</title>
<id>6587</id>
<revision>
<id>39556536</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T07:00:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.97.3.115</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Overview */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cadillac''' is a city in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Michigan]] and is the [[county seat]] of [[Wexford County, Michigan|Wexford County]]. As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 census]], the city had a total population of 10,000. The city is situated at the junction of [[U.S. Highway 131]] and [[Michigan State Highway 55]] The city is between [[Haring Township, Michigan|Haring Township]] on the north and [[Clam Lake Township, Michigan|Clam Lake Township]] on the south. Cadillac became the county seat after the so-called "[[Battle of Manton]]" in which a show of force was involved in enforcing a controversial decision to move the county seat from [[Manton, Michigan]].
==Overview==
Although European explorers and traders visited the area since the 1700s, permanent white settlement did not begin until much later. Initial settlements were connected with the logging industry. Cadillac was originally called '''Clam Lake''' and was incorporated as a village in 1874. It changed its name and incorporated as the city of Cadillac three years later in 1877, named after [[Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac]], a Frenchman who made the first permanent settlement at [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] in 1701. Many early settlers were [[Sweden|Swedish]] and two of Cadillac's sister cities are [[Mölnlycke]], [[Sweden]], and [[Rovaniemi]], [[Finland]]. Cadillac was also home to the [[Michigan Iron Works]] Company, which manufactured [[Shay locomotive]]s for a short time in the early 1880s.
The 1,150 acre [[Lake Cadillac]] is entirely within the city limits, and some claim it is the largest lake entirely in any city in the [[United States]]. The larger, 2,580 acre [[Lake Mitchell]] is nearby on the west side of the city, with 1,760 feet of shoreline within the city's municipal boundary. The lakes were connected by a stream which was replaced in 1873 by the [[Clam Lake Canal]]. Lake Cadillac |
3 Video Streams (RFC 2190)]
** [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2429.txt RTP Payload Format for the 1998 Version of ITU-T Rec. H.263 Video (H.263+) (RFC 2429)]
* [http://www.itu.int/itudoc/itu-t/rec/h/ Find H.263 specification on ITU website]
* [http://support.intel.com/support/createshare/camerapack/CODINSTL.HTM Intel's H.263 codec installer for Windows]
* [http://members.aol.com/SlavTrainr/STsPage.html I263 video codec]
* [http://www4.informatik.uni-erlangen.de/Projects/ScalVico/vic/ H.263 implementation in vic (source code available)]
* [http://www.video-demystified.com/ Video Demystified] - Book which includes info about H.263
* [http://www.compression-links.info/H.261_H.263 List of H.261-H.263 resources]
[[Category:Video codecs]]
[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
[[fr:H.263]]
[[ja:H.263]]
[[de:H.263]]
[[ru:H.263]]
[[zh:H.263]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>H.263v2</title>
<id>14025</id>
<revision>
<id>15911606</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-24T11:53:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Isnow</username>
<id>180201</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+zh</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''H.263v2''' (also known as '''H.263+''' or as the 1998 version of H.263) is the informal name of the second edition of the ITU-T [[H.263]] international video coding standard. It retains the entire technical content of the original version of the standard, but enhances H.263 capabilities by adding several annexes which substantially improve encoding efficiency and provide other capabilities (such as enhanced robustness against data loss in the transmission channel). The H.263+ project was completed in late 1997 or early 1998 (depending on what is considered completion), and was then followed by an "H.263++" project that added a few more enhancements in late 2000. See the [[H.263]] page for more details.
[[Category:Video codecs]]
[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
[[zh:H.263v2]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>House of Orange</title>
<id>14026</id>
<revision>
<id>15911607</id>
<timestamp>2005-01-07T19:00:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eugene van der Pijll</username>
<id>22016</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prince of Orange]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hierarchical relationship</title>
<id>14027</id>
<revision>
<id>15911608</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-03T05:21:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
<id>153314</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Binary relation]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Binary relation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Histone</title>
<id>14029</id>
<revision>
<id>40609008</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T20:24:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.117.212.65</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[biology]], '''histones''' are the chief [[protein]]s of [[chromatin]]. They act as spools around which [[DNA]] winds and they play a role in [[gene regulation]]. Histones are found in the [[nucleus (biology)|nuclei]] of [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[cell (biology)|cells]]. [[Bacteria]] do not have histones, but histones are found in certain [[Archaea]], namely [[Euryarchaea]]. These archaeal histones may well resemble the evolutionary precursors to the eukaryotic histones.
==Classes==
Six histone classes are known:
*[[Histone H1|H1]] (sometimes called the linker histone or [[H5]].)
*[[H2A]]
*[[H2B]]
*[[Histone H3|H3]]
*[[Histone H4|H4]]
*Archaeal histones
Two each of the class H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 assemble to form one octameric [[nucleosome]] core particle by wrapping 146 [[base pairs]] of DNA around the protein spool in 1.65 left-handed super-helical turn. The linker histone H1 binds the nucleosome and the entry and exit sites of the DNA, thus locking the DNA into place and allowing the formation of higher order structure. The most basic such formation is the 10 nm fiber or beads on a string conformation. This involves the wrapping of DNA around nucleosomes with approximately 50 base pairs of [[DNA]] spaced between each [[nucleosome]] (also referred to as linker [[DNA]]). Higher order structures include the 30 nm fiber (forming an irregular zigzag) and 100 nm fiber, these being the structures found in normal cells. During meiosis, through the combination of nucleosome interactions with other proteins, the [[chromosome]] is assembled. The assembled histones and [[DNA]] is called [[chromatin]].
==Structure==
[[Image:Nucleosome_structure.png|thumb|Schematic representation of the assembly of the core histones into the nucleosome.]]
The nucleosome core is formed of two H2A-H2B [[dimers]] and two H3-H4 dimers, forming two nearly [[symmetry|symmetrical]] halves by [[tertiary structure]] ([[Point_groups_in_three_dimensions|C2]] symmetry; one [[macromolecule]] is the mirror image of the other). The H2A-H2B and H3-H4 dimers themselves also show pseudodyad symmetry.
The 4 'core' histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4) are relatively similar in structure and are highly conserved through [[evolution]], all featuring a 'helix turn helix turn helix' motif (which allows the easy dimerisation). They also share the feature of long 'tails' on one end of the [[amino acid]] structure - this being the location of post-transcriptional modification (see below).
In all, histones make five types of interactions with DNA:
# Helix-dipoles from [[alpha helix|alpha-helices]] in H2B, H3, and H4 cause a net positive charge to accumulate at the point of interaction with negatively charged [[phosphate]] groups on DNA.
# [[Hydrogen bonds]] between the DNA backbone and the amine group on the main chain of histone proteins.
# Nonpolar interactions between the histone and [[deoxyribose]] sugars on DNA.
# Salt links and hydrogen bonds between side chains of basic amino acids (especially [[lysine]] and [[arginine]]) and phosphate oxygens on DNA.
# Non-specific minor groove insertions of the H3 and H2B N-terminal tails into two minor grooves each on the DNA molecule.
The highly basic nature of histones, aside from facilitating DNA-histone interactions, contributes to the water solubility of histones.
Histones are subject to posttranslational modification by enzymes primarily on their N-terminal tails, but also in their globular domains. Such modifications include [[methylation]], [[acetylation]], [[phosphorylation]], [[ubiquitin|ubiquitination]], and [[Adenosine diphosphate|ADP]]-ribosylation. This affects their function of gene regulation (see functions).
In general, [[gene]]s that are active have less bound histone, while inactive genes are highly associated with histones during [[interphase]]. It also appears that the structure of histones have been [[evolution]]arily conserved, as any deleterious [[mutations]] would be severely maladaptive.
==Functions==
===Packing proteins===
Histones act as spools around which DNA winds. This enables the compaction necessary to fit the large [[genome]]s of eukaryotes inside cell nuclei: the compacted molecule is 50,000 times shorter than an unpacked molecule.
===Histone modfications in [[chromatin]] regulation===
Histones undergo [[posttranslational modification]]s which alter their interaction with [[DNA]] and nuclear proteins. The H3 and H4 histones have long tails protruding from the nucleosome which can be [[covalent]]ly modified at several places. Modifications of the tail include [[methyl]]ation, [[acetyl]]ation and [[phosphorylation]]. The core of the histones (H2A and H3) can also be modified.
Combinations of modifications are thought to constitute a code, the so-called "histone code". Histone modifications act in diverse biological processes such as [[gene regulation]], [[DNA repair]] and chromosome condensation ([[mitosis]]).
The common nomeclature of histone modifications is as follows:
#The name of the histone (''e.g'' H3)
#The single letter [[amino acid]] abbreviation (''e.g.'' K for [[Lysine]]) and the amino acid position in the protein
#The type of modification (Me: [[methyl]], P: [[phosphate]], Ac: [[acetyl]], Ub: [[ubiquitin]])
So H3K4Me denotes the methylation of H3 on the 4th lysine from the start ([[N-terminal]]) of the protein.
(See also [[Histone methyltransferase]], [[Histone acetyltransferase]])
For a detailed example of histone modifications in [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] regulation see [[RNA polymerase control by chromatin structure]].
==History==
Histones were discovered in 1884 by [[Albrecht Kossel]]. The word "histone" dates from the late [[19th century]] and is from the German "Histon", of uncertain origin: perhaps from Greek ''histanai'' or from ''histos''.
Until the early 1990s, histones were dismissed as merely packing material for nuclear DNA. During the early 1990s, the regulatory functions of histones were discovered.
==See also==
*[[Gene silencing]]
*[[Genetics]]
*[[Histone deacetylase]]
*[[Chromatin]]
[[Category:Genetics]]
[[Category:Proteins]]
[[ca:Histona]]
[[cs:Histon]]
[[da:Histon]]
[[de:Histon]]
[[es:Histona]]
[[fr:Histone]]
[[it:Istone]]
[[he:היסטון]]
[[hu:Hiszton]]
[[nl:Histonen]]
[[ja:ヒストン]]
[[pl:Histony]]
[[pt:Histona]]
[[ru:Гистоны]]
[[fi:Histoni]]
[[sv:Histon]]
[[lt:Histonas]]
[[sr:хистон]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hierarchical organization</title>
<id>14031</id>
<revision>
<id>39305027</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T05:42:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.198.223.240</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Criticism and alternatives */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
A '''hierarchical organization''' is an [[organization]] structured in a way such that every entity in the organization, excep |
physics]]). In particular the application of [[quantum mechanics]] to chemistry is called [[quantum chemistry]]. Since the end of the second world war, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of [[computational chemistry]], which is the art of developing and applying [[computer program]]s for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with [[molecular physics]].
Other fields are [[Astrochemistry]], [[Atmospheric chemistry]], [[Chemical Engineering]], [[Chemo-informatics]], [[Electrochemistry]], [[Environmental chemistry]], [[Geochemistry]], [[Green chemistry]], [[History of chemistry]], [[Materials science]], [[Medicinal chemistry]], [[Molecular Biology]], [[Molecular genetics]], [[Nanotechnology]],[[Nuclear chemistry]], [[Organometallic chemistry]], [[Petrochemistry]], [[Pharmacology]], [[Photochemistry]], [[Phytochemistry]], [[Polymer chemistry]], [[Supramolecular chemistry]], [[Surface chemistry]], and [[Thermochemistry]].
==Fundamental concepts==
'''Nomenclature'''
''Main article: [[IUPAC nomenclature]]''
Nomenclature refers to the system for naming [[chemical compound]]s. There are well-defined systems in place for naming chemical species. [[Organic compound]]s are named according to the [[organic nomenclature]] system. [[Inorganic compound]]s are named according to the [[inorganic nomenclature]] system.
'''Atoms'''
''Main article: [[Atom]]''
An ''atom'' is a collection of matter consisting of a positively charged core (the [[atomic nucleus]]) which contains [[protons]] and [[neutrons]], and which maintains a number of [[electron]]s to balance the positive charge in the nucleus.
'''Elements'''
''Main article: [[Chemical element]]''
An ''element'' is a class of atoms which have the same number of [[proton]]s in the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]]. This number is known as the [[atomic number]] of the element. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element [[carbon]], and all atoms with 92 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the element [[uranium]].
The most convenient presentation of the elements is in the [[periodic table]], which groups elements with similar chemical properties together. Lists of the elements [[List of elements by name|by name]], [[List of elements by symbol|by symbol]], and by [[List of elements by number|atomic number]] are also available. In addition elements have many [[isotope]]s.
'''Compounds'''
''Main article: [[Chemical compound]]''
A ''compound'' is a substance with a ''fixed ratio'' of [[chemical element]]s which determines the composition, and a particular organization which determines chemical properties. For example, [[water (molecule)|water]] is a compound containing [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] in the ratio of two to one, with the Oxygen between the hydrogens, and an angle of 104.5° between them. Compounds are formed and interconverted by [[chemical reaction]]s.
'''Molecules'''
''Main article: [[Molecule]]''
A ''molecule'' is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure [[Chemical compound|compound]] or [[chemical element|element]] that retains a set of unique chemical properties. A molecule consists of two or more [[atom]]s covalently [[Chemical bond|bonded]] together.
'''Ions'''
''Main article: [[Ion (physics)|Ion]]''
An ''ion'' is a charged species, or an atom or a molecule that has lost or gained an electron. Positively charged [[cations]] (e.g. [[sodium]] cation Na<sup>+</sup>) and negatively charged [[anions]] (e.g. [[chloride]] Cl<sup>-</sup>) can form neutral [[Salt|salts]] (e.g. [[sodium chloride]] NaCl). Examples of [[polyatomic ion]]s that do not split up during [[Acid-base reaction theories|acid-base reactions]] are [[hydroxide]] (OH<sup>-</sup>), or [[phosphate]] (PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup>).
'''Substance'''
''Main article: [[Chemical substance]]''
A chemical substance can be an element, compound or a mixture of compounds, elements or compounds and elements. Most of the matter we encounter in our daily life are one or another kind of mixtures, e.g. [[Earth's atmosphere|air]], [[alloy]]s, [[biomass]] etc.
'''Bonding'''
''Main article: [[Chemical bond]]''
A ''chemical bond'' is an [[interaction]] which holds together [[atom]]s in [[molecule]]s or [[crystal]]s. In many simple compounds, [[valence bond theory]] and the concept of [[oxidation number]] can be used to predict molecular structure and composition. Similarly, theories from [[classical physics]] can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as [[complex (chemistry) | metal complexes]], valence bond theory fails and alternative approaches which are based on [[quantum chemistry]], such as [[molecular orbital]] theory, are necessary.
'''States of matter'''
''Main article: [[Phase (matter)]]''
A ''phase'' is a [[set]] of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as [[pressure]] or [[temperature]]. Physical properties, such as [[density]] and [[refractive index]] tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the ''[[phase transition]]'', which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions.
Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case the matter is considered to be in a [[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]] state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a [[triple point]] and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions.
The most familiar examples of phases are [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s, and [[gas]]es. Less familiar phases include [[Plasma physics|plasma]]s, [[Bose-Einstein condensate]]s and [[fermionic condensate]]s and the [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] and [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] phases of [[magnet]]ic materials. Even the familiar [[ice]] has many different phases, depending on the pressure and temperature of the system. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which is getting a lot of attention because of its relevance to [[biology]].
'''Chemical reactions'''
''Main article: [[Chemical reaction]]''
''Chemical reactions'' are transformations in the fine [[structure]] of [[molecule]]s. Such reactions can result in molecules attaching to each other to form larger molecules, molecules breaking apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of [[atom]]s within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of [[chemical bond]]s.
'''Quantum chemistry'''
''Main article: [[Quantum chemistry]]''
''Quantum chemistry'' describes the behavior of [[matter]] at the [[molecule | molecular]] scale. It is, in principle, possible to describe all chemical systems using this theory. In practice, only the simplest chemical systems may realistically be investigated in purely [[quantum mechanics | quantum mechanical]] terms, and approximations must be made for most practical purposes (e.g., [[Hartree-Fock]], [[post Hartree-Fock]] or [[Density functional theory]], see [[computational chemistry]] for more details). Hence a detailed understanding of [[quantum mechanics]] is not necessary for most chemistry, as the important implications of the theory (principally the [[atomic orbital|orbital approximation]]) can be understood and applied in simpler terms.
'''Chemical Laws'''
''Main article:'' [[Chemical law]]
The most fundamental concept in chemistry is the [[law of conservation of mass]], which states that there is no detectable change in the quantity of matter during an ordinary [[chemical reaction]]. Modern physics shows that it is actually [[energy]] that is conserved, and that energy and mass are [[Einstein#Energy equivalency|related]]; a concept which becomes important in [[nuclear chemistry]]. [[Conservation of energy]] leads to the important concepts of [[Chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]], [[thermodynamics]], and [[chemical kinetics|kinetics]].
Further laws of chemistry elaborate on the law of conservation of mass. [[Joseph Proust]]'s [[law of definite composition]] says that pure chemicals are composed of elements in a definite formulation; we now know that the structural arrangement of these elements is also important.
[[John_Dalton|Dalton]]'s [[law of multiple proportions]] says that these chemicals will present themselves in proportions that are small whole numbers (i.e. 1:2 O:H in water); although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction. Such compounds are known as [[non-stoichiometric compound]]s
==Etymology==
''Main article'': [[Alchemy#Etymology|Etymology of chemistry]]
The [[Etymology]] of the word chemistry comes directly from the Greek word ''χημεια'', and can be also met in the old French ''alkemie;'' or the Arabic ''al-kimia:'' ''the art of transformation.''
==See also==
* [[List of chemists]]
* [[List of chemistry topics]]
* [[List of compounds]]
* [[List of publications in chemistry|List of important publications in chemistry]]
* [[Chemistry resources]]
* [[Unsolved problems in chemistry]]
==External links==
{{wikibooks}}
{{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Chemistry}}
* [http://wikid.chem.yale.edu/ Wikidchem, The Free Chemistry Archive]
* [http://www.allchemicals.info/ Chemical Glossary]
* [http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/ Chemistry Information Database]
* [http://www.chemicalforums.com/ Chemistry Forum]
* [http://www.chem.qmw.ac.uk/iupac/ IUPAC Nomenclature Home Page], see especially the "Gold Book" containing definitions of standard chemical terms
* [http://www.cci.ethz.ch/index.html |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.