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directly elected. Congress meets throughout the year except for recess in July and December. There are twenty 7-member congressional committees. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Congress for indefinite terms. ===Foreign relations=== {{main|Foreign relations of Ecuador}} Ecuador has often placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international issues. Ecuador is a member of the [[United Nations]] (and most of its specialized agencies) and also is a member of many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, and The Andean Pact. == Geography == [[Image:Ecuador landscape near Ambato1.JPG|thumb|right|180px|Rural Highland Landscape, [[Tungurahua_Province|Tungurahua]], Ecuador]] ''Main article: [[Geography of Ecuador]]'' Ecuador has three main geographic regions, plus an insular region in the [[Pacific Ocean]]. # The ''Costa'' comprises the low-lying litoral lying in the western part of the country. Its coastlines are on the Pacific. # The ''Sierra'' region is the mountainous, high-altitude vertical belt running along the centre of the country. This region's [[topography]] is as a result of the [[Andes]] mountain range running along it. # The ''Oriente'' (literally "East") comprises the [[Amazon rainforest]] areas in the eastern part of the country, accounting for just under half of the country's total surface area, though populated by under 5% of the population. # Finally, the ''Región Insular'' is the region comprising the [[Galápagos Islands]], some 1,000 km west of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean. Ecuador's capital is [[Quito, Ecuador|Quito]], and is located in the province of [[Pichincha]] in the Sierra region. Its largest city is [[Guayaquil]], located in the province of [[Guayas]] in the Costa. [[Cotopaxi]], which is located just south of [[Quito]], in the neighbouring province of that same name, is the country's and the world's highest active volcano. ===Provinces=== ''Main article: [[Provinces of Ecuador]]'' [[Image:Ec-map.png|thumb|right|230px|Map of Ecuador]] Ecuador is divided into twenty two provinces, each with its own administrative capital. The capitals are provided in parentheses. {| | *[[Azuay Province|Azuay]] ([[Cuenca, Ecuador|Cuenca]]) *[[Bolívar Province|Bolívar]] ([[Guaranda]]) *[[Cañar Province|Cañar]] ([[Azogues]]) *[[Carchi Province|Carchi]] ([[Tulcán]]) *[[Chimborazo Province|Chimborazo]] ([[Riobamba]]) *[[Cotopaxi Province|Cotopaxi]] ([[Latacunga]]) *[[El Oro Province|El Oro]] ([[Machala]]) *[[Esmeraldas Province|Esmeraldas]] ([[Esmeraldas (city)|Esmeraldas]]) *[[Galápagos Province|Galápagos]] ([[Puerto Baquerizo Moreno]]) *[[Guayas Province|Guayas]] ([[Guayaquil]]) *[[Imbabura Province|Imbabura]] ([[Ibarra]]) | *[[Loja Province|Loja]] ([[Loja, Ecuador|Loja]]) *[[Los Ríos Province|Los Ríos]] ([[Babahoyo]]) *[[Manabí Province|Manabí]] ([[Portoviejo]]) *[[Morona-Santiago]] ([[Macas]]) *[[Napo Province|Napo]] ([[Tena]]) *[[Orellana Province|Orellana]] ([[Puerto Francisco de Orellana]]) *[[Pastaza Province]] ([[Puyo]]) *[[Pichincha Province|Pichincha]] ([[Quito]]) *[[Sucumbíos]] ([[Nueva Loja]]) *[[Tungurahua Province|Tungurahua]] ([[San Juan de Ambato|Ambato]]) *[[Zamora-Chinchipe]] ([[Zamora]]) |} == Economy == ''Main article: [[Economy of Ecuador]]'' Ecuador has substantial [[petroleum]] resources and rich agricultural areas. Because the country exports primary products such as oil, [[banana]]s, and [[shrimp]], fluctuations in world market prices can have a substantial domestic impact. Industry is largely oriented to servicing the domestic market. Deteriorating economic performance in 1997-98 culminated in a severe economic and financial crisis in 1999. The crisis was precipitated by a number of external shocks, including the El Niño weather phenomenon in 1997, a sharp drop in global oil prices in 1997-98, and international emerging market instability in 1997-98. These factors highlighted the Government of Ecuador's unsustainable economic policy mix of large fiscal deficits and expansionary money policy and resulted in an 7.3% contraction of GDP, annual year-on-year inflation of 52.2% and a 65% devaluation of the national currency in 1999, which helped precipitate an unprecedented default on external loans later that year. On [[January 9]], [[2000]], the administration of President Jamil Mahuad announced its intention to adopt the [[U.S. dollar]] as the official currency of Ecuador to address the ongoing economic crisis. Subsequent protest led to the removal of Mahuad from office and the elevation of Vice President Gustavo Noboa to the presidency. The adoption of the U.S. dollar as currency, as opposed to pegging a local currency to it, means that the benefits of [[seigniorage]] accrue to the U.S. economy whether or not there is any compensation for this. The Noboa government confirmed its commitment to dollarize as the centerpiece of its economic recovery strategy. The government also entered into negotiations with the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), culminating in the negotiation of a 12-month stand-by arrangement with the Fund. Additional policy initiatives include efforts to reduce the government's fiscal deficit, implement structural reforms to strengthen the banking system and regain access to private capital markets. Buoyed by high oil prices, the Ecuadorian economy experienced a modest recovery in 2000, with GDP rising 1.9%. However, 70% of the population lives below the [[poverty line]], more than double the rate of 5 years ago. Inflation in 2000 remained high at 96.1%, but the rate of inflation continues to fall. Monthly inflation in February 2001 was 2.9%. == Demographics == ''Main article: [[Demographics of Ecuador]]'' Ecuador's population is ethnically diverse. The largest ethnic group is comprised of ''[[Mestizo|Mestizos]]'', the mixed descendants of Spanish colonists and indigenous Amerindians, who constitute just over 65% of the population. [[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|Amerindians]] are second in numbers and account for approximately a quarter of the current population, around 25%. Whites are mainly ''[[Spanish Criollo peoples|criollos]]'', the unmixed descendants of Spanish colonists, and account for 7%. The small [[Afro-Ecuadorian people|Afro-Ecuadorian]] minority — including [[Mulatto]]s and ''[[zambo]]s'' — constitutes the remainder. Ecuadorians were heavily concentrated in the mountainous central highland region a few decades ago, however, today's population is divided about equally between that area and the coastal lowlands. Migration toward cities--particularly larger cities--in all regions has increased the urban population to about 55%. Due to an economic crisis in the late 1990s, more than 600,000 Ecuadorians [[emigration|emigrated]] to the U.S. and [[Europe]] from 2000 to 2001. The primary reasons for this were the economic and political upheaval that engulfed the country following Mahuad's ouster. Preferred destinations for emigrants include [[Spain]], the [[United States|U.S.]], and [[Italy]]. The tropical forest region to the east of the mountains remains sparsely populated and contains only about 3% of the population. Although the constitution demands that 30% of gross revenue be dedicated to education, the government’s stated goal is to dedicate 11% of the budget. It is estimated that [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) spending will reach 4% in 2003. The UN Children's Fund ([[UNICEF]]) places adult literacy at 90%, but notes that this rate has been stagnant for more than ten years. The UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) reports that only 87% of the primary school teachers and 72% of high school teachers have received training. The public education system is tuition-free, and attendance is mandatory from ages five to fourteen. However, the Ministry of Education reports that only 10% of five year olds actually have access to daily education and that only 66% of youngsters finish six years of schooling. In rural areas, only 10% of the youngsters go on to high school. Ministry statistics give the mean number of years completed as 6.7. Ecuador has sixty one universities, many of which now offer graduate degrees, although only 18% of the faculty in public universities possess graduate degrees themselves. Public universities have an open admissions policy, but some departments have recently implemented admissions standards. The new Board of Higher Education (CONESUP) is working to promote the introduction of teacher evaluation and a national accreditation system. There are also more than 300 Higher Institutes, offering two to three years of post-secondary vocational or technical training. The Higher Education Reform Act transferred oversight of these poorly regulated institutes from the Ministry of Education to the CONESUP. ==Religion== [[Image:Quito_SF.jpg|thumb|200px|Iglesia de San Francisco, [[Quito]], Ecuador]] Around 94% of Ecuadorians are [[Roman Catholic]]. Much of the population is practicing and attend mass regularly. In the rural parts of Ecuador indigenous beliefs and [[Christianity]] have been fused together. Like every Latin American nation, [[Protestant]] Evangelicalism has had massive growth, especially in the rural poor areas, though it has been met by many who are reluctant to convert. Other [[Christian]] groups like [[Jehovah's Witness]] number 50,843 (as of 2005) and is growing. [[Mormons]] have also seen increasing numbers. There is a small [[Muslim]] minority numbering a couple of thousand. The [[Jew]]ish community numbers just over 1,000 individuals and is mostly of [[Germany|German]] origin. == Culture == ''Main article: [[Culture of Ecuador]]'' Ecuador's mainstream [[culture]] is defined by Ecuador's [[mestizo]] majority and, like their ancestry, is a mixture of [[Europe]]an and [[Amerindian]] infl
menian-Americans|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:Iranian Americans|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:Las Vegans|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:Australian Open champions|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:French Open champions|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:Wimbledon champions|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:US Open champions|Agassi, Andre]] [[bg:Андре Агаси]] [[da:Andre Agassi]] [[de:Andre Agassi]] [[et:Andre Agassi]] [[es:Andre Agassi]] [[fr:Andre Agassi]] [[it:Andre Agassi]] [[he:אנדרה אגסי]] [[nl:Andre Agassi]] [[ja:アンドレ・アガシ]] [[no:Andre Agassi]] [[pl:Andre Agassi]] [[pt:Andre Agassi]] [[fi:Andre Agassi]] [[sv:Andre Agassi]] [[zh:安德烈·阿加西]] [[Category:List of Assyrians|Agassi, Andre]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Artificial languages</title> <id>596</id> <revision> <id>15899127</id> <timestamp>2002-07-21T02:57:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Christian</username> <id>899</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constructed language]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Austro-Asiatic languages</title> <id>597</id> <revision> <id>39114113</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T20:32:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Visviva</username> <id>123395</id> </contributor> <comment>link Khmuic.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:MK map.gif|thumb|Austro-Asiatic languages]] The '''Austro-Asiatic languages''' are a large [[language family]] of [[Southeast Asia]] and [[India]]. The name comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words for [[South Asia]]. Among these languages, only [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]], and [[Mon language|Mon]] have a long recorded history, and only Vietnamese and Khmer have official status (in Vietnam and Cambodia, respectively). The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups. Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across India and Southeast Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. It is widely believed that the Austroasiatic languages are the [[autochthonous]] languages of Southeast Asia and eastern India, and that the other languages of the region, including the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Tai-Kadai languages|Tai-Kadai]], and [[Sino-Tibetan]] languages, are the result of later [[human migration|migrations of people]]. (There are, for example, Austroasiatic words in the Tibeto-Burman languages of eastern Nepal.) Some linguists have attempted to prove that Austroasiatic languages are related to [[Austronesian languages]], thus forming the [[Austric languages|Austric]] superfamily. Linguists traditionally recognize two major divisions of Austroasiatic, the [[Mon-Khmer]] languages of Southeast Asia and the [[Munda languages]] of east-central and central India. [[Ethnologue]] identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages, of which 147 are [[Mon-Khmer]] languages and 21 are [[Munda languages]]. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published, and it remains speculative. Each of the subdivisions of the classification below that is written in boldface type is accepted as a valid family. However, the relationships between these families within Austroasiatic is debated. It should be noted that little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review. The classification used here is that of Diffloth (in press), which does not accept traditional Mon-Khmer as a valid unit. * [[Munda languages]] ([[India]]) :* '''Koraput''' (7 languages) :*Core Munda languages ::* '''Kharian-Juang''' (2 languages) ::*North Munda languages ::: '''[[Korku language|Korku]]''' (1 language) ::: '''Kherwarian''' (12 languages) * Khasi-Khmuic languages :* '''[[Khasi language|Khasian]]''' (3 languages) of eastern [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]]. :*Palaungo-Khmuic languages ::* '''[[Khmuic]]''' (13 languages) of [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]]. ::*Palaungo-Pakanic languages ::: '''Pakanic''' or '''Palyu''' (2 languages) of southern [[China]] ::: '''Palaungic''' (21 languages) of [[Myanmar]], southern [[China]], and [[Thailand]], plus Mang of [[Vietnam]]. * [[Mon-Khmer]] languages :* Khmero-Vietic languages ::* Vieto-Katuic languages ::: '''Viet-Muong''' or '''Vietic''' (10 languages) of [[Vietnam]] and [[Laos]], includes the [[Vietnamese language]], which has the most speakers of any Austroasiatic language. These are the only Austroasiatic languages to have highly developed tone systems. ::: '''Katuic''' (19 languages) of [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Thailand]]. ::* Khmero-Bahnaric languages :::* '''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''' (40 languages) of [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], and [[Cambodia]]. :::*Khmeric languages :::: The '''[[Khmer language]]''' of [[Cambodia]], [[Thailand]], and [[Vietnam]]. :::: '''Pearic''' (6 languages) of [[Cambodia]]. :* Nico-Monic languages ::* '''[[Nicobarese languages]]''' (6 languages) of the [[Nicobar Islands]], a territory of India. ::* Asli-Monic languages ::: '''Aslian''' (19 languages) of peninsular [[Malaysia]] and [[Thailand]]. ::: '''Monic''' (2 languages) includes the [[Mon language]] of [[Myanmar]] and the Nyahkur language of [[Thailand]]. There are in addition several unclassified languages of southern China. [[Category:Austro-Asiatic languages|*]] [[da:Austroasiatiske sprog]] [[de:Austroasiatische Sprachen]] [[es:Lenguas austroasiáticas]] [[fi:Austroaasialaiset kielet]] [[fr:Langues austroasiatiques]] [[hu:Ausztroázsiai nyelvcsalád]] [[id:Bahasa Austro-Asia]] [[ko:오스트로아시아어족]] [[lt:Austroazinės kalbos]] [[nl:Austroaziatische talen]] [[ru:Австроазиатские языки]] [[vi:Hệ ngôn ngữ Nam Á]] [[zh:南亚语系]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afro-asiatic languages</title> <id>598</id> <revision> <id>15899129</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afro-Asiatic languages</title> <id>599</id> <revision> <id>41955043</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:34:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mustafaa</username> <id>57891</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/85.250.213.76|85.250.213.76]] ([[User talk:85.250.213.76|talk]]) to last version by Dewet</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Contradict-other|''The population Figures in the Semitic languages Article (and others)''}} [[Image:Afro-Asiatic.png|right|300px|thumb|Map showing the distribution of Afro-Asiatic languages]] The '''Afro-Asiatic languages''' constitute a [[language family]] of about 240 languages and over 307 million people widespread throughout [[North Africa]], [[East Africa]], the [[Sahel]], and [[Southwest Asia]]. Other names sometimes given to this family include &quot;Afrasian&quot;, &quot;Hamito-Semitic&quot; (deprecated), &quot;Lisramic&quot; (Hodge 1972), &quot;Erythraean&quot; (Tucker 1966). The following language subfamilies are included: * [[Berber languages]] * [[Chadic languages]] * [[Egyptian language|Egyptian languages]] * [[Semitic languages]] * [[Cushitic languages]] * [[Beja language]] (subclassification controversial; widely classified as part of Cushitic) * [[Omotic languages]] (controversial; sometimes argued to be outside Afro-Asiatic) The [[Ongota]] language is often considered Afro-Asiatic, but its classification within the family remains controversial, partly for lack of data. [[Harold Fleming]] tentatively suggests that it is an independent branch of non-Omotic Afro-Asiatic. It is not generally agreed on where [[Proto-Afro-Asiatic]] was spoken; [[Africa]] (e.g., [[Igor Diakonoff]], [[Lionel Bender]]) has often been suggested, particularly [[Ethiopia]], because it includes the majority of the diversity of the Afro-Asiatic language family and has very diverse groups in close geographic proximity, often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin. The western [[Red Sea]] coast and the [[Sahara]] have also been put forward (e.g., [[Christopher Ehret]]). [[Alexander Militarev]] suggests that their homeland was in the [[Levant]] (specifically, he identifies them with the [[Natufian culture]]). The Semitic languages are the only Afro-Asiatic subfamily based outside of Africa; however, in historical or near-historical times, some Semitic speakers crossed from South Arabia back into Ethiopia, so some modern Ethiopian languages (such as [[Amharic]]) are Semitic rather than belonging to the substrate Cushitic or Omotic groups. (A minority of academics, e.g. A. Murtonen (1967), dispute this view, suggesting that Semitic may have originated in Ethiopia.) [[Tonal language]]s are found in the Omotic, Chadic, and South &amp; East Cushitic branches of Afro-Asiatic, according to Ehret (1996). The Semitic, Berber and Egyptian branches are not tonal. ==Common features and cognates== Common features of the Afro-Asiatic languages include: *a two-[[grammatical gender|gender]] system in the singular, with the feminine marked by the /t/ sound, *[[Verb Subject Object|VSO]] [[linguistic_typology|typology]] with [[Subject Verb Object|SVO]] tendencies, *a set of [[emphatic consonant]]s, variously realized as glottalized, pharyngealized, or implosive, and *a templatic [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] in which words inflect by internal changes as well as prefixes and suffixes. Some cognates are: *''b-n-'' &quot;build&quot; (Ehret: *''b&amp;#301;n''), attested in Chadic, Semitic (''*bny''), Cushitic (*''m&amp;#301;n''/*''m&amp;#259;n'' &quot;house&quot;) and Omotic (Dime ''bin-'' &quot;build, create&quot;); *''m-t'' &quot;die&quot; (Ehret: *''maaw''), att
sed of independent and collaborative cells that all profess the same cause of reducing outside influence upon [[Islam]]ic affairs. Though al-Qaeda is philosophically heterogeneous, prominent members of the movement are considered to have [[Salafi]] beliefs. The [[National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States]] (9/11 Commission) says that al-Qaeda is responsible for a large number of high-profile, violent attacks against civilians, military targets, and commercial institutions in both the west and the Muslim world. The [[9/11 Commission Report]] attributed the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] on the [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York City]], [[The Pentagon]] in [[Arlington, Virginia|Arlington]] and Flight 93 in Pennsylvania to al-Qaeda. Although the group may have been directly responsible for these attacks, many respected observers such as [[Michael Scheuer]], an ex-[[CIA]] terrorism analyst, believe that al-Qaeda has evolved into a ''movement'' &quot;...where the [[jihad]] is self-sustaining, where Islamic warriors fight America with or without allegiance to al-Qaeda’s bin Laden, and where the name 'al-Qaeda' provides the inspiration for subsequent international attacks.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Experts fear 'endless' terror war | work=MSNBC.com | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8524679 | accessdate=July 9 | accessyear=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion of [[Afghanistan]], when a cadre of non-Afghani, [[Arab]] [[Muslim]] fighters joined the largely [[United States]] and [[Pakistan]]-funded Afghan [[mujahideen|mujāhidīn]] anti-Russian resistance movement. [[Osama bin Laden]], a member of a prominent Saudi Arabian business family, led an informal grouping which became a leading fundraiser and recruitment agency for the Afghan cause in Muslim countries; it channelled Islamic fighters to the conflict, distributed money and provided logistical skills and resources to both fighting forces and Afghan refugees. After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989 many committed veterans of the war wished to fight for Islamic causes elsewhere. The invasion and occupation of Kuwait by Iraq in 1990 saw US and coalition troops sent to Saudi Arabia in preparedness for expelling Iraqi occupying forces from Kuwait. Al-Qaeda was strongly opposed to the secular regime of [[Saddam Hussein]] and bin Laden had offered use of his fighters' services to the Saudi throne, but the deployment of 'infidel' forces to Islamic sacred territory was seen as an act of treachery by bin Laden. He placed the grouping in militant opposition to the [[United States]] and its allies. Al-Qaeda came to claim that the U.S. is oppressive toward Muslims citing U.S. support for [[Israel]] in the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], the US military presence in several Islamic countries (particularly Saudi Arabia) and latterly the 2003 invasion and occupation of Iraq, (&quot;[[Iraq war]]&quot;) as reasons for militant action. [[Osama bin Laden]] and [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] are senior members of al-Qaeda's [[shura]] council, and are believed to be in contact with some of al-Qaeda's other cells. ==Overview== In formal communications, Bin Laden has preferred to use the '''International Front for Jihad against the Jews and Crusaders''' as the name for the grouping rather than &quot;al-Qaeda&quot;. [[Image:Zawahiri.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ayman al-Zawahiri]].]] While common usage of the name &quot;al-Qaeda&quot; dates from much earlier, 2001 saw the first formal use of the name &quot;al-Qaeda&quot; for the grouping when the American government decided to prosecute Bin Laden in his absence using anti-Mafia laws that required the existence of a named criminal organisation. Bin Laden himself is probably the best source for the origin of the al-Qaeda label. Speaking in 2001 he said: &quot;The name 'al Qaeda' was established a long time ago by mere chance. The late Abu Ebeida El-Banashiri established the training camps for our mujahedeen against Russia's terrorism. We used to call the training camp al Qaeda [meaning 'the base' in English]. And the name stayed.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Transcript of Bin Laden's October interview | work=CNN.com | url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/south/02/05/binladen.transcript/index.html | accessdate=February 2 | accessyear=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; Al-Qaeda's philosophical inspiration comes from the writings of [[Sayyid Qutb]], a prominent thinker from the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], whose essays inspired most of the principal militant [[Islamism|Islamist]] movements in the Middle East today. Though it adheres to no particular sect, in general its philosophy is [[Salafist]]. It calls for an armed Islamist [[revolution]] to foment the overthrow of all regimes which do not rule by Islamic law and to enforce the expulsion of Western military and commercial interests from all Muslim countries. According to statements broadcast by al-Qaeda on the internet and on satellite TV channels, the ultimate goal of al-Qaeda is to re-establish the [[Caliphate]] across the Islamic world, by working with allied Islamic extremist groups to overthrow secular or Western-supported regimes. Anti-Israeli sentiments are often expressed. In a 1997 interview with Peter Arnett, Osama bin Laden cites America's presence in the Middle East and its support for Israel as the chief reasons for his organization's actions. Al-Qaeda believes that western governments, and particularly the American government, act against the interests of Muslims. Their grievances have included: the provision of economic and military support to regimes perceived by al-Qaeda as oppressive of Muslims (particularly the US and its support for Israel), the vetoing of United Nations condemnations of Israel, attempts to influence the affairs of Islamic governments and communities, direct support by means of arms or loans for anti-Islamist Arab regimes, maintaining a troop presence in Muslim countries, especially in Saudi Arabia, and (although al-Qaeda has a long history of opposition to Saddam Hussein) the American and British [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. Besides the [[September 11, 2001, attacks]] on the [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York]] and [[the Pentagon]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], al-Qaeda is believed to have been implicitly involved in the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]], and [[Dar-Es-Salaam]], [[Tanzania]], the [[USS Cole bombing|attack on the USS Cole]], the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]], as well as many attacks on people in and of other nations around the world. The military leader of al-Qaeda is widely reported to have been [[Khalid Shaikh Mohammed]], who was arrested in [[Pakistan]] in 2003. Its previous military leader, [[Mohammed Atef]], was killed in a U.S. bombing raid on [[Afghanistan]] in late 2001. ==History of al-Qaeda== ===Afghan jihad=== [[Image:Mujahidin3-250.jpg|thumb|right|275px|A Mujahid (plural:Mujahidin) during the Soviet war in Afghanistan. Photo by Del Boone]] Al-Qaeda evolved from the [[Maktab al-Khadamat]] (Office of Services, MAK) — a [[mujahideen|Mujahidin]] organization fighting to establish an Islamic state during the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]] in the [[1980s]]. Original funding was fosterd by the [[CIA]]. Osama bin Laden was a founding member of the MAK, along with [[Palestinian]] militant [[Abdullah Yusuf Azzam]]. The role of the MAK was to channel funds from a variety of sources (including donations from across the Middle East) into training [[mujahideen|Mujahidin]] from around the world in guerrilla combat, and to transport the combatants to Afghanistan. The MAK was mostly funded by donations from wealthy Muslim individuals but was also allegedly aided by the governments of [[Pakistan]] and [[Saudi Arabia]], and indirectly by the [[United States]], which channeled much of its support via the Pakistani intelligence service, the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) Directorate. During the latter half of the 1980s, the MAK was a relatively minor grouping in Afghanistan with no direct combatants; rather it limited its activities to fundraising, logistics, housing, education, refugee care, recruitment and the financing of other mujahideen. After a protracted and costly war lasting nine years, the Soviet Union finally withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989. [[Mohammed Najibullah]]'s socialist Afghan government was rapidly overthrown by elements of the Mujahidin. With Mujahidin leaders unable to agree on a structure for governance, anarchy ensued with ever-changing control of ill-defined territories falling under constantly reorganising alliances and schisms between regional warlords. ===Outreach from Afghanistan=== Toward the end of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] military mission to Afghanistan, some [[mujahideen|Mujahidin]] wanted to expand their operations to include Islamist struggles in other parts of the world. A number of overlapping and interrelated organizations were formed to further those aspirations. One of these was the organization that would eventually be called al-Qaeda which was formed by Osama bin Laden in 1988. Bin Laden wished to extend the conflict to nonmilitary operations in other parts of the world; Azzam, in contrast, wanted to remain focused on military campaigns. After Azzam was assassinated in 1989, the MAK split, with a significant number joining bin Laden's organization. ===Gulf War and start of US enmity=== Following the Soviet Union withdrawal from Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden returned to [[Saudi Arabia]]. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 had put the Saudi Arabian ruling House of Saud at risk both from internal dissent and the perceived possibility of further Iraqi expansionism. In the face of seemingly massive Iraqi military presence, Saudi Arabia's own forces were well armed but outnumbered. Bin Laden offered the services of his mujahideen to [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|King Fahd]] to protect Saudi Arab
art]] connections, claiming the painter [[John Everett Millais]] as a native, and the cities and countryside have been the subject of paintings by [[L. S. Lowry]] and [[J. M. W. Turner]]. Hampshire's relatively safe waters have allowed the county to develop as one of the busiest [[sailing]] areas in the country, with many [[yacht]] clubs and several manufacturers on the Solent. The sport [[cricket]] was largely developed in south-east England, with one of the first teams forming at [[Hambledon, Hampshire|Hambledon]] in [[1750]]. [[Hampshire County Cricket Club]] today is a successful [[first-class cricket|first-class]] team, captained by [[Shane Warne]]. Hampshire has several [[association football]] teams, the most successful being [[Premier League]] [[Portsmouth F.C.]] and [[Football League Championship|Championship]] side [[Southampton F.C.]], which have traditionally been fierce rivals. ==Transport== There is an international [[airport]] with its own rail station situated between Southampton and Eastleigh, [[Southampton Airport]], and cross-channel ferries link the county to the Isle of Wight and [[Europe]]an continent. The [[South Western Main Line]] railway from [[London]] to [[Weymouth]] runs through Winchester and Southampton, and the [[Wessex Main Line]] from [[Bristol]] to Portsmouth also runs through the county. The [[M3 motorway]] connects the county to London. The construction of the Twyford Down cutting near Winchester caused major controversy by cutting through a series of ancient trackways (the Dongas) and other features of archeeological significance. The [[M27 motorway]] serves a bypass for the major conurbations and as a link to other settlements on the south coast. Other important roads include the [[A3 road|A3]], [[A31 road|A31]] and [[A36 road|A36]]. The county has a high level of car ownership, with 15.7% having no access to a private car compared to 26.8% for England and Wales. The county has a lower than average use of trains (3.2% compared to 4.1% for commuting) and buses (3.2% to 7.4%) but a higher than average use of bicycles (3.5% to 2.7%) and cars (63.5% to 55.3%) {{ref|transport}}. ==See also== * [[List of places in Hampshire|List of places of interest in Hampshire]] * [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in Hampshire]] * [[Wikipedia:List of images/Places/Europe/United Kingdom/Counties/Hampshire|List of images of Hampshire]] * [[Business in Hampshire]] ==External links== {{Commonscat|Hampshire}} *[http://www.hampshire.gov.uk Hampshire County Council] *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/hampshire BBC Hampshire] *[http://www.steinsky.me.uk/hampshire.php Photographs of Hampshire] *[http://www.hantsphere.org.uk/ Hantsphere local history] * West, Ian, 2005. &quot;[http://www.soton.ac.uk/~imw/ Geology of the Wessex coast and Southern England]&quot;, [[Southampton University]]. *[http://www.hampshireonline.co.uk Hampshire news and information] ==Notes== # {{note|av_temp}} Met Office, 2000. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/averages/19712000/tmean/17.gif Annual average temperature for the United Kingdom]. # {{note|av_rainfall}} Met Office, 2000. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/averages/19712000/rr/17.gif Annual average rainfall for the United Kingdom]. # {{note|av_sunshine}} Met Office, 2000. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/averages/19712000/ss/17.gif Annual average sunshine for the United Kingdom]. # {{note|gdp}} Hampshire County Council, 2002. ''[http://www.hants.gov.uk/profile/2002/profiles-21.html Economic factors].'' # {{note|economy}} Hampshire County Council, 2004. ''[http://www.hants.gov.uk/factsandfigures/profileofhampshire-index.html Profile of Hampshire].'' # {{note|census}} [[Office for National Statistics]] &amp; Hampshire County Council, 2003. [http://www.hants.gov.uk/census/ Census 2001 data] # {{note|county_council}} Hampshire County Council, 2005. [http://election.hants.gov.uk/hwstate.aspx Local election results]. # {{note|soton_council}} Southampton City Council, 2005. [http://www.southampton.gov.uk/council/councillors/default.asp#0 Local election results]. # {{note|ports_council}} Portsmouth City Council, 2005. [http://www.portsmouth.gov.uk/yourcouncil/1121.html List of councillors]. # {{note|transport}} Hampshire County Council, 2005. [http://www.hants.gov.uk/factsandfigures/ Facts and Figures website]. ==References== # [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopædia Britannica]], 1911. &quot;[http://59.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HA/HAMPSHIRE.htm Hampshire]&quot;. # Draper, Jo. 1990. ''Hampshire''. Wimborne: Dovecote Press. ISBN 0946159823 # ''Pigot &amp; Co's Atlas of the Counties of England'', 1840. London: J Pigot &amp; Co. {{England ceremonial counties}} &lt;br /&gt; {{England traditional counties}} &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:Hampshire| ]] &lt;!--Interwiki--&gt; [[ang:Sūþhāmtūnscīr]] [[de:Hampshire]] [[es:Hampshire]] [[eo:Hampshire]] [[fr:Hampshire (Angleterre)]] [[nl:Hampshire]] [[no:Hampshire]] [[pl:Hampshire County (Wielka Brytania)]] [[sk:Hampshire]] [[fi:Hampshire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hard science fiction</title> <id>13862</id> <revision> <id>42106348</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:42:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeandré</username> <id>10106</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Film */rm whitespace</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hard science fiction''', or '''hard SF''', is a subgenre of [[science fiction]] characterized by an interest in [[science|scientific]] detail or accuracy. However, there is a great deal of disagreement among readers and writers over what exactly constitutes an interest in scientific detail. Many hard SF stories focus on the [[natural sciences]] and technological developments, but many others leave technology in the background. Others contend that if the technology is left in the background it is an example of [[soft science fiction]]. Another distinction within the genre revolves around portrayals of the human condition. Some authors seek to reflect technical accuracy within an advanced, nearly utopian society in which mankind has attained victory over most human ills; while others seek to portray the impact of technology on the human race with human defects still firmly in place and sometimes even magnified. Some authors scrupulously eschew such implausibilities as [[faster-than-light]] travel, while others accept such plot devices but focus on realistically depicting the worlds that such a technology might make accessible; the hard SF writer is permitted to foresee the automobile provided that he also foresees the traffic jam. In hard science fiction, the main characters are usually working scientists, engineers, military personnel, or [[astronauts]]. Character development is often secondary to explorations of [[astronomy|astronomical]] or [[physics|physical]] phenomena, but some authors foreground the [[human condition]] or the idea that individuals will have different values and ways of life in future societies where technological and economic circumstances have changed. Even in such cases, however, a common trope of hard SF hinges the resolution of the plot on a technological point. Hard science fiction writers usually attempt to make their stories consistent with known science at the time of publication. Even when writing hard SF set in [[alternate universes]] where different physical laws apply, authors still attempt to create an internally consistent set of physical laws. See the article on [[Hal Clement]] for a description of how one hard science fiction author viewed his craft. ==Hard SF authors== Well-known authors often said to be practitioners of hard SF include; * [[Poul Anderson]] * [[Catherine Asaro]] * [[Isaac Asimov]] * [[Iain M. Banks]] * [[John Barnes (author)|John Barnes]] * [[Stephen Baxter]] * [[Greg Bear]] * [[Gregory Benford]] * [[Ben Bova]] * [[David Brin]] * [[Orson Scott Card]] * [[Arthur C. Clarke]] * [[Hal Clement]] * [[John Cramer]] * [[Greg Egan]] * [[Michael Flynn]] * [[Robert Forward]] * [[Joe Haldeman]] * [[Peter F. Hamilton]] * [[Robert A. Heinlein]] * [[James P. Hogan (writer)|James P. Hogan]] * [[Fred Hoyle]] * [[Nancy Kress]] * [[Geoffrey A. Landis]] * [[Stanisław Lem]] * [[Wil McCarthy]] * [[Larry Niven]] * [[Jerry Pournelle]] * [[Paul Preuss]] * [[Alastair Reynolds]] * [[Kim Stanley Robinson]] * [[Joan Slonczewski]] * [[Allen Steele]] * [[Charlie Stross]] * [[Boris and Arkady Strugatsky]] * [[David Weber]] * [[H. G. Wells]] * [[John Varley]] * [[Jules Verne]] * [[Vernor Vinge]] == Hard science fiction in other media == Hard science fiction used to be largely a literary genre, as the complexities of physics were initially perceived to be poorly suited to other media. This perception has been somewhat modified in the latter parts of the [[20th century]] and the early [[21st century]]. ===Film=== One notable early exception to the rule that hard SF is essentially a prose form is ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', though the movie does not present the scientific detail (from physics, computer science, and other fields) contained in the novel. Its sequel, ''[[2010: Odyssey Two|2010]]'', is also fairly faithful to the laws of physics and the practicalities of space travel when compared to other mainstream SF movies. {{spoiler-about|''2001: A Space Odyssey'' and its sequel ''2010: Oddyssey Two''}} However, the alien presence encountered during these films is able to operate outside of the laws of known physics. {{endspoiler}} ''[[Blade Runner]]'' and ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' are sometimes regarded as hard science fiction films, although both are in fact vague about the scientific basis of the technologies depicted. ''The Aliens Colonial Marines Technical Manual'' explains with obssessive detail the technology depicted in ''Alien'', but some explanations — notably regarding faster-than-light travel — remain qu
sed in the [[Elbe]] river (see also [[Hitler's death]]). &quot;It was a suitable conclusion,&quot; Gertraud Weisker said later. &quot;She had nothing. He ripped her out of her job and damned her to loneliness in the mountains. It was an unavoidable end and the logical result of everything that had gone before.&quot; The rest of Eva Braun's family survived the war including her father, who worked in a hospital and to whom Braun sent several trunks of her belongings in April, 1945. Her mother, Franziska died aged 96 in January [[1976]] having lived out her days in an old farmhouse in [[Ruhpolding]], [[Bavaria]]. ==Eva Hitler?== In 1945, a German bride either kept her maiden name or replaced it with her husband's family name. For example, Braun would not have used the Anglo-Saxon forms ''Eva Anna Paula Braun Hitler'' or ''Eva Braun Hitler'' had she lived (or married Hitler earlier). When Eva signed her marriage certificate, she first wrote her family name ''Braun'', then lined this out and replaced it with ''Hitler''. Moreover, bunker personnel were instructed to call her ''Frau Hitler'' during those final 24 hours, so there is ample evidence she chose ''Eva Hitler'' as her legal name. However, since she spent her lifetime as Eva Braun, historical references to her overwhelmingly involve events which happened when she was named ''Braun'' and further, to avoid giving a mistaken impression that Adolf Hitler was married for any meaningful length of time during his political career, the consensus among historians has been to use her maiden name. {{Template:Bunker}} [[Category:1912 births|Braun, Eva]] [[Category:1945 deaths|Braun, Eva]] [[Category:Müncheners|Braun, Eva]] [[Category:Natives of Bavaria|Braun, Eva]] [[Category:German women|Braun, Eva]] [[Category:Roman Catholics|Braun, Eva]] [[Category:Female Nazis|Braun, Eva]] [[Category:Nazi Germany|Braun, Eva]] [[Category:German World War II people|Braun, Eva]] [[Category:Hitler family|Braun, Eva]] [[Category:Suicides|Braun, Eva]] [[Category:Women in war|Braun, Eva]] [[af:Eva Braun]] [[ar:إيفا براون]] [[da:Eva Braun]] [[de:Eva Braun]] [[es:Eva Braun]] [[fa:اوا براون]] [[fr:Eva Braun]] [[ga:Eva Braun]] [[gl:Eva Braun]] [[id:Eva Braun]] [[it:Eva Braun]] [[he:אווה בראון]] [[nl:Eva Braun]] [[ja:エヴァ・ブラウン]] [[no:Eva Braun]] [[nn:Eva Braun]] [[pl:Eva Braun]] [[pt:Eva Braun]] [[ru:Браун, Ева]] [[sl:Eva Braun]] [[fi:Eva Braun]] [[sv:Eva Braun]] [[tr:Eva Braun]] [[zh:爱娃·勃劳恩]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eight bar blues</title> <id>9719</id> <revision> <id>33827225</id> <timestamp>2006-01-04T09:31:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Guypersonson</username> <id>549260</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>link to 16 bar blues</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''eight bar blues''' is a typical [[blues]] [[chord (music)|chord]] progression, taking eight [[time signature|4/4 bars]] to the verse. A basic example of the progression would look like this, using '''T''' to indicate the [[tonic chord|tonic]], '''S''' for the [[subdominant chord|subdominant]], and '''D''' for the [[dominant chord|dominant]], and representing one chord per beat: T T S S T T T T S S S S T T T T T T T T S S S S T T D D T T T T (The same chord progression can also be called a '''[[16 bar blues|sixteen-bar blues]]''', if each symbol above is taken to be a half note in 2/2 or 4/4 time -- blues has not traditionally been associated with notation, so its form becomes a bit slippery when written down.) Many variations are possible. For instance, [[seventh chord]]s are often used just before a change, and more changes can be added. A more complicated example might look like this, where &quot;7&quot; indicates a seventh chord: T T S7 S7 T T T7 T7 S S S7 S7 T T T T T T T7 T7 S S S7 S7 T T D7 D7 T T T D7 When the last bar contains the [[dominant chord|dominant]], that bar can be called a ''turnaround''. Finally, here is an example showing the pattern in the key of D, and how it fits with the lyrics of a given verse. One chord symbol is used per beat, with &quot;-&quot; representing the continuation of the previous chord: D - Woke up this morning with the G - D - D7 - blues down in my soul G - Woke up this morning with the G7 - D - - - blues down in my soul D - D7 - Woke up this morning with the blues in my soul G - Saying &quot;My baby gone and left me, got a G7 - heart black as coal&quot; D - Woke up this morning with the A A7 D - A7 - blues down in my soul [[fy:Acht maats blues]] Some well known eight bar blues are &quot;Ain't Nobody's Business,&quot; &quot;Cherry Red,&quot; and &quot;(Romancing) In The Dark.&quot; See also: [[twelve bar blues]], [[chord progression]]. [[Category:Chord progressions]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Echidna (disambiguation)</title> <id>9720</id> <revision> <id>39447525</id> <timestamp>2006-02-13T04:42:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kdliss</username> <id>509397</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">*An [[echidna]] is any of several Australasian monotremes. *''[[ECHIDNA - High Resolution Powder Diffractometer]]'' - neutron diffraction at [[OPAL]]. *An ancient [[Greek mythology|Greek]] monster was named [[Echidna (mythology)|Echidna]]. *[[Echidna programming language|Echidna]] is a programming language *''[[Echidna (genus)|Echidna]]'' is a [[genus]] of [[moray eel]]s. {{disambig}} [[de:Echidna]] [[it:Echidna]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eigenvalue</title> <id>9722</id> <revision> <id>24986314</id> <timestamp>2005-10-07T16:31:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SeventyThree</username> <id>183256</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eigenvalue, eigenvector and eigenspace]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Edward Waring</title> <id>9723</id> <revision> <id>40316177</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T19:44:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TigerShark</username> <id>161478</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/TigerShark|TigerShark]] to last version by 84.32.129.75</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Edward (Urgelyshnok) Waring''' ([[1736]] - [[August 15]], [[1798]]) was [[United Kingdom|British]] [[mathematician]] who was born in [[Old Heath]] (near [[Shrewsbury]]) [[Shropshire]] [[England]] and died in [[Pontesbury]] [[Shropshire]] [[England]] He was [[Lucasian professor]] of mathematics at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] from [[1760]] until his death. He was awarded the [[Copley Medal]] in 1784. He made the assertion known as [[Warings problem|Waring's Problem]] without proof in his writings ''Meditationes Algebraicae''. ==See also== *[[Warings problem|Waring's Problem]] *[[Lagrange polynomial]] == External links == * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Waring}} {{mathbiostub}} [[Category:1736 births|Waring, Edward]] [[Category:1798 deaths|Waring, Edward]] [[Category:British mathematicians|Waring, Edward]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Waring, Edward]] [[Category:18th century mathematicians|Waring, Edward]] [[Category:Number theorists|Waring, Edward]] [[he:אדוארד וארינג]] [[sv:Edward Waring]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eden Phillpotts</title> <id>9724</id> <revision> <id>40363153</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:48:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eden Phillpotts''' ([[November]], [[1862]] – [[December 29]], [[1960]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] novelist, poet, and dramatist. He was born in [[India]], educated in [[Plymouth]], [[Devon]], and worked as an insurance officer for 10 years before studying for the stage and eventually becoming a writer. He was the author of many novels, plays and poems about [[Dartmoor]]. His Dartmoor cycle of 18 novels and two volumes of short stories still have many avid readers despite the fact that many titles are out of print. Philpotts also wrote many other books with a Dartmoor setting. He was for many years the President of the [[Dartmoor Preservation Association]] and cared passionately about the conservation of Dartmoor. One of his novels, ''Widecombe Fair'', inspired by an annual [[Widecombe Fair|fair]] at the village of [[Widecombe-in-the-Moor]], provided the scenario for his comic play ''[[The Farmer's Wife]]''. It went on to become a silent movie of the same name, directed by [[Alfred Hitchcock]] and filmed in [[1927]]. The cast included: [[Jameson Thomas]], [[Lillian Hall-Davis]], [[Gordon Harker]] and [[Gibb McLaughlin]]. Philpotts was a friend of [[Agatha Christie]], who was a fan of his work and a regular visitor to his home. Some of his novels about Dartmoor include: *''[[My Devon Year]]'' (ISBN 1841141364) *''[[Children of the Mist]]'' *''[[The River]]'' *''[[The Thief of Virtue]]'' *''[[The Whirlwind]]'' *''[[The Beacon]]'' *''[[Orphan Dinah]]'' *''[[The American Prisoner]]'' *''[[Virgin in Judgment]]'' *''[[The Three Brothers]]'' *''[[Children of Men]]'' *''[[The Mother]]'' Among his other works is ''[[The Grey Room]]'', the plot of which is centered on a haunted room in an English manor house. Late in his long writing career he wrote a few books o
&quot; program for Nova running RDOS, by Toby Thain ; uses PCHAR system call .titl hello .nrel .ent start start: dochar: lda 0,@pmsg ; load ac0 with next character, mov# 0,0,snr ; test ac0; skip if nonzero (don't load result) jmp done .systm .pchar ; print first jmp er ; skipped if OK movs 0,0 ; swap bytes .systm .pchar ; print second jmp er ; skipped if OK isz pmsg ; point to next character jmp dochar ; go around again done: .systm ; normal exit .rtn er: .systm ; error exit .ertn halt pmsg: .+1 ; pointer to first character of string ; note bytes are packed right-to-left by default .txt /Hello, world.&lt;15&gt;&lt;12&gt;/ ; that's CR LF 0 ; flag word to end string .end start === 16-bit multiplication === Basic models of the Nova came without built-in hardware multiply and divide capability, to keep prices competitive. The following routine multiplies two 16-bit words to produce a 16-bit word result (overflow is ignored). It demonstrates combined use of ALU op, shift, and test (skip). Note that when this routine is called by &lt;tt&gt;jsr&lt;/tt&gt;, AC3 holds the return address. This is used by the return instruction &lt;tt&gt;jmp 0,3&lt;/tt&gt;. An idiomatic way to clear an accumulator is &lt;tt&gt;sub 0,0&lt;/tt&gt;. Other single instructions can be arranged to load a specific set of useful constants (e.g. -2, -1, or +1). mpy: ; multiply AC0 &lt;- AC1 * AC2, by Toby Thain sub 0,0 ; clear result mbit: movzr 1,1,szc ; shift multiplier, test lsb add 2,0 ; 1: add multiplicand movzl 2,2,szr ; shift and test for zero jmp mbit ; not zero, do another bit jmp 0,3 ; return === Binary print accumulator === The following routine prints the value of AC1 as a 16 digit [[binary number]], on the RDOS console. It reveals further quirks of the Nova instruction set. For instance, there is no instruction to load an arbitrary &quot;immediate&quot; value into an accumulator (although memory reference instructions do encode such a value to form an effective address). Accumulators must generally be loaded from initialised memory locations (e.g. &lt;tt&gt;n16&lt;/tt&gt;). Other contemporary machines such as the [[PDP-11]], and practically all modern architectures, allow for immediate loads, although many such as [[ARM architecture|ARM]] restrict the range of values that can be loaded immediately. Because AC3 is not preserved by the RDOS &lt;tt&gt;.systm&lt;/tt&gt; call, a temporary location is needed to preserve the return address. (For a recursive or otherwise re-entrant routine, the stack must be used instead.) The return instruction becomes &lt;tt&gt;jmp @ retrn&lt;/tt&gt; which exploits the Nova's indirect addressing mode to load the return PC. The constant definitions at the end show two assembler features: the assembler radix is [[octal]] by default (&lt;tt&gt;20&lt;/tt&gt; = sixteen), and character constants could be encoded as e.g. &lt;tt&gt;&quot;0&lt;/tt&gt;. pbin: ; print AC1 on console as 16 binary digits, by Toby Thain sta 3,retrn ; save return addr lda 2,n16 ; set up bit counter loop: lda 0,chr0 ; load ASCII '0' movzl 1,1,szc ; get next bit in carry inc 0,0 ; bump to '1' .systm .pchar ; AC0-2 preserved jmp err ; if error inc 2,2,szr ; bump counter jmp loop ; loop again if not zero lda 0,spc ; output a space .systm .pchar jmp err ; if error jmp @ retrn spc: &quot; ;that's a space chr0: &quot;0 n16: -20 retrn: 0 == Emulating a Data General Nova == Nova assembly language programs can be run under Bob Supnik's [[SIMH]] emulator, in RDOS. Of the above examples, only ''Hello, world'' is a complete program. It includes the necessary directives for a successful assembly and generation of a runnable program. '''''Stepwise instructions''''' Start the Nova emulation and boot RDOS following the instructions under &quot;Nova and Eclipse RDOS&quot; in the file &lt;tt&gt;src/simh_swre.txt&lt;/tt&gt; of the simh distribution. After booting, RDOS' command prompt, &lt;tt&gt;R&lt;/tt&gt;, should appear on the screen. * Before the first assembly on a newly setup RDOS system, the macro assembler's default symbol definitions need to be configured using the following command: &lt;tt&gt;&lt;u&gt;mac/s nbid osid nsid paru&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; *Create the assembly source file under RDOS: &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;xfer/a $tti test.sr&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; (the &lt;tt&gt;xfer&lt;/tt&gt; command will accept input at the console and copy it to a disk file named &lt;tt&gt;test.sr&lt;/tt&gt;; after entering the command, copy and paste (or type in) a complete assembly language program, and finish with Control-Z). *Next, run the macro assembler on &lt;tt&gt;test.sr&lt;/tt&gt; to create the object file &lt;tt&gt;test.rb&lt;/tt&gt;: &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;mac/l test&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; (the &lt;tt&gt;/l&lt;/tt&gt; [slash-ell] option enables the listing file &lt;tt&gt;test.ls&lt;/tt&gt;, which can be copied to the console using the command &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;type test.ls&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt;). *The relocatable loader, &lt;tt&gt;rldr&lt;/tt&gt;, takes the object file and creates the executable &lt;tt&gt;test.sv&lt;/tt&gt; : &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;rldr test&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; *To run the program, type &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;test&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; Before going further with serious experimentation, it can be convenient to check one's programs at the PC using a suitable cross-assembler, such as the portable PDP-8/DG Nova cross-assembler listed in the External links section, before attempting execution in the RDOS environment. '''''RDOS hints''''' * To have a directory listing of all files with basename &lt;tt&gt;test&lt;/tt&gt;, type &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;list test.-&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; (note the hyphen, RDOS' [[wildcard]] character) * Delete files with &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;delete&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; (this might be needed because &lt;tt&gt;xfer&lt;/tt&gt; won't replace an existing file) * A running program can usually be interrupted with Control-A * To exit RDOS, type &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;release %mdir%&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; * Quit simh at its prompt with &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;q&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; ==External links== *[http://simh.trailing-edge.com Bob Supnik's SimH project] &amp;ndash; Includes a basic Nova emulator in a user-modifiable package *[http://www.NovasAreForever.com SimuLogic's website] &amp;ndash; Attempts to archive everything DG plus provide free and commercial products *[http://www.telegraphics.com.au/sw/info/dpa.html A portable PDP-8 and DG Nova cross-assembler] [[Category:Minicomputers]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Protestant Church in the Netherlands</title> <id>8659</id> <revision> <id>41891465</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:59:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BrownHairedGirl</username> <id>754619</id> </contributor> <comment>Disambig: [[congregation (worship)|congregations]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:logo Protestantse Kerk.jpg|250px|right|thumb]] The '''Protestant Church in the Netherlands''' ([[Dutch language|Dutch]]: '''Protestantse Kerk in Nederland''' &lt;nowiki&gt;[[PKN]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;) came into being on [[1 May|1 May]] [[2004]] as a [[merger]] of the [[Dutch Reformed Church]] (''Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk'', NHK), the [[Reformed Churches in the Netherlands]] (''Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland'', GKN) and the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands]] (''Evangelisch-Lutherse Kerk in het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden''). Since [[1961]] the churches have been going through an organizational process to this end. The PKN has roughly 2,700 congregations and a membership of some 2,500,000 , about 17,5% of the Dutch population. After the Catholic Church, it is the second largest church body in the [[Netherlands]]. The PKN has four different types of congregations: 1: Protestant Congregations are local congregations from different church bodies that have merged. 2: Dutch Reformed congregations 3: Reformed Churches (congregations of the former Reformed Churches in the Netherlands) 4: Lutheran congregations (congregations of the former Evangelical-Lutheran Church) Lutheran congregations are special in that they are federated in a separate Lutheran Synod, which is an autonomous synod in the PKN, the Lutheran Synod also sends representatives to the PKN Synod. Some [[congregation (worship)|congregations]] and members in the Dutch Reformed Church did not agree with the merger and have separated. They have organized themselves in the &quot;Restored Reformed Church&quot;, ''&quot;Hersteld Hervormde Kerk&quot;'' (HHK). Estimations of their membership vary from 35,000 up to 70,000 people in about 120 local congregations. They disagree with the plural constitution of the merged church which contains, as they see it, contradicting Reformed and Lutheran confessions. This group also condemns same-sex marriages and female clergy. Only those congregations belonging to the former Reformed Churches in the Netherlands have the legal right to secceed from the PKN without losing its property and church during a transition period of 10 years. Five congregations have so far decided to form the &quot;Voortgezette Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland&quot; (Continued Reformed Church in the Netherlands) with about 3,400 members. Two congregations joined one of the other smaller reformed churches in the Netherlands. Some minorities within congregations that joined the PKN decided to leave the church and associated themselves individualy with one of the other reformed churches. The PKN, being, at least partly, a former state church is a denomination which has both liberal and conservative streams. Local congregations have far reaching powers concerning &quot;controversial&quot; matters (such as whether or not women are admitted as members of the congregation's [[consistory]] or admittance to [[holy communion]
dacyla'' (Guadalupe, East Pacific) * [[St Helena Bulwer's Petrel]], ''Bulweria bifax'' (Saint Helena, Atlantic, early [[16th century]]) * [[Jamaican Petrel]], ''Pterodroma caribbaea'' (Jamaica, West Indies) : Might be a subspecies of the [[Black-capped Petrel]]; unconfirmed reports suggest it might survive. * ''Pterodroma'' cf. ''leucoptera'' (Mangareva, Gambier Islands, [[20th century]]?) : A wing of a carcass similar to [[Gould's Petrel]] was recovered on Mangareva in 1922, where it possibly bred. No such birds are known to exist there today. * [[Falla's Petrel]], ''Pterodroma occulta'' (Vanuatu? [[20th century]]?) : Only known from 6 specimens taken in [[1927]] near Vanuatu. Might still survive; breeding grounds unknown and was not recognized until [[2001]]. * [[St Helena Gadfly Petrel]], ''Pterodroma rupinarum'' (Saint Helena, Atlantic, early [[16th century]]) ===[[Pelecaniformes|Cormorants and related birds]]=== * [[Spectacled Cormorant]], ''Phalacrocorax perspicillatus'' ===[[Ciconiiformes|Heron]]s and related birds=== * [[Réunion Night Heron]], ''Nycticorax duboisi'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, [[1674]]) * [[Mauritius Night Heron]], ''Nycticorax mauritianus'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, [[1700]]) * [[Rodrigues Night Heron]], ''Nycticorax megacephalus'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, [[1761]]) * [[Ascension Night Heron]], ''Nycticorax olsoni'' (Ascension Island, Atlantic, late [[16th century]]?) * [[New Zealand Little Bittern]], ''Ixobrychus novazelandiae'' (New Zealand, [[1900]]) * [[Réunion Sacred Ibis]], ''Threskiornis solitarius'' (Réunion, Mascarenes [[1750]]) :This species was the base for the supposed &quot;Réunion Solitaire&quot;, a supposed relative of the [[Dodo]] and the [[Rodrigues Solitaire]]. Given the fact that ibis, but no dodo-like bones were found on [[Réunion]] and that old descriptions match a flightless Sacred [[Ibis]] quite well, the &quot;Réunion Solitaire&quot; hypothesis has been refuted. * The &quot;Painted Vulture&quot; (''Sarcorhamphus sacra''), a [[Florida]]n bird supposedly similar to the [[King Vulture]], is based on a misidentification of the [[Crested Caracara]]. ===[[Bird of prey]]=== * [[Ndzouani Goshawk]], ''Accipiter francesii pusillus'' :This subspecies of [[Frances' Goshawk]] from Ndzouani (Anjouan), Comoros, was last seen in [[1978]]; given that few habitat remains, it is probably extinct. * [[Car Nicobar Sparrowhawk]], ''Accipiter butleri butleri'' (Car Nicobar, Nicobar Islands, [[20th century]]?) : The nominate subspecies of the [[Nicobar Sparrowhawk]] - which is currently listed as [[Endangeered Species|Vulnerable]] - is possibly extinct. It was last reliably recorded in [[1901]] and despite searches, has not been sighted after an unconfirmed record in [[1977]]. * [[Korean Sea Eagle]], ''Haliaeetus pelagicus niger'', a subspecies of [[Steller's Sea Eagle]] (Korea, [[1950]]s) * [[Guadalupe Caracara]], ''Polyborus lutosus'' (Guadelupe, East Pacific, [[1900]] or [[1903]]) * [[Réunion Kestrel]], ''Falco duboisi'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, c.[[1700]]) ===[[Rail (bird)|Rails]]=== * [[Saint Helena Swamphen]], ''Aphanocrex podarces'' (Saint Helena, Atlantic, [[16th century]]) - formerly ''Atlantisia'' * [[Lord Howe Swamphen]], ''Porphyrio albus'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, early [[19th century]]) * [[Marquesan Swamphen]], ''Porphyrio paepae'' (Hiva Oa, Marquesas) :May have survived into the [[19th century]]. in the lower right corner of [[Paul Gauguin]]'s [[1902]] painting ''Le Sorcier d'Hiva Oa ou le Marquisien à la cape rouge'' there is a bird which reminds of native descriptions of ''P. paepae''. * [[North Island Takahē]], ''Porphyrio mantelli'' from North Island, New Zealand, may have survived into the [[19th century]]. * [[Oiseau bleu]], ''Porphyrio'' sp. (Réunion, Mascarenes, around [[1750]]) :Known only from descriptions. Former existence of a ''Porphyrio'' on Réunion fairly certain, but not proven to date. * [[Antillean Cave-Rail]], ''Nesotrochis debooyi'' from Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands possibly survived into the Modern Era. * [[Mauritius Red Hen]], ''Aphanapteryx bonasia'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes) * [[Leguat's Gelinote]], ''Aphanapteryx leguati'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes) * [[Hawkins' Rail]], ''Diaphorapteryx hawkinsi'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific, [[19th century]]) * [[Réunion Rail]], ''Dryolimnas augusti'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, c.[[1700]]) * [[Dieffenbach's Rail]], ''Gallirallus dieffenbachii'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific) * [[Chatham Islands Rail]], ''Gallirallus modestus'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific) * [[Tahitian Red-billed Rail]], ''Gallirallus pacificus'' (Tahiti, Society Islands) * [[Wake Island Rail]], ''Gallirallus wakensis'' (Wake Island, Micronesia) * [[Ascension Island Rail]], ''Mundia elpenor'' (Ascension, Island, Atlantic, late [[17th century]]) - formerly ''Atlantisia'' * [[Saint Helena Crake]], ''Porzana astrictocarpus'' (Saint Helena, Atlantic, early [[16th century]]) * [[Kosrae Island Crake]], ''Porzana monasa'' (Kosrae, Carolines) * [[Laysan Rail]], ''Porzana palmeri'' (Laysan Island, Hawaiʻian Islands, [[1943]]) * [[Hawaiian Rail]], ''Porzana sandwichensis'' (Big Island, Hawaiʻian Islands) * [[Samoan Wood Rail]], ''Pareudiastes pacificus'' * [[Tristan Moorhen]], ''Gallinula nesiotis'' (Tristan da Cunha, Atlantic) * [[Mascarene Coot]], ''Fulica newtonii'' (Mauritius and Réunion, Mascarenes, c.[[1700]]) * Rallidae gen. et sp. indet. :Unknown rail from [[Amsterdam Island]], one specimen found but not recovered. Extinct by [[1800]]. ===[[Charadriiformes|Shorebirds, gulls and auks]]=== * [[Javanese Lapwing]], ''Vanellus macropterus'' * [[Tahitian Sandpiper]], ''Prosobonia leucoptera'' * [[White-winged Sandpiper]], ''Prosobonia ellisi'' * [[Eskimo Curlew]], ''Numenius borealis'' - may still exist; officially classified as [[Endangered species|critically endangered]] * [[Great Auk]], ''Alca impennis'' or ''Pinguinus impennis''. At 75 centimeters, the flightless Great Auk was the largest of the [[auk]]s. It was hunted to extinction for food and down for mattresses. The last pair were killed [[July 3]], [[1844]]. * [[Canarian Black Oystercatcher]], ''Haematopus meadewaldoi'' ===[[Pigeon]]s, doves and [[dodo]]s=== [[Image:ExtinctDodoBird.jpeg|right|frame|Dodo]] * [[Saint Helena Flightless Pigeon]], ''Dysmoropelia dekarchiskos'', possibly survived into the Modern Era. * [[Passenger Pigeon]], ''Ectopistes migratorius'' :The passenger pigeon was once probably the most common bird in the world, a single swarm numbering up to several billion birds. It was hunted close to extinction for food and sport in the late 19th century. The last individual died in the [[Cincinnati Zoo]] in [[1914]]. * [[Madeiran Wood Pigeon]], ''Columba palumbus maderensis'', the [[Madeira]]n subspecies of the [[Wood Pigeon]] * [[Réunion Pigeon]], ''Columba duboisi'' (Réunion, Mascarenes) * [[Rodrigues Pigeon]], ''Columba rodericana'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes) - possibly subspecies of the [[Madagascar Pigeon]] * The [[Silvery Pigeon]], ''Columba argentina'', has not been observed for considerable time and may be extinct. * [[Bonin Wood Pigeon]], '' Columba versicolor'' * [[Lord Howe Metallic Pigeon]], ''Coluumba vitiensis godmanae'', the [[Lord Howe Island]] subspecies of the [[Metallic Pigeon]] * [[Ryukyu Pigeon]], ''Columba jouyi'' * [[Choiseul Crested Pigeon]], ''Microgoura meeki'' (Choiseul, Solomon Islands) * [[Liverpool Pigeon]], ''&quot;Caloenas&quot; maculata'' :Also known as the Spotted Green Pigeon, the only specimen has been in [[Liverpool]] Museum since 1851, and was probably collected on a [[Pacific]] island for [[Edward Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby]]. It has been suggestes that this bird came from [[Tahiti]] based on native lore about a somewhat similar extinct bird called ''titi'', but this has not been verified. * [[Dodo]], ''Raphus cucullatus'' :Called ''Didus ineptus'' by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]. A meter-high (yard-high) flightless bird found on [[Mauritius]]. Its forest habitat was lost when Dutch settlers moved to the island and the dodo's nests were destroyed by the monkeys, pigs, and cats the Dutch brought with them. The last specimen was killed in [[1681]], only 80 years after the arrival of the new predators. See also [[dodo tree]]. * [[Rodrigues Solitaire]], ''Pezophaps solitaria'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, c.[[1730]]) * For the &quot;Réunion Solitaire&quot;, see [[Réunion Flightless Ibis]]. * [[Marquesas Fruit Pigeon]], ''Ptilinopus mercierii'' * [[Mauritius Blue Pigeon]], ''Alectroenas nitidissima'' (Mauritius, Madcarenes, [[19th century]]) * [[Rodrigues Grey Pigeon]], ''&quot;Alectroenas&quot; rodericana'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes) : A mysterious bird of unknown affinities, known from one or two bones and the description of [[François Leguat]]. * [[Tanna Ground Dove]], ''Gallicolumba ferruginea'' (Tanna, Vanuatu) * [[Thick-billed Ground Dove]], ''Gallicolumba salamonis'' * [[Norfolk Island Ground Dove]], ''Gallicolumba norfolciensis'' (Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific) ===[[Parrot]]s=== * [[Norfolk Island Kaka]], '' Nestor productus'' (Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, [[1851]]) * [[Paradise Parrot]], ''Psephotus pulcherrimus'' (Australia, [[1927]]) * [[Society Parakeet]], ''Cyanoramphus ulietanus'' * [[Black-fronted Parakeet]], ''Cyanoramphus zealandicus'' * [[Macquarie Island Red-crowned Parakeet]], ''Cyanoramphus erythrotis erythrotis'' (Macquarie Islands, Southwest Pacific) * [[Lord Howe Island Red-fronted Parakeet]], ''Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae subflavescens'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific) * [[Seychelles Parakeet]], ''Psittacula wardi'' (Seychelles, [[1883]]) * [[Newton's Parakeet]], ''Psittacula exsul'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, [[1875]]) * [[Carolina Parakeet]], ''Conuropsis carolinensis'' :The only parrot native to the eastern [[United States|US]], the Carolina Parakeet was hunted to extinction for its plumage and to prevent damage to crops; it also suffered from destruction of its habitat. The last one d
animal, even though their horses undeniably descend from ponies. ===Words for gaits=== All horses move naturally with four basic [[gait]]s; these are referred to as the walk, the [[Trot (horse gait)|trot]]/jog, the [[Horse gait|canter/lope]] (&quot;canter&quot; in English riding, &quot;lope&quot; in Western), and the gallop. '''The [[Horse gait|walk]]''' A walk is a &quot;four-beat&quot; lateral gait in which a horse must have three feet on the ground and only one foot in the air at any time. The walking horse will lift first a hind leg, then the foreleg on the same side, then the remaining hind leg, then the foreleg on the same side. A rider on a trained horse gently squeezes the sides of the animal and releases the pressure on its [[reins]] in order to initiate a walk from a stationary position. To initiate a walk when a horse is trotting, the rider gently applies pressure on the reins. '''The [[trot (horse gait)|trot/jog]]''' A [[trot (horse gait)|trot]] is a &quot;two beat&quot; diagonal gait in which a foreleg and opposite hindleg (often called &quot;diagonals&quot;) touch the ground at the same time. In this gait, each leg bears weight separately, making it ideal to check for lameness or for stiffness in the joints. A rider on a walking horse initiates a trot by reducing tautness on the reins and applying more leg pressure. There are two types of trot a rider can perform; these are called posting trot, in which the rider stands up slightly in the saddle each time the animal's outside front leg goes forward, and sitting trot, in which the rider sits in the saddle and matches the horse's movement. During the trot, at one time, all four of the horses hoove are off of the surfase it is trotting on. '''The [[Horse gait|canter/lope]]''' A canter is a &quot;three beat&quot; gait in which a foreleg and opposite hindleg strike the ground together, and the other two legs strike separately. A cantering horse will first stride off with the outside hind leg, then the inside hind and outside fore together, then the inside front leg, and finally a period of suspension in which all four legs are off the ground. the rhythm should be ''1-2-3'', ''1-2-3'', etc. When cantering in a straight line, it does not usually matter which foreleg (or leading leg) goes first, but both leads should receive equal practice time, as otherwise the horse may become &quot;one-sided&quot; or develop a reluctance to canter on a specific lead. In the arena, the horse should canter on the inside lead. In making a fairly tight turn, the inside leg (the one nearest to the center of the turn) should lead, as this prevents the horse from &quot;falling in&quot;. To get a horse to canter on the correct leg from trot, one must go into sitting trot, place their outside leg slightly behind the girth and squeeze with the inside leg. To get a horse to canter from gallop, one must alter the position of the body slightly back in the saddle, then you must place the outside leg behind the girth to allow the horse to canter on the correct leg, and apply pressure on the reins. Also called &quot;lope&quot; when riding in a Western show class. The canter is not a natural gait, but a restrained form of a gallop. '''The [[Horse gait|gallop]]''' [[Image:Gallop.jpg||thumb|250px|right|At the gallop, with all four feet off the ground]] The gallop is another &quot;four beat&quot; gait which follows a similar progression to the canter, except the two paired legs land separately, the hind leg landing slightly before the foreleg. The gallop also involves having a leading leg. In turning at a very rapid rate, it is even more important that the horse use the appropriate lead, leading with the left leg if making a left turn, and the right leg if making a right turn, since the faster the turn the more the horse needs to lean into the turn. Horses that usually are galloped in a straight line need to be caused to alternate leads so that they do not suffer a muscular imbalance and subsequent difficulty making turns in one direction or the other. To get a horse into gallop, the rider must alter their position so they are slightly more forward in the saddle, then they should allow the horse to head and gently kick the horse's sides. The gallop is usually used in races or fox hunting. However, one would not gallop a horse during training in a ring or enclosed area, due to the fact that the horse may slip in attempting to gallop in such an area. Although a race track is an enclosed area, it is designed for a horse to gallop around, without being too enclosed which may cause the horse to slip while turning. '''Other gaits''' Some horses, called Gaited Horses, have gaits other than the most common four above. For details, see [[Horse gait]]s. ===Words relating to horses=== You can view an entire equine dictionary at: [http://ultimatehorsesite.com/dictionary/dictionary.html The Horse Dictionary] * [[Bronco]] - a wild, untamed horse, typically used in reference to the American [[mustang]]. * Brumby - a wild or untrained [[Australia]]n horse * '''''Charger''''' - a medieval [[war horse]] of lighter build not to be confused with a destrier * '''cob''' - any horse of a short-legged, stout variety, with short legs, and a compact body, neck and back * '''colt''' - an unaltered male horse from birth till the age of 4. * [[destrier]] - a heavy, strong medieval [[war horse]] not to be confused with a charger or palfrey * [[draught horse]] - heavy, muscular [[beast of burden]] * [[filly]] - female horse from birth till the age of 4. * '''foal''' - infant horse of either sex * [[garron]] - small and disdained horse * [[gelding]] - a [[castrate]]d male horse of any age * '''god dog''' - how the [[Apache]]s referred to horses * '''green''' - a term used to describe an inexperienced horse * [[hack]] - A horseback ride taken for the purpose of pleasure, either for horse or rider. Not a trail ride or schooling ride. Generally used only by English-style riders. eg. ''I'm going out on a hack.&quot;'' * [[hackney (horse)|hackney]] - a specific breed of flashy, elegant driving pony * [[Hand (unit)|Hand]] - a unit of measuring used frequently to measure a horses height. One hand is equal to 4 inches (appox. 10 cm) * horse - adult equine of either sex over 14.2 hh (58 inches, 1.47 [[metre|m]]) * [[jenny]] - a female donkey * Mule- a jenny and a stallion mated * [[mare]] - adult female horse * [[Mustang (horse)|mustang]] - a [[feral]] horse found in the western plains of North America. According to BLM, though, a mustang is an unclaimed, unbranded, free-roaming horse. * nag - A rude term used to describe old horses, 'ugly' horses (but beauty is only skin deep) or skinny, sickly horses. * [[palfrey]] - a smooth gaited type, a riding horse, often used incorrectly to mean a woman's horse, but in fact, was ridden by knights and ladies and instead refers to the light build of the riding horses body. The word being derived from the latin for 'light horse'. * [[pony]] - equine 14.2 hh or less (58 inches, 1.47 metres) * '''School Horse/Pony'''- A horse owned by a riding academy * shelt or shelty - a [[Shetland pony]] * [[stallion]] - adult, male horse that is able to produce offspring * '''weanling''' - a young horse that has just been weaned from their mother (usually 6 months or a little older) * '''yearling''' - male or female horse one to two years old In [[horse racing]] the definitions of colt, filly, mare, and horse differ from those given above. [[Thoroughbred]] racing defines a '''colt''' as a male [[horse]] less than five years old and a filly as a female horse less than five years old; [[harness racing]] defines colts and fillies as less than four years old. Horses older than colts and fillies become known as horses and mares respectively. ===Words relating to horse anatomy=== [[image:Horse parts.jpg|thumb|250px|Horse parts]] ; [[withers]]: the highest point of the shoulder seen best with horse standing square and head slightly lowered. The tops of the two shoulder blades and the space between them define the withers. ; mane and forelock: long and relatively coarse hair growing from the dorsal ridge of the neck, lying on either the left or right side of the neck, and the continuation of that hair on the top of the head, where it generally hangs forward. (See illustration.) ; Dock: the point where the tail connects to the rear of the horse. ; Flank: Where the hind legs and the stomach of the horse meet. ; Pastern: The connection between the coronet and the fetlock. Made up of the middle and proximal phalanx. ; Fetlock: Resembles the ankle of the horse. Known to anatomists as the metacarpophalangeal joint. ; Coronet: The part of the hoof that connects the hoof to the pastern. ; Cannon: Resembles the shin of the horse. Consists of metacarpal III. ; Muzzle: the chin, mouth, and nostrils make up the muzzle on the horse's face. ; Crest: the point on the neck where the mane grows out of. ; Poll: the portion of the horse's neck right behind the ears. ; Hock: Hindlimb equivalent to the Heel, the main joint on the hind leg. ; Stifle: corresponds to the elbow of a horse, except on the hind limb. ; Gaskin: also known as the &quot;second thigh,&quot; the large muscle on the hind leg, just above the hock, below the stifle. ; Jowl: the cheek bone under the horses ear on both sides ; [[Chestnut (horse)|Chestnut]]: on the inside of every leg === Horse coat colors and markings=== [[Image:Horse.jpg|thumb|horses]] Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings, and a specialized vocabulary has evolved to describe them. In fact, one will often refer to a horse in the field by his or her coat color rather than by breed or by gender. ====Coat colors include:==== * [[Appaloosa]] - a breed of horse with spots, any color mixed with white. There are different patterns: blanket- white blanket that typically starts around or behind withers with dark spots mostly over the hips,
ns property in [[Carmel]], but Nabal is miserly and refuses. Angered, David prepares to attack Nabal and kill those surrounding him. Nabal's clever and pretty wife, Abigail, sends David provisions, causing David to relent. She tells Nabal, once he has sobered up, and Nabal is soon after struck dead by Yahweh. David thus proposes marriage to Abigail, who accepts. David also marries Ahinoam of Jezreel, though meanwhile Michal, his original wife, is transferred by Saul to another man, [[Palti]]. *'''The story of [[Achish]]''' (1 Samuel 21:10-16, 27:1-28:2, and 29:1-11) - David decides that it is better to be on the safe side, and so choses to reside amongst the Philistines, staying with the king of Gath, Achish. Previously David had briefly fled to Achish having left Ahimelech, where he feigned insanity to avoid attracting attention, but this time he lets Achish realise that he is an enemy of Saul. However, David continues to make raids against the surrounding population, slaughtering everyone he meets so that none will tell Achish what he has done. When he brings back spoils, he tells the king of Gath that he has raided against some foreign group or the Israelites or Judah. Achish trusts him implicitly, and so requests that David join him in an attack on Jezreel. The Philistines encamp against the Israelites, but are curious why the Hebrews (some translations have &quot;some of the Hebrews&quot;) are amongst the Philistines. Uneasy about David's presence they tell Achish to send him away, and so Achish reluctantly does so. *'''The [[Witch of Endor]]''' (1 Samuel 28:3-25) - Samuel dies (c.f. 1 Samuel 25), and Saul sees the Philistines encamping at Shunem, and is disheartened. Saul tries to consult God for advice but receives no reply, and as he has banned necromancy and prophecy, in accordance with the [[mitzvah]], he is forced to disguise himself and go to the Witch of Endor. He asks her to bring up Samuel from the dead, which she does, and Samuel admonishes Saul for acting this way, and tells him that owing to Saul's past failure to commit complete genocide regarding Amalek, Saul is already condemned. Saul becomes deeply shaken, and refuses to eat, but is eventually persuaded. *'''The story of [[Ziklag]]''' (1 Samuel 30:1-31) - Ziklag is burnt to the ground by the Amalekites, though they take the people, including David's wives, captive. David and his men therefore set off in pursuit, though some give up on the way. The men meet a slave of the Amalekites who has escaped and who leads them to the Amalekite raiders. David slaughters all but 400 of the raiders, and recovers his property and wives, as well as extra spoil which he divides amongst his followers, except those that gave up, and sends a portion of the spoil to Judah, city by city. *'''The [[death of Saul and Jonathan]]''' (1 Samuel 31:1-2 Samuel 1:27) - the Philistines attack the Israelites at Gilboa, and kill Jonathan and inflict a mortal wound on Saul. Saul asks his armour bearer to finish him off, who does so and then kills himself. The Philistines cut the bodies into pieces, displaying them on the wall of [[Bethshan]], though the inhabitants of [[Jabesh-gilead]] later rescue the bodies, cremating them and burying the bones under a tamarisk tree. An Amalekite comes to David and tells him that Saul and Jonathan are dead, and that Saul was mortally wounded and asked him to finish him, so he did so. David is incenced and orders the Amalekite to be killed, delivering a eulogy about Jonathan and Saul, which is recorded in the [[Book of Jasher]]. ;The period of David's reign involves: *'''The story of [[Ishbaal]]''' (2 Samuel 2:1-3:1, 3:6-4:3, and 4:5-5:5) David is anointed king in Hebron, but only over Judah. Saul's son, Ishbaal, is taken by Abner to [[Mahanaim]] and appointed king of Israel. The two sides meet at Gibeon and stage some form of activity between 12 men on each side, thrusting swords into their opponents, hence the place became known as [[Helkath-hazzurim]] (''field of sides''). After a fierce battle, David's side wins. Asahel, brother of Joab, David's commander, sets out after Abner, but Abner twice tells him to stop, but since he doesn't listen, Abner thrusts his javelin into Asahel, who dies. Joab continues the chase as far as Ammah, where Abner warns him to stop to avoid more bad blood, so Joab stops the pursuit. However, there was a war between the two groups that lasted for ages with David's side gradually winning. Abner is intimate with Rizpah, one of Saul's concubines, angering Ishbaal. Abner decides to change sides, and brings Michal back to David, sending Paltiel, her other husband, back home weeping. Abner persuades the elders of Israel to change to David's side as well. When Abner arrives in David's court, Joab secretly follows him, and stabs him in revenge for killing his brother. David however curses Joab for this, and sings a eulogy to Abner. Ishbaal is killed in his sleep by his own leaders, the sons of Rimmon, who cut off his head and take it to David, but David has them killed for killing a king. David is anointed King of Israel in Hebron. *'''A list of the [[sons of David]]''' (2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:13-16) - During Ishbaal's rebellion, David has some children. Later, David takes more concubines and has further children. *'''The [[conquest of Jerusalem]]''' (2 Samuel 5:6-12, and 5:17-7:29) - David sets out for Jerusalem, and manages to take the stronghold of [[Zion]]. Since he was told by the Jebusites that the blind and the lame would turn him away, he makes the blind and the lame his personal enemy. David instructs his people to attack the Jebusites via the water shaft. [[Hiram]], king of Tyre, sends master craftsmen to David to build him a palace, and David also builds up the area surrounding it. The Philistines attack, overrunning the valley of Rephaim, but he defeats them at a place that becomes known as [[Baal-perazim]] (''lord of scatterings''). The second attack by the Philistines is defeated when David approaches via the rear, and they are routed. David then requests the Ark be moved to Jerusalem, but when it reaches Nodan it is unsteady, and [[Uzzah]] puts his hand on it to steady it, but is struck dead for this by God. David becomes more cautious and leaves the ark with [[Obed-edom]] for three months, though noting Obed-edom's subsequent good fortune, brings the Ark to Zion. David joins the subsequent celebrations, but is castigated for doing so by Michal, who accuses him of exposing himself, and hence Michal is made permanently infertile by God. David asks Nathan whether the Ark should be housed in grander settings, but Nathan tells him that where it is fine for the moment and prophecies that one of David's sons will be the one to build a new home for it. *'''The story of [[David's vassal states]]''' (2 Samuel 8:1-15) - David attacks the Philistines, taking their ''[[methegammah]]'' (literally ''bridle of the cubit'' though many translations render this as ''chief cities''). David also defeats Moab and executes a proportion (either 1/3 or 2/3) of their entire population, making Moab a vassal. David then defeats [[Hadadezer]], and though the Aramaeans come to Hadadezer's aid, David slaughters them, making the Aramaeans vassals. King Toi of Hamath, Hadadezer's enemy, congratulates David and adds to his spoils of precious metals. On his return (from an unspecified location), David becomes famous for slaughtering 18,000 Edomites, whereupon Edom becomes a vassal state. *A '''list of [[officers in David's court]]''' (2 Samuel 8:16-18, and 20:23-26) - A list of officers in David's court is given on two occasions. The list includes the head of the army, chancellor ([[Jehoshaphat]]), master of the slaves, and commander of foreign troops, as well as the two priests - [[Zadok]] and [[Abiathar]], David's personal priest - [[Ira]] the [[Jairite]], and the name of a scribe - [[Shawsha]]. *'''The story of the [[mercenaries of the Ammonites]]''' (2 Samuel 10:1-19) - The king of the Ammonites dies, and is succeeded by Hanun, so, reflecting the prior king's kindness to David, David sends messengers to Hanun to give his condolences. However, they are interpreted by Hanun as spies, so he has the base of their beards cut off, and the base of their garments below their buttocks, giving them a babylonian appearance. When they return, David tells them to wait in Jericho until their beards grow. The Ammonites then prepare for war, and hire a mercenary army from [[Aram]], [[Tob]], and [[Maacah]], but it doesn't reach the Ammonites before David's army are too close. Joab splits David's army into two groups, one to attack the Aramaeans, and one to attack the Ammonites. The Aramaeans flee before David's army, and so the Ammonites, now without help, withdraw. Hadadezer hires Aramaeans that live beyond the Euphrates, and they attack the Israelites at Helam. Shobach, Hadadezer's general, is defeated and killed, and so Hadadezer's vassal states decide to become David's vassals instead. *'''The story of [[Bathsheba]]''' (11:1-12:31) David sends his army to besiege [[Rabbah]]. From his rooftop, he spots a pretty woman, and later finds out that she is Bathsheba, the wife of [[Uriah]], Joab's armour bearer. David has ''relations'' with her, and she becomes pregnant, so he orders Uriah to be placed in the heaviest part of the fighting, and for the army to draw back from him. Uriah is consequently killed by an archer, and David marries Bathsheba. Nathan, a prophet, tells David a parable, asking him for an analysis. When Nathan reveals that the parable describes his actions over Uriah, David realises that by his analysis he has condemned himself. Nathan tells him that the house of David will be cursed with always falling victim to the sword. More directly, Bathsheba's child dies as punishment. David has ''relations'' with her again, and she has a son that she names ''[[Solomon]]'', but Nathan names Jedediah. Joab finally captures Rabbah a
]] [[fi:Alkoholi]] [[tr:alkoller]] [[vi:Rượu (hoá học)]] [[zh:醇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Achill Island</title> <id>1016</id> <revision> <id>41553470</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:51:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.99.214.56</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* History */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Achill_Island.png|thumb|300px|Location of Achill Island]] [[Image:Achill_Ireland_Keem_bay.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Keem bay on Achill island is said to be one of the most beautiful beaches in Ireland.]] '''Achill Island''' ''([[Irish language|Irish]]; Acaill, Oileán Acla)'' in [[County Mayo]] is the largest island off [[Ireland]], and is situated off the west coast. It has a population of 2700. Its area is 57 [[square miles]] (146 [[square kilometres]]). Achill is attached to the mainland by [[Michael Davitt Bridge]], between the villages of [[Achill Sound]] and Polranny, so it is possible to drive onto the island. This is a [[swing bridge]] which allows the passage of small boats. A bridge was first completed here in 1886, and replaced by the current structure after [[World War II]]. Other centres of population include the villages of Keel, Dooagh, Dooega and Dugort. The island's [[Gaelic football|football]] pitch and two secondary schools are on the mainland at Polranny. Early settlements are believed to have been established on Achill around 3000 BCE. A paddle dating from this period was found at the [[crannog]] near Dookinella. The island is 87 per cent [[peat bog]]. The parish of Achill also includes the Corraun peninsula. The people of Corraun consider themselves Achill people, and most natives of Achill refer to this area as being &quot;in Achill&quot;. In the summer of 1996, the [[RNLI]] decided to station a [[lifeboat]] at Kildownet. ==History== It is believed that at the end of the [[Neolithic Period]] (around 4000 BCE), Achill had a population of 500-1000 people. The island would have been mostly forest until the Neolithic people began crop cultivation. Settlememt increased during the [[Iron Age]], and the dispersal of small forts around the coast indicate the warlike nature of the times. [[Grace O'Malley|Granuaile]] maintained a castle at Kildownet in the [[sixteenth century]]. In the [[seventeenth century|seventeenth]] and [[eighteenth century|eighteenth]] centuries, there was much migration to Achill from other parts of Ireland, particularly [[Ulster]], due to the political and religious turmoil of the time. For a while there were two different [[dialect]]s of [[Irish language|Irish]] being spoken on Achill. This led to many townlands being recorded as having two names during the 1824 Ordnace Survey, and some maps today give different names for the same place. Achill Irish still has many traces of [[Ulster Irish]]. ==Sights== [[Image:Atlantic Drive.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Overlooking the west coast of Achill Island.]] Despite some unsympathetic development, the island retains some striking natural beauty. The cliffs of Croaghaun on the northern coast of the island are the highest sea cliffs in [[Europe]] but are inaccessible by road. On the western tip near Achill Head, Keem bay is arguably one of the most beautiful beaches on the Irish west coast. [[Image:Achill_Ireland_Keel.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Keel Strand.]]Keel beach is quite popular with tourists and some locals as a [[surfing]] location. Another extreme point of the island is Moytoge Head, which with its rounded appearance drops dramatically down to the ocean. An old [[United_Kingdom|British]] observation post, built during [[World War I]] to prevent the [[Germany|Germans]] landing arms for the [[Irish Republican Army]] separatist movement, is still standing on Moytoge. The mountain Slievemore (671 metres) rises dramatically in the centre of the island and the Atlantic drive (along the south/west of the island) has some dramatically beautiful views. On the slopes of Slievemore, there is an abandoned village (&quot;The Deserted Village&quot;) The Deserted Village at Slievemore was once thought to be a remnant village from An Gorta Mór (The Great Hunger, see [[Great Famine]]). However, recent developments suggest that it is a Booley. Specifically, the people of Dooagh and Pollagh would migrate in the summer to Slievemore ([[Transhumance]]), and then go back to Dooagh in the fall. Just west of the deserted village is an old [[Martello tower]], again built by the British to warn of any possible [[France|French]] invasion. The area also boasts an approximately 5000-year old [[Neolithic tomb]]. Achillbeg (''Acaill Beag'', Little Achill) is a small island just off Achill's southern tip. Its inhabitants were resettled on Achill in the 1960's. There is a mural of a surfer on the gable of a pub in [[Cashel (Achill)|Cashel]]. ==Economy== While a number of attempts at setting up small industrial units on the island have been made, the economy of the island is largely dependent on [[tourism]]. Subventions from Achill people working abroad, in particular in [[England]], [[Scotland]] and the [[United States]] allowed many families to remain living in Achill throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Since the advent of [[Ireland]]'s &quot;[[Celtic Tiger]]&quot; [[Economy of Ireland|economy]] fewer Achill people are forced to look for work abroad. [[Agriculture]] plays a small role and is only profitable because of European subsidies. The fact that the island is mostly bog means that it is limited - largely to [[sheep farming]]. In the past, [[fishing]] was a significant activity but this aspect of the economy is small now. At one stage, the island was known for its shark fishing, [[basking shark]] in particular was fished for its valuable liver oil. There was a big spurt of growth in tourism in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] before which life was tough and difficult on the island. Since that heyday, the common perception is that tourism has been slowly declining. ==Architecture== [[Image:Achill_Slievemore_Deserted_Village.jpg|250px|thumb|The &quot;Deserted Village&quot; at the foot of Slievemore was a Booley village, see [[Transhumance]]]] Some of the recent building development on the island (over the last 40 years or so) has been contentious and in many cases is not as sympathetic to the landscape as the earlier style of [[whitewash|whitewashed]] [[barged roof]]ed [[cottage]]s. Because of the inhospitable climate, very few houses date from before the [[20th century|twentieth century]]. An example of the style of earlier housing can be seen in the &quot;Deserted Village&quot; ruins near the graveyard at the foot of Slievemore. Even the houses in this village represent a relatively comfortable class of dwelling as, even as recently as a hundred years ago, some people still used &quot;Beehive&quot; style houses (small circular single roomed dwellings with a hole in ceiling to let out smoke). Many of the oldest and most picturesque inhabitated cottages date from the activities of the [[Congested Districts Board for Ireland]] - a body set up around the turn of the twentieth century in Ireland to improve the welfare for inhabitants of small villages and towns. Most of the homes in Achill at the time were very small and tightly packed together in villages. The CDB subsidised the building of new, more spacious (though still small by modern standards) homes outside of the traditional villages. ==Famous people== The artist [[Paul Henry (painter)|Paul Henry]] stayed on the island for a number of years in the early 1900s and some of his most famous paintings are of the dramatic landscape of the island. The [[Nobel Prize]] winning author, [[Heinrich Böll]], visited the island and wrote of his experience in his &quot;Irish Journal&quot; (''Irisches Tagebuch''). The Bölls later bought a cottage near Dugort and lived in it periodically until 2001 when they donated it to be used as an artists' residence. [[Graham Greene]] also spent time on Achill Island. ==See also== *[[Connacht Irish]] ==External links== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Achill}} *[http://www.achill-island.com Achill Island web site] *[http://www.visitachill.com Visit Achill multilingual visitor's guide] *[http://www.achilltourism.com Achill Tourism web site] *[http://www.scoilacla.com Scoil Acla web site] *[http://www.achill-fieldschool.com Achill Field School web site] [[Category:Islands of Ireland]] [[da:Achill Island]] [[de:Achill Island]] [[fr:Île d'Achill]] [[ga:Acaill]] [[gl:Achill - Acaill]] [[it:Achill Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Allen Ginsberg</title> <id>1017</id> <revision> <id>41767571</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:31:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>132.241.245.49</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Life */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ginsberg2.jpg|right|225|thumb|Allen Ginsberg in later life]] '''Irwin Allen Ginsberg''' ({{IPA2|ˈgɪnzˌbɝg}}) ([[June 3]], [[1926]] &amp;ndash; [[April 5]] [[1997]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Beat poet]] born in [[Newark, New Jersey]]. Ginsberg is best known for [[Howl]] ([[1956]]), a long poem about [[consumer]] [[society]]'s negative [[Values#Personal and cultural values|human values]]. ==Life== Ginsberg was born on [[June 3]], [[1926]] into a Jewish family in [[Newark, New Jersey]]. His father [[Louis Ginsberg]] was a poet and his mother was a high school teacher. Ginsberg's mother, Naomi Levy Ginsberg (who was affected by [[epileptic seizures]] and [[mental illness]]es such as [[paranoia]] {{ref|Modern}}) was also an active member of the [[Communist Party USA]] and often took Ginsberg and his brother Eugene to party meetings. Ginsberg later said that his mother &quot;Made up bedtime stories that all went something like: 'The good king rode forth from his castle, saw the suffering workers and healed them.'&quot;{{ref|BioProject}} As a teenager, Gins
nder debris. Human activity in [[risk]] areas may cause natural disasters. Volcanos are particularly prone to causing other events like fires, lahars, mudflows, landslides, earthquakes, and tsunamis. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Avalanche=== {{main|Avalanche}} An [[avalanche]] is a slippage of built-up snow down an incline, possibly mixed with ice, rock, soil or plantlife in what is called a debris avalanche. Avalanches are categorized as either slab or powder avalanches. Avalanches are a major danger in the mountains during the winter as a large one can run for miles, and can create massive destruction of the lower forest and anything else in its path. For example, in [[Montroc, France]], in [[1999]] 300,000 cubic metres of snow slid on a 30 degree slope, achieving a speed of 100 km/h. It killed 12 people in their chalets under 100,000 tons of snow, 5 meters deep. The Mayor of [[Chamonix]] was charged with manslaughter. [http://www.pistehors.com/articles/avalanche/montroc.htm] &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Cold=== Extreme cold snaps are hazardous to humans and their livestock. In a [[2003]] Mongolian cold snap, almost 30,000 livestock animals perished due to excessive snow and cold [http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ccc/cc012203.html]. When the temperature drops, caloric intake must increase to maintain body heat for shivering [http://www.naturalstrength.com/nutrition/detail.asp?ArticleID=1168]. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Disease=== {{main articles|[[Disease]], [[Epidemic]], and [[Pandemic]]}} Disease becomes a disaster when it spreads in a pandemic or epidemic as a massive outbreak of an infectious agent. Disease is historically the most dangerous of all natural disasters. Different epidemics are caused by different diseases, and different epidemics have included the [[Black Death]], [[smallpox]], and [[AIDS]]. The [[Spanish flu]] of 1918 was the deadliest ever epidemic, it killed 25-40 million people. The [[Black Death]], which occurred in the [[14th Century]], killed over 20 million people, one third of [[Europe]]'s population. Plant and animal life may also be affected by disease epidemics and pandemics. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Drought=== {{main|Drought}} A drought is a long-lasting [[weather]] pattern consisting of dry conditions with very little or no [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]]. during this period, [[food]] and [[water]] supplies can run low, and other conditions, such as [[famine]], can result. Droughts can last for several years and are particularly damaging in areas in which the residents depend on [[agriculture]] for survival. The [[Dust Bowl]] is a famous example of a severe drought. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Earthquake=== [[Image:SanFranHouses06.JPG|thumb|100px|right|San Francisco]] {{main articles|[[Earthquake]], [[Foreshock]], and [[Aftershock]]}} An earthquake is a sudden shift or movement in the [[tectonic plates|tectonic plate]] in the [[Earth|Earth's]] crust. On the surface, this is manifested by a moving and shaking of the ground, and can be massively damaging to poorly built structures. The most powerful earthquakes can destroy even the best built of structures. In addition, they can trigger secondary disasters, such as [[tsunami]]s and volcanic eruptions. Earthquakes occur along [[geologic fault|fault lines]], and are unpredictable. They are capable of killing hundreds of thousands of people, such as in the [[Tangshan earthquake|1976 Tangshan]] and [[2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake|2004 Indian Ocean]] earthquakes. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Famine=== {{main|Famine}} Famine is a natural disaster characterized by a widespread lack of [[food]] in a region, and can be characterized as a lack of [[agricultural|agriculture]] foodstuffs, a lack of [[livestock]], or a general lack of all foodstuffs required for basic [[nutrition]] and survival. Famine is almost always caused by pre-existing conditions, such as [[drought]], but its effects may be exacerbated by social factors, such as [[war]]. Particularly devastating examples include the [[Ethiopian famine]] and the [[Irish Potato Famine]]. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Fire=== [[Image:Wildfire.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Forest fire]] {{main articles|[[Bush fire]], [[Fire]], [[Mine fire]], and [[Wildfire]]}} A fire is a natural disaster that may destroy ecosystems like grasslands, forests causing great loss of life, property, livestock and wildlife. Bush fires, forest fires and mine fires are generally started by [[lightning]], but also by human negligence or [[arson]], and can burn thousands of square kilometers. An example of a severe forest fire is the [[Oakland Hills firestorm]]. A mine fire started in [[Centralia, Pennsylvania]] in 1962 decimated the town and continues to burn. Some of the biggest city fires are The [[Great Chicago Fire]], The [[Great Fire of London]], and The San Francisco Fire. [http://www.fire-extinguisher101.com/biggest-fires.html] &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Flood=== [[Image:Flood.jpg|thumb|100px|right|North Carolina 1916]] {{main|Flood}} A flood is a natural disaster caused by too much [[rain]] or [[water]] in a location, and could be caused by many different sets of conditions. Floods can be caused by prolonged rainfall from a [[storm]], including [[thunderstorm]]s, rapid melting of large amounts of [[snow]], or [[river]]s which swell from excess precipitation upstream and cause widespread damage to areas downstream, or less frequently the bursting of man-made dams. A [[river]] which floods particularly often is the [[Huang He]] in [[China]], and a particularly damaging flood was the [[Great Flood of 1993]]. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Hail=== [[image:hailstorm.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Hailstorm]] {{main|Hailstorm}} A hailstorm is a natural disaster where a thunderstorm produces a numerous amount of [[hailstone]]s which damage the location in which they fall. Hailstorms can be especially devastating to [[farm]] fields, ruining crops and damaging equipment. A particularly damaging hailstorm hit [[Munich]], [[Germany]] on [[August 31]], [[1986]], felling thousands of trees and causing millions of dollars in [[insurance]] claims. [[Skeleton Lake]] was named so after 300-600 people were killed by a hailstorm. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Heat=== {{main|Heat wave}} A heat wave is a disaster characterized by [[heat]] which is considered extreme and unusual in the area in which it occurs. Heat waves are rare and require specific combinations of [[weather]] events to take place, and may include [[temperature inversion]]s, [[katabatic winds]], or other phenomena. The worst heat wave in recent history was the [[European Heat Wave of 2003]]. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Hurricane=== [[Image:Ivan iss.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Hurricane Ivan]] {{main|Tropical cyclone}} A hurricane is a low-pressure cyclonic [[storm]] system which forms over the oceans. It is caused by evaporated [[water]] which comes off of the [[ocean]] and becomes a [[storm]]. The [[Coriolis Effect]] causes the storms to spin, and a hurricane is declared when this spinning mass of storms attains a wind speed greater than 74mph. In different parts of the world hurricanes are known as cyclones or typhoons. The former occur in the [[Indian Ocean]], while the latter occur in the Eastern [[Pacific Ocean]]. The most damaging hurricane in the United States was [[Hurricane Katrina]], which hit the United States Gulf Coast in [[2005]]. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Hypernova=== A [[hypernova]] is the universe's most extreme and cataclysmic force. A hypernova is when a [[hypergiant]] star (a star at least 95-210 times bigger than our own [[Sun]]) explodes suddenly. A hypernova may have been the cause of the [[Ordovician-Silurian extinction events]]. When a hypergiant exploded, it sent a large [[gamma-ray burst]] to Earth destroying 90-95% of all living species on Earth at that time. A hypergiant star within at least 1500-2000 [[lightyears]] from Earth, when it explodes to a hypernova, is an automatic Earth extinction event. All species would be wiped out. The nearest hypergiant ,that could explode within 10000 to 2 million years from now, is [[Eta Carinae]]. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Impact event=== [[Image:Impact event.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Artist's impression]] {{main|Impact event}} Impact events are caused by the [[collision]] of large [[meteoroid]]s, [[asteroid]]s or [[comet]]s (generically: [[bolide]]s) with [[Earth]] and may sometimes be followed by [[mass extinction]]s of life. The magnitude of the disaster is inversely proportional to its rate of occurrence, because small impactors are much more numerous than large ones. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Limnic eruption=== {{main|Limnic Eruption}} [[Image:Lake_nyos.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Lake Nyos, Cameroon]] A Limnic eruption is a sudden release of asphyxiating or inflammable gas from a lake. Three lakes are at risk of limnic eruptions, [[Lake Nyos]], [[Lake Monoun]], and [[Lake Kivu]]. A [[1986]] limnic eruption of 1.6 million tonnes of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; from Lake Nyos suffocated 1,800 people in a 20 mile radius. In [[1984]], a sudden outgassing of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; had occurred at Lake Monoun, killing 37 local residents. Lake Kivu, with concentrations of methane and CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, has not experienced a limnic eruption during recorded history, but is suspected of having periodic eruptions every 1,000 years. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Landslide=== {{main|Landslide}} A landslide is a disaster closely related to an [[avalanche]], but instead of occurring with [[snow]], it occurs involving actual elements of the ground, including rocks, [[tree]]s, parts of houses, and anything else which may happen to be swept up. Lands
ant]] [[Bible]] this story is found in the [[apocrypha]]) and the story of the dog and the horse related in the third chapter of [[Voltaire]]'s ''[[Zadig]]'' (1747). == The [[Private Eye Novel]] == Although the British private eye [[Martin Hewitt]] (by [[Arthur Morrison]]) had already appeared by 1894, the genre was adopted wholeheartedly by the likes of [[Dashiell Hammett]], and were considered novels of the [[proletariat]], exploring &quot;mean streets&quot; and the underbelly of corruption within the United States. Several movies have been based on his work, including three versions of ''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'' and a series of movies based on ''[[The Thin Man]]''. [[Raymond Chandler]] updated the form with his [[private detective]] [[Philip Marlowe]], who brought a more intimate voice to the detective than Hammett's distant-third viewpoint. His cadenced dialog and cryptic narrations were musical, evoking the alleys and tough thugs, rich women and powerful men about whom he wrote. Laced with commentary, his books still hold up. Several feature and television movies have been made about the Phillip Marlowe character. [[Ross Macdonald]], pseudonym of [[Ken Millar]], updated the form again with his detective [[Lew Archer]], while still writing in what is considered the PI's [[Golden Age of detective fiction]], begun by Hammett. Archer, like Hammett's fictional heroes, was a camera eye, with hardly any known past. &quot;Turn Archer sideways, and he disappears,&quot; one reviewer wrote. Two of Macdonald's strengths were his use of psychology and his beautiful prose, which was full of imagery. Like other '[[hardboiled]]' writers, Macdonald aimed to give an impression of realism in his work through violence, sex and confrontation; this is illusory, however, and any real private eye undergoing a typical fictional investigation would soon be dead or incapacitated. The movie ''[[Harper]]'' starring [[Paul Newman]] was based on the Lew Archer character. [[Michael Collins (author)|Michael Collins]], pseudonym of [[Dennis Lynds]], is generally considered the author who led the form into the Modern Age. His PI, [[Dan Fortune]], was consistently involved in the same sort of David-and-Goliath stories that Hammett, Chandler, and Macdonald wrote, but he took a sociological bent, exploring the meaning of his characters' places in society and the impact society had on people. Full of commentary and clipped prose, his books were more intimate than his predecessors, dramatizing that crime can happen in one's own living room. The PI novel was a male-dominated field in which female authors seldom found publication until [[Marcia Muller]], [[Sara Paretsky]], and [[Sue Grafton]] were finally published in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Each author's detective was brainy, physical, and could hold her own. Their acceptance then success caused publishers to seek out other fine female authors. The PI today is rich in variety. The strongest characteristic that binds them is that the detective now has a past and a life, while solving cases. The premier authors' organization of PI writers is the [[Private Eye Writers of America]]. == [[Cosies]] == English readers, in their own [[Golden Age of detective fiction]] between the wars generally preferred a different, but equally implausible, type of detective story in which an outsider - sometimes a salaried investigator or a police officer, but more often a gifted amateur - investigates a murder committed in a closed environment by one of a limited number of suspects. These have become known as 'cosies' to distinguish them from the 'hard-boiled' type preferred in the USA. The most popular writer of cosies, and one of the most popular writers of all time, was [[Agatha Christie]], who produced a long series of books featuring her detectives [[Hercule Poirot]] and [[Miss Marple]], amongst others, and usually including a complex puzzle for the baffled and misdirected reader to try and unravel. The 'puzzle' approach was carried even further into ingenious and seemingly impossible plots by [[John Dickson Carr]], who also wrote as Carter Dickson, and [[John Rhode]], whose detective [[Dr. Priestley]] specialised in elaborate technical devices, while in the US the 'cosy' was adopted and extended by [[Rex Stout]] and [[Erle Stanley Gardner]]. The popularity of cosies has declined in the last four decades, perhaps partly due to attacks on their 'unrealistic' approach; although given that their primary goal is to present a puzzle, one might as well attack a crossword or a chess problem for its unrealism. This emphasis on formal 'rules' during the British Golden Age produced a variety of reactions. Most writers were content to follow the rules slavishly, some flouted some or all of the conventions, and some exploited the conventions with genius to produce new and startling results. The &quot;Golden Age&quot; also displayed many elements typical of [[escapist]] writing and this was attributed to its popularity at the time as many wished to escape the depression of World War I and its aftermath. == [[Police procedural]] == Many detective stories have [[police]] officers as the main characters. Of course these stories may take many forms, but many authors try to go for a realistic depiction of a police officer's routine. A good deal are whodunits; in others the criminal is well known, and it is a case of getting enough evidence. Some typical features of these are: * The detective is rarely the first on the crime scene - it will be milling with uniform, paramedics and possibly members of the public. * Forensic reports - and the wait for them. * Rules and regulations to follow - or not. * Suspects arrested and kept in custody - sometimes wrongly. * Pressure from senior officers to show progress. * A large investigating team - two, three or four main characters, plus other officers to order about. * [[Pub]]s - places to discuss or think about the case - especially in the [[Inspector Morse]] mysteries. * Informants - to lean on. * Political pressure when the suspects are prominent figures * Internal hostility from comrades when the suspects are fellow police officers * Pressure from the media (tv, newspapers) to come up with an answer * Interesting and unusual cars driven by the principal detective == Other subgenres == There is also a subgenre of historical detectives. See [[historical whodunnit]] for an overview. ==Suspense - the core tenet of detective fiction== A beginner to detective fiction would generally be advised against reading anything about a piece of detective fiction (such as a blurb or an introduction) before reading the text itself. Even if they do not mean to, advertisers, reviewers, scholars and aficionados usually have a habit of giving away details or parts of the plot, and sometimes -- for example in the case of [[Mickey Spillane]]'s novel ''[[I, the Jury]]'' -- even the solution. (After the credits of [[Billy Wilder]]'s film ''[[Witness for the Prosecution]]'', the cinemagoers are asked not to talk to anyone about the plot so that future viewers will also be able to fully enjoy the unravelling of the mystery.) ===The unresolved problem of plausibility and coincidence=== Up to the present, some of the problems inherent in crime fiction have remained unsolved (and possibly also insoluble). Some of them can be dismissed with a shrug: Why bother at all, even if it is obvious to everyone that an ordinary person is not likely to keep stumbling across corpses? After all, this is just part of the game of crime fiction. Still the fact that an old spinster like [[Miss Marple]] meets with an estimated two bodies per year does raise a few doubts as to the plausibility of the Miss Marple mysteries. De Andrea has described the quiet little village of St. Mary Mead as having &quot;put on a pageant of human depravity rivaled only by that of Sodom and Gomorrah&quot;. Similarly, TV heroine Jessica Fletcher is confronted with bodies wherever she goes, but over the years people who have met violent deaths have also piled up in the streets of Cabot Cove, [[Maine]], the cosy little village where she lives. Generally, therefore, it is much more convincing if a policeman, private eye, [[forensics|forensic expert]] or similar professional is made the hero or heroine of a series of crime novels. On the other hand, who cares for authenticity? Also, the role and legitimacy of coincidence has frequently been the topic of heated arguments ever since [[Ronald Knox|Knox]] categorically stated that &quot;no accident must ever help the detective&quot; (Commandment No.6). Technological progress has also rendered many of plots implausible and antiquated. For example, the use of [[mobile phone]]s by practically everyone these days has significantly altered the dangerous situations that investigators traditionally find themselves in. Some authors have not succeeded in adapting to the changes brought about by modern technology; others, among them [[Carl Hiaasen]] (born [[1953]]), have. == Famous fictional detectives == The full list of fictional detectives would be immense. The format is well suited to dramatic presentation, and so there are also many television and film detectives, besides those appearing in adaptations of novels in this genre. Fictional detectives generally fall within one of four domains: * the amateur or dilettante detective (Marple, Jessica Fletcher); * the private investigator (Holmes, Marlowe, Spade, Rockford); * the police detective (Ironside, Kojak, Morse); * more recently, the medical examiner, criminal psychologist, forensic evidence expert or other specialists (Scarpetta, Quincy, Cracker, CSI). Notable fictional detectives and their creators include: ===Amateurs=== *[[Father Brown]] &amp;mdash; [[G. K. Chesterton]] *[[Roger Bannion]] &amp;mdash; [[Herbert Adams]] *[[Roger Sheringham]] &amp;mdash; [[Anthony Berkeley]] *[[Albert Campion]] &amp;mdash; [[M
''fertility'': 4.7 children born/woman [http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&amp;pranchid=62&amp;action=details&amp;serial=362] * ''Population growth rate'': 2.8% [http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&amp;pranchid=62&amp;action=details&amp;serial=350]: == Geography == The Gaza Strip is located in the [[Middle East]] (at {{coor dm|31|25|N|34|20|E|}}). It has an 11km border with [[Egypt]], near the city of [[Rafah]], and a 51km border with [[Israel]]. Religious and nationalist [[Jews]] claim the entire Gaza Strip as part of [[Israel]] while Palestinians claim it as part of a future Palestinian state. The Government of Israel unilaterally withdrew from the Strip and evacuated all Israeli residents who resided mainly in [[Gush Katif]] along the South Western coast of Gaza. It also has a 40 km coastline on the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The Gaza Strip has a [[temperate]] climate, with mild [[winter]]s, and dry, hot [[summer]]s subject to [[drought]]. The terrain is flat or rolling, with [[dune]]s near the coast. The highest point is [[Abu 'Awdah]] ([[Joz Abu 'Auda]]), at 105 metres above sea level. Natural resources include [[arable land]] (about a third of the strip is irrigated), and recently discovered [[natural gas]]. Environmental issues include [[desertification]]; [[Biosalinity|salination]] of fresh water; [[sewage treatment]]; [[water-borne disease]]; [[soil degradation]]; and depletion and contamination of [[underground water]] resources. It is considered to be one of the fifteen territories that comprise the so-called &quot;[[Cradle of Humanity]].&quot; It currently holds the oldest known remains of a manmade bonfire and some of the world's oldest dated human skeletons. == Economy == {{See|Palestinian economy}} Economic output in the Gaza Strip declined by about one-third between 1992 and 1996. This downturn has been variously attributed to corruption and mismanagement by [[Yasser Arafat]] and to [[Israel]]i closure policies&amp;mdash;the imposition of generalized border closures in response to [[Palestinian terrorism|terror attacks in Israel]]&amp;mdash;which disrupted previously established labor and commodity market relationships between Israel and the Strip. The most serious negative social effect of this downturn was the emergence of high unemployment. Israel's use of comprehensive closures decreased during the next few years and, in 1998, Israel implemented new policies to reduce the impact of closures and other security procedures on the movement of [[Palestinian]] goods and labor into Israel. These changes fueled an almost three-year-long economic recovery in the Gaza Strip. Recovery ended with the outbreak of the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] in the last quarter of 2000. The [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] triggered tight [[IDF]] closures of the border with Israel as well as frequent curbs on traffic in Palestinian self-rule areas, severely disrupting trade and labor movements. In 2001, and even more severely in early 2002, internal turmoil and Israeli military measures in Palestinian Authority areas resulted in the destruction of capital plant and administrative structure, widespread business closures, and a sharp drop in [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Another major factor has been the decline of income earned due to reduction in the number of Gazans permitted entry to work in Israel. After the Israeli withdrawal from Gaza, Israel again resumed the flow of a limited number of workers into Israel but has stated its intention to reduce or end such permits due to the victory of [[Hamas]] in the [[Palestinian_legislative_election%2C_2006|2006 parliamentary elections]]. During the time of Israeli settler presence in the Gaza Strip, settlers built greenhouses and experimented with new forms of agriculture. These greenhouses also provided employment for many hundred Gazan Palestinians. When Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip in the Summer of 2005, these greenhouses were bought by the World Bank and given to the Palestinian people to jump-start their economy. Most of these greenhouses are now utilized by Palestinian farmers, although there have been incidents of looting and vandalism in a few locations. According to the [[CIA World Factbook]], GDP in 2001 declined 35% to a per capita income of $625 a year, and 60% of the population is now below the [[poverty]] line. Gaza Strip industries are generally small family businesses that produce [[textile]]s, [[soap]], [[olive-wood]] carvings, and [[mother-of-pearl]] souvenirs; the Israelis have established some small-scale modern industries in an industrial center. [[Electricity]] is supplied by Israel. The main agricultural products are [[olive]]s, [[citrus]], [[vegetable]]s, [[Halal]] [[beef]], and [[dairy products]]. Primary exports are citrus and cut flowers, while primary imports are food, consumer goods, and construction materials. The main trade partners of the Gaza Strip are Israel, [[Egypt]], and the [[West Bank]]. ==Health== A study carried out by [[Johns Hopkins University]] (USA) and [[Al-Quds University]] (in [[Jerusalem]]) for [[Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere|CARE International]] in late 2002 revealed very high levels of dietary deficiency among the Palestinian population. The study found that 17.5% of children aged 6&amp;ndash;59 months suffered from chronic [[malnutrition]]. 53% of women of reproductive age and 44% of children were found to be [[Anemia|anemic]]. In the aftermath of the [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|Israeli withdrawal]] of [[August 2005|August]] and [[September 2005|September]] [[2005]], the healthcare system in Gaza continues to face severe challenges [http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20051017/lf_nm/mideast_gaza_health_dc]. == Transport and communication == [[Image:Gaza airport 03.jpg|thumb|Damaged part of [[Yaser Arafat International Airport]]]] The Gaza strip has a small, poorly developed road network. It also has a single [[standard gauge]] railway line running the entire length of the strip from north to south along its center; however, it is abandoned and in disrepair, and little trackage remains. The line once connected to the Egyptian railway system to the south as well as the [[Israel Railways|Israeli system]] to the north. The strip's one port was never completed after the outbreak of the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]]. Its airport, the [[Gaza International Airport]], opened on [[24 November]] [[1998]] as part of agreements stipulated in the [[Oslo II Accord]] and the [[23 October]] [[1998]] [[Wye River Memorandum]]. The airport was closed in October 2000 by Israeli orders, and its runway was destroyed by the [[Israel Defense Forces]] in December 2001. It has since been renamed [[Yaser Arafat International Airport]]. The Gaza strip has rudimentary landline telephone service provided by an open-wire system as well as extensive mobile telephone services provided by PalTel (Jawwal) or Israeli providers such as [[Cellcom (Israel)|Cellcom]]. Gaza is serviced by four [[internet service provider]]s that now compete for ADSL and dial-up customers. Most Gaza households have a radio and a TV (70%+), and roughly 20% have a [[personal computer]]. People living in Gaza enjoy access to satellite television (Al-Jazeera, Lebanese and Egyptian entertainment programs, etc.), local private channels, and broadcast TV from the [[Palestinian Broadcasting Corporation]], the [[Israel Broadcasting Authority]] and the [[Second Israeli Broadcasting Authority]]. ==See also== * [[Gaza]] * [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] * [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan]] * [[Jabalia]] (Refugee Camp and village) * [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt]] * [[Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan]] * [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] * [[Political status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip]] * [[Smuggling tunnels]] * [[West Bank]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Gaza Strip}} *[http://www.gaza.net Directory of Palestinian related websites] *[http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/palestine/ United Nations - Question of Palestine] * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gz.html Gaza Strip] from the [[CIA World Factbook]] *[http://www.careusa.org/newsroom/pressreleases/2003/jan/01032003_study.pdf Nutritional Assessment of the West Bank and Gaza Strip] *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/gazastrip91.jpg 1991 Map of the Gaza Strip] from the [[University of Texas at Austin]] &lt;!--*[http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=14121 General Moufaz about current Israeli plans for Philadelphi corridor]--&gt; *[http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&amp;cid=1124504879286&amp;p=1101615860782 Gaza women join Hamas fighters] by [[Khaled Abu Toameh]], published in the [[Jerusalem Post]] August 21, 2005. *[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=31.419288,34.392700&amp;spn=0.535513,0.962814&amp;t=k Gaza Strip at Google Maps] *[http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&amp;pranchid=62&amp;action=details&amp;serial=350 Palestine Ministry of Health] {{Asia}} [[Category:Disputed territories]] [[Category:Geography of Israel]] [[Category:Geography of Palestine]] [[an:Faxa de Gaza]] [[ar:قطاع غزة]] [[bg:Ивица Газа]] [[cs:Pásmo Gazy]] [[da:Gazastriben]] [[de:Gazastreifen]] [[eo:Gaza Sektoro]] [[es:Franja de Gaza]] [[et:Gaza tsoon]] [[fi:Gaza]] [[fr:Bande de Gaza]] [[gl:Faixa de Gaza]] [[he:רצועת עזה]] [[hu:Gázai övezet]] [[ia:Banda de Gaza]] [[id:Jalur Gaza]] [[is:Gasaströndin]] [[it:Striscia di Gaza]] [[ja:ガザ地区]] [[lt:Gazos Ruožas]] [[lv:Gazas josla]] [[ms:Gaza]] [[nl:Gazastrook]] [[nn:Gazastripa]] [[no:Gaza]] [[pl:Strefa Gazy]] [[pt:Faixa de Gaza]] [[ro:Fâşia Gaza]] [[ru:Сектор Газа]] [[sh:Pojas Gaze]] [[sk:Pásmo Gazy]] [[sv:Gazaremsan]] [[zh:加沙地带]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Political status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip</title> <id>12048</id> <revision> <id>37556986</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T19:39:07Z</timestamp> <contributor>
u/fireside.php Fireside Chats] ** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/elections.php Presidential Elections] *** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1932 1932], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1936 1936], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1940 1940], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1944 1944] ** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/medialist.php?presid=32 32 Audio/Video Clips of FDR] ** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data.php Academic Data Related to the Roosevelt Administration] * [http://www.whitehousetapes.org/pages/tapes_fdr.htm Roosevelt's Secret White House Recordings] via [[University of Virginia]] * [http://www.evtv1.com/index.asp-itemnum-220 FDR - Day of Infamy video clip] (2 min.) * [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=RooseveltFD Audio clips of speeches] * [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos1.htm First Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]] * [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos2.htm Second Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]] * [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos3.htm Third Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]] * [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos4.htm Fourth Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]] * [http://www.hpol.org/fdr/chat/ Court &quot;Packing&quot; Speech March 9, 1937] * [http://www.potus.com/fdroosevelt.html IPL POTUS &amp;mdash; Franklin Delano Roosevelt] * [http://gi.grolier.com/presidents/ea/bios/32proos.html Encyclopedia Americana: Franklin D. Roosevelt] * [http://www.nisk.k12.ny.us/fdr/index.html An archive of political cartoons from the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt] * [http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-767&amp;amp;pid=s-53 Warm Springs and FDR's Polio Treatment] * [http://www.townhall.com/bookclub/powell.html Dutch Martin's review of ''FDR's folly''] * [http://www.internet-esq.com/ussaugusta/atlantic/index.htm FDR at the Atlantic Conference] * [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/FDR-links.html Franklin D. Roosevelt Links] * [http://rooseveltinstitution.org/about/franklin_roosevelt On Franklin Roosevelt's progressive vision] from [http://rooseveltinstitution.org the Roosevelt Institution], a [[student think tank]] inspired in part by Franklin Roosevelt. * {{gutenberg author| id=Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt | name=Franklin D. Roosevelt}} {{start box}} {{succession box |title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party Vice Presidential candidate]] |before=[[Thomas R. Marshall]] |after=[[Charles W. Bryan]] |years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1920|1920]] (lost)}} {{succession box |title=[[Governor of New York]] |before=[[Alfred E. Smith]] |after=[[Herbert H. Lehman]] |years=1929 – 1933}} {{succession box |title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party Presidential candidate]] |before=[[Al Smith]] |after=[[Harry Truman]] |years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1932|1932]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1936|1936]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1940|1940]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1944|1944]] (won)}} {{succession box |title=[[President of the United States]] |before=[[Herbert Hoover]] |after=[[Harry Truman]] |years=[[March 4]], [[1933]] – [[April 12]], [[1945]]}} {{end box}} {{USPresidents}} {{NYGovernors}} {{USDemPresNominees}} {{USDemVicePresNominees}} {{Persondata |NAME=Roosevelt, Franklin Delano |ALTERNATIVE NAMES= |SHORT DESCRIPTION=32nd [[President of the United States]] |DATE OF BIRTH=[[January 30]], [[1882]] |PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]], [[New York]] |DATE OF DEATH=[[April 12]], [[1945]] |PLACE OF DEATH=[[Warm Springs, Georgia|Warm Springs]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] }} {{Link FA|bg}} [[Category:1882 births|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:1945 deaths|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Alpha Delta Phi brothers|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:American lawyers|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Columbia alumni|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Delta Kappa Epsilon brothers|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Dutch Americans|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Elks|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Episcopalians|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Freemasons|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Governors of New York|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Harvard alumni|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Knights of Pythias|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Loyal Order of Moose members|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:New Deal|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:New York State Senators|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Phi Beta Kappa members|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Philatelists|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Politicians with physical disabilities|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Presidents of the United States|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:Roosevelt|Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[Category:Shriners|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:The Delanos|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:U.S. Democratic Party vice presidential nominees|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[Category:World War II political leaders|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]] [[ar:فرانكلين روزفلت]] [[bg:Франклин Делано Рузвелт]] [[ca:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[cs:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[da:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[de:Franklin D. Roosevelt]] [[et:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[es:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[eo:Franklin D. ROOSEVELT]] [[eu:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[fa:فرانكلين دلانو روزولت]] [[fr:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[ko:프랭클린 루스벨트]] [[hr:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[id:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[is:Franklin D. Roosevelt]] [[it:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[he:פרנקלין דלאנו רוזוולט]] [[li:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[nl:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[nds:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[ja:フランクリン・デラノ・ルーズベルト]] [[no:Franklin D. Roosevelt]] [[pl:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[pt:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[ro:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[ru:Рузвельт, Франклин Делано]] [[sq:Franklin D. Roosevelt]] [[sh:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[simple:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[sk:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[sl:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] [[sr:Френклин Делано Рузвелт]] [[fi:Franklin D. Roosevelt]] [[sv:Franklin D. Roosevelt]] [[th:แฟรงคลิน ดี. รูสเวลท์]] [[uk:Рузвельт Франклін Делано]] [[zh:富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Four Freedoms</title> <id>10980</id> <revision> <id>41159118</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T12:18:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Domino theory</username> <id>59449</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Save Freedom of Speech.png|200px|right| ]] The '''Four Freedoms''' are goals famously articulated by [[President of the United States|United States President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in the [[State of the Union Address]] he delivered to the [[77th United States Congress]] on [[January 6]], [[1941]]. In an address also known as the '''Four Freedoms speech''', Roosevelt enumerated four points as fundamental freedoms humans &quot;everywhere in the world&quot; ought to enjoy: #[[Freedom of speech]] and expression #[[Freedom of religion|Freedom of every person to worship God in his own way]] #Freedom from want - individual economic security #Freedom from fear - world disarmament to the point that wars of aggression are impossible. His inclusion of the latter two freedoms went beyond the traditional American Constitutional values protected by the [[First Amendment]], and endorsed a [[right]] to economic security and an [[internationalist]] view of foreign policy that have come to be central tenets of modern [[American liberalism]]. == The Declarations == The speech delivered by President Roosevelt incorporated the following section: &lt;blockquote&gt;In the future days which we seek to make secure, we look forward to a world founded upon four essential human freedoms.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; The first is '''freedom of speech and expression - everywhere in the world'''.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; The second is '''freedom of every person to worship God in his own way - everywhere in the world'''.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; The third is '''freedom from want''', which, translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabitants '''- everywhere in the world'''.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; The fourth is '''freedom from fear''', which, translated into world terms, means a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a point and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor '''- anywhere in the world'''.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; That is no vision of a distant millennium. It is a definite basis for a kind of world attainable in our own time and generation. That kind of world is the very antithesis of the so-called &quot;new order&quot; of tyranny which the dictators seek to create with the crash of a bomb.&lt;/blockquote&gt; == United Nations == The concept of the Four Freedoms became part of the personal mission undertaken by [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] regarding her inspiration behind the [[United Nations Declaration of Human Rights]]. == Norman Rockwell's Four Freedoms Paintings == President Roosevelt's Four Freedoms speech inspired a set of four paintings by [[Norman Rockwell]]. The four paintings were published in ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]'' on [[February 20]], [[February 27]], [[March 6]] and [[March 13]] in [[1943]]. The paintings were accompanied in the magazine by matching [[essay]]s on the Four Freedoms. The [[Office of War Informa
c machines abandoned by the ancient races to torment those of us living on the surface. As one characteristic of this torment, Shaver described &quot;voices&quot; that purportedly came from no explainable source. Thousands of readers wrote to affirm that they, too, had heard the fiendish voices from inside the Earth. Fantastic stories (supposedly believed as factual within fringe circles) have also circulated that [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] and some of his followers escaped to hollow lands within the Earth after [[World War II]] via an entrance in [[Antarctica]]. (See also Hitler's supposed adherence to concave hollow-Earth ideas, below.) In [[2001]] the [[Australia]]n father-and-son team Kevin and [http://www.hyperogga.com/infoAboutMe.asp Matthew Taylor] [[self-publishing|self-published]] the book ''[http://www.tlonh.com The Land of No Horizon]'' ([http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&amp;Search_Arg=ISBN+%220646410571%22&amp;SL=None&amp;Search_Code=CMD&amp;CNT=10 direct link] [[National Library of Australia]] ISBN 0646410571). Among other things it proposes (through [[reasoning]]) an [http://www.hollowearththeory.com expanding and hollow Earth] (as well as other planetary bodies) which eventually reached [[equilibrium]]. The book also looks at a range of topics including but not limited to [[evolution]], human [[physiology]], [[impact crater]]s and other [[geology]] in light of such a hollow earth. Kevin and Matthew Taylor's view of a hollow planet envisages a hollow globe with a small (depending on planet size) central sun ignited by radiation from the inner surface. They use this view both to explain [[geomagnetism | Earth's magnetic field]] (replacing the [[dynamo theory]]) and the origin and ignition of [[star]]s. Some writers have proposed building [[megastructure]]s that have some similarities to a hollow earth -- see [[Dyson sphere]], [[Globus Cassus]]. === Concave hollow earths === [[Image:Concave hollow Earth.jpeg|thumb|200px|left|Example of a ''concave hollow earth.'' Humans live on the interior; with the universe in the center.]] Instead of saying that we live on the outside surface of a hollow planet, sometimes called a &quot;convex&quot; hollow-Earth theory, some theorists have opined that our universe itself lies in the interior of a hollow world, calling this a &quot;concave&quot; hollow-Earth theory. The surface of the earth, according to such a view, might resemble the interior shell of a [[Dyson sphere]]. Generally, scientists have taken neither type of speculation seriously. [[Cyrus Teed]], an eclectic doctor from upstate New York, proposed such a concave hollow earth in 1869, calling his scheme &quot;[[Cellular Cosmogony]]&quot;. Teed founded a [[cult]] called the [[Koreshan Unity]] based on this notion, which he called [[Koreshanity]]. The main colony survives as a preserved [[Florida]] state historic site, at Estero, but all of Teed's followers have now died. Teed's followers claimed to have experimentally verified the concavity of the earth's curvature, through surveys of the Florida coastline making use of &quot;rectilineator&quot; equipment. Several twentieth-century German writers, including Peter Bender, Johannes Lang, Karl Neupert, and Fritz Braun, published works advocating the hollow earth theory, or ''Hohlweltlehre''. Opponents of the hollow earth theory suggest, although without historical documentation, that Adolf Hitler, influenced by hollow-Earth ideas, actually sent an expedition in an unsuccessful attempt to spy on the British fleet by aiming cameras up into the sky. The accuracy of such rumors remains questionable; some supporters of the hollow-earth theory feel that their opponents deliberately bring Hitler into the picture in order to discredit the theory by association. At least one contemporary proponent of a concave hollow Earth theory has developed adjustments to the laws of physics that take into account gravitation, optics, and so forth. The Egyptian mathematician [[Mostafa A. Abdelkader|Mostafa Abdelkader]] authored several scholarly papers working out a detailed mapping of the concave earth model. See M. Abdelkader, &quot;A Geocosmos: Mapping Outer Space Into a Hollow Earth,&quot; 6 ''Speculations in Science &amp; Technology'' 81-89 (1983). Abstracts of two of Abdelkader's papers also appeared in ''Notices of the American Mathematical Society,'' (Oct. 1981 and Feb. 1982). In one chapter of his book ''On the Wild Side'' (1992), [[Martin Gardner]] discusses the hollow earth model articulated by Abdelkader. According to Gardner, this theory posits that light rays travel in circular paths, and slow as they approach the center of the spherical star-filled cavern. No energy can reach the center of the cavern, which corresponds to no point a finite distance away from Earth in the widely accepted scientific cosmology. A drill, Gardner says, would lengthen as it traveled away from the cavern and eventually pass through the &quot;point at infinity&quot; corresponding to the center of the Earth in the widely accepted scientific cosmology. Supposedly no experiment can distinguish between the two cosmologies. Martin Gardner notes that &quot;most mathematicians believe that an inside-out universe, with properly adjusted physical laws, is empirically irrefutable&quot;. However, Gardner rejects the concave hollow Earth theory, not as disproven, but instead entirely on the basis of [[Occam's Razor]]. In a trivial sense, of course, one can always define a [[Coordinates (elementary mathematics) | coordinate]] transformation such that the interior of the Earth becomes &quot;exterior&quot; and the exterior becomes &quot;interior&quot;. (For example, in spherical coordinates, let radius ''r'' go to ''R''&amp;sup2;/''r'' where ''R'' is the Earth's radius.) Such transformations would require corresponding changes to the forms of physical laws; the consensus suggests that such theories tend towards sophistry. ==Hollow earths in fiction== An early science-fiction work called ''Symzonia: A Voyage of Discovery'' by a &quot;Captain Adam Seaborn&quot; appeared in print in 1823. It obviously reflected the ideas of [[John Cleves Symmes, Jr.]], and some have claimed Symmes as the real author. One recent reprint of the work gives Symmes as the author. Others disagree. Some researchers say it deliberately satirized Symmes's ideas, and think they have identified the author as an early American author named [[Nathanial Ames]] who wrote other works, including one that might have served as the inspiration of ''Moby Dick'' (see Lang, Hans-Joachim and Benjamin Lease. &quot;The Authorship of ''Symzonia'': The Case for Nathanial Ames&quot; ''New England Quarterly'', June 1975, page 241-252.) [[Edgar Allan Poe]] used the idea in his [[1838]] novel ''[[The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket | The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym]]''. He also touches on it in &quot;MS. found in a bottle&quot; and &quot;Hans Pfaal&quot;. [[Jules Verne]], who did not often stray far from the bounds of scientific plausibility in his works, used the idea of a hollow Earth in his [[1864]] novel, ''[[Journey to the Center of the Earth | A Journey to the Center of the Earth]]''. Willis Emerson wrote another science fiction novel worthy of mention: ''The Smoky God'' [[1908]]. The novel claims to recount the true adventures of one Olaf Jansen who traveled into the interior, found an advanced civilization, and then left it. Some people regard ''The Smoky God'' as non-fiction. [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]], more concerned with entertainment than plausibility, also wrote tales of adventure in the inner world of [[Pellucidar]] (including, at one point, a visit from his character [[Tarzan]]). Note that, although the inner surface of the Earth has an absolutely smaller area than the outer, Burroughs's Pellucidar has oceans on the outer surface corresponding to continents on the inner surface and vice-versa, so that Pellucidar actually has a greater land area than the &quot;outer&quot; continents combined. Primitive humans and an exciting mix of all those large and dangerous creatures which have unfortunately become extinct on the outer surface inhabit Pellucidar, and Burroughs did not hesitate to add such improvements as the ''Mahars'', creatures vaguely resembling large intelligent pterodactyls with dangerous [[parapsychology| psychic]] powers. For light Pellucidar has a central miniature sun which never sets, so that its human inhabitants have never developed the notion of time. In the science-fiction novel ''[[Inhabited Island]]'' by the Russian authors [[Boris and Arkady Strugatsky]], an Earthling space traveller [[Maxim Kammerer]] lands on a planet ([[Saraksh]]) where, due to extremely high [[atmospheric]] [[refraction]], the native population believes that it resides inside a hollow earth. As a result, they cannot accept the idea of Kammerer's interplanetary origin. The Russian geologist [[Vladimir Obruchev]] uses the concept of the hollow earth in his popular scientific novel ''Plutonia'' to take the reader through various geological epochs. In the [[1970s]], comic-book artist [[Mike Grell]] produced the comic-book [[Warlord (comics)|''Warlord'']], about a pilot who finds himself in [[Skartaris]], a [[sword and sorcery | sword-and-sorcery]] world reached through an opening at the [[North Pole]]. First believed to be the hollow interior of the Earth, [[Skartaris]] was later revealed to be a paralell dimension. The [[Marvel Universe]] features several underground empires ruled by villains like the [[Mole Man]] or Tyranus. A race of mutant survivors from ancient [[Lemuria]] known as [[Deviants]] also live underground. The fantasy series ''The Death Gate Cycle'', by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman, also features a concave hollow world, beginning in ''Elven Star'', the second book in the series. This world, called 'Pryan the World of Fire', presents a classic hollow world, in
, RV 591 * Credo, RV 592 * Domine ad adiuvandum me, RV 593 * Beatus vir, RV 597 * Credidi propter quod, RV 605 * Laetatus sum, RV 607 * Magnificat, RV 610 * Stabat Mater, RV 621 * Introduzione al Gloria, RV 639 * Oratorio ''Juditha triumphans'', RV 644 * Nisi Dominus, RV 803 ==Media== {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item|filename=01 - Vivaldi Spring mvt 1 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Spring mvt 1: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=02 - Vivaldi Spring mvt 2 Largo - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Spring mvt 2: Largo|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=03 - Vivaldi Spring mvt 3 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Spring mvt 3: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=04 - Vivaldi Summer mvt 1 Allegro non molto - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Summer mvt 1: Allegro non molto|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=05 - Vivaldi Summer mvt 2 Adagio - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Summer mvt 2: Adagio|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=06 - Vivaldi Summer mvt 3 Presto - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Summer mvt 3: Presto|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=07 - Vivaldi Autumn mvt 1 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Autumn mvt 1: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=08 - Vivaldi Autumn mvt 2 Adagio molto - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Autumn mvt 2: Adagio molto|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=09 - Vivaldi Autumn mvt 3 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Autumn mvt 3: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=10 - Vivaldi Winter mvt 1 Allegro non molto - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Winter mvt 1: Allegro non molto|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=11 - Vivaldi Winter mvt 2 Largo - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Winter mvt 2: Largo|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=12 - Vivaldi Winter mvt 3 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Winter mvt 3: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} ==Selected historically informed performance ensembles specialising in Vivaldi== * ''[[Europa Galante]]'' * ''[[Concerto Italiano]]'' * ''[[Il Giardino Armonico]]'' ==References and further reading== * Eleanor Selfridge-Field ([[1994]]). ''Venetian Instrumental Music, from Gabrieli to Vivaldi.'' New York, Dover Publications. ISBN 0486281515 * [[Manfred Bukofzer]] ([[1947]]). ''Music in the Baroque Era''. New York, W.W. Norton &amp; Co. ISBN 0393097455 ==External links== {{Commons|Antonio Vivaldi}} * [http://www.playbillarts.com/news/article/2341.html Two Vivaldi biopics may duel at the box office] * [http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20050809/en_nm/arts_vivaldi_australia_dc New Vivaldi work heard for first time in 250 years] * [http://www.pianoparadise.com/vivaldi.html Vivaldi biography and sheet music] * {{IckingArchive|idx=Vivaldi|name=Antonio Vivaldi}} * [http://www.kantoreiarchiv.de/archiv/choir_orchestra/gloria/vivaldi/ Gloria (Free sheet music)] * [http://www.kantoreiarchiv.de/archiv/choir_orchestra/magnificat/vivaldi/ Magnificat (Free sheet music)] [[Category:1678 births|Vivaldi]] [[Category:1741 deaths|Vivaldi]] [[Category:Baroque composers|Vivaldi]] [[Category:Classical violinists|Vivaldi]] [[Category:Italian composers|Vivaldi]] [[Category:Natives of Venice|Vivaldi]] [[Category:Opera composers|Vivaldi]] [[Category:Roman Catholic priests|Vivaldi]] [[ar:أنطونيو فيفالدي]] [[bg:Антонио Вивалди]] [[ca:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[cs:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[cy:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[da:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[de:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[es:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[eo:Antonio VIVALDI]] [[eu:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[fr:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[gl:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[ko:안토니오 비발디]] [[hr:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[id:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[is:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[it:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[he:אנטוניו ויוואלדי]] [[kn:ಆಂಟೋನಿಯೊ ವಿವಾಲ್ಡಿ]] [[la:Antonius Vivaldi]] [[lt:Antonijus Vivaldis]] [[hu:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[nl:Antonio Vivaldi (componist)]] [[ja:アントニオ・ヴィヴァルディ]] [[no:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[nn:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[pl:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[pt:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[ro:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[ru:Вивальди, Антонио]] [[sl:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[sr:Антонио Вивалди]] [[fi:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[sv:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[th:อานโตนิโอ วิวัลดิ]] [[tr:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[uk:Вівальді Антоніо]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adrian II</title> <id>1426</id> <revision> <id>15899910</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian II]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adrian III</title> <id>1427</id> <revision> <id>15899911</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian III]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adrian</title> <id>1428</id> <revision> <id>38963719</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T20:40:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tedernst</username> <id>3700</id> </contributor> <comment>remove wikilink per [[MoS:DP]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Adrian''' can refer to: *[[Adrian, Ontario]], Canada *[[Hurricane Adrian]], a 2005 tropical cyclone *[[Adrian helmet]], French Army steel helmet Popes: *[[Adrian I]], Pope from 772 to 795 *[[Adrian II]], Pope from 867 to 872 *[[Adrian III]], Pope from 884 to 885 *[[Adrian IV]], Pope from 1154 to 1159 *[[Adrian V]], Pope in 1276 *[[Adrian VI]], Pope from 1522 to 1523 Other notable people: *[[Adrian of Nicomedia]], a saint martyred in the early 300s &lt;!-- 303 or 304, it says --&gt; *[[Adrian Dantley]] (born 1956), retired basketball player *[[Adrian Greenburg]] (1903-1959), costume designer best known for ''The Wizard of Oz'' *[[Adrian Griffin]] (born 1974), professional basketball player *[[Adrian Lamo]] (born 1981) journalist and convicted computer hacker. Places in the United States: *[[Adrian, Georgia]] *[[Adrian, Illinois]] *[[Adrian, Michigan]] *[[Adrian, Minnesota]] *[[Adrian, Missouri]] *[[Adrian, North Dakota]] *[[Adrian, New York]] *[[Adrian, Ohio]] *[[Adrian, Oregon]] *[[Adrian, Pennsylvania]] *[[Adrian, South Carolina]] *[[Adrian, Texas]] *[[Adrian, Virgin Islands]] *[[Adrian, Washington]] *[[Adrian, West Virginia]] *[[Adrian, Wisconsin]] *[[Adrian Township, Kansas]] *[[Adrian Township, Michigan]] *[[Adrian Township, Minnesota]] *[[Adrian Township, North Dakota]] *[[Adrian Township, South Dakota]] {{disambig}} [[de:Adrian]] [[el:Αδριανός]] [[fr:Adrien]] [[hu:Adrián]] [[io:Adrian]] [[la:Adrianus]] [[pl:Adrian]] [[ru:Адриан]] [[sk:Adrián]] [[sv:Adrian]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adrian IV</title> <id>1429</id> <revision> <id>15899913</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian IV]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adrian V</title> <id>1430</id> <revision> <id>15899914</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian V]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adrian VI</title> <id>1431</id> <revision> <id>15899915</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian VI]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adriatic sea</title> <id>1432</id> <revision> <id>15899916</id> <timestamp>2002-09-28T14:55:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vicki Rosenzweig</username> <id>59</id> </contributor> <comment>reversing redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Adriatic Sea]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aar</title> <id>1433</id> <revision> <id>41034426</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:03:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mmounties</username> <id>779931</id> </contributor> <comment>Add Navigation Template</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|a river in Switzerland}} The '''Aar''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Aare'') is the longest [[river]] that both rises and ends entirely within [[Switzerland]]. Its total length from its source to its junction with the [[Rhine]] comprises about 291 km (181 miles), during which distance it descends 1,565m (5,135 feet), draining an area of [[1 E10 m²|17,620 km²]] (6,804 square miles). The
net.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Federation of Malaya's first cabinet with Tunku Abdul Rahman as Prime Minister in 1957.]] The [[Great Depression|Depression]] of the 1930s, followed by the outbreak of the [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)|Sino-Japanese War]], had the effect of ending Chinese emigration to Malaya, which stabilised the demographic situation and ended the prospect of the Malays becoming a minority in their own country. At the time of independence in [[1957]], the Malays were 55% of the population, the Chinese 35% and the Indians 10%. Since the Malays have until recently had a higher birth rate, the proportion of Malays has increased since independence &amp;#8211; by [[2000]] it was over 60 percent. This equation was upset by the inclusion of Singapore, which increased the Chinese proportion to close to 40%. Both UMNO and the MCA were nervous about the possible appeal of Lee's [[People's Action Party]] (then seen as a radical socialist party) to voters in Malaya, and tried to organise a party in Singapore to challenge Lee's position there. Lee in turn threatened to run PAP candidates in Malaya at the [[1964]] federal elections, despite an earlier agreement that he would not do so (see [[PAP-UMNO Relations]]). This provoked Tunku Abdul Rahman to demand that Singapore withdraw from Malaysia, which it did on [[August 9]], [[1965]]. The most vexed issues of independent Malaysia were education and the disparity of economic power among the ethnic communities. Since there was no effective opposition party, these issues were contested mainly within the coalition government, which won all but one seat in the first post-independence Malayan Parliament. The two issues were related, since the Chinese advantage in education played a large part in maintaining their control of the economy, which the UMNO leaders were determined to end. The MCA leaders were torn between the need to defend their own community&amp;#8217;s interests and the need to maintain good relations with UMNO. This produced a crisis in the MCA in [[1959]], in which a more assertive leadership under [[Lim Chong Eu]] defied UMNO over the education issue, only to be forced to back down when Tunku Abdul Rahman threatened to break up the coalition. The Education Act of [[1961]] put UMNO&amp;#8217;s victory on the education issue into legislative form. Henceforward Malay and English would be the only teaching languages in secondary schools, and state primary schools would teach in Malay only. Although the Chinese and Indian communities could maintain their own [[Chinese language|Mandarin]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language primary schools, all their students were required to learn Malay, and to study an agreed &amp;#8220;Malayan curriculum.&amp;#8221; Most importantly, the entry exam to the [[University of Malaya]] (which moved from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur in [[1963]]) would be conducted in Malay, even though most teaching at the university was in English until the 1970s. This had the effect of excluding many Chinese students. At the same time Malay schools were heavily subsidised, and Malays were given preferential treatment. This obvious defeat for the MCA greatly weakened its support in the Chinese community. At the time of independence Malaya had great economic advantages. It was among the world&amp;#8217;s leading producers of three valuable commodities, rubber, tin and palm oil, and also a significant iron ore producer. These export industries gave the Malayan government a healthy surplus to invest in industrial development and infrastructure projects. Like other developing nations in the 1950s and &amp;#8216;60s, Malaya (and later Malaysia) placed great stress on state planning, although UMNO was never a [[socialist]] party. The First and Second Malayan Plans ([[1956]]-[[1960|60]] and [[1961]]-[[1965|65]] respectively) stimulated economic growth through state investment in industry and repairing infrastructure such as roads and ports, which had been damaged and neglected during the war and the Emergency. The government was keen to reduce Malaya&amp;#8217;s dependence on commodity exports, which put the country at the mercy of fluctuating prices. The government was also aware that demand for natural rubber was bound to fall as the production and use of [[synthetic rubber]] expanded. Since a third of the Malay workforce worked in the rubber industry it was important to develop alternative sources of employment. Competition for Malaya&amp;#8217;s rubber markets meant that the profitability of the rubber industry increasingly depended on keeping wages low, which perpetuated rural Malay poverty. As in education, the UMNO government&amp;#8217;s unspoken agenda in the field of economic development was to shift economic power away from the Chinese and towards the Malays. The two Malayan Plans, and the First Malaysian Plan ([[1966]]-[[1970|70]]), directed resources heavily into developments which would benefit the rural Malay community, such as village schools, rural roads, clinics and irrigation projects. Several agencies were set up to enable Malay smallholders to upgrade their production and increase their incomes. The Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) helped many Malays buy farms or upgrade ones they already owned. The state also provided a range of incentives and low-interest loans to help Malays start businesses, and government tendering systematically favoured Malay companies, leading many Chinese-owned businesses to &amp;#8220;Malayanise&amp;#8221; their management. All this certainly tended to reduce to gap between Chinese and Malay standards of living, although some argued that this would have happened anyway as Malaysia&amp;#8217;s trade and general prosperity increased. ==The crisis of 1969== The collaboration of the MCA and the MIC in these policies weakened their hold on the Chinese and Indian electorates. At the same time, the effects of the government&amp;#8217;s [[affirmative action]] policies of the 1950s and &amp;#8216;60s had been to create a discontented class of educated but underemployed Malays. This was a dangerous combination, and led to the formation of a new party, the [[Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia|Malaysian People&amp;#8217;s Movement]] (Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia) in [[1968]]. Gerakan was a deliberately non-communal party, bringing in Malay trade unionists and intellectuals as well as Chinese and Indian leaders. At the same time, an [[Islamism|Islamist]] party, the [[Islamic Party of Malaysia]] (PAS) and a Chinese socialist party, the [[Democratic Action Party]] (DAP), gained increasing support, at the expense of UMNO and the MCA respectively. At the May [[1969]] federal elections, the UMNO-MCA-MIC Alliance polled only 48 percent of the vote, although it retained a majority in the legislature. The MCA lost most of the Chinese-majority seats to Gerakan or DAP candidates. The result was anti-government demonstrations by Chinese in Kuala Lumpur, provoking a Malay backlash and leading rapidly to [[May 13 Incident|riots and inter-communal violence]] in which about 6,000 Chinese homes and businesses were burned and at least 184 people were killed. The government declared a state of emergency, and a National Operations Council, headed by the Deputy Prime Minister, Tun [[Tun Abdul Razak|Abdul Razak]], took power from the government of Tunku Abdul Rahman, who in September [[1970]] was forced to retire in favour of Abdul Razak. Using the Emergency-era [[Internal Security Act]] (ISA), the new government suspended Parliament and political parties, imposed press censorship and placed severe restrictions on political activity. The ISA gave the government power to intern any person for indefinitely without trial. These powers were widely used to silence the government&amp;#8217;s critics, and have never been repealed. The Constitution was changed to make illegal any criticism, even in Parliament, of the Malaysian monarchy, the special position of Malays in the country, or the status of Malay as the national language. In [[1971]] Parliament reconvened, and a new government coalition, the [[National Front (Malaysia)|National Front]] (Barisan Nasional), took office. This included UMNO, the MCA, the MIC, the much weakened Gerakan, and regional parties in Sabah and Sarawak. The DAP was left outside as the only significant opposition party. The PAS also joined the Front but was expelled in [[1977]]. Abdul Razak held office until his death in [[1976]]. He was succeeded by Datuk [[Hussein Onn]], the son of UMNO&amp;#8217;s founder Onn Jaafar, and then by Tun Dr [[Mahathir bin Mohamad]], who had been Education Minister since [[1971]], and who held power for 22 years. During these years policies were put in place which led to the rapid transformation of Malaysia&amp;#8217;s economy and society. ==Modern Malaysia== [[Image:KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Kuala Lumpur, a blend of old and new.]] In [[1970]] 75 percent of Malaysians living below the [[poverty line]] were Malays, the majority of Malays were still rural workers, and Malays were still largely excluded from the modern economy. The government&amp;#8217;s response was the [[New Economic Policy (Malaysia)|New Economic Policy]] of [[1971]], which was to implemented through a series of four five-year plans from [[1971]] to [[1990]]. The plan had two objectives: the elimination of poverty, particularly rural poverty, and the elimination of the identification between race and economic function. This latter policy was understood to mean a decisive shift in economic power from the Chinese to the Malays. Poverty was tackled through an agricultural policy which resettled 250,000 Malays on newly cleared farmland, more investment in rural infrastructure, and the creation of free trade zones in rural areas to create new manufacturing jobs. During the 1970s and &amp;#8216;80s rural poverty did decline, particularly in the Malayan Peninsula, but critics of the govern
h;[[117]], and [[132]]&amp;ndash;[[135]] caused major disruptions in Jewish life, also disrupting the calendar. During the [[third century|third]] and [[fourth century|fourth centuries]], [[Christian]] sources describe the use of eight, nineteen, and 84 year lunisolar cycles by Jews, all linked to the civil calendars used by various communities of Diaspora Jews, which were effectively isolated from [[Levant]] Jews and their calendar. Some assigned major Jewish festivals to fixed solar calendar dates, whereas others used [[epact]]s to specify how many days before major civil solar dates Jewish lunar months were to begin. ===Alexandrian Jewish calendar=== The [[Ethiopia|Ethiopic]] Christian [[computus]] (used to calculate [[Easter]]) describes in detail a Jewish calendar which must have been used by [[Alexandria]]n Jews near the end of the third century. These Jews formed a relatively new community in the aftermath of the annihilation (by murder or enslavement) of all Alexandrian Jews by Emperor [[Trajan]] at the end of the 115&amp;ndash;117 [[Kitos War]]. Their calendar used the same epacts in nineteen year cycles that were to become canonical in the Easter computus used by almost all medieval Christians, both those in the [[Latin]] West and the [[Hellenism|Hellenist]] East. Only those churches beyond the eastern border of the [[Byzantine Empire]] differed, changing one epact every nineteen years, causing four Easters every 532 years to differ. ===Transition period=== The period between 70 and 1178 was a transition period between the two forms, with the gradual adoption of more and more of the rules characteristic of the modern form. Except for the modern year number, the modern rules reached their final form before [[820]] or [[921]], with some uncertainty regarding when. The modern Hebrew calendar cannot be used to calculate [[Bible|Biblical]] dates because new moon dates may be in error by up to four days, and months may be in error by up to four months. The latter accounts for the irregular intercalation (adding of extra months) that was performed in three successive years in the early [[second century]], according to the [[Talmud]]. ====Evidence for adoption of the modern rules==== A popular tradition, first mentioned by [[Hai Gaon]] (d.[[1038]]), holds that the modern continuous calendar was formerly a secret known only to a council of sages or &quot;calendar committee,&quot; and that Patriarch [[Hillel II]] revealed it in [[359]] due to Christian persecution. However, the [[Talmud]], which did not reach its final form until c. [[500]], does not mention the continuous calendar or even anything as mundane as either the nineteen-year cycle or the length of any month, despite discussing the characteristics of earlier calendars. Furthermore, Jewish dates during post-Talmudic times (specifically in 506 and 776) are impossible using modern rules, and all evidence points to the development of the arithmetic rules of the modern calendar in Babylonia during the times of the [[Geonim]] ([[seventh century|seventh]] to [[eighth century|eighth centuries]]), with most of the modern rules in place by about 820, according to the [[Muslim]] astronomer [[al-Khwarizmi]]. One notable difference was the date of the [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]] (the fixed reference point at the beginning of year 1), which at that time was identified as one year later than the epoch of the modern calendar. ====Controversy over the Passover of 4682 AM==== The Babylonian rules required the delay of the first day of Tishri when the [[new moon]] occurred after [[noon]]. In [[921]], [[Aaron ben Meir]], a person otherwise unknown, sought to return the authority for the calendar to the [[Land of Israel]] by asserting that the first day of Tishri should be the day of the new moon unless the new moon occurred more than 642 parts after noon, when it should be delayed by one or two days. He may have been asserting that the calendar should be run according to Jerusalem time, not Babylonian. Local time on the Babylonian [[meridian]] is 642 parts later than on the meridian of [[Jerusalem]]. An alternative explanation for the 642 parts is that if [[Creation]] occurred in the [[Autumn]], to coincide with the observance of [[Rosh Hashana]] (which marks the changing of the calendar year), the calculated time of New Moon during the six days of creation was on Friday at 14 hours exactly (counting from the day starting at 6pm the previous evening). However, if Creation actually occurred six months earlier, in the [[Spring (season)|Spring]], the new moon would have occurred at 9 hours and 642 parts on Wednesday. Ben Meir may thus have believed, along with many earlier Jewish scholars, that creation occurred in Spring and the calendar rules had been adjusted by 642 parts to fit in with an Autumn date; In any event he was opposed by [[Saadiah Gaon]]. Only a few Jewish communities accepted ben Meir's opinion, and even these soon rejected it. Accounts of the controversy show that all of the rules of the modern calendar (except for the epoch) were in place before 921. In [[1000]], the Muslim chronologist [[al-Biruni]] also described all of the modern rules except that he specified three different epochs used by various Jewish communities being one, two, or three years later than the modern epoch. Finally, in 1178 [[Maimonides]] described all of the modern rules, including the modern epochal year. ==When does the year begin?== According to the [[Mishnah]], there are four new years, in [[Nisan]] for civil purposes, [[Elul]] for certain matters connected with agriculture and the Temple, [[Tishri]] for religious purposes and [[Shevat]] for trees. The last of these is marked by a minor festival, [[Tu Bishvat]], named after the day it occurs on, the 15th Shevat (ט&quot;ו בשבט). Months are numbered from Nisan (reflecting the injunction in [[Exodus]] &quot;This month shall be to you the beginning of months&quot;. However, the New Year is the first of Tishri, when the year number increases by 1 and the formal new year festival [[Rosh Hashana]] is celebrated. There may be an echo here of a controversy in the [[Talmud]] about whether the world was created in Tishri or Nisan; it was decided that the answer is Tishri. ==Modern calendar== ===Epoch=== The epoch of the modern Hebrew calendar is 1 Tishri AM 1 (AM = [[Anno mundi|''anno mundi'' = in the year of the world]]), which in the [[proleptic Julian calendar]] is Monday, [[October 7]], [[38th century BC|3761 BCE]], the equivalent tabular date (same daylight period). This date is about one year ''before'' the traditional Jewish [[Dating Creation|date of Creation]] on 25 Elul AM 1. A minority place Creation on 25 Adar AM 1, six months earlier, or six months after the modern epoch. Thus adding 3760 to any Julian/Gregorian year number after 1178 will yield the Hebrew year number beginning in autumn (add 3759 for that ending in autumn). Due to the slow drift of the Jewish calendar relative to the Gregorian calendar, this will be true for about another 20,000 years. ===Measurement of the month=== The Hebrew month is tied to an excellent measurement of the average time taken by the [[Moon]] to cycle from [[lunar conjunction]] to lunar conjunction. Twelve lunar months are about 354 days while the solar year is about 365 days so an extra lunar month is added every two or three years in accordance with a [[Metonic cycle|19-year cycle of 235 lunar months]] (12 regular months every year plus 7 extra or embolismic months every 19 years). The average Hebrew year length is about 365.2468 days, about 7 minutes longer than the average tropical solar year which is about 365.2422 days. Approximately every 216 years, those minutes add up so that the Hebrew year is &quot;slower&quot; than the average solar year by a full day. Because the average Gregorian year is 365.2425 days, the average Hebrew year is slower by a day every 231 Gregorian years. During the last century a number of Jewish scholars suggested that the chief rabbinate in Jerusalem consider modifying this rule to avoid this effect. ===Pattern of calendar years=== There are exactly 14 different patterns that Hebrew calendar years may take. Each of these patterns is called a &quot;keviyah&quot; ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] for &quot;species&quot;), and is distinguished by the day of the week for [[Rosh Hashanah]] of that particular year and by that particular year's length. *A ''chaserah'' year (Hebrew for &quot;deficient&quot; or &quot;incomplete&quot;) is 353 or 383 days long because a day is taken away from the month of Kislev. The Hebrew letter ח &quot;het&quot;, and the letter for the weekday denotes this pattern. *A ''kesidrah'' year (&quot;regular&quot; or &quot;in-order&quot;) is 354 or 384 days long. The Hebrew letter כ &quot;kaf&quot;, and the letter for the week-day denotes this pattern. *A ''shlemah'' year (&quot;abundant&quot; or &quot;complete&quot;) is 355 or 385 days long because a day is added to the month of Heshvan. The Hebrew letter ש &quot;shin&quot;, and the letter for the week-day denotes this pattern. A variant of this pattern of naming includes another letter which specifies the day of the week for the first day of Pesach (Passover) in the year. ===Measurement of hours=== Every hour is divided into 1080 ''halakim'' or parts. A part is 3&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; seconds or &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt; minute. The ultimate ancestor of the ''helek'' was a small Babylonian time period called a ''barleycorn'', itself equal to &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;72&lt;/sub&gt; of a Babylonian ''time degree'' (1° of celestial rotation). Actually, the barleycorn or ''she'' was the name applied to the smallest units of all Babylonian measurements, whether of length, area, volume, weight, angle, or time. But by the [[twelfth century]] that source had been forgotten, causing [[Maimonides]
tall Monitoring that user can choose to download, or not to download and, choose to install, or not to install Applications, Executables and Installations. This prevents installation of Spywares, Adwares, Viruses or Malwares. ===Standards support=== Internet Explorer almost fully supports [[HTML]] 4.01, [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] Level 1, [[XML]] 1.0 and [[Document Object Model|DOM]] Level 1, with minor implementation gaps. It partially supports CSS Level 2 and DOM Level 2, with some implementation gaps and conformance issues. It supports [[XHTML]] 1.0 to the extent that HTML 4.01 compatibility guidelines are followed. Internet Explorer uses [[DOCTYPE sniffing]] to choose between &quot;[[quirks mode]]&quot; (renders similarly to older versions of MSIE) and [[standards mode]] (renders closer to W3C's specifications) for HTML and CSS rendering. It fully supports [[XSLT]] 1.0 or the December 1998 Working Draft of [[Extensible Stylesheet Language|XSL]], depending on the version of [[MSXML]] (a [[dynamic link library]]) available. It also provides its own dialect of [[ECMAScript]] called [[JScript]]. ===Proprietary extensions=== Internet Explorer has introduced an array of proprietary extensions to many of the standards, including HTML, CSS and the DOM. This has resulted in a number of web pages that can only be viewed properly using Internet Explorer. Many view this as an example of what is called &quot;[[embrace and extend|embrace, extend and extinguish]]&quot; (EEE), a way to drive competitors out of business by forcing them to use proprietary technology that a company controls, resulting in [[vendor lock-in]]. Netscape Navigator up to version 4.7 was also responsible for massive proprietary extension of the core web standards, but was not criticized for it as much. ==Version 7.0== [[Image:IE7_Quick_Tabs.png|thumb|Internet Explorer 7's &quot;Quick Tabs&quot;]] Version 7.0 of Internet Explorer has been renamed to '''Windows Internet Explorer''', as part of Microsoft's rationalization of component names that are included with Windows. Set to ship with [[Windows Vista]], and as a separate download for [[Windows XP|Windows XP with Service Pack 2]] and [[Windows Server 2003]] Service Pack 1, large amounts of the underlying architecture, including the rendering engine and security framework, have been completely overhauled. Partly as a result of these security enhancements, the browser will be a stand-alone application, rather than integrated with the Windows shell, and it will no longer be capable of acting as a file browser. The Windows Vista version will incorporate additional security measures, most significantly &quot;Protected Mode&quot;, whereby the browser runs in a sandbox with even lower rights than a limited user account software. As such, it can write to only the Temporary Internet Files folder and can not install start-up programs or change any configuration of the operating system. This is expected to increase the security of the system considerably.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2006/02/09/528963.aspx] On January 31st 2006, Microsoft released a public preview build (Beta 2 preview: Pre-Beta 2 version) of Internet Explorer 7 for Windows XP Service Pack 2 (not for Windows Server 2003 SP 1) on their web site. It stated that more public preview builds (possibly Beta 2 in April) of Internet Explorer 7 will be released in first half of 2006, and final version will be released in second half of 2006.[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ie7/ie7betaredirect.mspx] ===New features=== [[Image:Ie7feedreader.PNG|thumb|Internet Explorer 7's [[Web feed]] reader]] * Version 7 supports [[tabbed browsing]], which has been a popular feature in competing web browsers for some time. In addition to this, there is a feature called &quot;Quick Tabs&quot;, which displays a thumbnail preview of opened tabs, treating tabs like [[Exposé (Mac OS X)|Exposé]] treats application windows. With this new feature, user can find, open, close, and refresh opened tabs easily. * A search box has been added to the top-right corner, to do fast searches using a search engine. MSN Search is the default{{ref|search7default}}, but additional providers may be added. Microsoft provides a list of common providers, but any web site can identify itself as having a search capability.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2006/02/07/527266.aspx] * Long-awaited support for per-pixel [[alpha compositing|alpha channel]] transparency in [[PNG]] images has been added.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/04/26/412263.aspx] * Feed reader integration in [[Web feed]]s support is built in version 7.0. The feed reader is fully integrated with the browser, so that user can read web feeds (RSS or Atom) without an RSS reader. It also discovers web feeds automatically. Updates to web feeds can be retrieved when the web browser isn't running. The web feeds feature set is also available to third-party developers through API's, so that the list of subscribed feeds (as well as their current contents) can be used. [http://blogs.msdn.com/rssteam/archive/2006/02/09/528195.aspx] * ActiveX Opt-In blocks ActiveX Control unless it allowed to be installed. This feature improves security from unverificable and vulnerable controls. ActiveX controls can be chosen to be installed on Information Bar. User can turn on and off ActiveX Contol by using Add-on Manager. * A number of improvements to CSS support have been made. Microsoft's stated goal with version 7 was to fix the most significant &quot;bugs&quot; and areas which caused the most trouble for developers, and then improved coverage of the standards would come later. * The well-known problem of having the right-hand portion of a web page cut off when the page is printed, has been fixed. Page content can also be &quot;shrunk&quot; to fit more text on a single page. The revamped &quot;Print Preview&quot; interface will also let users drag the page margins around and see the results immediately. * A &quot;Zoom&quot; selector has been added to the bottom-right corner of the user interface. Unlike the &quot;Text size&quot; feature, this will zoom the complete contents of the web page, allowing for easier reading on larger displays. Fonts are rendered at higher resolution.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2006/02/07/526805.aspx] * ClearType can be enabled or disabled separately from the rest of the operating system.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2006/02/03/524367.aspx] * The new &quot;Phishing Filter&quot; offers protection against phishing scams and other web sites that may be considered dangerous for a user to enter their personal information into. When enabled, every web site the user visits is checked against a master list of known phishing sites. If a site is listed, the user is informed. In light of the privacy implications of this feature, it is not enabled automatically; the user is asked when they start Internet Explorer 7 if they want it enabled.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/09/09/463204.aspx] Microsoft is working in conjunction with companies that specialize in identifying phishing schemes to ensure the list of known sites is accurate and quickly updated.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/11/17/494040.aspx] * Address Bar and status bar appear in all windows including Pop-Up which helps to block malicious sites from disguising them as trusted sites. Also the address bar features a color code to visually indicate the trustworthiness of the page. The Address Bar turns red when a page, with invalid security certificate, is accessed. In case of sistes not using any encryption, the address bar is white. And if the page uses high security certificate, the bar turns green. ==Criticisms== {{main|Criticisms of Internet Explorer}} &lt;!-- To keep this section from becoming contentious, please use it only to report on the fact that there is criticism of Internet Explorer, and to summarize the topics, not the arguments, found in the main article. Thanks. --&gt; Internet Explorer is subject to a relatively high volume of criticism. Much of this criticism is related to concerns about security: &lt;!-- Now, in one sentence, we answer how the security issues, enumerated and detailed ELSEWHERE, affect people such that the volume of criticism for IE is unusually high --&gt; A notable portion of the widespread promulgation of [[spam (electronic)|spam]], [[spyware]], [[adware]], and [[computer virus]]es across the Internet is known to be facilitated by exploitable bugs and flaws in the security architecture of Internet Explorer. Furthermore, a notable number of users and security experts have pointed out that Microsoft has not been sufficiently committed to fixing the browser's exploitable bugs in a timely manner, and has been ineffective in pushing those changes out to users. Several companies maintain databases of security vulnerabilities known to exist in Internet Explorer and for which no fixes have been published by Microsoft &amp;mdash; as of June 2005, there were between 20 and 27 such vulnerabilities reported in Internet Explorer 6 for Windows XP SP2, and 146 in Internet Explorer 6 for Windows 2000 SP4. Other criticisms, mostly coming from technically proficient users and developers of websites and browser-based software applications, concern Internet Explorer's support of [[open standard]]s. Internet Explorer supports, to some degree, a number of standardized technologies, but has implementation gaps and conformance failures &amp;mdash; some minor, some not &amp;mdash; that have led to criticism from an increasing number of developers. The increase is attributable, in large part, to the fact that competing browsers that offer relatively thorough, standards-compliant implementations are becoming more widely used. Internet Explorer's ubiquity, in spite of its perceived inferiority in this area, frustrates developers who want to write standards-compliant, [[cross-browser]] code. {{seealso|Criti
between omissions within a sentence (using three dots: &amp;hellip;) and omissions between sentences (using a period and a space followed by three [[Nonbreaking space|nonbreaking-space]]d dots: .&amp;nbsp;.&amp;nbsp;.). The plural for ellipsis is ellipses. Although some write ellipses without spaces, some institutions, such as the [[Oxford University Press]], place spaces before the ellipsis. Thus: &amp;ldquo;I have seen something&amp;nbsp;&amp;hellip;&amp;rdquo; instead of &amp;ldquo;I have seen something&amp;hellip;&amp;rdquo; The exception here is when a word has been cut off in the middle; that is, when the ellipsis stands for a part of one word: &amp;ldquo;&amp;lsquo;He said he realized he was wro&amp;hellip;&amp;rsquo; I stopped mid-word, awestruck.&amp;rdquo; (In English this is often written as &amp;ldquo;&amp;lsquo;He said he realized he was wro&amp;mdash;&amp;rsquo; I stopped mid-word, awestruck.&amp;rdquo;) There is no such thing as a &quot;four-dot ellipsis.&quot; A period followed by an ellipsis may look like four dots, but they are two separate entities. An example is, &amp;ldquo;She went to &amp;hellip; school.&amp;rdquo; In this sentence, &amp;ldquo;&amp;hellip;&amp;rdquo; might represent the word &amp;ldquo;elementary,&amp;rdquo; or the word &amp;ldquo;no.&amp;rdquo; The use of ellipses can either mislead or clarify, and the reader must rely on the good intentions of the writer who uses it. Omission without indication by an ellipsis is always considered misleading. &lt;!-- should this paragraph (or at least the example) be moved to the English section? --&gt; At least one style manual&amp;mdash;the ''[[MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers]]''&amp;mdash;recommends that the writer enclose an ellipsis in [[bracket]]s ([ ]) when omitting part of an original quotation. The purpose of this is to prevent readers from confusing ellipses indicating omissions with ellipses included in the original text. However, most other style guides, including the ''Chicago Manual of Style,'' recommend the use of bare ellipses to indicate omissions. ===Ellipsis in Polish=== In [[Polish language|Polish]], an ellipsis (called ''wielokropek'', which means ''multidot'') is always composed of three dots without any spaces between. There is no space between the ellipsis and the preceding word, but there is always a space after the ellipsis, unless the following character is a closing bracket or quote mark, in which case the space is inserted after that character instead. When the ellipsis is used for omitting a fragment of quotation, it is always surrounded with either square brackets or, more commonly, parentheses, with no space inside: : &amp;bdquo;S&amp;#322;owem (...) chcemy stworzy&amp;#263; po raz wtóry cz&amp;#322;owieka, na obraz i podobie&amp;#324;stwo manekinu.&amp;rdquo; ([[Bruno Schulz]], ''Traktat o manekinach'') These rules are standardized by [[PN-83/P-55366]] standard from [[1983]], ''Setting rules from composing of Polish texts'' (''Zasady sk&amp;#322;adania tekstów w j&amp;#281;zyku polskim''). An ellipsis without parentheses usually means a pause in speech: : Jest s&amp;#322;o&amp;#324; z tr&amp;#261;bami dwiema : I tylko... wysp tych nie ma. : ([[Jan Brzechwa]], ''Na wyspach Bergamutach...'') It can also mean a word said partially and interrupted and in that case can be directly followed by another punctuation mark without space: : Szef policji pier&amp;#347; wysadza : I spod marsa sypi&amp;#261;c skry, : Pr&amp;#281;&amp;#380;nym krokiem si&amp;#281; przechadza... : Co za gracja! Co za w&amp;#322;adza! : Co za pompa! Jezu Chry...! : ([[Julian Tuwim]], ''Bal w Operze'') Ellipsis can be used at the end of a sentence, but it is always composed of three dots, never four, and the only difference is the capitalisation of the next word: : Kto&amp;#347; dzi&amp;#347; mnie opu&amp;#347;ci&amp;#322; w ten chmurny dzie&amp;#324; s&amp;#322;otny... : Kto? Nie wiem... Kto&amp;#347; odszed&amp;#322; i jestem samotny... : Kto&amp;#347; umar&amp;#322;... Kto? Pró&amp;#380;no w pami&amp;#281;ci swej grzebi&amp;#281;... : Kto&amp;#347; drogi... wszak by&amp;#322;em na jakim&amp;#347; pogrzebie... : ([[Leopold Staff]], ''Deszcz jesienny'') ===Ellipsis in Japanese=== In [[Japanese language|Japanese]] [[manga]], the ellipsis by itself represents speechlessness, usually as an admission of guilt or a response to being dumbfounded as a result of something that another person has just said or done. The dots may be [[vertical]] or [[horizontal]] in stacking, and there may be more than one row/column. The growing popularity of manga worldwide has extended this convention beyond the borders of Japan. In writing, the ellipsis is six dots (in two groups of three dots). The dots can be either on the baseline or centred within the baseline and the ascender when horizontal; the dots are centred horizontally when vertical. ===Ellipsis in Chinese=== In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], the ellipsis is six dots (in two groups of three dots, occupying two-character width). The dots are always centred within the baseline and the ascender when horizontal, but on the baseline are also accepted today; and centred horizontally when vertical. ==Ellipsis in mathematics== The centred ellipsis is also often used in [[mathematics]] to mean &amp;ldquo;and so forth,&amp;rdquo; e.g., :&lt;math&gt;1+2+3+\cdots+100&lt;/math&gt; means the sum of all [[natural number]]s from 1 to 100. However, it is not a formally defined [[mathematical symbol]]. These dots should never be used unless the pattern to be followed is clear. Another example is the set of zeroes of the [[cosine]] function. :&lt;math&gt;\left\{\pm\frac{\pi}{2}, \pm\frac{3\pi}{2}, \pm\frac{5\pi}{2}, \cdots \right\}&lt;/math&gt; == Ellipsis in programming == In some [[programming language]]s ([[Perl]], [[Ada programming language|Ada]] etc), a shortened 2-character ellipsis is used to represent a range of numbers. For example: :&lt;code&gt;foreach (1..100)&lt;/code&gt; The above command in Perl would [[iterate]] through the list of [[integer]] numbers from 1 to 100. In the [[C programming language]], an ellipsis is used to represent a variable number of parameters to a [[function (programming)|function]]. For example: :&lt;code&gt;void func(const char* str, ...);&lt;/code&gt; The above function in C could then be called with different types and numbers of parameters such as: :&lt;code&gt;func(&quot;input string&quot;, 5, 10, 15);&lt;/code&gt; and :&lt;code&gt;func(&quot;input string&quot;, &quot;another string&quot;, 0.5);&lt;/code&gt; Most programming languages require the ellipsis to be written as a series of periods; a single ellipsis character cannot be used. ==Ellipsis in computing== In [[computing]], several ellipsis [[character (computing)|character]]s have been codified. In [[Unicode]], there are the following characters: * For general use: ** Horizontal ellipsis, …, at code point 2026 ** [[Lao language|Lao]] ellipsis, ຯ, at code point 0EAF ** [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] ellipsis, ᠁, at code point 1801 * For use in mathematics: ** Vertical ellipsis, ⋮, at code point 22EE ** Midline horizontal ellipsis, ⋯, at code point 22EF ** Up right diagonal ellipsis, ⋰, at code point 22F0 ** Down right diagonal ellipsis, ⋱, at code point 22F1 These code points, given here in [[hexadecimal]], typically manifest in [[character encoding|encoded]] form, either via a [[Unicode Transformation Format]] like [[UTF-8]], or via an older character map (&quot;[[legacy encoding]]&quot;). The [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ellipsis characters are done by entering two consecutive ''horizontal ellipsis'' (U+2026). In vertical texts, the application should rotate the symbol accordingly. Unicode recognizes a series of three period characters (period being code point 002E, hexadecimal) as being a valid equivalent to the horizontal ellipsis character. The horizontal ellipsis character may be represented in [[HTML]] by the entity reference &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;hellip;&lt;/code&gt;. Alternatively, in HTML, [[XML]], and [[SGML]], a [[numeric character reference]] such as &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;#x2026;&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;#8230;&lt;/code&gt; can be used. The horizontal ellipsis character also appears in the following older character maps: * in IBM/MS-DOS [[Code page 874]], as [[byte]] 85 (hexadecimal) * in [[Windows-1250]] through [[Windows-1258]], as byte 85 (hexadecimal) * in [[Mac-Roman encoding|Mac-Roman]] and [[Macintosh Central European encoding|Mac-CentEuro]] as byte C9 (hexadecimal) * in [[Ventura International encoding]] as byte C1 (hexadecimal) As with all characters, especially those outside of the [[ASCII]] range, the author, sender and receiver of an encoded ellipsis must be in agreement upon what bytes are being used to represent the character. Naïve text processing software may improperly assume that a particular encoding is being used, resulting in mistranslation. In a [[user interface]], ... after a command means that the user needs to enter extra information before the command can execute. &lt;!-- example please? --&gt; It is also used to signify that an operation may take some time, as in &quot;Please wait...&quot;. ==Types of ellipsis in typography== In [[typography]] there are various types of ellipsis, which are displayed below using [[TeX]]. * a lower ellipsis &lt;math&gt;\ldots&lt;/math&gt; \ldots * a centred ellipsis &lt;math&gt;\cdots&lt;/math&gt; \cdots * a diagonal ellipsis &lt;math&gt;\ddots&lt;/math&gt; \ddots * a vertical ellipsis &lt;math&gt;\vdots&lt;/math&gt; \vdots The diagonal and vertical forms are particularly useful for showing missing terms in [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]], such as the size ''n'' [[identity matrix]] &lt;math&gt; I_n = \begin{bmatrix} 1 &amp; 0 &amp; \cdots &amp; 0 \\ 0 &amp; 1 &amp; \cdots &amp; 0 \\ \vdots &amp; \vdots &amp; \ddots &amp; \vdots \\ 0 &amp; 0
Hire, 1650]] In [[Christian theology]] the doctrine of [[substitutionary atonement]] has a similar logic, but extended to a universal scale. The idea of [[substitutionary atonement]] is that humanity (from the dawn of time to the end of time) is sinful and that these [[sins]] or wrongdoings require [[compensation]] or [[atonement]]. The Roman execution of [[Jesus of Nazareth]] is interpreted as a self-sacrifice on behalf of humanity. The key biblical texts indicate the idea of one life for many lives.{{ref|subat}} As regards the substitution, Christian theology draws parallels between the [[crucifixion]] and the story of how [[Abraham]] was permitted to substitute a lamb for his son [[Isaac]] when commanded by God to make a devotional sacrifice (the lamb is understood as symbolizing Christ).{{ref|gen22}} See also: [[atonement]], [[substitutionary atonement]], [[propitiation]], [[sacrifice]]. [[Image:Mendoza_HumanSacrifice.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Human sacrifice in Aztec culture|Aztec sacrifice]]]] Further examples of human sacrifice include the judicial [[hanging]] that was originally a sacrificial rite to [[Odin]]. Scandinavian religions demanded human sacrifices not only by hanging, but also by drowning the convict in a bog (see [[Kalevala]] which contains a chapter where Väinämöinen sentences the fatherless Son of Marjatta to be drowned in a bog; see also [[bog body]], describing the archaeological finds of human sacrifices across Northern Europe). Some societies, such as the [[Aztec]], used mass executions of prisoners of war as a religious rite. The perceived religious or instructive purpose of execution meant that many of the oldest methods of execution were intentionally brutal. In many cultures the entertainment value of suffering was valued, as seen in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] executions. Public executions were the norm until recently, whether atop an [[Aztec]] pyramid or on a [[gallows]] in the town square. Public executions still occurred in Europe and the United States in the first half of the 20th century and continue to occur in other countries such as [[Iran]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]. Some feel that public execution can be justified on the grounds that it is important that justice, especially for the most heinous crimes, is ''seen'' to be done. An alternative justification is that the deterrent effect is greater if execution is in public. In practice, public executions have often better served the purposes of entertainment. The practice in some countries of selecting a small group of witnesses, usually including officials and family members of victims, can be seen as a compromise between a public interest in witnessing justice and the avoidance of a descent into entertainment. ===Movements towards &quot;humane&quot; execution=== [[Image:DrGuillotin.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Dr. Guillotin]] In early [[New England]], public executions were a very solemn and sorrowful occasion, sometimes attended by large crowds, who also listened to a Gospel message {{ref|cadams1}} and remarks by local preachers {{ref|cadams2}} and politicians. The Connecticut Courant records one such public execution on [[December 1]], [[1803]], saying, &quot;The assembly conducted through the whole in a very orderly and solemn manner, so much so, as to occasion an observing gentleman acquainted with other countries as well as this, to say that such an assembly, so decent and solemn, could not be collected anywhere but in New England.&quot; {{ref|cadams3}} Trends in most of the world have long been to move to less painful, or more &quot;humane&quot;, executions. France developed the [[guillotine]] for this reason in the final years of the 18th century while Britain banned drawing and quartering in the early 19th century. &quot;[[Hanging]] by the neck until dead&quot;, which causes death by suffocation was replaced by &quot;hanging&quot; where the subject is dropped to dislocate the neck and sever the spinal cord. In the U.S., [[electric chair|electrocution]] and the [[gas chamber]], which were introduced as more humane alternatives to hanging, have been almost entirely superseded by [[lethal injection]], which in turn has been criticised as being too painful. Nevertheless, some countries still employ slow hanging methods, beheading by sword and even [[stoning]], although stoning is rarely employed. See also:''' [[cruel and unusual punishment]]''' === Anti Death Penalty movements=== [[Image:Beccaria.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Marquis of Beccaria]] Although the death penalty was briefly banned in China between [[747]] and [[759]], modern opposition to the death penalty stems from the book of the [[Italy|Italian]] [[Cesare Beccaria]] ''Dei Delitti e Delle Pene'' (&quot;On Crimes and Punishments&quot;), published in [[1764]]. In this book Beccaria aimed to demonstrate not only the injustice, but even the futility from the point of view of [[social welfare]], of [[torture]] and the death penalty. Influenced by the book, [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Grand Duke Leopold II]] of Habsburg, famous [[The Age of Enlightenment|enlightened monarch]] and future Emperor of [[Austria]], abolished the death penalty in the then-independent ''Granducato di Toscana'' ([[Tuscany]]), the first permanent abolition in modern times. On [[30 November]] [[1786]], after having ''de facto'' blocked capital executions (the last was in [[1769]]), Leopold promulgated the Reform of the [[penal code]] that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the instruments for capital execution in his land. In [[2000]] Tuscany's regional authorities instituted an annual holiday on [[30 November]] to commemorate the event. In [[1849]], the [[Roman Republic (19th century)|Roman Republic]] became the first country to ban the capital punishment in its constitutions. [[Portugal]] abolished the death penalty in [[1867]]; the last execution had taken place in [[1846]]. In the United States, the state of [[Michigan]] was the first state to ban the death penalty, on [[March 1]], [[1847]]. The 150-year ban on capital punishment has never been repealed, and as such the state is considered to be the first democracy in recorded history to have eliminated capital punishment. Currently, 12 states of the U.S. and the District of Columbia ban capital punishment. === Anti death penalty theme in arts and media === [[Image:Francisco de Goya y Lucientes 023.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Executions of the Third of May by [[Goya]]]] Many artist and writers in modern period advocated abolition of death penalty [[Victor Hugo]]'s ''[[The Last Day of a Condemned Man]]'' (''Le Dernier Jour d'un condamné'') describes the thoughts of a condemned man just before his execution; also notable is its [http://www.angelfire.com/mn3/mixed_lit/hugo_cm01.htm preface], in which Hugo argues at length against capital punishment. In ''[[The Chamber]]'' by [[John Grisham]], a young lawyer tries to save his klansman grandfather who committed muders. The novel is noted for presentation of anti-death penalty materials. Capital punishment has been the basis of many motion pictures including ''[[Dead Man Walking]]'' based on the book by [[Helen Prejean|Sister Helen Prejean]], ''[[The Green Mile (film)|The Green Mile]]'', and ''[[The Life of David Gale]]''. *On the television drama ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'', which is known for its liberal worldview, [[List of The West Wing episodes|episode]] called &quot;Take This Sabbath Day&quot;, [[Josiah Bartlet|President Bartlet]] and his senior staff face the moral and political struggle associated with the death penalty. {{seealso|List of movies about capital punishment}} See [[List of protest songs#Capital punishment, death penalty|List of protest songs]] for a list of protest songs about Capital Punishment. == Debate == :''Main article: [[Capital punishment debate]]'' The death penalty is often the subject of controversy. In countries in which it is practised there are often rival campaigns both to have it abolished and to have it retained, while in abolitionist nations some support its reintroduction. Opponents of the death penalty commonly argue that it is an ineffective deterrent, that it may lead to irreversible miscarriages of justice, or that it violates the criminal's [[right to life]]. Supporters of the death penalty state that it does deter crime, saves innocent lives by preventing future murders, and that the death penalty is a moral imperative since allowing murderers to live while the victims cannot, is a great injustice. Some arguments revolve around empirical data, such as whether or not it can be proven statistically that the death penalty reduces crime, while others concern more abstract moral judgements. Most major religions do not take an unambiguous stance on whether or not the death penalty is permissible. ==Religious views== :''Main article: [[Religion and capital punishment]]'' [[Image:Hanginkuwait.jpg|left|thumb|Execution by hanging in [[Kuwait]]. Doctors examine the bodies to confirm death.]] The official teachings of [[Judaism]] approve the death penalty in principle but the standard of proof required for application of death penalty is extremely stringent. Christianity in theological terms follows the teaching of [[Thomas Aquinas]] who accepted the death penalty as a necessary deterrent and prevention method but not as the means of vengeance. [[Roman Catholic Church]] holds that the death penalty is no longer necessary if it can be replaced by incarceration. The position of other Christian denominations, at least among (academic) theologians, follow similar reasoning of Thomas Aquinas. In Protestantism, it is common for each followers or ministers to have their own personal position on the death penalty. Both proponent and opponent derive their own stance from the Bible itself. Scholars of [[Islam]] hold it to be permissible but the victim or the family of victim has the right to grant pardon. The teachin
e English Language]]&quot; gives a thorough treatment of this feature of English. An English speaker is often able to choose between Germanic and Latinate [[synonym]]s: &quot;come&quot; or &quot;arrive&quot;; &quot;sight&quot; or &quot;vision&quot;; &quot;freedom&quot; or &quot;liberty&quot;&amp;mdash;and sometimes also between a word inherited through French and a borrowing direct from Latin of the same root word: &quot;oversee&quot;, &quot;survey&quot; or &quot;supervise&quot;. The richness of the language is that such synonyms have slightly different meanings, enabling the language to be used in a very flexible way to express fine variations or shades of thought. See: [[List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents]]. An exception to this and a peculiarity arguably unique of English is that the nouns for meats are commonly different from and unrelated to those for the animals from which they are produced, the animal commonly having a Germanic name and the meat having a French derived noun. Examples include deer and venison, ox or cow and beef, or swine and pork. This is assumed to be a result of the aftermath of the Norman invasion where a French speaking elite were the consumers of the meat, produced by English speaking lower classes. In everyday speech, the majority of words will normally be Germanic. If a speaker wishes to make a forceful point in an argument in a very blunt way, Germanic words will usually be chosen. A majority of Latinate words (or at least a majority of content words) will normally be used in more formal speech and writing, such as a [[court]]room or an [[encyclopedia]] article. English is noted for the vast size of its active vocabulary and its fluidity. English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and imports new words which often come into common usage. In addition, [[slang]] provides new meanings for old words. In fact this fluidity is so pronounced that a distinction often needs to be made between formal forms of English and contemporary usage. See also [[sociolinguistics]]. ===Number of words in English=== As the ''General Explanations'' at the beginning of the Oxford English Dictionary state: :The Vocabulary of a widely diffused and highly cultivated living language is not a fixed quantity circumscribed by definite limits ... there is absolutely no defining line in any direction: the circle of the English language has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference. The vocabulary of English is undoubtedly vast, but assigning a specific number to its size is more a matter of definition than of calculation. Unlike other languages, there is no [[Language Academy|Academy]] to define officially accepted words. [[Neologism]]s are coined regularly in medicine, science and technology&amp;mdash;some enter wide usage; others remain restricted to small circles. Foreign words used in immigrant communities often make their way into wider English usage. Archaic, dialectal, and regional words might be considered as &quot;English&quot; or not. The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] (2nd edition) includes over 500,000 [[headword]]s, following a rather inclusive policy: :It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang (Supplement to the OED, 1933). The difficulty of defining the number of words is compounded by the emergence of new versions of English, such as [[Asian English]]. ===Word origins=== [[Image:Influencegraph.PNG|thumb|right|250px|Influences in [[English]]]] {{main|Lists of English words of international origin}} One of the consequences of the French influence is that the vocabulary of English is, to a certain extent, divided between those words which are [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] (mostly [[Old English language|Old English]]) and those which are &quot;Latinate&quot; ([[Latin]]-derived, either directly or from Norman French or other Romance languages). A computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old ''Shorter Oxford Dictionary'' (3rd ed.) was published in ''Ordered Profusion'' by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff (1973) which estimated the origin of English words as follows: * [[French language|French]], including Old French and early Anglo-French: [[List of English words of French origin|28.3%]] * [[Latin]], including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24% * [[Old English|Old]] and [[Middle English]], [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]], and [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: 25% * [[Greek Language|Greek]]: 5.32% * No etymology given: 4.03% * Derived from proper names: 3.28% * All other languages contributed less than 1% [[James D. Nicoll]] made the oft-quoted observation: &quot;The problem with defending the purity of the English language is that English is about as pure as a cribhouse whore. We don't just borrow words; on occasion, English has pursued other languages down alleyways to beat them unconscious and riffle their pockets for new vocabulary.&quot; [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=1990May15.155309.8892%40watdragon.waterloo.edu&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;output=gplain] ==Writing system== {{main|English alphabet}} English is written using the [[Latin alphabet]]. The spelling system or [[orthography]] of English is historical, not [[phonology|phonological]]. The spelling of words often diverges considerably from how they are spoken, and English spelling is often considered to be one of the most difficult to learn of any language that uses an alphabet. See [[English spelling|English orthography]]. ===Basic sound-letter correspondence=== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; ! IPA || align=&quot;left&quot; | Alphabetic representation || Dialect-specific |- | [[voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] || p || |- | [[voiced bilabial plosive|b]] || b || |- | [[voiceless alveolar plosive|t]] || t, th ''(rarely) thyme, Thames'' || th ''thing'' ''([[African American Vernacular English|African-American]], [[New York-New Jersey English|New York]])'' |- | [[voiced alveolar plosive|d]] || d || th ''that'' ''([[African American Vernacular English|African-American]], [[New York-New Jersey English|New York]])'' |- | [[voiceless velar plosive|k]] || c ''(+ a, o, u, consonants)'', k, ck, ch, qu ''(rarely) conquer'', kh ''(in foreign words)'' || |- | [[voiced velar plosive|g]] || g, gh, gu ''(+ a, e, i)'', gue ''(final position)'' || &lt;!-- removed gg because doubled consonants are almost always pronounced just like single ones: hammer, dagger, abyss, berry, etc. --&gt; |- | [[bilabial nasal|m]] || m || |- | [[alveolar nasal|n]] || n || |- | [[velar nasal|ŋ]] || n ''(before g or k)'', ng || |- | [[voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] || f, ph, gh ''(final, infrequent) laugh, rough'' || th ''thing'' ''(many forms of [[English English|English used in England]])'' |- | [[voiced labiodental fricative|v]] || v || th ''with'' ''([[Cockney]], [[Estuary English]])'' |- | [[voiceless dental fricative|θ]] ||rowspan=2| th : there is no obvious way to identify which is which from the spelling.|| |- | [[voiced dental fricative|ð]] |- | [[voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] || s, c ''(+ e, i, y)'', sc ''(+ e, i, y)'' || |- | [[voiced alveolar fricative|z]] || z, s ''(finally or occasionally medially)'', ss ''(rarely) possess, dessert'', word-initial x ''xylophone'' || |- | [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʃ}}]] || sh, sch, ti ''portion'', ci ''suspicion''; si/ssi ''tension'', ''mission''; ch ''(esp. in words of French origin)''; rarely s ''sugar'' || |- | [[voiced postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʒ}}]] || si ''division'', zh ''(in foreign words)'', z ''azure'', su ''pleasure'', g ''(in words of French origin)(+e, i, y) genre || |- | [[voiceless velar fricative|x]] || kh, ch, h ''(in foreign words)'' || occasionally ch ''loch'' ''([[Scottish English]], [[Welsh English]])'' |- | [[voiceless glottal fricative|h]] || h ''(initially, otherwise silent)'' || |- | [[voiceless postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|tʃ}}]] || ch, tch || occasionally tu ''future'', ''culture''; t ''(+ u, ue, eu)'' ''tune, Tuesday, Teutonic'' ''([[Australian English]])'' |- | [[voiced postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|dʒ}}]] || j, g ''(+ e, i, y)'', dg ''(+ e, i, consonant) badge, judg(e)ment'' || d ''(+ u, ue, ew)'' ''dune, due, dew'' ''(Australian English)'' |- | [[alveolar approximant|{{IPA|ɹ}}]] || r, wr (initial) ''wrangle'' || |- | [[palatal approximant|j]] || y ''(initially or surrounded by vowels)'' || |- | [[alveolar lateral approximant|l]] || l || |- | [[labial-velar approximant|{{IPA|w}}]] || w || |- | [[voiceless labial-velar fricative|{{IPA|ʍ}}]] || wh || Scottish and Irish English, as well as some varieties of American, New Zealand, and English English |} ===Written accents=== &lt;!-- If this grows, it may be better off on its own page [[List of accented English words]] --&gt; English includes some words which can be written with accent marks. These words have mostly been imported from other languages, usually French. But it is increasingly rare for writers of English to actually use the accent marks for common words, even in very formal writing. The strongest tendency to retain the accent is in words that are atypical of English morphology and therefore still perceived as slightly foreign. For example, ''café'' has a pronounced final ''e'', which would be silent by the normal English pronunciation rules. Some examples: ångström, appliqué, attaché, blasé, bric-à-brac, café, cliché, crème, crêpe, façade, fiancé(e), flambé, naïve, né(e), papier-mâché, passé, piñata, protégé, raison d'être, résumé, risqué, über-, vis-à-vis, voilà. For a more complete list, see [[List of English words with diacritics]]. Some words such as ''rôle'' and ''hôtel'' were first seen with accents when they were borrowed into English, but now the accent is almost never used. The words were considered
o build Geba. In his old age, Asa had infirm feet. *'''The story of [[Baasha]]''' (1 Kings 15:25-16:6a) - When Jeroboam died, his son, [[Nadab]], took over as king of Israel. However, Baasha, the son of Ahijah, plots against Nadab, and while Nadab is besieging [[Gibbethon]]. Becoming king in Nadab's stead, Baasha then slaughters all the remaining relatives of Jeroboam. During Baasha's reign, there is a permanent war between Asa and Baasha, and although Ben-hadad originally supported Baasha, he changed to Asa's side, capturing several large areas of the land, and causing Baasha to retreat back to his capital, [[Tirzah]]. A prophet, named Jehu, is told by Yahweh that Baasha's actions are to be condemned, so Jehu tells Baasha. *'''The story of [[Zimri]]''' (1 Kings 16:6b-20) - After the death of Baasa, he is succeeded by his son, [[Elah]]. However, one of his leading commanders, Zimri, plots against him, and while Elah is getting drunk, Zimri strikes him dead. Zimri then slaughters all the remaining relatives of Baasa and takes over the throne of Israel. The army, however, proclaim Omri, their general, as the king, and lay siege to Tirzah, where Zimri is located. Zimri decides to burn his palace to the ground, killing himself. *'''The story of [[Omri]]''' (1 Kings 16:15b-19, 16:21-28a) Having been proclaimed king by the army, Omri besieges Zimri, who then dies in a fire. Subsequently, only half of Israel support Omri, the other half supporting a man named [[Tibni]], to be king. The civil war ends with Omri and his supporters as victor. Omri later constructs a new capital at [[Samaria]], and moves there. Despite the many monumental achievements and constructions that are archeaologically attributed to the period normally identified for his reign, the Book of Kings neglects to mention any of these, preferring to portray Omri as an insignificant heretic that happened to become king and then, later, die. *'''The story of [[Elijah and the widow]]''' (1 Kings 17:1-24) God ordains that no rain shall fall while he is served by a man from [[Tishbe]], named [[Elijah]], or at least this is the case according to Elijah. Elijah is sent to a stream, and fed by ravens, day and night, but when the stream dries up, due to the lack of rain, he is sent on to a widow, who will wait on him. Demanding from the widow water and bread, Elijah is met with the response that there isn't enough flour or oil. Elijah, however, promises that the flour and oil will last until the rains return, which comes true. The widow's son later grows sick, and stops breathing, so she accuses Elijah of making this happen. Elijah responds by laying out the son's body on his own bed, stretching himself over on the body three times, and then praying, whereupon the son comes back to life. *'''The story of [[Elijah and the prophets of Ba'al]]''' (1 Kings 16:28b-33, and 18:1-46) - After the death of Omri, his son, [[Ahab]], becomes the king. Ahab marries [[Jezebel]], and worships [[Hadad]] (often referred to by the epithet ''Ba'al'' - meaning ''lord''), building a totem and temple to his worship. Jezebel slaughters the prophets of Yahweh, though some are rescued by [[Obadiah]], Ahab's [[vizier]]. Meanwhile, the famine grows bitter, and Elijah is sent by God to Ahab, with Obadiah joining him on his way. When Elijah and Ahab meet, they trade insults, with Elijah calling Ahab a sinner due to his religious practices, and Ahab calling Elijah the ''disturber of Israel''. Elijah then challenges Hadad worship, demanding all of Israel attend mount [[Carmel]]. At Carmel, Elijah announces he will sacrifice a bull to Yahweh, and he expects that the worshippers of Hadad will sacrifice a bull to Hadad, stating that the real god will respond. When there is no response from the sacrifice to Baal, which Elijah mercilessly mocks, he rebuilds the older altar to Yahweh, makes the sacrifice, and a fire appears from heaven and consumes it. The people convert from worship of Hadad to that of Yahweh en-masse, and Elijah has the throats of the prophets of Hadad slit at a river. A storm subsequently gathers, and Elijah and Ahab race to Jezreel, Elijah staying in front. *'''The story of [[Hiel|Hiel and the rebuilding of Jericho]]''' (1 Kings 16:34) - During the reign of Ahab, a man named Hiel rebuilds Jericho from its ruins. However, his sons die during construction, fulfilling a prophecy that Joshua had made. *'''The story of [[Elijah's flight to Horeb]]''' (1 Kings 19:1-21) - After Ahab has told Jezebel what has happened, she seeks revenge against Elijah, who flees Beer-sheba, and goes into the desert. Elijah prays for death, but is ordered by an angel to eat and drink, so he walks for 40 days and nights to [[Horeb]]. On the mountain, there are a series of phenomona (that could easily be a dramatic description of a [[volcano]]), and then a faint whisper asking Elijah why he is present. After Elijah explains, he is ordered to go to anoint [[Hazael]] as the next king of Aram (Elisha does this as well), Jehu as king of Israel (Elisha does this as well), and [[Elisha]] as his own sucessor, and to demand that they slaughter everyone except those who devoutly worship Yahweh. Elisha, a plowman, readily follows Elijah, even killing his oxen, and burning them as a sacrifice, having broken up his plowing equiptment to use as fuel. *'''The story of the [[First Siege of Samaria]]''' (1 Kings 20:1-21) - Ben-hadad, the king of Aram, lays siege to Samaria, and Ahab gives up his treasure, harem, and sons. Ben-hadad then further demands to be allowed to ransack Ahab's property, but the elders of Israel disuade Ahab from agreeing, angering Ben-hadad. A prophet arrives and tells Ahab that he will win, so Ahab gathers the army of Israel together, and they launch a surprise attack, causing the Aramaeans to flee. *'''The story of the [[battle of Aphek]]''' (1 Kings 20:22-43) - The servants of Ben-hadad tell him to attack on the plains, as the God of Israel is one of mountains, so Ben-hadad does just this, going to [[Aphek]], but the prophet returns and tells Ahab that he will win, so Ahab gathers his army, and strikes down the enemy. The aramaeans flee into the city of Aphek, but its walls collapse. The servants of Ben-hadad tell him that the kings of Israel are merciful, so they are sent to Ahab to beg for mercy, and Ahab grants it. Meanwhile, on the orders of Yahweh, a prophet tells a companion to strike him, but the companion refuses, so the companion is killed by a lion. Once again the prophet tells a (different) companion to strike him, but this time the companion does so, and wounds him. The prophet pretends to the king that he was wounded in battle, and that he had been told to guard another man, on pain of death, but the other man escaped. The king of Israel consequently tells the prophet that he has condemned himself, but the prophet tells the king that the king has condemned himself, as the prophet had doomed Ben-hadad to destruction, and mercy wasn't approved by God. *'''The story of [[Naboth's vineyard]]''' (1 Kings 21:1-29) - A vineyard by the palace of Ahab is owned by a man named Naboth, but Ahab tries to buy it for a reasonable price and exchange of land, so that he can turn it into a vegetable garden. Naboth, however, refuses to give up his ancestral land, which angers Ahab, and causes Jezebel to arranges for Naboth to be falsely accused of blasphemy and treason, and for him to be stoned to death. Once Naboth has been killed, Jezebel tells Ahab, and he sets off for Naboth's vineyard, but meets Elijah there. Elijah prophecies that Ahab's dynasty will be eaten by dogs and by the birds. Ahab then tears his clothes, so Elijah is told by Yahweh that Ahab's penitance has bought him time. *'''The story of the [[Battle of Ramoth-gilead]]''' (1 Kings 22:1-40a, and 22:54) - After a period of peace between Aram and Israel, Jehoshaphat of Judah aproaches the king of Israel and enters a pact to help take back Ramoth-gilead from Aram. Jehoshaphat asks for consultation with a prophet that isn't one of the yes-men, the only one meeting this requirement being Micaiah (son of Imlah), who the (unidentified) king of Israel hates. Zedekiah (son of Chenaanah) made horns of iron to kill the king of Aram with. Despite the other prophets predicting success, Micaiah predicts total failure, so Zedekiah slaps him. The king of Israel orders Micaiah to be siezed and put in prison until the king returns from the war, and then disguises himself to enter the battle. Conversely, the king of Aram orders his men to only attack the king of Israel, and though some mistake Jehoshaphat for the king, his battle cry makes them realise he is not. A randomly fired arrow, by fluke, hits the disguised king of Israel, and he eventually dies from blood loss as the battle rages around him. The king's body is washed at the pool of Samaria, and the blood on his chariot is licked up by the dogs, fulfilling Elijah's prophecy about Ahab. *'''The story of [[Jehoshaphat]]''' (1 Kings 15:24b and 22:41-51a): Jehosaphat succeeds his father, Asa, as king of Judah. Although Jehoshaphat worships Yahweh, he permits the high places to continue existing. Like Solomon, Jehoshaphat sent ships to Ophir for gold, but this time they were recked at Ezion-gezer. *'''The story of [[Ahaziah of Israel]]''' (1 Kings 22:40b, and 1 Kings 22:52-2 Kings 1:18) - Ahaziah, Ahab's son, succeeds him as king of Israel. Ahaziah falls through the lattice of his roof terrace, and so sends messengers to ask the god of Ekron that he worships, Hadad (referred to as ''Ba'al'' and ''Baalzebub'', a satirical corruption of ''Baalzebul'' - ''prince Baal''), if he would recover from the injury. Elijah is sent by an angel to intercept the messengers, and to tell them that Ahaziah is doomed. The men are duly informed by Elijah, and are sent back to Ahaziah. After hearing them describe Elijah, Ahaziah recognises that Elijah gave them the message, so he sends men to ask Elija
], after practising [[Raja Yoga]] for some time, he said he had reached a state he called [[dhyana]] — one of many states of unification in thoughts that are described in ''MAGICK Book IV'' (See [[egolessness|Crowley on egolessness]]). [[1902]] saw him writing the essay ''Berashith'' (the first word of [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]]), in which he gave [[meditation]] (or restraint of the mind to a single object) as the means of attaining his goal. The essay describes [[ceremony|ceremonial]] magic as a means of training the will, and of constantly directing one's thoughts to a given object through ritual. In his 1903 essay, ''Science and Buddhism'', Crowley urged an [[empirical]] approach to Buddhist teachings. He said that a mystical experience in [[1904]] while on vacation in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]], led to his founding of the [[philosophy of religion|religious philosophy]] known as [[Thelema]]. Aleister's wife Rose started to behave in an odd way, and this led him to think that some entity had made contact with her. At her instructions, he performed an invocation of the Egyptian god [[Horus]] on [[March 20]] with (he wrote) &quot;great success&quot;. According to Crowley, the god told him that a new magical Aeon had begun, and that A.C. would serve as its prophet. Rose continued to give information, telling Crowley in detailed terms to await a further revelation. On [[8 April]] and for the following two days at exactly noon he heard a voice, dictating the words of the text, ''Liber AL vel Legis,'' or ''[[The Book of the Law]],'' which Crowley wrote down. The voice claimed to be that of Aiwass (or Aiwaz &quot;the minister of Hoor-paar-kraat,&quot; or Horus, the god of force and fire, child of [[Isis and Osiris]]) and self-appointed conquering lord of the New Aeon, announced through his chosen scribe &quot;the prince-priest the Beast.&quot; Portions of the book are in numerical [[cipher]], which Crowley claimed the inability to decode (Setian [[Michael Aquino]] later claimed to be able to decode them). Thelemic dogma (to the extent that Thelema has dogma) explains this by pointing to a warning within the ''Book of the Law'' — the speaker supposedly warned that the scribe, Ankh-af-na-khonsu (Aleister Crowley), was never to attempt to decode the ciphers, for to do so would end only in folly. The later-written ''The Law is For All'' sees Crowley warning everyone not to discuss the writing amongst fellow critics, for fear that a [[dogma|dogmatic]] position would arise. While he declared a &quot;new Equinox of the Gods&quot; in early 1904, supposedly passing on the revelation of [[March 20]] to the occult community, it took years for Crowley to fully accept the writing of the ''Book of the Law'' and follow its doctrine. Only after countless attempts to test its writings did he come to embrace them as the official doctrine of the New Aeon of [[Horus]]. The remainder of his professional and personal careers were spent expanding the new frontiers of scientific [[illuminism]]. Rose and Aleister had a daughter, whom AC named Nuit Ma Ahathoor Hecate Sappho Jezebel Lilith Crowley, in July of 1904. This child died in [[1906]]. They had another daughter, Lola Zaza, in the summer of that year, and AC devised a special ritual of thanksgiving for her birth. He performed a thanksgiving ritual before his first claimed success in the [[Abramelin]] operation, on [[October 9]], 1906. The events of that year gave the Abramelin book a central role in Crowley's system. He described the primary goal of the &quot;Great Work&quot; using a term from this book: &quot;the Knowledge and Conversation of the [[Holy Guardian Angel]].&quot; An essay in the first number of ''The Equinox'' gives several reasons for this choice of names: :''1. Because Abramelin's system is so simple and effective.'' :''2. Because since all theories of the universe are absurd it is better to talk in the language of one which is patently absurd, so as to mortify the metaphysical man.'' :''3. Because a child can understand it.'' Crowley was notorious in his lifetime — a frequent target of attacks in the [[tabloid press]], which labelled him &quot;The Wickedest Man in the World&quot; to his evident amusement. At one point, he was expelled from [[Italy]] after having established a sort of [[commune (intentional community)|commune]], the organization of which was based on his personal philosophies, the [[Abbey of Thelema]], at Cefalu, [[Sicily]]. In [[1934]] Crowley was declared bankrupt after losing a court case in which he sued the artist [[Nina Hamnett]] for calling him a black magician in her [[1932]] book, ''Laughing Torso.'' In addressing the jury, Mr Justice Swift said: &quot;I have been over forty years engaged in the administration of the law in one capacity or another. I thought that I knew of every conceivable form of wickedness. I thought that everything which was vicious and bad had been produced at one time or another before me. I have learnt in this case that we can always learn something more if we live long enough. I have never heard such dreadful, horrible, blasphemous and abominable stuff as that which has been produced by the man (Crowley) who describes himself to you as the greatest living poet.&quot; Aleister Crowley died of a respiratory infection in a [[Hastings]] [[boarding house]] on [[December 1]], [[1947]], at the age of 72. According to some accounts he died on [[December 5]], [[1947]]. He was penniless and [[addict]]ed to [[opium]], which had been prescribed for his [[asthma]] and [[bronchitis]], at the time. Biographer Lawrence Sutin passes on various stories about AC's death and last words. Frieda Harris supposedly reported him saying, &quot;I am perplexed,&quot; though she did not see him at the very end. According to John Symonds, a Mr Rowe witnessed Crowley's death along with a nurse, and reported his last words as, &quot;Sometimes I hate myself.&quot; Biographer Gerald Suster accepted the version of events he received from a &quot;[[Mr. W.H.|Mr W.H.]]&quot; in which Crowley dies pacing in his living-room. Supposedly Mr W.H. heard a crash while polishing furniture on the floor below, and entered Crowley's rooms to find him dead on the floor. Patricia &quot;Deirdre&quot; MacAlpine, the mother of his son, denied all this and reports a sudden gust of wind and peal of thunder at the (otherwise quiet) moment of his death. According to MacAlpine, Crowley remained bedridden for the last few days of his life, but was in light spirits and conversational. Readings at the cremation service in nearby Brighton included one of his own works, ''Hymn to Pan,'' and newspapers referred to the service as a [[black mass]]. [[Brighton]] council subsequently resolved to take all necessary steps to prevent such an incident occurring again. ==Chess== Crowley learnt to play chess at the age of six and first competed on the Eastbourne College chess team (where he was taking classes in [[1892]]). He showed immediate competence, beating the adult champion in town and even editing a chess column for the local newspaper, the Eastbourne Gazette (Sutin, p.33), which he often used to criticise the Eastbourne team. He later joined the university chess club at [[Cambridge]], where he beat the president in his freshman year and practised two hours a day towards becoming a champion — &quot;My one serious worldly ambition had been to become the champion of the world at chess&quot; (Confessions, p.193). However, he gave up his chess aspirations in [[1897]] when attending a chess conference in Berlin: &lt;blockquote&gt; But I had hardly entered the room where the masters were playing when I was seized with what may justly be described as a mystical experience. I seemed to be looking on at the tournament from outside myself. I saw the masters — one, shabby, snuffy and blear-eyed; another, in badly fitting would-be respectable shoddy; a third, a mere parody of humanity, and so on for the rest. These were the people to whose ranks I was seeking admission. &quot;There, but for the grace of God, goes Aleister Crowley,&quot; I exclaimed to myself with disgust, and there and then I registered a vow never to play another serious game of chess. I perceived with preternatural lucidity that I had not alighted on this planet with the object of playing chess. (Confessions, Ch.16). &lt;/blockquote&gt; ==Mountaineering== In the summer of [[1902]], [[Oscar Eckenstein]] and Crowley undertook the first attempt to scale Chogo Ri (known in the west as [[K2]]), located in [[Pakistan]]. The Eckenstein-Crowley Expedition consisted of Eckenstein, Crowley, [[Guy Knowles]], H. Pfannl, V. Wesseley, and Dr [[Jules Jacot-Guillarmod]]. During this trip he won a world record for his hardships on the [[Baltoro Glacier]], sixty-eight straight days of glacial life. In May [[1905]], he was approached by Dr [[Jules Jacot-Guillarmod]] ([[1868]] - [[1925]]) to accompany him on the first expedition to [[Kanchenjunga]] in [[Nepal]], the third largest mountain in the world. Guillarmod was left to organize the personnel while Crowley left to get things ready in [[Darjeeling]]. On [[July 31]] Guillarmod joined Crowley in Darjeeling, bringing with him two countrymen, Charles-Adolphe Reymond and Alexis Pache. Meanwhile, Crowley had recruited a local man, Alcesti C. Rigo de Righi, to act as Transport Manager. The team left Darjeeling on [[August 8]], [[1905]], and used the [[Singalila Ridge]] approach to Kangchenjunga. At [[Chabanjong]] they ran into the rear of the 135 [[coolie]]s who had been sent ahead on [[July 24]] and [[July 25]], who were carrying food rations for the team. The trek was led by Aleister Crowley, but four members of that party were killed in an avalanche. Some claims say they reached around 21,300 feet before turning back, however Crowley's autobiography claims they reached about 25,000 feet. Crowley was sometimes famously scathing about other climbers, in particular [[O. G.
ajor building built by the British administration in Ireland. In 1921 the [[House of Commons of Southern Ireland]] met there. Given its location next to Leinster House, the Irish Free State government took over part of the building to serve as a temporary home for some ministries. However both it and Leinster House (originally meant to be a temporary home of parliament) became the permanent homes of the government and parliament respectively. Until 1990, the Irish government shared the building with the Engineering Faculty of [[University College Dublin]], which retained use of the central block of the building, However following the building of a new Engineering Faculty at the UCD campus in Belfield, the Government took entire control, and remodelled the entire building for governmental use. The previous old [[Irish Houses of Parliament]] of the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] is located in [[College Green]]. ==Footnotes== {{fnb|1}} ''Baile Átha Cliath'' (or simply ''Áth Cliath'') and ''Dubhlinn'' are the two names of the city, the former being the one currently in official use. {{fnb|2}} Precisely {{coor dms|53|20|33.98|N|6|15|57.97|W|region:IE_type:city(495,781)}} {{fnb|3}} [[Irish Statute Book]]: [http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZSI394Y1993.html Local Government Act, 1991 (Regional Authorities) (Establishment) Order, 1993 - Dublin Region, &quot;The area consisting of the (then) county borough of Dublin and the administrative counties of Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin] ==See also== [[Image:Dublin custom house 2.jpg|right|thumb|180px|The south [[Facade (Architecture)|facade]] of the [[The Custom House|Custom House]] by night]] [[Image:Oconnellstdublin.jpg|right|thumb|[[Spire of Dublin]]|400px]] *[[List of Ireland-related topics]] **Dublin ***[[Áras an Uachtaráin]] ***[[Broadstone]] ***[[Dublin Castle]] ***[[Dublin Chamber of Commerce]] ***[[Dublin statues and their nicknames]] ***[[General Post Office (Dublin)]] ****[[Dublin postal districts]] ****[[List of Dublin postal districts]] ***[[Ha'penny Bridge]] ***[[Leinster House]] ***[[List of Dublin people]] ***[[Northside (Dublin)|Northside]] ***[[Irish Houses of Parliament|Old Irish Houses of Parliament]] ***[[Photographs of Dublin]] ***[[Southside (Dublin)|Southside]] ***[[Spire of Dublin]] ***[[St. Mary's Pro-Cathedral]] ***[[The Custom House]] ***[[The Kings of Dublin]] *** [[The Pale]] ***[[Visitor Information for Dublin, Ireland|Visitor Information for Dublin]] ***[[Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church]] ***[[2006 Dublin riots]] * The [[Eurovision Song Contest]] took place in Dublin in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1971|1971]], [[Eurovision Song Contest 1981|1981]], [[Eurovision Song Contest 1988|1988]], [[Eurovision Song Contest 1994|1994]], [[Eurovision Song Contest 1995|1995]], and [[Eurovision Song Contest 1997|1997]]. ==Additional reading== *Pat Liddy, ''Dublin A Celebration - From the 1st to the 21st Century'' (Dublin City Council, 2000) (ISBN 0946841500) *Maurice Craig, ''The Architecture of Ireland from the Earliest Times to 1880'' (Batsford, Paperback edition 1989) (ISBN 0713425873) *Frank McDonald, ''Saving the City: How to Halt the Destruction of Dublin'' (Tomar Publishing, 1989) (ISBN 1871793033) *Edward McParland, ''Public Architecture in Ireland 1680-1760'' (Yale University Press, 2001) (ISBN 0300030641) *Hanne Hem, ''Dubliners, An Anthropologist's Account'', Oslo, 1994 *John Flynn and Jerry Kelleher, ''Dublin Journeys in America'' (High Table Publishing, 2003) (ISBN 0954469410) ==External links== {{commons|Dublin}} *{{Wikitravel}} *[http://www.archiseek.com Discussion of architecture and planning] *[http://www.dublincity.ie Dublin City Council] *[http://www.vrdublin.co.uk VR Dublin] - Virtual Tour of the City of Dublin *[http://www.dublin.ie Dublin.ie] - community portal for Dublin *[http://www.irish-architecture.com/buildings_ireland/dublin/northcity/oconnell_street/spire.html Dublin Spire] *[http://www.thedubliner.ie The Dubliner Magazine] - for clever and contemporary commentary on Dublin life. *[http://www.visitdublin.com/ Dublin Tourism] - the official tourism site for Dublin *[http://www.dublintourist.com DublinTourist.com ]tourist guide *[http://www.irelandscape.com Irelandscape] - Pictures of Dublin and other Irish Locations *[http://www.irish-architecture.com/buildings_ireland/dublin/ Irish Architecture - Dublin] *[http://www.chapters.eiretek.org/ www.chapters.eiretek.org] Chapters of Dublin History *[http://www.queerid.com QueerID.com] - Guide to Dublin's gay scene *[http://www.dub.ie Dub.ie] - community portal for Dublin *[http://www.irlfunds.org/ireland/dublin.asp Dublin] - The Ireland Funds Dublin page *[http://www.michaelpead.co.uk/photography/dublin Michael Pead :: Photos of Dublin] - collection of pictures taken in Dublin {{IrishCities}} [[Category:Dublin]] [[Category:Capitals in Europe]] [[Category:Cities in Ireland]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Eurovision host cities]] [[Category:Ireland]] [[Category:Leinster]] [[af:Dublin]] [[ar:دبلن]] [[ast:Ciudá de Dublín]] [[bg:Дъблин]] [[be:Дублін]] [[ca:Dublín]] [[cs:Dublin]] [[cy:Dulyn]] [[da:Dublin]] [[de:Dublin]] [[et:Dublin]] [[es:Dublín]] [[eo:Dublino]] [[fr:Dublin]] [[ga:Baile Átha Cliath]] [[gl:Dublín - Baile Átha Cliath]] [[ko:더블린]] [[io:Dublin]] [[id:Dublin]] [[is:Dyflinn]] [[it:Dublino]] [[he:דבלין]] [[kw:Dulynn]] [[lv:Dublina]] [[lt:Dublinas]] [[hu:Dublin]] [[nl:Dublin]] [[ja:ダブリン]] [[no:Dublin]] [[nn:Dublin]] [[pl:Dublin]] [[pt:Dublin]] [[ro:Dublin]] [[ru:Дублин]] [[simple:Dublin]] [[sk:Dublin]] [[sl:Dublin]] [[sr:Даблин]] [[fi:Dublin]] [[sv:Dublin]] [[tpi:Dublin]] [[tr:Dublin]] [[zh:都柏林]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DirectX</title> <id>8506</id> <revision> <id>42141194</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:20:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.100.81.198</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software | |name =DirectX |screenshot = [[Image:DirectX_logo.gif|center]] |caption =The current official DirectX logo. |developer = [[Microsoft]] |latest_release_version = 9.0c |latest_release_date = [[December 20]], [[2005]] |operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows]] |genre = [[Application framework]] |license = [[EULA]] |website = [http://www.microsoft.com/windows/directx/ DirectX Homepage] }} '''DirectX''' is a collection of [[Application Programming Interface|APIs]] for easily handling tasks related to [[game programmer|game programming]] on the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system. It is most widely used in the development of [[computer game]]s for Microsoft Windows. The DirectX [[Software development kit|SDK]] is available free from [[Microsoft]]. The DirectX runtime was originally redistributed by [[video game developer|computer game developers]] along with their games, but later it was included in Windows. DirectX 9.0c is the latest version of DirectX. The latest versions of DirectX are still usually included with [[computer game|PC games]], since the API is updated so often. ==DirectX APIs== The various components of DirectX are in the form of [[Component Object Model|COM]]-compliant objects. The components comprising DirectX are : *'''DirectX Graphics''', comprised of two APIs (DirectX 8.0 onwards): **[[DirectDraw]]: for drawing [[raster graphics]]. **[[Direct3D]] (D3D): for drawing [[3D computer graphics|3D graphics]] primitives *[[DirectInput]]: used to process data from a [[computer keyboard|keyboard]], [[computer mouse|mouse]], [[joystick]], or other [[game controller]]s *[[DirectPlay]]: for networked communication of games *[[DirectSound]]: for the playback and recording of waveform sound *[[DirectMusic]]: for playback of soundtracks authored in [[DirectMusic Producer]] *[[DirectSetup]]: for the installation of DirectX components *[[DirectX Media Objects]]: support for streaming objects such as encoders, decoder and effects ==History== Originally targeted at the [[video game industry|game development industry]], DirectX has become more widely used among other software production industries. Most notably, Direct3D is becoming more popular among the engineering sector because of its ability to quickly render high-quality 3D graphics using the latest 3D [[graphics card|graphics hardware]]. In [[1994]], Microsoft was just on the verge of releasing its next [[operating system]], [[Windows 95]]. The main factor that would determine the value consumers would place on their new operating system very much rested on what programs would be able to run on it. Three Microsoft employees&amp;mdash;[[Craig Eisler]], [[Alex St. John]], and [[Eric Engstrom]]&amp;mdash;were concerned, because [[game programmer|programmers]] tended to see Microsoft's previous operating system, [[DOS]], as a better platform for game programming, meaning few games would be developed for Windows 95 and the operating system would not be as much of a success. DOS allowed direct access to video cards, [[computer keyboard|keyboards]] and [[computer mouse|mice]], [[sound card|sound devices]] and all other parts of the system, while Windows 95, with its protected memory model, restricted access to all of these, working on a much more standardized model. Microsoft needed a way that would let programmers get what they wanted, and they needed it quickly; the operating system was only months away from being released. Eisler, St. John, and Engstrom conspired together to fix this problem, with a solution that they eventually named DirectX. The first release version of DirectX was shipped September of [[1995]] as the Windows Games SDK. It was the [[Windows API|Win32]] replacement for poorly designed, ill-conceived APIs for the [[Windows API|Win16]] [[operating system]] (DCI and [[WinG]]). The development of DirectX was led by the team of Eisler (development lead), St. John, and Engstrom (program manager). Simply put, it allowed all versions of Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 95, to incorpora
346;&amp;#2381; (/ p /), pronunciation (of the vowel alone and of / p /+vowel) in [[IPA]], equivalent in [[IAST]] and ITRANS and (approximate) equivalents in Standard English are listed below: {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |-bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Alphabet'''||'''Diacritical mark with “&amp;#2346;&amp;#2381;”'''||'''Pronunciation'''||'''Pronunciation with / p /'''||[[IAST]] equiv.'''||'''[[ITRANS]] equiv.||'''English eqivalent''' |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;#2309;'''||'''&amp;#2346;'''||{{IPA|/ ə /}}||{{IPA|/ pə /}}||a||a||short or long [[Schwa]]: as the ''a'' in '''a'''bove or '''a'''go |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;#2310;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2366;'''||{{IPA|/ ɑː /}}||{{IPA|/ pɑː /}}||ā||A||long [[Open back unrounded vowel]]: as the ''a'' in f'''a'''ther |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;#2311;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2367;'''||{{IPA|/ i /}}||{{IPA|/ pi /}}||i||i||short [[close front unrounded vowel]]: as ''i'' in b'''i'''t |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;#2312;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2368;'''||{{IPA|/ iː /}}||{{IPA|/ piː /}}||ī||I||long [[close front unrounded vowel]]: as ''i'' in mach'''i'''ne |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;#2313;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2369;'''||{{IPA|/ u /}}||{{IPA|/ pu /}}||u||u||short [[close back rounded vowel]]: as ''u'' in p'''u'''t |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;#2314;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2370;'''||{{IPA|/ uː /}}||{{IPA|/ puː /}}||ū||U|| long [[close back rounded vowel]]: as ''oo'' in sch'''oo'''l |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;#2319;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2375;'''||{{IPA|/ eː /}}||{{IPA|/ peː /}}||e||e|| long [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]]: as ''a'' in g'''a'''me (not a diphthong), or ''é'' in caf'''é''' |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;#2320;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2376;'''||{{IPA|/ əi / ''or'' / ai /}}||{{IPA|/ pəi / ''or'' /pai/}}||ai||ai|| a long [[diphthong]]: approx. as ''ei'' in h'''ei'''ght |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;#2323;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2379;'''||{{IPA|/ οː /}}||{{IPA|/ poː /}}||o||o|| long [[close-mid back rounded vowel]]: as ''o'' in t'''o'''ne (not a diphthong) |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;#2324;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2380;'''||{{IPA|/ əu / ''or'' / au /}}||{{IPA|/ pəu / ''or'' /pau/}}||au||au|| a long [[diphthong]]: approx. as ''ou'' in h'''ou'''se |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;#2315;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2371;'''||{{IPA|/ ɻ̩ /}}||{{IPA|/ pɻ̩ /}}||{{Unicode|ṛ}}||R|| short syllabic vowel-like [[retroflex approximant]]: approx. as American Eng. b'''ir'''d or met'''er''' |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;#2400;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2372;'''||{{IPA|/ ɻ̩ː /}}||{{IPA|/ pɻ̩ː /}}||{{Unicode|ṝ}}||RR|| long syllabic vowel-like [[retroflex approximant]]: a longer version of {{IPA|/ ɻ̩ /}} |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''ऌ''' ||'''पॢ'''||{{IPA|/ l̩ /}}||{{IPA|/ pl̩ /}}||{{Unicode|ḷ}}||LR|| short syllabic vowel-like retroflex-lateral approximant: approx. as hand'''l'''e |-align=&quot;center&quot; | '''ॡ''' ||'''पॣ'''||{{IPA|/ l̩ː /}}||{{IPA|/ pl̩ː /}}||{{Unicode|ḹ}}||LRR|| long syllabic vowel-like retroflex-lateral approximant: longer version of {{IPA|/ l̩ /}} |- |} Additional points: * There are some additional vowels traditionally listed in the Sanskrit/Hindi alphabet. They are : **&amp;#2309;&amp;#2306; (called ''anusvāra''), pronounced as {{IPA|/ əŋ /}} ([[IAST]]: {{Unicode|ṃ}}). Its diacritic (the dot above) is used both for nasalizing the vowel in the syllable and for the sound of a vowel-like / n / or / m /. (&amp;#2346;&amp;#2306;). **&amp;#2309;&amp;#2307; (called ''visarga''), pronounced as / əh / ([[IAST]]: {{Unicode|ḥ}}). Actually it is a consonant. **The diacritic {{Unicode|&amp;#2305;}} (called ''chandrabindu''), not listed in the alphabet, is used interchangeably with the ''anusvāra'' to indicate nasalization of the vowel (&amp;#2346;&amp;#2305;). * If a lonely consonant needs to be written without any following vowel, it is given a ''halanta/virāma'' diacritic below (&amp;#2346;&amp;#2381;). * The vowel {{IPA|/ ɑː /}} in Sanskrit is more central and less back than in English. The [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ ə /}}) is always short in Sanskrit. * All vowels in Hindi, short or long, can be nasalized. All vowels can have acute, grave or circumflex pitch accent (in Vedic Sanskrit). * In Hindi, &amp;#2315; is pronounced as / ri /. The last three vowels in the table above do not occur in Hindi at all. * Note that the ancient Sanskrit grammarians have classified the vowel system as velars, retroflexes, palatals and plosives rather than as back, central and mid vowels. Hence {{Unicode|&amp;#2319;}} and {{Unicode|&amp;#2323;}} are classified respectively as palato-velar (a+i) labio-velar (a+u) vowels respectively. But the grammarians have classified them as diphthongs and in prosody, each is given two ''mātrās''. This does not necessarily mean that they are proper diphthongs, but neither excludes the possibility that they could have been proper diphthongs at a very ancient stage. These vowels ''are'' pronounced as long / e / and / o / respectively by learned Sanskrit Brahmins and priests of today. Other than the &quot;four&quot; diphthongs, Sanskrit usually disallows any other diphthongs—vowels in succession, if occur, are converted to semivowels according to predetermined rules. * In the devanagari script used for Sanskrit, whenever a consonant in a word-ending position is without any ''virāma'' (ie, freely standing in the orthography: &amp;#2346; as opposed to &amp;#2346;&amp;#2381;), the neutral vowel [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ ə /}}) is automatically associated with it—this is of course true for the consonant to be in any position in the word. Word-ending schwa is always short. But the IAST '''a''' appended to the end of masculine noun words rather confuses the foreigners to pronounce it as {{IPA|/ ɑː /}}—this makes the masculine Sanskrit/Hindi words sound like feminine! e.g., '''shiva''' must be pronounced as {{IPA|/ ʃivə /}} and not as {{IPA|/ ʃivɑː /}}. * In Sanskrit and in some other dialects of Hindi (as well as in a few words in Standard Hindi), the vowel {{Unicode|ऐ}} is pronounced as a diphthong {{IPA|/ əi /}} or / ai / rather than / e: /. Similarly, the vowel {{Unicode|औ}} is pronounced in some words as the diphthong {{IPA|/ əu /}} or / au / rather than {{IPA|/ ɔ: /}}. Other than these, Hindi does not have true diphthongs—two vowels might occur sequentially but then they are pronounced as two syllables (a glide might come in between while speaking). Otherwise in Standard Hindi, {{Unicode|ऐ}} (ai) is long [[near-open front unrounded vowel]]: / æ / as ''a'' in c'''a'''t; {{Unicode|औ}} (au) is long [[open-mid back rounded vowel]]: / ɔː / as ''au'' in c'''au'''ght. * The short [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ ɛ /}}: as ''e'' in g'''e'''t), does not have any symbol or diacritic in devanagari script. It occurs only as an allophonic variant of [[schwa]] (in place word-middle a, determined only by convention) in certain words in the Standard kharoboli dialect of Hindi. E.g., the orthography dictates that {{Unicode|रहना}} must be pronounced as {{IPA|/ rəhənα: /}}, but it is actually pronounced as {{IPA|/ rɛhnα: /}}. It also occurs in loanwords from English, where it might be accorded a new vowel symbol of {{Unicode|ऍ }}(''chandra'': {{Unicode|पॅ}}). The short open-mid back rounded vowel ({{IPA|/ ɔ /}}: as ''o'' in h'''o'''t), does not exist in Hindi at all, other than for English loanwords. In orthography, a new symbol has been invented for it: {{Unicode|ऑ (पॉ)}}. * Unicode transliteration scheme differs for some characters from IAST scheme. The differences are: ā→aa, ī→ii, ū→uu, {{Unicode|ṛ}}→rr, {{Unicode|ḹ}}→ll. ===Consonants=== The table below shows the traditional listing of the Sanskrit consonants with the (nearest) equivalents in English/Spanish. The parentheses give the corresponding transliteration (of the consonant alone) in IAST scheme—the most popular one. Each consonant shown below is deemed to be followed by the neutral vowel [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ ə /}}), and is named in the table as such. {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |-bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot; |align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot;|'''Plosives''' |- ! ![[Unaspirated]]&lt;br&gt;[[Voiceless]] ![[Aspirated]]&lt;br&gt;[[Voiceless]] ![[Unaspirated]]&lt;br&gt;[[Voiced]] ![[Aspirated]]&lt;br&gt;[[Voiced]] ![[Nasal]] |-align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Velar]] |&amp;#2325; (k)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ kə /}}; English: s'''k'''ip |&amp;#2326; (kh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ k&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; English: '''c'''at |&amp;#2327; (g)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ gə /}}; English: '''g'''ame |&amp;#2328; (gh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ g&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated / g / |&amp;#2329; (ṅ)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ŋə /}}; English: ri'''ng''' |-align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Palatal]] |&amp;#2330; (c)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ cə /}}; ≈English: '''ch'''at |&amp;#2331; (cha)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ c&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated / c / |&amp;#2332; (j)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɟə /}}; ≈English: '''j'''am |&amp;#2333; (jh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɟ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ ɟ /}} |&amp;#2334; (ñ)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɲə /}}; English: fi'''n'''ch |-align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Retroflex]] |&amp;#2335; (ṭ)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ʈə /}}; American Eng: hur'''t'''ing |&amp;#2336; (ṭh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ʈ&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ ʈ /}} |&amp;#2337; (ḍ)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɖə /}}; American Eng: mur'''d'''er |&amp;#2338; (ḍh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɖ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ ɖ /}} |&amp;#2339; (ṇ)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɳə /}}; American Eng: hun'''t'''er |-align=&quot;center&quot; |Apico-[[Dental]] |&amp;#2340; (t)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ t̪ə /}}; Spanish: '''t'''oma'''t'''e |&amp;#2341; (th)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ t̪&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ t̪ /}} |&amp;#2342; (d)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ d̪ə /}}; Spanish: '''d'''on'''d'''e |&amp;#2343; (dh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ d̪&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}};
the source for the [[Pan-Slavic colors]] adopted by many [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] states and peoples as their symbols. ''Examples'': [[Flag of Slovakia|Slovakia]], [[Flag of Serbia and Montenegro|Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Flag of Croatia|Croatia]], [[Flag of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]. * [[Ethiopia]] was seen as a model by emerging [[Africa]]n states of the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], as it was one of the oldest independent states in Africa. Accordingly, its [[Flag of Ethiopia|flag]] became the source of the [[Pan-African colours]]. ''Examples'': [[Flag of Togo|Togo]], [[Flag of Senegal|Senegal]], [[Flag of Ghana|Ghana]], [[Flag of Mali|Mali]]. *The [[flag of Turkey|flag]] of [[Turkey]], which was the flag of the [[Ottoman Empire]], has been an inspiration for the flag designs of many other Muslim nations. During the time of the Ottomans the [[crescent]] began to be associated with [[Islam]] and this is reflected on the flags of [[Flag of Algeria|Algeria]], [[Flag of Comoros|Comoros]], [[Flag of Malaysia|Malaysia]], [[Flag of Mauritania|Mauritania]], [[Flag of Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[Flag of Tunisia|Tunisia]], and the ''de facto'' country of the [[Flag of Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]]. *The [[Pan-Arab colors]], [[green]], [[white]], [[red]] and [[black]], seen on the flags of [[Flag of Jordan|Jordan]], [[Flag of Kuwait|Kuwait]], [[Flag of Sudan|Sudan]], [[Flag of Syria|Syria]], the [[Flag of United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]], [[Flag of Western Sahara|Western Sahara]], [[Flag of Yemen|Yemen]] and on the [[Palestinian flag]]. *The [[Soviet flag]], with its golden symbols of the [[proletariat]] on a red field, was an inspiration to flags of other [[communism|communist]] states, such as [[Flag of East Germany|East Germany]], [[Flag of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]], [[Flag of Vietnam|Vietnam]], [[Flag of Angola|Angola]], [[Flag of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] and [[Flag of Mozambique|Mozambique]]. *The [[Flag of Venezuela|flag]] of [[Venezuela]], created by [[Francisco de Miranda]] to represent the independence movement in Venezuela that later gave birth to the [[Republic of Gran Colombia|&quot;Gran Colombia&quot;]], inspired the individual flags of [[Flag of Colombia|Colombia]], [[Flag of Ecuador|Ecuador]] and [[Flag of Bolivia|Bolivia]], all sharing three bands of colour and three of them (Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela) sharing the [[yellow]], [[blue]] and [[red]]. *The [[Flag of Argentina|flag]] of [[Argentina]], created by [[Manuel Belgrano]] during the war of independence, was the inspiration for the [[United Provinces of Central America]]'s flag, which in turn was the origin for the flags of [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], and [[Nicaragua]]. ==Flags at sea== {{main|Maritime flags}} Flags are particularly important at sea, where they can mean the difference between life and death, and consequently where the rules and regulations for the flying of flags are strictly enforced. A national flag flown at sea is known as an [[ensign]]. A courteous, peaceable [[merchant navy|merchant ship]] or [[yacht]] customarily flies its ensign (in the usual ensign position), together with the flag of whatever nation it is currently visiting at the mast (known as a [[courtesy flag]]). To fly one's ensign alone in foreign waters, a foreign port or in the face of a foreign warship traditionally indicates a willingness to fight, with [[cannon]], for the right to do so. [[As of 2006]], this custom is still taken seriously by many naval and port authorities and is readily enforced in many parts of the world by boarding, confiscation and other civil penalties. In some countries yacht ensigns are different from merchant ensigns in order to signal that the yacht is not carrying [[cargo]] that requires a [[customs]] declaration. Carrying commercial cargo on a boat with a yacht ensign is deemed to be [[smuggling]] in many jurisdictions. There is a system of [[International maritime signal flags]] for numerals and letters of the alphabet. Each flag or [[pennant]] has a specific meaning when flown individually. As well, [[semaphore (communication)|semaphore]] flags can be used to communicate on an ''ad hoc'' basis from ship to ship over short distances. ==Shape and design== {{main|Flag terminology}} [[Image:Flag of Nepal.svg|thumb|right|120 px|[[Flag of Nepal]]]] Flags are usually rectangular in shape, but may be of any shape or size that is practical for flying. Named shapes include square (e.g., the national [[flag of Switzerland]] and the state [[flag of the Vatican City]]), pennant, double pennant (e.g., the [[US state|state]] [[flag of Ohio]]), swallowtail, triangular or swallowtail [[burgee]], [[gonfanon]] and [[oriflamme]]. A more unusual flag shape is that of the [[flag of Nepal]], which is in the shape of two stacked triangles. Often the image is [[through and through]], in which case there are two possibilities: *the image is [[symmetric]]al in an axis parallel to the flag pole, so the image is the same when viewed from the other side *when viewed from the other side one sees the [[mirror image]]; this is very common and usually not disturbing if there is no text in the flag — the whole image of flag with flag staff is not the same anyway, with the staff on the other side; examples are the [[flag of the United States]] with stars and stripes on the hoist-side, and the former Nazi [[swastika]] flag at sea (compare with the flag on land mentioned below) If the image is not through and through there are also two possibilities: *the image is not symmetric, nevertheless the image is the same when viewed from the other side; for example the former Nazi swastika flag on land ([http://flagspot.net/flags/de1933_o.html], at the bottom) *the image is different; examples are the national [[flag of Paraguay]], the state [[flag of Oregon]] and the now-obsolete [[flag of the Soviet Union]]. [[image:Flag of Kiribati.svg|thumb|left|200 px|[[Flag of Kiribati]]]] Common designs on flags include crosses, stripes, and divisions of the surface, or ''field'', into bands or quarters — patterns and principles mainly derived from [[heraldry]]. A heraldic coat of arms may also be flown as a ''[[Banner#Heraldic banners|banner of arms]]'', as is done on both the state [[flag of Maryland]] and the [[flag of Kiribati]]. Writing occasionally features on flags — for example, on several flags of U.S. states, or on [[revolution]]ary flags of the former [[Soviet Union]]. The practice is, however, not widely favoured, as it is expensive to reproduce accurately and is either difficult to read on the reverse of a flag (in mirror image), or sewn on both sides of the flag, making the flag too heavy to fly properly. The [[flag of Libya]], which consists of a rectangular field of green, is the only national flag using a single color and no design or insignia. ==In sports== [[Image:Flags-NapierNewZealand.jpg|thumb|Flags flown on a beach.]] Because of their ease of signalling and identification, flags are often used in [[sport]]s. * In [[American Football|American]] and [[Canadian football]], [[referee]]s use flags to indicate an error has been made in game play. The phrase used for such an indication is ''flag on the play''. The flag itself is a small, weighted handkerchief, tossed on the field at the approximate point of the infraction; the intent is usually to sort out the details after the current play from scrimmage has concluded. In American football, the flag is usually yellow; in Canadian football, it is usually red. * In [[auto racing|auto]] and [[motorcycle racing]], [[racing flags]] are used to communicate with drivers. Most famously, a checkered flag of black and white indicates the end of the race, and victory for the leader. A yellow flag is used to indicate caution requiring slow speed and a red flag requires racers to stop immediately. A black flag is used to indicate penalties. * In [[football (soccer)|Association football (soccer)]], [[Assistant Referee (Football)|linesmen]] carry small flags along the touch lines. They use the flags to indicate to the [[Referee (Football)|referee]] potential infringements of the laws, or who is entitled to possession of the ball that has gone out of the field of play, or, most famously, raise the flag overhead to indicate an [[offside law (football)|offside]] offence. Officials called ''touch judges'' use flags for similar purposes in both codes of [[Rugby football|rugby]]. * In addition, fans of almost all sports wave flags in the stands to indicate their support for the participants. Many sports teams have their own flags, and, in individual sports, fans will indicate their support for a player by waving the flag of his or her home country. * [[Capture the flag]] is a popular children's sport. == Bathing flags == [[Image:Flags - swim between the.jpg|thumb|Open bathing area]] [[Image:Flags - crossed - do not swim.jpg|thumb|Closed bathing area]] In [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Philippines]], and the [[United Kingdom]] a pair of red/yellow flags is used to mark the limits of the bathing area on a beach, usually guarded by [[surf lifesaving|surf lifesavers]]. If the beach is closed, the poles of the flags are crossed. The flags are coloured with a red triangle and a yellow triangle making a rectangular flag, or a red rectangle over a yellow rectangle. On many Australian beaches there is a slight variation with beach condition signalling. A red flag signifies a closed beach (or, in the UK, some other danger), yellow signifies strong current or difficult swimming conditions, and green represents a beach safe for general swimming. Blue flags may also be used away from the yellow-red lifesaver area to designate a zone for surfboarding and other small, non-motorised watercraft. Reasons for closing the beach include: * no lifeguards in attendance * waves too strong * dangerous rip * sharks * tsunami A surf flag exists, divid
[India]]) # IQD [[Iraqi Dinar]] ([[Iraq]]) # IRR [[Iranian Rial]] ([[Iran]]) # ISK [[Iceland Krona]] ([[Iceland]]) # JMD [[Jamaican Dollar]] ([[Jamaica]]) # JOD [[Jordanian Dinar]] ([[Jordan]]) # JPY [[Yen]] ([[Japan]]) # KES [[Kenyan Shilling]] ([[Kenya]]) # KGS [[Som]] ([[Kyrgyzstan]]) # KHR [[Riel]] ([[Cambodia]]) # KMF [[Comoro Franc]] ([[Comoros]]) # KPW [[North Korean Won]] ([[North Korea]]) # KRW [[Won]] ([[South Korea]]) # KWD [[Kuwaiti Dinar]] ([[Kuwait]]) # KYD [[Cayman Islands Dollar]] ([[Cayman Islands]]) # KZT [[Tenge]] ([[Kazakhstan]]) # LAK [[Kip]] ([[Laos]]) # LBP [[Lebanese Pound]] ([[Lebanon]]) # LKR [[Sri Lanka Rupee]] ([[Sri Lanka]]) # LRD [[Liberian Dollar]] ([[Liberia]]) # LSL [[Loti]] ([[Lesotho]]) # LTL [[Lithuanian Litas]] ([[Lithuania]]) # LVL [[Latvian Lats]] ([[Latvia]]) # LYD [[Libyan Dinar]] ([[Libya]]) # MAD [[Moroccan Dirham]] ([[Morocco]], [[Western Sahara]]) # MDL [[Moldovan Leu]] ([[Moldova]]) # MGA [[Malagasy Ariary]] ([[Madagascar]]) # MKD [[Denar]] ([[Macedonia]]) # MMK [[Kyat]] ([[Myanmar]]) # MNT [[Tugrik]] ([[Mongolia]]) # MOP [[Pataca]] ([[Macau]]) # MRO [[Ouguiya]] ([[Mauritania]]) # MTL [[Maltese Lira]] ([[Malta]]) # MUR [[Mauritius Rupee]] ([[Mauritius]]) # MVR [[Rufiyaa]] ([[Maldives]]) # MWK [[Kwacha]] ([[Malawi]]) # MXN [[Mexican Peso]] ([[Mexico]]) # MXV [[Mexican Unidad de Inversion]] (UDI) (Funds code) ([[Mexico]]) # MYR [[Malaysian Ringgit]] ([[Malaysia]]) # MZM [[Metical]] ([[Mozambique]]) (assuming merical is a typo) # NAD [[Namibian Dollar]] ([[Namibia]]) # NGN [[Naira]] ([[Nigeria]]) # NIO [[Cordoba Oro]] ([[Nicaragua]]) # NOK [[Norwegian Krone]] ([[Norway]]) # NPR [[Nepalese Rupee]] ([[Nepal]]) # NZD [[New Zealand Dollar]] ([[Cook Islands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Niue]], [[Pitcairn]], [[Tokelau]]) # OMR [[Rial Omani]] ([[Oman]]) # PAB [[Balboa]] ([[Panama]]) # PEN [[Nuevo Sol]] ([[Peru]]) # PGK [[Kina]] ([[Papua New Guinea]]) # PHP [[Philippine Peso]] ([[Philippines]]) # PKR [[Pakistan Rupee]] ([[Pakistan]]) # PLN [[Zloty]] ([[Poland]]) # PYG [[Guarani]] ([[Paraguay]]) # QAR [[Qatari Rial]] ([[Qatar]]) # RON [[New Leu]] ([[Romania]]) # RUB [[Russian Ruble]] ([[Russia]]) # RWF [[Rwanda Franc]] ([[Rwanda]]) # SAR [[Saudi Riyal]] ([[Saudi Arabia]]) # SBD [[Solomon Islands Dollar]] ([[Solomon Islands]]) # SCR [[Seychelles Rupee]] ([[Seychelles]]) # SDD [[Sudanese Dinar]] ([[Sudan]]) # SEK [[Swedish Krona]] ([[Sweden]]) # SGD [[Singapore Dollar]] ([[Singapore]]) # SHP [[Saint Helena Pound]] ([[Saint Helena]]) # SIT [[Tolar]] ([[Slovenia]]) # SKK [[Slovak Koruna]] ([[Slovakia]]) # SLL [[Leone]] ([[Sierra Leone]]) # SOS [[Somali Shilling]] ([[Somalia]]) # SRD [[Surinam Dollar]] ([[Suriname]]) # STD [[Dobra]] ([[São Tomé and Príncipe]]) # SYP [[Syrian Pound]] ([[Syria]]) # SZL [[Lilangeni]] ([[Swaziland]]) # THB [[Baht]] ([[Thailand]]) # TJS [[Somoni]] ([[Tajikistan]]) # TMM [[Manat]] ([[Turkmenistan]]) # TND [[Tunisian Dinar]] ([[Tunisia]]) # TOP [[Pa'anga]] ([[Tonga]]) # TRY [[New Turkish Lira]] ([[Turkey]]) # TTD [[Trinidad and Tobago Dollar]] ([[Trinidad and Tobago]]) # TWD [[New Taiwan Dollar]] ([[Taiwan]]) # TZS [[Tanzanian Shilling]] ([[Tanzania]]) # UAH [[Hryvnia]] ([[Ukraine]]) # UGX [[Uganda Shilling]] ([[Uganda]]) # USD [[US Dollar]] ([[American Samoa]], [[British Indian Ocean Territory]], [[Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guam]], [[Haiti]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Micronesia]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Palau]], [[Panama]], [[Palau]], [[East Timor]], [[Turks and Caicos Islands]], [[United States]], [[Virgin Islands]], [[Western Samoa]]) # UYU [[Peso Uruguayo]] ([[Uruguay]]) # UZS [[Uzbekistan Som]] ([[Uzbekistan]]) # VEB [[Bolivar]] ([[Venezuela]]) # VND [[Dong]] ([[Vietnam]]) # VUV [[Vatu]] ([[Vanuatu]]) # WST [[Tala]] ([[Samoa]]) # XAF [[CFA Franc BEAC]] ([[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Congo]], [[Chad]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]]) # XAG [[Silver]] (one [[Troy ounce]]) # XAU [[Gold]] (one [[Troy ounce]]) # XBA [[European Composite Unit]] (EURCO) (Bonds market unit) # XBB [[European Monetary Unit]] (E.M.U.-6) (Bonds market unit) # XBC [[European Unit of Account 9]] (E.U.A.-9) (Bonds market unit) # XBD [[European Unit of Account 17]] (E.U.A.-17) (Bonds market unit) # XCD [[East Caribbean Dollar]] ([[Anguilla]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Dominica]], [[Grenada]], [[Montserrat]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]) # XDR [[Special Drawing Rights]] ([[International Monetary Fund|IMF]]) # XFO [[Gold-franc]] (Special settlement currency) # XFU [[UIC franc]] (Special settlement currency) # XOF [[CFA Franc BCEAO]] ([[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Senegal]], [[Togo]]) # XPD [[Palladium]] (one [[Troy ounce]]) # XPF [[CFP franc]] ([[French Polynesia]], [[New Caledonia]], [[Wallis and Futuna]]) # XPT [[Platinum]] (one [[Troy ounce]]) # XTS Code reserved for testing purposes # XXX No currency # YER [[Yemeni Rial]] ([[Yemen]]) # ZAR [[Rand]] ([[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]], [[South Africa]]) # ZMK [[Kwacha]] ([[Zambia]]) # ZWD [[Zimbabwe Dollar]] ([[Zimbabwe]]) ==Currency Numeric Codes== ALPHABETIC CODE NUMERIC CODE ADP 20 AED 784 AFA 4 ALL 8 AMD 51 ANG 532 AON 24 AOR 982 ARS 32 ATS 40 AUD 36 AWG 533 AZM 31 AZN 944 BAM 977 BBD 52 BDT 50 BEF 56 BGL 100 BGN 975 BHD 48 BIF 108 BMD 60 BND 96 BRL 986 BSD 44 BTN 64 BWP 72 BYR 974 BZD 84 CAD 124 CDF 976 CHF 756 CLF 990 CLP 152 CNY 156 COP 170 CRC 188 CUP 192 CVE 132 CYP 196 CZK 203 DEM 276 DJF 262 DKK 208 DOP 214 DZD 12 ECS 218 ECV 983 EEK 233 EGP 818 ERN 232 ESP 724 ETB 230 EUR 978 FIM 246 FJD 242 FKP 238 FRF 250 GBP 826 GEL 981 GHC 288 GIP 292 GMD 270 GNF 324 GRD 300 GTQ 320 GWP 624 GYD 328 HKD 344 HNL 340 HRK 191 HTG 332 HUF 348 IDR 360 IEP 372 ILS 376 INR 356 IQD 368 IRR 364 ISK 352 ITL 380 JMD 388 JOD 400 JPY 392 KES 404 KGS 417 KHR 116 KMF 174 KPW 408 KRW 410 KWD 414 KYD 136 KZT 398 LAK 418 LBP 422 LKR 144 LRD 430 LSL 426 LTL 440 LUF 442 LVL 428 LYD 434 MAD 504 MDL 498 MGF 450 MKD 807 MMK 104 MNT 496 MOP 446 MRO 478 MTL 470 MUR 480 MVR 462 MWK 454 MXN 484 MXV 979 MYR 458 MZM 508 NAD 516 NGN 566 NIO 558 NLG 528 NOK 578 NPR 524 NZD 554 OMR 512 PAB 590 PEN 604 PGK 598 PHP 608 PKR 586 PLN 985 PTE 620 PYG 600 QAR 634 ROL 642 RUB 643 RUR 810 RWF 646 SAR 682 SBD 90 SCR 690 SDD 736 SEK 752 SGD 702 SHP 654 SIT 705 SKK 703 SLL 694 SOS 706 SRG 740 STD 678 SVC 222 SYP 760 SZL 748 THB 764 TJR 762 TJS 972 TMM 795 TND 788 TOP 776 TPE 626 TRL 792 TTD 780 TWD 901 TZS 834 UAH 980 UGX 800 USD 840 USN 997 USS 998 UYU 858 UZS 860 VEB 862 VND 704 VUV 548 WST 882 XAF 950 XAG 961 XAU 959 XBA 955 XBB 956 XBC 957 XBD 958 XCD 951 XDR 960 XFO Nil XFU Nil XOF 952 XPD 964 XPF 953 XPT 962 XTS 963 XXX 999 YER 886 YUM 891 ZAL 991 ZAR 710 ZMK 894 ZRN 180 ZWD 716 ==Without currency code== A number of territories are not included in ISO 4217, because their currencies are not ''per se'' an independent currency, but a variant of another currency. In the case of the [[Channel Islands]] and the [[Isle of Man]], they have no [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] [[country codes]] and hence there is no corresponding currency code. These currencies are: # [[Faroese króna]] (dependent on the [[Danish krone]]) # [[Guernsey pound]] (dependent on the [[Pound sterling]]; no ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code) # [[Jersey pound]] (dependent on the [[Pound sterling]]; no ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code) # [[Isle of Man pound]] (dependent on the [[Pound sterling]]; no ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code) # [[Tuvaluan dollar]] (dependent on the [[Australian dollar]]). == Obsolete currency codes == Note that the currency names used below may not match the currency names used in the ISO standard itself, but the codes do match. ===Replaced by Euro=== # ADP [[Andorran Peseta]] # ATS Austrian [[Schilling]] # BEF [[Belgian Franc]] # DEM [[Deutsche Mark]] # ESP Spanish [[Peseta]] # FIM Finnish [[Markka]] # FRF [[French franc|French Franc]] # GRD Greek [[Drachma]] # IEP [[Irish Pound]] # ITL [[Italian Lira]] # LUF [[Luxembourg Franc]] # NLG Dutch [[Dutch Gulden|Guilder]] # PTE [[Portuguese Escudo]] # XEU [[European Currency Unit]] (ECU) ===Replaced for other reasons=== # AFA [[Afghani (currency)|Afghani]] (replaced by AFN) # ALK Albanian old lek (replaced by ALL) # AON Angolan New Kwanza (replaced by AOA) # AOR Angolan Kwanza Readjustado (replaced by AOA) # ARP Peso Argentino (replaced by ARS) # ARY Argentine peso (replaced by ARS) # AZM [[Azerbaijan]]i [[Azerbaijani manat|manat]] (replaced by AZN) # BEC [[Belgian Franc]] (convertible) # BEL Belgian Franc (financial) # BGJ Bulgarian lev A/52 (replaced by BGN) # BGK Bulgarian lev A/62 (replaced by BGN) # BGL Bulgarian lev A/99 (replaced by BGN) # BOP Bolivian peso (replaced by BOB) # BRB Brazilian cruzeiro (replaced by BRL) # BRC Brazilian cruzado (replaced by BRL) # CNX Chinese People's Bank dollar (replaced by CNY) # CSJ [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] koruna A/53 # CSK [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] koruna (replaced by CZK and SKK) # DDM mark der DDR (East Germany) (replaced by DEM) # ECS Ecuador [[Sucre (currency)|sucre]] (replaced by USD) # ECV Ecuador [[Unidad de Valor Constante]] (Funds code) (discontinued) # EQE Equatorial Guinean ekwele (replaced by XAF) # ESA Spanish peseta (account A) # ESB Spanish peseta (account B) # GNE Guinean syli (replaced by XOF) # GWP Guinea peso (replaced by XOF) # ILP Israeli pound (replac
rushchev]]'s ''[[On the Personality Cult and its Consequences]]'' [[February 25]] [[1956]] speech. ==Classical Rome== &quot;Dictator&quot; was the title of the highest [[chief magistrate]] in [[ancient Rome]], the only one without a colleague, appointed by the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] to rule the state in times of emergency. Roman dictators were usually experienced generals and politicians, were invested with sweeping authority over the citizens, but they were originally limited to a term of six months and lacked power over the public finances. [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] and [[Julius Caesar]], however, abolished these limitations and governed without these constraints. The Romans abandoned the institution of [[dictatorship]] after Caesar's murder, when Augustus quietly consolidated similar powers as [[Princeps civitatis]], imprecisely known as emperor. In the system of [[Roman Republic]], a '''dictator rei gerendae causa''' was an extraordinary magistrate (without a colleague) temporarily granted significant power over the state during times of great threat to the state, as in a defensive war. The office was usually held for only 6 months or a military campaign. The ideal model was [[Cincinnatus]], who according to legend, was plowing when called to dictatorship, saved Rome from invasion, and who afterwards returned to his labour, renouncing every honour and power, after only 16 days. Other famous ''dictatores'' were [[Lucius Sulla]] and [[Julius Caesar]]. See ''[[Roman dictator]]'' and compare with the Greek ''[[tyrannos]]'' and the later ''[[imperator]]''. Besides such ruling dictators there also was a symbolic practice of very short senatorial mandate for a religious act considered to sacred to performed by any lesser magistrate ==Modern use in formal titles== ===Dictator (plain)=== *in [[Italy]]: **in the former doge-state [[Venice]], while a republic resisting annexation either the kingdom of Piemont-Sardinia or the Austrian empire, a former Chief Executive (president, [[23 March]] - [[5 July]] [[1848]]), Daniele Manin (b. 1804 - d. 1857), was styled Dictator 11-[[13 August]] [[1848]] before joining the [[13 August]] [[1848]] - [[7 March]] [[1849]] Triumvirate **prodittatori * *in [[Peru]]: the [[17 February]] [[1824]] - [[28 January]] [[1827]] president, general Simón José de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios (b. 1783 - d. 1830) was acting Dictator to [[10 February]] [[1825]], then Liberator to [[9 December]] [[1826]], then President-for-Life *in the [[Philippines]], the last President of the Supreme Government Council [[23 March]] [[1897]] - [[16 December]] [[1897]], Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy (b. 1869 - d. 1964), was styled Dictator [[12 June]] [[1898]] - [[23 January]] [[1899]] (he was also chairman Revolutionary Government from [[23 June]] to [[1 November]] [[1897]]), next was the first of two Presidents [[23 January]] [[1899]] - [[1 April]] [[1901]] * in [[Poland]]: ** Józef Grzegorz Chlopicki (b. 1771 - d. 1854) was Dictator twice: [[5 December]] [[1830]] - December 1830 and December 1830 - [[25 January]] [[1831]] ** [[24 February]] [[1846]] - [[2 March]] [[1846]], Jan Józef Tyssowski (b. 1811 - d. 1857) was styled ''Dictator of the Polish Republic'', also in the [[Cracow republic]] ** [[22 January]] [[1863]] - [[10 March]] [[1863]] Ludwik Adam Mieroslawski (b. 1814 - d. 1878) was styled dictator and commander-in-chief of the Polish Insurrection (in exile to 17 Februry 1863) and was joint President of the National Government, together with the chairman Executive Commission of the Central National Committee acting as Provisional National Government **[[10 March]] [[1863]] - [[19 March]] [[1863]] Marian Antoni Melchior Langiewicz (b. 1827 - d. 1887) styled Dictator **[[19 March]] [[1863]] - [[20 March]] [[1863]] ''Executive Dictatorial Commission'' of three members **[[17 October]] [[1863]] - [[10 April]] [[1864]] Romuald Traugutt (b. 1826 - d. 1864) is Head of the National Government, also styled Dictator *in [[Russia]], during the Civil War: ** from [[11 February]] [[1918]] to [[25 February]] [[1918]] (when Bolchevik troops ended their existence), Nazarov was dictator of of the [[Don Cossack Republics]], which before, since its founding on [[2 December]] [[1917]] at Novocherkassk, had been governed by a [[Triumvirate]] including the last pre-soviet [[Ataman]], Aleksei Maksimovich Kaledin **May 1919 - November 1918 Prince N. Tarkovsky was Dictator of the [[Republic of the Mountain Peoples the Northern Caucasus and Daghestan]], since its founding in Western Daghestan on [[11 May]] [[1918]] till the end of the Turkish occupation (September-November 1918). ===Compound titles=== *'''Dictator President''', twice in modern [[Colombia]]: **in [[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]], [[30 July]] [[1813]] to 1 or [[5 March]] [[1814]]: Juan Bautista Antonio María del Corral y Alonso Carriazo; continued to [[7 April]] [[1814]] as one of the Presidents of the State ([[27 July]] [[1811]] - July 1815) **in [[Cartagena de Indias]] (after Presidents of the Supreme Junta of Government since [[13 August]] [[1810]], even before the [[11 November]] [[1811]] declaration of Independence as Province of Cartagena de Indias, [[21 January]] [[1812]] restyled State of Cartagena de Indias; and since [[21 January]] [[1812]] one of them, José María del Real e Hidalgo (d. 1835)), as Governor President of the State), [[1 April]] [[1812]] - [[4 October]] [[1812]]: Manuel Juan Robustiano de los Dolores Rodríguez Torices y Quiroz (b. 1788 - d. 1816) **cfr. supra (Poland) [[19 March]] [[1863]] - [[20 March]] [[1863]] ''Executive Dictatorial Commission'' of three members * *in [[Paraguay]], in a procession of generally short-lived juntas etcetera, the last of the [[Consul]]s of the Republic in power (2 consuls alternating in power every 4 months), [[12 June]] [[1814]] - [[3 October]] [[1814]] José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (2nd time), succeeded himself as only ever '''Supreme Dictator''' [[3 October]] [[1814]] - [[20 September]] [[1840]] - from [[6 June]] [[1816]] he was styled '''Perpetual Supreme Dictator''', ==Pejorative use== [[Image:Great_dictator_1024.jpg|right|thumbnail|[[Charlie Chaplin]] in [[The Great Dictator]] (1940), a satire of Adolf Hitler and dictatorship regimes in general.]] In modern usage, the term &quot;dictator&quot; is generally used to describe a leader who holds an extraordinary amount of personal power, especially the power to make [[laws]] without effective restraint by a [[legislative assembly]], thus detaining ''[[auctoritas]]''. It is comparable to (but not synonymous with) the ancient concept of a [[tyrant]], although initially &quot;tyrant,&quot; like &quot;dictator,&quot; was not a negative term. A wide variety of leaders coming to power in a number of different kinds of regimes, such as [[military junta]]s, [[single-party state]]s, and civilian governments under personal rule, have been described as dictators. In popular usage in most of the world, &quot;[[dictatorship]]&quot; is often associated with brutality and oppression. As a result, it is often also used as a term of abuse for political opponents; [[Henry Clay]]'s dominance of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] as [[Speaker of the House]] and as a member of the [[United States Senate]] led to his nickname &quot;the Dictator.&quot; The term has also come to be associated with [[megalomania]]. Many dictators create a [[cult of personality]] and have come to favor increasingly grandiloquent titles and honours for themselves. For example, [[Idi Amin|Idi Amin Dada]], who had been a [[United Kingdom|British]] army [[lieutenant]] prior to [[Uganda]]'s independence from [[United Kingdom|Britain]] in October [[1962]], subsequently styled himself as &quot;His Excellency [[President for Life]] Field Marshal Al Hadji Dr. Idi Amin, VC, DSO, MC, [[King of Scotland]] Lord of All the [[Beast]]s of the [[Earth]] and [[Fish]]es of the [[Sea]] and Conqueror of the [[British Empire]] in [[Africa]] in General and Uganda in Particular.&quot; In ''[[The Great Dictator]]'', [[Charlie Chaplin]] satirized not only [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] but the institution of dictatorship itself. The association between the dictator and the military is a very common one; many dictators take great pains to emphasize their connections with the military and often wear military uniforms. In some cases, this is perfectly natural; Francisco Franco was a lieutenant general in the [[Spain|Spanish]] Army before he became [[head of state|Chief of State]] of Spain, and Noriega was officially commander of the [[Panama]]nian Defense Forces. In other cases, this is mere pretense. ==The &quot;benevolent dictator&quot;== The [[benevolent dictator]] is a more modern version of the classical &quot;enlightened despot,&quot; being an absolute ruler who exercises his or her political power for the benefit of the people rather than exclusively for his or her own benefit. Like many political classifications, this term suffers from its inherent subjectivity. Such leaders as [[Francisco Franco|Franco]], [[Juan Manuel de Rosas|Rosas]], [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla|Rojas Pinilla]], [[Anwar Sadat|Sadat]], [[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]], and [[Omar Torrijos]] have been characterized by their supporters as benevolent dictators. In the Spanish language, the word ''[[dictablanda]]'' is sometimes used for a dictatorship conserving some of the liberties and mechanisms of democracy. (The pun is that, in Spanish, ''dictadura'' is &quot;dictatorship,&quot; ''dura'' is &quot;hard&quot; and ''blanda'' is &quot;soft&quot;). Some examples include [[Chile]] under [[Pinochet]], or [[Yugoslavia]] under [[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]]. This contrasts with ''[[democradura]]'' (literally &quot;hard democracy&quot;), which is defined as a full formal democracy alongside limitations on constitutional freedoms and human rights abuses, frequently within the context of a civil conflict or the existence
n Treaty (NPT) in 1968. Under the NPT, non-nuclear weapon States were prohibited from, inter alia, possessing, manufacturing or acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories were committed to the goal of [[nuclear disarmament]]. ===Negotiations for the CTBT=== Given the political situation prevailing in the subsequent decades, little progress was made in nuclear disarmament until 1991. Parties to the PTBT held an amendment conference that year to discuss a proposal to convert the Treaty into an instrument banning all nuclear-weapon tests; with strong support from the UN General Assembly, negotiations for a comprehensive test-ban treaty began in 1993. One of the largest issues was the priorities of the different countries. The Non-aligned movement countries were highly concerned with '''vertical''' proliferation (more and more bombs, new bomb technology) while the Nuclear Powers were focusing on '''horizontal''' proliferation (nuclear bombs being produced by states other than themselves). ===Adoption of the CTBT, 1996=== Intensive efforts were made over the next three years to draft the Treaty text and its two annexes, culminating in the adoption of the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) on [[10 September]] [[1996]] by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in New York. ===Monitoring of the CTBT=== [[geophysics|Geophysical]] and other technologies are used to monitor for compliance with the Treaty: [[seismology]], [[hydrophone|hydroacoustics]], [[infrasound]], and [[radionuclide]] monitoring. On Site Inspection is provided for where concerns about compliance arise. The Preparatory Commission for the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization]] (CTBTO), an international organization headquartered in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]], was created to build the verification regime, including establishment and provisional operation of the network of monitoring stations, and development of the On Site Inspection capability. At December 2005, around 65 percent of monitoring stations are operational. ==Notes== Original text derived from [http://pws.ctbto.org/ Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization]. ==See also== *[[nuclear proliferation]], [[nuclear disarmament]], [[nuclear weapon]], [[nuclear reactor]], [[nuclear war]], [[United Nations]] ==References and external links== *[http://www.ctbto.org/treaty/treatytext.tt.html full text of the treaty] *For official news releases and information on the treaty see - http://www.ctbto.org *Two articles from the March/April ''Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists'' cover the state of play regarding the CTBT: Keith Hansen, &quot;Forecasting the future&quot; and Trevor Findlay &amp; Andreas Persbo, &quot;Watching the world.&quot; *[http://svaradarajan.blogspot.com/1999/10/test-ban-test-us-rejection-has.html The Test Ban Test: U.S. Rejection has Scuttled the CTBT] * [http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/library/treaties/comprehensive-test-ban/trty_comprehensive-test-ban_1996-09-10.htm Nuclear Files.org] Text of the CTBT *[http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200602/s1577409.htm US conducts subcritical nuclear test] ABC News, February 24, 2006 &lt;!---Categories---&gt; [[Category:Arms control]] [[Category:Nuclear weapons]] [[Category:Treaties]] &lt;!---Other languages---&gt; [[de:Kernwaffenteststopp-Vertrag]] [[fr:Traité d'interdiction complète des essais nucléaires]] [[ko:포괄적 핵실험금지조약]] [[it:Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] [[ja:包括的核実験禁止条約]] [[tl:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DisRuption</title> <id>7852</id> <revision> <id>15905898</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Disruption]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DonegalFiddleTradition</title> <id>7853</id> <revision> <id>15905899</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Donegal fiddle tradition]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DoubleStops</title> <id>7854</id> <revision> <id>41225758</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:31:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KimvdLinde</username> <id>110333</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixed double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Double stop]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DirectRealism</title> <id>7855</id> <revision> <id>15905901</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Direct realism]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DefinitionofBibleTerms</title> <id>7856</id> <revision> <id>15905902</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Biblical canon]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DanCe</title> <id>7858</id> <revision> <id>15905903</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dance]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DeconstructionIsm</title> <id>7859</id> <revision> <id>15905904</id> <timestamp>2003-07-23T21:37:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jrb</username> <id>16553</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Deconstruction]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DaveGrohl</title> <id>7860</id> <revision> <id>15905905</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dave Grohl]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DavidHume</title> <id>7861</id> <revision> <id>15905906</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[David Hume]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DagnyTaggart</title> <id>7862</id> <revision> <id>15905907</id> <timestamp>2003-03-21T14:05:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ams80</username> <id>7543</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DataEncryptionStandard</title> <id>7863</id> <revision> <id>15905908</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Data Encryption Standard]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DesmondTutu</title> <id>7864</id> <revision> <id>15905909</id> <timestamp>2004-03-15T18:06:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Anthony DiPierro</username> <id>34793</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Desmond Tutu]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DwGriffith</title> <id>7865</id> <revision> <id>15905910</id> <timestamp>2002-12-22T07:58:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[D. W. Griffith]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DefinitioN</title> <id>7866</id> <revision> <id>15905911</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Definition]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DefinitionOfPhilosophy</title> <id>7867</id> <revision> <id>15905912</id> <timestamp>2002-10-09T14:06:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Philosophy]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Philosophy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DefinitionOfLogic</title> <id>7868</id> <revision> <id>24815384</id> <timestamp>2005-10-05T14:59:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kbdank71</username> <id>197953</id> </contributor> <comment>fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Logic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DualIsm</title> <id>7870</id> <revision> <id>15905914</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comme
cerning a Very Old and Painful Question'' (New York: Basic Books: 1978). ==External links== * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/criminal-law/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Theories of Criminal Law] * [http://www.great-legal-advice.com/criminal-law/what-is-criminal-law.htm Criminal Law] * [http://www.4lawschool.com/crim.htm 4LawSchool: Criminal Law Case Summaries] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[Category:Criminal law|*]] [[Category:Prosecution|*]] [[de:Strafrecht]] [[es:Derecho penal]] [[eo:Kriminala juro]] [[fr:Droit pénal]] [[fy:Strafrjocht]] [[ko:형법]] [[hr:Kazneno pravo]] [[he:משפט פלילי]] [[nl:Strafrecht]] [[ja:刑法]] [[pl:Prawo karne]] [[pt:Direito penal]] [[ru:Уголовное право]] [[sl:Kazensko pravo]] [[sv:Straffrätt]] [[th:กฎหมายอาญา]] [[zh:刑法]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Comoros</title> <id>5403</id> <revision> <id>41939389</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:37:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MJCdetroit</username> <id>627347</id> </contributor> <comment>English measurements per [[WP:MOSNUM]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the state. For the archipelago, see [[Comoro Islands]].'' The '''Union of the Comoros''' (until [[2002]] the '''Islamic Federal Republic of the Comoros''') is a country in the [[Indian Ocean]], situated at the northern end of the [[Mozambique Channel]] between northern [[Madagascar]] and northern [[Mozambique]]. The country consists of three of the four main islands in the [[volcanic island|volcanic]] [[Comoros archipelago]]: [[Grande Comore]], [[Moheli]] and [[Anjouan]]. The fourth island in the [[island group]], [[Mayotte]], is not part of the country. Mayotte has voted against independence from [[France]], but is claimed by Comoros. The country's territory also encompasses many smaller islands. Its name was adopted from the word ''al-Khamar'', meaning 'island of small moon,' as seen depicted on its flag. {{Infobox_Country| native_name = Union des Comores&lt;br/&gt;Udzima wa Komori&lt;br/&gt;اتحاد القمر| common_name = Comoros | image_flag = Flag of the Comoros.svg | image_coat = Comoros_coat_of_arms_small.gif | image_map = LocationComoros.png | national_motto = Unité - Justice - Progrès&lt;br/&gt;([[French language|French]], &quot;Unity, justice, progress&quot;) | national_anthem = [[Udzima wa ya Masiwa]] | official_languages = [[Comorian language|Shikomor]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[French language|French]] | capital = [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]] |latd=11|latm=41|latNS=S|longd=43|longm=16|longEW=E| largest_city = [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]] | government_type= [[Federal republic]]| leader_titles = [[President of Comoros|President]] | leader_names = Col. [[Azali Assoumani]] | area_rank = 167th | area_magnitude = 1_E9 | area= 2,170 | areami² = 838 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt; percent_water = Negligible | population_estimate = 596,202 | population_estimate_year = 2002 | population_estimate_rank = 158th | population_census= | population_census_year= | population_density = 275 | population_densitymi² = 712 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt; population_density_rank = 275 | GDP_PPP_year = 2004 | GDP_PPP = $1,049,000,000 | GDP_PPP_rank = 171st | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,660 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 156th | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.547 | HDI_rank = 132nd | HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | established_events = Declared&lt;br/&gt;Recognised | established_dates = From [[France]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1975]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1975]] | currency = [[Comorian franc]] | currency_code = KMF | time_zone= | utc_offset= +3 | time_zone_DST= observed? | utc_offset_DST= ? | cctld= [[.km]] | calling_code = 269 | footnotes = }} == History == ''Main article: [[History of Comoros]]'' Over the centuries, the islands of Comoros were invaded by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of [[Africa]], the [[Persian Gulf]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Madagascar]]. [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers visited the [[archipelago]] in [[1505]]. Between [[1841]] and [[1912]], [[France]] established [[Colonialism|colonial]] rule and placed the islands under the administration of the governor general of Madagascar. Later, French settlers, French-owned companies, and wealthy Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that now uses about one-third of the land for export crops. Agreement was reached with France in [[1973]] for Comoros to become independent in 1978. On [[July 6]], [[1975]], however, the Comorian parliament passed a resolution declaring independence. The deputies of [[Mayotte]], which stayed under French control, abstained. In two referendums, in December [[1974]] and February [[1976]], the population of Mayotte voted against independence from France (by 63.8% and 99.4% respectively). In [[1997]], the islands of [[Anjouan]] and [[Moheli]] declared their independence from Comoros. A subsequent attempt by the government to reestablish control over the rebellious islands by force failed, and subsequently the [[African Union]], under the auspices of President Mbeki of South Africa, has brokered negotiations to effect a reconciliation. This involves a system of governmental autonomy for each island, plus a Union government for the three islands. A &quot;Loi des compétences&quot; (a law that defines the responsibilities of each governmental body) was passed in early 2005 and is in the process of implementation. == Politics == ''Main article: [[Politics of Comoros]]'' The political situation in Comoros has been extremely fluid since the country's independence in [[1975]], subject to the volatility of coups and political insurrection. Colonel [[Azali Assoumani]] seized power in a bloodless coup in April [[1999]], overthrowing Interim President [[Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde]], who himself had held the office since the strange death of democratically elected President [[Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim]] in November, [[1998]]. In May [[1999]], Azali decreed a constitution that gave him both executive and legislative powers. Bowing somewhat to international criticism, Azali appointed a civilian Prime Minister, [[Bainrifi Tarmidi]], in December [[1999]]; however, Azali retained the mantle of Head of State and army Commander. In December [[2000]], Azali named a new civilian Prime Minister, [[Hamada Madi]], and formed a new civilian Cabinet. On [[February 17]], [[2000]], representatives of the government, the Anjouan separatists, the political opposition, and civil society organizations signed a &quot;Framework Accord for Reconciliation in Comoros,&quot; brokered by the [[Organization for African Unity]] (OAU). The accord called to develop a &quot;New Comorian Entity&quot; with a new constitution. The constitution gives Moheli, Anjouan and Grande Comore the right to govern most of their own affairs with their own presidents. In addition, a federal president and parliament sit on the largest island, Grande Comore. This federal presidency is rotated between the islands' presidents. [[Comoros legislative election, 2004|General elections]] were held in [[2004]], in which federal president Azali suffered a major setback by only winning 6 of the 18 seats in the [[Assembly of the Union of the Comoros|National assembly]], the other going to the supporters of the presidents of the semi-autonomous islands. The Comoros are also part of the [[Indian Ocean Commission]], along with all of the other islands in the Western Indian Ocean == Geography == [[Image:Cn-map.png|framed|Map of Comoros]] ''Main article: [[Geography of Comoros]]'' Comoros is formed by three of the four main islands in the Comoros Archipelago; the fourth is the French territory of [[Mayotte]]. The archipelago is situated in the Indian Ocean, between the African coast and [[Madagascar]]. The interior of the volcanic islands varies from steep mountains to low hills. Le [[Karthala]] (2,316&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]] or 7598&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) on Grand Comore is an active [[volcano]]. == Economy == ''Main article: [[Economy of Comoros]]'' Comoros is one of the poorest countries in the world. [[Agriculture]], including [[fishing]], [[hunting]], and [[forestry]], is the leading sector of the economy. Comoros has inadequate transportation system, a young and rapidly increasing population, and few natural resources. The low educational level of the labor force contributes to a subsistence level of economic activity, high [[unemployment]], and a heavy dependence on foreign grants and technical assistance. Agriculture contributes 40% to [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], employs 80% of the labor force, and provides most of the exports. The government is struggling to upgrade education and technical training, to privatize commercial and industrial enterprises, to improve health services, to diversify exports, to promote [[tourism]], and to reduce the high population growth rate. == Demographics == ''Main article: [[Demographics of Comoros]]'' The Comorians inhabiting Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Moheli (86% of the population) share African-Arab origins. [[Islam]] is the dominant religion. Although Arab culture is firmly established throughout the archipelago, a substantial minority of the citizens of Mayotte (the Mahorais) are [[Catholic]] and have been strongly influenced by French culture. The most common language is [[Shikomor]], a [[Swahili]] dialect. [[French language|French]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Malagasy]] also are spoken. About 57% of the population is literate in the [[Latin alphabet]], more with the [[Arabic alphabet]]. == Culture == ''Main article: [[Culture of Comoros]]'' ''See also:'' *[[Comorian language]] *[[Holidays in Comoros]] *[[Islam in Comoros]] *[[Music of Comoros]] == Miscellaneous topics == *[[Communications in Comoros]] *[[Foreign relations of Comoros ]] *[[List of Pr
alia]] |[[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] |[[Liberal conservatism]] ||Blue |- ![[Image:Bloc Quebecois 2004 Logo.png|40px]] |[[List of political parties in Canada|Canada]] |[[Bloc Québécois]] |[[Quebec sovereignty movement|Quebec sovereignty]]/[[Social democracy]] ||Light blue |- ![[Image:Conservative Party of Canada.png|40px]] |[[List of political parties in Canada|Canada]] |[[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative Party]] |[[Conservatism]]/[[right-wing politics|right-wing]] ||Blue |- ![[Image:Kokoomus logo.gif|40px]] |[[List of political parties in Finland|Finland]] |[[National Coalition Party (Finland)|National Coalition Party]] |[[Liberal conservatism]] |Blue |- ![[Image:FDP-logo.png|40px]] |[[List of political parties in Germany|Germany]] |[[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|Free Democratic Party]] |[[Liberalism]] |Blue and yellow |- ![[Image:Partit Nazzjonalista (Malta) (Emblem).jpg|40px]] |[[List of political parties in Finland|Malta]] |[[Nationalist Party (Malta)|Nationalist Party]] |[[Christian democracy]]/[[Conservatism]] |Blue |- ! |[[List of political parties in Paraguay|Paraguay]] |[[Authentic Radical Liberal Party]] |[[Liberalism]] |Blue |- |- ![[Image:PNP.logo.gif|40px]] |[[List of political parties in Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]] |[[New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico|New Progressive Party]] |[[Puerto Rican statehood]] |Blue |- ![[Image:Moderate Party.png|40px]] |[[List of political parties in Sweden|Sweden]] |[[Moderate Party]] |[[Liberal conservatism]] |Blue |- ![[Image:White sun, blue sky.gif|40px]] |[[List of political parties in the Republic of China|Republic of China (Taiwan)]] |[[Kuomintang]] |[[Conservatism]]/[[Chinese reunification]] |Blue |- ![[Image:New-conservative-logo.png|40px]] |[[Politics of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] |[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] |[[Conservatism]] |Blue |} In the [[Politics of the United States|United States]], since the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 presidential election]], blue represents the [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]], and &quot;[[blue states]]&quot; are states that tend to favor the Democrats. (The rival [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]] became associated with [[red]], and states that favor the Republicans are &quot;[[red state]]s.&quot; Prior to 2000, electoral maps either used blue to represent the incumbent and red for the challenger, or alternated. Each party uses all three national colors (red, white, and blue) in official materials. The [[Blue Dog Democrats|Blue Dog Democrat]] coalition is a [[caucus]] of moderate Democrats in [[Congress of the United States|Congress]]. ==Religion== Blue plays a symbolic role in a number of world religions. In the [[Hindu]] faith, persons of a [[transcendental]], or [[divine]] nature are displayed as being blue in colour. The deity [[Krishna]] is probably the most famous of this type of depiction within Hindu art. ==Television== Blue is the color and name of the main character (a dog) in the preschool animated educational television show [[Blue's Clues]]. On ''[[Star Trek]]'', medical and scientific personnel wear blue uniforms. On ''[[Foster's Home For Imaginary Friends]],'' there is a character named Blooregard Q. Kazoo, more commonly named Bloo, and pronounced blue. He is a blue bloblike imaginary friend. ==Music== '''[[Blues]]''' is a [[music genre]]. A '''[[blue note]]''' is a note between the regular notes on the scale. Blue notes are the most important notes in the [[blues scale]]. Bands called &quot;Blue&quot; include two British musical groups: the rock group '''[[Blue (rock band)|Blue]]''' and the [[boy band]] [[Blue (boy band)|Blue]]. '''''[[Blue (Joni Mitchell album)|Blue]]''''' is the title of an album by the Canadian singer-songwriter [[Joni Mitchell]], and '''''[[Kind of Blue]]''''' is the title of an album by [[Miles Davis]], one of the world's best-selling [[jazz]] recordings. [[Blue Man Group]] is a [[performance art]] group founded in [[New York City]] in [[1987]]. '''''[[Blue Train (album)|Blue Train]]''''' is an influential jazz album by [[John Coltrane]]. '''''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]''''' is a symphonic jazz composition for jazz band, piano, and orchestra by [[George Gershwin]], while '''''[[Love is Blue]]''''' is a popular tune from the [[1960s]] by [[Andy Williams]], most notably performed by [[Paul Mauriat]]. &quot;Blue&quot; has been used as a song title by many artists, notably [[LeAnn Rimes]] and [[Eiffel 65]]. [[Cristian Castro]]'s song &quot;Azul&quot; ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for &quot;blue&quot;) repeats the line &quot;This love is blue as the sea&quot; (''Este amor es azul como el mar''). Other songs which use the word blue include: *&quot;We the People Who Are Darker than Blue&quot; by [[Curtis Mayfield]], appearing on [[Curtis (album)|his debut album]] *&quot;Blue Room in Archway&quot; and &quot;Song from the Blueroom&quot; by [[The Boo Radleys]], both appearing on the album ''[[Kingsize]]'' *&quot;[[For You Blue]]&quot; by [[The Beatles]], appearing on the album ''[[Let It Be (album)|Let It Be]]'' *&quot;Behind Blue Eyes&quot; by [[The Who]], appearing on the album ''[[Who's Next]]'' *&quot;Blue&quot; by [[Yoko Kanno]], featured in hit Japanese [[anime]] [[Cowboy Bebop]] *&quot;Blue Savannah&quot; by [[Erasure]], appearing on the album ''[[Wild!]]'' *&quot;Dark Blue&quot; by [[No Doubt]], the last track on their album &quot;[[Return of Saturn]]&quot; *&quot;[[Tangled Up In Blue]]&quot; by [[Bob Dylan]], the first track on the album ''[[Blood on the Tracks]] *&quot;Miss Blue&quot; by [[Filter (band)|Filter]], Appearing as the last listed track on the album [[Title of Record]] ==Film== [[Blue (1993 film)]] entirely consists of the colour blue with narration and soundbytes. ==Use in painting== Traditionally, blue has been considered a primary color in painting, with the secondary color [[orange (color)|orange]] as its complement, but this is not consistent with modern scientific color theory. As the mixing of pigments is a [[subtractive color|subtractive color]] process, the true primary colors in painting and printing are [[cyan]], [[magenta]] and [[yellow]] (with black often added for practical reasons; see [[CMYK color model|CMYK color model]]). ==Variations== * [[Alice-Blue (color)|Alice-Blue]] * [[Aquamarine (color)|Aquamarine]] * [[Azure (color)|Azure]] * [[Cornflower blue]] * [[Indigo]] * [[Midnight blue]] * [[Powder blue]] * [[Royal blue]] * [[Sapphire]] * [[Sky blue]] * [[Turquoise (color)|Turquoise]] ==Blue pigments== * [[Azurite]] * [[Cerulean blue]] * [[Cobalt blue]] * [[Phthalocyanine]] blue * [[Prussian blue]] * [[Ultramarine]] ==See also== *[[Distinguishing &quot;blue&quot; from &quot;green&quot; in language]] *[[List of colors|List of colors]] * [[Lapis lazuli]] ==External links== {{wiktionarypar|blue}} *[http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/vibrat.html#blue Is water blue? The absorption spectrum of water in the visible range] {{EMSpectrum}} {{web colors}} [[Category:Optical spectrum]] [[Category:Shades of blue| ]] [[af:Blou (kleur)]] [[ca:Blau]] [[cs:Modrá]] [[da:Blå]] [[de:Blau]] [[el:Μπλε]] [[es:Azul]] [[eo:Blua]] [[fr:Bleu]] [[gl:Azul]] [[id:Biru]] [[is:Blár]] [[it:Blu]] [[he:כחול]] [[lt:Mėlyna]] [[lb:Blo]] [[ln:Bulé]] [[hu:Kék]] [[ms:Biru]] [[nl:Blauw]] [[nds:Blau]] [[ja:青]] [[no:Blå]] [[nn:Blå]] [[pl:Barwa niebieska]] [[pt:Azul]] [[ru:Синий цвет]] [[simple:Blue]] [[sk:Modrá]] [[sl:Modra]] [[sr:Плава боја]] [[fi:Sininen]] [[sv:Blå]] [[vi:Xanh lam]] [[tr:Mavi]] [[zh:藍色]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Blind Willie McTell</title> <id>4544</id> <revision> <id>41124824</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T05:10:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>OrphanBot</username> <id>621721</id> </contributor> <comment>Removing image with no source information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:mctell.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Blind Willie McTell]] --&gt;'''Blind Willie McTell''' ([[May 5]], [[1901]]&amp;ndash;[[August 15]], [[1959]]) (probably born '''William Samuel McTear''') was an influential [[blues]] singer and [[guitar]]ist. He was born in [[Thomson, Georgia|Thomson]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and died in [[Milledgeville, Georgia]]. McTell was a [[12 string guitar|twelve-string]] [[fingerstyle|finger picking]] guitarist and singer who recorded from [[1927]] to [[1955]]. One of his most famous songs, &quot;[[Statesboro Blues]]&quot; has been covered by many artists including [[Taj Mahal (musician)|Taj Mahal]] and [[The Allman Brothers Band]]. In [[1983]], [[Bob Dylan]] recorded a [[Blind Willie McTell (song)|tribute song]] for McTell, using the folk melody of &quot;[[St. James Infirmary Blues]],&quot; although the track went unreleased until [[1991]]. In [[1993]], Dylan paid further tribute to McTell by recording McTell's song &quot;Broke Down Engine.&quot; [[blindness|Blind]] from late childhood and an adept reader of [[Braille]], McTell showed an inherent proficiency in music from an early age and learned to play the six-string guitar as soon as he could. His father left the family when McTell was still young, so when his mother died in the [[1920s]], he left his hometown and became a wandering [[busker]]. He began his recording career in 1927 for [[Victor Records]] of [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]]. In the years before [[World War II]], he recorded prodigiously, for a wide variety of labels under an equal variety of names, but his style was singular: a form of country blues, bridging the gap between the raw blues of the [[Mississippi Delta]] and the more refined East Coast sound. The style is well documented on [[Alan Lomax]]'s [[1940]] recordings of McTell for the [[Library of Congress]]. Post-war,
itle> <id>7093</id> <revision> <id>15905178</id> <timestamp>2002-08-22T18:34:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vicki Rosenzweig</username> <id>59</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixing double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cetacea]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cetacean</title> <id>7094</id> <revision> <id>15905179</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cetacea]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cotton Matther</title> <id>7097</id> <revision> <id>15905181</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cotton Mather]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>COPPA</title> <id>7098</id> <revision> <id>15905182</id> <timestamp>2003-09-10T08:50:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jamesday</username> <id>22105</id> </contributor> <comment>Changed to point to page with correct title for COPPA</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Children's Online Privacy Protection Act]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Child Online Privacy Protection Act</title> <id>7099</id> <revision> <id>15905183</id> <timestamp>2003-09-10T08:52:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jamesday</username> <id>22105</id> </contributor> <comment>changed from copy of it to a redirect to the COPPA page with correct act title.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Children's Online Privacy Protection Act]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cornet</title> <id>7100</id> <revision> <id>40304971</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T18:07:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pietaster</username> <id>533049</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>sv fix</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{split}} [[image:Cornet-Bb-large.jpg|thumb|250px|B♭ cornet]] The '''cornet''' is a [[brass instrument]] that closely resembles the [[trumpet]]. The cornet is a standard [[brass band]] instrument, which was derived from the bugle family. However, lately it has been gradually replaced by the trumpet in the [[United States]]. The trumpet is also used more often than the cornet in [[orchestra]]l, small ensemble, and solo performances. The cornet is the main high voice of the [[brass band]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and other countries that have British-style brass bands. ==Relationship to trumpet== Cornets were invented by adding valves to the [[post horn]] in the 1820s. The valves allowed for melodic playing throughout the register or the cornet. Trumpets were slower to adopt the new valve technology, so composers for the next 100 years or more, often wrote separate parts for trumpet and cornet. The trumpet would play fanfare-like passages, while the cornet played more melodic passages. The modern trumpet has valves (or a similar mechanism) that allows it to play the same notes as the cornet. Cornets and trumpets made in a given [[Key (music)|key]] (usually the key of B♭) play at the same pitch, and the technique for playing the instruments is very similar. However, cornets and trumpets are not entirely interchangeable because the [[timbre]] (or tone quality) of their sound differs. Also available, but usually seen only in the brass band, is an E♭ soprano model (often shortened to just &quot;sop&quot;), pitched a fourth above the standard B♭. This instrument, with usually just one in a band, adds an extreme high register to the brass band sound and can be most effective in cutting through even the biggest climax. Unlike the trumpet, most of the tubing of which has a cylindrical bore, the tubing of the cornet has a mostly conical bore, starting very narrow at the [[mouthpiece]] and gradually widening towards the bell. The conical bore of the cornet is primarily responsible for its characteristic warm, mellow tone, which can be distinguished from the more penetrating sound of the trumpet. The conical bore of the cornet also makes it more agile than the trumpet when playing fast passages. The cornet is often preferred for young beginners as it is easier to hold, with its centre of gravity much closer to the player. [[image:cornet.png|thumb|250px|This drawing of a cornet is a public domain image from Webster's Dictionary 1911]] The cornet in the illustration is a short model traditional cornet, also known as a ''&quot;Shepherd's crook&quot;'' shaped model. There also exists a long-model cornet which looks about half-way between the short instrument and a trumpet. This instrument is frowned upon by cornet traditionalists and it is not clear what its intended role is. However the common opinion is that it has a more musical sound than the short model or trumpet. ==Playing/technique== Like the trumpet and all other modern brasswind instruments, the cornet makes a sound when the player vibrates (&quot;buzzes&quot;) his lips in the mouthpiece, creating a vibrating column of air in the tubing of the cornet that generates a musical sound. When the column of air is lengthened, the pitch of the note is lowered. From the basic length tube of the cornet the player can produce a series of notes, like those played by the [[Bugle (instrument)|bugle]], which has gaps in so that true melodic playing is impossible except in the extreme high register. So, to change the length of the vibrating column and provide the cornet with the ability to play chromatic scales, the cornet is equipped with three (or very rarely, four) valves. The action of each valve is to add a length of tubing (and thus vibrating air column) between mouthpiece and bell. As the player presses the valves, they lower the pitch of the cornet and can thus play complete chromatic scales. ==Military terminology== A troop of [[cavalry]] may also be called a ''cornet'', so called from its being accompanied by a cornet player. Until 1871, when the office was abolished, ''cornet'' was the lowest grade of [[commissioned officer]] in a British cavalry troop, who carried the [[flag|standard]], also known as a ''cornet''. This rank is also known as an [[ensign]] or [[subaltern (rank)|subaltern]]. The rank was abolished at the same time that the purchase of commission in the army was abolished in the army reform bill of 1871. In practice the style Cornet is still used in [[The Blues and Royals]] (Royal Horse Guards and 1st Dragoons). ==Other meanings== *There is another instrument, a brass instrument with [[woodwind]]-style holes, called the [[cornett]] or ''cornetto'' *In [[British English]], a '''cornet''' may also refer to an [[ice cream cone]]. ==External links== *[http://www.angelfire.com/music2/thecornetcompendium/ The Cornet Compendium] *[http://www.brass-forum.co.uk/ Brass-Forum.co.uk] UK based brass discussion forum. [[Category:Brass instruments]] [[Category:Military ranks of the United Kingdom]] [[de:Kornett (Instrument)]] [[es:Corneta]] [[fr:Cornet à pistons]] [[he:קורנית (כלי נגינה)]] [[nl:Cornet]] [[pl:Kornet (instrument)]] [[fi:Kornetti]] [[sv:Kornett (blåsinstrument)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CAMP</title> <id>7102</id> <revision> <id>35926196</id> <timestamp>2006-01-20T07:22:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Botryoidal</username> <id>814230</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Automated text replacement (-{{4LA}} +{{4LC}})</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''CAMP''' may stand for: * [[Cyclic adenosine monophosphate]] (cAMP) * [[Call Admission Multicast Protocol]] * [[Core-Assisted Mesh Protocol]] * [[Campaign Against Marijuana Planting]] * [[Central Atlantic Magmatic Province]] '''See also''': *[[Camp]] *[[Camping (disambiguation)]] {{4LC}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CGMP</title> <id>7103</id> <revision> <id>15905187</id> <timestamp>2004-03-02T10:55:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Diberri</username> <id>35331</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redirect to cyclic guanosine monophosphate</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cyclic guanosine monophosphate]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cotton Mather</title> <id>7104</id> <revision> <id>37497667</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T10:13:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>4.23.226.242</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cotton Mather.jpg|thumb|Cotton Mather (1663–1728) circa 1700]] '''Cotton Mather''' ([[February 12]], [[1663]] &amp;ndash; [[February 13]], [[1728]]). B.A. [[1678]] ([[Harvard University|Harvard College]]), M.A. [[1681]]; honorary doctorate [[1710]] ([[University of Glasgow]]), was a socially and politically-influential &quot;[[Puritan]]&quot; minister, prolific author, and pamphleteer. Cotton Mather was the son of influential minister [[Increase Mather]]. Mather attended [[Boston Latin School]], and graduated from Harvard in 1678, at only 15 years of age. After completing his post-graduate work, he joined his father as assistant Pastor of Boston's original North Church (not to be confused with the Anglican/Episcopal [[Old North Church]]). It was not until his father's death, in [[1723]] that Mather assumed full responsibilities as Pastor at the Church. Author of more than 450 books and pamphlets, Cotton Math
m)|Girl, Interrupted]]'' during the [[72nd Academy Awards|2000 Academy Awards]], Jolie stated &quot;I'm so in love with my brother right now&quot; which, combined with her affectionate behaviour towards her brother that night, sparked the rumours. On ''[[Inside the Actor's Studio]]'' she stated that she never had an incestuous relationship with her brother, stating that &quot;the world is a lot sicker than I thought&quot;, in reference to the conclusion everyone jumped to. Also, in an interview with ''[[People Magazine]]'' she and her brother stated that, being children of divorcees, they relied on one another and because of that they hold on to each other as a means of emotional support. Jolie has starred in five student films directed by her brother. * In October 2005, ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' tabloid in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], as well as several American entertainment news programmes reported that Jolie was in the running to appear with her ''Lara Croft: Tomb Raider'' co-star [[Daniel Craig]] in the next [[James Bond]] film, ''[[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]]''. This ultimately proved to be a false report. * In a December 2001 Rolling Stone interview, Jolie said: &quot;My favorite book [of the year] was [[Loung Ung]]'s First They Killed My Father, about her childhood in Cambodia. I spent some time with her in Cambodia when I was there with [[UNHCR]], and she's wonderful.&quot; On Loung Ung's website, Jolie is quoted: &quot;I encourage everyone to read this deeply moving and very important book ([[Lucky Child]]). Equal to the strength of the book, is the woman who wrote it. She is a voice for her people and they are lucky to have her.&quot; * She hasn't stated definitively whether or not she believes in God or what religion she practices. When asked in an interview with ''The Onion A.V. Club''&lt;!--EDITORS: this publication is authentic and *not* satire, please read: http://www.avclub.com/content/about--&gt; if there was a God, she said &quot;For some people. I hope so, for them. For the people who believe in it, I hope so. There doesn't need to be a God for me. There's something in people that's spiritual, that's godlike. I don't feel like doing things just because people say things, but I also don't really know if it's better to just not believe in anything, either.&quot; She is sometimes thought to be a [[Buddhist]], but Jolie says that she teaches Buddhism to her son Maddox because she considers it part of his culture. She added a tattoo of Buddhist [[Sanskrit]] symbols on her shoulder as a prayer for him.[http://www.usatoday.com/life/2003-07-17-jolie-side_x.htm][http://www.asianconnections.com/a/?article_id=123][http://www.religionfacts.com/celebrities/angelina_jolie.htm][http://jam.canoe.ca/Movies/Artists/J/Jolie_Angelina/2003/10/19/759420.html][http://www.avclub.com/content/node/24504] ==Filmography== [[Image:Angelina_Jolie_2003.jpg|thumb|right|Anglina Jolie at the commemoration of World Refugee Day in 2003.]] *''[[Lookin' to Get Out]]'' (1982) *''[[Cyborg 2]]'' (1993) *''[[Angela &amp; Viril]]'' (1993) (short subject) *''[[Alice &amp; Viril]]'' (1993) (short subject) *''[[Without Evidence]]'' (1995) *''[[Hackers (movie)|Hackers]]'' (1995) *''[[Mojave Moon]]'' (1996) *''[[Love Is All There Is]]'' (1996) *''[[Foxfire (1996 movie)|Foxfire]]'' (1996) *''[[Playing God]]'' (1997) *''[[True Women]]'' (1997) *''[[Gia]]'' (1998) *''[[Hell's Kitchen]]'' (1998) *''[[Playing by Heart]]'' (1998) *''[[Pushing Tin]]'' (1998) *''[[The Bone Collector]]'' (1999) *''[[Girl, Interrupted (film)|Girl, Interrupted]]'' (1999) *''[[Gone in Sixty Seconds (2000 movie)|Gone in Sixty Seconds]]'' (2000) *''[[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]]'' (2001) *''[[Original Sin (Movie)|Original Sin]]'' (2001) *''[[Life or Something Like It]]'' (2002) *''[[Trading Women]]'' (2003) (documentary) (narrator) *''[[Lara Croft Tomb Raider: The Cradle of Life]]'' (2003) *''[[Beyond Borders]]'' (2003) *''[[Taking Lives]]'' (2004) *''[[Shark Tale]]'' (2004) (voice of Lola) *''[[Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow]]'' (2004) *''[[Alexander (movie)|Alexander]]'' (2004) *''[[Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith (2005 film)|Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith]]'' (2005) *''[[The Good Shepherd (film)|The Good Shepherd]]'' (2006) *''[[Beowulf (2007 film)|Beowulf]]'' (2007) (voice of the Queen of Darkness) ==External links== {{quote}} {{Commons|Angelina Jolie}} * {{imdb name | id=0001401 | name=Angelina Jolie}} * [http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/help?id=3f94ff664 Angelina Jolie, UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador] * [http://www.elros.altervista.org/ Angelina Jolie's Refugee Journals] * [http://www.angelinajolie.com/ Angelina Jolie Fansite] * [http://marriage.about.com/od/entertainmen1/p/bradpitt.htm Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie Profile] [[Category:1975 births|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:Adoptive parents|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:American film actors|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:American film producers|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:American voice actors|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:Best Supporting Actress Oscar|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:Bisexual actors|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:English Americans|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:French Americans|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:Humanitarians|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:Living people|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:People from Los Angeles|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:Worst Actress Razzie nominees|Jolie, Angelina]] [[Category:American models|Jolie, Angelina]] [[ar:أنجلينا جولي]] [[bg:Анджелина Джоли]] [[da:Angelina Jolie]] [[de:Angelina Jolie]] [[es:Angelina Jolie]] [[eo:Angelina JOLIE]] [[fr:Angelina Jolie]] [[hr:Angelina Jolie]] [[it:Angelina Jolie]] [[he:אנג'לינה ג'ולי]] [[hu:Angelina Jolie]] [[nl:Angelina Jolie]] [[ja:アンジェリーナ・ジョリー]] [[pl:Angelina Jolie]] [[pt:Angelina Jolie]] [[ru:Джоли, Анджелина]] [[sq:Angelina Jolie]] [[simple:Angelina Jolie]] [[sk:Angelina Jolie]] [[sl:Angelina Jolie]] [[fi:Angelina Jolie]] [[sv:Angelina Jolie]] [[tr:Angelina Jolie]] [[zh:安吉丽娜·朱莉]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anton Diabelli</title> <id>2313</id> <revision> <id>39097819</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T18:27:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.89.68.47</ip> </contributor> <comment>fixed typo &quot;constitute&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anton '''(or '''Antonio''')''' Diabelli''' ([[September 6]], [[1781]]-[[April 7]], [[1858]]) was an [[Austria]]n [[music]] publisher, editor and [[composer]]. Best known in his time as a publisher, he is most familiar today as the composer of the [[waltz]] on which [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] wrote his set of thirty-three ''[[Diabelli Variations]]''. Diabelli was born in [[Mattsee]] near [[Salzburg]]. He was trained to enter the [[priest]]hood, but also took music lessons with [[Michael Haydn]]. He moved to [[Vienna]] to teach the [[piano]] and [[guitar]] before becoming partners with [[Pietro Cappi]] in 1818 and setting up a music publishing firm with him. The firm, Cappi &amp; Diabelli (which became Diabelli &amp; Co. in 1824) became well known by [[arrangement|arranging]] popular pieces so they could be played by amateurs at home. The firm became well known in more serious music circles by becoming the first to publish works by [[Franz Schubert]], a composer the firm later championed. Diabelli produced a modest number of works as a composer, including an [[operetta]] called ''Adam in der Klemme'', a number of [[mass (music)|mass]]es and [[song]]s and a large number of piano and classical guitar pieces. Among these are pieces for four hands (two pianists playing at one piano), which are popular amongst amateur pianists. Ironically, perhaps, the composition for which Diabelli is now best known was actually written as part of a publishing venture. In 1819, he decided to try to publish a volume of [[variation (music)|variation]]s on a waltz he had penned expressly for this purpose, with one variation by every important Austrian composer living at the time, as well as several significant non-Austrians. Fifty composers responded with pieces, including Schubert, [[Franz Liszt]] and [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]]. [[Carl Czerny]] was enlisted to write a [[coda (music)|coda]], and they were published as ''[[Vaterländische Künstlerverein]]''. Beethoven, however, instead of providing just one variation, provided thirty-three, and his were published in a volume of their own in 1824. They constitute what is generally regarded as one of the greatest of Beethoven's piano pieces and as the greatest set of variations of their time, and are generally known simply as the ''[[Diabelli Variations]]''. Diabelli's publishing house expanded throughout his life, before he retired in 1851, leaving it under the control of [[Carl Anton Spina]]. When Diabelli died in 1858, Spina continued to run the firm, and published much music by [[Johann Strauss II]] and [[Josef Strauss]]. In 1872, the firm was taken over by [[Friedrich Schreiber]], and in 1876 it merged with the firm of [[August Cranz]], who bought the company in 1879 and ran it under his name. == External links == * [http://www.delcamp.net/auteurs/en/3_classique/diabelli_en.html Anton Diabelli: biography and classical guitar sheet music] [[Category:1781 births|Diabelli, Anton]] [[Category:1858 deaths|Diabelli, Anton]] [[Category:Romantic composers|Diabelli, Anton]] [[Category:Austrian composers|Diabelli, Anton]] [[Category:Operetta composers|Diabelli, Anton]] [[Category:Composers for guitar|Diabelli, Anton]] [[Category:Composers for piano|Diabelli, Anton]] [[de:Anton Diabelli]] [[fr:Anton Diabelli]] [[ja:アントニオ・ディアベリ]] [[fi:Anton Diabelli]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anita Hill</title> <id>2314</id> <revision> <id>41139718</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T07:52:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D6</username> <id>75561</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>adding [[category:Living peop
0,000 people were killed outright by the bombing at Nagasaki, and about 25,000 were injured.[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/abomb/mp10.htm] Many thousands more would die later from related injuries, and [[radiation poisoning|radiation sickness]] from [[nuclear fallout]]. &quot;Fat Man&quot; was an [[implosion]] type weapon using [[plutonium]]. A subcritical sphere of plutonium was placed in the center of a hollow sphere of [[high explosive]]. Numerous [[exploding-bridgewire detonator|detonators]] located on the surface of the high explosive were fired simultaneously to produce a powerful inward [[pressure]] on the core, squeezing it and increasing its density, resulting in a supercritical condition and a nuclear explosion. [[Image:Implosion Nuclear weapon.png|left|300px|Illustration of the implosion concept.]] At first it was thought that two pieces of sub-critical plutonium (Pu-239) could simply be shot into one another to create a nuclear explosion, and a plutonium gun-type design of this sort (known as the &quot;Thin Man&quot; bomb) was worked on for some time during the Manhattan Project.[http://www.lanl.gov/history/atomicbomb/pu-complicates.shtml] However it was discovered that plutonium created for the bomb in the [[nuclear reactor]]s at [[Hanford Site|Hanford, Washington]], even though it was super-grade weapon plutonium containing only about 0.9% Pu-240, was not as pure as the initial samples of plutonium developed at the [[cyclotron]]s at [[Ernest O. Lawrence]]'s [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory|Radiation Laboratory]] in [[Berkeley, California]]. Because of the presence of the isotope Pu-240, reactor-bred plutonium had a much higher rate of spontaneous [[neutron emission]] than was previously thought, and if a gun-type device was used it would most likely pre-detonate and result in a messy and costly &quot;fizzle&quot;. The [[spontaneous fission]] rate of Pu-240 is 415,000 fissions/(s·kg), and the amount was 0.9% of 6.2 kg, is 56 g. Thus there were 23,000 spontaneous fissions per second. This means that the last few centimeters would have to be travelled in preferably much less than 40 microseconds. It is theoretically possible to build a plutonium gun-type device, but it would need to be 19 feet long in order to allow the sub-critical masses to be fused into a critical mass before a fizzle occurs. The mass of a plutonium gun-type device would have been beyond the payload of the B-29. After this problem was realized in 1943, work began in earnest on the implosion bomb, the &quot;Fat Man&quot;. The gun-type method could still be used for highly-enriched uranium, though, and was employed in the &quot;[[Little Boy]]&quot; weapon which was used against [[Hiroshima]], [[Japan]]. For a variety of reasons, the implosion method is both more efficient than the gun-type method, and also far safer, as a perfect synchronization of the explosion lenses is required for the core to properly detonate, greatly reducing the chances of an accidental nuclear detonation. [[Image:Trinity Gadget.gif|thumb|250px|right|The &quot;[[Trinity test|Trinity]]&quot; device was similar to the &quot;Fat Man&quot; bomb.]] Because of its complicated firing mechanism, and the need for previously untested synchronization of explosives and precision design, it was felt that a full test of the concept was needed before the scientists and military representatives could be confident it would perform correctly under combat conditions. On [[July 16]], [[1945]], a device utilizing a similar mechanism (called the &quot;[[the gadget|gadget]]&quot; for security reasons) detonated in a [[nuclear testing|test explosion]] at a remote site in [[New Mexico]], known as the &quot;[[Trinity test|Trinity]]&quot; test. In the end, it gave somewhere around 20 kt (80 TJ), 2 to 4 times the expected yield. ==The Bombing== The [[Soviet atomic bomb project|Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon]] detonated at Operation First Lightning (known as &quot;[[Joe 1]]&quot; in the West) was more or less a purposeful copy of the &quot;Fat Man&quot; device, on which they had obtained detailed information from the spy [[Klaus Fuchs]]. Immediately after the bombings of Japan, the United States produced a technical history of the Manhattan Project, known as the [[Smyth Report]], that did not disclose the information that the &quot;Fat Man&quot; device was different from the &quot;Little Boy&quot; device, and did not imply that a different method was required for plutonium weapons. The &quot;implosion&quot; design was considered top-secret in the United States until it was declassified and released during the testimony of [[David Greenglass]] against [[Ethel and Julius Rosenberg]] in [[1951]]. Photographs of the casings of &quot;Little Boy&quot; and &quot;Fat Man&quot; were not released publicly until the 1960s. The United States produced a small stockpile of &quot;Fat Man&quot; bombs after the war, but they were highly idiosyncratic and extremely delicate. It was eventually re-worked in the [[MK 4 Fat Man]] bomb, which was similar in principle but was appropriate for long-term stockpiling, use by non-experts, and used a more efficient implosion system (with a 60 point implosion system, compared to the 32 point weapon used in the war). ==The Gadget== [[Image:Gadget-schematic-crosssection.png|Schematic cross-section of the &quot;gadget&quot;]] Schematic cross-section of the &quot;gadget&quot;; some boundaries are approximate. From left to right (outside inward): * [[duralumin|dural]] casing, ~140 cm inner diameter * [[exploding-bridgewire detonator]] (allows for instantaneous detonation of explosives) * faster explosive, Composition-B; 60% RDX, 39% TNT, 1% wax * slower explosive ([[Baratol (explosive)|Baratol]]) * faster explosive, &quot;amplifier&quot; * [[aluminum]]&amp;ndash;[[boron]] &quot;pusher&quot; (absorbs stray neutrons and widens/smooths implosion pulse) * natural-[[uranium]] &quot;tamper&quot; (neutron reflector, inertial containment, improves efficiency, reduces the amount of fission material needed) * the &quot;pit&quot;; [[plutonium]]-239&amp;ndash;plutonium-240&amp;ndash;[[gallium]] delta-phase [[alloy]] (96%&amp;ndash;1%&amp;ndash;3% by molality) (fissionable material); sphere with a diameter of 9 cm, with a 2.5 cm cavity and a plutonium plug to allow initiator insertion; mass 6.2 kg * air gap * [[beryllium]]&amp;ndash;[[polonium]]-210 &quot;initiator&quot; (the &quot;urchin&quot;), neutron source ==Interior of bomb== The original blueprints of the interior of both Fat Man and Little Boy are still classified. However, there is much information about the main parts. {| border=&quot;0&quot; | [[Image:Fatman inner1.png|400px|center]] | # AN 219 destruct fuse # ''Archie'' radar antenna # Plate with batteries (to detonate charge surrounding nuclear components) # ''X-Unit'', a firing set placed near the charge # Hinge fixing the two ellipsoidal parts of the bomb # High explosive pentagonal lens (12 units around the core, made of high and low velocity explosive), together with the next item forming the pattern of a [[truncated icosahedron]] # High explosive hexagonal lens (20 units around the core, made of high and low velocity explosive) # ''California Parachute'' tail (aluminium) # Dural casing, ~140 cm inner diameter # Cones that contained the whole sphere # Explosive lenses (low and high velocity) # Nuclear material (see other figure for details about the different layers) # Plate with instruments (radars, baroswitches and timers) # Barotube collector |} == See also == * [[Little Boy]] * [[Manhattan Project]] * [[Trinity test]] * [[The gadget]] * [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] ==External links== *[http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq8.html#nfaq8.1.1 thorough descriptions of Gadget] (&quot;a great deal of tissue paper and scotch tape were used to make everything fit snugly&quot;) and [http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq8.html#nfaq8.1.4 Fat Man] at Nuclear Weapons Archive *[http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Chemistry/NuclearChemistry/NuclearWeapons/FirstChainReaction/FirstNuclWeapons/DesignGadget.htm The Design of Gadget, Fat Man, and &quot;Joe 1&quot; (RDS-1)] * [http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/pre-cold-war/manhattan-project/fatman.htm Nuclear Files.org] Definition and explanation of 'Fat Man' * [http://www.atomicarchive.com/Movies/Movie3.shtml Fat Man Model] in QuickTime VR format [[Category:Manhattan Project]] [[Category:Nuclear bombs]] [[Category:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] [[af:Fat Man]] [[da:Fat Man]] [[de:Fat Man]] [[es:Fat Man]] [[fr:Fat Man]] [[ko:팻 맨]] [[it:Fat Man]] [[nl:Fat Man]] [[ja:ファットマン]] [[pl:Fat Man]] [[pt:Fat Man]] [[sv:Fat Man]] [[zh:胖子原子彈]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>False Claims Act</title> <id>11661</id> <revision> <id>33609081</id> <timestamp>2006-01-02T16:37:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Locke Cole</username> <id>428690</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* 1986 changes */ wikify a little bit</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[United States]], the '''False Claims Act''' ({{usc|31|3729}} ''et seq.'') provides a powerful [[law|legal]] [[tool]] to counteract fraudulent billings turned in to the Federal Government. Citizens with insider knowledge of false claims in health care, military, or other government spending programs can be rewarded. == Provisions == The Act establishes liability when any person or entity improperly receives from or avoids payment to the Federal government--tax fraud excepted. In summary, the Act prohibits: # Knowingly presenting, or causing to be presented to the Government a false claim for payment; # Knowingly making, using, or causing to be made or used, a false record or statement to get a false claim paid or approved by the government; # Conspiring to defraud the Govern
and financial commitment, yet it is a rapidly growing sport and industry. Experience in all-star cheerleading is also highly sought after by elite college cheerleading teams such as the [[University of Louisville]], the [[University of Kentucky]], the [[University of Houston]], and [[Hawaii Pacific University]]. ==United Kingdom== In the [[United Kingdom]], the American style of cheerleading at sports matches is seen by many as alien to British sporting culture, and some attempts to introduce it, for example in the early days of [[FA Premier League|Premiership]] football (soccer), have been abandoned after receiving widespread derision. There are however several sports teams that use their support: these are usually [[rugby league]] teams, and include the [[Leeds Rhinos]], the [[Warrington Wolves]], the [[Bradford Bulls]], the [[Castleford Tigers]] and [[St Helens RFC|St Helens]]. The teams that play in BCAFL, the UK College American Football League also follow the American tradition of having cheerleaders support them at games, as do the GB Bulldogs, the UK national American Football team. Recently all-star competitive cheerleading has increased in popularity in the UK and several organisations such as the British Cheerleading Association hold national competitions every year. There is also a competing group, more recently formed than the BCA, called Future Cheer, which conforms to the relatively recent USASF coaching and safety regulations. Cheerleaders in Britain can range from the age of six or seven, up to university students, all of whom mix together and compete in competitions consisting of cheer, dance and stunt categories. Co-ed cheerleading is also a relativly popular form of cheerleading in the UK. ==External links== {{Commons|Cheerleading}} *[http://www.aacca.org American Association of Cheerleading Coaches and Advisors (AACCA)] *[http://www.nationalspirit.com National Cheerleading Association and National Spirit Group (NCA and NSG)] *[http://www.usasf.net United States All-Star Federation (USASF)] *[http://www.cheerleading.org.uk British Cheerleading Association (BCA)] *[http://www.osiponline.org Organization of Spirit Industry Providers (OSIP)] *[http://www.cheerleadinguk.com UK Cheerleading Association (UKCA)] *[http://www.icf-hdqrs.org/ International Cheerleading Federation (ICF)] *[http://www.futurecheer.co.uk Future Cheer UK ] *[http://www.whatisprox.com Pro X - advanced stunting and tumbling ] [[Category:Cheerleading]] [[cs:Cheerleading]] [[de:Cheerleading]] [[fr:majorette]] [[ko:치어리딩]] [[ja:チアリーダー]] [[ru:Черлидинг]] [[fi:Cheerleader]] [[no:Cheerleading]] [[sv:Cheerleading]] [[th:เชียร์ลีดเดอร์]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cottingley Fairies</title> <id>6751</id> <revision> <id>41840802</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:14:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mikkalai</username> <id>28438</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cottingley_Fairies_1.jpg|thumb|250px|Frances with the fairies, taken by Elsie in July 1917. One of the five photographs.]] The '''Cottingley Fairies''' refers to a series of five photographs taken by [[Frances Griffiths]] and [[Elsie Wright]], two young cousins living in [[Cottingley]], near [[Bradford, England]]. The first two photos were taken in 1917. They were publicized in [[1920]] when [[Strand Magazine|The Strand]] (home of [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s Sherlock Holmes stories) published a piece by Doyle showing the first two photographs and describing them. Griffiths and Wright were then given 24 photographic plates and took three more photos in [[August]] [[1920]]. They blamed constant rainfall, but rainfall was at the lowest point in the year during August. This is now seen as proof that they had to discard several failed attempts. The photos showed the fairies as small humans with [[period style]] haircuts, dressed in filmy gowns, and with large wings on their backs. One picture is of a [[gnome]], about 12 inches tall, dressed in a somewhat [[Elizabethan]] manner, and also with wings. [[Image:Cottingley_Fairies_2.jpg|thumb|250px|The picture with the gnome.]] The re-touched versions of the pictures that are most commonly used today (and on this page) make the fairies look like paper cutouts, having a flat appearance, with lighting that does not match the rest of the photograph. Even the waterfall in the background appears to be taken at a slower shutter-speed than the fairies, which are sharp and clear. When viewing the original prints, however, the case becomes less clear. Certainly at the time the photos were viewed by many as evidence of fairies, most notably [[Arthur Conan Doyle|Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]], the famed author of [[Sherlock Holmes]] and a promoter of [[spiritualism]] after his son's death. Doyle wrote a book called [[The Coming of the Fairies]] about the fairy hoax and his belief in their existence. [[Harold Snelling]], a contemporary expert in fake photography said, &quot;These dancing figures are not made of paper nor any fabric; they are not painted on a photographic background&amp;mdash;but what gets me most is that all these figures have moved during the exposure.&quot; Doyle too dismissed the idea the photographs could have been faked. It is now considered that he thought the girls too young and too inexperienced to have been able to create such a hoax. In 1978, it was found the fairies were from the [[1915]] book [[Princess Mary's Gift Book]] by [[Arthur Shepperson]]. The cousins remained evasive about the authenticity of the pictures for most of their lives, at times claiming they were forgeries, and at other times leaving it to the individual to decide. In 1981, in an interview by Joe Cooper for the magazine ''The Unexplained'', the cousins confessed that the photos were fake and they held up cut-outs with tacks. Frances Griffith, however, continued to maintain until her death that they did see fairies and that the 5th photograph, which showed fairies in a sunbath, was genuine. Two 1997 movies, ''[[Fairy Tale: A True Story]]'', starring [[Peter O'Toole]] and [[Harvey Keitel]], and ''[[Photographing Fairies]]'' with [[Ben Kingsley]] were based on this event. ==External links== *[http://www.ash-tree.bc.ca/acdsfairies.htm The Coming of the Fairies: An alternative view of the episode of The Cottingley Fairies], essay by Barbara Roden *[http://www.randi.org/library/cottingley/ The Case of the Cottingley Fairies] at The James Randi Educational Foundation *[http://www.cottingley.net/fairies.shtml Cottingley Fairies] at Cottingley.Net - The Cottingley Network *[http://www.cottingleyconnect.org.uk/fairies.htm Cottingley Fairies] at Cottingley Connect *[http://anomalyinfo.com/articles/sa00017.shtml Cottingley Fairies] at Anomalies [[ja:&amp;#12467;&amp;#12486;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12540;&amp;#22934;&amp;#31934;&amp;#20107;&amp;#20214;]] [[fi:Cottingleyn keijukaiset]] [[Category:Hoaxes]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cheka</title> <id>6752</id> <revision> <id>41886859</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:41:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hvn0413</username> <id>850119</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:KGB Symbol.png|thumb|117px|Cheka-KGB emblem: sword and shield]] The '''Cheka''' ('''ЧК''' - чрезвычайная комиссия) was the first of [[Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies|many]] [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[secret police]] organizations, created by decree on [[December 20]], [[1917]] by [[Vladimir Lenin]] and led by [[Felix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky]]. == The name == The agency's full name was '''Всероссийская чрезвычайная комиссия по борьбе с контрреволюцией и саботажем''' (''All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating [[Anti-Soviet agitation|Counter-Revolution]] and [[Sabotage]]''), but was commonly abbreviated to ЧК (Cheka) or ВЧК (Vecheka). In [[1918]] its name was changed slightly to: Всероссийская чрезвычайная комиссия по борьбе с контрреволюцией, спекуляцией и преступлениям по должности, or ''All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, [[Speculation]] and [[Political corruption|Power Abuse]]''. A member of Cheka was called '''chekist'''. Chekists of the post-[[October Revolution]] years wore leather jackets, and they are pictured in many movies with this apparel. Despite the multitudinous namechanges over time, Soviet secret policemen were referred to as &quot;Chekists&quot; throughout the Soviet period and the term is still found in use in [[Russia]] today (for example, President [[Vladimir Putin]] has been referred to in the [[Russian media]] as a chekist). == Formation == After early attempts by the western powers ([[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[France]]) to intervene against the [[Bolsheviks]] in the [[Russian Civil War]], and after the assassination of [[Petrograd]] Cheka leader [[Moisei Uritsky]] on [[August 30]], [[1918]] (the same day [[Fanya Kaplan]] attempted to assassinate [[Vladimir Lenin]]), the Soviet leadership and the Cheka became convinced that there was a wide ranging conspiracy of foreign enemies and internal counter-revolutionaries. Therefore they poured resources into the intelligence service to combat this conspiracy. The Cheka quickly succeeded in destroying any remaining counter revolutionary groups. Additionally, the Cheka played a significant role in destroying nonpolitical criminal gangs. During the Civil War, the Cheka formed their own military units, clad in black, which acted as shock troops. == Renaming == At the end of the Civil War, the Cheka was changed on [[February 6]], [[1922]] into the [[State Political Administration]] or GPU, a section of the [[NKVD]] of the [[Russian SFSR]]. ==Related articles == * [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] * [[Lavrenty Pavlovich Beria]] * [[Mensheviks]]
place was to the new temple to Zeus in Athens. Having set in motion the preparations - deciding whose claim to be a Greek city was genuine would in itself take time - Hadrian set off for [[Ephesus]]. {{ref|Greece128}} In October [[130]], while Hadrian and his entourage were sailing on the [[Nile]], Antinous drowned, for unknown reasons, though accident, suicide, murder or religious sacrifice have all been postulated. The emperor was griefstruck. He ordered Antinous deified, and cities were named after the boy, medals struck with his effigy, and statues erected to him in all parts of the empire. Temples were built for his worship in Bithynia, Mantineia in Arcadia, and Athens, festivals celebrated in his honour and oracles delivered in his name. The city of [[Antinoöpolis]] or [[Antinoe]] was founded on the ruins of [[Besa (city)|Besa]] where he died (Dio Cassius lix. 11; Spartianus, ''Hadrian''). ==Death== Hadrian died in [[138]] in his [[Roman villa|villa]] at [[Baiae]] at age 62. Upon the completion of the [[Tomb of Hadrian]] in [[Rome]] in [[139]] by his successor [[Antoninus Pius]], his body was cremated, and his ashes were placed there together with those of his wife Sabina and his first adopted son, [[Lucius Aelius]], who also died in 138. ==Notes == # {{note|3phase}} Following Hadrian: Elizabeth Speller pp 61-62 # {{note|ward}} Royston Lambert, ''Beloved And God'', pp 31-32 # {{note|legate}} Anthony Birley, ''Hadrian the Restless Emperor'', p. 68 # {{note|syria}} Anthony Birley p75 # {{note|Allegations}} Elizabeth Speller p. 26 # {{note|Quietus}} Royston Lambert # {{note|thefour}} Elizabeth Speller # {{note|coin}} Elizabeth Speller p. 69 # {{note|travels}} Elizabeth Speller pp. 74-81 # {{note|1sttour}} Royston Lambert pp. 41-42 # {{note|totheEast}} Anthony Birley pp. 151-2 # {{note|peace}} Anthony Birley pp. 153-5 # {{note|Bithinia}} Anthony Birley pp. 157-8 # {{note|sustainP}} Royston Lambert pp. 60-61 # {{note|HadrianutheraePer}} Anthony Birley pp. 164-167 # {{note|Athens124}} Anthony Birley pp. 175-7 # {{note|Pelopon}} Anthony Birley pp. 177-180 # {{note|Athens125}} Anthony Birley pp182-4 # {{note|Scilly}} Anthony Birley pp. 189-90 # {{note|italy}} Anthony Birley pp. 191-200 # {{note|ill}} Royston Lambert p. 71 # {{note|Africa}} Royston Lambert p. 71-72 # {{note|brief}} Anthony Birley pp. 213-214 # {{note|Greece128}} Anthony Birley pp. 215-20 ==References== * Anthony R. Birley, ''Hadrian. The restless emperor'', Routledge, London 1997, ISBN 0-415-16544-X. * Royston Lambert, ''Beloved and God: the story of Hadrian and Antinous'', Phoenix Giants, London, 1997 (första upplagan publicerad 1984), ISBN 1-85799-944-4 * Elizabeth Speller, ''Following Hadrian: a second-century journey through the Roman Empire'' , Review, London, 2003, ISBN 0-7472-6662-X ==External links== {{Commons|Hadrian}} *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html Historia Augusta: Life of Hadrian] *[http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/ric/hadrian/t.html Hadrian coinage] *[http://www.britishtours.com/rome/piazza_di_pietra.html Temple of Hadrian] Quicktime VR, Rome *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07104b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] {{start box}} {{succession box two to two|title1=[[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|before=[[Trajan]]|title2=[[Five Good Emperors]]|after=[[Antoninus Pius]]|years1=117&amp;ndash;138|years2=117&amp;ndash;138}} {{end box}} [[Category:138 deaths]] [[Category:76 births]] [[Category:Adoptive parents]] [[Category:Ancient Jewish Roman history]] [[Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty]] [[Category:Pederastic lovers]] [[Category:Roman emperors]] [[Category:Spanish people|Hadrian]] [[da:Hadrian]] [[de:Hadrian (Kaiser)]] [[es:Adriano]] [[eo:Hadriano]] [[eu:Hadriano]] [[fr:Hadrien]] [[ko:하드리아누스]] [[hr:Hadrijan]] [[it:Adriano]] [[he:אדריאנוס]] [[la:P. Aelius Hadrianus]] [[hu:Hadrianus]] [[nl:Publius Aelius Hadrianus]] [[ja:ハドリアヌス]] [[no:Hadrian]] [[pl:Hadrian]] [[pt:Adriano]] [[ro:Hadrian]] [[ru:Публий Элий Адриан]] [[sk:Hadrián]] [[sl:Hadrijan]] [[fi:Hadrianus]] [[sv:Hadrianus]] [[uk:Адріан (римський імператор)]] [[zh:哈德良]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hadrians Wall</title> <id>13622</id> <revision> <id>15911219</id> <timestamp>2002-10-08T02:22:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brion VIBBER</username> <id>51</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>update redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hadrian's Wall]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Herman Melville</title> <id>13623</id> <revision> <id>41930246</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:22:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TKE</username> <id>531146</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Rev Vandal</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HermanMelville55.jpg|thumb|190px|right|Herman Melville]] '''Herman Melville''' ([[August 1]] [[1819]] &amp;ndash; [[September 28]] [[1891]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[novelist]], [[essayist]], and [[poet]]. During his lifetime his early novels were popular, but his popularity declined later in his life. By the time of his death he had nearly been forgotten, but his masterpiece, ''[[Moby-Dick]]'', was &quot;rediscovered&quot; in the [[20th century]]. ==Life== Herman Melville was born in [[New York City]] on [[August 1]], [[1819]] as the third child to Allan and Maria Gansevoort Melvill (Maria would later add an 'e' to the surname), and received his early education in that city. One of his grandfathers, Major [[Thomas Melvill]], participated in the [[Boston Tea Party]]. Another was General [[Peter Gansevoort]] who was acquainted with [[James Fenimore Cooper]] and defended [[Fort Stanwix]] in 1777. His father had described the young Melville as being somewhat slow as a child and Melville was also weakened by the [[scarlet fever]], permanently affecting his eyesight. The family importing business went bankrupt in 1830, and the family went to [[Albany, New York]], with Herman entering [[Albany Academy]]. Prior to that year, he attended [[Columbia Grammar and Preparatory School]] in [[New York City|Manhattan]]. After the death of his father in 1832, the family (with eight children) moved to the village of [[Lansingburgh, New York|Lansingburgh]] on the [[Hudson River]]. Herman and his brother Gansevoort were forced to work to help support the family. There Herman remained until 1835, when he attended the [[Albany Classical School]] for some months. Melville's roving disposition, and a desire to support himself independently of family assistance, led him to seek work as a surveyor on the [[Erie Canal]]. This effort failed, and his brother helped him get a job as a [[cabin boy]] in a New York vessel bound for [[Liverpool]]. He made the voyage, visited London, and returned in the same ship. ''Redburn: His First Voyage'', published in 1849, is partly founded on the experiences of this trip. A good part of the succeeding three years, from 1837 to 1840, was occupied with school-teaching. At any rate, he once more signed a ship's articles, and on January 1, 1841, sailed from [[New Bedford, Massachusetts]] harbor in the whaler ''Acushnet'', bound for the Pacific Ocean and the sperm fishery. The vessel sailed around [[Cape Horn]] and traveled to the South Pacific. He has left very little direct information as to the events of this eighteen months' cruise, although his whaling romance, ''Moby-Dick; or, the Whale,'' probably gives many pictures of life on board the Acushnet. Melville decided to abandon the vessel on reaching the Marquesas Islands. He lived among the natives of the island for several weeks and the narrative of ''Typee'' and its sequel, ''Omoo'', tell this tale. After a sojourn at the Society Islands, Melville shipped for Honolulu. There he remained for four months, employed as a clerk. He joined the crew of the American frigate United States, which reached [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], stopping on the way at one of the Peruvian ports, in October of 1844. Upon his return, he recorded his experiences in the books, ''Typee'', ''Omoo'', ''Mardi'', ''Redburn'', and ''White-Jacket'', published in the following six years. Melville married Elizabeth Shaw (daughter of noted jurist, [[Lemuel Shaw]]) on August 4, 1847. The Melvilles resided in New York City until 1850, when they purchased [[Arrowhead (Herman Melville)|Arrowhead]], a farm house in [[Pittsfield, Massachusetts]] (which is today a museum). Here Melville remained for thirteen years, occupied with his writing, and managing his farm. There he befriended [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] who lived in the area. There he wrote ''Moby-Dick'' and ''Pierre'', works that did not achieve the same popular and critical success as his earlier books. While at Pittsfield, because of financial reasons, Melville was induced to enter the lecture field. From 1857 to 1860 he spoke at lyceums, chiefly speaking of his adventures in the South Seas. He also became a customs inspector for the City of New York, a post he held for 19 years. After an illness that lasted a number of months, Herman Melville died at his home in New York City early on the morning of [[September 28]], [[1891]]. He was interred in the [[Woodlawn Cemetery]] in [[The Bronx]], [[New York]]. In his later life, his works no longer accessible to a broad audience, he was not able to make money from writing. He depended on his wife's family for money along with his other attempts at employment. His short novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', an unpublished manuscript at the time of his death, was published in 1924 and later turned into an [[opera]] by [[Benjamin Britten]], a play, and a film by Peter Ustinov. In ''[[Herman Melville's Religious Journey]]'', [[Walter Donald Kring, PHD]] detailed his discovery of an old document listing Melville as a former member of
ophies is open to challenge, not the least for speaking down to those other philosophies. To say this is not to deny that there are important traditions in philosophy that are intimately bound up with historical and geographical circumstances. [[Philosophy]] has a long history conventionally divided into three large eras: the Ancient, Medieval and Modern. The Ancient era runs through the fall of Rome and includes the Greek philosophers such as [[Plato]]. The Medieval period runs until roughly the late [[1400s]] and the [[Renaissance]]. The &quot;Modern&quot; is a word with more varied use, which includes everything from the late [[16th century]] through the specific period of the early [[20th century]]. Contemporary philosophy encompasses the philosophical developments of the [[20th century]] up to the present day. == Brief timeline == === Ancient philosophy === Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor (Ionia) with [[Thales]] of Miletus, who was active around 585 B.C. and left us the opaque dictum, &quot;All is water.&quot; His most noted students were [[Anaximander]] and [[Anaximenes of Miletus]] (&quot;All is air&quot;). Other thinkers and schools appeared throughout Greece over the next couple of centuries. Among the most important were: * [[Heraclitus]], who stressed the transitory and chaotic nature of all things (&quot;All is fire&quot;; &quot;We cannot step into the same river twice&quot;). * [[Anaxagoras]], who asserted that reality was so ordered that it must be in all respects governed by Mind. * The [[Pluralists]] and [[Atomists]] ([[Empedocles]], [[Democritus]]) who tried to understand the world as composite of innumerable interacting parts; and the [[Eleatic School|Eleatics]] [[Parmenides]] and [[Zeno of Elea|Zeno]] who both insisted that All is One and change is impossible. Parmenides and his school emphasized the enduring, perduring, and absolute character of the world and of truth. (&quot;To be is, to not be is not.&quot;) * The [[Sophistry|Sophists]], traveling professional teachers of varied philosophical affinity, became known (perhaps unjustly) for claiming that truth was no more than opinion and for teaching people to argue fallaciously to prove whatever conclusions they wished. This whole movement gradually became more concentrated in [[Athens]], which had become the dominant city-state in [[Greece]]. There is considerable discussion about why [[Athenian culture]] encouraged philosophy, but one popular theory says that it occurred because Athens had a direct [[democracy]]. It's known from Plato's writings that many sophists maintained schools of debate, were respected members of society, and were well paid by their students. It's also well known that orators had tremendous influence on Athenian history, possibly even causing its failure (See [[Battle of Miletus]]). One other theory for the popularity of philosophical debate in Athens was due to the use of slavery there - the workforce, mainly slaves, performed the labour that otherwise would have been taken up by the male population of the city. Freed from working in the fields or in productive activity, they were then free to engage in the assemblies of Athens, and spend long hours discussing popular philosophical questions. The theory fills in the blanks by saying that the Sophists' students wanted to acquire the skills of an orator in order to influence the [[Athenian Assembly]], and thereby grow wealthy and respected. Since winning debates led to wealth, the subjects and methods of debate became highly developed. The key figure in transforming Greek philosophy into a unified and continuous project - the one still being pursued today - is [[Socrates]], who studied under several Sophists. He then spent much of his life, we are told, engaging everyone in Athens in discussion trying to determine whether anyone had a very good idea what they were talking about, especially when they talked about important matters like justice, beauty and truth. He wrote nothing, but inspired many disciples. In his old age he became the focus of the hostility of many in the city who saw philosophy and sophistry, interchangeably, as destroying the piety and moral fiber of the city; he was executed in 399 B.C. [[Image:schoolofathens.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Raphael's ''The School of Athens'' (1509) with Plato and Aristotle in the centre.]] His most important student was [[Plato]], who wrote a number of philosophical dialogues using his master's methods of inquiry to examine problems. The early dialogues demonstrate something like Socrates' own fairly inconclusive style of inquiry. The &quot;middle&quot; ones develop a substantive metaphysical and ethical system to resolve these problems. Central ideas are the [[The_Forms|Theory of Forms]], that the mind is imbued with an innate capacity to understand and apply concepts to the world, and that these concepts are in a significant way more real, or more basically real, than the things of the world around us; the immortality of the soul, and the idea that it too is more important than the body; the idea that evil is a kind of ignorance, that only knowledge can lead to virtue, that art should be subordinate to moral purposes, and that society should be ruled by a class of philosopher kings. In the later dialogues Socrates figures less prominently, and the Theory of Forms is cast in doubt; more directly ethical questions become the focus. Interestingly, in his most famous work, ''[[Plato's Republic|The Republic]]'' Plato attacks the system of democracy, blaming it for the defeat of Athens in the [[Peloponnesian War]] - he attributes the indecision of the masses (who voted on everything, including military strategy) as the reason for military defeat. He proposed instead a three tiered structure of society, with workers, guardians and philosophers, in ascending order of importance (convenient for him and his disciples, clearly), citing the philosophers' greater knowledge of the forms as the reason for them being more appropriate in running society. Plato founded the [[Academy]] of Athens, and his most outstanding student there was [[Aristotle]]. Possibly Aristotle's most important and long-lasting work was his formalization of [[logic]]. It appears that Aristotle was the first philosopher to categorize every valid [[syllogism]]. A syllogism is a form of argument that is guaranteed to be accepted, because it is known (by all educated persons) to be [[validity|valid]]. A crucial assumption in Aristotelian logic is that it has to be about real objects. Two of Aristotle's syllogisms are invalid to modern eyes. For example, &quot;All A are B. All A are C. Therefore, some B are C.&quot; This syllogism fails if set A is empty. === Medieval philosophy === Medieval philosophy was greatly concerned with the nature of God, and the application of [[Aristotle]]'s [[term logic | logic]] and thought to every area of life. If God exists at all, surely He is the most important feature of the universe, and therefore worthy of study. One continuing interest in this time was to prove the existence of God, through logic alone, if possible. One early effort was the ''cosmological argument'', conventionally attributed to [[Thomas Aquinas]]. The argument roughly, is that everything that exists has a cause. Therefore, there must be an uncaused first cause, and this is God. Aquinas also adapted this argument to prove the goodness of God. Everything has some goodness, and the cause of each thing is better than the thing caused. Therefore, the first cause is the best possible thing. Similar arguments are used to prove God's power and uniqueness. Another important argument proof of the existence of God was the ''Ontological Argument'', advanced by [[St. Anselm]]. Basically, it says that God has all possible good features. Existence is good, and therefore God has it, and therefore God exists. This argument has been used in different forms by philosophers from Descartes forward. The application of Aristotelian [[logic]] proceeded by having the student memorize a rather large set of syllogisms. The memorization proceeded from diagrams, or learning a key sentence, with the first letter of each word reminding the student of the names of the syllogisms. Each syllogism had a name, for example &quot;Modus Ponens&quot; had the form of &quot;If A is true, then B is true. A is true, therefore B is true.&quot; Most university students of logic memorized Aristotle's 19 syllogisms of two subjects, permitting them to validly connect a subject and object. A few geniuses developed systems with three subjects, or described a way of elaborating the rules of three subjects. As well as Aquinas, other important names from the medieval period include [[Duns Scotus]] and [[Pierre Abélard]]. === Modern philosophy === As with many periodizations, there are multiple current usages for the term &quot;Modern Philosophy&quot; that exist in practice. One usage is to date modern philosophy from the &quot;Age of Reason&quot;, where systematic philosophy became common, which excludes Erasmus and Machiavelli as, &quot;modern philosophers&quot;. Another is to date it, the way the entire larger modern period is dated, from the [[Renaissance]]. In some usages, &quot;Modern Philosophy&quot; ended in 1800, with the rise of Hegelianism and Idealism. There is also the [[lumpers/splitters]] problem, namely that some works split philosophy into more periods than others: one author might feel a strong need to differentiate between &quot;The Age of Reason&quot; or &quot;Early Modern Philosophers&quot; and &quot;The Enlightenment&quot;, another author might write from the perspective that 1600-1800 is essentially one continuous evolution, and therefore a single period. Wikipedia's philosophy section therefore hews more closely to centuries as a means of avoiding long discussions over period
ral of Our Lady of the Angels'' (dedicated 2002) of the [[Roman Catholic Archbishop of Los Angeles|Los Angeles (California) Archdiocese]]. The cathedral incorporates special cooling to prevent the panes from overheating and turning opaque. Calcite alabaster is either a [[stalagmite|stalagmitic]] deposit, from the floor and walls of [[limestone]] [[cavern]]s, or a kind of [[travertine]], similarly deposited in springs of calcareous water. Its deposition in successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance that the marble often shows on cross-section, whence it is known as onyx-marble or alabaster-onyx, or sometimes simply as [[onyx]] &amp;ndash; a term which should, however, be restricted to siliceous minerals. Egyptian alabaster has been extensively worked near [[Suez]] and near [[Assiut]]; there are many ancient quarries in the hills overlooking the plain of [[Tell el Amarna]]. The [[Algeria]]n onyx-marble has been largely quarried in the province of [[Oran]]. In [[Mexico]], there are famous deposits of a delicate green variety at [[La Pedrara]], in the district of [[Tecali]], near [[Puebla, Puebla|Puebla]]. Onyx-marble occurs also in the district of [[Tehuacán]] and at several localities in [[California]], [[Arizona]], [[Utah]], [[Colorado]] and [[Virginia]]. === Gypsum Alabaster === In the present day, when the term &quot;alabaster&quot; is used without any qualification, it invariably means a fine-grained variety of gypsum. This mineral, or alabaster proper, occurs in [[England]]. However, thousands of gypsum alabaster [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s dating to the late [[4th millennium BC]] have been found in [[Tell Brak]] (present day [[Nagar]]), in [[Syria]] [http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/viewOne.asp?dep=3&amp;item=1988.323.8&amp;viewmode=0&amp;isHighlight=1]. And in [[Mesopotamia]], a gypsum alabaster [[sculpture]], believed to represent the god [[Abu]], dates to the first half of the [[3rd millennium BC]] [http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/viewOne.asp?dep=3&amp;viewmode=0&amp;item=40%2E156]. Mineral alabaster occurs in [[England]] in the [[Keuper]] [[marl]]s of the [[Midlands]], especially at [[Chellaston]] in [[Derbyshire]], at [[Fauld]] in [[Staffordshire]] and near [[Newark, England|Newark]] in [[Nottinghamshire]]. At all these localities it has been extensively worked. Indeed, in the [[15th century]] its carving into [[icons]] and [[altarpiece]]s, was a valuable local industry in these areas, as well as a major English export. Besides examples of these still in Britain (especially at the [[Nottingham Castle Museum]], [[British Museum]] and [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]), that trade in itself (rather than just the antiques trade) has scattered examples as far afield as the [[Musée de Cluny]] and ........... Alabaster is also found, though in subordinate quantity, at [[Watchet]] in [[Somerset]], near [[Penarth]] in [[Glamorganshire]], and elsewhere. In [[Cumbria]] it occurs largely in the New Red rocks, but at a lower geological horizon. The alabaster of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire is found in thick nodular beds or &quot;floors&quot; in spheroidal masses known as &quot;balls&quot; or &quot;bowls,&quot; and in smaller lenticular masses termed &quot;cakes.&quot; At Chellaston, where the alabaster is known as &quot;Patrick,&quot; it has been worked into ornaments under the name of &quot;Derbyshire spar&quot; &amp;ndash; a term more properly applied to [[fluorspar]]. [[image:alabaster-satin spar.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Unlike the lamp, this fine alabaster sculpture is untreated: Its translucency and satiny lustre are preserved. Its base is of marble.]] The finer kinds of alabaster are largely employed as an [[ornamental stone]], especially for [[ecclesiastical]] decoration and for the rails of staircases and halls. Its softness enables it to be readily carved into elaborate forms, but its solubility in water renders it inapplicable to outdoor work. The purest alabaster is a snow-white material of fine tiniforni grain, but it is often associated with an oxide of [[iron]], which produces brown clouding and veining in the stone. The coarser varieties of alabaster are converted by calcination into [[plaster of Paris]], whence they are sometimes known as &quot;plaster stone.&quot; On the continent of [[Europe]], the centre of the alabaster trade is [[Florence, Italy]]. [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] alabaster occurs in nodular masses embedded in limestone, interstratified with [[marl]]s of [[Miocene]] and [[Pliocene]] age. The mineral is largely worked by means of underground galleries,in the district of [[Volterra]]. Several varieties are recognized &amp;ndash; veined, spotted, clouded, agatiform, and others. The finest kind, obtained principally from [[Castellina]], is sent to Florence for figure-sculpture, while the common kinds are carved at a very cheap rate locally into vases, clock-cases and various ornamental objects, in which a large trade is carried on, especially in Florence, [[Pisa]] and [[Livorno|Leghorn]]. In order to diminish the [[Translucent|translucenc]]y of the alabaster and to produce an opacity suggestive of true marble, the statues are immersed in a bath of water and gradually heated nearly to the boiling-point &amp;ndash; an operation requiring great care, for if the temperature is not carefully regulated, the stone acquires a dead-white, chalky appearance. The effect of heating appears to be a partial dehydration of the gypsum. If properly treated, it very closely resembles true marble and is known as [[marmo di Castellina]]. It should be noted that sulphate of lime (gypsum) was used also by the ancients, and was employed, for instance, in Assyrian sculpture, so that some of the ancient alabaster is identical with the modern stone. Alabaster may be stained by digesting it, after being heated in various pigmentary solutions. In this way a good imitation of [[coral]] has been produced (alabaster coral). ''Black Alabaster'' is a rare form of the gypsum-based mineral found in only three veins in the world, one each in [[Oklahoma]] (USA), Italy and [[China]]. [[Alabaster Caverns State Park]], near [[Freedom, Oklahoma]] is home to a natural [[gypsum cave]] in which much of the gypsum is in the form of alabaster. There are several types of alabaster found at the site, including pink, white, and the rare black alabaster. == See also == * [[list of minerals]] *'''''Alabaster''' is also a city in [[Alabama]], [[United States|USA]]. See: [[Alabaster, Alabama]]'' *'''''Alabaster''' is also a township in [[Michigan]], [[United States|USA]]. See: [[Alabaster Township, Michigan]]'' {{1911}} [[Category:Minerals]] [[Category:Stone]] [[ca:Alabastre (mineral)]] [[de:Alabaster]] [[es:Alabastro]] [[fr:Albâtre]] [[it:Alabastro]] [[nl:Albast]] [[pl:Alabaster]] [[pt:Alabastro]] [[ru:Алебастр]] [[sl:Alabaster]] [[sv:Alabaster]] [[uk:Алебастр]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apostle (disambiguation)</title> <id>1388</id> <revision> <id>41556308</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:14:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Elmer Clark</username> <id>241098</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixed link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Apostle''', or '''The Apostles''' can refer to: {{Wiktionarypar|apostle}} * The [[Twelve Apostles]], followers of [[Jesus]] * [[Apostle (Mormonism)]], a position within the [[Mormon church]] * ''[[The Apostle]]'', a 1997 film directed by and starring [[Robert Duvall]] * [[Cambridge Apostles]], a secret society at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] * [[The Apostles (band)|The Apostles]], a [[punk rock]] group from the 1980s * ''[[The Apostles (Elgar) | The Apostles]]'', a 1903 choral work by [[Edward Elgar]] * [[Apostle (production company) | Apostle]], a production company founded in 1994 by Jim Serpico and Denis Leary {{dab}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ahab</title> <id>1389</id> <revision> <id>38565954</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T03:45:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>PiCo</username> <id>437761</id> </contributor> <comment>see discussion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ahab''' or '''Ach'av''' ('''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1489;''' &quot;Brother of the father&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''A&amp;#7717;&amp;#700;av''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#700;A&amp;#7717;&amp;#259;&amp;#700;&amp;#257;&amp;#7687;''', '''&amp;#700;A&amp;#7723;&amp;#700;&amp;#257;&amp;#7687;''') was King of the [[Kingdom of Israel]] and the province of [[Samaria]], and the son and successor of [[Omri]] (''[[Books of Kings|1 Kings]]'' 16:29-34). [[William F. Albright]] has dated his reign to [[869 BC]]-[[850 BC]], while [[E. R. Thiele]] offers the dates [[874 BC]]-[[853 BC]]. He married [[Jezebel (biblical)|Jezebel]], the daughter of king [[Ithobaal I]] of [[Tyre]], and the alliance was doubtless the means of procuring him great riches, which brought pomp and luxury in their train. We read of his building an ivory palace (''1 Kings'' 22:39; ''[[Book of Amos|Amos]]'' 3:15), and founding new cities, the effect perhaps of a share in the flourishing commerce of [[Phoenicia]], who supplied the ivory for his palace. The material prosperity of his reign, which is comparable with that of [[Solomon]] a century before, was overshadowed by the religious changes which his marriage involved. Although he worshipped YHWH, as the names of his children prove (''1 Kings'' 22:5ff), his wife was firmly attached to the worship of the [[Melkart]] (the Tyrian [[Ba'al]]), and led by her he gave a great impulse to this cult by building a temple in honour of Baal in [[Samaria]]. This roused the indignation of the Jewish prophets and Priests whose aim it was to purify the worship of [[God]]. (See [[Elijah (prophet)|Elijah]]) During Ahab's re
it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where more modern spelling requires it (see below). [[Image:Silwan-inscr.jpg|left|300px|thumb|The [[Shebna]] lintel, from the tomb of a royal steward found in [[Siloam]], dates to the 7th century BCE.]] Numerous older tablets have been found in the region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example [[Protosinaitic]]. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to the hieroglyphs of the Egyptian writing, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the [[acrophonic]] principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called [[Canaanite]], and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from Egyptian. One ancient document is the famous [[Moabite Stone]] written in the Moabite dialect; the [[Siloam Inscription]], found near [[Jerusalem]], is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Old Hebrew include the [[ostracon | ostraka]] found near [[Lachish]] which describe events preceding the final capture of Jerusalem by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] and the Babylonian captivity of [[586 BCE]]. The most famous work originally written in Hebrew is the [[Tanakh]], though the time at which it was written is a matter of dispute (see [[dating the Bible]] for details). The earliest extant copies were found among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], written between the [[2nd century BCE]] and the [[1st century]] CE. The formal language of the latter [[Babylonia|Babylonian Empire]] was Aramaic (its name is either derived from &quot;Aram Naharayim&quot;, Upper Mesopotamia, or from &quot;Aram,&quot; the ancient name for Syria). The [[Persian Empire]], which had captured Babylonia a few decades later under Cyrus, adopted Aramaic as the official language. [[Aramaic]] is also a North-West Semitic language, quite similar to Hebrew. Aramaic has contributed many words and expressions to Hebrew, mainly as the language of commentary in the [[Talmud]] and other religious works. In addition to numerous words and expressions, Hebrew also borrowed the [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic writing system]]. Although the original Aramaic letter forms were derived from the same Phoenician alphabet that was used in ancient Israel, they had changed significantly, both in the hands of the Mesopotamians and of the Jews, assuming the forms familiar to us today around the [[1st century|first century]] CE. Writings of that era (most notably, some of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] found in [[Qumran]]) are written in a script very similar to the &quot;square&quot; one still used today. ===Later history=== The Jews living in the Persian Empire adopted Aramaic, and Hebrew quickly fell into disuse. It was preserved, however, as the literary language of Bible study. Aramaic became the vernacular language of the renewed Judaea for the following 700 years. Famous works written in Aramaic include the [[Targum]], the [[Talmud]] and several of [[Flavius Josephus]]' books (several of the latter were not preserved, however, in the original.) Following the [[Destruction of Jerusalem|destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple]] in [[70]] CE, the Jews gradually began to disperse from Judaea into foreign countries (this dispersion was hastened when the Romans destroyed Jerusalem (and turned it into a pagan city named ''Aelia Capitolina'') in 135 CE after putting down [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]].) For many hundreds of years Aramaic remained the spoken language of Mesopotamian Jews, and [[Lishana Deni]], one of several [[Judæo-Aramaic language]]s, is a modern descendant that is still spoken by a few thousand Jews (and many non-Jews) from the area known as [[Kurdistan]]; however, it gradually gave way to Arabic, as it had given way to other local languages in the countries to which the Jews had gone. Hebrew was not used as a mother tongue for roughly 1800 years. However the Jews have always devoted much effort to maintaining high standards of literacy among themselves, the main purpose being to let any Jew read the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] and the accompanying religious works in the original (see [[rabbinic literature]], [[Halakha#Codes of Jewish law | Codes of Jewish law]], [[Judaism#The Traditional Jewish Bookshelf | The Jewish Bookshelf]]). It is interesting to note that the languages that the Jews assimilated from their adopted nations, namely [[Ladino language|Ladino]] and [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], were not directly connected to Hebrew (the former being based on Spanish and Arabic borrowings, and the latter being a remote dialect of [[Middle High German]]), however, both were written from right to left using the Hebrew script and incorporated many Hebrew words. Hebrew was also used as a language of communication among Jews from different countries, particularly for the purpose of international trade. The most important contribution to preserving traditional Hebrew pronunciation in this period was that of scholars called [[Masoretes]] (from ''masoret'' meaning &quot;tradition&quot;), who from about the seventh to the tenth centuries CE devised detailed markings to indicate vowels, stress, and [[cantillation]] (recitation methods). The original Hebrew texts used only consonants, and later some consonants were used to indicate long vowels. By the time of the Masoretes this text was considered too sacred to be altered, so all their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters. ===Revival=== [[Image:Ben-yehuda.jpg|thumb|Eliezer Ben-Yehuda]] The revival of Hebrew as a [[mother tongue]] was initiated by the efforts of [[Eliezer Ben-Yehuda]] ([[1858]]-[[1922]]) ({{Ivrit|&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1512; &amp;#1489;&amp;#1503;&amp;#1470;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1492;}}). He joined the [[Zionism|Jewish national movement]] and in [[1881]] emigrated to [[Eretz Israel]], then a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the [[Jewish diaspora|diaspora]] &quot;[[shtetl]]&quot; lifestyle, Ben-Yehuda set out to develop tools for making the [[literary language|literary]] and [[liturgical language]] into everyday [[spoken language]]. However, his brand of Hebrew followed norms that had been replaced in [[Eastern Europe]] by more modern grammar and style, in the writings of people like [[Asher Ginsberg|Achad Ha-Am]] and others. His organizational efforts and involvement with the establishment of schools and the writing of textbooks pushed the [[vernacular|vernacularization]] activity into a gradually accepted movement. It was not, however, until the 1904-1905 &quot;[[Aliyah|Second aliyah]]&quot; that Hebrew had caught real momentum in Ottoman Palestine with the new and better organized enterprises set forth by the new group of immigrants. When the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] recognized Hebrew as one of the country's three official languages (English, Arabic, and Hebrew, in 1922), its new formal status contributed to its diffusion. While many saw his work as fanciful or even blasphemous{{ref|blasphemy}}, many soon understood the need for a common language amongst Jews of pre-state Israel who at the turn of the [[20th century]] were arriving in large numbers from diverse countries and speaking different languages. A Committee of the Hebrew Language was established. Later it became the [[Academy of the Hebrew Language]], an organization that exists today. The results of his and the Committee's work were published in a dictionary (''The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew''). Ben-Yehuda's work fell on fertile ground, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Hebrew was well on its way to becoming the main language of the Jewish population of both Ottoman and British pre-State Israel. === Hebrew language in the USSR === {{main articles|[[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union]] and [[Yevsektsiya]]}} The Soviet authorities considered Hebrew a &quot;reactionary language&quot; since it was associated with both [[Judaism]] and [[Zionism]], and it was officially banned by the Narkompros (Commissariat of Education) as early as [[1919]]. Hebrew books and periodicals ceased to be published and were seized from the libraries. Despite numerous protests in the West{{ref|Klatzkin}}, teachers and students who attempted to study Hebrew language were pilloried and sentenced for &quot;counter revolutionary&quot; and later for &quot;anti-Soviet&quot; activities. ==Dialects== According to Ethnologue, dialects of Hebrew include Standard Hebrew (General Israeli, Europeanized Hebrew), Oriental Hebrew (Arabized Hebrew, Yemenite Hebrew). In practice, there is also [[Ashkenazi Hebrew language|Ashkenazi Hebrew]], still widely used in Ashkenazi Jewish religious services and studies in Israel and abroad. It was influenced by the [[Yiddish language]]. [[Sephardi Hebrew language|Sephardi Hebrew]] is the basis of Standard Hebrew and not all that different from it, although traditionally it has had a greater range of [[phoneme]]s. It was influenced by the [[Ladino language]]. [[Mizrahi Hebrew language|Mizrahi (Oriental) Hebrew]] is actually a collection of dialects (including [[Yemenite Hebrew language|Yemenite]]) spoken liturgically by Jews in various parts of the [[Arab]] and [[Islam|Islamic]] world. It was influenced by the [[Arabic language]]. Nearly every immigrant to Israel is encouraged to adopt Standard Hebrew as their daily language. Phonologically, this &quot;dialect&quot; may most accurately be described as an amalgam of pronunciations preserving Sephardic vowel sounds and Ashkenazic consonant sounds&amp;mdash;its recurring feature being simplification of differences among a wide array of pronunciations. This simplifying tendency also accounts for the collapse of the Ashkenazic /t/ and /s/ pronunciations of unaspirated and aspirated &amp;#1514; into the single phoneme /t/. Most Sephardic dialects dif
e]]. Its current successes are mostly domestic, notwithstanding some minor successes in the 2002-03 Champions League. Its youth team continues to develop fairly talented individuals like [[Rafael van der Vaart]], [[Wesley Sneijder]], [[Nigel de Jong]], [[Johnny Heitinga]], [[Hedwiges Maduro]] and [[Ryan Babel]] who regularly represent their nation. After their success with the 1995 Champions League, Ajax has since struggled to rediscover its European form but first they will need to dominate the Eredivisie. Players such as [[Shota Arveladze]] and [[Brian Laudrup]] have won over the fans in the late 1990s but have yet to make their abundance of talents count in major tournaments. Most recently in 2005, popular coach, [[Ronald Koeman]] resigned after Ajax's defeat to [[AJ Auxerre]] in the [[UEFA Cup]] tournament despite having a squad packed with international experience, declaring himself drained of any inspiration to further guide the team to any success. This resignation was also the aftermath of Koeman's long-standing spat with then football director [[Louis van Gaal]] who had questioned Koeman's managerial abilities after Ajax's dry spell in the domestic league which even saw them languishing in fifth position at the beginning of 2005. Koeman's replacement was widely tipped to be as of a manager with vast experience, so it may come as a surprise when former Ajax-player [[Danny Blind]] was unveiled as their new coach, with virtually no top-level manager experience although he had worked with Koeman as a technical coach and advisor. The season may also witness the restructuring of the club with key players [[Rafael van der Vaart]] and [[Nigel de Jong]] joining [[Hamburger SV]], while four others ([[Hatem Trabelsi]], [[Tomas Galasek]], [[Steven Pienaar]] and Maxwell) have already revealed that they will leave the club at the end of the 2005-2006 season. The recent addition of [[Klaas-Jan Huntelaar]] from [[SC Heerenveen]],as well as the improved play of [[Markus Rosenberg]] are reasons that the fans still have hope for success in the coming years. ==Stadium== Ajax's first stadium was built in 1911 out of wood and was simply called The Stadium. Ajax later played in the stadium that was built for the [[1928 Summer Olympics]], held in Amsterdam. This stadium, designed by Jan Wils, is simply known as the [[Olympisch Stadion (Amsterdam)|Olympic Stadium]]. In 1934, Ajax moved to [[De Meer Stadion]] in east Amsterdam, where they would play until 1996. De Meer stadium was an unusually small stadium for such a large club, but the small stadium also created a cozy atmosphere. During big European fixtures the club would often play at the Olympic Stadium, where the capacity was higher. In 1996, Ajax moved to a new home ground in the southeast of the city known as the [[Amsterdam ArenA]], that was built at the cost of $134 million. The stadium is capable of holding approximately 52,000 people. The average attendance in 2004/05 was 48,600 people. The Arena has a retractable roof and was the example for other modern stadiums built in Europe in the following years. In the Netherlands, the Arena has earned a reputation for having a terrible grass pitch. The condition of the grass is caused by the roof that, even when open, takes away too much sunlight and ventilation from the ground. The much loved De Meer stadium was torn down and the land was sold to the city council. ==Jewish influence== ''Reference: [http://www.ajax-usa.com/desk/ajax-and-the-jewish-issue.html Ajax and the Jewish issue]'' The Ajax fans have the very remarkable tradition of using [[Jewish]] and [[Israeli]] symbols to express their allegiance. Regularly, the supporters wave large [[Star of David]] flags and scream ''Joden! Joden!'' (&quot;Jews! Jews!&quot;) to fire up their team. Die-hard Ajax supporters call themselves &quot;Joden&quot; or &quot;Super-Joden&quot; -- Dutch for &quot;Super Jews&quot; -- a nickname that reflects the team's and Amsterdam's Jewish roots. The nickname for Ajax fans dates back to before World War II, when Amsterdam was home to many of the Netherlands' 140,000 Jews and the Ajax stadium was located near a Jewish neighborhood. Most Dutch Jews were killed in the Holocaust, and little remains of Amsterdam's old Jewish quarter. But the tradition survived. The problem is that in an increasingly bizarre way, opposing supporters use [[anti-semitism]] to express their antipathy towards Ajax. When playing Ajax, opposing fans have been spotted to to imitate the whistling sound of [[gas chambers]] and to sing the extremely racist chant ''[[Hamas]], Hamas, alle Joden aan het gas'' (&quot;Hamas, Hamas, all the Jews [Ajax supporters] on the gas&quot;). On the other side, the hardcore Ajax fans are proud of their outsider image as &quot;Jews&quot; and feel encouraged to show more Israeli/ Jewish signs. The ''real'' Jews who support Ajax are split on this matter. As of 2006, an evaluation on this matter is still highly debatable. ==Rivalry== Although Ajax has fought with [[PSV]] for the championship in recent years, its main rivalry is with [[Feyenoord]], culminating every year in the &quot;[[Klassieker (Ajax-Feyenoord)|Klassieker]]&quot;. It is a match between the two largest cities of the Netherlands, one of which identifies with artists and creativity (Amsterdam) and one with hard work. There have been many clashes between the supporters of both clubs, of which the Beverwijk clash in 1997 was the most infamous, leading to the death of [[Ajax Amsterdam|Ajax]]-supporter Carlo Picornie. Fans of [[FC Utrecht]] think of Ajax as its most hated opponent as well. Ajax fans didn't really care about this rivalry, although recently, following a few defeats, Utrecht has become more hated by Ajax fans as well. ==Honours== ===International=== *'''[[European/South American Cup|European/South American Cup (Intercontinental Cup)]]: 2''' ** 1972, 1995 *'''[[UEFA Champions League|European Champion Club's Cup / Champions League]]: 4''' **1971, 1972, 1973, 1995. *'''[[European Cup Winners' Cup]]: 1''' **1987. *'''[[UEFA Cup]]: 1''' **1992. *'''[[European Super Cup]]: 3''' **1972, 1973, 1995. *'''[[Intertoto Cup]]: 1''' **1962. ===National=== *'''Dutch championship: 29''' **1918, 1919, 1931, 1932, 1934, 1937, 1939, 1947, 1957, 1960, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1970, 1972, 1973, 1977, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1990, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2002, 2004 *'''[[KNVB Cup|Dutch cup]]: 15''' **1917, 1943, 1961, 1967, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1979, 1983, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1998, 1999, 2002. *'''Dutch supercup (from 1996 ''Johan Cruijff-schaal'' ([[Johan Cruijff]] Shield)): 5''' **1993, 1994, 1995, 2002, 2005. '''Private Tournaments:''' *'''[[Amsterdam Tournament]]: 4''' **2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 ==Current squad== {{Fs start}} {{Fs player|no=1|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Maarten Stekelenburg]]|pos=GK}} {{Fs player|no=2|nat=Tunisia|name=[[Hatem Trabelsi]]|pos=DF}} {{Fs player|no=3|nat=Czech Republic|name=[[Zdeněk Grygera]]|pos=DF}} {{Fs player|no=4|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Johnny Heitinga]]|pos=DF}} {{Fs player|no=6|nat=Czech Republic|name=[[Tomás Galásek]]|pos=MF}} {{Fs player|no=7|nat=Argentina|name=[[Mauro Rosales]]|pos=FW}} {{Fs player|no=8|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Hedwiges Maduro]]|pos=MF}} {{Fs player|no=9|nat=Greece|name=[[Angelos Charisteas]]|pos=FW}} {{Fs player|no=10|nat=South Africa|name=[[Steven Pienaar]]|pos=MF}} {{Fs player|no=11|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Ryan Babel]]|pos=FW}} {{Fs player|no=12|nat=South Africa|name=[[Hans Vonk (footballer)|Hans Vonk]]|pos=GK}} {{Fs player|no=15|nat=Belgium|name=[[Thomas Vermaelen]]|pos=DF}} {{Fs player|no=17|nat=Greece|name=[[Yannis Anastasiou]]|pos=FW}} {{Fs mid}} {{Fs player|no=18|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Wesley Sneijder]]|pos=MF}} {{Fs player|no=19|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Urby Emanuelson]]|pos=DF}} {{Fs player|no=21|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Olaf Lindenbergh]]|pos=MF}} {{Fs player|no=22|nat=Spain|name=[[Juan Francisco García|Juanfran]]|pos=DF|other=On loan from Besiktas}} {{Fs player|no=24|nat=Sweden|name=[[Markus Rosenberg]]|pos=FW}} {{Fs player|no=25|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Klaas-Jan Huntelaar]]|pos=FW}} {{Fs player|no=27|nat=Armenia|name=[[Edgar Manucharyan]]|pos=FW}} {{Fs player|no=28|nat=Morocco|name=[[Nourdin Boukhari]]|pos=MF}} {{Fs player|no=29|nat=Romania|name=[[Nicolae Mitea]]|pos=FW}} {{Fs player|no=30|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Kenneth Vermeer]]|pos=GK}} {{Fs player|no=31|nat=Ghana|name=[[Emmanuel Boakye]]|pos=DF}} {{Fs player|no=33|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Robbert Schilder]]|pos=DF}} {{Fs player|no=38|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Jeffrey Sarpong]]|pos=MF}} {{Fs end}} '''Players on loan''' {| {{Fs player|no=|nat=Belgium|name=[[Tom De Mul]]|pos=|other=on loan to [[Vitesse Arnhem]]}} {{Fs player|no=|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Victor Sikora]]|pos=FW|other=on loan to [[NAC Breda]]}} |} ==Famous players who once played for Ajax== {| |- |valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;| *[[Frank Arnesen]] *[[Shota Arveladze]] *[[Marco van Basten]] *[[Dennis Bergkamp]] *[[Horst Blankenburg]] *[[Danny Blind]] *[[Cristian Chivu]] *[[Johan Cruijff|Johan Cruyff]] *[[Edgar Davids]] *[[Frank de Boer]] *[[Ronald de Boer]] *[[Dick van Dijk]] *[[Arie Haan]] |valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;| *[[Barry Hulshoff]] *[[Zlatan Ibrahimović]] *[[Wim Jonk]] *[[Piet Keizer]] *[[Wim Kieft]] *[[Patrick Kluivert]] *[[Ronald Koeman]] *[[Ruud Krol]] *[[Brian Laudrup]] *[[Michael Laudrup]] *[[Søren Lerby]] *[[Tscheu la Ling]] |valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;| *[[Jari Litmanen]] *[[Rinus Michels]] *[[Ahmed Hossam|Mido]] *[[Arnold Mühren]] *[[Gerrie Mühren]] *[[Jan Mølby]] *[[Johan Neeskens]] *[[Jesper Olsen]] *[[Marc Overmars]] *[[Petri Pasanen]] *[[Stefan Petterson]] *[[Johnny Rep]] |valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;| *[[Frank Rijkaard]] *[[Edwin van der Sar]] *[[Clarence Seedorf]] *[[Wesley Sneijder]] *[[Wim Suurbier]] *[[Sjaak Swart]] *[[Rafael van der Vaart]] *[[Gera
g some popularity with a group, Soul Intent. In [[1996]], he released his first independent album, named ''[[Infinite (album)|Infinite]]'' (of which he sold about 500 copies out of the back of his car.) The album received no airplay and a mixed critical response, with people claiming Eminem's rapping style sounded too similar to [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] and [[AZ (rapper)|AZ]]. Drawing on the negative experiences of his life, in 1997 Eminem followed ''Infinite'' up with ''[[The Slim Shady EP]]'' demo, which saw his lyrics take a decidedly darker turn, in songs like &quot;No One's Iller&quot; and &quot;Murder Murder,&quot; the latter in which he talks about having to commit crimes to feed his daughter. He became famous in the hip-hop underground because of his distinctive, cartoonish style and the fact that he was [[whites|white]] in a predominantly black genre. Fellow rapper [[Snoop Dogg]] referred to him as rap's &quot;great white [[United States|American]] hope&quot; in the song &quot;Bitch Please II&quot;. It is said that rap artist and producer Dr. Dre found Eminem's demo on the garage floor of [[Jimmy Iovine]], the [[Interscope Records|Interscope]] label chief. Though this did not directly lead to a recording contract, Dr. Dre agreed to sign him when Eminem won second place versus [[Otherwize]] at the [[1997]] [[Rap Olympics]] [[freestyle battle]]. Other sources state that an executive at the offices of Interscope handed the demo to Iovine who passed it to Dre, which resulted in a contract. ==Entering the mainstream== [[Image:MarshallMathersLP.jpg|right|thumb|85pix|Album cover of ''The Marshall Mathers LP'' (2000).]] Once he joined Interscope, Eminem released ''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'', which went on to be one of the most popular records of 1999, going [[RIAA certification|triple platinum]] by the end of the year. With the album's enormous popularity came controversy surrounding many of the album's lyrics. In &quot;'97 Bonnie and Clyde&quot;, Eminem describes a trip with his infant daughter, disposing of the body of his wife. Another song, &quot;Guilty Conscience,&quot; ends with Eminem encouraging a man to murder his wife and her lover. ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'' was released in [[May 2000]], quickly selling 2 million copies. The first single released from the album, ''[[The Real Slim Shady]]'', was a huge hit— thanks in part to the catchy rhythm and chorus line, &quot;So won't the real Slim Shady please stand up, please stand up, please stand up?&quot; (adapted from the catch phrase of the TV quiz show ''[[To Tell the Truth]]''). It also created some buzz by trash-talking celebrities and making dubious claims about them. In the song, Eminem implies, among other things, that [[Christina Aguilera]] gave &quot;head&quot; ([[oral sex]]) to [[Fred Durst]] (of [[Limp Bizkit]]) and [[Carson Daly]] (of [[MTV]]'s [[Total Request Live]]). In his second single, &quot;[[The Way I Am (song)|The Way I Am]],&quot; he reveals to his fans the pressures from his record company to top &quot;[[My Name Is]]&quot; and sell more records, and dismisses the alleged controversial link between music such as that of [[Marilyn Manson]] and shootings such as at [[Columbine High School]] as absurd, instead blaming the parents. In the third single, &quot;[[Stan (song)|Stan]]&quot; (which samples [[Dido (singer)|Dido]]'s &quot;Thank You&quot;), Eminem attempts to deal with his new-found fame, telling the story of a fan so obsessed with Eminem that the fan winds up killing himself and his pregnant girlfriend, mirroring one of the songs on ''The Slim Shady LP''. It is now considered to be one of the classics of the genre. ==Themes and topics== [[Image:Eminem303.jpg|right|frame|Eminem in one of his many music videos.]] A large part of Eminem's popularity is his separation from the over-abundance of &quot;[[pop music|pop]]-rap&quot;, in which rhymes rarely stray from bragging about money and jewelery, fast cars with large rims, huge parties, and constant casual sex. Instead, Eminem's songs typically explore deeper anger, thoughts, questions, and statements about his life and how he is treated. Common topics are: *Drugs and self-abuse (mostly in his early ''Slim Shady''-era album and [[Freestyle rap|freestyles]]) *His mother and childhood *Being white in a black business/culture and growing up in a black neighborhood *His wife ([[Kim Mathers]], whom he remarried in 2006) *Disgust with groupies/dating *Growing up in poverty-ridden Detroit *Raising his daughter and niece *America and the government *Poking fun at celebrities and American [[pop culture]] *Annoyance and/or amusement with people's literal interpretation of lyrics in songs like &quot;[[Criminal]]&quot; and &quot;[[Stan (song)|Stan]]&quot;. ==Controversy== With the enormous popularity of Eminem's second album, the controversy surrounding Eminem grew even larger, especially when ''The Marshall Mathers LP'' was nominated for a [[Grammy Award]] for Album of the Year. Though Mathers had always claimed that his lyrics were not meant to be taken seriously, and that he had nothing against homosexuals or women, the gay rights group [[GLAAD]] organized a boycott of the Grammys. Mathers responded to this by singing &quot;Stan&quot; on-stage with openly gay singer [[Elton John]], ending the performance by hugging John to show that he didn't have anything against homosexuals. Though it shocked a lot of people, this gesture failed to appease many of his critics. In later interviews, he said he did not know Elton John was gay, but that he respected him: &quot;Of course I'd heard of Elton John,&quot; Eminem said, &quot;but I didn't know he was gay. I didn't know anything about his personal life. I didn't really care, but being that he was gay and he had my back, I think it made a statement in itself saying that he understood where I was coming from.&quot; The two songs most often cited as examples in ''The Marshall Mathers LP'' of Eminem's [[misogyny]] were &quot;Kill You&quot; and &quot;Kim.&quot; Critics claimed the former portrayed extremely violent abuse against women in general and contained a line about Eminem raping his own mother. The latter is not so much a song as it is a reenactment of a fictional fight between Eminem and his wife, although he does rhyme his shouted, hoarse lines. Despite his conflicting expressions of love and hate throughout the track, Eminem ends up slitting Kim's throat at the end (accompanied by cries of &quot;''Bleed, bitch, bleed!''&quot;); several people objected to the graphic description of spousal abuse. On the clean version of the CD, the track was removed and replaced with a song almost entirely devoid of profanity called &quot;The Kids.&quot; Since Eminem's rapid ascent to fame, tell-all biographies of varying quality have been published, including ''Shady Bizzness'' by his former bodyguard Byron Williams. Eminem himself has written a book called ''Angry Blonde'', released in 2000, where he reveals the emotions and intent behind the lyrics in the ''Marshall Mathers LP'', and describes his passion for and approach to rapping. As one of six members of the rap group [[D12 (band)|D12]], Eminem appeared on the album ''Devil's Night'', released in 2001. The album was certified multi-platinum. The album contained the single &quot;[[Purple Pills]]&quot;, renamed &quot;Purple Hills&quot; for radio play. Another song, &quot;Blow My Buzz&quot;, was on the soundtrack for the film ''The Wash'' (2001), in which Eminem had a cameo appearance. [[Image:Eminemshow.jpg|left|thumb|Album cover of ''The Eminem Show'' (2002).]] Eminem's third major album, ''The Eminem Show'' was released in summer 2002. It featured the single &quot;Without Me,&quot; an apparent sequel to &quot;The Real Slim Shady,&quot; in which he makes derogatory comments about [[boy band]]s, [[*NSYNC]]'s [[Chris Kirkpatrick]], [[Limp Bizkit]], [[Moby]], and [[Lynne Cheney]], among others. The album reflected on the impact of his rise to fame, his relationship with his wife Kim and his daughter Hailie, and his status in the hip-hop community. He also addresses the charges he faced over assaulting a [[Doorman|bouncer]] he saw kissing his wife in 2000. While there is clear anger present on several tracks, this album was considerably less inflammatory than the previous, and as such did not face any protests of misogyny and homophobia that had plagued ''The Marshall Mathers LP''. On [[November 19]], 2003, new controversy surrounded Eminem when a cassette tape was played during a press conference held by ''[[The Source (magazine)#The Source vs. Eminem|The Source]]'' magazine. The cassette featured Mathers performing a [[freestyle rap]] in which he made disparaging remarks about black women, calling them &quot;dumb chicks&quot; in comparison to white women and claimed they are only after money. Other racial slurs and remarks were on the tape, including the use of the word &quot;nigger&quot;. Mathers claimed he made the recording after breaking up with his black girlfriend in 1988; however ''The Source'' claimed the tapes were recorded in 1994, and old friends of Eminem's claimed he never had a black girlfriend. Eminem later filed a lawsuit against ''The Source'' for alleged [[copyright]] infringement. On [[December 8]], 2003, the [[United States Secret Service]] admitted it was &quot;looking into&quot; allegations that Mathers had threatened the [[President of the United States]] after the unreleased song &quot;We As Americans&quot; leaked onto the internet. The lyrics in question: &quot;Fuck money / I don't rap for dead presidents / I'd rather see the president dead / It's never been said, but I set precedents...&quot;. The song was being recorded to possibly be on ''Encore,'' but wound up on a bonus CD accompanying the album ''Encore''. The second use of the word &quot;dead&quot; was edited out of that version. Then, in 2004, Eminem made the [[music video]] &quot;[[My Band]]&quot; with D12.
h? You call this a new decade?! You call this the future?? HA! Where are the rocket packs? Where are the disintegration rays? Where are the floating cities?&quot;'' ''[[The Flying Car]]'' was a humorous [[short film]] written in 2002 for [[the Tonight Show]] by [[Kevin Smith]]. It featured [[Dante Hicks]] and [[Randal Graves]] stuck in traffic, discussing the lengths to which a man might go to obtain such a vehicle. The 1974 [[James Bond]] film ''[[The Man with the Golden Gun]]'' portrayed the villain escaping in a [[Aerocar International|Taylor Aerocar]]. A memorable 2001 [[IBM]] commercial featured [[Avery Brooks]] (of [[Star_Trek:Deep_Space_Nine]] fame) complaining “It is the year 2000, but where are the flying cars? I was promised flying cars. I don’t see any flying cars. Why? Why? Why?” Complaints of the non-existence of flying cars have since become nearly idiomatic as expressions of disappointment in the failure of the present to measure up to the glory of past predictions. ==See also== *[[Transport]] *[[Automobile]] *[[future of the car]] ==External links== * [http://www.volanteaircraft.com Flying car] ([[Volante Aircraft]]) * [http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/aero/aircraft/waterman.htm Waterman Arrowbile at the Smithsonian] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3676694.stm Flying cars in 25 years] ([[BBC News Online]]) * [http://www.roadabletimes.com/ Roadable Times] * [http://www.gizio.it/homeengl.htm Cell craft] * [http://www.theregister.com/2006/01/23/flying_car/ Flying car] (apparently) &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:Roadable aircraft]] &lt;!--Other languages--&gt; [[da:Flyvende bil]] [[fi:Lentoauto]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French language/Proven</title> <id>10774</id> <revision> <id>15908569</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zundark</username> <id>70</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to Occitan_language</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Occitan_language]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Film editing</title> <id>10775</id> <revision> <id>41363073</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:38:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.126.142.143</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Classical montage sequence */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Film editing''', also called montage, is the connecting of one or more [[shot_(film)|shot]]s together in a sequence. == The development of film editing processes == Film editing evolved from the process of physically cutting and taping together pieces of film, using a viewer such as a [[Moviola]] or [[Steenbeck]] to look at the results. All initial editing is done with a positive copy of the negative called a workprint. This allows the editor to do as much experimenting as he or she wishes, without the risk of damaging the original. When the workprint has been cut to a satisfactory state, it is then used to make a negative cutting list. The negative cutter refers to this list while processing the negative, splitting the shots into A and B rolls, which are then optically printed to produce the final film print. Since the film was physically cut and pasted, a 'nonlinear' style of editing evolved. At the workprint stage, strips of film could be placed in any order. This approach is generally considered superior to the strictly linear approach that was necessary in [[linear video editing|video editing]] through the 1970s. A video 'cut' is really the copying of [[scene (film)|scenes]] from various camera tapes onto a master. Before the development of powerful computer systems that could store large amounts of visual data for transfer, it was necessary to make the transfer in strictly linear order. Trying to insert a shot between two shots already on the master tape would create noise, etc. A system such as [[Avid]] allows the creation of a workprint. In recent years, 'film editing' has come to mean what a 'film editor' does, even though the work involved is now generally performed on a computer-based [[non-linear editing system]], such as [[Avid]], [[Lightworks]] or Apple's [[Final Cut Pro]] and, at the semi-professional level, by programs such as [[Adobe Premiere Pro]], [[Pinnacle Edition]] or [[Sony Vegas]]. If the end product is to be a traditional movie, the final negative cutting list is produced from the software, and the negative cutting process occurs as before. In other cases, an [[edit decision list]] may be generated for a video editing system. With the emergence of [[digital cinema]], there is now a movement towards all-digital assembly of the final product, such as in CFC's [[Digital Lab]] process. ==Film Editor== A film editor is a person who practices film editing by assembling separate takes into a coherent film. This is not a simple matter of tacking the scene of the man walking up to the front door to the scene of the man inside the house. In making a film the editors play a dynamic and creative role. Typically, the editor follows the screenplay as the guide for establishing the structure of the story and then uses his/her talents to assemble the various shots and takes for greater, clearer artistic effect. There are several editing stages. The film editor often starts work while shooting is still in progress, and, in the first stage of editing he or she will work alone to create an &quot;editor's cut&quot; of the film. It's often many times longer than the final film will be. When time permits, the editor colloborates with the person whom the industry regards as the real artist of the movie, the [[film director|director]], who gives &quot;notes&quot; on the editors cut. The editor and director will also have seen and discussed &quot;[[dailies]]&quot; (raw footage shot each day) together as shooting progresses. The editor continues to refine the cut while shooting continues. When shooting is finished, the director can then turn his or her full attention to collaborating with the editor on cutting the film. Scenes are re-ordered, removed, shortened and otherwise tweaked. Often the need arises for new scenes to be shot. After usually several weeks of long days a &quot;director's cut&quot; is created, though this is not to be confused with re-edits some directors have made long after a film is finished - often decades later - to their films that were, in their view, improperly edited in the final stages by the studio and its producers. After the director's cut, the subsequent cuts are supervised by one or more producers, who represent the production company (studio) and its investors. Hence, the final cut is the one that most closely represents what the studio wants from the film and not necessarily what the director wants. Because of this, there have been several conflicts in the past between the director and the studio, sometimes leading to the use of the &quot;[[Alan Smithee]]&quot; credit signifying disownership or the aforementioned &quot;director's cut&quot; re-issues in subsequent years after the original theatrical releases. Some directors are also the producers of their films, and, with the approval of the funding studio, have a much tighter grip on what makes the final cut than other directors. The most well-known example of a director who lorded over all aspects of his films, with little studio intervention, and worked completely outside of the Hollywood system is [[Stanley Kubrick]]. On the other hand, [[Orson Welles]] is an example of a director constantly dogged by studio supervison and many times had films taken from him. Often a film editor is blamed for improper continuity. That is, cutting from a shot where the beer glass is empty to one where it is full. Continuity is, in fact, very nearly last on a film editor's list of important things to maintain. Most important are the emotional and storytelling aspects of film-making - things which are much more abstract and harder to judge - which is why films often take much longer to edit than to shoot. ==Process of Film Editing== The term video editing can has two meanings, the non-linear editing system, which uses computers and the linear video editing system, which uses videotape. Video editing refers to taking various clips or segments of video and &quot;cutting&quot; them together to form a cohesive and concise program. Cutting comes from the movie industry because traditional movie film is actually cut with a razor and spliced together. Prior to the 90's video editing was done in linear style which consisted of using multiple decks to piece together a program. One or more play decks would run the original footage and an editor would use a video controller or mixing console to play specific parts out to a master deck that recorded the final program including titles and music (which were added in during the process). Non-linear editing is done using computers. Footage is played back from a camera into a PC via IEEE 1394 connection (also called [[Firewire]], iLink) where it is captured on the hard drive. Editing software, such as Adobe Premiere or Avid Xpress DV, then allows the editor to easily manipulate the captured footage. Clips are arranged on a timeline, music tracks and titles are added, effects can be created, and the finished program is &quot;rendered&quot; into a finished video that can be distributed in a variety of ways via DVD, webstreaming, CDROM, or tape. Though the tools change over time the process of editing remains the same. Original footage is trimmed (desired parts are isolated, bad parts are removed) and cut together (arranged in time) to create a video or programme. Editing involves the use of various transitions between clips such as the cut, dissolve, and wipe. Editing is an art that is very time consuming and deceptively easy at first glance. It is a difficult thing to do well and requires a tremendous amount of focus, pat
er's ubiquitous literary works made him one of the most influential religious leaders in America. Mather set the nation's &quot;moral tone&quot;, and sounded the call for second and third generation Puritans, whose parents had left [[England]] for the [[New England (U.S.)|New England]] colonies of [[North America]] to return to the [[theology|theological]] roots of [[Puritanism]]. A friend of a number of the judges charged with hearing the [[Salem witch trials]], Mather urged the judges to take caution against the tenuous use of &quot;[[spectral evidence]]&quot;. Writing of the trials later, Mather stated: :&quot;If in the midst of the many Dissatisfactions among us, the publication of these Trials may promote such a pious Thankfulness unto God, for Justice being so far executed among us, I shall Re-joyce that God is Glorified...&quot; ([[Wonders of the Invisible World]]). Highly-influential due to his prolific writing, Mather was a force to be reckoned with in secular, as well as in spiritual matters. After the fall of [[James II of England]] in [[1688]], Mather was among the leaders of a successful revolt against James' Governor of the consolidated [[Dominion of New England]], Sir [[Edmund Andros]]. Mather was influential in early American science as well. In 1716, as the result of observations of corn varieties, he conducted one of the first experiments with plant [[hybridization]]. This observation was memorialized in a letter to a friend: :&quot;My friend planted a row of Indian corn that was colored red and blue; the rest of the field being planted with yellow, which is the most usual color. To the windward side this red and blue so infected three or four rows as to communicate the same color unto them; and part of ye fifth and some of ye sixth. But to the leeward side, no less than seven or eight rows had ye same color communicated unto them; and some small impressions were made on those that were yet further off.&quot; Of Mather's three wives and fifteen children, only one wife and two children survived him. Mather was buried on [[Copp's Hill]]. ==Mather's Major Works By Date== *''[[Wonders of the Invisible World]]'' (1693) ISBN 0766168670 *''[[Magnalia Christi Americana]]'' (1702) ISBN 0674541553 *''[[Bonifacius]]'' (1710) ISBN 0766169243 *''[[The Christian Philosopher]]'' (1721) ISBN 0252068939 *''[[Religious Improvements]]'' (1721) *''[[Manuductio ad Ministerium]]'' (1726) ==Fiction== * Cotton Mather appears as one of the characters in the second book ''[[A Calculus of Angels]]'' of [[Gregory Keyes]]' trilogy, [[The Age of Unreason]]. * In the short story &quot;[[The Legend of Sleepy Hollow]],&quot; by [[Washington Irving]], [[Ichabod Crane]] is depicted &quot;a perfect master of Cotton Mather's [fictitious] 'History of New England Witchcraft,' in which, by the way, he most firmly and potently believed.&quot; * The name &quot;Cotton Mather&quot; appears in a number of stories by [[HP Lovecraft]], usually when a character is somehow related to the witches of New England. * Cotton Mather is made reference to in the short story &quot;[[1692 Cotton Mather Newsreel]],&quot; by [[Richard Brautigan]], published in [[Revenge of the Lawn]] in 1972. ==External links== *[http://www.gty.org/~phil/mather.htm Cotton Mather's writings] *[http://collegiateway.org/mather/ Mather's influential commentary on the &quot;collegiate way of living&quot;] [[Category:1663 births|Mather, Cotton]] [[Category:1728 deaths|Mather, Cotton]] [[Category:American colonial people|Mather, Cotton]] [[Category:People from Massachusetts|Mather, Cotton]] [[Category:American theologians|Mather, Cotton]] [[Category:Reformed theologians|Mather, Cotton]] [[Category:Religious history of the United States|Mather, Cotton]] [[de:Cotton Mather]] [[eo:Cotton MATHER]] [[fr:Cotton Mather]] [[sv:Cotton Mather]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cordwainer Smith</title> <id>7105</id> <revision> <id>40403394</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T08:12:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.121.55.178</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Biography */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cordwainer Smith''' &amp;ndash; pronounced ''CORDwainer Smith'' &amp;ndash; was the [[pseudonym]] used by [[United States|American]] [[author]] '''Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger''' ([[July 11]], [[1913]] &amp;ndash; [[August 6]], [[1966]]) for his [[science fiction]] works. Linebarger was also a noted [[East Asia]] scholar and expert in [[psychological warfare]]. Linebarger also employed the literary pseudonyms &quot;Carmichael Smith&quot; (for his political thriller ''[[Atomsk (novel)|Atomsk]]''), &quot;Anthony Bearden&quot; (for his [[poetry]]) and &quot;Felix C. Forrest&quot; (for the novels ''Ria'' and ''Carola''). ==Biography== Linebarger was born in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]. His father was Paul M.W. Linebarger, a [[lawyer]] and political [[activism|activist]] with close ties to the leaders of the [[Xinhai Revolution|Chinese revolution of 1911]]. As a result of those ties, Linebarger's [[godfather]] was [[Sun Yat-sen]], considered the father of Chinese nationalism. When he later pursued his father's interest in [[China]], Linebarger became a close confidant of [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. As a child, Linebarger was [[blindness|blinded]] in his left eye; the vision in his remaining eye was impaired by infection. His father moved his family to [[France]] and then [[Germany]] while Sun Yat-sen was struggling against contentious warlords in China. As a result of these experiences, Linebarger was familiar with six languages by adulthood. At the age of 23, he received a Ph.D. in Political Science from [[Johns Hopkins University]]. From [[1937]] to [[1946]], Linebarger held a faculty appointment at [[Duke University]], where he began producing highly regarded works on Far Eastern affairs. While retaining his professorship at Duke after the beginning of [[World War II]], he began serving as a second lieutenant of the [[U.S. Army]], where he was involved in the creation of the [[United States Office of War Information|Office of War Information]] and of the [[Operation Planning and Intelligence Board]]. He also helped organize the Army's first psychological warfare section. In 1943 he was deployed to China to coordinate U.S.-China military intelligence operations. By the end of the war, he had risen to the rank of major. In [[1936]], Linebarger married Margaret Snow, and they had a daughter in [[1942]]. They had a second child, another daughter, in [[1947]], and divorced in [[1949]]. In [[1950]], Linebarger married for the second time, to Genevieve Collins; they remained married until his death in [[1966]]. [[Image:Psychological Warfare Linebarger.jpg|frame|right]] In [[1947]], Linebarger moved to the Johns Hopkins University's [[School of Advanced International Studies]] in Washington, DC, where he served as Professor of Asiatic Studies. He used his experiences in the war to write the book ''Psychological Warfare'' (1948), which is regarded by many in the field as a classic text. He eventually rose to the rank of colonel in the reserves. He was recalled to advise the British forces in the [[Malayan Emergency]] and the U.S. Eighth Army in the [[Korean War]]. While he was known to call himself a &quot;visitor to small wars&quot;, he refrained from becoming involved in [[Vietnam]], but is known to have done undocumented work for the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. He traveled extensively and became a member of the [[Foreign Policy Association]], and was called upon to advise then-U.S. President [[John F. Kennedy]]. Linebarger expressed a wish to retire to [[Australia]], which he had visited in his travels, but died at age 53. He is buried in [[Arlington National Cemetery]], Section 35, Grave Number 4712. His widow, Genevieve Collins Linebarger, was interred with him on [[16 November]] [[1981]]. ==Science fiction writing== A notable characteristic of Linebarger's science fiction is that most of his stories are set in the same universe, with a unified chronology; some anthologies of Linebarger's fiction include a chart, with each of his stories inserted into the appropriate slot in the timeline. Linebarger's stories are unusual, even, arguably, by the standards of [[science fiction]], sometimes being written in narrative styles closer to traditional [[Chinese literature|Chinese stories]] than to most English-language fiction. His science fiction is relatively small in volume, due to his time-consuming profession and his early death. Smith's writings consist of only one novel, originally published in two volumes in edited form as ''The Planet Buyer'', a.k.a. ''The Boy Who Bought Old Earth'' ([[1964]]), and ''The Underpeople'' ([[1968]]), later restored to its original form as ''[[Norstrilia]]'' ([[1975]]); and around 30 short stories (all of them gathered in ''[[The Rediscovery of Man]]'' and previously in incomplete collections). All these writings suggest a rich universe developing over long periods of time, but leave much to be guessed by the reader. Linebarger's cultural links to China are partially expressed in the pseudonym &quot;Felix C. Forrest&quot;, which he used in addition to &quot;Cordwainer Smith&quot;: [[Sun Yat-Sen]] suggested to Linebarger, his godson, that he adopt the Chinese name &quot;Lin Ba-lo&quot;, which may be roughly translated as &quot;Forest of Incandescent Bliss&quot;. In his later years, Linebarger proudly wore a tie with the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] characters for this name embroidered on it. As an expert in psychological warfare, Linebarger was very interested in the then-newly developing fields of [[psychology]] and [[psychiatry]], and inserted many of their concepts into his fiction. His fiction also often has religious overtones or motifs, in particular in characters who have no control of their actions. In [http://www.instrumentality.com/cordwainer.html C
he [[Dilbert]] comic strip satirizes this in one strip in which an employee understands none of these terms and is unable to figure out that he has been fired. Corporate doublespeak can also involve downplaying problems, such as calling a fix for a [[software bug]] a &quot;reliability enhancement&quot;. Police and court officers use jargon and terms of art that can be seen as doublespeak when they are used to cover up brutality or corruption. &quot;Fines on the spot&quot;, for example, are bribes taken during traffic stops (though ironically the [[Tony Blair|Blair]] administration of the [[Her Majesty's Government|British government]] used the same term genuinely to describe fines for anti-social behaviour). What police call &quot;aggressive enforcement&quot; may be called &quot;racial profiling&quot; by others. To &quot;pacify&quot; someone, euphemistically, is to subdue them by force. In some instances, such as the &quot;dirty 39th&quot; Precinct in Philadelphia, this has been the term of choice for excessive and unjustified force. When illegal activity is routine, it often acquires its own specific jargon. For example, the term ''&quot;black-bag operations&quot;'' was used by the [[FBI]] to describe illegal break-ins in the [[1970s]]. Mostly, such terms are an informal [[code]], similar to [[thieves' cant]], intended to be used and understood only by fellow-conspirators. ==See also== *[[Code word (figure of speech)]] *[[Euphemism]] *[[Forked tongue]] *[[Janus (mythology)|Janus head]] *[[Neologism]] *[[Newspeak]] *[[Political correctness]] *[[Propaganda]] *[[Wardrobe malfunction]] ==References== *[[William Lutz|Lutz, William]]. (1987). ''Doublespeak: From &quot;Revenue Enhancement&quot; to &quot;Terminal Living&quot;: How Government, Business, Advertisers, and Others Use Language to Deceive You''. New York: [[Harper &amp; Row]]. ==External links== {{wiktionary}} *[http://www.sourcewatch.org/wiki.phtml?title=Doublespeak Doublespeak] from [[SourceWatch]] *[http://latte.blogs.com/welcome/doublespeak/index.html Doublespeak on Latte] Examples of Doublespeak from the current administration *[http://www.dt.org/html/Doublespeak.html Business Doublespeak] A short essay by William Lutz *[http://www.cord.edu/faculty/sprunger/e315/dbltk.html Doublespeak Proverbs] Familiar proverbs humorously obfuscated [[Category:Forms of English]] [[ja:ダブルスピーク]] [[zh:&amp;#38617;&amp;#35328;&amp;#24039;&amp;#35486;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dressed to Kill</title> <id>8481</id> <revision> <id>36779327</id> <timestamp>2006-01-26T12:02:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Adrian Buehlmann Bot</username> <id>723279</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] rm underline in template name</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{Infobox Film | name = Dressed to Kill | imdb_id = 0080661 | image = DressedtoKill.png | director = [[Brian de Palma]] | writer = [[Brian de Palma]] | starring = [[Michael Caine]]&lt;br&gt;[[Angie Dickinson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nancy Allen (actress)|Nancy Allen]]&lt;br&gt;[[Keith Gordon]]&lt;br&gt;[[Dennis Franz]] | producer = [[George Litto]] | music = [[Pino Donaggio]] | cinematography = [[Ralf D. Bode]] | editing = [[Gerard B. Greenberg]] | distributor = [[Filmways, Inc.|Filmways Pictures]] | released = [[June 23]], [[1980]] | runtime = 105 min. | language = English | budget = $6,500,000 (estimated) | }} '''''Dressed to Kill''''' is a [[1980 in film|1980]] [[horror film]] written and directed by [[Brian de Palma]]. It starred [[Michael Caine]], [[Angie Dickinson]] and [[Nancy Allen (actress)|Nancy Allen]]. The original music score is composed by [[Pino Donaggio]]. '''Tagline:''' ''Brian de Palma, master of the macabre, invites you to a showing of the latest fashion...in murder.'' ==Plot summary== {{spoiler}} Sexually frustrated housewife and mother Kate Miller visits her New York City psychiatrist, Dr. Robert Elliott, to complain about her unfulfilling erotic life. When she the goes to meet her husband at a museum, she meets an unknown man whom she follows out to a taxicab. After an afternoon of satisfying sex, Kate discovers that the unknown man has a venereal disease, but that information becomes a moot point when a razor-wielding blonde woman slashes Kate to ribbons in the elevator of the man's building. Blonde prostitute Liz Blake, who caught a glimpse of the murderer, becomes both the prime suspect and the killer's next target. With the police less than willing to believe her story, Liz joins forces with Kate's son Peter to get the psychopath themselves. The murderer has been finally revealed as Dr. Elliott, a transsexual, is arrested by the police and placed in a mental asylum. In a dream sequence, Dr. Elliott escapes from the asylum and slashes Liz in the throat in a bloody act of vengeance. ==Main cast== * [[Michael Caine]]: Dr. Robert Elliott * [[Angie Dickinson]]: Kate Miller * [[Nancy Allen (actress)|Nancy Allen]]: Liz Blake * [[Keith Gordon]]: Peter Miller * [[Dennis Franz]]: Detective Marino * [[David Margulies]]: Dr. Levy * [[Ken Baker]]: Warren Lockman * [[Susanna Clemm]]: Betty Luce * [[Brandon Maggart]]: Cleveland Sam * [[Amalie Collier]]: Cleaning Woman * [[Mary Davenport]]: Woman in restaurant * [[Anneka Di Lorenzo]]: Nurse * [[Norman Evans]]: Ted * [[Robbie L. McDermont]]: The man in shower * [[Bill Randolph]]: Chase cabby * [[Sean O'Rinn]]: Museum cabby * [[Fred Weber]]: Mike Miller ==Technical datas== * Title: ''Dressed to Kill'' * Director: [[Brian De Palma]] * Scenarist: [[Brian De Palma]] * Music: [[Pino Donaggio]] * Release date: [[June 23]], [[1980]] * [[United States|American]] movie * Specifications: Panavision, 35 mm, [[:fr:Formats de projection|2:35.1]] (Technicolor, [[Dolby]] digital) * Genre: Horror, Mystery, Suspense * Running time: 105 minutes * Rated: R ==Awards and Nominations== *'''[[Saturn Award]]s''' :'''Won:''' Best Actress ([[Angie Dickinson]]) :'''Nominated:''' Best Director ([[Brian De Palma]]) :'''Nominated:''' Best Horror Film :'''Nominated:''' Best Music ([[Pino Donaggio]]) *'''[[Golden Globe Award]]''' :'''Nominated:''' New Star of the Year ([[Nancy Allen (actress)|Nancy Allen]]) *'''[[Golden Raspberry Awards]]''' :'''Nominated:''' [[Razzie Award for Worst Actor|Worst Actor]] ([[Michael Caine]]) :'''Nominated:''' [[Razzie Award for Worst Actress|Worst Actress]] ([[Nancy Allen (actress)|Nancy Allen]]) :'''Nominated:''' [[Razzie Award for Worst Director|Worst Director]] ([[Brian De Palma]]) ==External links== * {{imdb title|id=0080661|title=Dressed to Kill (1980)}} * {{rotten-tomatoes|id=dressed_to_kill|title=Dressed to Kill (1980)}} [[Category:1980 films]] [[Category:American films]] [[Category:Horror films]] [[Category:Independent films]] [[Category:Mystery films]] [[Category:Thriller films]] [[Category:Films directed by Brian De Palma]] [[fr:Pulsions]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Diesel cycle</title> <id>8483</id> <revision> <id>40903081</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:04:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>165.189.91.148</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Diesel cycle */ grammar</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Thermodynamic cycles}} The '''Diesel cycle''' is the combustion process of a type of [[internal combustion engine]], in which the burning of the [[fuel]] is triggered by the heat generated in first compressing air in the piston cavity, into which is ''then'' injected the fuel - as opposed to it being ignited by a [[spark plug]], as combustion is in the [[Otto cycle]] (four-stroke/petrol) engine. Diesel engines ([[Heat engine]]s utilizing the Diesel cycle) are used in [[automobile|automobiles]], [[power generation]], [[diesel-electric]] [[locomotive]]s, and [[submarines]]. = Diesel vs Otto cycle = ==Diesel cycle == A [[Diesel_(disambiguation)|Diesel]] cycle engine draws air by itself, or with the aid of a supercharger, into the engine and compresses it. When the piston reaches approximately [[Top Dead Center]], the fuel is injected directly into the cylinder with a high-pressure fuel injector. The air is extremely hot at this point, and so the fuel ignites immediately; however, diesel fuel has a higher [[molecular weight]] than [[gasoline]], and so it vaporizes and burns more slowly. The piston is already moving down by the time the combustion starts, and combustion is usually not 100% finished when the piston reaches [[Bottom Dead Center]]. Because of this incomplete combustion, diesel engines actually lose some of the [[potential energy]] of the fuel. Diesel cycle engines are nevertheless more efficient than Otto cycle engines overall, but only when power needs to be scaled. Most land vehicles almost never use the maximum rated power of the engine. Unless the vehicle is at [[Wide Open Throttle]] (when the pedal is 'floored') the engine is only producing a fraction of its rated power. Since diesel engines use the heating effect of compressing the air to ignite the fuel, a diesel engine can inject as little or as much fuel as the situation demands. It is important to note that Otto cycle engines can be more efficient than Diesel cycle engines, but only when the engine is running at or near its maximum power. This is dependent on the (Otto cycle) engine's compression ratio. == Otto cycle == In the Otto cycle (4 stroke Gasoline engine) the fuel and air are pre-mixed before being drawn into the cylinder. The mixture is then compressed and ignited at the right moment with a [[spark plug]]. The fuel/air charge is [[ignition|ignited]] just before the [[piston]] reaches [[Top Dead Center]]. Gasoline burns more quickly than diesel fuel, and since the combustion cycle starts earlier (15 degrees before Top Dead Center is common), t
as the 31st [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He ruled from [[585]] until his death in [[587]]. He was called Tachibana no Toyohi no Mikoto (橘豊日尊) in the ''[[Nihonshoki]]''. He was also referred to as Prince Ōe (大兄皇子 ''Ōe no Miko'', literally ''crown prince'') and Prince Ikebe (池辺皇子 ''Ikebe no Miko'') after the place he lived. He acceded to the throne after the death of his half brother, [[Emperor Bidatsu]]. Emperor Yōmei was the fourth prince of [[Emperor Kimmei]] and his mother was [[Soga no Kitashihime]], a daughter of [[Soga no Iname]]. In [[586]], Emperor Yōmei took his half-sister Princess Hashihoto no Anahobe (穴穂部間人皇女, ''Hashihito no Anahobe no Himemiko''), whose mother was another of Iname's daughters, as his consort. Princess Hashihito no Anahobe bore him five sons, including [[Prince Shotoku]], who would later become crown prince and regent to [[Empress Suiko]]. In addition, the Nihon Shoki records that Emperor Yōmei also had three concubines. The influential courtiers from Emperor Bidatsu's reign, [[Mononobe no Moriya]] and [[Soga no Umako]], both remained in their positions during the reign of Emperor Yōmei. Umako was the son of Iname, and therefore Emperor Yōmei's cousin as well. Because of the brevity of his reign, Emperor Yōmei wasn't responsible for any radical changes in policy, but his support of [[Buddhism]] created tension with supporters of [[Shinto]]ism who opposed the introduction of Buddhism. Moriya, the most influential supporter of Shintoism, conspired with Emperor Yōmei's brother, Prince Anahobe, and after Emperor Yomei's death they made an abortive attempt to seize the throne. Although Emperor Yōmei is reported to have died from illness, this incident and the brevity of his reign have led some to speculate that he was actually assassinated by Moriya and Prince Anahobe. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Bidatsu]] | after=[[Emperor Sushun]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]]|years=585-587}} {{end box}} [[Category:587 deaths|Yomei]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Yomei]] [[de:Yōmei]] [[fr:Yōmei]] [[ja:用明天皇]] [[zh:用明天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Sushun</title> <id>10418</id> <revision> <id>37450037</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T02:10:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Carlossuarez46</username> <id>23407</id> </contributor> <comment>+cat: assassinated kings</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Sushun''' (崇峻天皇 ''Sushun Tennō'') was the 32nd [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] ([[587]]-[[592]]), according to the traditional order of succession. He was the twelfth son of the [[Emperor Kimmei]] by Oane no Kimi, a daughter of [[Soga no Iname]] who was the chief of the [[Soga]] clan. His name at birth was Prince Hatsusebe (長谷部皇子 ''Hatsusebe no Miko''). He succeeded his half brother, [[Emperor Yomei|Emperor Yōmei]] in [[587]] with the support of the Soga clan and [[Empress Suiko]], his half sister and the widow of [[Emperor Bidatsu]]. The [[Mononobe clan]] allied with [[Prince Anahobe]], another son of Kimmei, and attempted to have him installed as emperor, but failed. The head of the [[Soga clan]], [[Soga no Umako]], killed [[Mononobe no Moriya]], the head of the Mononobe clan, which led to its decline. He was assassinated in [[592]] after losing the support of the [[Soga clan]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Yomei|Emperor Yōmei]] | after=[[Empress Suiko]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=587-592}} {{end box}} [[Category:592 deaths|Sushun]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Sushun]] [[Category:Assassinated kings|Sushun]] [[de:Sushun]] [[fr:Sushun]] [[it:Sushun imperatore del Giappone]] [[ja:&amp;#23815;&amp;#23803;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]] [[zh-cn:&amp;#23815;&amp;#23803;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Empress Suiko</title> <id>10419</id> <revision> <id>38718301</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T04:03:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Emperorbma</username> <id>12403</id> </contributor> <comment>+cat Japanese women</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Empress Suiko''' (推古天皇 ''Suiko Tennō'') ([[554]]-[[April 15]], [[628]]{{an|Japanese_dates1 1}})) was the 33rd [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession, and the first known woman to hold this position. She had several names including Princess Nukatabe and (possibly posthumous) Toyomike Kashikiya. She was the third daughter of [[Emperor Kimmei]], and her mother was [[Soga no Iname|Soga no Iname's]] daughter, [[Soga no Kitashihime]]. She was a consort to her half-brother [[Emperor Bidatsu]], but after Bidatsu's first wife died she became his official wife and was given the title Ōkisaki (official wife of the emperor). She bore two sons and three daughters. After Bidatsu's death, Suiko's brother, [[Emperor Yomei|Emperor Yōmei]], came to power for a brief period of about two years before dying of illness. Upon Yōmei's death, a power struggle arose between the [[Soga]] clan and the [[Mononobe clan]], with the Sogas supporting [[Emperor Sushun|Prince Hatsusebe]] and the Mononobes supporting [[Prince Anahobe]]. The Sogas prevailed and Prince Hatsusebe acceded to the throne as [[Emperor Sushun]] in [[587]]. However, [[Soga no Umako]] quickly began to fear Sushun's growing resentment of the power of the Soga clan and Umako had him assassinated in [[592]]. When asked to accede to the throne to fill the power vacuum that then developed, Suiko became the first of several examples in Japanese history where a woman was chosen to accede to the throne to avert a power struggle. [[Prince Shotoku|Prince Shōtoku]] was appointed regent the following year and, although political power during Suiko's reign is widely viewed as having been wielded by Prince Shōtoku and Soga no Umako, Suiko was far from powerless. For example, her refusal to grant Soga no Umako's request that he be granted the imperial territory known as Kazuraki no Agata in [[624]] is widely cited as evidence of her independence from his influence. Some of the many achievements under Empress Suiko's reign include the official recognition of Buddhism by the issuance of the Flourishing Three Treasures Edict in [[594]], the opening of relations with the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] court in [[600]], the adoption of the [[Twelve Level Cap and Rank System]] in [[603]] and the adoption of the [[Seventeen-article constitution]] in [[604]]. Suiko was also one of the first [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monarchs in Japan and had taken the vows of a [[nun]] shortly before becoming empress. At a time when imperial succession was generally determined by clan leaders, rather than the emperor, Suiko left only vague indications of succession to two candidates while on her deathbed. One, [[Emperor Jomei|Prince Tamura]], was a grandson of Emperor Bidatsu and was supported by the main line of Sogas, including [[Soga no Emishi]]. The other, [[Prince Yamashiro]], was a son of Prince Shōtoku and had the support of some lesser members of the Soga clan. After a brief struggle within the Soga clan in which one of Prince Yamashiro's main supporters was killed, Prince Tamura was chosen and he acceded to the throne as [[Emperor Jomei]] in [[629]]. ==Notes== #[[April 15]], [[628]] corresponds to the Seventh Day of the Third Month of 628 ([[Sexagenary cycle|Boshi]]) of the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until [[1873]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Sushun]] | after=[[Emperor Jomei]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=593-628}} {{end box}} [[Category:554 births|Suiko]] [[Category:628 deaths|Suiko]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Suiko]] [[Category:Japanese women|Suiko]] [[Category:Empresses|Suiko]] [[de:Suiko]] [[it:Suiko imperatrice del Giappone]] [[ja:&amp;#25512;&amp;#21476;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]] [[zh-cn:&amp;#25512;&amp;#21476;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Empress Kogyoku</title> <id>10421</id> <revision> <id>38718178</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T04:02:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Emperorbma</username> <id>12403</id> </contributor> <comment>+cat Japanese women</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Empress Kōgyoku''' (皇極天皇 ''Kōgyoku Tennō''), also '''Empress Saimei''' (斉明天皇 ''Saimei Tennō'') (594&amp;ndash;[[August 24]], [[661]]{{an|Japanese_dates1 1}}) was the 35th and 37th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. From [[February 18]], [[642]]{{an|Japanese_dates2 2}} she ruled as '''Kōgyoku''', but abdicated after the assassination of [[Soga no Iruka]] and gave up the throne to her brother [[Emperor Kotoku|Emperor Kōtoku]] on [[July 12]], [[645]]{{an|Japanese_dates3 3}}. After Kōtoku died on [[November 24]], [[654]]{{an|Japanese_dates4 4}}, she reacceded to the throne as '''Empress Saimei''' on [[February 14]], [[655]]{{an|Japanese_dates5 5}}, and ruled under that name until her death in 661. She was a great-granddaughter of [[Emperor Bidatsu]]. Her birth name was '''Princess Takara.''' She was the wife and Empress Consort of [[Emperor Jomei]]. They had three children: Prince Naka no Ōe ([[Emperor Tenji]]), Prince Ōama ([[Emperor Temmu]]), and Princess Hashihito. During her first reign the [[Soga clan]] seized power. Her son Naka no Ōe planned a coup d'etat and slew [[Soga no Iruka]] at the court in front of her throne. The Empress, shocked by this incident, abdicated the throne. After Emperor Kōtoku died, though Naka no Ōe was the crown prince, he had his mother reascend the throne, and remained as the crown prince under his mother. He, and not his m
tle> <id>11887</id> <revision> <id>41927608</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:00:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LukasPietsch</username> <id>616237</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv commercial spam</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{SpecialCharsNote}} {{Infobox Language |name=Greek |nativename=&lt;font lang=&quot;el&quot;&gt;Ελληνικά&lt;/font&gt; ''Ellinika'' |states=[[Greece]], [[Cyprus]] |speakers=15 million |rank=74 |familycolor=Indo-European |fam2=[[Greek languages|Greek]] |fam3=[[Attic Greek|Attic]] |nation=[[Greece]], [[Cyprus]] (and the [[European Union]]) |iso1=el|iso2b=gre|iso2t=ell|iso3=ell}} '''Greek''' (Greek Ελληνικά, [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[e̞ˌliniˈka]}} — &quot;Hellenic&quot;) is an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] with a documented history of 3,500 years. Today, it is spoken by 15 million people in [[Greece]], [[Cyprus]], the former Yugoslavia, particularly the former Yugoslav [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Albania]] and [[Turkey]]. There are also many Greek emigrant communities around the world, such as those in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]] which has the third largest urban Greek population of any city in the world, after [[Athens]] and [[Thessaloniki]]. Greek has been written in the [[Greek alphabet]], the first true [[alphabet]], since the 9th century B.C. and before that, in [[Linear B]] and the [[Cypriot syllabary|Cypriot]] syllabaries. [[Greek literature]] has a long and rich tradition. ==History== {{History of the Greek language}} {{main|History of the Greek language}} ''This article does not cover the reconstructed history of Greek prior to the use of writing. For more information, see main article on [[Proto-Greek language]].'' Greek has been spoken in the [[Balkan]] Peninsula since the [[2nd millennium BC]]. The earliest evidence of this is found in the [[Linear B]] tablets dating from [[1500 BC]]. The later [[Greek alphabet]] (''q.v.'') is unrelated to Linear B, and was derived from the [[Phoenician alphabet]] ([[abjad]]); with minor modifications, it is still used today. Greek is conventionally divided into the following periods: *'''[[Mycenean language|Mycenean Greek]]''': the language of the [[Mycenean civilisation]]. It is recorded in the [[Linear B]] script on tablets dating from the [[16th century BC]] onwards. *'''[[Ancient Greek|Classical Greek]]''' (also known as [[Ancient Greek]]): In its various dialects was the language of the [[Archaic]] and [[Classical]] periods of Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman empire. Classical Greek fell into disuse in western Europe in the [[Middle Ages]], but remained known in the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] world, and was reintroduced to the rest of [[Europe]] with the [[Fall of Constantinople]] and Greek migration to [[Italy]]. *'''[[Hellenistic Greek]]''' (also known as [[Koine Greek]]): The fusion of various ancient Greek dialects with [[Attic Greek|Attic]] (the dialect of Athens) resulted in the creation of the first '''common''' Greek dialect, which gradually turned into one of the world's first international languages. [[Koine Greek]] can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of [[Alexander the Great]], but after the [[Hellenistic]] colonisation of the known world, it was spoken from [[Egypt]] to the fringes of [[India]]. After the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquest of Greece, an unofficial diglossy of Greek and Latin was established in the city of [[Rome]] and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the [[Roman Empire]]. Through Koine Greek it is also traced the origin of [[Christianity]], as the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] used it to preach in [[Greece]] and the Greek-speaking world. It is also known as the '''Alexandrian dialect''', '''Post-Classical Greek''' or even '''New Testament Greek''' (after its most famous work of literature). *'''[[Medieval Greek]]''': The continuation of [[Hellenistic Greek]] during medieval [[Greek history]] as the official and vernacular (if not the literary nor the ecclesiastic) language of the [[Byzantine Empire]], and continued to be used until, and after the fall of that Empire in the [[15th century]]. Also known as '''Byzantine Greek'''. *'''[[Modern Greek]]''': Stemming independently from [[Koine Greek]], '''Modern Greek''' usages can be traced in the late [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period (as early as 11th century).[[Image:Codex alexandrinus.jpg|thumb|150px|left|A section of the [[Codex Alexandrinus]]. This section contains [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 12:54-13:4.]] Two main forms of the language have been in use since the end of the medieval Greek period: [[Modern Greek|Dhimotikí]] (Δημοτική), the Demotic (vernacular) language, and [[Katharevousa|Katharévousa]] (Καθαρεύουσα), an imitation of classical Greek, which was used for literary, juridic, and scientific purposes during the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries. Demotic Greek is now the official language of the modern Greek state, and the most widely spoken by Greeks today. It has been claimed that an &quot;educated&quot; speaker of the modern language can understand an ancient text, but this is surely as much a function of education as of the similarity of the languages. Still, Koinē {{IPA|/ciˈni/}}, the version of Greek used to write the [[New Testament]] and the [[Septuagint]], is relatively easy to understand for modern speakers. Greek words have been widely borrowed into the European languages: ''astronomy'', ''democracy'', ''philosophy'', ''thespian'', etc. Moreover, Greek words and [[morpheme|word elements]] continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: ''anthropology'', ''photography'', ''isomer'', ''biomechanics'' etc. and form, with [[Latin language|Latin]] words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary. See ''[[English words of Greek origin]]'', and ''[[List of Greek words with English derivatives]]''. ==Classification== Greek is an independent branch of the [[Indo-European]] [[language family]]. The ancient languages which were probably most closely related to it, [[Ancient Macedonian language]] (which may have been a [[dialect]] of Greek) and [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]], are not well enough documented to permit detailed comparison. Among living languages, [[Armenian language|Armenian]] seems to be the most closely related to it. ==Geographic distribution== Modern Greek is spoken by about 15 million people mainly in [[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]]. There are also Greek-speaking populations in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Egypt]], [[Turkey]], [[Albania]], [[Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]] and [[Southern Italy]]. The language is spoken also in many other countries where Greeks have settled, including [[Armenia]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Canada]], [[Denmark]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Netherlands]], [[Sweden]], [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]]. ==Official status== Greek is the [[official language]] of [[Greece]] where it is spoken by about 99.5% of the population. It is also, alongside [[Turkish language|Turkish]], the official language of [[Cyprus]]. Due to the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the [[languages of the European Union#official languages of the European Union|20 official languages]] of the [[European Union]]. ==Phonology== This section generally describes the post-Classic phonology of the Greek language. :''All phonetic transcriptions in this section use the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]'' ===Vowel sounds=== Greek has 5 vowel sounds, all phonemic: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;20%&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;20%&quot;&gt;[[Front vowel|Front]]&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th width=&quot;20%&quot;&gt;[[Back vowel|Back]]&lt;/th&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Close vowel|Close]]&lt;/th&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|i}}]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[Close back rounded vowel|{{IPA|u}}]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[mid vowel|Mid]]&lt;/th&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;[[close-mid front unrounded vowel#mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|e̞}}]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[Close-mid back rounded vowel#mid back rounded vowel|{{IPA|o̞}}]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Open vowel|Open]]&lt;/th&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[Open front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|a}}]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; |} Close vowels, when found in unstressed final syllables, tend to be voiceless, particularly if they are between voiceless consonants [e.g.: φάσης {{IPA|/ˈfasis/}} → {{IPA|/ˈfasi̥s/}} (→ {{IPA|/fasː/}}) = &quot;of phase&quot; ([[genitive case]])]. ===Consonants=== Greek has a repertoire of 29 consonant sounds. The number of phonemes depends on the analysis, but may be as few as 15, assuming for example that the sound [b] is represented in the underlying form as /mp/, which is also its standard orthographic representation. (cf. Newton) {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! width=&quot;100px&quot;| ! [[bilabial consonant|Bilabial]] ! [[labiodental|Labiodental]] ! [[dental consonant|Dental]] ! [[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! [[palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[velar consonant|Velar]] |- | [[plosive consonant|'''Plosive''']] | align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] [[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]] | align=&quot;center&quot;| | align=&quot;center&quot;| | align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Voiceless alveolar plosive|t]] [[Voiced alveolar plosive|d]] | align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Voiceless palatal plosive|c]] {{IPA|[[Voiced palatal plos
]. *[[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]]- Existed as an autonomous colony of the [[United Kingdom]] from [[1855]] to [[1907]], then a sovereign [[dominion]] until [[1934]] when it reverted to a crown colony. It joined in [[Confederation]] with [[Canada]] in [[1949]]. *[[Orange Free State]] - This country was independent from [[1854]] to [[1900]], when it was incorporated into [[South Africa]]. It was one of two Boer republics, along with the [[South African Republic]] (Transvaal Republic). *[[South Yemen]] (People's Democratic Republic of Yemen) and [[North Yemen]] (Yemen Arab Republic) in [[1990]] united to form [[Yemen]] *Kingdom of [[Sikkim]] merged with [[India]] in 1975 *[[Republic of Formosa]] - Lasted from May to October [[1895]] after the island was ceded by [[China]] to [[Japan]] and the local gentry and officials declared a tributary republic in a failed attempt to avert Japanese annexation. *[[Republic of Texas]] - Annexed by [[United States]] in 1846. *[[Tibet]] - Annexed by the [[People's Republic of China]] in 1950, claimed by the [[Republic of China]]. *[[Transvaal Republic]] (South African Republic) - Independent country before becoming part of the [[British Empire]] during the [[Second Boer War]] in [[1902]] and is currently part of [[South Africa]]. It was one of two Boer republics, the other was the [[Orange Free State]]. *[[Transylvania]] - Semi-independent before becoming part of [[Austria-Hungary]]. Became part of [[Romania]] after [[World War I]]. *[[Tuva]] (also known as Tannu Tuva) - now part of [[Russia]] after the dissolution of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] *[[Vermont Republic]] - Republic of Vermont existed from [[1777]] until [[1791]], when [[Vermont]] became the 14th state of the [[United States]]. *[[South Vietnam|Republic of Vietnam]] - conquered by the [[North Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] to become the [[Vietnam|Socialist Republic of Vietnam]] *[[Wallachia]] - United with [[Moldavia]] to form [[Romania]] in [[1859]]. *[[Yucatán|Republic of Yucatán]] became part of [[Mexico]] *[[Zanzibar]] - Zanzibar merged in [[1964]] with [[Tanganyika]] to become [[Tanzania]]. Zanzibar was not annexed, but joined through a free [[referendum]]. ==See also== * [[List of countries]] * [[List of historical national capitals]] * [[Former countries in Europe after 1815]] [[Category:Former countries| ]] [[Category:History by country| ]] [[Category:Lists of countries|Extinct states]] [[cs:Seznam bývalých států v Evropě]] [[es:Lista de países extintos]] [[fr:Liste des pays disparus]] [[csb:Lësta historëcznëch krôjów ë òbéńdów]] [[nl:Lijst van voormalige landen]] [[ja:消滅した政権一覧]] [[no:Liste over historiske stater]] [[os:Историон бæстæтæ]] [[pt:Criptarquia]] [[ru:Исчезнувшие государства]] [[sl:Seznam propadlih držav]] [[sr:Списак бивших држава]] [[fi:Historialliset valtiot]] [[sv:Lista över icke längre existerande riken och länder]] [[vi:Danh sách các nước không còn nữa]] [[zh:已不存在国家列表]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Extended ASCII</title> <id>9273</id> <revision> <id>41996201</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:51:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lambyuk</username> <id>254006</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Input methods */ rm advert</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''extended ASCII''''' (or '''''high ASCII''''') describes [[eight-bit]] or larger [[character encoding]]s that include the standard seven-[[bit]] [[ASCII]] characters as well as others. The use of the term has sometimes been criticized, because it can be mistakenly interpreted that the ASCII standard has been updated to include more than 128 characters or that the term unambiguously identifies a single encoding, both of which are untrue. ==Motives for extending== Because the number of written symbols used in common [[natural language]]s far exceeds the limited range of the ASCII code, many extensions to it have been used to facilitate handling of those languages. Markets for computers and communication equipment outside English-speaking countries were historically open long before standards bodies had time to deliberate upon the best way to accommodate them, so there are many incompatible proprietary extensions to ASCII. Since ASCII is a seven-bit code and most computers manipulate data in eight-bit [[byte]]s, many extensions use the additional 128 codes available by using all eight bits of each byte. This helps include many languages otherwise not easily representable in ASCII, but still not enough to cover all languages of countries in which computers are sold, so even these eight-bit extensions had to have local variants. ==Proprietary extensions== Various proprietary extensions appeared on non-[[EBCDIC]] mainframe and mini-computers, especially in universities. Commodore microcomputers added many graphic symbols to their non-standard ASCII ([[PETSCII]], based on the original ASCII standard of 1963). IBM introduced eight-bit extended ASCII codes on the original [[IBM PC]] and later produced variations for different languages and cultures. IBM called such character sets ''[[code pages]]'' and assigned numbers to both those they themselves invented as well as many invented and used by other manufacturers. Accordingly, character sets are very often indicated by their IBM code page number. In ASCII-compatibile code pages, the lower 128 characters maintained their standard US-ASCII values, and different pages (or sets of characters) could be made available in the upper 128 characters. [[DOS]] computers built for the North American market, for example, used [[code page 437]], which included accented characters needed for French, German, and a few other European languages, as well as some graphical line-drawing characters. The larger character set made it possible to create documents in a combination of languages such as [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]], but not, for example, in English and [[Greek language|Greek]] (which required code page 737). A set with less characters but more letter and diacritic combinations was used by the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital]] [[VT220]] [[Computer terminal|terminal]] based on draft versions of an [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] standard that was being developed. ==ISO 8859 and proprietary adaptions== Eventually, [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] released this standard as [[ISO 8859]] describing its own set of eight-bit ASCII extensions. The most popular was [[ISO 8859-1]], also called ISO Latin1, which contained characters sufficient for the most common Western European languages. Variations were standardized for other languages as well: ISO 8859-2 for Eastern European languages and ISO 8859-5 for Cyrillic languages, for example. One notable way in which ISO character sets differ from code pages is that the character positions 128 to 159, corresponding to ASCII [[control character]]s with the high-order bit set, are specifically unused and undefined in the ISO standards, though they had often been used for printable characters in proprietary code pages, a breaking of ISO standards that was almost universal. Microsoft later created [[code page 1252]], a compatible superset of ISO 8859-1 with extra characters in the ISO unused range. Code page 1252 is the standard character encoding of western European language versions of [[Microsoft Windows]], including English versions. ISO 8859-1 is the common character encoding used by the [[X Window System]], and most [[Internet]] standards. The [[Apple Macintosh]], under [[Mac OS X]], currently uses [[Unicode]] as its default encoding. Under [[Mac OS]], it used [[Mac OS Roman]]. ==Input methods== One problem with eight-bit codes is that [[computer keyboard]]s were originally designed for seven-bit ASCII, and users became accustomed to them. Different manufacturers have solved this problem in different ways, most by using additional shift-type keys labelled &quot;[[Alt key|Alt]]&quot; or &quot;[[Meta key|Meta]]&quot;, and sometimes by interpreting multi-keystroke sequences. Also, MS-DOS allowed the user to enter any character by typing its three-digit code point while holding down the Alt key. While it did allow users to take advantage of the full MS-DOS code page 437 character set, it was difficult to remember and caused problems when users switched to other character sets (including Microsoft's switch to code page 1252 beginning with [[Windows 3.0]]). To ease the transition, two slightly different numeric entry methods are available in Microsoft Windows: With [[Windows Alt keycodes]], it is possible to type in characters from the [[code page 437]] (or nowadays [[code page 850]]), as well as from [[Windows-1252]]. Various international [[keyboard layout]]s are available through the Control Panel in which the right Alt-key can be used to select alternate characters without this cumbersome typing of numbers. ==Character set confusion== Because these ASCII extensions have so many variants, it is necessary to identify which set is being used for a particular text for it to be interpreted correctly. However, because the most-used characters (those in ASCII, the seven-bit code points) are common to all sets--even most proprietary ones like the Macintosh--failure to correctly identify a character set often suffers no adverse consequences if the user is typing in English. Further, because many Internet standards use ISO 8859-1, and because Microsoft Windows (using the code page 1252 superset of ISO 8859-1) is the dominant operating system for personal computers today, unannounced use of ISO 8859-1 is quite commonplace, and should generally be assumed without evidence to the contrary. In many protocols, most importantly [[e-mail]] and [[HTTP]] the character encoding of content has to be tagged with [[IANA]]-assigned character set identifiers. ==U
wise Refinement] # The use of a [[Recursive descent parser]] # The use of [[EBNF]] to specify the syntax of a language # The use of [[P-Code]] during generation of portable output code # The use of T-diagrams for the formal description of the [[bootstrapping (compilers)|bootstrapping]] problem ==Types of compilers== There are many ways to classfy compilers according to the input and output, internal structure, and runtime behavior. For example, * A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is a ''[[decompiler]]''. * A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a ''language translator'', ''source to source translator'', ''language converter'', or ''language [[rewriting|rewriter]]'' (this last term is usually applied to translations that do not involve a change of language) ===Native versus cross compiler=== Most compilers are classified as either native compilers or cross compilers. A compiler may produce binary output intended to run on the same type of computer and operating system (&quot;[[platform (computing)|platform]]&quot;) as the compiler itself runs on. This is sometimes called a native-code compiler. Alternatively, it might produce binary output designed to run on a different platform. This is known as a [[cross compiler]]. Cross compilers are very useful when bringing up a new hardware platform for the first time (see [[bootstrapping]]). Cross compilers are also necessary when developing software for [[microcontroller]] systems that have barely enough storage for the final machine code, much less a compiler. Compilers which are capable of producing both native and foreign binary output may be called either a cross compiler or a native compiler depending on a specific use, although it would be more correct to classify them as a cross compilers. Interpreters are never classified as native or cross compilers, because they do not output a binary representation of their input code. [[Virtual machine]] (VM) compilers are typically not classified as either native or cross compilers. However, if need be, they can be classified as one or the other, especially in the less usual cases where a compiler is running inside the same VM (making it a native compiler), or where a compiler is capable of producing an output for several different platforms, including a VM (making it a cross compiler). ===One-pass versus multi-pass compilers=== Classifying compilers by number of passes has its background in the hardware resource limitations of computers. Compling involves performing lots of work and early computers did not have enough memory to contain one program that did all of this work. So compilers were split up into smaller programs which each made a pass over the source (or some representation of it) performing some of the required analysis and translations. The abillity to compile in a [[one-pass_compiler|single pass]] is often seen as a benefit because it simplifies the job of writing a compiler and one pass compilers are generally faster than [[multi-pass compiler]]s. Many languages were designed so that they could be compiled in a single pass (e.g., the [[Pascal programming language]]). In some cases the design of a language feature may require a compiler to perform more than one pass over the source. For instance, when a declaration appearing on line 20 of the source affects the translation of the statement appearing on line 10; the first pass needs to gather information about declarations appearing after statements that they affect, with the actual translation happening during a second pass. The disadvantage of compiling in a single pass is that it is not possible to perform many of the sophisticated [[compiler optimization|optimizations]] needed to generate high quality code. It can be difficult to count exactly how many passes an optimizing compiler makes. For instance, different phases of optimization may analyse one expression many times but only analyse another expression once. Splitting a compiler up into small programs is a technique used by researchers interested in producing provably correct compilers. Proving the correctness of a set of small programs often requiring less effort than proving the correctness of a larger, single, equivalent program. While the typical multi-pass compiler outputs machine code from its final pass, there are several other types: *A &quot;[[source-to-source compiler]]&quot; is a type of compiler that takes a high level language as its input and outputs a high level language. For example, an automatic parallelizing compiler will frequently take in a high level language program as an input and then transform the code and annotate it with parallel code annotations (e.g. [[OpenMP]]) or language constructs (e.g. Fortran's &lt;code&gt;DOALL&lt;/code&gt; statements). *[[Stage compiler]] that compiles to assembly language of a theoretical machine, like some [[Prolog]] implementations **This Prolog machine is also known as the [[Warren Abstract Machine]] (or WAM). Byte-code compilers for Java, [[Python_language | Python]] (and many more) are also a subtype of this. *[[Just-in-time compilation|Just-in-time compiler]], used by Smalltalk and Java systems, and also by Microsoft .Net's [[Common Intermediate Language]] (CIL) **Applications are delivered in [[bytecode]], which is compiled to native machine code just prior to execution. ===Compiled versus interpreted languages=== Many people divide higher-level programming languages into [[compiled language]]s and [[interpreted language]]s. However, there is rarely anything about a language that requires it to be compiled or interpreted. Compilers and interpreters are ''implementations'' of languages, not languages themselves. The categorization usually reflects the most popular or widespread implementations of a language -- for instance, BASIC is thought of as an interpreted language, and C a compiled one, despite the existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters. There are exceptions; some language specifications assume the use of a compiler (as with C), or spell out that implementations must include a compilation facility (as with Common Lisp). Some languages have features that are very easy to implement in an interpreter, but make writing a compiler much harder; for example, [[SNOBOL4]], and many scripting languages are capable of constructing arbitrary source code at runtime with regular string operations, and then executing that code by passing it to a special evaluation function. To implement these features in a compiled language, programs must usually be shipped with a runtime environment that includes the compiler itself. ==Compiler design== The approach taken to compiler design is affected by the complexity of the processing that needs to be done, the experience of the person(s) designing it, and the resources (eg, people and tools) available. A compiler for a relatively simply language written by one person might be a single, monolithic, piece of software. When the source language is large and complex, and high quality output is required the design may be split into a number of relatively independent phases, or passes. Having separate phases means development can be parcelled up into small parts and given to different people. It also becomes much easier to replace a single phase by an improved one, or to insert new phases later (eg, additional optimizations). The division of the compilation processes in phases (or passes) was championed by the [[Production Quality Compiler-Compiler Project]] (PQCC) at [[Carnegie Mellon]] University. This project introduced the terms ''front end'', ''middle end'' (rarely heard today), and ''back end''. All but the smallest of compilers have more than two phases. However, these phases are usually regarded as being part of the front end or the back end. The point at where these two ''ends'' meet is always open to debate. The front end is generally considered to be where syntactic and semantic processing takes place, along with translation to a lower level of representation (than source code). The back end takes the output from the front end, performs more analysis and transformations and generates code. This front/back end approach also makes it possible to combine front ends for different [[programming language|languages]] with back ends for different [[cpu]]s. ==Front end== The front end analyses the source code to build an internal representation of the program, called the [[intermediate representation]] or ''IR''. It also manages the [[symbol table]], a data structure mapping each symbol in the source code to associated information such as location, type and scope. This is done over several phases: #[[Preprocessor|Preprocessing]]. Some languages, e.g., [[C language|C]], require a preprocessing phase to do things such as conditional compilation and [[macro]] substitution. In the case of C the preprocessing phase includes lexical analysis. #[[Lexical analysis]] breaks the source code text into small pieces called ''tokens''. Each token is a single atomic unit of the language, for instance a [[keyword]], [[identifier]] or [[symbol|symbol name]]. The token syntax is typically a [[regular language]], so a [[finite state automaton]] constructed from a [[regular expression]] can be used to recognize it. This phase is also called lexing or scanning, and the software doing lexical analysis is called a [[lexical analyzer]] or scanner. #[[Syntax analysis]] involves [[parsing]] the token sequence to identify the syntactic structure of the program. #[[Semantic analysis (computer science)|Semantic analysis]] is the phase that checks the ''meaning'' of the program to ensure it obeys the rules of the language. One example is type checking. The compiler emits most diagnostics during semantic analysis, and frequently combines it with syntax analysis. ==Back end== The term of ''Back end'' is sometime co
ovisional constitution that provided a basic bill of rights and an independent judiciary but retained strong executive powers for the president. After further review by a constitutional committee and the National Assembly, this document came into force in March 1991. Despite further anti-government demonstrations after the untimely death of an opposition leader, the first multi-party National Assembly elections in almost 30 years took place in September-October 1990, with the PDG garnering a large majority. Following President Bongo's re-election in December 1993 with 51% of the vote, opposition candidates refused to validate the election results. Serious civil disturbances led to an agreement between the government and opposition factions to work toward a political settlement. These talks led to the Paris Accords in November 1994 in which several opposition figures were included in a government of national unity. This arrangement soon broke down, and the 1996 and 1997 legislative and municipal elections provided the background for renewed partisan politics. The PDG won a landslide victory in the legislative election, but several major cities, including [[Libreville]], elected opposition mayors during the 1997 local election. President Bongo coasted to an easy re-election in December 1998 with 66% of the vote against a divided opposition. While Bongo's major opponents rejected the outcome as fraudulent, international observers characterized the result as representative even if the election suffered from serious administrative problems. There was no serious civil disorder or protests following the election in contrast to the 1993 election. ==Executive branch== {{office-table}} |[[Heads of State of Gabon|President]] |[[Omar Bongo|El Hadj Omar Bongo Ondimba]] |[[Gabonese Democratic Party|PDG]] |[[2 December]] 1967 |- |[[Heads of Government of Gabon|Prime Minister]] |[[Jean-François Ntoutoume Emane]] |[[Gabonese Democratic Party|PDG]] |[[23 January]] 1999 |} The president is elected by popular vote for a seven-year term. He appoints the prime minister. The Council of Ministers is appointed by the prime minister in consultation with the president. ==Legislative branch== The [[Parliament of Gabon|Parliament]] (''Parlement'') has two [[bicameralism|chambers]]. The [[National Assembly of Gabon|National Assembly]] (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 120 members, 111 members elected for a five year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and 9 members appointed by a [[head of state]] - the [[president]]. The [[Senate of Gabon|Senate]] (''Sénat'') has 91 members, elected for a six year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] by local and departemental councillors. bicameral legislature consists of the Senate (91 seats) and the National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (120 seats); members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms. ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Gabon|Elections in Gabon}} {{Gabonese presidential election, 2005}} {{Gabonese parliamentary election, 2001}} ==Judicial Branch== Gabon's [[Supreme Court]] or ''Cour Supreme'' consists of three chambers - Judicial, Administrative, and Accounts; Constitutional Court; Courts of Appeal; Court of State Security; County Courts ==Administrative divisions== There are nine provincial administrations. These are headquartered in Estuaire, Haut-Ogooue, Moyen-Ogooue, Ngounie, [[Nyanga (province)|Nyanga]], [[Ogooué-Ivindo]], [[Ogooué-Lolo]], Ogooue-Maritime and Woleu-Ntem. ==International organization participation== [[Agence de coopération culturelle et technique|ACCT]], ACP, [[African Development Bank|AfDB]], BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], FZ, G-24, [[Group of 77|G-77]], [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]], IBRD, [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]], ICC, [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions|ICFTU]], IDA, IDB, [[International Fund for Agricultural Development|IFAD]], [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|IFRCS]] (associate), [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], IMO, [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], OAU, OIC, [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]], UDEAC, [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[Universal Postal Union|UPU]], [[World Confederation of Labour|WCL]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]], [[World Meteorological Organization|WMO]], WToO, WTrO ==See also== * [[Gabon]] ''Original text of this article from [[CIA]] World Factbook at http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gb.html#Govt'' {{Africa_in_topic|Politics of}} [[Category:Politics of Gabon|*]] [[pt:Política do Gabão]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Gabon</title> <id>12032</id> <revision> <id>39854742</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T08:43:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ctdunstan</username> <id>205959</id> </contributor> <comment>{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}} '''Gabon''' enjoys a [[per capita income]] four times that of most nations of [[sub-Saharan Africa]]. This has supported a sharp decline in [[extreme poverty]]; yet because of high income inequality a large proportion of the population remains poor. Gabon depended on [[timber]] and [[manganese]] until [[petroleum|oil]] was discovered [[offshore]] in the early [[1970s]]. The oil sector now accounts for 50% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] and 80% of exports. Oil production is now declining from its apogee of 370,000 barrels per day in 1997. The 1998 fall-off in oil prices had a negative impact on government revenues and the economy. Little thought or plans have been made for an [[Peak oil|after-oil]] scenario. Gabon public expenditures from the years of significant oil revenues have not been spent efficiently. Overspending on the Transgabonais railroad, the oil price shock of 1986, and the franc CFA devaluation of 1994 have caused debt problems. Gabon has earned a poor reputation with the Paris Club and the IMF for poor management of its debt and revenues. IMF missions (related to the now lapsed EFF program) have criticized the government for over-spending on off-budget items (in good years and bad), over-borrowing from the Central Bank, and slipping on the schedule for privatization and administrative reform. Gabon's oil revenues have given it a strong per capita GDP of more than $4,000, extremely high for the region. On the other hand, a skewed income distribution and poor social indicators are evident. The economy is highly dependent on extraction of abundant primary materials. After oil, timber and manganese mining are the other major sectors. Gabon continues to face fluctuating prices for its oil, timber, manganese, and [[uranium]] exports. Foreign and Gabonese observers have consistently lamented the lack of transformation of primary materials in the Gabonese economy. Various factors have so far stymied more diversification (a small market of 1 million people, dependence on French imports, inability to capitalize on regional markets, lack of entrepreneurial zeal among the Gabonese, and the fairly regular stream of oil &quot;rent&quot;). The small processing and service sectors are largely dominated by just a few prominent local investors. In 1992, the fiscal deficit widened to 2.4% of GDP, and Gabon failed to settle [[arrear]]s on its [[bilateral]] debt, leading to a cancellation of rescheduling agreements with official and private creditors. [[Devaluation]] of its [[Francophone currency]] by 50% on [[12 January]] [[1994]] sparked a one-time [[inflationary surge]], to 35%; the rate dropped to 6% in 1996. The [[IMF]] provided a one-year standby arrangement in 1994-95 and a three-year [[Enhanced Financing Facility]] (EFF) at near commercial rates beginning in late 1995. Those agreements mandate progress in [[privatization]] and [[fiscal discipline]]. [[France]] provided additional financial support in January 1997 after Gabon had met IMF targets for mid-1996. In 1997, an IMF mission to Gabon criticized the government for overspending on off-budget items, over-borrowing from the central bank, and slipping on its schedule for privatization and administrative reform. The rebound of oil prices in 1999 helped growth, but drops in production hampered Gabon from fully realizing potential gains. '''GDP:''' [[purchasing power]] parity - $7.9 [[billion]] (7.9 G$) (1999 est.) '''GDP - real growth rate:''' 1.7% (1999 est.) '''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $6,500 (1999 est.) '''GDP - composition by sector:''' &lt;br&gt;''agriculture:'' 10% &lt;br&gt;''industry:'' 60% &lt;br&gt;''services:'' 30% (1999 est.) '''Population below poverty line:''' NA% '''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' &lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:'' NA% &lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:'' NA% '''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' 2.9% (1999 est.) '''Labour force:''' 600,000 '''Labour force - by occupation:''' [[agriculture]] 60%, [[services]] and [[government]] 25%, [[industry]] and [[commerce]] 15% '''Unemployment rate:''' 21% (1997 est.) '''Budget:''' &lt;br&gt;''revenues:'' $1.5 billion &lt;br&gt;''expenditures:'' $1.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $302 million (1996 est.) '''Industries:''' [[food]] and [[beverage]]; [[textile]]; [[lumbering]] and [[plywood]]; [[cement]]; [[
ed in 1986 by those opposed to Sinn Féin taking seats in Dáil Éireann, the lower house of the Irish parliament. ;* [[Real Irish Republican Army]]: another small breakaway from the Provisional IRA formed after the 1997 ceasefire. ==Other uses== ;* [[Individual Retirement Account]], a private retirement account in the United States ;* [[Indian Rights Association]], an advocacy and lobbyist group for the rights of Native Americans ;* [[I.R.A. (band)]], &quot;Ideas de Revolución Adolescente&quot;, a Colombian punk band ;* [[International Reading Association]], a membership organisation of literacy professionals ;* [[Inverness Royal Academy]], a secondary school in Scotland ;* [[Intercollegiate Rowing Association]], the national championship for USA men's collegiate rowing ;* [[International Racquetball Association]], an organisation regulating the sport of [[Racquetball]] ;* [[Inventory Record Accuracy]], a verification protocol for stores. ;* [[Indian Rationalist Association]], a member of the [[Federation of Indian Rationalist Associations]] ==See also== * [[Ira]] (disambiguation), for non-acronyms {{TLAdisambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Infusoria</title> <id>15018</id> <revision> <id>38198365</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T21:36:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Siva1979</username> <id>755590</id> </contributor> <comment>added myonemes</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Infusoria''' is a collective term for minute aquatic creatures like [[Ciliate|ciliate]], [[Euglena|euglena]], [[Paramecium|paramecium]], [[Protozoa|protozoa]] and unicellular [[algae|algae]] that exist in freshwater [[pond]] water. However, in formal classification [[microorganism]] called infusoria belongs to Kingdom [[Animal]]ia, Phylum [[Protozoa|Protozoa]], Class [[Ciliates|Ciliates]] (Infusoria). ==Aquarium use== Infusoria is used by owners of [[aquarium]]s to feed fish [[fry]], [[gourami]] fry and [[tadpoles]] being just two examples which will require this food to survive the first few days. However there is usually not enough infusoria in the average aquarium tank to feed the newly hatched animals. To make infusoria, you take a handful of [[hay]] or dry leaves and place it into a jar, fill the jar with water from your tank or a pool of water. Leave in the [[sun]] for a few days. When the water just starts to get cloudy the infusoria has sufficient [[bacteria]] to feed upon. Once the water begins to clear again, an appropriate culture is available. You can then extract these creatures, with a [[turkey (bird)|turkey]] baster, for example, for feeding to your fry. ==Myonemes== In Infusoria and some [[Flagellates]], the differentiated threads of ectosarc, which are contractile and doubly refractive, perform the function of muscular fibres in the [[Metazoa]]. ===External links=== * [http://www.microscopyu.com/moviegallery/pondscum/ Types of Protozoans and video] [[Category:Protista]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ISO/IEC 8859-1</title> <id>15019</id> <revision> <id>41960120</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:12:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.57.209.250</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* ISO-8859-1 */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''ISO 8859-1''', more formally cited as '''ISO/IEC 8859-1''' or less formally as '''Latin-1''', is part 1 of [[ISO 8859|ISO/IEC 8859]], a standard [[character encoding]] of the [[Latin alphabet]]. It was originally developed by the [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], but later jointly maintained by the ISO and the [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]]. The standard, when supplemented with additional character assignments, is the basis of two widely-used character maps known as '''ISO-8859-1''' (''note the extra hyphen'') and [[Windows-1252]]. In June [[2004]], the ISO/IEC working group responsible for maintaining eight-[[bit]] coded character sets disbanded and ceased all maintenance of ISO 8859, including ISO 8859-1, in order to concentrate on the [[Universal Character Set]] and [[Unicode]]. In computing applications, encodings that provide full UCS support (such as [[UTF-8]] and [[UTF-16]]) are finding increasing favor over encodings based on ISO 8859-1. == Coverage == ISO 8859-1 encodes what it refers to as &quot;[[Latin alphabet]] no. 1,&quot; consisting of 191 [[character (computing)|characters]] from the Latin [[writing system|script]]. Each character is encoded as a single eight-bit code value. These code values can be used in almost any data interchange system to communicate in the following European languages (with a few exceptions due to missing characters, as noted): * [[Albanian language|Albanian]], * [[Basque language|Basque]], * [[Catalan language|Catalan]], * [[Danish language|Danish]], * [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (missing ''[[IJ (letter)|IJ]], ij''), * [[English language|English]], * [[Estonian language|Estonian]] (missing ''[[Š]], š, [[Ž]], ž'' for loan words), ** Note that Windows-1252 and ISO-8859-15 do contain these * [[Faroese language|Faroese]], * [[French language|French]] (missing ''[[OE ligature|Œ]], œ'' and rare ''[[Ÿ]]''), ** Note that Windows-1252 and ISO-8859-15 do contain these * [[Finnish language|Finnish]] (missing ''[[Š]], š, [[Ž]], ž'' for loan words), ** Note that Windows-1252 and ISO-8859-15 do contain these * [[German language|German]], * [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], * [[Irish language|Irish]] (new orthography), * [[Italian language|Italian]], * [[Latin]], * [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] (Bokmål and Nynorsk), * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], * [[Romansh|Rhaeto-Romanic]], * [[Scottish Gaelic|Scottish]], * [[Spanish language|Spanish]], * [[Swedish language|Swedish]]. Other languages covered include * [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] and * [[Swahili language|Swahili]]. Thus, this character encoding is used throughout [[The Americas]], [[Western Europe]], [[Oceania]], and much of [[Africa]]. For some languages the correct typographical [[Quotation mark#Table|quotation mark]]s are missing, for only ''«'' and ''»'' are included. ''See also:'' [[Alphabets derived from the Latin]] == History == ISO 8859-1 was based on the [[Multinational Character Set]] used by [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] in the popular [[VT220]] terminal. It was developed within ECMA, the [[European Computer Manufacturers Association]], and published along with [[ISO 8859-2]], [[ISO 8859-3]], and [[ISO 8859-4]] as part of the specification [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/files/ECMA-ST/Ecma-094.pdf ECMA-94], by which name it is still sometimes known. {{sectstub}}&lt;!--revision history, anyone?--&gt; == Relationship to ISO/IEC 8859-15 == Although ISO/IEC 8859-1 has enough characters for most French text, it is missing a few less-common letters. It is also missing a single-glyph representation for the letter ''IJ'', two Finnish letters used for transcription of some foreign names and in a few loanwords, typographic [[quotation mark]]s and [[dash]]es, and common symbols such as the [[euro]] symbol&amp;#160;(€) and dagger&amp;#160;(&amp;#8224;). In order to provide some of these characters, [[ISO 8859-15|ISO/IEC 8859-15]] was developed as an update of ISO/IEC 8859-1. This required, however, the removal of some infrequently-used characters from ISO/IEC 8859-1, including fraction symbols and letter-free diacritics: &amp;#164;, &amp;#166;, &amp;#168;, &amp;#180;, &amp;#184;, &amp;#188;, &amp;#189;, and &amp;#190;. == Code table == Since all 191 characters encoded by ISO/IEC 8859-1 are 'graphic' (ISO's term for characters that are not control codes) and are compatible with most web browsers, they can be shown as [[glyph]]s in the following table. Since the space, no-break space, and soft hyphen characters would not normally be visible, they are represented by abbreviations for their names. All other characters are represented literally. Row and column headings indicate the [[hexadecimal]] digit combinations to produce the eight-bit code value; e.g., the letter ''L'' is at code value 4C. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; !colspan=17|ISO/IEC 8859-1 |- !!!x0!!x1!!x2!!x3!!x4!!x5!!x6!!x7!!x8!!x9!!xA!!xB!!xC!!xD!!xE!!xF |- !0x |rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;16&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#CFC&quot;|''unused'' |- !1x |- !2x |style=&quot;text-decoration: underline&quot;|''[[space (punctuation)|SP]]''||[[exclamation mark|!]]||[[double quote|&quot;]]||[[number sign|#]]||[[dollar sign|$]]||[[percent|%]]||[[ampersand|&amp;]]||[[']]||[[bracket|(]]||[[bracket|)]]||[[asterisk|*]]||[[plus sign|+]]||[[comma (punctuation)|,]]||[[hyphen|-]]||[[full stop|.]]||[[slash (punctuation)|/]] |- !3x |[[0 (number)| 0 ]]||[[1 (number)|1]]||[[2 (number)|2]]||[[3 (number)|3]]||[[4 (number)|4]]||[[5 (number)|5]]||[[6 (number)|6]]||[[7 (number)|7]]||[[8 (number)|8]]||[[9 (number)|9]]||[[colon (punctuation)|:]]||[[semicolon|;]]||[[angle bracket|&lt;]]||[[equal sign|=]]||[[angle bracket|&gt;]]||[[question mark|?]] |- !4x |[[@]]||[[A]]||[[B]]||[[C]]||[[D]]||[[E]]||[[F]]||[[G]]||[[H]]||[[I]]||[[J]]||[[K]]||[[L]]||[[M]]||[[N]]||[[O]] |- !5x |[[P]]||[[Q]]||[[R]]||[[S]]||[[T]]||[[U]]||[[V]]||[[W]]||[[X]]||[[Y]]||[[Z]]||[[square brackets|&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]||[[Backslash|\]]||[[square brackets|&amp;#93;]]||[[circumflex|^]]||[[underscore|_]] |- !6x |[[Grave accent|`]]||[[a]]||[[b]]||[[c]]||[[d]]||[[e]]||[[f]]||[[g]]||[[h]]||[[i]]||[[j]]||[[k]]||[[l]]||[[m]]||[[n]]||[[o]] |- !7x |[[p]]||[[q]]||[[r]]||[[s]]||[[t]]||[[u]]||[[v]]||[[w]]||[[x]]||[[y]]||[[z]]||[[braces (punctuation)|{]]||[[pipe (computing)||]]||[[braces (punctuation)|&lt;nowiki&gt;}&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]||[[tilde|~]]&lt;td style=&quot;background-color:#CFC&quot;&gt; |- !8x |rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;16&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#CFC&quot;|''unused'' |- !9x |- !Ax |style=&quot;text-
d size is 3.81. In the city the population is spread out with 26.6% under the age of 15, 20.0% from 15 to 24, 33.4% from 25 to 44, 15.0% from 45 to 64, and 5.0% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 26 years. For every 100 females there are 92.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.3 males. In the city 41.4% of residents speak [[Afrikaans]] at home, 27.9% speak [[English language|English]], 0.0% speak [[Ndebele language|Ndebele]], 28.7% speak [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], 0.3% speak [[Zulu language|Zulu]], 0.0% speak [[Sepedi]], 0.7% speak [[Sesotho]], 0.1% speak [[Setswana]], 0.0% speak [[SiSwati]], 0.0% speak [[Tshivenda]], and 0.0% speak [[Xitsonga]]. 0.7% of the population speaks a non-official language at home. 76.6% of residents are [[Christianity|Christian]], 10.7% have [[Atheism|no religion]], 9.7% are [[Islam|Muslim]], 0.5% are [[Judaism|Jewish]], and 0.2% are [[Hinduism|Hindu]]. 2.3% have other or undetermined beliefs. 4.2% of residents aged 20 and over have received no schooling, 11.8% have had some [[primary school]], 7.1% have completed only primary school, 38.9% have had some [[high school]] education, 25.4% have finished only high school, and 12.6% have an education higher than the high school level. Overall, 38.0% of residents have completed high school. 68.6% of housing units have a [[telephone]] and/or [[cell-phone]] in the dwelling, 29.5% have access to a phone nearby, and 1.9% have access that is not nearby or no access. 87.4% of households have a flush or chemical [[toilet]]. 94.4% have [[refuse]] removed by the municipality at least once a week and 1.4% have no rubbish disposal. 69.3% have running water inside their dwelling, 84.4% have running water on their property, and 98.7% have access to running water. 80.1% of households use [[electricity]] for cooking, 75.0% for heating, and 88.8% for lighting. 80.7% of households have a [[radio]], 77.0% have a [[television]], 21.3% own a [[computer]], 76.4% have a [[refrigerator]], and 45.5% have a [[cell-phone]]. 19.4% of the population aged 15-65 is unemployed. Of the unemployed persons, 58.3% are Black African, 38.1% are Coloured, 0.5% are Indian/Asian, and 3.1% are White. 34.8% of Black Africans are unemployed, 15.8% of Coloureds, 7.1% of Indians/Asians, and 3.1% of Whites. The median annual income of working adults aged 15-65 is R 25,774 ($3,874). Males have a median annual income of R 28,406 ($4,270) versus R 22,265 ($3,347) for females. The median annual income by race is R 13,471 ($2,025) for Black Africans, R 23,012 ($3,459) for Coloureds, R 44,233 ($6,648) for Indians/Asians, and R 70,380 ($10,579) for Whites. The annual income distribution in Cape Town is: * No income 2.0% * R 12 &amp;#8211; R 4,800 ($2 - $721) 4.4% * R 4,812 &amp;#8211; R 9,600 ($723 - $1,443) 10.0% * R 9,612 &amp;#8211; R 19,200 ($1,445 &amp;#8211; $2,886) 25.7% * R 19,212 &amp;#8211; R 38,400 ($2,888 - $5,772) 23.1% * R 38,412 &amp;#8211; R 76,800 ($5,774 - $11,543) 18.1% * R 76,812 &amp;#8211; R 153,600 ($11,545 - $23,087) 10.1% * R 153,612 &amp;#8211; R 307,200 ($23,089 - $46,174) 4.4% * R 307,212 &amp;#8211; R 614,400 ($46,176 - $92,348) 1.4% * R 614,412 or more ($92,350+) 0.8% [http://www.statssa.gov.za/census01/Census/Database/Census%202001/Census%202001.asp Statistics South Africa Census 2001] ==Tourism== [[Image:Cape Town Waterfront.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The V&amp;A Waterfront in Cape Town, backed by [[Table Mountain]] with characteristic tablecloth.]] Cape Town is a popular tourist destination, offering the visitor a wide variety of activities such as water sports (including diving, surfing, kite-surfing and sailing), angling, [[wine tasting]], shopping, scenic drives, mountaineering, hiking, mountain-biking, kite-flying, hang-gliding and parasailing, boat trips, and bird- and whale-watching. ===When to visit=== The most popular time for visitors is the summer from October to March, though some visitors from more temperate climates might find the height of summer (December and January) uncomfortably hot. The city also becomes very crowded then as the local holidaymakers descend on the city for their summer school holidays. ===Main attractions=== Some of the most popular tourist attractions are: * The [[Victoria &amp; Alfred Waterfront]], a popular shopping venue with hundreds of shops, fine hotels, a world-class marina and an [[aquarium]] * [[Table Mountain]], which can be accessed either by walking or [[Table Mountain Cableway|cable car]] * [[Cape Point]] * [[Robben Island]] * [[Kirstenbosch|Kirstenbosch botanical gardens]] * [[Signal Hill (Cape Town)|Signal Hill]] with the [[Noon gun]] * [[Chapman's Peak|Chapman's Peak Drive]] * The [[Cape Wine Route]] * The [[Beaches of Cape Town|Beaches]] [[Image:Cape Town and Robben Island seen from Table Mountain.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The central area of Cape Town as seen from [[Table Mountain]].]] The [[Table Mountain Cableway]] takes visitors to the top of [[Table Mountain]], though it can be closed in gale-force winds. The operating status (open or closed) of the cable car is posted on a signboard at Kloof Nek. The Cape Peninsula and the region around Cape Town offer wonderful walking and hiking opportunities. [[Table Mountain]], [[Lion's Head (Cape Town)|Lion's Head]] and [[Devil's Peak (Cape Town)|Devil's Peak]]) can be accessed very easily from right in the middle of the city, and the surrounding mountain ranges offer further opportunities. The [[Kirstenbosch|Kirstenbosch botanical gardens]] are one of the city's most popular attractions, with a stunning setting and a world-class botanical collection. Kirstenbosch also hosts a popular series of outdoor concerts on Sunday evenings during summer. Boat trips can be undertaken from the [[Victoria &amp; Alfred Waterfront]] to visit [[Robben Island]]. Other boat trips can be undertaken from [[Simon's Town]] (the main South African naval base) on the [[False Bay]] coast to Seal Island and [[Cape Point]] and from [[Hout Bay]], a fishing harbour on the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula, to Duiker Island which has a population of 6000 seals in breeding season dropping to 1500 seals in the off season. Cruises around the [[Cape of Good Hope|Cape Point]] are also popular among tourists. Cape Town is famous for its beaches. Blouberg beach has the classic view of Table Mountain and is a world class spot for windsurfing and kitesurfing, mainly in the summer seasons (September to February). Other popular beaches include [[Camps Bay]] and [[Clifton, Cape Town|Clifton]], home to the rich and famous, and [[Boulders Beach]], home to a colony of penguins. The annual [[Coon Carnival|Cape Town Minstrel Carnival]] or '''Kaapse Klopse''' is a minstrel festival held annually on [[2 January]] or 'Tweede Nuwe Jaar'. Competing teams of minstrels parade in brightly coloured costumes, either carrying colourful umbrellas or playing an array of musical instruments. ===Highlights nearby=== [[Stellenbosch]] and [[Franschhoek]] are popular historic towns within a few hours' drive of Cape Town. [[Whale Watching]] is popular, with one of the world's largest population of [[Southern Right Whale]]s found off the coast of the Cape Peninsula and the surrounding areas of the [[Western Cape]] during the breeding season (August to November). Many local observation points allow sightings from close by. [[Hermanus]] is the most famous and whales often come within 100yds of the shore there but they can be seen in False Bay, as can [[Bryde's Whale]], which occur all year. [[Heaviside's Dolphin]] is endemic to the area and can be seen from the coast north of Cape Town, especially from [[Lambert's Bay]] where boat trips run to view them. [[Dusky Dolphin]] can be seen along the same stretch of coast but is more active with a swept back dorsal fin which is distinctly two-toned. This species may be seen from the ferry to Robben Island. The [[Cape Wine Route]] includes informative tours to local [[Winery|wineries]] such as the town of [[Barrydale]] which offers [[wine tasting]] and sells specialist [[brandy]]. August and September are the best time to visit the [[Namaqualand]] region on the west coast of South Africa, because the desert comes to life after the winter rains and the wild flowers bloom in profusion. ==Sports teams and stadiums== Three main team sports are played in the city: [[rugby union|rugby]], [[cricket]] and [[football]]. Cape Town boasts two [[soccer]] teams in the Premier League, [[Santos Football Club|Santos]] (based in [[Athlone, Cape Town|Athlone]]) and [[Ajax Cape Town]] (based in Parow). The Cape Town suburb of Newlands is the home of the [[Western Province Rugby Union|Western Province]] rugby team, one of the powerhouses in South African [[rugby union|rugby]]. The current team captain is [[Schalk Burger]]. Newlands is also the base for the [[Stormers (rugby club)|Stormers]] team, which plays in the [[Super 14]]. The [[Cape Cobras]] cricket team is based at the [[Newlands Cricket Ground]]. It is the amalgamation of the [[Western Province Cricket]] and [[Boland Cricket]] teams. The clement weather of the region allows open air sports all year round. Apart from team sports, golf and tennis are very popular and facilities for these exist all over the city. Conditions for scuba diving, surfing and both kite and board sailing are world class and attract many foreign tourists. Apart from the existing Newlands Rugby Stadium which seats 50,900 and the Newlands Cricket Stadium with a capacity of 25,000, there is the Athlone Stadium which is set to undergo an upgrade as a training venue for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. A completely new facility to seat 70,000 spectators is planned for the Green Point Track on the outskirts of the CBD. The stadium will receive a retractable roof which will open and close depending on the weather. The estimated cost of the stadium is R1.2 billion. The area around the stadium is set to undergo a tr
per capita|177&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;]]) |- |'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' ([[2003]]) || 0.444 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|161&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt;]]) – &lt;font color=&quot;#E0584E&quot;&gt;low&lt;/font&gt; |- | '''[[Independence]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Limited&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Fully | From [[Ethiopia]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[May 29]], [[1991]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[May 24]], [[1993]] |- | '''[[Currency]]''' | [[Eritrean nakfa|Nakfa]] |- | '''[[Time zone]]''' | [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +3 |- | '''[[National anthem]]''' | ''[[Ertra, Ertra, Ertra]]'' |- | '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' | [[.er]] |- | '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' | 291 |} The '''State of Eritrea''', or '''Eritrea''' (from the [[Italian language|Italian]] form of the [[Greek language|Greek]] name &amp;#917;&amp;#929;&amp;#933;&amp;#920;&amp;#929;&amp;#913;&amp;#921;&amp;#913; (''Erythraîa''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]), which derives from the Greek name for the [[Red Sea]]), is a country in [[east Africa|northeast Africa]]. It is bordered by [[Sudan]] in the west, [[Ethiopia]] in the south, and [[Djibouti]] in the southeast. The east and northeast of the country has an extensive coastline with the Red Sea. Having achieved independence on [[May 24]], [[1993]] from [[Ethiopia]], it is one of the youngest independent states. == History == ''Main article: [[History of Eritrea]]'' Eritrea's coastal lowlands had been ruled by many powers before it was [[colonialism|colonised]] by the [[Italy|Italians]] in [[1885]]. Previously, the coast was long occupied by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Turkey|Turks]], who then left it to their [[Egypt]]ian heirs in the mid [[19th century]]. The interior, particularly the [[Christian]] (predominantly [[Coptic Christianity | Coptic]]) Kebessa Highlands of [[Hamasien]], [[Akale Guzai]], and [[Serai]], were traditionally loosely associated with [[Ethiopia]]. An Italian [[Roman Catholic]] priest by the name of [[Sapetto]] purchased the port of [[Assab]] from the [[Afar Sultan]] (a vassal of the [[Emperor of Ethiopia]]) on behalf of an Italian commercial conglomerate. Later, as the Egyptians retreated out of Sudan during the [[Mahdist rebellion]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] brokered an agreement whereby the Egyptians could retreat through [[Ethiopia]], and in exchange they would allow the Emperor to occupy those lowland districts that he had disputed with the Turks and Egyptians. Emperor [[Yohannis IV]] believed this included [[Massawa]], but instead, the port was handed by the Egyptians and the British to the Italians, who united it with the already colonised port of Asab to form a coastal Italian possession. The Italians took advantage of disorder in northern Ethiopia following the death of Emperor [[Yohannis IV]] to occupy the highlands, and established their new colony, henceforth known as Eritrea, and achieved recognition by Ethiopia's new Emperor [[Menelik II]]. The Italians remained the colonial power in Eritrea until they were defeated by Allied forces in [[World War II]] ([[1941]]), and Eritrea became a [[British protectorate]]. After the war, the [[United Nations]], after a lengthy inquiry in which those who wanted union with Ethiopia and those who wanted independence lobbied the great powers and the [[United Nations|U.N.]] extensively, eventually reached a compromise that the former Italian colony was to join [[Ethiopia]] as part of a [[federation]]. Eritrea would have its own [[parliament]] and administration, and would be represented in the Ethiopian parliament which would function as the Federal Parliament. The Emperor of Ethiopia, Emperor [[Haile Selassie]], would be the [[monarch]] of Eritrea and would be represented there by a [[viceroy]]. Both unionists and pro-independence people found the federation to be undesirable. By a show of military force in the Eritrean Parliament the federation was dissolved by Ethiopia. The Emperor agreed readily and annexed Eritrea in [[1960]] even over the serious reservations of his Prime Minister, [[Aklilu Habte-Wold]], who was ardently in favor of retaining the federation. Promptly, pro-independence Eritreans went into rebellion and launched a long war of independence. They were joined by disaffected federationists who now were convinced Eritrea would be better off as an independent state. The war would last 30 years. The war of Eritrean Independence would escalate considerably after the overthrow of the Ethiopian monarchy in [[1974]], when a hardline [[Marxism|Marxist]] military junta known as the [[Derg]] seized power, and launched a major offensive in Eritrea. The brutality of the government of dictator [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] did much to increase the numbers of the independence movements supporters to the point that Eritreans became almost exclusively pro-independence by the mid-[[1980s]]. The liberation struggle was dominated by two movements, the [[Eritrean Liberation Front]] (ELF), often refered to as &quot;Jebha&quot;, and by the [[Eritrean People's Liberation Front]] (EPLF), often known as &quot;Shaebia&quot;. The ELF was dominated by [[Muslim]] lowlanders, and was a conservative grass roots movement, whereas the EPLF was dominated by highlanders of Christian background, professing [[Marxism-Leninism]]. The ELF received backing from the more conservative Arab governments, whereas the EPLF from the more leftist ones, and some [[Eastern bloc]] countries which abandoned it in favor of the Derg regime in Ethiopia upon the Ethiopian revolution. The ELF and EPLF made attempts to consolidate their operations, but soon found that they could not work together. The ELF was eventually overshadowed and eliminated by the EPLF. The long war ended in [[1991]], when joint Eritrean and rebellious Ethiopian forces defeated the Ethiopian army, and the Derg regime fell. Two years later, after a [[referendum]], Eritrean independence was declared. The leader of the EPLF, [[Isaias Afewerki]], became Eritrea's first Provisional [[President]]. The Eritrean Peoples Liberation front (EPLF or Shaebia), became the sole legal ruling party, and changed its name to the [[People's Front for Democracy and Justice]] (PFDJ). In [[1998]], a border war with [[Ethiopia]] resulted in the deaths of some 70,000 people from both countries, and subjected Eritrea to significant economic and social stresses, including massive population displacement, reduced economic development, and one of [[Africa]]'s more severe [[land mine|landmine]] problems. The Ethiopian government, once firm allies of the Eritrean authorities, expelled large numbers of Eritreans and Ethiopians of Eritrean heritage from Ethiopia at the outset of the war. These once-prosperous people found themselves suddenly dispossessed and dropped off in the border zone between the two countries, adding to the serious displaced-persons problem. In spite of initially promising economic and political strides, the Eritrean government cracked down on the free press and on opposition in 2001 when questions about the conduct of the war were raised. The government also failed to implement the new [[Constitution]] and to hold long-promised elections. Later, the government of Eritrea enforced the Italian colonial practice of requiring government approval of all practiced religions. The [[Eritrean-Ethiopian War]] ended in [[2000]] with a negotiated agreement known as the [[Algiers Agreement]]. One of the terms of the agreement was the establishment of a UN peacekeeping operation, known as the [[United Nations Mission in Eritrea and Ethiopia]] ([[UNMEE]]); over 4,000 UN peacekeepers remain as of [[August 2004]]. Another term of the Algiers Agreement was the establishment of a final demarcation of the disputed border area between Eritrea and Ethiopia. An independent, UN-associated boundary commission known as the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC), after extensive study, issued a final border ruling in [[April 2002]]. Ethiopia initially rejected the decision, but in November of 2004 said that it agreed to the border ruling &quot;in principle.&quot; However, Ethiopia has massed some troops along the nations' border, but no widespread hostilities have erupted.. == Politics == ''Main article: [[Politics of Eritrea]]'' The National Assembly of 150 seats, formed in [[1993]] shortly after independence, elected the current president, [[Isaias Afewerki]]. National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled. Independent local sources of political information on Eritrean domestic politics are scarce; in [[September 2001]] the government closed down all of the nation's privately owned print [[media]], and outspoken critics of the government have been arrested and held without trial, according to various international observers, including [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]]. In 2004 the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] declared Eritrea a [[Country of Particular Concern]] (CPC) for its alleged record of religious [[persecution]] (see below). External issues include the border conflict with Ethiopia and the Sudan. After a high-level delegation to the Sudan from the Eritrean Ministry of Foreign Affairs ties are being normalized. The conflict with Ethiopia remains of primary concern and the stalemate has led the President to urge the UN to take action. Central to the continuation of the stalemate has to do with Ethiopia's inability to abide by the border demarcation ruling. This request is outlined in the [[Wikisource:Eleven Letters|Eleven Letters]] penned by the President. The situation is further escalated by the continued effort of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting each other's opposition. Eritrean National elections were set for 1997 and then postponed until 2001, it was then decided that because 20% of Eritrea's land was under
nd Major League manager *[[1948]] - [[JoBeth Williams]], American actress * 1948 - [[Keke Rosberg]], Finnish race car driver *[[1950]] - [[Joe Hisaishi]], Japanese composer *[[1952]] - [[Rick Charlesworth]], Australian cricketer, politician, hockey player, and coach *[[1953]] - [[Tom Hulce]], American actor * 1953 - [[Gary Ward]], American baseball player *[[1955]] - [[Steven Wright]], American comedian * 1955 - [[Rick Buckler]], British drummer ([[The Jam]]) *[[1956]] - [[Peter Buck]], American guitarist ([[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]]) * 1956 - [[Randy Rhoads]], American guitarist (d. [[1982]]) *[[1958]] - [[Xander Berkeley]], American actor * 1958 - [[Nick Park]], British filmmaker and animator *[[1961]] - [[David Lovering]], American drummer ([[The Pixies]]) *[[1962]] - [[Janine Turner]], American actress *[[1967]] - [[Hacken Lee]], Hong Kong singer *[[1971]] - [[Richard Krajicek]], Dutch tennis player * 1971 - [[Ryan White]], American AIDS activist (d. [[1990]]) *[[1976]] - [[Colleen Haskell]], American television personality *[[1977]] - [[Kevin Cash]], baseball player * 1977 - [[Andrew Flintoff]], England cricketer * 1977 - [[Paul McVeigh]], Irish footballer *[[1979]] - [[Tim Cahill]], Australia footballer *[[1980]] - [[Steve Lovell]], British footballer *[[1983]] - [[Bryan Habana]], South African rugby player *[[1986]] - [[Cintia Dicker]], Brazilian model *[[1988]] - [[Adam Greenberg]], American civil rights leader *[[1993]] - [[Elian Gonzalez]], Cuban subject of child custody battle ==Deaths== *[[1185]] - King [[Afonso I of Portugal]] (b. [[1109]]) *[[1352]] - [[Pope Clement VI]] (b. [[1291]]) *[[1562]] - [[Jan van Scorel]] Dutch painter and architect *[[1618]] - [[Jacques-Davy Duperron]], French cardinal (b. [[1556]]) *[[1658]] - [[Baltasar Gracián y Morales]], Spanish writer (b. [[1601]]) *[[1672]] - King [[John II Casimir of Poland]] (b. [[1609]]) *[[1675]] - [[John Lightfoot]], English churchman (b. [[1602]]) *[[1718]] - [[Nicholas Rowe (dramatist)|Nicholas Rowe]], English poet and dramatist (b. [[1674]]) *[[1746]] - [[Lady Grizel Baillie]], Scottish songwriter (b. [[1665]]) *[[1771]] - [[Giovanni Battista Morgagni]], Italian anatomist (b. [[1682]]) *[[1779]] - [[Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]], French painter (b. [[1699]]) *[[1788]] - [[Jonathan Shipley]], British bishop and politician (b. [[1714]]) *[[1867]] - [[Jean Pierre Flourens]], French physician (b. [[1794]]) *[[1868]] - [[August Schleicher]], German linguist (b. [[1821]]) *[[1882]] - [[Anthony Trollope]], British author (b. [[1815]]) * 1882 - [[Alfred Escher]], Swiss politician and railroad entrepreneur (b. [[1819]]) *[[1889]] - [[Jefferson Davis]], [[President of the Confederate States of America]] (b. [[1808]]) *[[1892]] - [[Ernst Werner von Siemens]], German inventor and industrialist (b. [[1816]]) *[[1949]] - [[Leadbelly]], American musician (b. [[1885]]) *[[1951]] - [[Harold Ross]], American magazine editor (b. [[1892]]) *[[1955]] - [[Honus Wagner]], baseball player (b. [[1874]]) *[[1956]] - [[Ambedkar|Dr. Bhimji Ramji Ambedkar]], Indian Minister of Law (b. [[1891]]) *[[1961]] - [[Frantz Fanon]], West Indian psychiatrist and writer (b. [[1925]]) *[[1976]] - [[João Goulart]], [[President of Brazil]] (b. [[1918]]) *[[1985]] - [[Burr Tillstrom]], American puppeteer (b. [[1917]]) *[[1988]] - [[Roy Orbison]], American singer, guitarist, and songwriter (b. [[1936]]) *[[1989]] - [[Frances Bavier]], American actress (b. [[1902]]) *[[1991]] - Sir [[Richard Stone]], British economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1913]]) *[[1993]] - [[Don Ameche]], American actor (b. [[1908]]) *[[1997]] - [[Billy Bremner]], Scottish footballer (b. [[1942]]) *[[2001]] - Sir [[Peter Blake (yachtsman)|Peter Blake]], New Zealand sailor and environmentalist (b. [[1948]]) *[[2002]] - [[Philip Berrigan]], American civil rights activist (b. [[1923]]) *[[2003]] - [[Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio]], [[President of Guatemala]] (b. [[1918]]) * 2003 - [[Jerry Tuite]], American professional wrestler (b. [[1966]]) *[[2004]] - [[Raymond Goethals]], Belgian football coach (b. [[1921]]) *[[2005]] - [[Charly Gaul]], Luxembourg cyclist *2005 - [[Devan Nair]], 3rd [[President of Singapore]] (b. [[1923]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - optional memorial of [[Saint Nicholas]] * Also see [[December 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]] * [[Canada]] - [[National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women]] * [[Public holidays in Finland|Finland]] - [[Finland Independence Day]] (from Russia, [[1917]]) * [[Public holidays in Spain|Spain]] - [[Spanish Constitution of 1978|Constitution Day]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/6 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[December 5]] - [[December 7]] - [[November 6]] - [[January 6]] — [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:6 Desember]] [[an:6 d'abiento]] [[ar:6 ديسمبر]] [[ast:6 d'avientu]] [[be:6 сьнежня]] [[bg:6 декември]] [[bs:6. decembar]] [[ca:6 de desembre]] [[ceb:Disyembre 6]] [[co:6 di decembre]] [[cs:6. prosinec]] [[csb:6 gòdnika]] [[cv:Раштав, 6]] [[cy:6 Rhagfyr]] [[da:6. december]] [[de:6. Dezember]] [[el:6 Δεκεμβρίου]] [[eo:6-a de decembro]] [[es:6 de diciembre]] [[et:6. detsember]] [[eu:Abenduaren 6]] [[fi:6. joulukuuta]] [[fo:6. desember]] [[fr:6 décembre]] [[fy:6 desimber]] [[ga:6 Nollaig]] [[gl:6 de decembro]] [[he:6 בדצמבר]] [[hr:6. prosinca]] [[hu:December 6]] [[ia:6 de decembre]] [[id:6 Desember]] [[io:6 di decembro]] [[is:6. desember]] [[it:6 dicembre]] [[ja:12月6日]] [[jv:6 Desember]] [[ka:6 დეკემბერი]] [[ko:12월 6일]] [[ku:6'ê berfanbarê]] [[la:6 Decembris]] [[lb:6. Dezember]] [[lt:Gruodžio 6]] [[mk:6 декември]] [[ms:6 Disember]] [[nap:6 'e dicembre]] [[nl:6 december]] [[nn:6. desember]] [[no:6. desember]] [[oc:6 de decembre]] [[pam:Disiembri 6]] [[pl:6 grudnia]] [[pt:6 de Dezembro]] [[ro:6 decembrie]] [[ru:6 декабря]] [[scn:6 di dicèmmiru]] [[sco:6 December]] [[se:Juovlamánu 6.]] [[simple:December 6]] [[sk:6. december]] [[sl:6. december]] [[sq:6 Dhjetor]] [[sr:6. децембар]] [[sv:6 december]] [[te:డిసెంబర్ 6]] [[th:6 ธันวาคม]] [[tl:Disyembre 6]] [[tr:6 Aralık]] [[tt:6. Dekäber]] [[uk:6 грудня]] [[vi:6 tháng 12]] [[wa:6 di decimbe]] [[war:Disyembre 6]] [[zh:12月6日]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>December 5</title> <id>8353</id> <revision> <id>41921350</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:07:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>194.60.125.248</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Births */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- language links at the bottom of this page --&gt; '''[[December 5]]''' is the 339th day (340th in [[leap year]]s) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 26 days remaining. {{DecemberCalendar}} ==Events== * [[1484]] - [[Pope Innocent VIII]] issues the ''[[Summis desiderantes]]'', a [[papal bull]] that deputizes [[Heinrich Kramer]] and [[Jacob Sprenger]] as [[inquisition|inquisitors]] to root out alleged [[witchcraft]] in [[Germany]] and leads to one of the severest witchhunts in European history. * [[1492]] - [[Christopher Columbus]] becomes the first [[Europe]]an to set foot on the island of [[Hispaniola]]. * [[1560]] - [[Francis II of France]] dies and is succeeded by [[Charles IX of France]]. * [[1590]] - Niccolò Sfondrati becomes [[Pope Gregory XIV]]. * [[1766]] - In [[London]], [[Christie's|James Christie]] holds his first sale. * [[1776]] - At the [[College of William and Mary]] in [[Williamsburg, Virginia]], the [[Phi Beta Kappa]] is founded as the first scholastic [[fraternities and sororities|fraternity]] in the [[United States]]. * [[1830]] - World premiere of Hector Berlioz's most famous work Symphonie Phantastique in Paris. * [[1831]] - Former US President [[John Quincy Adams]] takes his seat in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. * [[1848]] - [[California Gold Rush]]: In a message before the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]], US President [[James K. Polk]] confirms that large amounts of [[gold]] had been discovered in [[California]]. * [[1892]] - [[John Sparrow David Thompson|Sir John Thompson]] becomes the fourth [[Prime Minister of Canada]]. * [[1926]] - [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s ''[[Battleship Potemkin]]'' is premiered. * [[1932]] - [[Germany|German]]-born [[Swiss]] [[physicist]] [[Albert Einstein]] is granted an American [[visa (document)|visa]]. * [[1933]] - [[Prohibition]] ends: [[Utah]] becomes the 36th [[U.S. state]] to ratify the [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution]], thus establishing the required 75% of states needed to enact the amendment (this overturned the [[Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|18th Amendment]] which had outlawed [[ethenol|alcohol]] in the [[United States]]). * [[1934]] - [[Abyssinia Crisis]]: [[History of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars|Italian]] troops attack Wal Wal in [[Abyssinia]], taking four days to capture the city. * [[1936]] - The [[Soviet Union]] adopts a new [[1936 Soviet Constitution|constitution]] and the [[Kirghiz SSR|Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic]] is established as a full [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Union Republic]] of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]. * [[1941]] - In [[Battle of Moscow]] Zhukov launched a massive Soviet counter-attack against the German army, with the biggest offensive launched against Army Group Centre. * 1941 - [[John Steinbeck]]'s book ''[[Sea of Cortez]]'' is published (Steinbeck used knowledge gained writing this book to develop the marine biologist character Doc (see [[Ed Ricketts]]) in ''[[Cannery Row (novel)|Cannery Row]]''). * [[1945]] - [[Flight 19]], a squadron of five [[U.S. Navy]] [[TBF Avenger]] bombers on a training flight out of [[Fort Lauderdale]], is lost in the [[Bermuda Triangle]]. * [[1952]] - ''The Abbott and Costello Show'', starring comedians [[Bud Abbott]] an
is a meaningful degree of uniformity in formal written English in the United Kingdom, the forms of spoken English used vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken. [[List of dialects of the English language#Europe|Dialects]] and [[Regional accents of English speakers|accents]] vary not only within regions of the UK, for example in [[Scottish English|Scotland]], [[Mid-Ulster English|Northern Ireland]] and [[Wales]], but also within these countries themselves. The written form of the language, as taught in schools, is universally Commonwealth English, with a slight emphasis on words whose usage varies amongst the different regions of the UK. For example, although the words &quot;wee&quot; and &quot;little&quot; are interchangeable in some contexts, one is more likely to see &quot;wee&quot; written by a Scot than by a Londoner. For historical reasons dating back to the rise of [[London]] in the 9th century, the form of language spoken in London and the [[East Midlands]] became standard English within the Court, and thus the form generally accepted for use in the law, government, literature and education within the British Isles. Although ''British English'' is often used in the [[United States]] to denote the English spelling and lexicon used outside the US, the term ''[[Commonwealth English]]'' is more accurate for this purpose. The British spellings were most famously recorded in [[Samuel Johnson]]'s ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' ([[1755]]). Historically, the widespread usage of English across the world is attributed to the former power of the [[British Empire]], and hence the most common form of English used by the British ruling class that of south-east England (the area around the capital, London, and the ancient English [[university]] towns of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]). This form of the language is associated with [[Received Pronunciation]] (RP), which is still regarded by many people outside the UK (especially in the [[United States]]) as &quot;the British accent&quot;. However, even RP has evolved quite markedly over the last 40 years. From the second half of the 20th century to the present day, the preeminence of the English language has been augmented by the economic, military and political dominance of the United States in world affairs. Indeed, [[American English]] is often regarded by Americans as the most prominent form of English in the world today, a fact reinforced by the large amount of U.S. cultural products (including [[film|films]]) in global circulation. The form of English spoken and written in the United Kingdom still has a major cultural influence, in particular on the English used in many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries (including [[Australia]], [[South Africa]], and [[India]]), as well as in the [[European Union]]. Although British English is taught and used in the former British colonies of [[Hong Kong]], [[Singapore]] and [[Malaysia]], American English is often taught in [[Japan]]ese schools, and in other schools throughout [[Asia]]. ==See also== *[[English English]] *[[American English]] *[[Scottish English]] *[[Welsh English]] *[[Mid Ulster English]] *[[Hiberno-English]] *[[International English]] *[[American and British English differences]] *[[American and British English spelling differences]] *[[List of dialects of the English language]] *[[Standard English]] *[[British Isles (terminology)]] ==References== *Bragg, M. (2004) 'The Adventure of English', Sceptre. ISBN 0340829931 [[Category:British English|*]] [[Category:British culture|English, British]] [[Category:English dialects]] [[Category:Languages of the United Kingdom]] [[Category:English language]] [[Category:Forms of English]] [[de:Britisches Englisch]] [[es:Inglés británico]] [[fr:Anglais britannique]] [[ko:영국 영어]] [[he:אנגלית בריטית]] [[ja:イギリス英語]] [[simple:British English]] [[zh:英國英語]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Battle</title> <id>4181</id> <revision> <id>41996433</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:53:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.153.166.226</ip> </contributor> <comment>Arbela is the incorrect name for the Battle of Gaugamela</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}} [[Image:Sadler, Battle of Waterloo.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''The [[Battle of Waterloo]]'' by [[William Sadler]].]] Generally, a '''battle''' is an instance of [[combat]] in [[warfare]] between two or more parties wherein each group will seek to defeat the others. Battles are most often fought during [[war]]s or military campaigns and can usually be well defined in time, space and action. Wars and [[military campaign|campaign]]s are guided by [[military strategy|strategy]] whereas battles are the stage on which [[military tactics|tactics]] are employed. German strategist [[Carl von Clausewitz]] stated that &quot;the employment of battles to gain the end of war&quot; was the essence of strategy. == Characteristics of battle == [[United Kingdom|British]] [[military historian]] [[John Keegan|Sir John Keegan]] suggested an ideal definition of battle as &quot;something which happens between two [[army|armies]] leading to the moral then physical disintegration of one or the other of them&quot; though the origins and outcomes of battles can rarely be summarised so neatly. The &quot;action&quot; of battle is to reach a decision &amp;mdash; the ideal decision is victory but strategy and circumstances often require a compromise. One party is deemed to have achieved victory when its opponent has [[surrender (military)|surrender]]ed, been dispersed, forced to retreat or been rendered militarily ineffective for further combat operations. However, a battle may end in a [[Pyrrhic victory]] which ultimately favours the defeated party. If no decision is reached in battle, the result is a [[stalemate]]. A conflict in which one side is unwilling to reach a decision in battle often becomes an [[insurgency]]. Up until the [[20th century]] the majority of battles were of short duration, many lasting a day or less &amp;mdash; the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] and the [[Battle of Nations]] were exceptional for lasting three days. This was mainly due to the difficulty of supplying an army in the field. Typically the means of prolonging a battle was by [[siege warfare]]. Improvements in [[transport]]ation and the onset of [[trench warfare]], with its siege-like nature, saw the duration of battles increase to weeks and months, peaking during the [[First World War]]. Nevertheless, in a long battle the regular rotation of units meant that the periods of intensive combat to which an individual soldier was subjected tended to remain brief. Battles may be small scale, only involving a handful of individuals, perhaps two [[squad]]s, up to battles on [[army]] levels where hundreds of thousands may be engaged in a single battle at one time. The space a battle occupies depends on the range of the [[weapon]]s of the combatants. Until the advent of [[artillery]] and [[aircraft]], battles were fought with the two sides in sight, if not reach, of each other. The depth of the battlefield has also increased in [[modern warfare]] with supporting units in the rear areas &amp;mdash; supply, artillery, medical, etc. &amp;mdash; now outnumbering the front-line combat troops. Battles are, on the whole, made up of a multitude of individual combats and the individual will usually only experience a small part of the events. To the [[infantry]]man, there may be little to distinguish between combat as part of a minor raid or a major offensive, nor is it likely that they anticipate the future course of the battle; few of the British infantry who went over the top on the [[first day on the Somme]], [[1 July]], [[1916]], would have anticipated that they would be fighting the same battle in five months time. Conversely, some of the Allied infantry who had just dealt a crushing defeat to the [[France|French]] at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] fully expected to have to fight again the next day. == The factors of battles == Battles are decided by various factors. The number of men, the [[commanders]] of each army, and the terrain advantages are among the most prominent factors. Battles throughout history have shown that [[morale]] and the [[quality]] of troops are often more important than quantity. The [[Persian Wars]], for example, show that superior morale can overcome numerical disadvantages, especially in the [[Battle of Thermopylae]]. A good example of the opposite is the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Quality of the army is determined by morale, that is, spirit of the troops; equipment, and training of the troops. A unit may charge with high morale but less discipline and still emerge victorious. This tactic was effectively employed by [[Napoleon]]. Weapons and armor may also play as a decisive factor; however, during the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]] the [[Scots]] emerged victorious over the [[England|English]] despite inferior weaponry. Discipline within the troops is also important; at the [[Battle of Alesia]], the Romans were greatly outnumbered but won because of superior training. A squad that does not retreat is far more valuable than an army that flees upon sight. Battles are also be determined by terrain. Capturing high ground, for example, has been the central strategy in inumerable battles. An army that holds the high ground forces the enemy to climb, and thus wear down. Although this does not hold as much in modern warfare, with the advent of aircraft, terrain is still vital for camouflauge, especially for [[guerrilla warfare]]. Generals and commanders also play a decisve war during combat. [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] and [[Julius Caesar]] were both legendary generals and, consequently, their armies were extremely successful. An army that can tru
|gothic]] reinvention set in present-day [[New Orleans]] that recast Victor as the villain and the creature as a tragic hero determined to stop him; the primary action involves two police detectives ([[Parker Posey]] and [[Adam Goldberg]]) who enlist the aid of the creature (&quot;Deucalion&quot; in this version) to stop a serial killer who may be one of Victor's later creations. It was produced by [[Martin Scorsese]] and based on a treatment by [[Dean Koontz]]. The film was originally intended as the pilot for an ongoing series, but this was not successful. Koontz is in the process of developing the concept into a series of novels {''Dean Koontz's Frankenstein: Prodigal Son'' and ''Dean Koontz's Frankenstein: City of Night'' are the first two volumes). * In the TV show ''[[Late Night with Conan O'Brien]]'', Frankenstein's monster is a recurring character in the segment &quot;[[Frankenstein Wastes A Minute of Our Time]]&quot;. * As played by [[Phil Hartman]], The Monster was also a popular recurring comedic character on [[Saturday Night Live]] in the early 1990s, often delivering the line, &quot;Fire bad!&quot; * ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' has also faced &quot;Frankensteinian&quot; creations: a season two creation was a reanimated high school jock (killed in a car accident) who only wanted his brother/creator to build him a mate; the season four [[Big Bad]] was Adam, a conglomeration of robot, human, and demon parts created by a government scientist whom Adam regarded as his mother. * A season five episode of ''[[The X-Files]]'', &quot;Post-Modern Prometheus,&quot; played up a campy re-telling of the Frankenstein legend updated with genetic engineering technology. The episode, the only one of the series filmed exclusively in black and white, parodies the film adaptations of the legend as the creature, shunned by the mad scientist who created him, seeks a mate in a small town who has immortalized him as an urban legend and comic book villain; the episode reaches its campy conclusion when the women of the town take their monster-babies on [[Jerry Springer]] and the monster finds his true love by attending a [[Cher]] concert. The monster is played by [[Chris Owens]], who had already played a younger version of the [[Cigarette-Smoking Man]] and would go on to play his son in season six, and the scientist was portrayed by [[Seinfeld]] alum [[John O'Hurley]]. * In the 1994 [[animated television series]] ''[[Monster Force]]'' Frankenstein's monster alias &quot;Frankenstein&quot; or &quot;the Monster&quot; becomes humanity's ally in a desperate fight against evil Creatures of the Night. * The children's animated series ''[[Arthur (cartoon)|Arthur]]'' has an episode depicting a re-enactment of the night the novel was created. Titled ''Fernkenstein's Monster'', it was described as: &quot;Inspired by Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein'', Fern tells a tale so scary that Arthur and the gang become afraid of her. Can Fern prove her skills as a writer and create a different story that's fun instead of frightening?&quot; * The 2000 [[anime]] television series ''[[Argento Soma]]'' draws a large amount of inspiration from ''Frankenstein''. The show's plotline revolves around an ambitious scientist assembling a giant silver creature from scattered components. The giant (aptly nicknamed &quot;Frank&quot;) possesses a tender and compassionate nature but has a bizarre and hideous exterior and the potential to inflict death and destruction. * The ''[[Duck Dodgers]]'' episode &quot;Castle High&quot; revolved around [[Daffy Duck|the main character]] explaining to I.Q. High what had happened to his castle, the flashback based off of the story. ==Other adaptations== ===Radio=== In 1938, [[George Edwards (Actor)|George Edwards]] produced a 13-part, 3-hour series for radio. It follows the structure and spirit of novel closely. Two other versions were made in both 1944 and 1955. ===Books and comic books=== [[Image:MonsterofFrankenstein1.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Marvel Comics' ''The Monster of Frankstein'' #1 (Jan. 1973), the premiere of a five-issue adaptation of the novel by writer [[Gary Friedrich]] and artist [[Mike Ploog]].]] The story of ''Frankenstein'', or to be precise, &quot;[[Frankenstein's Monster]]&quot;, has formed the basis of many original novels over the years, some of which were considered sequels to Shelley's original work, and some of which were based more upon the character as portrayed in the Universal films. The Monster has also been the subject of many comic book adaptations, ranging from the ridiculous (a 1960s series portraying The Monster as a superhero; see below), to more straightforward interpretations of Shelley's work, such [[Marvel Comics]]' ''The Monster of Frankenstein'', the first five issues of which (Jan.-Sept. 1973) contained as a faithful (in spirit at least) retelling of Shelley's tale before transferring The Monster into the present day and pitting him against ''[[James Bond]]''-inspired evil organizations. The artist, [[Mike Ploog]], recalled, &quot;I really enjoyed doing ''Frankenstein'' because I related to that naive monster wandering around a world he had no knowledge of — an outsider seeing everything through the eyes of a child.&quot; [http://www.twomorrows.com/comicbookartist/articles/02ploog.html] In 1940, [[cartoonist]] [[Dick Briefer]] wrote and drew a Frankenstein's-monster comic book title for [[Crestwood Publications]]'s ''Prize Comics'', beginning with a standard [[horror fiction|horrific]] version, updated to contemporary America, but then in 1945 crafting an acclaimed and well-remembered comedic version that spun-off into his own title, ''Frankenstein Comics''. The series ended with issue #17 (Jan.-Feb. 1949, but was revived as a horror title from #18-33 (March 1952 - Oct.-Nov. 1954). [[Dell Comics]] published a [[superhero]] version of the character in the comic book series ''[[Frankenstein (superhero)|Frankenstein]]'' #2-4 (Sept. 1966 - March 1967; issue #1, published Oct. 1964, featured a very loose adaptation/update of the 1931 Universal Pictures movie). 2004 saw the debut of ''[[Doc Frankenstein]]'', written by the [[Wachowski brothers|Andy and Larry Wachowski]], the writer-director team of ''[[The Matrix]]''), and drawn by [[Steve Skroce]]. The book tells the continuing adventures of Frankeinstein's monster, who has since adopted his creator's name and became a hero through the ages. In 2005, [[Dead Dog Comics]] produced a sequel to the Frankenstein mythos with ''[[Frankenstein: Monster Mayhem]]'', written by [[R. D. Hall]] with art by [[Jerry Beck]]. In Dead Dog's version, the monster sets out to create his own [[Necropolis]]. [[DC comics]] also has made use of the character. He appeared as a backup feature in the [[Phantom Stranger]] stories written by [[Len Wein]]. [[Grant Morrison]] revived the character in his ''[[Seven Soldiers of Victory]]''. Here, Frankenstein is a Milton-quoting, [[gun]]-toting warrior battling to prevent the end of the world. Japanese [[Mangaka]] [[Junji Ito]] also wrote a [[Manga]] faithfully adapting the story of the original novel. ===Videogames=== Frankenstein's monster appears in the [[Konami]] [[Computer and video games|video game]] series ''[[Castlevania]]'', numerous times, with its name being &quot;The Monster&quot; or &quot;The Creature&quot;, often as a [[boss (video games)|major boss]], but sometimes as a regular enemy. Several other video game version are also available, including ''Frankenstein: Through the Eyes of the Monster - A Cinematic Adventure Starring Tim Curry'' (PC) and ''Mary Shelley's Frankenstein,'' (Super Nintendo, Sega Genesis, Sega CD) based on the 1994 film of the same name. For the original Nintendo (NES) was ''Frankenstein: The Monster Returns!'' and for the Atari 2600, ''Frankenstein's Monster.'' A Frankenstein-like monster is a playable character in the fighting game series ''[[Darkstalkers]]'', along with many other monsters from popular culture. ==Influence== [[Science fiction]] author [[Isaac Asimov]] coined the term ''[[Frankenstein complex]]'' for the fear of robots. ''Frankenstein'' or ''Franken-'' is sometimes used for nuancing artificial monstruosity as in &quot;[[frankenfood]]&quot;, a [[politically charged]] name of [[genetically manipulated]] foodstuff. In 1971, General Mills Cereals introduced &quot;[[Franken Berry]]&quot;, a strawberry-flavored corn cereal whose mascot is a variation of the Monster from the 1931 movie. Franken Berry has also appeared in FOX's &quot;[[Family Guy]]&quot;. In [[David Brin]]'s science-fiction novel ''[[Kiln People]]'', defective [[golem]]s that become autonomous are called &quot;frankies&quot;. In [[The Frankenstein Papers]] [[Fred Saberhagen]] retells Shelley's story from the creature's point of view. ==See also== *[[Frankenstein complex]] *[[Frankenstein's Monster]] *[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]] ==Further reading== *Belefant, Arthur (1999). ''[http://www.frankensteinmanmonster.com Frankenstein, the Man and the Monster]''. Digital book online, not free. *Comroe, Julius H., Jr. (1975). [http://www.thoracic.org/aboutats/retrospectroscope/adobe/5-Frankenstein,Pickwick,andOndine.pdf Retrospectroscope article in the American Thoracic Society website]. Analyzes errors in the re-telling of Mary Shelley's original plot. * Garrett, Martin (2002). ''Mary Shelley''. * Lylys, William H. (1975). ''Mary Shelley, an Annotated Bibliography'' * [[Muriel Spark|Spark, Muriel]]. ''Mary Shelley'' * Wolf, Leonard (2004). ''The Essential Frankenstein''. ISBN 0743498062. The complete original text of Mary Shelley's novel, fully annotated with thousands of facts and legends. ==External links== &lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot; style=&quot;clear: right; border: solid #aaa 1px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%; background: #f9f9f9; width: 250px; padding: 4px; spacing: 0px; text-align: left; float: right;&quot;&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;float: left;&quot;&gt;[[Ima
/page> <page> <title>Communications in the Central African Republic</title> <id>5484</id> <revision> <id>34743453</id> <timestamp>2006-01-11T11:48:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>PetterLundkvist</username> <id>315287</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephone Network:'''&lt;br&gt; * ''The national network for fixed phones'' consists of some [[Panaftel]] [[microwave]] radio relay links (from Bangui to Bossembele, Baoro, Carnot, Berberati and on to Gamboula on the border with Cameroon). This microwave network has however never been used, since the equipment requires electricity for the repeaters that are located every 50km. The current fixed-lines outside Bangui are transmitted through a DOMSAT network installed in the early 1990s as a star formation around the Bangui satellite earth station (1 [[Intelsat]]). There are about 9000 fixed-lines subscribers (2003).&lt;br&gt; * ''GSM coverage'' was for a long time limited to the capital area. But in October 2005 coverage was expanded at least to Berberati in the western part of the country. There are currently two GSM-900 mobile operators, Telecel CAR and Nationlink Telecom RCA. A third network, Centrafrique Telecom Plus closed down in late 2003 after failing to attract more than 5000 subscribers.&lt;br&gt; '''Radio broadcast stations:''' AM 1, FM 3, shortwave 1 (1998) '''Radios:''' 283,000 (1997) '''Television broadcast stations:''' NA '''Televisions:''' 18,000 (1997) '''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):''' NA '''[[Country codes]]:''' CF ==See also== * [[Central African Republic]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1067518.stm Country profile: Central African Republic] * [http://www.gsmworld.com/roaming/gsminfo/cou_cf.shtml GSM Coverage Maps: Central African Republic] [[Category:Central African Republic]] [[Category:Communications by country|Central African Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transport in the Central African Republic</title> <id>5485</id> <revision> <id>37831763</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T11:42:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved [[Transportation in the Central African Republic]] to [[Transport in the Central African Republic]]: part of a series</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} '''Railways:''' 0 km '''Highways:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 23,810 km &lt;br&gt;''paved:'' 643 km &lt;br&gt;''unpaved:'' 23,167 km (1999 est.) '''Waterways:''' 900 km; traditional trade carried on by means of shallow-draft dugouts; Oubangui is the most important river, navigable all year to craft drawing 0.6 m or less; 282 km navigable to craft drawing as much as 1.8 m '''Ports and harbors:''' [[Bangui]], [[Nola]], [[Salo]], [[Nzinga (CAR)|Nzinga]] '''Airports:''' 50 (2002) '''Airports - with paved runways:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 3 &lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 2 (2002) '''Airports - with unpaved runways:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 47 &lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 10 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 23 &lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' under 914 m: 13 (2002) :''See also :'' [[Central African Republic]] {{Africa in topic|Transport in}} [[Category:Central African Republic]] [[Category:Transportation by country|Central African Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of the Central African Republic</title> <id>5486</id> <revision> <id>25815239</id> <timestamp>2005-10-18T09:38:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>210.212.125.161</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''military of the Central African Republic''' ('''Forces armées centrafricaines''' or FACA), currently numbers at approximately 2,000, and military expenditures amount to 1.1% of the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] of that nation. Under military restructuring plans formulated 1999-2000, the civilian Minister of Defense controlled and directed all armed forces, including the Presidential Security Unit (UPS), which had previously been seen as a militia supporting the president. In April 2001, the C.A.R. armed forces numbered about 3,000, including army, navy, air force, gendarmerie, national police, Presidential Security Unit, and local police personnel. An estimated 1,200 members of the army and gendarmerie fled to the Democratic Republic of the Congo following the failed coup attempt of May 2001. Following the 2003 coup, [[Central African Economic and Monetary Community]] ([[CAEMC]]-Communauté Économique et Monétaire de l'Afrique Centrale) and C.A.R. armed forces assumed responsibility for securing the capital city. CEMAC forces currently total approximately 400 soldiers, which are supported by an additional 200 [[France|French]] soldiers. The C.A.R. armed forces number approximately 2,000. Working with the French, the C.A.R. military is attempting to provide professional training and decentralize its troops in an effort to combat road bandits, thievery, and poaching throughout the C.A.R. territory. '''Military branches:''' Central African Armed Forces ([[FACA]]): Republican Guard, Ground Forces, Naval Forces, Air Force '''Military manpower - availability:''' &lt;br /&gt;''males aged 15-49:'' 878,980 (2004 est.) '''Military manpower - fit for military service:''' &lt;br /&gt;''males aged 15-49:'' 460,469 (2004 est.) '''Military expenditures - dollar figure:''' $15.5 million (2005) '''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:''' 1% (2005) ==External links== *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ct.html CIA World Factbook] *[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4007.htm US Department of State - Bureau of African Affairs: Background note] {{CIA_WFB_2004}} [[Category:Central African Republic]] [[Category:Militaries|Central African Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of the Central African Republic</title> <id>5487</id> <revision> <id>37154357</id> <timestamp>2006-01-29T01:59:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wikiacc</username> <id>84893</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Central African Republic}} The Central African Republic is an active member in several Central African organizations, including the Economic and Monetary Union ([[CEMAC]]), the [[Economic Community of Central African States]] ([[CEEAC]]), the [[Central African Peace and Security Council]] ([[COPAX]]--still under formation), and the [[Central Bank of Central African States]] ([[BEAC]]). Standardization of tax, customs, and security arrangements between the Central African states is a major foreign policy objective of the C.A.R. Government. President [[Ange-Félix Patassé]] also has manifested considerable interest in mediating conflicts in the region. The C.A.R. is a participant in the [[Community of Sahel-Saharan States]] ([[CEN-SAD]]), and the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU). [[Libya]] and, to a lesser degree, [[Sudan]] have shown increased interest in cooperation with the C.A.R. over the last year. Outside of Africa, the C.A.R. maintains fairly close ties to [[France]], albeit considerably reduced from previous years. In the late 1990s, France withdrew its forces stationed in the C.A.R.; drops in its external assistance budget have reduced French military and social [[development aid]] to the country. Other multilateral organizations--including the [[World Bank]], [[International Monetary Fund]], [[UN]] agencies, [[European Union]], and the [[African Development Bank]]--and bilateral donors--including [[Germany]], [[Japan]], the [[European Union]], and the [[United States]]--are significant development partners for the C.A.R. Nineteen countries have resident diplomatic representatives in [[Bangui]], and the C.A.R. maintains approximately the same number of missions abroad. Since early 1989 the government recognizes both [[Israel]] and the [[Palestinian state]]. The C.A.R. also maintains diplomatic relations with the [[People's Republic of China]]. The C.A.R. generally joins other African and developing country states in consensus positions on major policy issues. '''Disputes - international:''' none :''See also :'' [[Central African Republic]] {{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}} [[Category:Central African Republic]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Central African Republic, Foreign affairs of]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chad</title> <id>5488</id> <revision> <id>41797652</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:44:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MJCdetroit</username> <id>627347</id> </contributor> <comment>Added Libya as bordering country and English measurements and Formating per [[WP:MOSNUM]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses}} {{Infobox_Country &lt;!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infobox data Chad]] also --&gt; |native_name = Jumhuriyat Tashad&lt;br&gt;République du Tchad&lt;br&gt;Republic of Chad |common_name = Chad |image_flag = Flag of Chad.svg |image_coat = Chad coa.jpg |image_map = LocationChad.png |national_motto = Unity - Work - Progress (French: Unité - Travail - Progrès) |national_anthem = [[La Tchadienne]] |official_languages = [[French language|French]] |capital = [[N'Djamena]] |latd=12 |latm=06 |latNS=N |longd=15 |longm=02 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[N'Djamena]] |government_type = [[Parliamentary democracy]] |leader_titles = [[Heads of state of Chad|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Chad|Prime Minister]] |leader_names = [[Idriss Déby]]&lt;br&gt;[[Pascal Yoadimnadji]] |area_
torial Guinea]] * EN [[Estonia]] * ER [[Eritrea]] * ES [[El Salvador]] * ET [[Ethiopia]] * EU ([[Europa Island]]) * EZ [[Czech Republic]] ==F== * FG ([[French Guiana]]) * FI [[Finland]] * FJ [[Fiji]] * FK ([[Falkland Islands]]/Islas Malvinas) * FM [[Federated States of Micronesia]] * FO ([[Faroe Islands]]) * FP ([[French Polynesia]]) * FQ ([[Baker Island]]) * FR [[France]] * FS ([[French Southern Territories]]) ==G== * GA [[The Gambia]] * GB [[Gabon]] * GG [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] * GH [[Ghana]] * GI ([[Gibraltar]]) * GJ [[Grenada]] * GK ([[Guernsey]]) * GL ([[Greenland]]) * GM [[Germany]] * GO ([[Glorioso Islands]]) * GP ([[Guadeloupe]]) * GQ ([[Guam]]) * GR [[Greece]] * GT [[Guatemala]] * GV [[Guinea]] * GY [[Guyana]] * GZ ([[Gaza Strip]]) ==H== * HA [[Haiti]] * HK ([[Hong Kong]]) * HM ([[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]) * HO [[Honduras]] * HQ ([[Howland Island]]) * HR [[Croatia]] * HU [[Hungary]] ==I== * IC [[Iceland]] * ID [[Indonesia]] * IM ([[Isle of Man]]) * IN [[India]] * IO ([[British Indian Ocean Territory]]) * IP ([[Clipperton Island]]) * IR [[Iran]] * IS [[Israel]] * IT [[Italy]] * IV [[Côte d'Ivoire]] * IY ([[Iraq-Saudi Arabia Neutral Zone]]) (obsolete since [[1993]]) * IZ [[Iraq]] ==J== * JA [[Japan]] * JE ([[Jersey]]) * JM [[Jamaica]] * JN ([[Jan Mayen]]) * JO [[Jordan]] * JQ ([[Johnston Atoll]]) * JU ([[Juan de Nova Island]]) ==K== * KE [[Kenya]] * KG [[Kyrgyzstan]] * KN [[North Korea]] * KQ ([[Kingman Reef]]) * KR [[Kiribati]] * KS [[South Korea]] * KT ([[Christmas Island]]) * KU [[Kuwait]] * KZ [[Kazakhstan]] ==L== * LA [[Laos]] * LE [[Lebanon]] * LG [[Latvia]] * LH [[Lithuania]] * LI [[Liberia]] * LO [[Slovakia]] * LS [[Liechtenstein]] * LT [[Lesotho]] * LU [[Luxembourg]] * LY [[Libya]] ==M== * MA [[Madagascar]] * MB ([[Martinique]]) * MC ([[Macau]]) * MD [[Moldova]] * MF ([[Mayotte]]) * MG [[Mongolia]] * MH ([[Montserrat]]) * MI [[Malawi]] * MK [[Republic of Macedonia]] * ML [[Mali]] * MN [[Monaco]] * MO [[Morocco]] * MP [[Mauritius]] * MQ ([[Midway Islands]]) * MR [[Mauritania]] * MT [[Malta]] * MU [[Oman]] * MV [[Maldives]] * MX [[Mexico]] * MY [[Malaysia]] * MZ [[Mozambique]] ==N== * NC ([[New Caledonia]]) * NE ([[Niue]]) * NF ([[Norfolk Island]]) * NG [[Niger]] * NH [[Vanuatu]] * NI [[Nigeria]] * NL [[Netherlands]] * NO [[Norway]] * NP [[Nepal]] * NR [[Nauru]] * NS [[Suriname]] * NT ([[Netherlands Antilles]]) * NU [[Nicaragua]] * NZ [[New Zealand]] ==P== * PA [[Paraguay]] * PC ([[Pitcairn Islands]]) * PE [[Peru]] * PF ([[Paracel Islands]]) * PG ([[Spratly Islands]]) * PK [[Pakistan]] * PL [[Poland]] * PM [[Panama]] * PO [[Portugal]] * PP [[Papua New Guinea]] * PS [[Palau]] * PU [[Guinea-Bissau]] ==Q== * QA [[Qatar]] ==R== * RE ([[Réunion]]) * RM [[Marshall Islands]] * RO [[Romania]] * RP [[Philippines]] * RQ ([[Puerto Rico]]) * RS [[Russia]] * RW [[Rwanda]] ==S== * SA [[Saudi Arabia]] * SB ([[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]]) * SC [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] * SE [[Seychelles]] * SF [[South Africa]] * SG [[Senegal]] * SH ([[Saint Helena]]) * SI [[Slovenia]] * SL [[Sierra Leone]] * SM [[San Marino]] * SN [[Singapore]] * SO [[Somalia]] * SP [[Spain]] * ST [[Saint Lucia]] * SU [[Sudan]] * SV ([[Svalbard]]) * SW [[Sweden]] * SX ([[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]) * SY [[Syria]] * SZ [[Switzerland]] ==T== * TD [[Trinidad and Tobago]] * TE ([[Tromelin Island]]) * TH [[Thailand]] * TI [[Tajikistan]] * TK ([[Turks and Caicos Islands]]) * TL ([[Tokelau]]) * TN [[Tonga]] * TO [[Togo]] * TP [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] * TS [[Tunisia]] * TT [[Timor-Leste]]/East Timor (recent update: see FIPS publication number FIPS 104­) * TU [[Turkey]] * TV [[Tuvalu]] * TW [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]) * TX [[Turkmenistan]] * TZ [[Tanzania]] ==U== * UG [[Uganda|Republic of Uganda]] * UK [[United Kingdom]] * UP [[Ukraine]] * US [[United States]] * UV [[Burkina Faso]] * UY [[Uruguay]] * UZ [[Uzbekistan]] ==V== * VC [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] * VE [[Venezuela]] * VI ([[British Virgin Islands]]) * VM [[Vietnam]] * VQ ([[American Virgin Islands]]) * VT [[Vatican City]] ==W== * WA [[Namibia]] * WE ([[West Bank]]) * WF ([[Wallis and Futuna]]) * WI ([[Western Sahara]]) * WQ ([[Wake Island]]) * WS [[Samoa]] * WZ [[Swaziland]] ==Y== * YI [[Serbia and Montenegro]] * YM [[Yemen]] ==Z== * ZA [[Zambia]] * ZI [[Zimbabwe]] ==Resources== The above is taken from a US Government public-domain source at [http://www.state.gov/www/regions/independent_states.html]. The complete standard can be found at [http://earth-info.nima.mil/gns/html/fips10-4.html], with Updates at [http://earth-info.nima.mil/gns/html/fips_files.html]. * FIPS PUB 10-4: Federal Information Processing Standard 10-4: ''Countries, Dependencies, Areas of Special Sovereignty, and Their Principal Administrative Divisions'', April 1995 * DAFIF 0413, Edition 7, Amendment No. 3, November 2003 * DIA 65-18: Defense Intelligence Agency, ''Geopolitical Data Elements and Related Features'', 1994 == See also == * [[List of FIPS region codes]] [[Category:Country codes|FIPS country codes]] [[Category:Lists of abbreviations|FIPS country codes]] [[fr:Liste des codes de pays FIPS 10-4]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fair Isle</title> <id>11519</id> <revision> <id>31043282</id> <timestamp>2005-12-12T12:47:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cactus.man</username> <id>264914</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[Fairtrade Island]] to [[Fairtrade Town]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fair Isle - West cliffs.jpg|thumb|200px|West cliffs, looking southwest towards Malcolm's Head.]] ''This page is about the physical island. For the knitting technique, see [[Fair Isle (technique)]].'' '''Fair Isle''' ''(From [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] frioar-øy)'' is an island in the [[British Isles]] lying around halfway between the [[Shetland Islands]] and the [[Orkney Islands]] at {{coor dm|59|32|N|1|32|W|}}. Three miles (4.8 km) in length and 1.5 miles (2.4 km) wide, it has an area of 1402 acres (5.61 km&amp;sup2;). The island is situated around 25 miles (40 km) south-west of [[Sumburgh]] on the Shetland mainland. The majority of the 70 islanders live in the crofts on the southern half of the island, with the northern half consisting of rocky moorland. The western coast consists of cliffs of up to 660 feet (200 m) in height. The population has been decreasing steadily from around 400 in around [[1900]]. There are no pubs or restaurants on the island, but there is a single primary school. After the age of 11, children must attend a boarding school in [[Lerwick]]. Although it is marginally closer to [[North Ronaldsay]] island in the Orkneys, Fair Isle is administratively part of the Shetland Islands. It gives its name to one of the [[British Sea Areas]]. Fair Isle has been occupied since the [[Bronze Age]] which is remarkable because of the lack of raw materials on the island. It has a permanent [[bird observatory]] because of its importance as a [[bird migration]] watchpoint and this provides most of the accommodation on the island. It is unusual amongst bird observatories in providing catered accommodation rather than hostel-style. Many rare species of [[bird]] have been found on the island, and it is probably the best place in western Europe to see skulking [[Siberia]]n [[passerine]]s like [[Pechora Pipit]], [[Lanceolated Warbler]] and [[Pallas's Grasshopper Warbler]]. The island was bought by the [[National Trust for Scotland]] in [[1954]] from George Waterson, the founder of the bird observatory. [[Image:Fair Isle - Croft houses.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Croft houses.]] Fair Isle is famous for its knitted sweaters, with [[knitting]] forming an important source of income for the women of the islands. The principal activity for the male islanders is [[crofting]]. On [[January 29]], [[2004]], Fair Isle was granted [[Fairtrade Town|Fairtrade Island]] status. On [[August 20]], [[1588]] the flagship of the [[Spanish Armada]], ''El Gran Grifón'', was shipwrecked in the cove of [[Stroms Heelor]], forcing its 300 sailors to spend six weeks living with the islanders. The wreck was discovered in [[1970]]. ==External links== *[http://www.fairisle.org.uk/ Fair Isle community website] *[http://www.fairislebirdobs.co.uk/ Fair Isle bird observatory] *[http://www.world-airport-codes.com/united-kingdom/fair-isle-2249.html Details of its airport] *[http://www.sumburgh.shetland.co.uk/shetland/south/fairisle/fair_map.html Photographic tour of the island] *{{gbmapping|HZ209717}} [[Category:Shetland Islands]] [[Category:Fairtrade settlements]] [[Category:National Trust for Scotland properties]] [[da:Fair Isle]] [[de:Fair Isle]] [[gd:Fara]] [[it:Isola di Fair]] [[sv:Fair Isle]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Four Feather Falls</title> <id>11520</id> <revision> <id>38790090</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T17:55:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.154.105.198</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox television | show_name = Four Feather Falls| image = [[Image:FourFeatherFallsDVD.jpg|center|200px]]| caption = Opening title| format = [[Supermarionation]] western adventure| runtime = 13 min.| creator = [[Gerry Anderson]] &lt;br&gt; [[Barry Gray]]| starring = [[Nicholas Parsons]]| country = [[United Kingdom|UK]]| network = [[ITV]]| first_aired = [[February 25]], [[1960]]| last_aired = [[November 17]], [[1960]]| num_episodes = 39| }} '''''Four Feather Falls''''' was the third puppet TV show produced by [[Gerry Anderson]], from an idea by [[Barry Gray]]. Gray, most noted as a composer who created the theme songs for many of the Andersons' creations, also wrote the first episode. The premise of the series centers around [[Weste
Worldwide Investigation and Prosecution of Nazi War Criminals, 2001–2002],&quot; Simon Wiesenthal Center, Jerusalem (April 2002). #{{Note|asner}} &quot;[http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/nfo/article.cfm?id=2283 Take action against Nazi war criminal Milivoj Asner],&quot; World Jewish Congress, [[19 November]] [[2004]]. #{{Note|asner_citizen}} [http://derstandard.at/?id=2183360 Mutmaßlicher Kriegsverbrecher Asner wird nicht an Zagreb ausgeliefert], [[Der Standard]], [[September 23]], [[2005]] &lt;!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. --&gt; ==References== ===Books=== * Bukey, Evan Burr (1986). ''Hitler's Hometown: Linz, Austria, 1908-1945.'' Indiana University Press ISBN 0-253-32833-0. * Parkinson, F. (ed.) (1989). ''Conquering the Past: Austrian Nazism Yesterday and Today.'' Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0814320546. * Pauley, Bruce F. (1981). ''Hitler and the Forgotten Nazis: A History of Austrian National Socialism'' University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807814563 . * Scheuch, Manfred (2005). ''Der Weg zum Heldenplatz: eine Geschichte der österreichischen Diktatur. 1933-1938.'' ISBN 3825877124. * Schuschnigg, Kurt (1971). ''The brutal takeover: The Austrian ex-Chancellor's account of the Anschluss of Austria by Hitler''. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0297003216. * Stuckel, Eva-Maria (2001). ''Österreich, Monarchie, Operette, und Anschluss: Antisemtismus, Faschismus, und Nationalsozialismus im Fadenkreuz von Ingeborg Bachman und Elias Canetti.'' ===Electronic articles and journals=== * [http://www.wienerzeitung.at/linkmap/personen/miklaspopup.htm Österreichs Weg zum Anschluss im März 1938],&quot; ''Wiener Zeitung'', [[25 May]] [[1998]] (detailed article the on the events of the Anschluss, in German). * [http://www.doew.at/thema/thema_alt/wuv/maerz38_2/propaganda.html Die propagandistische Vorbereitung der Volksabstimmung],&quot; Austrian Resistance Archive, Vienna, 1988 (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]). * [http://encarta.msn.com/sidebar_461500064/1938_Austria.html 1938: Austria], MSN Encarta. (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]). * [http://www.uwm.edu/People/abuchner/crisisyear.htm The Crisis Year of 1934] Buchner, A. From the Destruction of the Socialist Lager to National Socialist Coup Attempt (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]). ==External links== *[http://www.historikerkommission.gv.at/ Austrian Historical Commission] *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/genocide/austria_nazism_01.shtml BBC article by Robert Knight, who served on the Historikercommission] *[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4859 exchange in the ''New York Review of Books'' between Gerald Stourzh and Gordon Craig over the latter's review, &quot;Waldheim's Austria&quot;] *[http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1943/431000a.html full text of the Moscow Declaration] *[http://www.wiesenthal.com/ Simon Wiesenthal Center] *[http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/f107a.mpg Mpg-video Declaration by Adolf Hitler on the Heldeplatz 2.0MB] *[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~MA04/wood/mot/html/austria.htm Time magazine coverage of the events of the Anschluss] [[Category:German loanwords]] [[Category:History of Austria]] [[Category:History of Germany]] [[Category:Nazi Germany]] [[Category:Vergangenheitsbewältigung]] [[bg:Аншлус]] [[da:Anschluss]] [[de:Anschluss (Österreich)]] [[es:Anschluss]] [[fi:Anschluss]] [[fr:Anschluss]] [[he:אנשלוס]] [[ia:Anschluss]] [[it:Anschluss]] [[ja:アンシュルス]] [[nl:Anschluss]] [[pl:Anschluss Austrii]] [[ru:Аншлюс]] [[sl:Anschluss]] [[sv:Anschluss]] [[tr:Avusturyanın ilhakı]] [[uk:Аншлюс]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>American Civil War</title> <id>863</id> <revision> <id>42107265</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:48:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.77.6.128</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Economics */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict| image=[[Image:American Civil War Montage.jpg|300px]]| caption=(clockwise from upper right) Confederate prisoners at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]]; [[Battle of Fort Hindman]], Arkansas; [[William Rosecrans|Rosecrans]] at [[Battle of Stones River|Stones River]], Tennessee| conflict=American Civil War| partof=| date=[[1861]]-[[1865]]| place=Principally in the [[Southern United States]]| Southwestern regions]]| result=Union victory; Southern states [[Reconstruction|reconstructed]]; slavery abolished| combatant1=[[United States|United States&lt;br&gt;of America]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Us flag large 35 stars.png|100px|]]| combatant2=[[Confederate States of America|Confederate States&lt;br&gt;of America]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:3rdnational.png|73px|]]| commander1=[[Abraham Lincoln]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ulysses S. Grant]]| commander2=[[Jefferson Davis]]&lt;br&gt;[[Robert E. Lee]]| strength1=1,556,678 | strength2=1,064,200| casualties1='''[[Killed in action|KIA]]:''' 110,100&lt;br&gt;'''Total dead:''' 359,500&lt;br&gt;'''Wounded:''' 275,200| casualties2='''KIA:''' 74,500&lt;br&gt;'''Total dead:''' 198,500&lt;br&gt;'''Wounded:''' 137,000+&amp;nbsp;| }} The '''American Civil War''' (1861&amp;ndash;1865) was a [[civil war]] between the [[United States |United States of America]], called the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], and the [[Confederate States of America]], formed by eleven [[Southern United States|Southern states]] that had [[secession|seceded]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[Confederate States of America#International Diplomacy and Legal Status|[1]]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/small&gt; from the Union. The Union won a decisive victory, followed by a period of [[Reconstruction]]. The war produced more than 970,000 casualties (3 percent of population), including approximately 560,000 deaths. The [[Origins of the American Civil War|causes of the war]], the reasons for the outcome, and even [[Naming the American Civil War|the name of the war itself]], are subjects of much controversy, even today. ==Historiography: Multiple explanations of why War began == :''Main articles: [[Origins of the American Civil War]], [[Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War|Timeline of events]]'' The '''origin of the American Civil War''' lay in the complex issues of [[slavery]], [[Second Party System|politics]], disagreements over the scope of [[States' rights]] versus federal power, [[expansionism]], [[sectionalism]], economics, modernization, and competing nationalism of the [[Antebellum]] period. Although there is little disagreement among historians on the details of the events that led to war, there is disagreement on exactly what caused what and the relative importance. There is no consensus on whether the war could have been avoided, or if it should have been avoided. ===Failure to compromise=== In 1854 the old political system broke down after passage of the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]]. The Whig Party disappeared, and the new [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] arose in its place. It was the nation's first major political party with only sectional appeal; though it had much of the old Whig economic platform, its popularity rested on its commitment to stop the expansion of slavery into new territories. Open warfare in the Kansas Territory, the [[panic of 1857]], and John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry further heightened sectional tensions and helped Republicans sweep elections in 1860. In 1860, [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|the election of Abraham Lincoln]], who met staunch opposition from Southern slave-owning interests, triggered Southern secession from the union. The new president decided to resort to arms, if necessary, to preserve the nation's territorial integrity. Historians in the 1930s such as [[James G. Randall]] argued that the rise of mass democracy, the breakdown of the [[Second Party System|old two-party system]], and increasingly virulent and hostile sectional rhetoric made it highly unlikely, if not impossible, to bring about the compromises of the past (such as the [[Missouri Compromise]] and the [[Compromise of 1850]]) necessary to avoid crisis. Although numerous compromises were proposed, none were successful in reuniting the country. One possible &quot;compromise&quot; was peaceful secession agreed to by the United States, which was seriously discussed in late 1860&amp;mdash;and supported by many abolitionists&amp;mdash;but was rejected by both Buchanan's conservative Democrats and the Republican leadership. ===Southern nationalism: Psychological nationhood=== Most historians agree, following [[Ulrich B. Phillips]], [[Avery Craven]], and [[Eugene Genovese]] that the South had grown apart from the North psychologically and in terms of its value systems. One by one the common elements that bound the nation together were broken. For example the major Protestant denominations split along North-South lines. Fewer travelers or students or businessmen went from one region to the other. The last common elements were the Constitution (which was in dispute after the [[Dred Scott]] ruling of 1857); the political parties (which split along regional lines in 1860), and Congress, which was in constant turmoil after 1856. ===Slavery as a cause of the War=== Focus on the slavery issue has been cyclical. It was considered the main cause in the 1860&amp;ndash;1890 era. From 1900 to 1960, historians considered anti-slavery agitation to be less important than constitutional, economic, and cultural issues. Since the 1960s historians have returned to an emphasis on slavery as a major cause of the war. Specifically, they note that the South insisted on protecting it and the North insisted on weakening it. A small but militant abolitionist movement existed in the North--a matter of a few thousand advocates. Their insistence that slavery was a sin and slave owners were deeply guilty angered the South. Historians have looked at many slave owners and decided that they felt neither guilt nor shame, but were angry at what they considered un
screening on February 18, 1915. Hollywood press agents invented a story that Wilson exclaimed, &quot;It is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true.&quot; The story was false, according to an official White House statement. Film critic/historian [[Roger Ebert]] has stated that '''no one''' has found any evidence that Wilson made the statement, which was widely circulated by Hollywood press agents.[http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20030330/REVIEWS08/303300301/1023] Wilson's top aide wrote them that &quot;...the President was entirely unaware of the nature of the play before it was presented and at no time has expressed his approbation of it.&quot;--[Letter from J. M. Tumulty, secretary to President Wilson, to the Boston branch of the [[NAACP]].] Several [[Independent film|independent]] black filmmakers released director [[Emmett J. Scott]]'s ''[[The Birth of a Race]]'' (1919) in response to ''The Birth of a Nation''. The film, which portrayed a positive image of African Americans, was panned by white critics, but was well-received by critics at black-owned newspapers and black movie-goers attending segregated theaters. ==Notes== # {{note|1}} Russell Merritt, &quot;Dixon, Griffith, and the Southern Legend.&quot; ''Cinema Journal'', Vol. 12, No. 1. (Autumn, 1972). == External links == {{commonscat|Birth of a Nation}} *{{imdb title|id=0004972|title=The Birth of a Nation}} * [http://www.djspooky.com/art/birth.html Rebirth of a Nation] - a remix by D.J. Spooky (Flash required) * [http://chnm.gmu.edu/features/episodes/birthofanation.html &quot;Art (and History) by Lightning Flash&quot;: ''The Birth of a Nation'' and Black Protest] * [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20030330/REVIEWS08/303300301/1023 ''The Birth of a Nation''] on [[Roger Ebert]]'s list of great movies * [http://www.epinions.com/content_197763698308 A humorous critique of the film] at [http://www.epinions.com Epinions.com] [[Category:1915 films|Birth of a Nation]] [[Category:2004 books|Birth of a Nation]] [[Category:Films based on fiction books|Birth of a Nation, The]] [[Category:Films based on plays|Birth of a Nation, The]] [[Category:Race-related films|Birth of a Nation, The]] [[Category:United States National Film Registry|Birth of a Nation, The]] [[Category:History of the Southern United States|Birth of a Nation, The]] [[de:Geburt einer Nation]] [[es:El nacimiento de una nación (película)]] [[fr:Naissance d'une nation]] [[hu:Egy nemzet születése]] [[pt:O Nascimento de uma Nação]] [[sv:Nationens födelse]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baltic Sea</title> <id>3335</id> <revision> <id>42029372</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:49:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Plumbago</username> <id>125900</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Reference */ pluralise (hopefully!)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Baltic Sea''' is located in [[Northern Europe]], from 53 deg. to 66 deg. north [[latitude]] and from 20 deg. to 26 deg. east [[longitude]]. It is bounded by the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]], the mainlands of [[Northern Europe]], [[Eastern Europe]], [[Central Europe]], and the [[Denmark|Danish]] islands. It drains into the [[Kattegat]] by way of the [[Öresund]], the [[Great Belt]] and the [[Little Belt]]. Kattegat then continues in the [[Skagerrak]] into the [[North Sea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The Baltic Sea is linked to the [[White Sea]] by the [[White Sea Canal]] and directly to the North Sea by the [[Kiel Canal]]. [[Image:Baltic sea map.jpg|thumb|320px|The Baltic Sea]] ==Name== The first to name it the ''Baltic Sea'' was [[Adam of Bremen]] and he seems to have based it on a large island, [[Baltia]], mentioned by [[Xenophon]] and located in northern Europe. ===Etymology=== It is possibly connected to the Germanic ''belt'', a name used for some of the Danish straits, while others claim it to be derived from [[Latin]] ''balteus'' (belt){{ref|Latin-etymology}}. From this use, ''Baltic'' has been applied to the [[Baltic countries]]. Another proposed derivation from the [[Indo-European]] root [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&amp;basename=/data/ie/piet&amp;text_number=+129&amp;root=config *''bhel''] meaning ''white, shining'' (note that 'baltas' means 'white' in today's [[Lithuanian language]], for example) seems speculative, however. ===The name in other languages=== The Baltic Sea is known by the equivalents of &quot;East Sea&quot;, &quot;West Sea&quot;, or &quot;Baltic Sea&quot; in different languages: *In the ''[[Germanic languages]]'' except English '''''East Sea''''' is used: [[Danish language|Danish]] (''Østersøen''), [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (''Oostzee''), [[German language|German]] (''Ostsee''), [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] (''Østersjøen''), and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] (''Östersjön''); in addition, [[Finnish language|Finnish]], a ''[[Balto-Finnic languages|Balto-Finnic language]]'' has [[calque]]d the Swedish term as ''Itämeri'', disregarding the geography; the sea is west of Finland. *In another ''[[Balto-Finnic languages|Balto-Finnic language]]'', [[Estonian language|Estonian]], it is called the '''''West Sea''''' (''Läänemeri''). *'''''Baltic Sea''''' is used in ''[[English language|English]]''; in ''[[Latin]]'' (''Mare Balticum'') and the ''[[Romance languages]]'' [[French language|French]] (''Mer Baltique''), [[Italian language|Italian]] (''Mar Baltico''), [[Romanian language|Romanian]] (''Marea Baltică'') and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (''Mar Báltico''); in the ''[[Slavic languages]]'' [[Polish language|Polish]] (''Morze Bałtyckie'' or ''Bałtyk''), [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] (''Baltijsko More'' (''Балтийско море'')), [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]] (''Bôłt''), and [[Russian (language)|Russian]] (''Baltiyskoye Morye'' (''Балтийское море'')); and in the ''[[Baltic languages]]'' [[Latvian language|Latvian]] (''Baltijas jūra'') and [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] (''Baltijos jūra''). ; Notes # {{note|Latin-etymology}} {{sv_icon}} [http://www.lysator.liu.se/runeberg/nfbb/0435.html] (in [[Swedish language|Swedish]]). ==Geophysical data== The Baltic Sea is a [[brackish]] inland sea, the largest body of brackish water in the world. The fact that it does not come from the collision of plates, but is a glacially scoured river valley, accounts for its relative shallowness. ===Dimensions=== The Baltic sea is about 1610 [[kilometre|km]] (1000 [[mile|mi]]) long, an average of 193 km (120 mi) wide, and an average of 55 m (180 ft, 30 [[fathom]]s) deep. The maximum depth is 459 m (1506 ft, 251 fathoms), on the Swedish side of the center. The surface area is about 377,000 sq km (145,522 sq mi) and the volume is about 21,000 cubic km (3129 cubic mi). The periphery amounts to about 8000 km (4968 mi) of coastline. [http://www.envir.ee/baltics/geograph.htm] These figures are somewhat variable because a number of different estimates have been made. ===Icing in winter=== On average, the Baltic Sea is iced in winter for roughly half of its surface area. The ice-covered area includes [[Gulf of Bothnia]], [[Gulf of Finland]], [[Gulf of Riga]] and Vainameri in Estonian archipelago. The Baltic proper, or Central Baltic Sea, does not normally freeze at all with the exception of sheltered bays and shallow lagoons (such as the [[Courland Lagoon]]). The ice reaches a maximum extent in February or March; a typical ice thickness is ~65 cm.(Alhonen 88) [[Ice|Icing]] begins in the northern coast of [[Gulf of Bothnia]] typically in early November, reaching the open waters of [[Bothnian Bay]], the northern basin of Gulf of Bothnia, in early January. [[Bothnian Sea]], the basin south of it, is frozen on average in late February. [[Gulf of Finland]] and [[Gulf of Riga]] freeze typically in late January. Ice may persist in some regions as late as June.(Alhonen 89) The degree of icing depends on whether the winter is mild, moderate or severe. Severe winters ice even the regions around [[Denmark]] and southern [[Sweden]], and on rare cases the whole sea is frozen, such as in 1942. More recently in 1987, some 96 % of Baltic Sea was iced, leaving only a small patch of open water to the west of [[Bornholm]]. Contrary to this, in milder winters it may happen that [[Bothnian Bay]] is the only larger area iced, in addition to coastal fringes in more southerly locations. From late 1980's onwards this has actually been quite usual, happening on average every fifth winter or so. In spring, Gulf of Finland and Bothnian Sea thaw normally during late April, with some ice ridges persisting until May in eastern Gulf of Finland. In Bothnian Bay ice usually stays until late May; by early June it is practically always gone. During winter fast ice, attached to the shoreline, develops first, rendering the ports unusable without the services of [[icebreaker]]s. Level ice, ice sludge, pancake ice or rafter ice form in the more open regions. The gleaming expanse of ice is similar to the [[arctic]], with wind-driven pack ice and ridges up to 15 m, and was noted by the ancients. During average winters, by February, the ice pack becomes fairly compact and stable in [[Bothnian Bay]], [[Gulf of Finland]] and [[Gulf of Riga]]. However, on the larger expanse of [[Bothnian Sea]] there rarily exists very long periods of total icing; winds and periods of milder weather frequently crush the ice along coastlines or even melt it. In milder winters this is also true in the other regions. ===Hydrography=== The Baltic Sea is effluent through the [[Danish straits]]; however, the flow is complex. A surface layer of brackish water discharges 940 cubic km per year into the [[North Sea]]. Due to the difference in [[salinity]], a sub-surface layer of more saline water moving in the opposite direction brings in 475 cubic km per year. It mixes very slowly wi
etteer/Places/Europe/Great_Britain/_Periods/Roman/home.html Roman Britain at LacusCurtius] *[http://chr.org.uk/anddidthosefeet.pdf Roman London - &quot;In their own words&quot;] &lt;small&gt;(PDF)&lt;/small&gt; By Kevin Flude {{Classical antiquity}} {{Roman provinces 120 AD}} [[Category:British Isles]] [[Category:History of Britain]] [[Category:Roman Britain| ]] [[de:Geschichte Großbritanniens/Römische Zeit]] [[es:Britania Romana]] [[it:Britannia romana]] [[nl:Britannia]] [[ja:&amp;#12502;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12479;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12491;&amp;#12450;]] [[no:Romersk Britannia]] {{Link FA|no}} [[pt:Britânia (província romana)]] ----</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of Roman place names in Britain</title> <id>13526</id> <revision> <id>40852293</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T12:32:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[Skye]] to [[Isle of Skye]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A partial '''list of Roman place names in Great Britain'''. This list includes only names documented from Roman times. For a more complete list including later [[Latin]] names, see [[List of Latin place names in North Atlantic islands]]. The early sources for Roman names show numerous variants and mis-spellings of the [[Latin]] names. Moreover one of the principal authorities, [[Ptolemy]], wrote in [[Greek language|Greek]] so names that he records need to be [[transliteration|transliterated]] back into Latin to reveal the original form. &lt;small&gt;Note that in general only one source is shown below for each name, although many of the names are recorded in more than one of the sources. ==Country names== {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; !Roman name||Modern name ||Source |- |[[Albion]]||[[Great Britain]] ||[[Ptolemy]] |- |[[Britannia]]||[[Great Britain]]||[[Tacitus]] |- |[[Caledonia]]||[[Scotland]]||Tacitus |- |[[Hibernia]]||[[Ireland]]||&amp;nbsp; |} ==Island names== {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; !Roman name||Modern name||Source |- |Malaeus||[[Mull]]||Ptolemy |- |Mona||[[Anglesey]]||Ptolemy |- |Monaoeda||[[Isle of Man]]||Ptolemy |- |Orcades||[[Orkney]]||Ptolemy |- |Scetis||[[Isle of Skye|Skye]]||Ptolemy |- |Taniatide||[[Thanet]]||[[Ravenna]] |- |Vectis||[[Isle of Wight]]||Ptolemy |} == City names == {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; !Roman name|| Modern name||Source |- |Aquae Sulis||[[Bath]]|| |- |Ardotalia||[[Gamesley]], [[Glossop]]. [[Derbyshire]]|| |- |Caeseromagus||[[Chelmsford]], [[Essex]]||AI |- |Calcaria||[[Tadcaster]], [[North Yorkshire]]||AI |- |Calleva Atrebatum||[[Silchester]]||AI |- |Camulodunum||[[Colchester, England|Colchester]]||Ravenna |- |Clausentum||[[Bitterne]], [[Hampshire]]|| |- |Corinium||[[Cirencester]]|| |- |Corstopitum||[[Corbridge]]|| |- |Danum||[[Doncaster]]|| |- |Deva||[[Chester, England|Chester]]|| |- |Dubris||[[Dover, England|Dover]]||AI |- |Durnovaria||[[Dorchester, Dorset|Dorchester]]|| |- |Durocobrivis||[[Dunstable, England|Dunstable]]|| |- |Durocornovium||[[Swindon]]|| |- |Durolitum||[[Romford]]|| |- |Durovernum Cantiacorum||[[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]]|| |- |Eboracum||[[York]]||Ptolemy |- |Garrianonum||[[Burgh Castle]]|| |- |Glevum Colonia||[[Gloucester, England|Gloucester]]|| |- |Hortonium||[[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]]|| |- |Isca Dumnoniorum||[[Exeter, England|Exeter]]||AI |- |Isca Silurium||[[Caerleon]]|| |- |Lactodorum||[[Towcester]]|| |- |Lindum Colonia||[[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]]|| |- |Londinium||[[London]]||Ptolemy||AI |- |Mamucium||[[Manchester]]|| |- |Mediolanum||[[Whitchurch, Shropshire]]|| |- |[[Noviomagus|Noviomagus Regnorum]]||[[Chichester]]|| |- |Noviomagus Cantiacorum||[[Crayford]] |- |Ratae Coritanorum||[[Leicester]]|| |- |[[Segontium Roman Fort|Segontium]]||[[Caernarfon]]|| |- |Venta Belgarum||[[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]]||AI |- |[[Verulamium]]||[[St Albans]]||Tacitus |- |[[Viroconium]]||[[Wroxeter]], [[Shropshire]]|| |- |[[Vindolanda]]||[[Chesterholme]]|| |} == See also == * [[List of Latin place names in Europe]] * [[List of Latin place names in North Atlantic islands]] * [[Latin names of cities]] * [[Latin names of islands]] * [[Latin names of lakes]] * [[Latin names of mountains]] * [[Latin names of regions]] * [[Latin names of European countries]] * [[History of Britain]] * [[History of Ireland]] * [[Roman sites in the United Kingdom]] ==References== #A.L.F. Rivet and Colin Smith, ''The place-names of Roman Britain''. London, 1979 (reprinted by Book Club Associates, 1981). #[[Tacitus]] (Cornelius Tacitus), ''Britannia''. #AI: [[Antonine Itinerary]] #[[Ravenna Cosmography]] (''Ravennatis Anonymi Cosmographia'') #[[Ptolemy]] (Claudius Ptolemaeus), ''Geographia''. == External links == *[http://www.ipa.net/~magreyn#Record&amp;#20;Interpreter List of Roman Place names in Great Britain and Ireland] [[no:Liste over romerske stedsnavn i Britannia]] [[Category:Alternative names of European places|Roman Britain]] [[Category:Ancient Rome lists|Britain]] [[Category:British toponymy|Roman place names]] [[Category:Latin names of places|Britain]] [[Category:Lists of cities|Britain]] [[Category:Lists of place names|Britain]] [[Category:Roman toponymy|Britain]] [[Category:United Kingdom-related lists|Place names in Britain]] [[Category:Roman Britain|Place names]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hemiparesis</title> <id>13528</id> <revision> <id>41941829</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:57:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Arcadian</username> <id>104523</id> </contributor> <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Hemiparesis | ICD10 = G81.9 | ICD9 = {{ICD9|342.9}}, {{ICD9|094.89}}, {{ICD9|438.2}} | }} '''Hemiparesis''' is the [[paralysis]] of one side of the body. It is caused by the lesions of the [[corticospinal tract]], which runs down from the cortical [[neuron]]s of the frontal lobe to the motor neurons of the [[spinal cord]] (see the second paragraph of [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]) and is responsible for the movements of the muscles of the body and its limbs. On its way the tract passes through several parts of the [[brain stem]] namely the [[midbrain]], [[pons]] and [[Medulla oblongata|medulla]], respectively. The tract crosses to the opposite side (or decussates) on the lowest portion of the medulla (forming an anatomical structure named as ''the pyramids'') and goes down along the opposite side of the spinal cord to meet the contralateral motor neurons. For this reason, one side of the brain controls the muscle movements of the opposite side of the body, and thus the disruption of the right corticospinal tract on brain stem or upper brain structures causes a hemiparesis on the left side of the body and vice versa. On the other hand, the lesions of the tract on the spinal cord lead to a hemiparesis on the same side of the body. The facial muscles are also controlled by the same tract. The tract activates the facial nuclei (see [[ganglion]]) and the facial nerve emerging from these nuclei activate the facial muscles during voluntary facial muscle contraction. Since the facial nuclei are located in the pons above the decussation, the lesions of the tract on the pons or upper structures give rise to a hemiparesis on the opposite side of the body and a paresis on the same side of the face and that is called a crossed hemiparesis. If the patient's face is not involved, this is highly suggestive of a lesion of the tract on lower parts of the brain stem or spinal cord. Since the spinal cord is a very small structure, it is very unusual for only one side to be affected by a lesion and usually both tracts are affected. Therefore, the spinal cord lesions usually present with the paralysis of both arms and legs (''quadriparesis'') or both legs (''paraparesis''). [[Hemiplegia]] is similar to [[hemiparesis]], but hemiparesis is considered less severe. [http://sprojects.mmi.mcgill.ca/gait/hemiplegic/intro.asp] ==See also== * [[paresis]] [[Category:Neurological disorders]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Human-Computer Interaction</title> <id>13530</id> <revision> <id>15911129</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Human-computer interaction]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Henri Bergson</title> <id>13531</id> <revision> <id>41496913</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:38:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mackensen</username> <id>20329</id> </contributor> <comment>Template:PeerNavbox -&gt; Template:Succession box using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henri-Louis Bergson''' ([[October 18]], [[1859]] &amp;ndash; [[January 4]], [[1941]]) was a [[France|French]] [[Philosophy|philosopher]], influential in France, but out of the main currents of his time. ==Four principal works== He was born in [[Paris]] in the ''Rue Lamartine'', not far from the [[Paris Opera]]. He was descended from a [[Poles|Polish]] [[Jew]]ish family (originally Berekson) on his father's side, while his mother was from an [[England|English]] and [[Irish people|Irish]] Jewish background. His family lived in [[London]] for a few years after his birth, and he obtained an early familiarity with the [[English language]] from his mother. Before he was nine, his parents crossed the [[English Channel]] and settled
stration]]. In the speech, Gore demanded [[Secretary of Defense]] [[Donald Rumsfeld]], [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] [[Condoleezza Rice]], [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[George Tenet]], [[Deputy Secretary of Defense]] [[Paul Wolfowitz]], [[Undersecretary of Defense for Policy]] [[Douglas Feith]], and [[Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence]] [[Stephen Cambone]] all resign for encouraging policies that led to the abuse of Iraqi prisoners and fanned hatred of Americans abroad. During the fiery speech, which lasted more than an hour, Gore called the Bush administration's Iraq war plan &quot;incompetent&quot; and called George W. Bush the most dishonest president since [[Richard Nixon]], who resigned the office of the presidency in 1974 following the [[Watergate]] scandal. Gore also decried the [[Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse|abuse of prisoners in Abu Ghraib Prison in Iraq]], saying, &quot;What happened at that prison, it is now clear, is not the result of random acts of a few bad apples. It was the natural consequence of the Bush Administration policy.&quot; ====Convention==== As the first major speaker at the [[2004 Democratic National Convention]], Gore held himself out as a living reminder that every vote counts. &quot;Let's make sure not only that the Supreme Court does not pick the next president, but also that this president is not the one who picks the next Supreme Court,&quot; said Gore. Gore directed remarks to supporters of third-party presidential candidate [[Ralph Nader]], who abandoned the Democratic Party four years ago, asking them, &quot;Do you still believe that there was no difference between the candidates?&quot; ====Post-Convention==== On [[October 18]], 2004, Al Gore delivered his final major policy speech of the 2004 political season. In an hour long presentation, Gore concluded that, &quot;I'm convinced that most of the president's frequent departures from fact-based analysis have much more to do with right-wing political and economic [[ideology]] than with the [[Bible]].&quot; ==Views and controversies== {{main|Al Gore controversies}} Gore is a strong supporter of [[abortion]] rights, [[free trade]], and strong [[environmentalism|environmental]] policy. He was a vocal opponent of the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] [http://www.commonwealthclub.org/archive/02/02-09gore-speech.html]. Gore has gradually moved politically further [[Left-wing politics | left]]; he was once a moderate-to-conservative lawmaker. While in Congress, Gore had a strong pro-life record on abortion and voted pro-life 27 times. When exactly Gore became pro-choice is unknown, but by 1988, when he sought the Democratic presidential nomination, he was on record as opposing the criminalization of abortion. Critics have charged Gore with [[1996 U.S. campaign finance scandal|illegal fundraising]] at a Buddhist temple and illegal use of his government office and telephone for political fundraising in violation of the Hatch Act, although he was never indicted on such a charge. ===The Internet=== Gore is a frequent target of satire, based on his supposedly having claimed to have invented the Internet. In fact he never made such a claim [http://www.snopes.com/quotes/internet.asp]. Rather, during an interview with [[Wolf Blitzer]] on [[CNN]]'s &quot;Late Edition&quot; on March 9, 1999, Gore stated: : During my service in the United States Congress, I took the initiative in creating the Internet. I took the initiative in moving forward a whole range of initiatives that have proven to be important to our country's economic growth and environmental protection, improvements in our educational system [http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/03/09/president.2000/transcript.gore]. The phrase from the statement above which sparked the debate, &quot;I took the initiative in creating the Internet,&quot; referred to Gore's involvement with and sponsorship of the ''High Performance Computing Act of 1991'' which advanced the growth and mainstreaming of the Internet during the [[1990s]] [http://www.mit.edu/afs/net.mit.edu/dev/mit/jis/OldFiles/nrenbill.txt]. This statement was later defended by Internet pioneers [[Bob Kahn|Robert Kahn]] and [[Vinton Cerf]] [http://www.interesting-people.org/archives/interesting-people/200009/msg00052.html]: : ...as the two people who designed the basic architecture and the core protocols that make the Internet work, we would like to acknowledge VP Gore's contributions as a Congressman, Senator and as Vice President. No other elected official, to our knowledge, has made a greater contribution over a longer period of time. ===Accusations of hypocrisy by McClellan and Gonzales=== On the 16th of January, 2006, Gore accused U.S. [[George W. Bush|President Bush]] of &quot;breaking the law repeatedly and insistently,&quot; and called for a special investigation of [[NSA]] spying on Americans because the spying was without a warrant from a special federal court that authorizes such requests to eavesdrop on Americans. Bush press secretary [[Scott McClellan]] and Attorney General [[Alberto Gonzales]] both responded to reporters that the Clinton-Gore administration had done illegal warrantless physical searches themselves of [[Aldrich Ames]] without permission from a judge. &quot;I think his hypocrisy knows no bounds,&quot; McClellan said of Gore. But the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]] at the time did not cover physical searches. The law had changed in 1995. Gore claimed that because Gonzales made a &quot;political defense&quot; for Bush, he was no longer eligible to review charges against Bush and therefore must name a [[special counsel]]. &quot;His charges are factually wrong,&quot; said Gore, &quot;Both before and after the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]] was amended in 1995; the Clinton-Gore administration complied fully and completely with the terms of the law.&quot; [http://www.forbes.com/business/manufacturing/feeds/ap/2006/01/17/ap2456266.html] ==See also== ===Al Gore Television Credits=== * [[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]], ([[August 1]], [[2005]]) * [[Saturday Night Live]], ([[December 14]], [[2002]]) * [[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]], ([[November 27]], [[2002]]) * [[Futurama]], &quot;[[Futurama (TV series - season 5)#Crimes of the Hot|Crimes of the Hot]]&quot;, ([[November 10]], [[2002]]) * [[Seven Days]], &quot;Stairway to Heaven&quot;, ([[October 11]], [[2000]]) * [[The Late Show with David Letterman]], ([[September 14]], [[2000]]) * [[Futurama]], &quot;[[Futurama (TV series - season 2)#Anthology of Interest I|Anthology of Interest I]]&quot;, ([[May 21]], [[2000]]) * [[Larry King Live]], ([[April 20]], 2000) * [[Mad About You]], &quot;Breastfeeding&quot;, ([[January 6]], [[1998]]) * [[Late Show with David Letterman]], ([[September 8]], [[1993]]) ==External links== &quot;The [[Spallation Neutron Source|SNS Project]]&quot; and *[http://lib1.isd.ornl.gov:8087/cgi/psearch_sns_new.cgi?beg_num=1&amp;amp;end_num=50&amp;amp;sval=list&amp;amp;res_type=images&amp;amp;photo_num=&amp;amp;keywords=gore&amp;amp;connect4=AND&amp;amp;beg_yr=1999&amp;amp;end_yr=2005&amp;amp;sval2=list&amp;amp;submit=Submit&amp;amp;ips=25 Al Gore] {{wikiquote}} {{wikisource author}} ===General sites=== *[http://www.ElectGore2008.com/ ElectGore2008.com - Elect Al Gore in 2008 , For Current Daily Updated News on Al Gore, Discuss and Debate on Forum] *[http://www.RunAlGore.com/ Al Gore For President - For Current Daily Updated News on Al Gore, Discuss and Debate on Forum ] *[http://www.algoresupportcenter.com/ Al Gore Support Center 2008 - The Home of Hardcore Gore Supporters] *[http://www.algore-08.com/ Al Gore '08 - Organize, Discuss, Act] *[http://www.patriotsforgore.com/ Patriots for Al Gore/The Gore Support Site With A Social Conscience] *[http://www.current.tv Current TV] *[http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/VP.html The Official NARA Online Office Of Vice President Gore (1993-2001)] *[http://clinton3.nara.gov/WH/Accomplishments/ Clinton-Gore Administration Accomplishments] * [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/campaigns/wh2000/stories/goremain100399.htm The Life of Al Gore - Washington Post] *[http://www.ontheissues.org/Al_Gore.htm Al Gore on the Issues] *[http://www.freemedia.at/Boston_Congress_Report/boston3.htm A New Approach for a New Century, International Press Institute World Congress, April 2000] *[http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Al_Gore.php Political Donations Made by Al Gore] ===Recent speeches by Al Gore=== *[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/16/AR2006011600779.html Gore's 2006 Martin Luther King Day Speech on NSA Spying Scandal and Restoring The Rule of Law] ([http://irregulartimes.com/gorejan06.mp3 mp3 audio] | [http://irregulartimes.com/index.php/archives/2006/01/16/al-gore-speech-transcript/ transcript]) *[http://mediacenter.blogs.com/morph/2005/10/al_gore_address.html Gore Speaks On The Threat To Democracy] *[http://www.sierrasummit2005.org/sierrasummit/coverage/r016.asp Gore's Speech To The Sierra Club] *[http://s6.invisionfree.com/Patriots_for_Gore/index.php?showtopic=2268 Gore Slams GOP's Efforts To End Filibuster] *[http://www.xpatusa.com/Al_Gore2.htm Gore Charges The Bush Administration With A Failed Presidency] *[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/26/politics/campaign/26TEXT-GORE.html Gore's Remarks At The 2004 Democratic Convention] *[http://s8.invisionfree.com/Al_Gore_Support/index.php?showtopic=100 Gore Says Bush Lied To Push For War In Iraq] *[http://www.moveonpac.org/gore/ Gore Calls for the Resignation of the Bush Team] *[http://www.moveon.org/front/gore.html Gore Speaks on the Use of &quot;Fear&quot; in Politics] - *[http://www.moveon.org/gore3/speech.html Gore Speaks on Global Warming and the Environment] *[http://www.moveon.org/gore/speech.html Gore Calls for the Repeal of the Patriot Act] *[http://www.moveon.org/gore-speech.html Gore Blasts Bush for
ic physics</title> <id>1200</id> <revision> <id>39868446</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:17:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hede2000</username> <id>284384</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+da:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Atomic physics''' (or '''atom physics''') is the field of [[physics]] that studies the [[electron]] hull of [[atom]]s. Lay people often associate the term ''atomic physics'' with [[nuclear power]] and [[nuclear bomb]]s, obviously due to the [[synonym]]ous use of ''atomic'' and ''nuclear'' in [[standard English]]. However, physicists distinguish between atomic physics (dealing with the effects of the [[electron]] hull and the nucleus's overall [[Spin_(physics)|spin]] and [[electric charge]]) and [[nuclear physics]] (dealing with the forces within [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]] and reactions that alter, fuse or split them). The beginning of atomic physics is marked by the discovery and scrutinious study of [[spectral line]]s. These are sharply defined lines in the spectrum of illuminated or (hot, hence ionized (see [[flame]]) and hence) light-emitting free atoms. (&quot;Free&quot; meaning that they are a [[gas]] or [[vapour]] and therefore not close to or interacting with other atoms.) The study of these lines led to the [[Bohr atom model]] and on to our present understanding of the electron hull of the atom as described by the [[atomic orbital model]] which is the basis of all understanding of [[chemistry]]. These conclusions are, however, not at all straightforward, but rather were required by more than a century of research, which has succeeded in putting chemistry on a sound fundament but also gave rise to many other applications. == See also == * [[Atomic clock]]: a typical application of atom physics * [[Energy level]]: a list of quantum mechanical effects important in atom physics * [[Quantum optics]]: a field that has lot of overlap with atom physics == External links == * [http://plasma-gate.weizmann.ac.il/API.html Atomic Physics on the Internet] [[Category:Atomic physics| ]] [[Category:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics]] &lt;!-- Interlanguage links --&gt; [[ar:فيزياء ذرية]] [[da:Atomfysik]] [[de:Atomphysik]] [[es:Física atómica]] [[id:Fisika atom]] [[he:פיזיקה אטומית]] [[lb:Atomphysik]] [[nl:Atoomfysica]] [[ja:原子物理学]] [[pl:Fizyka atomowa]] [[pt:Física atômica]] [[sv:Atomfysik]] [[ta:அணுவியல்]] [[zh:原子物理学]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>American Sign Language</title> <id>1201</id> <revision> <id>41640776</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:57:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BillFlis</username> <id>846916</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language |name=American Sign Language |nativename=ASL |states=[[United States]], [[Canada]] and [[Mexico]] |region=Anglophone [[North America]] |signers=500,000 to 2 million in the USA alone (others unknown) |family=emerging primarily from [[Old French Sign Language]], with significant input from [[Martha's Vineyard Sign Language]] and various [[home sign]] systems |iso3=ase }} '''American Sign Language''' ('''ASL''', also '''Amslan''' obs., '''Ameslan''' obs.) is the dominant [[sign language]] in the [[United States]], [[anglophone|English-speaking]] [[Canada]], and parts of [[Mexico]], used particularly in the [[Deaf community]]. Although the United Kingdom and the United States share English as a spoken language, [[British Sign Language]] (BSL) is quite different from ASL, and not mutually intelligible. ASL is also used (sometimes alongside indigenous sign languages) in the [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Haiti]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Ghana]], [[Togo]], [[Benin]], [[Nigeria]], [[Chad]], [[Gabon]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Mauritania]], [[Kenya]], [[Madagascar]], and [[Zimbabwe]]. Like other sign languages, its [[grammar]] and [[syntax]] are distinct from any [[spoken language]] in its area of influence. While there has been no reliable survey of the number of people who use ASL as their primary language, estimates range from 500,000 to 2 million in the U.S.A. alone [http://library.gallaudet.edu/dr/faq-asl-rank.html]. American Sign Language has been said (by Trudy Suggs in her book) to be the third-most-used language in America after English and Spanish. ==History of ASL== In the [[United States]], as in most of the world, hearing families with deaf children often employ ad-hoc [[home sign]] for simple communications. Today though, ASL classes are offered in many secondary and postsecondary schools. ASL is a language distinct from spoken English—replete with its own syntax and grammar and supporting its own culture. The origin of modern ASL is ultimately tied to the confluence of many events and circumstances, including historical attempts at [[deaf education]]; possibly the sign used by the indigenous nations of North America; the unique situation present on a small island in Massachusetts; the attempts of a father to enlist a local minister to help educate his deaf daughter; and in no small part the ingenuity and genius of people (in this case deaf people) for language itself. Standardized sign languages have been used in Italy since the [[17th century]] and in France since the [[18th century]] for the instruction of the deaf. [[Old French Sign Language]] was developed and used in [[Paris]] by the [[Abbé de l'Épée]] in his school for the deaf. These languages were always modeled after the natural sign languages already in use by the deaf cultures in their area of origin, often with additions to show aspects of the grammar of the local spoken languages. American Plains Indians used [[Plains Indian Sign Language]] as an [[interlanguage]] for communication between people/tribes not sharing a common spoken language; its influence on ASL, if any, is unknown. Off the coast of [[Massachusetts]], on the island of [[Martha's Vineyard]] in the 18th century, the population had a much higher rate of deafness than the general population of the continental United States because of the [[founder effect]] and the island's isolation. [[Martha's Vineyard Sign Language]] was well known by almost all islanders since so many families had deaf members. It afforded almost everyone the opportunity to have frequent contact with ASL while at an age most conducive to effortlessly learning a language. Congregationalist minister and deaf educator [[Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet]] is credited with popularizing the signing technique in North America. At the behest of a father who was interested in educating his deaf daughter, [[Alice Cogswell]], he was enlisted to investigate methods of teaching the deaf. In the early 1800s he visited the Abbé de l'Épée's school in Paris and convinced one of the teachers, [[Laurent Clerc]], to return with him to America. In [[1817]] they founded the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb (now the [http://www.asd-1817.org/ American School for the Deaf]), in [[Hartford, Connecticut]], to teach sign language to American deaf students. It was at this school that all these influences would intermingle, interact and what would become ASL was born. Many of the school's students were from Martha's Vineyard, and they mixed their &quot;native&quot; sign language with Clerc's OFSL. Other students probably brought their own highly localized sign language or &quot;home sign&quot; systems to the mix. Undoubtedly, spontaneous lexicon developed at the school as well. If there was any influence from sign language of [[Native American|indigenous people]], it may have been here that it was absorbed into the language. Interestingly, because of the early influence of the sign language of France upon the school, the vocabularies of ASL and modern [[French Sign Language]] are approximately 60% shared, whereas ASL and [[British Sign Language]], for example, are almost completely dissimilar. From its synthesis at this first public school for the deaf in North America, the language went on to grow. Many of the graduates of this school went on to found schools of their own in many other states, thus spreading the methods of Gallaudet and Clerc and serving to expand and standardize the language; as with most languages though, there are regional variations. After being strongly established in this country there was a bitter fight between those who supported [[oralism]] over [[manualism]] in the late 1800s. Many notable individuals of high standing contributed to this row, such as [[Alexander Graham Bell]]. The oralists won many battles and for a long time the use of sign was suppressed, socially and pedagogically. Many considered sign to not even be a language at all. This situation was changed by [[William Stokoe]], a professor of English hired at [[Gallaudet University]] in 1955. He immediately became fascinated by ASL and began serious study of it. Eventually, through publication in linguistics journals of articles containing detailed linguistic analysis of ASL, he was able to convince the scientific mainstream that ASL was indeed a natural language on a par with any other. The language continues to grow and change like any living language. In particular, ASL constantly adds new signs in an attempt to keep up with constantly changing technology. ==Linguistics== ASL is a [[natural language]] as proved to the satisfaction of the linguistic community by [[William Stokoe]], and contains [[phonology]], [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[semantics]], [[syntax]] and [[pragmatics]] just like [[spoken languages]]. It is a [[manual language]] meaning that the information is expressed not with combinations of sounds but with combinations of handshapes, palm orientations, movements of the hands, arms and body, and facial ex
stead of traditional narration. ===''Eraserhead''=== [[Image:Eraserset1.jpg|left|240px|thumb|Lynch and actor Jack Nance on the set of ''Eraserhead'' (1978)]] In [[1971]], Lynch moved to [[Los Angeles]] to attend the M.F.A. studies at the [[AFI Conservatory]]. At the Conservatory, Lynch began working on his first feature-length film, ''[[Eraserhead]],'' using a $10,000 grant from the AFI. The grant did not provide enough money to complete the film and, due to lack of a sufficient budget, ''Eraserhead'' was filmed intermittently until [[1977]]. Lynch used money from friends and family, including boyhood friend [[Jack Fisk]], a production designer and the husband of actress [[Sissy Spacek]], and even took a paper route to finish it. A stark and enigmatic film, ''Eraserhead'' tells the story of a quiet young man ([[Jack Nance]]) living in an industrial wasteland, whose wife gives birth to a constantly hissing [[mutant]] freak of a baby. Lynch has referred to ''Eraserhead'' as &quot;my [[The Philadelphia Story|Philadelphia story]]&quot;, meaning it reflects all of the dangerous and fearful elements he encountered while studying and living in [[Philadelphia]] ([http://www.davidlynch.de/tiplynchtrans.html]). He said &quot;this feeling left its traces deep down inside me. And when it came out again, it became ''Eraserhead''&quot;. The film also reflects the director's own fears and anxieties about fatherhood, personified in the form of the bizarre baby, which has become one of the most notorious props in film history. Lynch refuses to discuss how the baby was made, and a long-standing [[urban legend]] claims that it was created using an embalmed [[cattle|cow]] [[fetus]] [http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/Interview/4749/Eraserheadfaq.htm#6.%20How%20the%20heck%20did%20Lynch%20make%20the%20baby?]. The final film was initially judged to be almost unreleasable, but thanks to the efforts of distributor [[Ben Barenholtz]], it became an instant [[cult classic]] and was a staple of midnight movie showings for the next decade. It was also a critical success, launching Lynch to the forefront of [[avant-garde]] filmmaking. [[Stanley Kubrick]] expressed that it was one of his all-time favorite films. It cemented the team of actors and technicians who would continue to define the texture of his work for years to come, including cinematographer [[Frederick Elmes]], sound designer [[Alan Splet]], and actor [[Jack Nance]]. ===''The Elephant Man'', ''Dune'' and ''Blue Velvet''=== ''Eraserhead'' brought Lynch to the attention of producer [[Mel Brooks]] who hired him to direct [[1980]]’s ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]],'' a [[biopic]] of deformed [[Victorian era]] socialite [[Joseph Merrick]]. The film was a huge financial and commercial success and earned eight [[Academy Award]] nominations, including a [[Best Director]] nod for Lynch. It also established his place as a commercially viable, if somewhat dark and unconventional, [[Hollywood]] director. Afterwards, Lynch agreed to direct a big budget adaptation of [[Frank Herbert]]’s [[science fiction]] [[novel]] ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'' for [[Italy|Italian]] producer [[Dino De Laurentiis]]’s [[De Laurentiis Entertainment Group]] on the condition that the company release a second Lynch project, over which the director would have complete creative control. Although De Laurentiis hoped it would be the next ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope|Star Wars]],'' Lynch’s ''Dune'' ([[1984]]) was a critical and commercial dud, costing $45 million to make and grossing a mere $15 million domestically. The film may have been hampered by cuts--the 137-minute film was cut down from Lynch’s three and a half hour [[director's cut]] in a way that made the plot incomprehensible. The studio released an &quot;extended cut&quot; of the film for syndicated television in which some legitimate footage originally cut from the film was reinstated; however the main caveat was that certain shots from elsewhere in the film were repeated throughout the story to give the impression that other footage had been added. Whatever the case, this was not representative of Lynch’s intended cut, but rather a cut that the studios felt was more comprehensible than the original theatrical cut. Lynch objected to these changes and disowned the extended cut, which has [[Allen Smithee]] credited as the director. This version has since been released on video worldwide. [[Image:BlueVelvetLynch.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Blue Velvet'' (1986)]] Lynch’s second De Laurentiis-financed project was [[1986]]’s ''[[Blue Velvet]],'' the story of a college student ([[Kyle MacLachlan]]) who discovers the dark side of his small hometown after investigating a severed ear he finds in a field. The film featured memorable performances from [[Isabella Rossellini]] as a tormented lounge singer and [[Dennis Hopper]] as a crude, [[sociopath|sociopathic]] criminal and leader of a small gang of backwater hoodlums. ''Blue Velvet'' was a huge critical success and earned Lynch his second Academy Award nomination. The film introduced several common elements of his work, including abused women, the dark underbelly of small towns, and unconventional uses of vintage songs. [[Bobby Vinton]]’s &quot;Blue Velvet&quot; and [[Roy Orbison]]’s &quot;[[In Dreams]]&quot; are both featured in disturbing ways. It was also the first time Lynch worked with composer [[Angelo Badalamenti]], who would contribute to all of his future full-length films. ===''Twin Peaks'', ''Wild at Heart'', ''Industrial Symphonies'' and ''Hotel Room''=== After failing to secure funding for several completed scripts in the late 1980s, Lynch collaborated with [[television]] producer [[Mark Frost]] on the show ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', about a small [[Washington]] town that is the site of several bizarre happenings. The show centered around the investigation by [[FBI]] [[Special Agent Dale Cooper]] (Kyle MacLachlan) into the death of popular high school student [[Laura Palmer]], an investigation that unearthed the secrets of many town residents. Lynch directed six episodes of the series, including the [[Television pilot|pilot]], and wrote or co-wrote several more. [[Image:LynchTIME.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Lynch on the cover of the [[October 1]], [[1990]] issue of [[Time Magazine]].]] The show debuted on the [[ABC Network]] on [[April 8]], [[1990]] and slowly rose from cult hit to cultural phenomenon. No other Lynch-related project has gained such mainstream acceptance. [[Catch phrase]]s from the show entered the cultural dialect and parodies of it were seen on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' and ''[[The Simpsons]]''. Lynch appeared on the cover of [[Time magazine]] largely because of the success of the series. Lynch, who has seldom acted in his career, also appeared on the show as the partially-deaf, continually-shouting FBI Regional Bureau Chief Gordon Cole. However, Lynch clashed with the ABC Network on several matters, particularly whether or not to reveal Laura Palmer’s killer. The network insisted that the revelation be made during the second season but Lynch wanted the mystery to last as long as the series. Lynch soon became disenchanted with the series (many cast members would complain of feeling abandoned) and, after shooting the Twin Peaks pilot episode, set off to work on the film ''[[Wild at Heart]].'' Adapted from the novel by [[Barry Gifford]], ''Wild at Heart'' was an almost hallucinatory [[crime fiction|crime]]/[[road movie]] starring [[Nicholas Cage]] and [[Laura Dern]]. It won the coveted [[Palme d'Or]] at the [[1990]] [[Cannes Film Festival]] but met with a muted response from American critics and viewers. Reportedly, several people walked out of [[test screening]]s. The missing link between Twin Peaks and Wild at Heart, however, is ''[[Industrial Symphony No. 1]]: The Dream of the Broken Hearted''. It was originally presented on-stage at the [[Brooklyn Academy of Music]] in [[New York City]] on [[November 10]], [[1989]] as a part of the [[New Music America Festival]]. ''Industrial Symphony No. 1'' is another collaboration between composer Angelo Badalamenti and David Lynch. It features ten songs by [[Julee Cruise]] and stars several members of the Twin Peaks cast as well as Nick Cage, Laura Dern and Julee Cruise. Lynch described this musical spectacle as the &quot;sound effects and music and ... happening on the stage. And, it has something to do with, uh, a relationship ending.&quot; David Lynch produced a 50 minute video of the performance in [[1990]]. Meanwhile, ''Twin Peaks'' suffered a severe ratings drop, and was cancelled in [[1991]]. Still, Lynch scripted a [[prequel]] to the series, about the last seven days in the life of Laura Palmer. The resulting film, ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me]]'' ([[1992]]), flopped at the box office and garnered the most negative reviews of Lynch’s career. As a quick blip during this time period, he and [[Mark Frost]] wrote and directed several episodes of the short lived comedy series ''[[On the Air]]'' for ABC, which followed the zany antics at a 1940's TV studio. In the US only two episodes were aired, although seven were filmed; In the Netherlands all 7 were aired by [[VPRO]]. His next project was much more low-key; he directed two episodes of a three-episode [[HBO]] [[mini-series]] called ''[[Hotel Room]]'' about events that happened in the same hotel room in a span of decades. [[Image:Lost-Higway-01.jpg|right|190px|thumb|''Lost Highway'' (1997)]] ===''Lost Highway'', ''The Straight Story'', ''Mulholland Drive'' and ''INLAND EMPIRE''=== In [[1997]], Lynch returned with the non-linear, [[film noir|noir]]-like film ''[[Lost Highway]]'', co-written by Barry Gifford and starring [[Bill Pullman]] and [[Patricia Arquette]]. The film failed commercially and received a mixed response from critics. However, thanks in part to a soundtrack featuring [[Marilyn Manson]], [[Rammstein]], [[Nine Inch Nails]] and [[Smashing Pumpkins]]
would have been if the rate of home invasions was much greater than the rate of domestic violence. Although domestic violence is actually not well studied, it is universally agreed that it is often more common than home invasion type crimes, at least in so-called ''good'' neighborhoods, although the choice of a ''bad'' neighborhood, even within any particularly nominal ''safe'' city, may be more indicative of the probability of home invasions occurring than domestive violence, thereby tilting the statistics to appear to favor either side's basic argument, depending on which neighborhoods are chosen for analysis. Kellermann also tabulated the change in risk of homicide associated with other, purely defensive, means of protection, ''e.g.'' [[alarm]] systems, [[deadbolt]]s, [[security door]]s, barred windows, etc., and in each case was able to demonstrate a very small decrease in risk of homicide, which would suggest that the effect of the presence of a firearm on the risk of death by home invasion would be of similar magnitude, much smaller than the additional risk of domestic violence related homicide which was seen. More thoughtful critics of the work and its connection with calls for gun control point out that Kellermann's work does not address the overall question of the total risk or benefit of firearm ownership because it does not address any events occurring outside the house; and due to this limitation, assert that his result is really more of an indictment of domestic violence than of gun ownership. Even Kellermann himself includes in his paper several paragraphs referring to the need for further study of domestic violence and its causes and prevention. It is often argue that the vast majority of households which possess a gun are not at any risk for any form of domestic violence, making any increased risk from gun ownership related to this behavior totally irrelevant to most gunowners; and that restriction of the rights of the great majority for the protection of a few who are at risk for domestic violence who might harm themselves is in keeping with neither the general tenor of United States law, nor the Second Amendment in particular. (However, the risk of domestic violence related homicide found in Kellermann's study cuts across all sub-populations including both demographic variables such as race as well as others which might be considered more directly relevant, such as a history of violence, drug or alcohol abuse, or criminal record. Perhaps it is obvious to those in a relationship whether there is risk of domestic violence or not, but the data in the study were not able to make such a distinction. In this respect, the calls for further study of predictors related to domestic violence become even more important). Furthermore, it is argued that it is not the government's place to prevent adult citizens of sound mind from indulging in anything risky; and that people are freely permitted to assume much greater risks among their hobbies, sports, and interests, such as the aforementioned swimming pools and automobiles, skiing, etc. if they wish. However, Kellermann's paper begins by pointing out that people who would not otherwise own firearms for recreational or other purposes are being urged to acquire firearms specifically for protection of the home, and in this one narrow context, his results demonstrate that this is an erroneous strategy; whether prospective gun owners choose to follow this advice or not is their decision alone to make. Perhaps the most useful contribution of the Kellermann studies is to quantify the degree of risk for domestic homicide associated with gun ownership, in the context of the degree of risk posed by some of the other variables he included. The greatest risks are associated with factors such as [[renting]] a dwelling rather than [[own]]ing, and/or living alone; these are not in themselves causes of homicide, obviously, but represent measurable results of deeper factors, ''e.g.'' lower [[socioeconomic]] status. In comparison, the risk associated with gun ownership was significantly lower. It was, however, statistically indistinguishable from the degree of risk posed by any member of the family having a criminal record, which most people would consider to be significant. ===Statistics in the Public Policy Arena=== The specter of the private ownership of guns and their relationship to [[domestic violence]] casualties is a very significant variable used for political leverage in the policy debate. A frequent arguement portends that a gun is &quot;far more likely to kill or injure a family member or other person known to the gun owner than to be used in self-defense against an unknown home invader.&quot; This line of statistical reasoning is propogated on [[billboards]] and radio and television commercials in addition to its use on the floor of legislative bodies. In many cases, the use the domestic shooting [[statistics]] are criticized by gun rights advocates as being propounded in oblique manner without proper context. That is, while many shootings occuring in the course of a heated mutual argument of passion, others occur where a partner or family member of a &quot;romantic&quot; or familial relationship, who is a ongoing victim of domestic [[physical abuse]] or [[sexual abuse]] uses the force of a firearm in self-defense action against the perpetrator who also happens to be known to or related to the victim. As a corollary, in such policy advertising campaigns, the comparison of &quot;domestic&quot; gun casualties is usually not accompanied by [[murder]] and [[assault]] prosecution numbers stemming from the shootings occuring in that context. Of particular note is that in many of the latter cases, the victim firing in self-defense is frequently a woman or youth [[victim]] of a more physically powerful abuser. In those situations gun rights advocates argue that the firearm arguably becomes an equalizer against the lethal and disabling force frequently exercised by the abusers. In a similar fashion, while both sides frequently make misleading arguments in the political arena, many gun control advocates also point to statistics in advertising campaigns purporting that &quot;approximately 9 or so childen are killed by firearms discharges every day across the US,&quot;[http://www.med.umich.edu/1libr/yourchild/guns.htm]. Gun rights advocates argue that this statistic is seldom accompanied by a differentiation of those children killed by unintentional discharges and stray bullets, and those &quot;children,&quot; under the age of 18, who are killed while acting as aggressors in [[street gang]] related mutual combat or while commiting gun crimes, many of which are seen as arising from the [[War on Drugs]]. There is further controversy about courts trying and sentencing these mostly &quot;young men&quot; as adults despite them not having reached the [[age of consent]]. A significant number of the aforementioned deaths occur through [[suicide]]. To be specific, in the case of US, a country with a high occurence of child gun deaths, in fact, 85% of those children killed are ages 15-19; 61% of are killed in homicide or legal intervention; 31% commit suicide with a gun; 6% are killed by unintentional discharges. There has been widespread agreement on both sides that the use of trigger locks and the importance of [[gun safety]] education has a mitigating effect on the occurence of accidental discharges involving children. There is somewhat less agreement about [[vicarious liability]] case law assigning [[strict liability]] to the gun owner for those firearms casualties occuring when a careless gun owner loses proper custody and control of her or his firearm. === Numbers === Many advocates on all sides of the issue manipulate numbers, i.e., lump gun deaths together, or segregate them according to intent. Broad categories of deaths are often broken down (by size): # suicide # accidental death # homicide # legal intervention # undetermined Gun control advocates' claims impact only causes 2 and 3, since there is no agreement whether, after gun regulation, suicides decrease or not. [http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi116.html] Many results indicated by the media and many official reports indicate only raw numbers or percentages, and then are often erroneously compared to previous reports. This does not take into account the growth of the population, and other factors. Typically a good number indicates incidences per thousand or per hundred thousand. Other numbers are often not factored into discussions. For example, in Australia, knives are 2-3 times as likely to be used in robberies as a firearm. The numbers of legal versus illegal firearms, in areas with laws legislating proper gun ownership, are also glossed over. For example, 90% of all firearm related homicides in Australia are committed with unregistered firearms (since the 1995 &amp; 1996 regulations). ==See also== *[[Ballistic fingerprinting]] ==External links== *[http://www.packing.org/ Concealed Carry Information and Firearm Laws For Individual States. Requirements To Obtain Concealed Carry Permit from Issuing States.] *[http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5214a2.htm First Reports Evaluating the Effectiveness of Strategies for Preventing Violence: Firearms Laws] *[http://licgweb.doacs.state.fl.us/weapons/index.html State of Florida Information For Resident and Non-Resident Concealed Weapon / Firearm License.] ===Pro gun control=== *[http://www.bradycampaign.org/ Brady Campaign-Center to Prevent Gun Violence] *[http://www.csgv.org/ Coalition to Stop Gun Violence] *[http://www.gwu.edu/~ccps/pop_disarm.html Communitarian Network: The Case for Domestic Disarmament] *[http://www.guninformation.org/ Gun Control and the Second Amendment] *[http://www.lcav.org/ Legal Community Against Gun Violence] *[http://www.potowmack.org/ Potowmack Institute] *[http://www.secondamendmentcenter.org
f [[fire]], although sometimes they associated them with [[succubus|succubi]], [[demons]] in the forms of beautiful [[woman|women]], who visited [[man|men]] by night to [[copulation|copulate]] with them until they were exhausted, drawing [[energy]] from this encounter just as a [[vampire]] is supposedly sustained by his victim's blood. ==Jinn in Islam== Muslims believe that jinn are real beings. The jinn are said to be creatures with [[free will]], made of smokeless fire by [[God]], much in the same way [[human]]s were made of clay. In the [[Qur'an]], the jinn are frequently mentioned and Surat 72 of the Qur'an named [[Al-Jinn]] is entirely about them. In fact, the [[prophet Muhammad]] was said to have been sent as a prophet to both &quot;humanity and the jinn.&quot; The jinn have communities much like human societies, they eat, marry, die etc. They are invisible to humans, but they can see humans. Sometimes they accidentally or deliberately come into view or into contact with humans. Jinn are beings much like humans, possessing the ability to be good and bad. They have the power to transform into other animals and humans, and they are known to prefer the form of a snake. It is also known that they eat bones and their animals eat droppings, that is why it is forbidden to perform Istinja (washing) with those items. Jinns also have the power to possess humans, have much greater strength than them, and live much longer lives. In fact, according to some hadith, the great-grandson of Iblis, or the Devil (who was born before mankind), converted to Islam during the time of Muhammad, so he must have been thousands of years old. According to the majority of Islamic scholars, clear evidence exists in the Qur'an that the Devil was not an angel (as thought by Christians), but a jinn, citing the Quranic verse &quot;And when We said to the angels:'Prostrate yourselves unto Adam.' So they prostrated themselves except Iblis (The Devil). He was one of the jinn...&quot; Surat Al-Kahf, 18:50. According to Islam, angels are different physical beings, and unlike the fiery nature of jinn, they are beings of goodness and cannot choose to disobey God, nor do they possess the ability to do evil. In Islam-associated mythology, the jinn were said to be controllable by [[Magic (paranormal)|magically]] binding them to objects, as Suleiman ([[Sulayman|Solomon]]) [[Seal_of_solomon|most famously did]]; the Spirit of the Lamp in the sufi story of [[Aladdin]] was such a jinni, bound to an [[oil lamp]]. In the Qur'an, Suleiman had members of his army belonging to the race of jinn. Suleiman had the ability to communicate with all creatures, thus he could communicate with the jinn as well. Evil beings from among the Jinn are roughly equivalent to the demons of Christian lore. In mythology, jinn have the ability to possess human beings, both in the sense that they persuade humans to perform actions, and like the Christian perception of demonic possession. ==Jinn in the [[Occult]]== In sorcery books Jinn are classified into four races after the [[classical elements]], [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], [[Air (classical element)|Air]], [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]] ([[Ifrit#1 Ifrit in mythology|Ifrit]]) and [[Water (classical element)|Water]] ([[Marid]]) and presumed to live in them. They are collected in [[tribe]]s, usually seven, each with a [[Monarch|king]]. Each king controls his tribe and is controlled by an [[Angel]]. The Angel's name is torture to the jinn king as well as his specific tribe. Unlike white and evil [[witch]]es, Jinn have free will; yet, they could be compelled to perform both good and [[evil]] acts. In contrast a demon would only hurt creatures, and an angel would only have benevolent intentions. Knowing what to ask a spirit to perform is key, as asking a spirit to perform a chore that runs counter to its natural tendencies could possibly anger the spirit into retaliating against the sorcerer. ==Genies in Western culture== [[Image:Genies_compared.png|thumb|300px|right|Western media has chosen many different ways of portraying genies, from the comical to the horrific.]] In Western fiction, after the [[Aladdin]] tale in the Western version of [[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]], genies live in small [[oil lamp]]s and grant three wishes to the person who rubbed the lamp to release the genie while more mischievous ones take advantage of poorly worded wishes (including in one episode of the ''[[X-Files]]''). Alternately, they may grant a single wish per day. See also: [[Aladdin (1992 film)]], [[Howl's Moving Castle|Castle in the Air]], [[I Dream of Jeannie]], [[Be Careful What You Witch For (Charmed Episode)|Charmed]] ==Jinn in Popular Culture== Awareness about the origins of the genie myth, and the use of the original spelling ''djinn'' has become more common. Usually, the term ''djinn'' is used by authors who wish to convey a more serious interpretation of the mythical creature, rather than the comical genies the Western public has become used to such as Robin Williams character in Aladdin. Examples include: * Mr. Beaver in ''The [[Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe]]'' conjectures that the White Witch Jadis was not human (as was her claim), but was in fact half giantess and half Jinn, a descendant of [[Lilith]], Adam's &quot;first wife.&quot; * The horror film [[Wishmaster (film)|Wishmaster]] features a hateful and evil djinni as its villain. The series has spawned four sequels. * In the roleplaying game [[In Nomine (role-playing game)|In Nomine]] by [[Steve Jackson Games]], a band of [[demons]] in [[Hell]]'s service are called Djinn. * In the collectible card game ''[[Magic: The Gathering]]'' there are [http://gatherer.wizards.com/?first=1&amp;last=100&amp;term=djinn&amp;Field_Type=on&amp;setfilter=Allsets&amp;colorfilter=All&amp;typefilter=All&amp;output=summary&amp;sort=name&amp;x=69&amp;y=21 more than two dozen djinn-related cards] and [http://gatherer.wizards.com/?first=1&amp;last=100&amp;term=efreet&amp;Field_Type=on&amp;setfilter=Allsets&amp;colorfilter=All&amp;typefilter=All&amp;output=summary&amp;sort=name&amp;x=48&amp;y=25 a dozen ifrit/efreet cards]. * Several references to djinn occur in the final short story, entitled &quot;Ramadan,&quot; of [[Neil Gaiman]]'s sixth ''[[Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|The Sandman]]'' collection, ''[[The Sandman: Fables and Reflections|Fables and Reflections]]''. * In the ''[[Bartimaeus Trilogy]]'', a djinni is a section of five major deamons, also including Afrits (a form of Ifirt) as a creature of fire, and Marids, and Imps. *As well in the Bartimaeus trilogy, instead of having djinni as creatures of the elements, the author (Jonathon Stroud) classifies them in a ranking system according to their power or strength. Below I will list the djinni as he portrays them from weakest to most powerful. 1. imp 2. foliot 3. djinni 4.afrit 5. marid he hints of things that are beyond the power of a marid as being possible but they do not come up in the books. * The fantasy-novelists [[Margaret Weis]] and [[Tracy Hickman]] have written a trilogy of fantasy books called ''[[Rose of the Prophet]]'', which is set in an Arabic-style fantasy world with djinns and efreets. * The Weather Warden series by [[Rachel Caine]] also prominently features Djinn characters in an modern-day fantasy setting. ==See also== *[[Aladdin]] *[[Ifrit]] *[[Marid]] ==Compare== *[[Wight]] ==References== * al-Ashqar, Dr. Umar Sulaiman (1998). ''The World of the Jinn and Devils''. Boulder, CO: Al-Basheer Company for Publications and Translations. * Barnhart, Robert K. ''The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology''. 1995. ==External links== {{Wikisource|Qur'an (English_translation)|Qur'an (English)}} *[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/072.qmt.html Sura Al-Jinn from the Qur'an] *[http://www.alislam.org/library/books/revelation/part_5_section_3.html True Scientific Explanation of Jinn] *[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&amp;cid=1119503543420 Jinn Possession: Between Facts and Illusions] online Fatwa from [[islamonline.net]] *[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&amp;cid=1119503543990 The World of Jinn and Its Secrets] online Fatwa from [[islamonline.net]] *[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?cid=1120469514869&amp;pagename=IslamOnline-English-Cyber_Counselor/CyberCounselingE/CyberCounselingE A Jinn Paralyses Me At Night] *[http://www.quranichealing.com/bpi.asp?caid=69&amp;cid=836 What are Jinns and Spirits ?] [[Category:Islamic mythology]] [[Category:Legendary creatures]] [[Category:Arabian mythology]] [[Category:Arabic words]] [[ar:جن]] [[ca:Djinn]] [[da:Djinni]] [[de:Dschinn]] [[es:Genio]] [[fa:جن]] [[fr:Jinn]] [[gl:Xenio]] [[hu:Dzsinn]] [[it:jinn]] [[nl:Djinn]] [[pl:Dżinn]] [[pt:Jinn]] [[sv:Djinner]] [[tr:Cin]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gallurese</title> <id>13029</id> <revision> <id>41001775</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T11:44:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>62.101.126.219</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gallurese''' (''gadduresu'') is a [[diasystem]] of the [[Sardinian language]], spoken in the [[Gallura]] (''Gaddura''), north-eastern part of [[Sardinia]] including the town of [[Tempio Pausania]] (''Tempiu''). Grammatical structure, pronunciation and many terms reflect a certain nearness to [[Corsica|Corsican]] (many similarities with the southern Corsican dialects of [[Sartene]] and [[Porto-Vecchio]]) with which it shared some mutual influences due to close relationships in 17th century, but many words come from the [[Sardo logudorese]] variety of [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]], which was spoken in this area in the [[Middle Ages]]. The [[Sassarese]] dialect, spoken in [[Sassari]]'s area, also presents similar characteristics, even if is more linked to [[Sa
ice and approval of the cabinet. In contrast with other constitutional monarchs, the emperor of Japan has no [[reserve power]]s. Although the emperor currently performs many of the roles of a ceremonial sovereign as [[head of state]], there has been persistent controversy within Japan as to whether the emperor is in fact a true [[monarch]] in a political sense or merely a hereditary [[pretender]] holding such office within a constitutional parliamentary [[republic]]. In a traditional monarchy, political power devolves from the monarchical sovereign, whose [[Royal prerogative]] are then exercised at the whim of elected legislators by way of established [[Constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]]. However, if there is no royal prerogative then sovereignty must rest with people as it is so established under [[Constitution of Japan|Article One of the Constitution of Japan]]. Hence the emperor is simply a political actor within a government that does not truly adhere to the Westminster system where the position of &quot;head of the state&quot; requires a person of sovereignty or with popular mandate to assume that office. Efforts in the [[1950s]] by conservative powers to amend the constitution to explicitly name the emperor as head of state were rejected. Regardless, the emperor does perform all the diplomatic functions normally associated with a head of state and as a result is recognized as such by foreign powers. ==Naming== Due to linguistic and cultural differences between Japan and the Western world, naming the emperors of Japan is often troublesome. While scholastic texts in Japan use &quot;{name} tennō&quot; consistently, in texts by English-speaking academics several variants have been used, such as &quot;Emperor {name}&quot;, &quot;the {name} Emperor&quot;, and &quot;{name} Tenno&quot;, although &quot;Emperor {name}&quot; appears to be the most common among these, particularly for emperors prior to [[Emperor Meiji]]. What is often not understood, however, is that emperors are posthumously named &quot;{name} tennō&quot;, and thus the word &quot;tennō, or &quot;emperor&quot;, actually forms a part of their proper name. This is particularly misunderstood with respect to the emperors from Emperor Meiji onward, since the convention now is to posthumously name the emperors the same name as the era over which they preside, whereas previously one emperor's reign might contain a succession of short [[Japanese era name|eras]]. Terms such as &quot;the Meiji emperor&quot; are thus understood in English as meaning &quot;the emperor of the Meiji period&quot;, which is not the understanding in Japanese. In [[English language|English]], the term '''''mikado''''' (御門 or 帝 or みかど), which literally means &quot;exalted gate&quot;, used to be used to refer to the emperor of Japan; this usage is now outdated, as it is in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. In Japanese, the emperors of Japan, but not of other countries, are known as '''tennō''' (天[[Three Huang and five Di|皇]]). Literally, the word ''tennō'' combines the characters for &quot;ruler&quot; and &quot;heaven&quot;, but this is not a mark of divinity; the use of ''ten'' (天, &quot;heaven&quot;) in the Japanese word was an adoption of the established Chinese concept of the [[Mandate of Heaven]], which meant that an emperor was appointed in the heavens to balance the political and religious affairs of his domain. There are three Japanese words equivalent to the English word &quot;emperor&quot;: ''tennō'' (天皇) is used specifically to describe the emperor of Japan, ''kōtei'' (皇帝, lit. &quot;emperor of emperors&quot;) is used primarily to describe a [[Chinese emperor]] or a foreign emperor, and ''teiō'' (帝王, lit. &quot;emperor of kings&quot;) is used to describe foreign emperors as well but never a Chinese emperor. '''''Sumeramikoto''''' (lit. &quot;heavenly ruler above the clouds&quot;) was also used in [[Old Japanese language|Old Japanese]]. Traditionally, East Asians consider it discourteous to call a person of noble rank by their given name. This convention is almost dead, but still observed for the imperial family. In fact, the emperor is never to be referred to by name (''imina'') unless he is dead. Instead, past emperors are called by [[posthumous name]]s such as [[Emperor Jimmu]], Emperor Kammu and Meiji. Since the [[Meiji era]], [[Japanese era name|era names]] are also used as posthumous names. The current emperor on the throne is almost always referred to simply as ''Tennō Heika'' (天皇陛下, lit. &quot;His Majesty the Emperor&quot;) or solemnly as Kinjō Tennō (今上天皇). On the other hand, in ordinary conversations he is referred to simply as ''Heika'', ''Okami'' or ''To-gin san'' ('To-gin' is a frank expression of Kinjō). The current emperor is not called by the current era name: the era will become his [[posthumous name]]. But today this custom tends to be followed more loosely, as described below. In English, the recent emperors are called by their personal names according to Western convention. As explained above, in Japanese this sounds offensive and, in some senses, blasphemous. For example, the previous emperor is usually called [[Hirohito]] in English, but after his death he was renamed ''Shōwa Tennō'' and is now referred to exclusively by this name in Japanese. However, during his reign, he was never referred as Hirohito or ''Shōwa Tennō'' in Japanese. Rather, he was simply referred to as ''Tennō Heika'' (meaning &quot;His Majesty the Emperor&quot;). ===Origin of the title=== The ruler of Japan was variously known as ヤマト大王/大君 (yamato ōkimi, Great King of Yamato), 倭王/倭国王 (waō/wakokuō, King of Wa, used externally), 治天下大王 (amenoshita shiroshimesu ōkimi or sumera no mikoto, Great King who rules all under heaven, used internally) in Japanese and Chinese sources prior to the 7th century. The first documented use of the title &quot;tennō&quot; is in the diplomatic letter from Empress Suiko to Emperor Yang of Sui China in 607 CE, bearing the sentence &quot;tennō of the east hails kōtei of the west&quot;, although the same sentence was translated into Chinese as &quot;tianzi of the land of sunrise hails tianzi of the land of sunset&quot;. 天子, tianzi, son of heaven, was a title used by Chinese emperors. The use of the title proliferated in Japan and China since the 7th century. The introduction of this term comes amidst the movement of Japanese [[sinicization]], and is considered an attempt of the Japanese rulers to assert themselves on equal footing with the Chinese emperors. Notably, Tianhuang (天皇), Chinese equivalent of tennō, was among the titles adopted by Emperor Gaozong of Tang China in the same period, although it is not known whether the two usages arose independently or whether one was influenced by the other. ==Marriage traditions== Japanese monarchs have been, as much as others elsewhere, dependent on making alliances with powerful chiefs and other monarchs. Many such alliances were sealed by marriages. The specific feature in Japan has been the fact that these marriages have been soon incorporated as elements of tradition which controlled the marriages of later generations, though the original practical alliance had lost its real meaning. Beginning from the 7th and 8th centuries, emperors primarily took women of the [[Fujiwara clan]] as their highest wives - the most probable mothers of future monarchs. This was cloaked as a tradition of marriage between heirs of two [[kami]]s, [[Shinto]] gods: descendants of [[Amaterasu]] with descendants of the family kami of the Fujiwara. (Originally, the Fujiwara were descended from relatively minor nobility, thus their kami is an unremarkable one in the Japanese myth world.) The reality behind such marriages was an alliance between an imperial prince and a Fujiwara lord, his father-in-law or grandfather, the latter with his resources supporting the prince to the throne and most often controlling the government. These arrangements created the tradition of regents ([[Sessho and Kampaku]]), with these positions alowed to be held only by a Fujiwara [[sekke]] lord. Earlier, the emperors had married females from families of the government-holding [[Soga clan|Soga]] lords, and females of the imperial clan itself, i.e various-degree cousins and often even their own sisters (half-sisters). Several imperials of the 5th and 6th centuries were children of a couple of half-siblings. These marriages often were alliance or succession devices: the Soga lord ensured the domination of a prince, to be put as puppet to the throne; or a prince ensured the combination of two imperial descents, to strengthen his own and his children's claim to the throne. Marriages were also a means to seal a reconciliation between two imperial branches. After a couple of centuries, emperors could no longer take anyone from outside such families as primary wife, no matter what the expediency of such a marriage and power or wealth brought by such might have been. Only very rarely was a prince without a mother of descent from such families allowed to ascend the throne. The earlier necessity and expediency had mutated into a strict tradition that did not allow for current expediency or necessity, but only dictated that daughters of a restricted circle of families were eligible brides, because they had produced eligible brides for centuries. Tradition had become more forceful than law. The five Fujiwara families, Ichijo, Kujo, Nijo, Konoe and Takatsukasa, were the primary source of imperial brides from the 8th century to the 19th century, even more often than daughters of the imperial clan itself. Fujiwara daughters were thus the usual empresses and mothers of emperors. The acceptable source of imperial wives, brides for the emperor and crown prince, were even legislated into the [[Meiji]]-era imperial house laws, which stipulated that daughters of Sekke (the five main branches of the higher Fujiwara) and daughters of the
e organizations require a lawyer to demonstrate special training, experience and knowledge to ensure that the lawyer's recognition as a certified specialist is meaningful and reliable. Lawyer conduct with regard to specialty certification is regulated by the states. ==Certifications in business== * [[Better Business Bureau]] and others administer [[Small Business]] Certification * [[International Charter]] * [[Chartered Financial Analyst]] ==Other miscellaneous certification programs== * The [http://www.bjcp.org Certified Beer Judge Program] ([[BJCP]]) has certified over 2000 amateur brewers and beer-lovers, mainly in the United States * [http://www.bcpe.org Certified Professional Ergonomist] (CPE) and [http://www.bcpe.org Certified Human Factors Professional] (CHFP). * [[Help Desk Institute]] certifies for the service industry *Other profesional certifications include pilots licences and professional drivers licences, and other certifications such as [[Medical license]]'s,[[Membership of the Royal College of Physicians]],[[Bachelor of Science in Nursing]], diplomas in [[social work]] and [[probation]] work. ==References== *Krutz, Ronald L. and Vines, Russell Dean, The CISSP Prep Guide; Gold Edition, Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana, 2003. ==See also== *[[Product certification]] *[[European professional qualification directives]] *[[Nursing board certification]] ==External links== *[http://www.abanet.org/legalservices/specialization/home.html ABA Standing Committee on Specialization] [[Category:Standards]] [[Category:Professional certification| ]] [[Category:Education]] [[de:Zertifizierung]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carl Menger</title> <id>6255</id> <revision> <id>36706921</id> <timestamp>2006-01-25T22:52:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluebot</username> <id>527862</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot;, &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;Reference&quot; sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the economist, not about his son, the mathematician [[Karl Menger]].'' [[Image:Menger.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Austrian School]] [[economist]] Carl Menger]] [[Image:Carl Menger.png|thumb|Carl Menger]] '''Carl Menger''' ([[February 28]], [[1840]] &amp;ndash; [[February 26]], [[1921]]) was the founder of the [[Austrian School]] of [[economics]]. Menger was born in [[Nowy Sacz]], [[Poland]] (at that time [[Neu Sandec]], [[Austria|Austrian]] [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]]). He was the son of a wealthy family of minor nobility; his father was a lawyer. After attending ''[[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]]'' he studied law at the Universities of Prague and Vienna and later received a doctorate in jurisprudence from the [[University of Krakow]]. In the 1860s Menger left school and enjoyed a stint as a journalist reporting and analyzing market news, first at the ''Lemberger Zeitung'' in [[Lwów]], [[Ukraine]] and later at the ''Wiener Zeitung'' in [[Vienna]]. During the course of his newspaper work he noticed a discrepancy between what the [[classical economics]] he was taught in school said about [[price|price determination]] and what real world market participants believed. In [[1867]] Menger began a study of [[political economy]] which culminated in 1871 with the publication of his ''[[Principles of Economics]]'' ''(Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre),'' thus becoming the father of the [[Austrian School]] of economic thought. At the time ''Principles'' was largely ignored, although they were later credited as a contribution to the [[Neoclassical Revolution]]. In [[1872]] Menger was enrolled into the law faculty at the [[University of Vienna]] and spent the next several years teaching finance and political economy both in seminars and lectures to a growing number of students. In [[1873]] he received the university's chair of economic theory at the very young age of 33. In [[1876]] Menger began tutoring Archduke [[Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria|Rudolf von Habsburg]], the Crown Prince of [[Austria]] in political economy and statistics. For two years Menger accompanied the prince in his travels, first through Europe and then later through the British Isles. He is also thought to have assisted the crown prince in the composition of a pamphlet, published anonymously in 1878, which was highly critical of the higher Austrian aristocracy. His association with the prince would last until Rudolf's suicide in 1889 (see the [[Mayerling]] Affair). In 1878 Rudolf's father, Emperor [[Franz Josef of Austria|Franz Josef]], appointed Menger to the chair of political economy at [[Vienna]]. The title of ''Hofrat'' was conferred on him and was appointed to the Austrian ''Herrenhaus'' in 1900. Ensconced in his professorship he set about refining and defending the positions he took and methods he utilized in ''Principles,'' the result of which was the 1883 publication of ''Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics.'' The book caused a firestorm of debate, members of the [[Historical School]] of economics began to derisively call Menger and his students the &quot;[[Austrian School]]&quot; to emphasize their departure from mainstream economic thought in [[Germany]]. In 1884 Menger responded with the pamphlet ''The Errors of Historicism in German Economics'' and launched the infamous ''[[Methodenstreit]],'' or methodological debate, between the Historical School and the [[Austrian School]]. During this time Menger began to attract like-minded disciples who would go on to make their own mark on the field of [[economics]], most notably [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]] and [[Friedrich von Wieser]]. In the late 1880s Menger was appointed to head a commission to reform the [[Austria]]n monetary system. Over the course of the next decade he authored a plethora of articles which would revolutionize [[monetary theory]] including ''The Theory of Capital'' (1888) and ''Money'' (1892). Largely due to his pessimism about the state of German scholarship Menger resigned his professorship in 1903 to concentrate on study. == See also== *[[Liberalism in Austria]] == External links == * [http://www.mises.org/content/mengerbio.asp Biography of Carl Menger] The Founder of the Austrian School by Joseph T. Salerno * [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Menger.html Biography of Carl Menger] The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics: Library of Economics and Liberty * [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/menger.htm Profile on Carl Menger] at the History of Economic Thought Website * [http://www.mises.org/etexts/menger/principles.asp Principles of Economics], online version provided by the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]]. * [http://mason.gmu.edu/~tlidderd/menger/ Abridged version of Principles of Economics, with comments by Tancred Lidderdale] [[Category:1840 births|Menger, Carl]] [[Category:1921 deaths|Menger, Carl]] [[Category:Austrian economists|Menger, Carl]] [[cs:Carl Menger]] [[de:Carl Menger]] [[es:Carl Menger]] [[fr:Carl Menger]] [[he:קרל מנגר]]{{Link FA|he}} [[ja:カール・メンガー]] [[sk:Carl Menger]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of cartoonists</title> <id>6256</id> <revision> <id>41934426</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:58:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Thomas Blomberg</username> <id>407237</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Notable cartoonists */Clean-up: Removed promotional redlinks and web addresses</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[list of comic strips]].'' ==Notable cartoonists== Notable [[cartoonists]] include: * [[Pete Abrams]], ''[[Sluggy Freelance]]'' * [[Charles Addams]], macabre cartoons featured in ''[[The New Yorker]]'' and elsewhere * [[Murray Ball]], ''[[Footrot Flats]]'' * [[Darrin Bell]], ''[[Candorville]]'' and ''[[Rudy Park]]'' * [[Oscar Berger]], ''Aesop's Foibles (1947)''; active 1920s - 1960s * [[Ed Brubaker]] * [[Max Cannon]], ''Red Meat'' Contemporary American * [[Chester Commodore]], [[African American]] [[political cartoon]]ist * [[Robert Crumb]], ''Mr. Natural'', ''Fritz the Cat'', ''Keep on Truckin'' * [[Jack Davis (cartoonist)|Jack Davis]] * [[Will Eisner]], ''[[The Spirit]]'' * [[Lyonel Feininger]], rare fine artist who did strips, ''[[Kin-der Kids]]'' and ''[[Wee Willie Winkie's World]]'' * [[Steve Fiorilla]] * [[André François]] * [[André Franquin]], ''[[Spirou]]'', ''[[Gaston Lagaffe ]]'' * [[Yuliy Ganf|Yuliy Abramovich Ganf]], Soviet Russian * [[Brian Giovannini]], ''[[Postage Due]]'' * [[John Glashan]], [[Genius (cartoon)|Genius]] * [[Rube Goldberg]], Cartoons of complex and convoluted machines doing very simple tasks. * [[Larry Gonick]], ''[[The Cartoon History of the Universe]] series, [[Kokopelli &amp; Company]]'' * [[René Goscinny]], ''[[Asterix]]'' * [[Doug Davis]], ''[Just One of Those Days,and Small World]]'' * [[Matt Groening]], ''[[Life in Hell]]'', ''[[The Simpsons]]'', ''[[Futurama (animated series)|Futurama]]'' * [[Martin Handford]], ''[[Where's Wally?]]'' * [[Hergé]], ''[[Tintin]]'' * [[George Herriman]], ''[[Krazy Kat]]'' * [[Bill Holbrook]], &quot;[[On The FasTrack]]&quot;, &quot;[[Save Havens]]&quot; and &quot;[[Kevin &amp; Kell]]&quot; * [[Edgar Pierre Jacobs|Edgar P. Jacobs]], &quot;[[Blake and Mortimer]]&quot; * [[Mike Judge]], &quot;[[Beavis and Butt-Head]]&quot;, &quot;[[King Of The Hill]]&quot; * [[Heinrich Kley]] * [[B. Kliban]] * [[Gary Larson]], ''[[Far Side]]''. * [[Rick Law]], [[Beyond the Veil]] * [[John Leech]], 19th century 'Punch' cartoonist. * [[Michael Leunig]], Australian * [[R K Laxman]], Cartoonist for [[The Times of India]], [[India]]. * [[Loriot]] * [[Scott McCloud]], ''[[Zot]]'', ''[[Understanding Comics]]'' * [[Seth MacFarlane]], ''[[Family Guy]]&quot;, ''[[American Dad]]'' *
ups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This is an article about the drug; for the [[Hardcore Emo]] band, see [[Heroin (band)]]}} :''For a female hero, see [[Heroine]]'' :''For the Velvet Underground song, see [[Heroin (song)]]'' {| id=&quot;synChemInfoBox&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;250px&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot; |- | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Heroin5.png|240px|Diamorphine chemical structure]]&lt;br/&gt; ''Diacetylmorphine'' |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] name: &lt;br /&gt; ''(5&amp;alpha;,6&amp;alpha;)-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-&lt;br&gt;17-methylmorphinan-3,6-diol diacetate (ester)'' |- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 3px solid gray&quot; | '''[[CAS number]]''' &lt;br/&gt; 561-27-3 | '''[[ATC code]]''' &lt;br/&gt; N02AA09 |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Chemical formula]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | [[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;23&lt;/sub&gt;[[Nitrogen|N]][[Oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Molecular weight]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 369.42 |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Bioavailability]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | &lt;35% |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Metabolism | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ? |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[half life|Elimination half life]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 3 minutes |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Excretion]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ? |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ? |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status]] | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Schedule I ([[USA]]); [[Class A drug|Class A]] ([[UK]]) |- | bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Delivery | bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | [[Vaporizer|Vaporized]], [[insufflate]]d, [[injection (medicine)|injected]], [[ingest]]ed |- |} '''Heroin''' or '''diacetylmorphine''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]) is a semi-synthetic opioid. It is the 3,6-[[acetate|diacetyl]] derivative of [[morphine]] (hence ''diacetylmorphine'') and is synthesised from it by [[acetylation]]. The white crystalline form is commonly the hydrochloride salt, '''diacetylmorphine hydrochloride'''. It is highly [[Addiction|addictive]] when compared to other substances, although occasional use without symptoms of withdrawal has been noted. Heroin is controlled under Schedules I and IV of the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] [http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/yellow.pdf]. It is illegal to manufacture, possess, or sell heroin in the [[United States]], but diamorphine (heroin) is a legal prescription drug in the [[United Kingdom]]. A few of the popular [[List_of_street_names_of_drugs#Heroin|street names for heroin]] include ''[[dope]]'', ''[[diesel]]'', ''[[smack]]'' and ''H''. &lt;!-- Please do not add more names to the above short list (which came from www.erowid.org) - consider adding to &quot;List of street names of drugs&quot; article instead --&gt; ==History== &lt;div style=&quot;float:left;width:200px;&quot;&gt; [[image:BayerHeroin.png|thumb|left|[[Bayer]] Heroin (TM)]] [[Image:Bayer Heroin bottle.jpg|thumb|left|Bayer Heroin bottle.]] &lt;/div&gt; Heroin was first [[Chemical synthesis|synthesized]] in [[1874]] by C.R. Alder Wright, a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[chemist]] working at [[St Mary's Hospital (London)|St. Mary's Hospital]] Medical School, [[London]]. He had been experimenting with combining morphine with various acids. He boiled anhydrous morphine alkaloid with acetic anhydride over a stove for several hours and produced a more potent, acetylated form of morphine. We now call it ''diacetylmorphine''. The compound was sent to F.M. Pierce of Owens College, [[Manchester]], for analysis. He reported the following to Wright: :''Doses &amp;hellip; were [[Route of administration|subcutaneously injected]] into young dogs and rabbits &amp;hellip; with the following general results &amp;hellip; great prostration, fear, and sleepiness speedily following the administration, the eyes being sensitive, and pupils dilated, considerable salivation being produced in dogs, and slight tendency to vomiting in some cases, but no actual emesis. Respiration was at first quickened, but subsequently reduced, and the heart's action was diminished, and rendered irregular. Marked want of coordinating power over the muscular movements, and loss of power in the pelvis and hind limbs, together with a diminution of temperature in the rectum of about 4°(rectal failure)'' [http://adhpage.dilaudid.net/heroin.html] [[Heinrich Dreser]], of [[Bayer]] in [[Elberfeld, Germany]], noticed that diacetylmorphine was more potent than morphine. Bayer registered ''Heroin'' (meaning 'heroic treatment' from the German word ''heroisch'') as a [[trademark]]. From [[1898]] through to [[1910]] it was marketed as a non-addictive morphine substitute and cough medicine for children. As with [[Aspirin]], Bayer lost some of its trademark rights to Heroin following [[World War I]]. In [[1914]] the [[Harrison Narcotics Tax Act]] made it illegal to manufacture or possess heroin in the [[United States]]. ==Usage and effects== {| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;167px&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot; |- |'''Indicated for:'''&lt;br/&gt; *Relief of extreme pain '''[[Recreational drug use|Recreational]] uses:'''&lt;br/&gt; *[[Euphoria]] *[[Relaxation]] '''Other uses:'''&lt;br/&gt; *[[Pain]] relief *[[Cough suppressant]] *anti-[[diarrhea]]l |- |'''[[Contraindication]]s:'''&lt;br/&gt; *[[Ethanol|Alcohol]] *[[Barbiturate]]s *[[Stimulant]]s *Other [[opioid]]s |- |'''[[Side effect]]s:''' &lt;div style=&quot;background: #ffcc99&quot;&gt; '''''{{red|Severe:}}''''' *[[Respiratory arrest]] *[[Spontaneous abortion]] &lt;/div&gt; '''''Atypical [[sensation]]s:''''' *? '''''[[Cardiovascular]]:''''' *Lowered [[heart rate]] *Infection of [[heart]] lining and [[valve]]s (chronic use) '''''[[Ear]], [[nose]], and [[throat]]:''''' *Dry mouth '''''[[Endocrinal]]:''''' *? '''''[[Eye]]:''''' *[[Pupil constriction]] '''''[[Gastrointestinal]]:''''' *[[Nausea]] *[[Constipation]] '''''[[Hepatological]]:''''' *[[Liver disease]] (chronic use) '''''[[Hematological]]:''''' *? '''''[[Muscle|Musculo]][[skeletal]]:''''' *? '''''[[Neurological]]:''''' *[[Analgesia]] '''''[[Psychological]]:''''' *[[Confusion]] *[[Euphoria]] *[[Sedation]] '''''[[Respiration (physiology)|Respiratory]]:''''' *Slow respiration *Shallow respiration *[[Pneumonia]] (chronic use) '''''[[Skin]]:''''' *Itchiness *Flushing *[[Abscess]]es '''''Miscellaneous:''''' *Heavy extremities |} In the [[United States]], heroin is a [[Schedule I]] drug and is illegal for any purpose. In the [[United Kingdom]] heroin is available on prescription, though it is a restricted [[Class A drug]]. According to the [[British National Formulary]] edition 50, diamorphine [[hydrochloride]] may be used in the treatment of acute pain, [[myocardial infarction]], acute [[Pulmonary edema|pulmonary oedema]], and [[chronic pain]]. The treatment of chronic non-[[malignant]] pain must be supervised by a specialist. The BNF notes that all opioid analgesics cause dependence and tolerance but that this is &quot;no deterrent in the control of pain in terminal illness&quot;. When used in the [[palliative care]] of cancer patients, heroin is often injected using a [[syringe driver]]. In comparison to morphine, it may cause less [[nausea]] and [[hypotension]] and can be dissolved in a smaller quantity of liquid. The late [[serial killer]] and [[general practitioner]] [[Harold Shipman]] obtained large quantities of diamorphine by writing prescriptions for his cancer patients and keeping the drugs. Shipman was convicted of killing 15 patients with diamorphine, though an enquiry later estimated 340 were murdered. Heroin is also widely and illegally used as a powerful and [[addictive]] drug producing intense [[euphoria]], which often disappears with increasing [[Physiological tolerance|tolerance]]. Although many other &amp;#956;-opioid agonists (e.g., [[morphine]]) can produce essentially the same effects, it is thought that heroin's popularity with recreational users comes from its especially rapid onset. This in turn comes from its high lipid [[solubility]] provided by the two [[acetyl]] groups, resulting in a very rapid penetration of the [[blood-brain barrier]] after use. Heroin can be taken or [[route of administration|administered]] in a number of ways, including [[snort]]ing it, and [[injection (medicine)|injecting]] it. It may also be smoked by inhaling the vapors produced when heated from below (known as &quot;chasing the dragon&quot;). Once in the brain, heroin is rapidly [[metabolism|metabolized]] into morphine by removal of the acetyl groups. It is the morphine [[molecule]] which then binds with opioid receptors and produces the subjective effects of the heroin high. Heroin is therefore a [[prodrug]]. The onset of effects from heroin is dependent on the method of administration. Orally the heroin is totally metabolized [[in vivo]] into [[morphine]] before crossing the blood-brain barrier, so the effects are the same as [[morphine]] when taken by mouth. Snorting heroin results in onset within 10 to 15 minutes. Smoking heroin results in a [[rush]] within 2-5 minutes. Injecting heroin [[intravenously]] results in rush and euphoria within 7 to 8 seconds, while injecting heroin [[intramuscularly]] takes longer, having an effect within 5 to 8 minutes. Heroin is a &amp;#956;-opioid ([[mu-opioid]]) [
</contributor> <comment>/*http://www.euro-arbitration.org */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arbitration''' is a form of [[mediation]] or [[conciliation]], where the mediating party is given power by the disputant parties to settle the dispute by making a finding. In practice arbitration is generally used as a substitute for judicial systems, particularly when the judicial processes are viewed as too slow, expensive or biased. Arbitration is also used by communities which lack formal law, as a substitute for formal law. ==Arbitration in the United States of America== '''Arbitration''', in the context of United States [[law]], is a form of [[alternative dispute resolution]] &amp;mdash; specifically, a legal alternative to [[litigation]] whereby the parties to a dispute agree to submit their respective positions (through agreement or hearing) to a neutral third party (the arbitrator(s) or arbiter(s)) for resolution. Arbitration may also serve a distinct purpose: as an alternative to strikes and lockouts as a means of resolving labor disputes. Labor arbitration comes in two varieties: '''interest arbitration''', which provides a method for resolving disputes about the terms to be included in a new contract when the parties are unable to agree, and '''grievance arbitration''', which provides a method for resolving disputes over the interpretation and application of a [[collective bargaining agreement]]. ===Commercial and other forms of contract arbitration=== Agreements to arbitrate were not enforceable at common law, though an arbitrator's judgment was usually enforceable (once the parties had already submitted the case to him or her). During the [[Industrial Revolution]], this situation became intolerable for large [[corporations]]. They argued that too many valuable [[business]] relationships were being destroyed through years of expensive adversarial [[litigation]], in courts whose strange rules differed significantly from the informal norms and [[convention]]s of businesspeople (the private law of [[commerce]], or ''jus merchant''). Arbitration appeared to be faster, less adversarial, and cheaper. The result was the [[New York Arbitration Act]] of [[1920]], followed by the [[United States Arbitration Act]] of [[1925]]. The USAA is now known as the [[Federal Arbitration Act]]. Thanks to the subsequent judicial expansion of the meaning of [[interstate commerce]], the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] reinterpreted the FAA in a series of cases in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] to cover the full scope of interstate commerce. In the process, the Court held that the FAA preempted many state laws covering arbitration, some of which had been passed by state [[legislature]]s to protect their [[consumer]]s against powerful corporations. Since commercial arbitration is based upon either contract law or the [[law of treaties]], the agreement between the parties to submit their dispute to arbitration is a legally binding [[contract]]. All arbitral decisions are considered to be &quot;final and binding.&quot; This does not, however, void the requirements of law. Any dispute not excluded from arbitration by virtue of law (e.g. criminal proceedings) may be submitted to arbitration. ===Other forms of contract arbitration=== Arbitration can be carried out between private individuals, between states, or between states and private individuals. In the case of arbitration between states, or between states and individuals, the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] and the [[International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes]] (ICSID) are the predominant organizations. Arbitration is also used as part of the dispute settlement process under the [[World Trade Organization| WTO]] [[Dispute Settlement Understanding]]. International arbitral bodies for cases between private persons also exist, the [[International Chamber of Commerce Court of Arbitration]] being the most important. The [[American Arbitration Association]] is a popular arbitral body in the United States. The [[National Arbitration Forum]] is another leading arbitration provider in the United States. Arbitration also exists in international sport through the [[Court of Arbitration for Sport]]. A growing trend among employers whose employees are not represented by a [[labor union]] is to establish an organizational problem-solving process, the final step of which consists of arbitration of the issue at point by an independent arbitrator, to resolve employee complaints concerning application of employer policies or claims of employee misconduct. Employers in the United States have also embraced arbitration as an alternative to litigation of employees' statutory claims, e.g., claims of discrimination, and common law claims, e.g., claims of defamation. ===Labor arbitration=== Arbitration has also been used as a means of resolving labor disputes for more than a century. Labor organizations in the [[United States]], such as the [[National Labor Union]], called for arbitration as early as [[1866]] as an alternative to strikes to resolve disputes over the wages, benefits and other rights that workers would enjoy. Governments have also relied on arbitration to resolve particularly large labor disputes, such as the [[Coal Strike of 1902]]. This type of arbitration is commonly known as interest arbitration, since it involves the mediation of the disputing parties' demands, rather than the disposition of a claim in the manner a court would act. Interest arbitration is still frequently used in the construction industry to resolve collective bargaining disputes. The [[United Steelworkers of America]] adopted an elaborate form of interest arbitration, known as the Experimental Negotiating Agreement, in the 1970s as a means of avoiding the long and costly strikes that had made the industry vulnerable to foreign competition. [[Major League Baseball]] uses a variant of interest arbitration, in which an arbitrator chooses between the two sides' final offers, to set the terms for contracts for players who are not eligible for free agency. Unions and employers have also employed arbitration to resolve employee grievances arising under a collective bargaining agreement. The [[Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America]] made arbitration a central element of the ''Protocol of Peace'' it negotiated with garment manufacturers in the second decade of the twentieth century. Grievance arbitration became even more popular during [[World War II]], when most unions had adopted a no-strike pledge. The [[War Labor Board]], which attempted to mediate disputes over contract terms, pressed for inclusion of grievance arbitration in collective bargaining agreements. The Supreme Court subsequently made labor arbitration a key aspect of federal labor policy. ===Securities Arbitration=== In the United States securities industry, arbitration has long been the preferred method of resolving disputes between brokerage firms, and between firms and their customers. The securities industry uses a pre-dispute arbitration agreement, where the parties agree to arbitrate their disputes before any such dispute arises. Those agreements were upheld by the United States Supreme Court in Shearson v. MacMahon, 482 U.S. 220 (1987) and today nearly all disputes involving brokerage firms are resolved in arbitration. The process operates under its own rules, and is described in an article [http://www.seclaw.com/arbover.htm Introduction to Securities Arbitration]. Securities arbitrations are held primarily by the [http://www.nasdadr.com NASD Dispute Resolution] program and the [http://www.nyse.com New York Stock Exchange]. ===Judicial arbitration=== Some state court systems have promulgated court-ordered arbitration; family law (particularly child custody) is the most prominent example. Judicial arbitration is often merely advisory dispute resolution technique, serving as the first step toward resolution, but not binding either side and allowing for trial de novo. Litigation attorneys present their side of the case to an independent teritary lawyer, who issues an opinion on settlement. Should the parties in question decide to continue to dispute resolution process, there can be some sanctions imposed from the initial arbitration per terms of the contract. ==Proceedings== Various bodies of rules have been developed that can be used for arbitration proceedings. The two most important are the [[UNCITRAL]] rules and the ICSID rules. The rules to be followed by the arbitrator are specified by the agreement establishing the arbitration. The [[Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards]] (Done at New York, [[10 June]] [[1958]]; Entered into force, [[7 June]] [[1959]]; 330 U.N.T.S. 38, 1959) provides for the enforcement of foreign arbitral awards on the territory of the contracting parties. Similar provisions are contained in the earlier [[Convention on the Execution of Foreign Arbitral Awards]] (Done at Geneva, [[26 September]] [[1927]]; Entered into force, [[25 July]] [[1929]]; L.N.T.S. ???). Some jurisdictions have instituted a limited grace period during which an arbitral decision may be appealed against, but after which there can be no appeal. In the case of arbitration under international law, a right of appeal does not in general exist, although one may be provided for by the arbitration agreement, provided a court exists capable of hearing the appeal. When arbitration occurs under U.S. law, either party to an arbitration may appeal from the arbitrator's decision to a court, however the court will generally not change the arbitrator's findings of fact but will decide only whether the arbitrator was guilty of malfeasance, or whether the arbitrator exceeded the limits of his or her authority in the arbitral award or whether the award conflicts with positive law. The Supreme Court has described the standard of review as one of the narrowest known t
er University]] * The [[University of Glamorgan]] ===United States=== * [[Baker College]] * [[Breyer State University]] * [[California State University, Dominguez Hills]] * [[Capella University]] * [[Cleveland State University]] * [[Charter Oak State College]] * [[City College of San Francisco]] * [[Coastline Community College]] * [[Colorado Technical University]] * [[Empire State College]] * [[Excelsior College]] * [[Goddard College]] * [[Harvard Extension School]] * [[Heritage College &amp; Heritage Institute]] * [[Imperial Valley College]] * [[Kennedy-Western University]] * [[Northern Arizona University]] * [[Pacific Oaks College]] * [[Saint Joseph's College of Maine]] * [[Saint Leo University]] * [[Strayer University]] * [[Thomas Edison State College]] * [[Union Institute &amp; University]] * [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] * [[University of Phoenix]] * [[University of Maryland University College]] * [[University of North Dakota]] * [[Utah State University]] * [[Norwich University]] ===International=== * [[European Graduate School]] in Switzerland and the United States. * [[Euclid University]] in Belgium, Central Africa, Pakistan and the United States. * [[Universitas 21 Global]], an online university affiliated to the [[Universitas 21]] alliance ==Methods== In Distance Education, students may not be required to be present in a classroom, but that also maybe a question of option. For example in the Open Universities in India, especially in the [[Indira Gandhi National Open University]], week end contact sessions are held. These are optional, but for certain courses which have practical components such as those for computers, attendance to the tune of about 90% is compulsory. The National Open University in India is based on the United Kingdom Open University model (though it is many years since the latter has done so). As for an electronic classroom or [[Virtual Learning Environment]], it may or not be a part of a distance education set up. Electronic classrooms can be both on campus, and off campus. We would call such institutions as using a 'flexible' delivery mode. Distance Education may also use all forms of technology, from print to the computer. This range will include radio, television, audio video conferencing, computer aided instruction, [[e-learning]]/on-line learning et al. (E-learning/online-learning are largely synonymous). A distinction is also made between open learning and distance learning. To clarify our thinking we can say that while 'open' education is the system in which the student is free to choose the time and place, but distance education is a teaching methodology used when the student and teacher are separated by time and place. Thus it follows that not all open-learning institutions use distance education and not all organisations that use distance education are open learning institutions. Indeed there are many cases in which students are in traditional classrooms, connected via a video-conferencing link to a teacher in a distant classroom. This method is typical in geographically dispersed institutions. Distance Education has traversed four to five 'generations' of technology in its history. These are print, audio/video broadcasting, audio/video teleconferencing, computer aided instruction, e-learning/ online-learning, computer broadcasting/podcasting etc. Yet the radio remains a very viable form, especially in the developing nations, because of its reach. In India the FM Channel is very popular and is being used by the national open university (the Indira Gandhi National Open University) and its consortia plus the state open universities, to broadcast educational programmes of variety on areas such as teacher education, rural development, programmes in agriculture for farmers, science education, creative writing, mass communication, in addition to traditional courses in liberal arts, science and business administration. In short then, though a range of technology presupposes a distance education 'inventory' it is technological appropriateness and connectivity, such as computer, or for that matter electrical connectivity that should be considered, when we think of the world as a whole, while fitting in technological applications to distance education. ==Delivery systems== Older models of distance education utilized regular mail to send written material, [[video]]s, [[audiotape]]s, and [[CD-ROM]]s or other media storage format (e.g. [[SDRAM]] or [[CompactFlash]] cards) to the student and to turn in the exercises. Today's distance education course makes use of [[E-mail]], the [[World Wide Web|Web]], and [[video conferencing]] over [[broadband]] network connections for both wired physical locations and wireless mobile learning. In some countries, the material is supplemented by [[television]] and [[radio]] programming. To compete with the conventional sector, course material must be of very high quality and completeness, and will use modern technologies such as [[educational animation]]. Full time or part-time study is possible, but most students choose part-time study. Research study is possible as well. Distance education is offered at all levels, but is most frequently an option for university-level studies. A form of educational program which is similar to this but which requires some amount of presence during the year is a [[low-residency program]]. Distance education programs are sometimes called '''correspondence courses''', an older term that originated in nineteenth-century [[vocational education]] programs that were conducted through postal mail. This term has been largely replaced by ''distance education'', and expanded to encompass more sophisticated technologies and delivery methods. The first subject taught by correspondence was the [[Pitman Shorthand]], a tool of [[stenography]]. [[Primary education|Primary]] and [[secondary education]] programs were also widely available by correspondence, usually for children living in remote areas. ==See also== * [[Computer-assisted language learning|CALL]] A historical perspective: Computer-assisted language learning * [[Diploma mill]] While many distance education programs provide valuable instruction, others offer degrees with little requirements. * [[Educational technology]] * [[Efficient learning method]] * [[European Association of Distance Teaching Universities]] * [[Learning management system]] * [[online learning]] * [[E-learning glossary]] * [[M-learning]] ==External links== *[http://www.aacis.org/ AACIS]: American Association for Collegiate Independent Study *[http://www.detc.org/ The Distance Education and Training Council] *[http://www.eadtu.nl European Association of Distance Teaching Universities] *[http://www-icdl.open.ac.uk/ ICDL] International Centre for Distance Learning from the Institute of Educational Technology and Library of the Open University *[http://www.studyonline.com.au/ Distance Education Australia]: Online higher education portal Australia (AU) *[http://www.posgradosmexico.com PosgradosMexico.com]: A portal for Online and Offline higher-education (Mexico) *[http://www.usdla.org/ USDLA]: United States Distance Learning Association [[Category:Alternative education]] [[Category:Educational technology]] [[Category:Learning]] [[Category:School types]] [[Category:Distance education|*]] [[de:Fernunterricht]] [[es:Educación a distancia]] [[he:אוניברסיטה פתוחה]] [[ja:遠隔教育]] [[pt:Educação à distância]] [[ru:Дистанционное обучение]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Death of a Hero</title> <id>9000</id> <revision> <id>19568706</id> <timestamp>2005-07-25T11:51:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lectonar</username> <id>128863</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>restubbed</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Death of a Hero''' is a [[World War I]] [[novel]] by [[Richard Aldington]]. It was his first novel, written in [[1929]], and thought to be partly [[autobiography|autobiographic]]. {{bio-book-stub}} ==External links== * http://www.dundee.ac.uk/english/english/188.htm#abs1 [[Category:World War I novels]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Degree Confluence Project</title> <id>9001</id> <revision> <id>41326796</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T16:35:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sunny256</username> <id>45130</id> </contributor> <comment>+[[Category:GPS]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Confluence_point_53N_0.jpg|150px|right]] The '''Degree Confluence Project''' is a [[World Wide Web]]-based project which aims to have people visit each of the [[integer]] [[Degree (angle)|degree]] intersections of [[latitude]] and [[longitude]] on [[Earth]], posting [[photograph]]s of each location online. The precise location of each confluence is determined with [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] receivers. For a ''successful visit'', the visitor must get within 100 [[metre]]s of the confluence point (using the [[WGS 84]] datum), and post a narrative and at least two photographs to the project website. A visit, or attempted visit, which does not conform to these rules may still be recorded on the website as an ''incomplete visit''. The project allows visits to confluence points which have been visited previously, and many confluence points in [[North America]] and [[Europe]] have been visited several times. The total number of confluence points is 64,442{{ref|numberofpoints}}, of which 21,541 are on land, 38,411 on water, and 4,490 on the [[Arctic]] ice cap. The project divides these points into ''primary'' and ''secondary'' confluences. A confluence is primary only if it is on land or within sight of land. In addition, at high [[latitude]]s only some points are designated primary, because confluences crowd together near the [[Geographic pole|poles]]. Both primary and secondary confluences may be visited and
policy of balanced arms purchases from East and West. In [[1994]], Finland joined NATO’s Partnership for Peace; the country is also an observer in the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Finland became a full member of the European Union (EU) in January 1995, at the same time acquiring observer status in the EU’s defence arm, the Western European Union. Economic and trade relations between Finland and the United States are active and were bolstered by the F-18 purchase. U.S.-Finland trade totals almost $5 billion annually. The U.S. receives about 7% of Finland’s exports — mainly [[Wood pulp|pulp]] and [[paper]], ships, and machinery — and provides about 7% of its imports — principally [[computer]]s, [[semiconductors]], [[aircraft]], and machinery. '''Disputes - international:''' none == International organization participation == &lt;table&gt;&lt;tr valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt; *[[AfDB]] *[[AsDB]] *[[Australia Group]] *[[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]] *[[CBSS]] *[[Customs Cooperation Council|CCC]] *[[Council of Europe|CE]] *[[CERN]] *[[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]] *[[EBRD]] *[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]] *[[European Investment Bank|EIB]] *[[European Space Agency|ESA]] *[[EU]] *[[FAO]] *[[G-9]] *[[Inter-American Development Bank|IADB]] &lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt; *[[IAEA]] *[[IBRD]] *[[ICAO]] *[[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]] *[[International Criminal Court|ICC]] *[[ICFTU]] *[[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]] *[[International Development Association|IDA]] *[[International Energy Agency|IEA]] *[[IFAD]] *[[IFC]] *[[IFRCS]] *[[IHO]] *[[International Labour Organization|ILO]] *[[IMF]] *[[International Maritime Organization|IMO]] *[[Interpol]] *[[IOC]] &lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt; *[[International Organization for Migration|IOM]] *[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] *[[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]] *[[MINURSO]] *[[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]] (guest) *[[Nordic Council|NC]] *[[Nuclear Energy Agency|NEA]] *[[NIB]] *[[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]] *[[Organization of American States|OAS]] (observer) *[[OECD]] *[[OPCW]] *[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] *[[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]] *[[Partnership for Peace|PFP]] *[[UN]] *[[UNCTAD]] *[[UNESCO]] *[[UNHCR]] &lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt; *[[UNIDO]] *[[UNIKOM]] *[[UNITAR]] *[[UNMEE]] *[[UNMIBH]] *[[UNMIK]] *[[UNMOGIP]] *[[UNMOP]] *[[UNOMIG]] *[[UNTAET]] *[[UNTSO]] *[[UPU]] *[[WEU]] (observer) *[[WFTU]] *[[World Health Organization|WHO]] *[[WIPO]] *[[WMO]] *[[WTrO]] *[[Zangger Committee]] &lt;/table&gt; ''See also: [[Politics of Finland]]'' == References == *[[CIA World Factbook]] - [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fi.html Finland] [[Category:Foreign relations of Finland| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>France/History</title> <id>10717</id> <revision> <id>15908514</id> <timestamp>2002-09-27T20:40:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of France]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>France/Geography</title> <id>10718</id> <revision> <id>15908515</id> <timestamp>2002-08-04T07:21:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Scipius</username> <id>488</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to [[Geography of France]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of France]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>France/People</title> <id>10719</id> <revision> <id>15908516</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:30:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of France]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Government of France</title> <id>10720</id> <revision> <id>42086309</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:05:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mark K. Jensen</username> <id>164916</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Restored accidentally deleted text</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Human rights in France}} :''This article is about the political and administrative structures of the [[France|French]] government. For French political parties and tendencies, see [[Politics of France]].'' {{Politics of France}} [[Image:Marque du Gouvernement de la République Française.gif|thumb|180px|right|Symbol of the French government]] The '''government of France''' is a [[semi-presidential system]] based on the [[Constitution of France|French Constitution]] of the [[fifth French Republic|fifth Republic]], in which the nation declares itself to be &quot;an indivisible, [[laïcité|secular]], [[Democracy|democratic]], and [[social]] [[Republic]]&quot;. The constitution provides for a [[separation of powers]] and proclaims France's &quot;attachment to the [[Human Rights|Rights of Man]] and the principles of [[national sovereignty]] as defined by the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen|Declaration of 1789]].&quot;[http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ab.asp] The national government of France is divided into an [[executive branch|executive]], a [[legislative branch|legislative]] and a [[judiciary|judicial branch]]. The [[President of France|President]] has a degree of direct executive power, but most executive power resides in his appointee, the [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]]. The President's choice for Prime Minister must have the [[confidence]] of the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]], the lower house of Parliament; also the Prime Minister is always from the majority party in that house. Parliament comprises the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]] and the [[French Senate|Senate]]. It passes statutes and votes on the budget; it controls the action of the executive through formal questioning on the floor of the houses of Parliament and by establishing commissions of enquiry. The constitutionality of the statutes is checked by the [[Constitutional Council of France|Constitutional Council]], members of which are appointed by the President of the Republic, the President of the National Assembly, and the President of the Senate. Former Presidents of the Republic also are members of the Council. The independent judiciary is based on a [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system which evolved from the [[Napoleonic code]]. It is divided into the judicial branch (dealing with [[civil law (private law)|civil law]] and [[criminal law]]) and the administrative branch (dealing with appeals against executive decisions), each with their own independent supreme court, the [[court of cassation|courts of cassation]]. The French government includes various bodies that check abuses of power and independent agencies. France is a [[unitary state]]. However, the various legal subdivisions—the ''régions'', ''départements'' and ''communes''—have various attributions, and the national government is prohibited from intruding into their normal legal operations. ==Constitution== ''Main article: [[Constitution of France]]'' A popular [[referendum]] approved the constitution of the [[French Fifth Republic]] in [[1958]], greatly strengthening the authority of the presidency and the executive with respect to Parliament. The constitution does not contain a [[bill of rights]] in itself, but its preamble mentions that France should follow the principles of the ''[[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]'', as well as those of the preamble to the constitution of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]]. This has been judged to imply that the principles laid forth in those texts have constitutional value, and that legislation infringing on those principles should be found unconstitutional. Among these foundational principles, one may cite: the [[social equality|equality]] of all citizens before law, and the rejection of special class privileges such as those that existed prior to the [[French Revolution]]; [[presumption of innocence]]; [[freedom of speech]]; [[freedom of opinion]] including [[freedom of religion]]; the guarantee of property against arbitrary seizure; the accountability of government agents to the citizenry. [[Image:French government.png|512px|center|thumb|The main processes of the French national government (most of the justice system excluded for clarity)]] ==Executive branch== [[France]] has an original system with an [[executive branch]] headed by two officials: the [[President of France|President]] and the [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]]. ===President of the Republic=== [[Image:Charles_de_Gaulle.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The first president of the [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]], [[Charles de Gaulle]], wanted a strong executive; this contrasted with the chronic instability of the [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]].]] [[Image:Chirac-official.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Jacques Chirac]] is the current president.]] ''Main article: [[President of France]]'' Under the constitution, the President was originally elected for a seven-year term; this has been reduced to five years. The President names the Prime Minister, presides over the ''gouvernement'' (cabinet of ministers), commands the armed forces, and concludes treaties. The President may submit questions to national referenda and can dissolve the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]]. In certain emergencies the President may assume special, comprehensive powers. However, in normal times, the President may pass neither legislation nor regulations, though, of course, if the Parliamen
Canada|Governor General]]. The Governor General is generally a retired politician, military leader, or other notable Canadian; the current Governor General is Her Excellency, the Right Honourable [[Michaëlle Jean]]. [http://news.gc.ca/cfmx/view/en/index.jsp?articleid=162519] The Governor General is formally appointed by the Queen on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of Canada]] and is a non-partisan figure who fulfills many ceremonial and symbolic roles including providing [[Royal Assent]] to [[Bill (proposed law)|bills]], reading the [[Speech from the Throne]], officially welcoming dignitaries of foreign countries, presenting honours such as the [[Order of Canada]], signing state documents, formally opening and ending sessions of Parliament, and [[dissolution of parliament|dissolving Parliament]] for an election. The Governor General is also the titular [[Commander in Chief|Commander-in-Chief]] of the Canadian Armed Forces, though, this is only a symbolic role as all actions are done at the request of the prime minister and are never disobeyed. The position of Governor General also beholds considerable reserve powers, but these have been rarely used. The Governor General also heads the [[Canadian Heraldic Authority]]. ===Executive branch=== [[Image:Harpes.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Stephen Harper]], [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]].]] The position of [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]], Canada's [[head of government]], in practice, belongs to the leader of the political party who can command a majority in the [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]]. The Prime Minister and his or her cabinet are formally appointed by the Governor General. However, the Prime Minister effectively chooses the cabinet and the Governor General always, by convention, respects the Prime Minister's desired choices. The [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet]] is traditionally drawn from members of the prime minister's party in both legislative houses, though mostly from the Commons. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister and cabinet, all of whom are sworn into the [[Privy Council of Canada]] and become ministers of the Crown. The Prime Minister exercises a great deal of individual political power, especially in terms of the appointment of other officials within the government and [[civil service]]. [[Stephen Harper]], a [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]], has served as Prime Minister since [[February 6]], [[2006]]. ===Legislative branch=== The legislative branch of government has two houses: the elected House of Commons and the appointed [[Canadian Senate|Senate]]. Each member in the Commons is elected by [[plurality electoral system|simple plurality]] in one [[electoral district (Canada)|electoral district]] or &quot;riding&quot;; general elections are called by the Governor General when the prime minister so advises, and must occur every five years or less. Members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, are chosen by the prime minister and formally appointed by the Governor General, and serve until age 75. ====Federal political parties==== Canada has four main political parties today. The traditionally centrist / left-of-centre [[Liberal Party of Canada]] formed the government in Canada for most of the 20th century. The only other parties to have formed a government have been incarnations of a centrist / right-of-centre conservative party. The current government consists of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], which was formed in 2003 by merging the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative (PC) Party]], and the [[Canadian Alliance]]. The Progressive Conservative party has formed governments in the past, as did its predecessor, the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative Party]], which was the dominant political party in the 19th century. A single-term [[Unionist Party (Canada)|'Unionist' Party]] of [[Robert Borden]] was formed as a union of Conservatives and conscription-supporting Liberals during [[World War I]]. The [[New Democratic Party]] (NDP) is the major party furthest to the political left and espouses [[social democratic]] policies. The [[Bloc Québécois]] promotes [[Quebec independence]] from Canada and currently holds a majority of Quebec's seats in the House of Commons. There are many smaller parties and, while none have current representation in Parliament, the list of [[List of political parties in Canada#Historical parties that won seats in Parliament|historical parties with elected representation]] is substantial. ===Judicial branch=== [[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in Ottawa, beside Parliament Hill]] Canada's [[judiciary]] plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws that violate the constitution. The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] is the highest court and final arbiter; its nine members are directly appointed by Cabinet. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are selected and appointed by the federal government, after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts at the provincial and territorial levels. Judicial posts at the lower provincial and territorial levels are filled by their respective governments (see [[Court system of Canada]] for more detail). [[Common law]] prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is a provincial responsibility, but in most provinces policing is contracted to the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP). ===Foreign relations=== [[Image:Lesterbpearson.PNG|thumb|rightt|150px|Prime Minister [[Lester B. Pearson]] was the father of Canadian [[peacekeeping]] efforts for which he won the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].]] {{main|Foreign relations of Canada}} Canada has a close [[U.S.-Canada relations|relationship with the United States]], sharing the world's longest undefended border, co-operating on some military campaigns and exercises, and being each other's largest trading partners. Canada also shares a history and long relationship with the [[United Kingdom]] as its &quot;mother country.&quot; In the last century, Canada has been an advocate for [[multilateralism]], making efforts to reach out to the rest of the world and promoting itself as a &quot;[[middle power]]&quot; able to work with large and small nations alike. This was clearly demonstrated during the [[Suez Crisis]] when [[Lester B. Pearson]] mollified the tension by proposing [[peacekeeping]] efforts and the inception of the [[UN peacekeeping|United Nations Peacekeeping Force]]. In that spirit, Canada developed and has tried to maintain a leading role in [[peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping efforts]]. Canada has cumulatively contributed more troops to peacekeeping operations worldwide than all other nations combined and currently serves in over 40 different peacekeeping missions, most recently in [[Afghanistan]]. ===Military=== [[Image:Canadian Forces emblem.svg|thumb|right|175px|Badge of the Canadian Forces.]] :''Main articles: [[Canadian Armed Forces]],[[Military history of Canada]]'' A founding member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), Canada currently employs about 62,000 regular and 26,000 reserve military personnel.[http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/family_e.asp] The unified [[Canadian Armed Forces|Canadian Forces]] (CF) comprise the [[Canadian Forces Land Force Command|army]], [[Canadian Forces Maritime Command|navy]], and [[Canadian Forces Air Command|air force]]. Major CF equipment deployed includes 2,400 armoured fighting vehicles, 34 combat vessels, and 140 combat aircraft. Canadian forces have served in various wars including the [[Second Boer War]], [[World War I]], [[World War II]], the [[Korean War]] and recently, in [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]]. Since [[Lester B. Pearson]] proposed the first [[United Nations|UN]] peacekeeping force in 1956, the Canadian Forces have served in 42 [[peacekeeping|peacekeeping missions]] &amp;mdash; more than any other country. Battles significantly contributing to Canada's development and self-identity include the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]], the [[Second Battle of Ypres]], the [[Third Battle of Ypres]], and [[Juno Beach]]. At the end of World War II, Canada was the fourth strongest military power in the world, behind the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and the former [[Soviet Union]]. Currently, CF personnel are involved in the [[International Security Assistance Force|NATO mission in Afghanistan]]. Smaller missions are also taking place in [[Haiti]] and [[Kosovo]]. Canada's [[Disaster Assistance Response Team]] (DART) has participated in two relief operations in the last year. The two-hundred member relief crew helped in [[Southeast Asia]] after the [[2004 tsunami|December 2004 tsunami]], and DART was also deployed in response to the devastating earthquake that [[2005 Kashmir earthquake|struck]] the [[Kashmir]] region in [[South Asia]] in October 2005. ==Provinces and territories== [[Image:Map_Canada_political.jpg|thumb|right|325px|A political map of Canada indicating subdivisions.]] {{main|Provinces and territories of Canada}} Canada is composed of ten provinces and three territories. The provinces have a large degree of autonomy from the federal government, the territories somewhat less. Each has its own [[List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols|provincial or territorial symbols]]. The provinces are responsible for most of Canada's social programs (such as [[Health care in Canada|health care]], [[Education in Canada|education]], and [[welfare (financial aid)|welfare]]) and together collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federati
ho began using Spanish in the early [[1990]]'s. His track &quot;La Raza&quot; started a whole generation of rappers using some Spanish in their English rhymes. [[Chicano rock]] is [[rock and roll|rock music]] performed by [[Mexican American]] groups or music with themes derived from [[Chicano]] culture. There are two undercurrents in Chicano rock. One is a devotion to the original [[rhythm and blues]] roots of Rock and roll. [[Ritchie Valens]], Sunny and the Sunglows. Groups inspired by this include [[Sir Douglas Quintet]], [[Thee Midniters]], and [[Los Lobos]]. The second theme is the openness to [[Latin America| Latin American]] sounds and influences. Trini Lopez, [[Carlos Santana|Santana]], Malo, and other Chicano 'Latin Rock' groups follow this approach. ==Notable Chicanos== Some notable Chicanos include [[Cheech Marin]], [[George Lopez]], [[Oscar Zeta Acosta]], [[César Chávez]], [[Dolores Huerta]], [[Gloria Anzaldua]], [[Emma Tennayuca]], [[Eddie Guerrero]], and [[Sandra Cisneros]]. ==See also== * [[Aztlán]] * [[Brown Berets]] * [[Calo (Chicano slang)]] * [[César Chávez]] * [[Cherrie Moraga]] * [[Chicano rap]] * [[Cholo]] * [[Colegio César Chávez]] * [[Dolores Huerta]] * [[El Vez]] * [[Emma Tennayuca]] * [[George Lopez]] * [[Gloria Anzaldua]] * [[Hispanic]] * [[La raza]] * [[Latino]] * [[MEChA]] * [[Mestizo]] * [[Mexican]] * [[Mexican American]] *[[Category:Mexican Americans]] * [[History of Mexican-Americans]] * [[Oscar Zeta Acosta]] * [[Pocho]] * [[Race (U.S. Census)]] * [[Tejano]] ==External links== *[http://chicano-park.org chicano-Park San Diego] *[http://www.chicanas.com Chicanas.com] *[http://www.chicano-art-life.com/index.html Chicano-Art] *[http://www.chicanismo.com/wiki Chicano Wikipedia] *[http://www.losquemados.com Los Quemados Chicano Arte] *[http://latino.sscnet.ucla.edu/women/womenHP.html UCLA Women] *[http://www.mexicayotl.org/ Danza Mexi'cayotl: Traditional Chicano-Azteca-Chichimeca Dance Circle] *[http://www.mexica-movement.org/ Mexica Movement] ==Sources== 1. Tino Villanueva, Chicanos (selección), Lecturas Mexicanas, número 889, FCE/SEP, México, 1985, p. 7 [[Category:Ethnic groups in the United States]] [[de:Chicano]] [[es:Chicano]] [[ko:치카노]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Canary Islands</title> <id>5717</id> <revision> <id>42012306</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:20:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wetman</username> <id>21492</id> </contributor> <comment>rv anonymous changes in statistics; please vet these figures</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}} :''&quot;Canaries&quot; redirects here. For the bird, see [[canary]].'' {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+'''Comunidad Autónoma de&lt;br/&gt;&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Canarias&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;''' |- | bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=center colspan=2 | {| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 |- | align=center width=148 | [[Image:Flag of the Canary Islands.png|150px]] | align=center width=148 | [[Image:Escudo de Canarias.png|100px]] |- | align=center width=148 | [[Flag of Canary Islands|Flag]] | align=center width=148 | [[Coat of Arms of Canary Islands|Coat of Arms]] |} |- | bgcolor=&quot;#c6c6c6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Locator map of Canary.png]] |- | valign=top | [[Capital]]s | [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] |- | [[Area]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; % of Spain | [[List of Spanish autonomous communities by area|Ranked 13th]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[1 E9 m²|7 447]] [[square kilometre|km²]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;1,5% |- | [[Population]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total (2003)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; % of Spain&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Density]] | [[List of Spanish autonomous communities by population|Ranked 8th]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;1 843 755&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;4,4%&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;247,58/km² |- | [[Demonym]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[English language|English]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish language|Spanish]] | &lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;Canary Islander (Canarian)&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;''canario/a''&lt;!-- a slash? --&gt; |- | Statute of Autonomy | [[August 16]], [[1982]] |- | [[ISO 3166-2]] | ES-CN |- | [[Cortes Generales|Parliamentary&lt;br/&gt;representation]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish Congress|Congress seats]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish Senate|Senate seats]] | valign=bottom |&amp;nbsp;14&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;2 (by Autonomic Goberment), 3 for Tenerife, 3 for Gran canaria, and one for every other island=13 |- | [[List of Canary Islands Presidents|President]] | [[Adán Martín Menis]] ([[Coalición Canaria|CC]]) |- | align=center colspan=2 | [http://www.gobcan.es Gobierno de Canarias] |} The '''Canary Islands (Islas Canarias)''' (28° 06'N, 15° 24'W) are an [[archipelago]] of the [[Spain|Kingdom of Spain]] consisting of seven [[island]]s of [[volcano|volcanic]] origin in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. They are located off the northwestern coast of [[Africa]] ([[Morocco]] and the [[Western Sahara]]). They form an [[autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community]] of [[Spain]]. The name derives probably from a north African tribe (the Canarii) or possibly the Latin term ''Insularia Canaria'' meaning Island of the Dogs, a name applied originally only to the island of [[Gran Canaria]]. It is thought that the dense population of an endemic breed of large and fierce dogs was the characteristic that most struck the few ancient Romans who established contact with the islands by the sea. ==History== ===Precolonial Times=== The Canary Islands have been known since [[antiquity]]. The peak of [[Teide]] on [[Tenerife]] can be seen on clear days from the African coast. It is possible that the islands were among those discovered by the Carthaginian captain [[Hanno the Navigator]] in his voyage of exploration along the African coast. It is barely possible that the islands were visited by the Phoenicians seeking the precious red dye extracted from the [[orchilla]], if the Canaries are considered to be ''The Purple Isles'', or alternatively identified with the [[Hesperides]]. Recent discoveries have demonstrated that the Romans traded with the indigenous inhabitants of the Canary Islands, although there is no concrete evidence that any Romans actually settled. Legendary islands in the Western Ocean that recur in European traditions are often linked with the Canaries, even the legendary voyage of [[Saint Brendan]]. During the [[Middle Ages]], the islands were visited by the [[Arabs]] for commercial purposes. From the 14th century onward numerous visits were made by sailors from [[Mallorca]], [[Portugal]], and [[Genoa]]. [[Lancelotto Malocello]] settled on the island of [[Lanzarote]] in [[1312]]. The [[Mayorcans]] established a mission with a bishop in the islands that lasted from 1350 to 1400. It is from this mission that the various paintings and statues of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] that are currently venerated in the island were preserved. At the time of their discovery by Europeans, the Canary Islands were inhabited by a variety of indigenous communities. The pre-colonial population of the Canaries is generically referred to as [[Guanches]], although, strictly speaking, Guanches were originally the inhabitants of Tenerife. According to the chronicles, the inhabitants of Fuerteventura and Lanzarote were referred to as ''Maxos'', Gran Canaria was inhabited by the ''Canarii'', El Hierro by the ''Bimbaches'', La Palma by the ''Auaritas'' and La Gomera by the ''Gomeros''. Despite the fact that inter-insular relations among the indigenous communities cannot be conclusively denied, evidence does seem to suggest that the interaction was relatively low and each island was populated by its own distinct socio-cultural groups. The origins of these Canarian indigenous people have been - and indeed still are - the subject of long debates. Numerous theories have been put forward throughout the last century, achieving varying degrees of acceptance. A common denominator to many of the theories, though, are the persisting effects of a diffusionist tradition that tends to resort to the archaeological record of different continents in the attempt to trace systematic cultural dispersions through stylistic analyses of the material productions, leading, in occasions, to rather far-fetched conclusions. As we are dealing with a group of islands, the first settlers must evidently have arrived by sea, and archaeology suggests that, when they did so, they imported, not only domestic animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and dogs and cereals such as wheat, barley and lentils, but also a set of well defined socio-cultural practices that seem to have originated and been in use for a long period of time elsewhere. Although the maritime currents surrounding the Canaries flow in a south-westerly and westerly direction (thus leading boats away into the Atlantic Ocean), there is enough evidence to prove that various Mediterranean civilisations in antiquity did know of the islands' existence and established contact with them (mainly Romans, Greeks and Phoenicians). The indigenous population of the Canaries, therefore, did not develop in complete isolation. In fact, as of the 14th century, European disembarkations of Genovese, Castelian and Portuguese missionaries and pirates on Canarian shores became relatively common and the prehispanic populations were subjected to a long, continuous process of Westernisation before the colonisations. Today, archaeological and ethnographic studies have led most scholars to accept the view that the pre-colonial population of the Canaries were descendants of North [[A
[[local loop]] (replacing the analog [[last mile]], or [[Plain old telephone service|POTS]]) to the company's switching center, where it is connected to the [[PSTN]]. The biggest obstacle to cable telephone service is the need for nearly 100% reliable service for emergency calls. One of the standards available for digital cable telephony, [[PacketCable]], seems to be the most promising and able to work with the [[Quality of Service]] demands of traditional analog POTS service. The biggest advantage to digital cable telephone service is similar to the advantage of digital cable TV, namely that data can be compressed, resulting in much less bandwidth used than a dedicated analog circuit-switched service. Other advantages include better voice quality and integration to a [[VoIP]] network providing cheap or unlimited nationwide and international calling. Note that in most cases, digital cable telephone service is separate from [[cable modem]] service being offered by many cable companies and does not rely on IP traffic or the Internet. A chart showing the North American cable television bandplan can be found [[North American cable television frequencies|here]]. Cable television is facing increasing competition from [[satellite television]]. {{seealso|List of cable companies}} ==See also== * [[List of United States cable and satellite television networks]] ==References== * [http://www.wharfcable.com Wharf Cable Home Page] * [http://www.cabletv.com.hk Cable TV Hong Kong] * [http://www.roventa.lt Cable TV Roventa ] {{CATV}} [[zh-cn:有线电视]] [[Category:Cable television| ]] [[bg:Кабелна телевизия]] [[ca:Televisió per cable]] [[de:Kabelfernsehen]] [[eo:Kabla televido]] [[es:Televisión por cable]] [[fr:Télévision par câble]] [[he:טלוויזיה בכבלים]] [[ja:ケーブルテレビ]] [[nl:Kabeltelevisie]] [[pt:Televisão a cabo]] [[ru:Кабельное телевидение]] [[sr:Кабловска телевизија]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Charles S. Peirce</title> <id>7588</id> <revision> <id>15905650</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles Peirce]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Charles Sanders Peirce</title> <id>7589</id> <revision> <id>15905651</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles Peirce]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cholera</title> <id>7591</id> <revision> <id>41940695</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:48:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Arcadian</username> <id>104523</id> </contributor> <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Cholera | ICD10 = A00 | ICD9 = {{ICD9|001}} | }} '''Cholera''' (also called '''Asiatic cholera''') is a [[water-borne disease]] caused by the [[bacterium]] ''[[Vibrio cholerae]]'', which are typically ingested by drinking contaminated water, or by eating improperly cooked fish, especially [[shellfish]]. It was first described in a scientific manner by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] physician [[Garcia de Orta]] in the [[16th century]]. ==Pathology== ===Susceptibility=== Cholera produces potentially lethal secretory diarrhea through a pathway that involves the [[cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator]], CFTR (Gabriel 1994). This discovery led to the hypothesis that carriers for [[cystic fibrosis]], who have lower levels of functional CFTR, are protected from the severe effects of cholera because they don't lose water as quickly as other people. This might explain the high incidence of cystic fibrosis among populations which were formerly exposed to cholera. However, no evidence of resistance ''[[in vivo]]'' has been observed in humans, and studies in mice have produced conflicting results (Gabriel 1994, Cuthbert 1995, Hogenauer 2000). Recent [[genetics|genetic research]] has determined that a person's susceptibility to cholera (and other diarrheas) is affected by their [[blood type]]. Those with type O blood are the most susceptible. Those with type AB are the most resistant, virtually immune. Between these two extremes are the A and B blood types, with type A being more resistant than type B. [[Image:cholera bacteria SEM.jpg|thumb|''Vibrio cholerae'': The bacteria that causes cholera ([[Scanning electron microscope|SEM]]&amp;nbsp;image)]] About one million ''Vibrio cholerae'' bacteria must be ingested to cause cholera in normally healthy adults, although increased susceptibility may be observed in those with a weakened [[immune system]], individuals with decreased gastric acidity (as from the use of [[antacid]]s), or those who are [[malnutrition|malnourished]]. ===Transmission=== Cholera is transmitted through ingestion of feces contaminated with the bacterium. The contamination usually occurs when untreated sewage is released into waterways, affecting the water supply, any foods washed in the water, and shellfish living in the affected waterway &amp;#151; it is rarely spread directly from person to person. The resulting diarrhea allows the bacterium to spread to other people under unsanitary conditions. ===Symptoms=== Symptoms include those of general GI tract upset: [[Diarrhea#Acute diarrhea|profuse diarrhea]] (eg 1L/hour), abdominal [[cramp]]ing, [[fever]], [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]]. Also those of the resulting dehydration: [[thirst]], muscle cramps, weakness, loss of tissue [[turgor]], sunken eyes and wrinkled skin, severe [[metabolic acidosis]] with [[potassium depletion]], [[anuria]], circulatory collapse and [[cyanosis]]. Death is through circulatory volume shock (massive loss of fluid and electrolytes), and can occur within hours. The root causes of these symptoms are the [[enterotoxin]]s that ''V. cholerae'' produces. The main enterotoxin, known as '''cholera toxin''', interacts with [[G protein]]s and [[cyclic AMP]] in the intestinal lining to open [[ion channels]]. As ions flow into the intestinal [[lumen]], water follows through osmosis. ==History== ===Origin and Spread=== Cholera was originally [[endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] to the Indian subcontinent, with the [[Ganges River]] likely serving as a contamination reservoir. It spread by trade routes (land and sea) to [[Russia]], then to [[Western Europe]], and from Europe to [[North America]]. It is now no longer considered an issue in Europe and North America, due to [[water filtration|filtering]] and [[chlorination]] of the water supply. * 1816-1826 - '''First pandemic''': Previously restricted, the pandemic began in [[Bengal]], then spread across [[India]] by 1820. It extended as far as [[China]] and the [[Caspian Sea]] before receding. * 1829-1851 - '''Second pandemic''' reached Europe, [[London]] and [[Paris]] in 1832 (in London, it claimed at least 3000 victims according to a [[1832]] article; in Paris, 20 000 on a population of 650 000, and 100 000 in all of France [http://www.amicale-genealogie.org/Histoires_temps-passe/Epidemies/chol01.htm]), Russia ([[Cholera Riots]]), [[Quebec, Canada|Quebec]], [[Ontario, Canada|Ontario]] and [[New York]] in the same year, and the Pacific coast of North America by 1834. * 1849 - Second outbreak in Paris. An outbreak in North America took the life of [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[James K. Polk]] * 1852-1860 - '''Third pandemic''' mainly affected Russia, with over a million deaths. * 1863-1875 - '''Fourth pandemic''' spread mostly in Europe and [[Africa]]. * 1866 - Outbreak in North America. &lt;!-- taken from above paragraph. Not sure if this is separate from the 4th pandemic --&gt; * 1899-1923 - '''Sixth pandemic''' had little effect in Europe because of advances in public health, but Russia was badly affected again. * 1961-1970s - '''Seventh pandemic''' began in [[Indonesia]], called [[El Tor]] after the strain, and reached [[Bangladesh]] in 1963, India in 1964, and the USSR in 1966. From [[North Africa]] it spread into Italy by 1973. In the late 1970s there were small outbreaks in Japan and in the South Pacific. * January 1991 to September 1994 - Outbreak in [[South America]], apparently initiated by discharged ballast water. Beginning in [[Peru]] there were 1.04 million identified cases and almost 10,000 deaths. The causative agent was a non-O1, [[nonagglutinable vibrio]] (NAG) named O139 Bengal. It was first identified in [[Tamilnadu]], India and for a while displaced El Tor in southern Asia before decreasing in prevalence from 1995 to around 10% of all cases. It is considered to be an intermediate between El Tor and the classic strain and occurs in a new serogroup. There is evidence as to the emergence of wide-spectrum resistance to drugs such as [[trimethoprim]], [[sulfamethoxazole]] and [[streptomycin]]. ===Research === The scientists with major contributions to fighting cholera were [[John Snow (physician)|John Snow]], who found the link between cholera and drinking water in [[1854]], and [[Robert Koch]], who identified ''V. cholerae'' as the bacillus causing the disease. The bacterium was originally isolated thirty years earlier by Italian anatomist [[Filippo Pacini]], but his results were not widely known around the world. === Other historical information === In the past, people travelling in ships would hang a yellow flag if one of the crews suffered from cholera. Boats with a yellow flag hung would not be allowed to disembark at any harbor. (See ''[[Love in the Time of Cholera]]'') ==Treatment== Treatment typically consists of aggressive [[rehydration]] and [[oral rehydration sal
uce [[reinforced concrete]]. Concrete can also be [[prestressed concrete| prestressed]] (reducing tensile stress) using steel cables, allowing for [[beam (structure)|beam]]s or slabs with a longer span than is practical with reinforced concrete. The ultimate strength of concrete is related to water-cement ratio (w/c), the proportion and type of cement to fillers, and the size, shape, and strength of the aggregate used. Concrete with lower water-cement ratio (down to 0.35) makes a stronger concrete than a higher ratio. Concrete made with smooth pebbles is weaker than that made with rough-surfaced broken rock pieces for example, pebbles require more bonding material (Cement) per area than larger rock, which has less surface area to bond than the smaller &quot;pea gravel&quot;. Certain shapes are very strong in compression, such as [[arch]]es and [[vault]]s, and are therefore preferred for concrete construction. A structural member such as a bridge beam may have a moment ( a bend ) placed in it by tensioning the steel ( wire or cable ) which keeps the beam in compression even when carrying a load. ===Curing=== Curing is the process of keeping concrete under a specific environmental condition. Good curing is typically considered to be a moist environment which promotes hydration. Increased hydration lowers permeability and increases strength, resulting in a higher quality material. The effects of curing are primarily a function of specimen geometry, the [[permeability]] of the concrete, curing length and curing history. ===Cracking=== Concrete is placed in a wet or plastic state, and therefore can be manipulated and molded as needed. Hydration and hardening of concrete may lead to tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained significant strength, resulting in shrinkage cracks. Extending the period concrete stays damp during curing increases its strength. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High early strength concrete is designed to cure faster and thus can be stressed earlier than other concretes. Cracking may start out as micro cracking, thus not readily apparent. Freezing of concrete (such as in cold climates) before the curing is complete will interrupt the hydration process, reducing the concrete strength and leading to scaling and other damage or failure. Concrete can be sampled and tested off site for strength. Such tests may use hydraulic ram compression. Construction site testing, including concrete testing, is typically performed by a accredited (such as AASHTO, U.S. Army Corps) independent testing laboratory. [[Image:Concrete pumper.jpg|400px|right|thumb|Because it is a fluid, concrete can be pumped to where it is needed. Here a concrete transport truck is feeding concrete to a concrete pumper, which is pumping it to where a slab is being poured.]] ==Additives== Additives are organic or non-organic materials in form of solids or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics. In normal use the additives make up less than 5% of the cement weight. The most used types of additives are: * [[Accelerator (chemistry)|Accelerator]]s: Speed up the hydration (strengthening) of the concete. * [[Retarder]]s: Slow the hydration of concrete. * Air-[[entrainer]]s: Add and distributes tiny air bubbles to the concrete, which reduces damage due to freeze-thaw cycles. * [[Plasticizer]]s: Increase the workability of concrete, allowing it to flow around tightly packed rebar. Most plasticizers also act as accelerators. * Liquid Colors: Change the color of concrete for aesthetics. * [[Fly ash]]: A by-product of coal-fire [[power station|electric generating plants]], it's used to replace the volume of [[Portland cement]] by up to 50%. ==Workability== Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mould properly with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's [[quality]]. Workability depends on water content, additives, [[aggregate]] (shape and size distribution) and age (level of [[hydration]]). Raising the water content or adding [[plasticizer]] will increase the workability. Too much water will lead to bleeding (loss of water) and/or segregation (concrete starts to get heterogeneous) and the resulting concrete will have reduced quality. Workability is normally tested by slump measurement. High flow concrete, like self compacting concrete, are normally tested by one of several flow measuring methods. Concrete slump is a simplistic measure of fresh (plastic) concrete's workability. Slump is normally determined by the [[ASTM]] C 143 or EN 12350-2 slump test standards, using the [[Abrams cone]], into which concrete is placed for testing. When the cone is carefully lifted off the enclosed material, it will slump a certain amount due to its water content. A relatively dry sample will slump very little, and be given a slump of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm), while a relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as six or seven inches (150 to 175 mm). To increase the slump, the [[rule of thumb]] is: * US units :Add 1 [[US gallon]] of water per cubic yard of concrete in the mixer truck to increase slump by 1 inch. Adding 27 US gallons to 9 cubic yards of batched concrete will therefore increase the slump by about 3 inches. * Metric units (converted from US rule of thumb) &lt;!-- concrete expert from metric country needed to confirm metric rule of thumb --&gt; :Add 2 litres of water per cubic metre of concrete in the mixer truck to increase slump by 1 cm. Adding 60 litres to 10 cubic metres of batched concrete will therefore increase the slump by about 3 cm. Slump can also be increased by adding a plasticizer, without changing the water/cement ratio. ==Self compacting concretes== During the 1980s a number of countries including Japan, Sweden and France developed a range of concretes that were self-compacting. These 'SCC's are characterised by their extreme fluidity (using [[plasticizer]]s), behaving more like water than the traditional viscous concrete. SCCs are characterized by * extreme fluidity measured by ''flow'' or ''slump'', typically measured between 700-750 mm. * no need for [[vibrator]]s to compact the concrete, which can be noisy * no or little need for expensive concrete [[pump]]ing equipment * no bleed water (excess water draining out of the concrete) SCC can offer benefits of up to 50% in labour costs, due to it being poured up to 80% faster and having reduced wear and tear on [[formwork]]. As of 2005, self compacting concretes account for 10-15% of concrete sales in some European countries. ==Shotcrete / sprayed concrete== ''Main article:'' [[Shotcrete]]&lt;p&gt; [[Shotcrete|Shotcrete]] uses compressed air to shoot (cast) concrete to a frame or structure. Shotcrete is mostly used for rock support, especially in [[tunnelling]]. Today there are two application methods for shotcrete: the dry-mix and the wet-mix procedure. In Dry-mix the dry mixture of cement and aggregates is filled into the machine and conveyed with [[compressed air]] through the hoses. The water needed for the hydration is added at the nozzle. In Wet-mix the mixes are prepared with all necessary water for hydration. The mixes are pumped through the hoses. At the nozzle compressed air is added for spraying. For both methods additives such as [[plasticizer]]s and [[accelerator (chemistry)|accelerator]]s may be used. Shotcrete is normally reinforced by fibers. == See also == *[[Building construction]] *[[Concrete mixer]] *[[Concrete recycling]] *[[Concrete resurfacing]] *[[Reinforced concrete]] *[[Slab-on-grade foundations]] *[[Shotcrete]] *[[Formwork]] *[[Mortar (masonry)]] *[[Litracon]] ==External links== * [http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blconcrete.htm History of Concrete] * [http://www.ecosmart.ca EcoSmart Concrete] A non-profit organization dedicated to reduce the [[GHG]] signature of concrete. * [http://www.extenza-eps.com/TELF/doi/abs/10.1680/macr.56.3.151.36304 Effect of curing on the tensile strength of medium to high strength concrete.] [[Category:Concrete| ]] [[Category:Structural engineering]] [[bg:Бетон]] [[bs:Beton]] [[cs:Beton]] [[da:Beton]] [[de:Beton]] [[et:Betoon]] [[es:Hormigón]] [[eo:Betono]] [[fr:Béton]] [[id:Beton]] [[he:בטון]] [[ms:Konkrit]] [[nl:Beton]] [[ja:コンクリート]] [[no:Betong]] [[pl:Beton]] [[pt:Concreto (material)]] [[ru:Бетон]] [[simple:Concrete]] [[sl:Beton]] [[fi:Betoni]] [[sv:Betong]] [[ta:காங்கிறீற்று]] [[tr:Beton]] [[zh:混凝土]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coitus interruptus</title> <id>5373</id> <revision> <id>42045071</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:26:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BrownHairedGirl</username> <id>754619</id> </contributor> <comment>dab. catholic</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Coitus interruptus''', also known as '''withdrawal''' or the '''pull out method''', is an unreliable method of [[contraception]] in which, during [[sexual intercourse]], the man removes his [[penis]] from the woman's [[vagina]] just before he reaches [[orgasm]]. That way, the [[ejaculation]] of [[semen]] is not in the vagina but elsewhere. This method has been widely used for at least 2,000 years and was used by an estimated 38 million couples worldwide in 1991 (Population Action International). In practice, after removing his penis from the vagina, the man will often ejaculate elsewhere, such as on the woman's body or face. Used by itself, this method is unreliable, because of the difficulty of controlling the process of ejaculation. It has been suggested that the [[pre-ejaculate]] (&quot;[[Cowper's fluid]]&quot;), which has a lubricatory function, contains [[spermatozoa]] ([[semen|sperm]] cells), and is easily drawn into the vagina by [[capillary action]]. However, modern research[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&am
ught with [[Hector]] and saw Ares fighting on the Trojans' side. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly. Hera, Ares's mother, saw his interference and asked Zeus, his father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield. Hera encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares, so he threw a spear at Ares. Athena then drove the spear into Ares's body, who bellowed in pain and fled to Mt. Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back. In post-Renaissance [[emblem]] books, Ares' symbols are a spear and a helmet, his animal the dog and his bird the vulture. In myth and poetry Ares appears as cruel, aggressive, and blood-thirsty. He is notorious among both gods and humans. ==Consorts/Children== &lt;!--this mishmash list is drawn from every kind of source: can it be made valuable?--&gt; # [[Aglaulus]] ## [[Alcippe]] # [[Aphrodite]] ## [[Anteros]] ## [[Deimos (god)|Deimos]] (Dread) ## [[Eros (god)|Eros]] (Love) ## [[Harmonia (Greek_goddess)|Harmonia]] ## [[Himerus]] ## [[Phobos (god)|Phobos]] (Fright) # [[Astyoche]] ## [[Ascalaphus]] # [[Atalanta]] ## [[Parthenopeus]] # [[Chryse]] ## [[Phlegyas]] # [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]] ## [[Diomedes]] # [[Otrera]] ## [[Hippolyte]] ## [[Penthesilea]] # [[Rhea Silvia]] ## [[Remus]] ## [[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]] # [[Sterope]] ## [[Oenomaus]] # [[Pyrene (mythology)|Pyrene]] ## [[Cycnus]] # Unknown mother ## [[Antiope (mythology)|Antiope]] ## [[Biston]] ## [[Enyo]] ## [[Eurytion]] ## [[Tereus]] # Unknown woman ## [[Antiope (mythology)|Antiope]] ## [[Hippolyte]] ## [[Melanippe]] ==Ares in Neopaganism== Many modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] maintain a somewhat traditional view of Ares. ''Hellenistic'' sects in the [[United States]], discourage worship of Ares altogether. Some sects even forbid Ares worship. Many modern neopagans believe that ancient civilizations believed much the same, but worshipped Ares out of necessity rather than out of devotion. However, many other Neopagans do worship Ares, believing him to be a god who bestows courage, strength and determination in times of hardship and difficulty. ==Cultural References== * In [[DC Comics]], Ares is a prominent antagonist of [[Wonder Woman]]. * In the Playstation 2 video game [[God of War]], Ares is the main antagonist, attempts to destroy [[Athens]] and is partially responsible for development of the in-game character of Kratos. *In [[Marvel Comics]], Ares is a Greek God who features in his own [[2006]] miniseries. * Ares is referenced in a song by the French neoclassical band [[Elend]] called ''Ares In Their Eyes''. ==See also== * [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] * [[Nergal]] * [[Tyr]] ==External links== *[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/martiana/ares/index.html Ares in Greek Religion] *[http://www.neokoroi.org/ares.htm Neokoroi] ==References== *[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], 1985. ''Greek Religion'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press) *[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Carl]], 1951. ''Gods of the Greeks'' (London:Thames &amp; Hudson) [[Category:Greek gods]][[Category:War gods]] [[bg:Арес]] [[ca:Ares]] [[cs:Arés]] [[da:Ares]] [[de:Ares]] [[el:Άρης (μυθολογία)]] [[es:Ares]] [[eo:Areso]] [[fr:Arès]] [[gl:Ares (deus)]] [[ko:아레스]] [[hr:Ares]] [[is:Ares]] [[it:Ares]] [[he:ארס (מיתולוגיה)]] [[lt:Arėjas]] [[lv:Arejs]] [[hu:Árész]] [[nl:Ares]] [[ja:アレス]] [[la:Mars]] [[no:Ares]] [[pl:Ares]] [[pt:Ares]] [[ro:Ares]] [[ru:Арес]] [[sl:Ares]] [[sr:Ареј]] [[sv:Ares]] [[uk:Арес]] [[tr:Ares]] [[zh:阿瑞斯]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alexander Grothendieck</title> <id>2042</id> <revision> <id>41084768</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T23:23:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>195.23.163.185</ip> </contributor> <comment>cl</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander Grothendieck''' ([[Berlin]], [[March 28]], [[1928]]) is one of the most important [[mathematician]]s of the [[20th century]]. He is also one of its most extreme scientific personalities, with achievements over a short span of years that are still scarcely credible in their broad scope and sheer bulk, and an approach that antagonised even close followers. He made major contributions to [[algebraic geometry]], [[homological algebra]], and [[functional analysis]]. He was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in [[1966]], and co-awarded the [[Crafoord Prize]] with [[Pierre Deligne]] in [[1988]]. He declined the latter prize, on ethical grounds. He is noted for his mastery of abstract approaches to mathematics, and his perfectionism in matters of formulation and presentation. Relatively little of his work after 1960 was published by the conventional route of the [[learned journal]], circulating initially in duplicated volumes of seminar notes; his influence was to a considerable extent personal, on French mathematics and the [[Zariski]] school at [[Harvard University]]. He is the subject of many stories and some misleading rumors, concerning his work habits and politics, confrontations with other mathematicians and the French authorities, his withdrawal from mathematics at age 42, his retirement and his subsequent lengthy writings. == Mathematical achievements == Homological methods and [[sheaf (mathematics)|sheaf]] theory had already been introduced in algebraic geometry by [[Jean-Pierre Serre]], after sheaves had been invented by [[Kiyoshi Oka]] and [[Jean Leray]]. Grothendieck took them to a higher level, changing the tools and the level of abstraction. Amongst his insights, he shifted attention from the study of individual varieties to the ''[[Grothendieck's relative point of view|relative point of view]]'' (pairs of varieties related by a [[morphism]]), allowing a broad generalization of many classical theorems. This he applied first to the [[Riemann-Roch theorem]], around [[1956]], which had already recently been generalized to any dimension by [[Friedrich Hirzebruch|Hirzebruch]]. The [[Grothendieck-Riemann-Roch theorem]] was announced by Grothendieck at the initial [[Arbeitstagung]] in [[Bonn]], in 1957. It appeared in print in a paper written by [[Armand Borel]] with Serre. His foundational work on [[algebraic geometry]] is at a higher level of abstraction than all prior versions. He adapted the use of non-closed [[generic point]]s, which led to the theory of [[scheme (mathematics)|schemes]]. He also pioneered the systematic use of [[nilpotent]]s. As 'functions' these can take only the value 0, but they carry infinitesimal information, in purely algebraic settings. His ''theory of schemes'' has become established as the best universal foundation for this major field, because of its great expressive power as well as technical depth. In that setting one can use [[birational geometry]], techniques from [[number theory]], [[Galois theory]] and [[commutative algebra]], and close analogues of the methods of [[algebraic topology]], all in an integrated way. Its influence spilled over into many other branches of mathematics, for example the contemporary theory of [[D-module]]s. (It also provoked adverse reactions, with many mathematicians seeking out more concrete areas and problems. Grothendieck is one of the few mathematicians who matches the French concept of [[maître à penser]]; some go further and call him [[maître-penseur]].) The bulk of Grothendieck's published work is collected in the monumental, and yet incomplete, ''[[Éléments de géométrie algébrique]]'' (EGA) and ''[[Séminaire de géométrie algébrique]]'' (SGA). Perhaps Grothendieck's deepest single accomplishment is the invention of the [[étale cohomology|étale]] and l-adic cohomology theories, which explain an observation of [[André Weil]]'s, that there is a deep connection between the topological characteristics of a variety and its diophantine (number theoretic) properties. For example, the number of solutions of an equation over a [[finite field]] reflects the topological nature of its solutions over the [[complex number]]s. Weil realized that to prove such a connection one needed a new cohomology theory, but neither he nor any other expert saw how to do this until such a theory was found by Grothendieck. This program culminated in the proofs of the [[Weil conjecture]]s by Grothendieck's student [[Pierre Deligne]] in the early 1970s after Grothendieck had largely withdrawn from mathematics. === Major mathematical topics (from [[Récoltes et Semailles]]) === He wrote a retrospective assessment of his mathematical work (see the external link ''La Vision'' below). As his main mathematical achievements (&quot;maître-thèmes&quot;), he chose this collection of 12 topics (his chronological order): #[[Topological tensor product]]s and [[nuclear space]]s #&quot;Continual&quot; and &quot;discrete&quot; [[duality]] ([[derived category|derived categories]] and &quot;[[six operations (mathematics)|six operations]]&quot;). #''Yoga'' of the [[Grothendieck-Riemann-Roch theorem]] ([[K-theory]], relation with [[intersection theory]]). #[[Scheme (mathematics)|Scheme]]s. #[[topos|Toposes]]. #[[Étale cohomology]] including [[l-adic cohomology]]. #[[Motive (mathematics)|Motive]]s and the [[motivic Galois group]] (and [[Grothendieck category|Grothendieck categories]]) #[[Crystal (mathematics)|Crystal]]s and [[crystalline cohomology]], ''yoga'' of De Rham and Hodge coefficients. #[[Topological algebra]], infinity-stacks, 'dérivateurs', cohomological formalism of toposes as an inspiration for a new [[homotopic algebra]] #[[Tame topology]]. #''Yoga'' of [[anabelian geometry]] and [[Galois-Teichmüller theory]]. #Schematic point of view, or &quot;arithmetics&quot; for [[regular polyhedron|regular polyhedra]] and [[regular configurations]] of all sorts. He wrote that the central theme of the topics above is that of [[topos]] theory, while the first and last were of the least importance to him. Here the usage of ''yoga'' means a kind of 'meta-theory' that can be used heuristically. The word ''yoke'', meaning a linkage, is derived from the same Indo-Europ
il [[2003]]. ===VAX versions=== A [[VAX]] computer was installed at Berkeley in [[1978]], but the [[porting|port]] of Unix to the VAX architecture, [[UNIX/32V]], did not take advantage of the VAX's [[virtual memory]] capabilities. The [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]] of 32V was largely rewritten by Berkeley students to include a virtual memory implementation, and a complete operating system including the new kernel, ports of the 2BSD utilities to the VAX, and the utilities from 32V was released as '''3BSD''' at the end of [[1979]]. 3BSD was also alternatively called Virtual VAX/UNIX or VMUNIX (for Virtual Memory Unix), and BSD kernel images were normally called &lt;tt&gt;/vmunix&lt;/tt&gt; until 4.4BSD. The success of 3BSD was a major factor in the [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]]'s (DARPA) decision to fund Berkeley's [[Computer Systems Research Group]] (CSRG), which would develop a standard Unix platform for future DARPA research in the [[VLSI Project]]. CSRG released '''4BSD''', containing numerous improvements to the 3BSD system, in [[October]] [[1980]]. '''4.1BSD''' ([[June]] [[1981]]) was a response to criticisms of BSD's performance relative to the dominant VAX operating system, [[VMS]]. The 4.1BSD kernel was systematically tuned up by Bill Joy until it could perform as well as VMS on several benchmarks. (The release would have been called ''5BSD'', but the name was changed to avoid confusion with [[AT&amp;T]]'s [[UNIX System V]] release. One early, never-released test version was in fact called 4.5BSD.) '''4.2BSD''' would take over two years to implement and contained several major overhauls. Before its official release came three intermediate versions: ''4.1a'' incorporated a modified version of [[Bolt, Beranek and Newman|BBN]]'s preliminary [[TCP/IP]] implementation; ''4.1b'' included the new [[Berkeley Fast File System]], implemented by [[Marshall Kirk McKusick]]; and ''4.1c'' was an interim release during the last few months of 4.2BSD's development. The official 4.2BSD release came in [[August]] [[1983]]. It was notable as the first version released after the [[1982]] departure of Bill Joy to co-found [[Sun Microsystems]]; [[Mike Karels]] and [[Marshall Kirk McKusick]] took on leadership roles within the project from that point forward. On a lighter note, it also marked the debut of [[BSD Daemon|BSD's daemon mascot]] in a drawing by McKusick that appeared on the cover of the printed manuals distributed by [[USENIX]]. ===4.3BSD=== '''4.3BSD''' was released in [[June]] [[1986]]. Its main changes were to improve the performance of many of the new contributions of 4.2BSD that had not been as heavily tuned as the 4.1BSD code. Prior to the release, BSD's implementation of TCP/IP had diverged considerably from BBN's official implementation. After several months of testing, DARPA determined that the 4.2BSD version was superior and would remain in 4.3BSD. (See also [[History of the Internet]].) After 4.3BSD, it was determined that BSD would move away from the aging VAX platform. The [[Power 6/32]] '''platform''' (codenamed &quot;Tahoe&quot;) developed by [[Computer Consoles, Incorporated]] seemed promising at the time, but was abandoned by its developers shortly thereafter. Nonetheless, the '''4.3BSD-Tahoe''' port ([[June]] [[1988]]) proved valuable as it led to a separation of machine-dependent and machine-independent code in BSD which would improve the system's future portability. Until this point, all versions of BSD had incorporated proprietary AT&amp;T Unix code and therefore required licenses from AT&amp;T for their use. Source code licenses had become very expensive by this point, and several outside parties had expressed interest in a separate release of the networking code, which had been developed entirely outside AT&amp;T and would not be subject to the licensing requirement. This led to '''Networking Tape 1''' ('''Net/1'''), which was made available to non-licensees of AT&amp;T code and was [[free software|freely redistributable]] under the terms of the permissive [[BSD license]]. It was released in [[June]] [[1989]]. '''4.3BSD-Reno''' came in early [[1990]]. It was an interim release during the early development of 4.4BSD, and its use was considered a &quot;gamble&quot;, hence the naming after the [[gambling]] center of [[Reno, Nevada]]. This release was clearly moving towards [[POSIX]] compliance, and, according to some, away from the BSD philosophy (as POSIX is very much based on System V, and Reno was quite bloated compared to previous releases). ===Net/2 and legal troubles=== After Net/1, BSD developer [[Keith Bostic]] proposed that more non-AT&amp;T sections of the BSD system be released under the same license as Net/1. To this extent, he started a project to reimplement most of the standard Unix utilities without using the AT&amp;T code. For example, [[vi]], which had been based on the original Unix version of [[ed]], was rewritten as [[nvi]] (new vi). Within eighteen months, all the AT&amp;T utilities had been replaced, and it was determined that only a few AT&amp;T files remained in the kernel. These files were removed, and the result was the [[June]] [[1991]] release of '''Net/2''', a nearly complete operating system that was freely redistributable. Net/2 was the basis for two separate ports of BSD to the [[Intel 80386]] architecture: the free [[386BSD]] by [[William Jolitz]] and the [[proprietary software|proprietary]] [[BSD/OS|BSD/386]] (later renamed BSD/OS) by [[Berkeley Software Design]] (BSDi). 386BSD itself was short-lived, but became the initial code base of the [[NetBSD]] and [[FreeBSD]] projects that were started shortly thereafter. BSDi soon found itself in legal trouble with AT&amp;T's [[UNIX Systems Laboratories]] subsidiary, then the owners of the System V [[copyright]] and the Unix [[trademark]]. The [[USL v. BSDi]] lawsuit was filed in [[1992]] and led to an [[injunction]] on the distribution of Net/2 until the validity of USL's copyright claims on the source could be determined. The lawsuit slowed development of the free-software descendants of BSD for nearly two years while their legal status was in question, and as a result systems based on the [[Linux kernel]], which did not have such legal ambiguity, gained greater support. [[Linux]] and [[386BSD]] began development at about the same time, and [[Linus Torvalds]] has said that if there had been a free [[Unix-like]] operating system on the 386 at the time, he likely would not have created Linux. Although it is debatable exactly what effect that would have had on the software landscape since, there is little doubt that it would have been substantial. ===4.4BSD and descendants=== The lawsuit was settled in January [[1994]], largely in Berkeley's favor. Of the 18,000 files in the Berkeley distribution, only 3 had to be removed and 70 modified to show USL copyright notices. A further condition of the settlement was that USL would not file further lawsuits against users and distributors of the Berkeley-owned code in the upcoming 4.4BSD release. In [[June]] [[1994]], '''4.4BSD''' was released in two forms: the freely redistributable '''4.4BSD-Lite''' contained no AT&amp;T source, whereas '''4.4BSD-Encumbered''' was available, as earlier releases had been, only to AT&amp;T licensees. The final release from Berkeley was [[1995]]'s '''4.4BSD-Lite Release 2''', after which the CSRG was dissolved and development of BSD at Berkeley ceased. Since then, several distributions based on 4.4BSD (such as [[FreeBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], and [[NetBSD]]) have been maintained. In addition, the permissive nature of the BSD license has allowed many other operating systems, both free and proprietary, to incorporate BSD code. For example, [[Microsoft Windows]] has used BSD-derived code in its implementation of TCP/IP and bundles recompiled versions of BSD's [[command line]] networking tools with its current releases. Also [[Darwin (operating system)]], the system on which Apple's [[Mac OS X]] is built, is partly derived from FreeBSD 5. ==Technology== BSD pioneered many of the advances of modern computing. Berkeley's Unix was the first Unix to include libraries supporting the [[Internet Protocol]] stacks: ''[[Berkeley sockets]]''. By integrating sockets with the Unix operating system's [[file descriptor]]s, it became almost as easy to read and write data across a [[computer network|network]] as it was to access a disk. The AT&amp;T laboratory eventually released their own [[STREAMS]] library, which incorporated much of the same functionality in a software stack with a better architecture, but the wide distribution of the existing sockets library, together with the unfortunate omission of a function call for polling a set of open sockets equivalent to the &lt;tt&gt;select&lt;/tt&gt; call in the Berkeley library, reduced the impact of the new [[Application programming interface|API]]. Today, BSD continues to be used as a testbed for technology by academic organizations, as well as finding uses in a lot of commercial and free products and, increasingly, in [[Embedded_system|embedded devices]]. The general quality of its source code, as well as its documentation (especially reference manual pages, commonly referred to as ''[[Unix manual|man pages]]''), make it well-suited for many purposes. Because of the permissive nature of the BSD license, many corporations use BSD derived code in order to make [[proprietary software]]. This means that it often appears in unexpected places. Searching for strings containing &quot;University of California, Berkeley&quot; in the documentation of products, in the static data sections of [[Executable|binaries]] and [[Read-only memory|ROM]]s, or as part of other information about a software program, will often show BSD code has been used. It is an interesting fact that BSD operating systems can run much native software of several other operating systems on
36593</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Press coverage]] archive for 2004. ==Arabic== * In February 13th, An article about Wikipedia appeared in [http://www.linux4arab.com/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=280 Linux4Arab.com]. Hundreds read the article, and this posting, along with postings to mailing lists of [[LUG]]s and [[Open Source]] projects were the main reasons for the boost the [http://ar.wikipedia.org Arabic Wikipedia] had afterwards. ==Danish== *[http://politiken.dk/VisArtikel.iasp?PageID=308079&amp;TemplateID=5567 Article in ''Politiken'' 24/2 2004] - Immediately after the press release of February 2004, ''Politiken'', a major Danish daily, publishes an article about the progress of Wikipedia ==English== ===January=== *'''[http://www.discover.com/issues/jan-04/departments/emerging-technology/?page=2 Emerging Technology: Internet-Era Democracy: Can the World Wide Web give ordinary people a shot at true populism?]''' [[Discover Magazine]] cites Wikipedia as an example of how the public can be harnessed. Jan 2004. * '''[http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/78/conscious.html Image Conscious]''' Fast Company Magazine discusses a study of &quot;collaboratively written or edited document&quot;s, [[IBM History Flow tool|History Flow]], headed by a member of IBM's research division, [[Martin Wattenberg]]. Written by Scott Kirsner, January 2004 issue (#78), page 38. * ''The Wall Street Journal'', January 12, 2004, The Journal Report, Technology; ''Business Solutions'' by Michael Totty. &quot;There is even a wiki encyclopedia (wikipedia.org) where anyone can add or amend entries.&quot; * ''[http://www.popsci.com/popsci/medicine/article/0,12543,572388-5,00.html Popular Science]'', February 2004 mentions wikipedia.org among a few sites on the web as &quot;Where to turn on the net for scientific bolstering&quot; on page 65 in the print version, and [http://www.popsci.com/popsci/medicine/article/0,12543,572388-5,00.html here] in the online version. * '''[http://www.techcentralstation.com/012204A.html Today Linux, Tomorrow the World?]''' Tech Central Station very briefly mentions Wikipedia saying, &quot;Just as the open source movement can point to valuable software, it is also producing some interesting things in other areas, such as the popular encyclopedia Wikipedia...,&quot; in an article about [[open source]] titled ''Today Linux, Tomorrow the World?''. January 22, 2004. * '''[http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/business/7793099.htm Online reference to reach milestone]''' from The Mercury News talks about Wikipedia and its impending 200,000 article milestone. January 25, 2004. Reprinted in [http://www.siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/7793099.htm Siliconvalley.com], [http://www.bradenton.com/mld/bradenton/business/technology/7793099.htm Bradenton Herald, FL], [http://www.sunherald.com/mld/sunherald/business/technology/7793099.htm Biloxi Sun Herald, MS], [http://www.kansascity.com/mld/kansascity/business/technology/7793099.htm The Kansas City Star, MO], [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/7802835.htm Miami Herald] * '''[http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/158020_msftnotebook26.html Microsoft Notebook: Wiki pioneer planted the seed and watched it grow]''' from Seattle Post-Intelligencer's Todd Bishop is an article on [[Ward Cunningham]], the creator of the [[wiki]] concept. Wikipedia is mentioned as the largest wiki on the web. The article also has quotes from Wikipedia's founder, [[Jimmy Wales]]. January 26, 2004. * Dan Gillmor, &quot;Wikipedia emerges as credible resource&quot;, ''San Jose Mercury News'' (Jan. 29, 2004). About 200,000 article mark: &quot;Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org), an encyclopedia created and operated by volunteers, is one of the most fascinating developments of the Digital Age. In just over three years of existence, it has become a valuable resource and an example of how the grass roots in today's interconnected world can do extraordinary things.&quot; ===February=== *'''Information Outlook''' (Feb 2004). ''[http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/m0FWE/2_8/114010240/p1/article.jhtml eBooks: rumors of our death are greatly exaggerated.]. * ''[[Prospect (magazine)|Prospect]]'', &quot;[http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/start.asp?P_Article=12404 The Microsoft Killers]&quot;, pp. 54-58, Feburary 2004 edition; uses Wikipedia as an example of an open content project. &quot;''Open source software has come of age, and open source working methods are spreading beyond computers.''&quot; * '''[http://www.feer.com/ Far Eastern Economic Review]''' issue dated February 19, 2004: Wikipedia:It's Wicked (registration required). Enthusiastic reportage, notes the 200,000th English article and the Asian languages Wikipedia is available in. (Also posted to Usenet at [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=Wikipedia+group:rec.arts.sf.fandom&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;as_drrb=b&amp;as_mind=12&amp;as_minm=2&amp;as_miny=2004&amp;as_maxd=13&amp;as_maxm=2&amp;as_maxy=2004&amp;selm=1076633702.2876snx%40aleytys.pc.my&amp;rnum=1]) A pdf of the article can be found at [http://www.theproduct.com/6m105/readings/spring04/encyclopedia.pdf] which is the copy that was carried by the [http://wsj.com Wall Street Journal]. *'''[http://news.scotsman.com/latest.cfm?id=2537363 The Internet Column: WIKI REMARKS]''' from Scotsman.com (Also printed in the (Liverpool) Daily Post) has an article on [[Wiki]]s in general. Quote: &quot;The best known [Wiki] is Wikipedia, an encyclopaedia written entirely using the wiki system. Anyone browsing through Wikipedia can edit any page; so if you know a lot about a specific subject, you can add your knowledge to that subject's page easily.&quot; February 16, 2004. *British comedian [[Bill Bailey]] being interviewed by [[The Times]] (UK). Quote: &quot;8:00PM SURFING AND BLOGGING If I'm writing a show I spend a lot of time researching it on the net. I use Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org) a lot. It's a brilliant online encyclopaedia, invaluable for historical stuff, and probably the most accurate of all those sites.&quot; [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,1-8086-1008394,00.html] February 21, 2004. *''[[The Guardian]]'', from an article about changing the world. Quote: &quot;EBay does something no other network has done: it treats the social network as the supply-chain and by building systems of communications and reputation management into the network, turns a group of individuals into an organised, structured and wildly economically viable marketplace. The same can be said at an emergent level about open-source knowledge projects such as the Wikipedia encyclopedia.&quot; [http://media.guardian.co.uk/mediaguardian/story/0,7558,1153687,00.html] February 23, 2004. *[[m:German TV coverage of Wikipedia|An English translation of the transcript of Wikipedia as a news item in Germany]], includes a screenshot. [[Wikipedia:Press coverage#German|See below]] for more details. February 25, 2004. *[[Kuro5hin]] is apparently the first news site to publish Wikipedia's 500,000 article press release. [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2004/2/25/101848/859] * February 29 - computerworld.co.nz in an article about wikis (about how cool they are) (&quot;''Wicked (good) Wikis''&quot;) mentions Wikipedia as &quot;the largest, and perhaps most ambitious, Wiki in the world ? attempting to capture encyclopedia entries on everything&quot;. [http://www.computerworld.co.nz/news.nsf/UNID/6F8468F2E2C8F1C6CC256E48006422B4?OpenDocument] Also printed in [http://www.darwinmag.com Darwin Magazine] . ===March=== * '''[http://www.thewgalchannel.com/technology/2890759/detail.html New Yahoo! Search Planned To Go Deeper]''', an [[Associated Press]] report, based on this Yahoo Press Release [http://home.businesswire.com/portal/site/google/index.jsp?ndmViewId=news_view&amp;newsId=20040302005391&amp;newsLang=en] &quot;... pay for placement, the company is working with groups like National Public Radio, the Library of Congress, the New York Public Library and Wikipedia to make ...&quot; ** Posted, published, or aired on Local6.com, FL, WSOCtv.com, NC, Hawaii Channel.com, HI, Carolina Channel.com, SC, Click 2 Houston.com, TX, SanDiego Channel.com, CA, NewsNet5.com, OH, NBC4 Columbus.com, OH, KSBW Channel.com, CA, WMUR Channel.com, NH, WBAL Channel.com, MD, News4Jax.com, FL, WPBF Channel.com, FL, ClickonSA.com, TX, Kansas City Channel.com, MO, KMGH, CO, WHIOtv.com, Ohio, WRAL.com, NC, INDYchannel.com, IN, WSBtv.com, GA, Omaha Channel.com, NE, WESH.com, FL, Champlain Channel.com, NY, Bakersfield Channel.com, CA, Jackson Channel.com, MS, Click10.com, FL, Milwaukee Channel.com, WI, WTOV9.com, OH, WJACtv.com, PA, KTVU.com, CA, WDIV, MI, Pittsburgh Channel.com, PA, WISC, WI, Channel Oklahoma.com, OK, New Orleans Channel.com, LA Local6.com, FL - 15 hours ago * '''[http://www.poynter.org/column.asp?id=32&amp;aid=62126 Wikipedia for Journalists, Trusting a free resource]''', Poynter Online, article by Sree Sreenivasan, and Andrew Lih, Mar. 8, 2004. Explaining Wikipedia as a form of ''participatory journalism''. &quot;Wikipedia is an Internet-based, volunteer-contributed encyclopedia that in just three years has become a popular and highly regarded reference. It has thousands of international contributors and is the largest example of an open content wiki.&quot; * '''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3557293.stm The contenders for Google's throne]''', BBC Dot.life, March 22, 2004, talking about Yahoo's search engine, &quot;It has set up a program to index many of the databases held at places such as the US Library of Congress, US National Public Radio, the National Science Digital Library and the Wikipedia online encyclopaedia.&quot; * '''[http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20040316_76_119814.html Wikipedia a
غريقي)]] [[bg:Аполон]] [[ca:Apol·lo]] [[cs:Apollón]] [[da:Apollon]] [[de:Apollon]] [[el:Απόλλων]] [[es:Apolo]] [[eo:Apolono]] [[fr:Apollon]] [[gl:Apolo]] [[ko:아폴론]] [[hr:Apolon]] [[it:Apollo (mitologia)]] [[he:אפולו]] [[kw:Appolyn]] [[la:Apollo]] [[lt:Apolonas]] [[hu:Apollón]] [[nl:Apollo (god)]] [[ja:アポロン]] [[no:Apollon]] [[nn:Apollon]] [[pl:Apollo (mitologia)]] [[pt:Apolo (mitologia)]] [[ro:Apollo (mitologie)]] [[ru:Аполлон (мифология)]] [[sk:Apolón]] [[sl:Apolon]] [[sr:Аполон]] [[fi:Apollon]] [[sv:Apollon]] [[vi:Apollo (thần thoại)]] [[tr:Apollon]] [[uk:Аполлон]] [[zh:阿波罗]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andre Agassi</title> <id>595</id> <revision> <id>41929306</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:14:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>86.52.13.177</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* 2006 */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Tennis player |image= [[Image:Agassi Backhand.jpg|250px|Agassi Backhand]] |playername= Andre Agassi |country= [[United States]] |residence= [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[USA]] |datebirth= [[April 29]], [[1970]] |placebirth= [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[USA]] |height= 5'11&quot; (180 cm) |weight= 177 lbs (80 kg) |turnedpro= [[1986]] |plays= Right |grip= |careerprizemoney= $31,006,875 |singlestitles= 60 |highestsinglesranking= No. 1 ([[April 10]], [[1995]]) |AustralianOpenresult= '''W''' (1995, 2000, 2001, 2003) |FrenchOpenresult= '''W''' (1999) |Wimbledonresult= '''W''' (1992) |USOpenresult= '''W''' (1994, 1999) |doublestitles= 1 |highestdoublesranking= No. 123 ([[August 17]], [[1992]]) }} '''Andre Kirk Agassi''', (born [[April 29]] [[1970]], in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]]) is a [[professional]] [[male]] former '''[[List of ATP number 1 ranked players|World No. 1]]''' [[tennis]] player from the [[United States]]. He has won eight [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] singles titles, and is one of only five players to have won all four Grand Slam events. He is considered among the all-time great tennis players. Agassi was married to the actress [[Brooke Shields]] from 1997 to 1999. Since 2001, he has been married to the former World No. 1 woman tennis player [[Steffi Graf]] and had two children. ==Early life== Agassi's father, (an Armenian from Iran) Emmanuel &quot;Mike&quot; Agassian (who represented [[Iran]] in [[boxing]] at the 1948 and 1952 [[Olympic Games]] before emigrating to the [[United States]]), was intent on having a child win all four tennis Grand Slams. He called Agassi's two older siblings &quot;guinea pigs&quot; in the development of his coaching techniques. He honed Andre's eye-coordination when he was an infant by hanging tennis balls above his crib. He gave Agassi paddles and balloons when he was still in a high chair. When Agassi started playing tennis, his ball collection filled 60 garbage cans with 300 balls per can, and Agassi would hit 3,000-5,000 balls every day. When Andre was five years old, he was already practicing with pros such as [[Jimmy Connors]] and [[Roscoe Tanner]]. Mike Agassi learned tennis by watching tapes of champions. Mike Agassi took a very systematic approach to the physics and psychology of tennis, and still remains active in the sport. (More information can be found in Mike Agassi's book, ''The Agassi Story''.) At age of 14, Andre was shipped off to teaching guru [[Nick Bollettieri]]'s Tennis Academy in [[Florida]]. He turned professional when he was 16. ==Tennis career== ===1986-1997=== Agassi turned professional in 1986, and won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at [[Itaparica]]. He won six further tournaments in 1988, and by December that year he had surpassed US$2 million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments – the quickest player in history to do so. As a young up-and-coming player, Agassi embraced a rebel image. He grew his hair to rock-star length, sported an ear-ring, and wore colorful shirts that pushed tennis' still-strict sartorial boundaries. He boasted of a cheeseburger-heavy diet and endorsed the Canon Rebel camera. &quot;Image is everything&quot; was the ad's tag line, and it became Andre's as well. Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. But he began the 1990s with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the [[French Open]], where he lost in four sets to the seasoned veteran player [[Andrés Gómez]]. Later that year he lost in the final of the [[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]] to another up-and-coming teenaged star, [[Pete Sampras]]. The rivalry between these two American players was to become the dominant rivalry in tennis over the rest the of the decade. In 1991, Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final where he faced his former Bollettieri Academy-mate [[Jim Courier]]. Courier emerged the victor in a dramatic rain-interrupted five-set final. Agassi chose not to play at [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] from 1988-90, and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism, particularly its &quot;predominantly-white&quot; dress code which players at the event are required to conform to. Many observers at the time speculated that Agassi's real motivation was that his strong baseline game would not be well suited to Wimbledon's [[grass court]] surface. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991, leading to weeks of speculation in the media about what he would wear – he eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit. He reached the quarter-finals on that occasion. To the surprise of many, Agassi's Grand Slam breakthrough came at Wimbledon in 1992, when he beat [[Goran Ivanišević]] in a tight five-set final. Following wrist surgery in 1993, Agassi came back strongly in 1994 and captured the US Open, beating [[Michael Stich]] in the final. He then captured his first [[Australian Open]] title in 1995, beating Sampras in a four-set final. He won a career-high seven titles that year and he reached the World No. 1 ranking for the first time that April. He held it for 30 weeks on that occasion through to November. He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer [[hardcourt]] circuit, which ended when he lost in the US Open final to Sampras. In 1995, Agassi won seven singles titles, the biggest being the [[Australian Open]], the [[Cincinnati Masters]], the [[Miami Masters]], and the [[Canada Masters]]. In terms of win/loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year (72/10) (includes Davis Cup). This is slightly short of Sampras's best season, 1994, in which he (Sampras) won 77 matches and lost 12. In 1996, Agassi won the men's singles Gold Medal at the [[1996 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], beating [[Sergi Bruguera]] of [[Spain]] in straight sets in the final. He also repeated at the [[Cincinnati Masters]] and the [[Miami Masters]]. 1997 was a poor year for Agassi. He won no top-level titles and his ranking sank to World No. 141 in November. His form was perhaps affected by the intense publicity surrounding his high-profile and turbulent relationship and marriage to actress Brooke Shields. ===1998-2004=== In 1998, Agassi rededicated himself to tennis. He shaved his balding head, began a rigorous conditioning program, and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments (a circuit for professional players ranked outside the world's top 50). Perhaps most remarkably, the one-time rebel emerged as a gracious and thoughtful athlete, looked up to by younger players. After winning matches, he took to bowing and blowing a two-handed kisses to spectators on each side of the court, a gesture seen as a rather humble acknowledgment of their support for him and for tennis. In 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from No. 122 on the rankings at the start of the year, to No. 6 at the end of it, making it the highest jump into the Top 10 made by any player in tennis. He won five titles in ten finals, and finished runner-up at the [[Miami Masters]]. Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he beat [[Andrei Medvedev]] in a five-set French Open final to become only the fifth male player to have won all four Grand Slam singles titles (a feat last achieved in the 1960s by [[Roy Emerson]]). He followed this up by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras. He then won the US Open, beating [[Todd Martin]] in five sets in the final, and finished the year ranked the World No. 1. Agassi began 2000 by capturing his second Australian Open title, beating [[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] in a four-set final. He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since [[Rod Laver]] achieved the Grand Slam in 1969. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semi-finals at Wimbledon, where he lost in five sets to [[Patrick Rafter]] in a very high quality battle considered by many to be one of the best matches ever played at Wimbledon [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_history/3742067.stm]. At the inaugural [[Tennis Masters Cup]] in [[Lisbon]], Agassi made it all the way to the final after defeating [[Marat Safin]] 6-3, 6-3 in the semifinals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest World No. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi eventually lost to [[Gustavo Kuerten]] 6-4, 6-4, 6-4. This loss allowed Kuerten to be crowned year end World No. 1. 2000 is considered by many of his fans to be a disappointing season for Agassi, as he managed to win only one tournament (2000 Australian Open). Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over [[Arnaud Clement]]. At Wimbledon, he battled Rafter again in the semi-finals and lost 8-6 in the fifth set. At the US Open he lost in the quarter-finals to Sampras in what is considered to be one of tournament's all-time greatest matches. Sampras
]), but do not form any obvious pattern in the Chinese calendar. The dates below are approximate and may vary slightly from year to year due to the intercalary rules (i.e. system of [[leap years]]) of the Gregorian calendar. ''Jiéqì'' are published each year in farmers' [[almanac]]s. [[Chinese New Year]] is usually the [[new moon]] closest to ''lìch&amp;#363;n''. In the table below, these measures are given in the standard astronomical convention of [[ecliptic longitude]], zero degrees being positioned at the [[vernal equinox]] point. Each calendar month under the heading &quot;M&quot; contains the designated ''jiéqì'' called a principal term, which is an entry into a sign of the zodiac, also known as a cusp. Here ''term'' has the archaic meaning of a limit, not a duration. In Chinese astronomy, seasons are centered on the solstices and equinoxes, whereas in the standard Western definition, they begin at the solstices and equinoxes. Thus the term ''Beginning of Spring'' and the related Spring Festival fall in February, when it is still very chilly in temperate latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- ! M ! Ecliptic &lt;br&gt; Long. ! Chinese Name ! Gregorian &lt;br&gt; Date (approx.) ! Usual &lt;br&gt; Translation ! Remarks |- | &amp;nbsp; | align=&quot;right&quot; | 315&amp;#176; | &amp;#31435;&amp;#26149; lìch&amp;#363;n | [[4 February]] | start of spring | spring starts here according to the Chinese definition of a season |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''1''' | align=&quot;right&quot; | 330&amp;#176; | &amp;#38632;&amp;#27700; y&amp;#468;shu&amp;#464; | [[19 February]] | rain water | starting at this point, the temperature makes rain more likely than snow |- | &amp;nbsp; | align=&quot;right&quot; | 345&amp;#176; | &amp;#21843;&amp;#34756; q&amp;#464;zhé&lt;br&gt;(&amp;#39514;&amp;#34756; j&amp;#299;ngzhé) | [[5 March]] | awakening of insects | when &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[hibernation|hibernating]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; insects awake |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''2''' | align=&quot;right&quot; | 0&amp;#176; | &amp;#26149;&amp;#20998; ch&amp;#363;nf&amp;#275;n | [[21 March]] | [[vernal equinox]] | lit. the central divide of spring (referring to the Chinese seasonal definition) |- | &amp;nbsp; | align=&quot;right&quot; | 15&amp;#176; | &amp;#28165;&amp;#26126; q&amp;#299;ngmíng | [[5 April]] | clear and bright | a Chinese festival where, traditionally, ancestral graves are tended |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''3''' | align=&quot;right&quot; | 30&amp;#176; | &amp;#31296;&amp;#38632; g&amp;#468;y&amp;#468; | [[20 April]] | grain rains | rain helps grain grow |- | &amp;nbsp; | align=&quot;right&quot; | 45&amp;#176; | &amp;#31435;&amp;#22799; lìxià | [[6 May]] | start of summer | refers to the Chinese seasonal definition |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''4''' | align=&quot;right&quot; | 60&amp;#176; | &amp;#23567;&amp;#28415; xi&amp;#462;om&amp;#462;n | [[21 May]] | grain full | grains are plump |- | &amp;nbsp; | align=&quot;right&quot; | 75&amp;#176; | &amp;#33426;&amp;#31278; mángzhòng | [[6 June]] | grain in ear | lit. awns (beard of grain) grow |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''5''' | align=&quot;right&quot; | 90&amp;#176; | &amp;#22799;&amp;#33267; xiàzhì | [[21 June]] | [[summer solstice]] | lit. summer extreme (of sun's height) |- | &amp;nbsp; | align=&quot;right&quot; | 105&amp;#176; | &amp;#23567;&amp;#26257; xi&amp;#462;osh&amp;#468; | [[7 July]] | minor heat | when heat starts to get unbearable |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''6''' | align=&quot;right&quot; | 120&amp;#176; | &amp;#22823;&amp;#26257; dàsh&amp;#468; | [[23 July]] | major heat | the hottest time of the year |- | &amp;nbsp; | align=&quot;right&quot; | 135&amp;#176; | &amp;#31435;&amp;#31179; lìqi&amp;#363; | [[7 August]] | start of autumn | uses the Chinese seasonal definition |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''7''' | align=&quot;right&quot; | 150&amp;#176; | &amp;#34389;&amp;#26257; chùsh&amp;#468; | [[23 August]] | limit of heat | lit. dwell in heat |- | &amp;nbsp; | align=&quot;right&quot; | 165&amp;#176; | &amp;#30333;&amp;#38706; báilù | [[8 September]] | white dew | condensed moisture makes dew white; a sign of autumn |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''8''' | align=&quot;right&quot; | 180&amp;#176; | &amp;#31179;&amp;#20998; qi&amp;#363;f&amp;#275;n | [[23 September]] | [[autumnal equinox]] | lit. central divide of autumn (refers to the Chinese seasonal definition) |- | &amp;nbsp; | align=&quot;right&quot; | 195&amp;#176; | &amp;#23506;&amp;#38706; hánlù | [[8 October]] | cold dew | dew starts turning into frost |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''9''' | align=&quot;right&quot; | 210&amp;#176; | &amp;#38684;&amp;#38477; shu&amp;#257;ngjiàng | [[23 October]] | descent of frost | appearance of frost and descent of temperature |- | &amp;nbsp; | align=&quot;right&quot; | 225&amp;#176; | &amp;#31435;&amp;#20908; lìd&amp;#333;ng | [[7 November]] | start of winter | refers to the Chinese seasonal definition |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''10''' | align=&quot;right&quot; | 240&amp;#176; | &amp;#23567;&amp;#38634; xi&amp;#462;oxu&amp;#283; | [[22 November]] | minor snow | snow starts falling |- | &amp;nbsp; | align=&quot;right&quot; | 255&amp;#176; | &amp;#22823;&amp;#38634; dàxu&amp;#283; | [[7 December]] | major snow | season of snowstorms in full swing |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''11''' | align=&quot;right&quot; | 270&amp;#176; | &amp;#20908;&amp;#33267; d&amp;#333;ngzhì | [[22 December]] | [[winter solstice]] | lit. winter extreme (of sun's height) |- | &amp;nbsp; | align=&quot;right&quot; | 285&amp;#176; | &amp;#23567;&amp;#23506; xi&amp;#462;ohán | [[6 January]] | minor cold | cold starts to become unbearable |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''12''' | align=&quot;right&quot; | 300&amp;#176; | &amp;#22823;&amp;#23506; dàhán | [[20 January]] | major cold | coldest time of year |} Note: The third jiéqì was originally called 啓蟄 (qǐzhé) but renamed to 驚蟄 (jīngzhé) in the era of the [[Emperor Jing of Han]] (漢景帝) to avoid writing his given name 啓 (also written as 啟, a variant of 啓). The &quot;Song of Solar Terms&quot; (節氣歌; [[pinyin]]: ''jiéqìgē'') is used to ease the memorization of ''jiéqì'': :春雨驚春清穀天 chūn yǔ jīng chūn qīng gǔtiān, :夏滿芒夏暑相連 xià mǎn máng xià shǔ xiānglián, :秋處露秋寒霜降 qiū chù lù qiū hán shuāng xiáng, :冬雪雪冬小大寒 dōng xuě xuě dōng xiǎo dà hán. ==Holidays== The Chinese calendar year has nine main festivals, seven determined by the lunisolar calendar, and the other two derived from the solar agricultural calendar. (Note that the farmers actually used a solar calendar, and its twenty-four terms, to determine when to plant crops, due to the inaccuracy of the lunisolar traditional calendar. However, the traditional calendar has also come to be known as the agricultural calendar.) The two special holidays are the Tomb-Sweeping Festival ([[Qingming Festival]] and the [[Winter Solstice Festival]], falling upon the respective solar terms, the former occurring at ecliptic longitude 15 degrees, the latter at 270 degrees. As for all other calendrical calculations, the calculations use civil time in China, eight hours ahead of [[UTC]]. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- ! Date ! English Name ! Chinese Name ! Remarks ! 2003 ! 2004 ! 2005 ! 2006 ! 2007 ! 2008 |- | month&amp;nbsp;1&lt;br&gt; day&amp;nbsp;1 | [[Chinese New Year]], &lt;br&gt; lit. Spring Festival | &amp;#26149;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt; ch&amp;#363;nji&amp;#233; | Family gathering and major festivities for three days; traditionally 15 days | Feb&amp;nbsp;1 | Jan&amp;nbsp;22 | Feb&amp;nbsp;9 | Jan&amp;nbsp;29 | Feb&amp;nbsp;18 | Feb&amp;nbsp;7 |- | month&amp;nbsp;1 &lt;br&gt; day&amp;nbsp;15 | [[Lantern Festival]] | &amp;#20803;&amp;#23477;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt; yu&amp;#225;nxi&amp;#257;oji&amp;#233; | Yuanxiao eating&lt;br&gt; and lanterns | Feb&amp;nbsp;15 | Feb&amp;nbsp;5 | Feb&amp;nbsp;23 | Feb&amp;nbsp;12 | Mar&amp;nbsp;4 | Feb&amp;nbsp;21 |- | Apr&amp;nbsp;4 &lt;br&gt; or 5 | [[Qingming Festival]], &lt;br&gt; lit. Clear and Bright Festival | &amp;#28165;&amp;#26126;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt; q&amp;#299;ngmíngji&amp;#233; | Graves tending | Apr&amp;nbsp;5 | Apr&amp;nbsp;4 | Apr&amp;nbsp;5 | Apr&amp;nbsp;5 | Apr&amp;nbsp;5 | Apr&amp;nbsp;4 |- | month&amp;nbsp;5 &lt;br&gt; day&amp;nbsp;5 | [[Dragon Boat Festival]] | &amp;#31471;&amp;#21320;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt; du&amp;#257;nw&amp;#468;ji&amp;#233; | [[Dragon boat racing]]&lt;br&gt; and zhongzi eating | Jun&amp;nbsp;4 | Jun&amp;nbsp;22 | Jun&amp;nbsp;11 | May&amp;nbsp;31 | Jun&amp;nbsp;19 | Jun&amp;nbsp;8 |- | month&amp;nbsp;7&lt;br&gt; day&amp;nbsp;7 | [[Qi Xi|The Night of Sevens]], &lt;br&gt; | &amp;#19971;&amp;#22805; &lt;br&gt; q&amp;#299;xì | A festival for lovers, equivalent to Valentine's Day | Aug&amp;nbsp;4 | Aug&amp;nbsp;22 | Aug&amp;nbsp;11 | Jul&amp;nbsp;31 | Aug&amp;nbsp;19 | Aug&amp;nbsp;7 |- | month&amp;nbsp;7 &lt;br&gt; day&amp;nbsp;15 | [[Ghost Festival]] &lt;br&gt; or Spirit Festival | &amp;#20013;&amp;#20803;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt; zh&amp;#333;ngyu&amp;#225;nji&amp;#233; | &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; | Aug&amp;nbsp;12 | Aug&amp;nbsp;30 | Aug&amp;nbsp;19 | Aug&amp;nbsp;8 | Aug&amp;nbsp;27 | Aug&amp;nbsp;15 |- | month&amp;nbsp;8 &lt;br&gt; day&amp;nbsp;15 | [[Mid-Autumn Festival]] &lt;br&gt; or Moon Festival | &amp;#20013;&amp;#31179;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt; zh&amp;#333;ngqi&amp;#363;ji&amp;#233; | Family gathering&lt;br&gt; and moon cake eating | Sep&amp;nbsp;11 | Sep&amp;nbsp;28 | Sep&amp;nbsp;18 | Oct&amp;nbsp;6 | Sep&amp;nbsp;25 | Sep&amp;nbsp;14 |- | month&amp;nbsp;9&lt;br&gt;day&amp;nbsp;9 | [[Double Ninth Festival]], &lt;br&gt; lit. Double Yang Festival | &amp;#37325;&amp;#38525;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt;chóngyángjié | Mountain climbing&lt;br&gt; and flower shows | Oct&amp;nbsp;4 | Oct&amp;nbsp;22 | Oct&amp;nbsp;11 | Oct&amp;nbsp;30 | Oct&amp;nbsp;19 | Oct&amp;nbsp;7 |- | Dec&amp;nbsp;21 &lt;br&gt; or 22 | [[Winter Solstice Festival]] | &amp;#20908;&amp;#33
[[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] in 1899 (''Cook'' v. ''Sprigg'', A.C. 572), [[Lord Chancellor]] Halsbury made an important distinction as regards the obligations of state succession. The case in question was a claim of title against the [[Crown]], represented by the government of [[Cape Colony]]. It was made by persons holding a concession of certain rights in eastern [[Pondoland]] from a native chief. Before the grantees had taken up their grant by acts of possession, Pondoland was annexed to Cape Colony. The colonial government refused to recognize the grant on different grounds, the chief of them being that the concession conferred no legal rights before the annexation and therefore could confer none afterwards, a sufficiently good ground in itself. The judicial committee, however, rested its decision chiefly on the allegation that the acquisition of the territory was an act of state and that &quot;no municipal court had authority to enforce such an obligation&quot; as the duty of the new government to respect existing titles. &quot;It is no answer,&quot; said Lord Halsbury, &quot;to say that by the ordinary principles of international law private property is respected by the sovereign which accepts the cession and assumes the duties and legal obligations of the former sovereign with respect to such private property within the ceded territory. All that can be meant by such a proposition is that according to the well-understood rules of international law a change of sovereignty by cession ought not to affect private property, but no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation. And if there is either an express or a well-understood bargain between the ceding potentate and the government to which the cession is made that private property shall be respected, that is only a bargain which can be enforced by sovereign against sovereign in the ordinary course of diplomatic pressure.&quot; In an editorial note on this case the ''Law Quarterly Review'' of January 1900 (p. 1), dissenting from the view of the judicial committee that &quot;no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation,&quot; the writer observes that &quot;we can read this only as meant to lay down that, on the annexation of territory even by peaceable cession, there is a total abeyance of justice until the will of the annexing power is expressly made known; and that, although the will of that power is commonly to respect existing private rights, there is no rule or presumption to that effect of which any court must or indeed can take notice.&quot; So construed the doctrine is not only contrary to international law, but according to so authoritative an exponent of the common law as Sir F. Pollock, there is no warrant for it in English [[common law]]. An interesting point of [[United States]] constitutional law arose out of the [[cession]] of the [[Philippines]] to the United States, through the fact that the [[Constitution of the United States|federal constitution]] does not lend itself to the exercise by the federal congress of unlimited powers, such as are vested in the [[British parliament]]. The sole authority for the powers of the [[United States Congress|federal congress]] is a written constitution with defined powers. Anything done in excess of those powers is null and void. The [[Supreme Court of the United States]], on the other hand, declared that, by the constitution, a government is ordained and established &quot;for the United States of America&quot; and not for countries outside their limits (''Ross's Case'', 140 U.S. 453, 464), and that no such power to legislate for annexed territories as that vested in the British [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Crown in Council]] is enjoyed by the president of the United States (''Field'' v. ''Clark'', 143 U.S. 649, 692). Every detail connected with the administration of the territories acquired from [[Spain]] under the [[Treaty of Paris]] ([[December 10]], [[1898]]) gave rise to minute discussion. == Examples of annexation == === Hawai'i === In 1898, [[Hawaii]] (having moved from a [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Kingdom]] to a [[Republic of Hawaii|Republic]] five years earlier in the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani) was annexed into the United States. === Texas === {{main|Texas Annexation}} In 1836, the people of [[Texas]] voted to request that the United States annex Texas. Concerned with [[United States Constitution|the constitutionality]] of annexation and for fear of offending the controlling power, [[Mexico]], however, the [[Martin Van Buren|Van Buren Administration]] rejected the request, which was eventually withdrawn. In 1843, the United States became concerned with [[United Kingdom|British]] designs on Texas. A new president, [[John Tyler]], became a proponent of annexation. Following acceptance of the terms of annexation by the people of Texas, the young nation became a part of the United States in 1846. === Ohio City === [[Ohio City (Cuyahoga County), Ohio|Ohio City]], a suburb and fierce rival of [[Cleveland, Ohio]] was peacefully annexed to the city on [[June 5]], [[1854]]. === City of Atlanta === In 1909 the [[United States|U.S.]] city of [[Atlanta]], then located only in [[Fulton County, Georgia|Fulton County]], annexed into part of neighboring [[DeKalb County, Georgia|DeKalb County]] (from which Fulton County had originally been divided). The situation continues to provide some problems, such as when police arrest suspects on charges set forth in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] [[U.S. state|state]] law, and city police must determine which county's jail they must be taken to. === Jerusalem === In the aftermath of the 1967 [[Six Day War]], in which [[Israel]] had occupied East [[Jerusalem]] as well as the [[West Bank]], [[Gaza]] and the [[Golan Heights]], Israel declared East and West Jerusalem one united city, incorporating the eastern part into one municipality, but soon after declaring to the UN that its measures were not annexation. In 1980 Israel passed the Jerusalem law, which redeclared the unity of Jerusalem as Israel's capital, but did not declare its borders. Some consider the latter act annexation, but without explict declaration of sovereignty this is in doubt. Israel's measures are not internationally recognized. === Golan === In 1981, Israel extended its &quot;laws, jurisdiction and administration&quot; to the [[Golan Heights]] (including the [[Shebaa Farms]]), which it captured from [[Syria]] in the 1967 [[Six Day War]]. This not entirely clear &quot;annexation&quot; declaration was declared &quot;null and void and without international legal effect&quot; by the [[United Nations]]. === Kuwait === After being allied with [[Iraq]] during the [[Iran-Iraq War|Iran–Iraq War]] (largely due to desiring Iraqi protection from Islamic [[Iran]]), [[Kuwait]] was invaded and annexed by Iraq (under [[Saddam Hussein]]) in August 1990. Hussein's primary justifications included a charge that Kuwaiti territory was in fact an Iraqi province, and that annexation was retaliation for &quot;economic warfare&quot; Kuwait had waged through [[slant drilling]] into Iraq's oil supplies. The monarchy was deposed after annexation, and an Iraqi governor installed. Though initially ambiguous toward a potential annexation of Kuwait by Iraq,{{fact}} US President [[George H. W. Bush]] ultimately condemned Hussein's actions, and moved to drive out Iraqi forces. Authorized by the [[UN Security Council]], an [[United States|American]]-led coalition of 34 nations fought the [[Persian Gulf War]] to reinstate the Kuwaiti [[Emir]]. Hussein's invasion (and annexation) was deemed illegal and Kuwait remains an independent nation today. === Western Sahara === In 1975, [[Morocco]] invaded the former [[Spain|Spanish]] colony of [[Western Sahara]] and proclaimed it part of the kingdom. This has never been recognized internationally, and a nationalist movement, the [[Polisario Front]], representing the evicted [[Sahrawi]] native population, persists in claiming the area for an exiled [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|Sahrawi republic]]. A [[United Nations]] peace process was initiated in 1991, but it has been stalled, and the resumption of hostilities remain a possibility. === Wales === [[Wales]] was annexed to the legal system of [[England]] by the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542|Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542]] to create a single jurisdiction, but references in legislation for 'England' were still taken as excluding Wales. The [[Wales and Berwick Act 1746]] meant that in all future laws, 'England' would by default include Wales (and [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]]). In 1967 the Wales and Berwick Act insofar as it applied to Wales was repealed. For many administrative and judicial purposes they are still treated as the single entity [[England and Wales]]. === Korea === On [[August 22]], [[1910]], [[Korea]] was officially annexed by [[Japan]] with the [[Korea-Japan Annexation Treaty|Korea–Japan Annexation Treaty]] signed by [[Lee Wan-Yong]], [[Prime Minister of Korea]], and [[Masatake Terauchi]], Japanese Resident-General in Korea who became the [[Governor-General of Korea]]. Korea continued to be ruled by [[Japan]] until Japan's surrender to the Allied Forces on [[15 August]] [[1945]]. See [[Korea under Japanese rule]] for further information. ===Austria=== On [[March 12]], [[1938]], [[Nazi Germany]] annexed [[Austria]] in the ''[[Anschluss]]''. Austria's annexation marked the first major steps in [[Adolf Hitler]]'s long-desired expansion of Germany. The country was liberated from Nazi power at the end of [[World War II]] by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Forces]]. ===Ethiopia=== On [[May 9]], [[1936]], [[Ethiopia]] was annexed by [[Italy]], only to be liberated during the Allied [[East African Campaign]]. ==See also== *[[Expansionism]] *[[Fait accompli]] *[[Status quo ante bellum]] *[[Lebensraum]] *[[Irredentism]] *[[Revanchism]] *[[Reunificati
he median odds offered by track bookmakers at the time the race started. In [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], the most common types of bet on horse races include: *'''win''' &amp;#8211; to succeed the bettor must pick the horse which wins the race. *'''place''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick a horse which finishes either first or second. *'''show''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick a horse which finishes first, second, or third. *'''exacta''', '''perfecta''', or '''exactor''' &amp;#8211;the bettor must pick the two horses which finish first and second and specify which will finish first *'''quinella''' or '''quiniela''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick the two horses which finish first and second, but need not specify which will finish first. *'''[[trifecta]]''' or '''triactor''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick the three horses which finish first, second, and third and specify which will finish first, second and third. *'''superfecta''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick the four horses which finish first, second, third and fourth, and specify which will finish first, second, third and fourth. *'''double''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick the winners of two successive races; most race tracks in Canada and the United States take double wagers on the first two races on the program (the '''daily double''') and on the last two (the '''late double'''). *'''triple''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick the winners of three successive races; many tracks offer '''rolling triples''', or triples on any three successive races on the program. Also called '''pick three.''' *'''sweep''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick the winners of four or more successive races. In the US, this is usually called '''pick four''' and '''pick six,''' with the latter paying out a consolation return to bettors correctly selecting five winners out of six races, and with &quot;rollover&quot; jackpots accumulating each day until one or more bettors correctly picks all six winners. Win, place and show wagers class as '''straight bets''', and the remaining wagers as '''exotic bets'''. Bettors usually make multiple wagers on exotic bets. A '''box''' consists of a multiple wager in which punters bet all possible combinations of a group of horses in the same race. A '''key''' involves making a multiple wager with a single horse in one race bet in one position with all possible combinations of other selected horses in a single race. A '''wheel''' consists of betting all horses in one race of a bet involving two or more races. For example a 1-all daily double wheel bets the 1-horse in the first race with every horse in the second. People making straight bets commonly employ the strategy of an 'each way' bet. Here the bettor picks a horse and bets it will win, and makes an additional bet that it will show, so that theoretically if the horse runs third it will at least pay back the two bets. The Canadian and American equivalent is the bet across (short for ''across the board''): the bettor bets equal sums on the horse to win, place, and show. In Canada and the United States punters make exotic wagers on horses running at the same track on the same program. In the [[United Kingdom]] bookmakers offer exotic wagers on horses at different tracks. Probably the '''Yankee''' occurs most commonly: in this the bettor tries to pick the winner of four races. This bet also includes subsidiary wagers on smaller combinations of the chosen horses; for example, if only two of the four horses win, the bettor still collects for their double. A '''Trixie''' requires trying to pick three winners, and a '''Canadian''' or '''Super Yankee''' trying to pick five; these also include subsidiary bets. The term '''nap''' identifies the best bet of the day. A '''parlay''' (US) or '''accumulator''' (UK) consists of a series of bets in which bettors stake the winnings from one race on the next in order until either the bettor loses or the series completes successfully. (Similarly, [[greyhound]] racing offers a popular betting alternative to horse racing in many countries.) ===Sports betting=== Betting on team sports has become an important [[service industry]] in many countries. For example, millions of [[United Kingdom|Britons]] play the [[football pools]] every week. At sports betting, players may beat the bank. Most jurisdictions in Canada and the United States regard sports betting as illegal ([[Nevada]] offers full sports betting and the [[Canadian provinces]] offer [[Sport Select]] - government-run sports parlay betting). However, millions engage in sports betting despite its illegality. In Canada and the United States the most popular sports bets include: * against the spread - the bettor wagers either that the favoured team will win by a specified number of points or that it will not. ''Giving the points'' involves betting the favourite, and ''taking the points'' means betting the underdog. See [[Spread betting|point spread]]. A team covers the spread if it wins the game with the score modified by the spread. If Dallas and Washington are playing and the spread is (Dallas -7), then Dallas has to win by at least 8 points to cover. Half-point spreads are also possible and the spread may change. * against odds - the most popular types of bets against odds comprise simple bets that a team will win and ''[[over-under]]'' (bets on the total points, runs, or goals scored by both teams). In making an over-under bet, the bettor wagers that the total will exceed or fall short of a total specified by the bookmaker. * against a combination of odds and spread In sports betting, a '''parlay''' involves a bet that two or more teams will win. In the United States gamblers have made the parlay card one of the most common forms of sports betting: here bettors wager on the outcomes of two or more games. If all their picks win, they collect. Most such betting occurs in workplaces. A [[teaser]] is one type of parlay where the bettor can alter the point spreads on the two games in the bet. ===Scratchcards=== A [[scratchcard]] is a small piece of card where an area has been covered by a substance that cannot be seen through, but can be scratched off. Under this area are concealed the items/pictures that must be 'found' in order to win. The generic scratchcard requires the player to match three of the same prize amounts. If this is accomplished, they win that amount. Other scratchcards involve matching symbols, pictures or words. Scratchcards are a very popular form of [[gambling]] due to their low cost. However, the low cost to buy a scratchcard is offset by the smaller prizes, compared to [[casino]] jackpots or [[lottery]] wins. ===Other types of betting=== One can also bet with another person that a statement is true or false, or that a specified event will happen (a &quot;back bet&quot;) or will not happen (a &quot;lay bet&quot;) within a specified time. This occurs in particular when two people have opposing but strongly-held views on truth or events. Not only do the parties hope to gain from the bet, they place the bet also to demonstrate their certainty about the issue. Some means of determining the issue at stake must exist. Sometimes the amount bet remains nominal, demonstrating the outcome as one of principle rather than of financial importance. ===Arbitrage betting=== [[Arbitrage betting]], is a no-risk or risk-free betting system, it is a special case of betting on events offered by betting websites which is not gambling but rather an unusual [[investment]] practice. ==Staking systems== Many people have formulated staking systems in an attempt to &quot;beat the bookie&quot;, but most still accept that no staking system can make an unprofitable system profitable over time. Widely-used systems include: * Fixed stakes &amp;#8211; a traditional system of staking the same amount on each selection. This method suits conservative punters if the stake remains below 5% of the bank. * Fixed profits &amp;#8211; the stakes vary based on the odds to ensure the same profit from each winning selection. This method suits conservative punters well, although if the profitability of one's bets varies independently of the [[odds]] the bettor simply reduces his or her cash flow. * Due-column betting &amp;#8211; A variation on fixed profits betting in which the bettor sets a target profit and then calculates a bet size that will make this profit, adding any losses to the target. For example, to make a target of $100 profit a bettor would wager $50 at odds of 2 to 1. If the bet loses, the target becomes $150. If the next bet is also at odds of 2 to 1, the wager therefore becomes $75. This type of wagering can prove ruinous in the long run. *Kelly &amp;#8211; the optimium level to bet to maximise your future median bank level; the punter needs to estimate fair odds (in [[decimal odds]]) and then calculate the stake using: A = W - (1 - W )/(D - 1) Where: A = Percentage of the total bank to bet W = Percentage probability of winning (fair odds) D = Decimal odds (actual odds available) *[[Martingale]] &amp;#8211; A system based on staking enough each time to recover losses from previous bet(s) until one wins. It is usually applied to even-money bets such as red/black on [[roulette]]. The Martingale guarantees failure in the long run - it would only work if the bettor has an unlimited bankroll, the bookmaker has no limit on the size of bets and neither party ever dies. However, it can usually be used to gain a small win in the short run, given a bankroll large enough to survive a streak of five or six losses. ==List of notable wagers== *[[The man who broke the bank at Monte Carlo]] *[[Pascal's wager]] *[[St. Petersburg paradox]] * The wager in ''[[Around the World in Eighty Days]]'' *[[Harry Bensley | Wager between John Pierpont Morgan and Hugh Cecil Lowther, 5th Earl of Lonsdale]] on whether a man could walk round the world and remain unidentified *[[Wager between Julian Simon and P
pectator esse sustinuit. Adeo virtus luxui resistit. ''Gesta Danorum'' 6, [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/6/5/index.htm Olrik's edition] | After Bemoni's death Starkather, because of his valour, was summoned by the Biarmian champions and there performed many feats worthy of the tellings. Then he entered Swedish territory where he spent seven years in a leisurely stay with the sons of Frø, after which he departed to join Haki, the lord of Denmark, for, living at Uppsala in the period of sacrifices, he had become disgusted with the womanish body movements, the clatter of actors on the stage and the soft tinkling of bells. It is obvious how far his heart was removed from frivolity if he could not even bear to watch these occasions. A manly individual is resistant to wantonness. ''Gesta Danorum'' 6, Fisher's translation | |} ==Yngvi== {{main|Yngvi}} A strophe of the Anglo Saxon [[rune poem]] (c. 1100) records that: :''Ing was first among the [[East Dane]]s seen by men'' and this may refer to the origins of the worship of '''[[Ingui]]''' in the tribal areas that [[Tacitus]] mentions in his ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' as being populated by the Inguieonnic tribes. A later Danish chronicler lists Ingui was one of three brothers that the Danish tribes descended from. The strophe also states that &quot;then he (Ingui) went back over the waves, his wagon behind him&quot; which could connect Ingui to earlier conceptions of the wagon processions of [[Nerthus]], and the later Scandinavian conceptions of Freyr's wagon journeys. Ingui is mentioned also in some later Anglo-Saxon literature under varying forms of his name, such as &quot;For what doth Ingeld have to do with Christ&quot;, and the variants used in [[Beowulf]] to designate the kings as 'leader of the friends of Ing'. The compound Ingui-Frea (OE) and Yngvi-Freyr (ON) likely refer to the connection between the god and the [[Germanic king]]s' role as priests during the sacrifices in the pagan period, as 'Frea' and 'Freyr' are titles meaning 'Lord'. The Swedish royal dynasty was known as the [[Yngling (lineage)|Ynglings]] from their descent from Yngvi-Freyr. This is supported by Tacitus, who wrote about the Germans: &quot;In their ancient songs, their only way of remembering or recording the past they celebrate an earth-born god [[Tuisco]], and his son [[Mannus]], as the origin of their race, as their founders. To Mannus they assign three sons, from whose names, they say, the coast tribes are called [[Ingaevones]]; those of the interior, [[Herminones]]; all the rest, [[Istaevones]]&quot;. ==Parallels== [[Image:Three kings or three gods.jpg|thumb|right|This part of a 12th century Swedish tapestry has been interpreted to show the one-eyed [[Odin]], the hammer-wielding [[Thor]] and Freyr holding up an ear of corn. Others hold that those are three Christian kings and still others that the artist intended the ambiguity.{{ref|Tapestry}}]] Traditions related to Freyr may also appear connected with the legendary Danish king [[Fróði]]. King Fróði is especially treated in Book Five of [[Saxo Grammaticus]]' ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' and in the ''[[Ynglinga saga]]''. Fróði's reign was one of peace and prosperity and after his death his body was drawn around in a cart. In Catholic Christianity several saints have domains and rites similar to those of Freyr. In some areas of Western-Europe, [[Saint Blaise]] was honored as the patron saint of plowmen and farmers. The benediction of grain prior to seeding was associated with him and on Saint Blaise's Day, February 3, a procession was held in his honor. In the procession, a man representing the saint was drawn on a cart throughout the countryside. In some villages, Saint Blaise was also considered a patron of human fecundity and young women wishing to marry prayed before his statue.{{ref|Blaise}} Also noteworthy in this context are the [[phallic saints]] who were patrons of human fertility. In Scandinavia and England, [[Saint Stephen]] may have inherited some of Freyr's legacy. [[St. Stephen's Day|His feast day]] is December 26 and thus he came to play a part in the Yuletide celebrations which may previously have been associated with Freyr. In old Swedish art, Stephen is shown as tending to horses and bringing a boar's head to a Yuletide banquet.{{ref|Stephen}} Both elements are extracanonical and may be pagan survivals. [[Christmas ham]] is an old tradition in Sweden and may have originated as a Yuletide boar sacrifice to Freyr. ==Notes== #{{note|Freyr}} The name ''Freyr'' is related to words meaning &quot;lord&quot; in [[West Germanic languages]]. It is sometimes anglicized to ''Frey'' by omitting the [[nominative]] ending. In the modern [[Scandinavian languages]] it can appear as ''Frej'', ''Frö'', ''Frøy'' or ''Fröj''. In [[Richard Wagner]]'s ''[[Das Rheingold]]'' the god appears as ''Froh''. #{{note|HumanSacrifice}} Davidson 1999, Vol. II, p. 55. #{{note|Adam}} Haastrup 2004, pp. 18-24. #{{note|Rällinge}} &quot;Rällinge-Frö&quot;. #{{note|scathe}} A ''[[kenning]]'' meaning &quot;fire&quot;. #{{note|Tapestry}} Leiren 1999. #{{note|Blaise}} Berger 1985, pp. 81-84. #{{note|Stephen}} Berger 1985, pp. 105-112. ==References== * [[Adam of Bremen]] (edited by G. Waitz) (1876). ''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum''. Berlin. [http://hbar.phys.msu.su/gorm/chrons/bremen.htm Available online] Translation of the section on the Temple at Uppsala available at http://www.northvegr.org/lore/gesta/index.php * Adam of Bremen (translated by Francis Joseph Tschan and Timothy Reuter) (2002). ''History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen''. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231125755 * Ásgeir Blöndal Magnússon (1989). ''Íslensk orðsifjabók''. Reykjavík: Orðabók Háskólans. * Berger, Pamela (1985). ''The Goddess Obscured: Transformation of the Grain Protectress from Goddess to Saint'' Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0807067237. * &quot;BookRags Biography on Freyr.&quot; ''[[BookRags]]''. Retrieved 6 February 2006, from the World Wide Web. http://www.bookrags.com/biography-freyr-eorl-05/index.html * Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (tr.) (1916). ''The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson''. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation. [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/index.php Available online] * [[H. R. Ellis Davidson|Davidson, Hilda Ellis]] and Peter Fisher (1999). ''Saxo Grammaticus : The History of the Danes : Books I-IX''. Bury St Edmunds: St Edmundsbury Press. ISBN 0859915026. First published 1979-1980. * [[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil, Georges]] (1973). ''From Myth to Fiction : The Saga of Hadingus''. Trans. Derek Coltman. Chicago: U. of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226169723. * Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.) (2005). ''Snorra-Edda: Formáli &amp; Gylfaginning : Textar fjögurra meginhandrita''. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ * Finnur Jónsson (1913). ''Goðafræði Norðmanna og Íslendinga eftir heimildum''. Reykjavík: Hið íslenska bókmentafjelag. * Finnur Jónsson (1931). ''Lexicon Poeticum''. København: S. L. Møllers Bogtrykkeri. * Haastrup, Ulla, R. E. Greenwood and Søren Kaspersen (eds.) (2004). ''Images of Cult and Devotion : Function and Reception of Christian Images of Medieval and Post-Medieval Europe''. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 8772899034 * Hollander, Lee M. (tr.) (1962). ''The Poetic Edda: Translated with an Introduction and Explanatory Notes''. (2nd ed., rev.). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292764995. (Some of the translations appear at [http://www.angelfire.com/on/Wodensharrow/texts.html Wodensharrow: Texts]). * Leiren, Terje I. (1999). ''From Pagan to Christian: The Story in the 12th-Century Tapestry of the Skog Church''. Published online: http://faculty.washington.edu/leiren/vikings2.html * Lindow, John (2001). ''Handbook of Norse mythology''. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio. ISBN 1576072177. * Olrik, J. and H. Ræder (1931). ''Saxo Grammaticus : Gesta Danorum''. [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/index.htm Available online] * &quot;Rällinge-Frö&quot; ''Historiska museet''. Retrieved 6 February 2006, from the World Wide Web. http://www.historiska.se/collections/treasures/viking/frej.html * [[Benjamin Thorpe|Thorpe, Benjamin]] (tr.) (1866). ''Edda Sæmundar Hinns Froða : The Edda Of Sæmund The Learned''. (2 vols.) London: Trübner &amp; Co. [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/000.php Available online] {{Mythological king of Sweden | prev=[[Njörðr]] | next=[[Fjölnir]]}} [[Category:Norse mythology]] [[Category:Norse gods]] [[Category:Fertility gods]] [[Category:Love and lust gods]] [[cs:Frey]] [[da:Frej]] [[de:Freyr]] [[el:Φρέιρ]] [[es:Frey]] [[fr:Freyr]] [[hr:Frey]] [[is:Freyr (norræn goðafræði)]] [[lt:Freiras]] [[nl:Freyr]] [[ja:フレイ]] [[no:Frøy]] [[nn:Frøy]] [[pl:Frejr]] [[pt:Frey]] [[ru:Фрейр]] [[sl:Freyr]] [[sr:Фрејр]] [[fi:Freyr]] [[sv:Frej]] [[zh:弗雷]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Freya</title> <id>11038</id> <revision> <id>40976672</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T06:02:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.21.84.49</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Norse goddess Freya. See [[Freya radar]] for the German WWII radar. For the municipality, see [[Frøya, Norway]]. For the [[FFIX]] character, see [[Freya Crescent]].'' [[Image:Freya.jpg|thumb|250px|Freya, in an illustration to [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]'s operas by [[Arthur Rackham]].]] '''Freya''' ([[Old Norse]]: ''Freyja''), sister of [[Freyr|Frey]] (''Freyr'') and daughter of [[Niord]] (''{{unicode|Nj&amp;#491;rðr}}''), is usually seen as the [[fertility goddess]] of [[Norse mythology]]. ''Freyja'' means lady, female ruler, in Old Norse (cf. ''fru'' or ''Frau'' in [[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]] and [[German language|German]]). While there are no sources suggesting that she was called on to bring fruitfulness to fields or wombs, she was a goddess of [[love]], [[sex]], war, beauty, prophecies and [[interpersonal attr
Minister, a Nehru aide. At the height of the tension, it was known to both that Feroze was having extramarital affairs. However, in 1957, shortly after re-election, Feroze suffered a heart attack, which dramatically healed Indira's broken marriage. At his side to help him recuperate in [[Kashmir]], Indira, her husband and her children grew closer. But Feroze died on [[8 September]], [[1960]], while Indira was abroad with Nehru on a foreign visit. ==Rise to Power== From 1959 - 1960, Indira was elected the President of the [[Indian National Congress]]. Her term of office was uneventful. Indira also acted as her father's chief of staff. Nehru was known as a vocal opponent of [[nepotism]], and Indira did not contest a seat in the 1962 elections. Nehru died in May of 1964, and Indira, at the urgings of the new Prime Minister [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]], contested elections and joined the Government, being immediately appointed Minister for Information and Broadcasting. She went to [[Chennai]] when the riots over Hindi becoming the national language broke out in Southern, non-Hindi speaking states: There she spoke to government officials, soothed the anger of community leaders and supervised reconstruction efforts for the affected areas. Shastri and senior Ministers were embarrassed, owing to their lack of such initiative. Indira's actions were probably not directly aimed at Shastri or her own political elevation. Indira lacked interest for details in work and was a lack-lustre Minister, but she was media-savvy, and adept at the art of politics and image-making. When the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] broke out, Indira was vacationing in the border region of [[Srinagar]]. Although warned by the Army that Pakistani insurgents had penetrated very close to the city, Indira refused to shift to [[Jammu]] or [[Delhi]]. She rallied local government and welcomed media attention, in effect reassuring the nation. Indira was hailed as the &quot;only man in a cabinet full of women&quot;. Shastri died in [[Tashkent]], while conducting the peace agreement with Pakistan's Ayub Khan, with Soviet mediation. The circumstances of his death are unclear to this day. It is alleged that seniors in the Congress Party, changed the Prime Minister's personal aides at the very last moment. Others feel it was an assassination made to order since Indira was elected, in rather undue haste, as the person to succeed him. Shastri had been a candidate of consensus, bridging the left-right gap and staving off the conservative [[Morarji Desai]]. Among Indira's many supporters was Congress President [[Kumaraswami Kamaraj]]. Many years later, Kamaraj declared that he had made a personal vow to Nehru, to make Indira, the Prime Minister 'at any cost'. (Nehru had assisted Kamaraj earlier in his political ambitions and had made him the General Secretary of the Congress Party. Kamaraj could speak only his native Tamil; Nehru's insistence at having Kamaraj in the most important post had raised eyebrows earlier). In a vote of the Congress Parliamentary Party, Indira won against Desai, 355 to 169, becoming the third Prime Minister of India, the first woman to hold that position in the world's most populous democracy. [[Image:Indira_and_Nixon.JPG|thumb|Richard Nixon and Indira Gandhi in 1971]] ==Nuclear Security and the Green Revolution== During the 1971 War, the US had sent its 7th Fleet to the [[Bay of Bengal]] as a warning to India not to use the genocide in East Pakistan as a pretext to launch a wider attack against West Pakistan, especially over the disputed territory of [[Kashmir]]. This move had further alienated India from the First World, and Indira now accelerated a previously cautious new direction in national security and foreign policy. India and the [[USSR]] had earlier signed the Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Cooperation, the resulting political and military support contributing substantially to India's victory in the 1971 war. But Indira now also accelerated the national nuclear program, as it was felt that the nuclear threat from [[China]] and the intrusive interest of the two major superpowers were not conducive to India's stability and security. Indira also invited the new Pakistani President [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] to [[Shimla]] for a week-long summit. After near-failure of the talks, Bhutto and Indira eventually signed the [[Shimla Agreement]], which bound the two countries to resolve the Kashmir dispute by negotiations and peaceful means. Indira Gandhi was heavily criticized for not extracting the Pakistan-occupied portion of Kashmir from a humiliated Pakistan, whose 93,000 POWs were under Indian control. But the agreement did remove immediate United Nations and third party interference, and much reduced the likelihood of Pakistan launching a major attack in the near future. By not demanding total capitulation on a sensitive issue from Bhutto, Indira had allowed Pakistan to stabilize and normalize. Trade relations were also normalized, though much contact remained frozen for years. In 1974, India successfully conducted an underground nuclear test near the desert village of [[Pokhran]] in [[Rajasthan]]. Describing the test as for &quot;peaceful purposes&quot;, India nevertheless became the world's youngest nuclear power. This move naturally prompted Pakistan's nuclear program. Special agricultural innovation programs and extra government support launched in the 1960s had finally resulted in India's chronic food shortages gradually being transformed into major production surpluses of wheat, rice, cotton and milk. The country became a food exporter, and diversified its commercial crop production as well, in what has become known as the ''[[Green Revolution]]''. At the same time, the White Revolution was an expansion in milk production which helped to combat malnutrition, especially amidst young children. Indira's economic policies, while socialistic, brought major industrialization as well. ==The PM's Personal Life== Indira Gandhi, heroine and icon that she had become after 1971, just like her father was now more emotionally isolated than ever. The instability of her childhood had prevented her from developing her own independent personal interests and lifestyle. It had been her sense of duty and pride in her father and family legacy that had brought her into politics, but she had never been given the space to develop as a person. Through the 1950s and 1960s, she had corresponded with Dorothy Norman, a New York-based journalist, who became a very close friend via correspondence. But apart from political associates, she had no personal friends. Her sons were 'studying in England' (neither obtained any formal degrees from any university and in a sense were failures professionally). She was fond of her grandchildren. But she grew ever more close to her younger son, Sanjay, who is accused by many historians of misusing his mother's emotional dependence. Indira Gandhi may have seen traits of Feroze in Sanjay and was ever-anxious to please him, as she perceived that Sanjay blamed her for his father's death. While Rajiv developed as an independent young man free from politics, Sanjay's reckless youth induced a need in his mother to take care of her son under all circumstances. The outcome was a political partnership that eventually resulted in abrogation of democracy, corruption and abuse of power on a previously unwitnessed scale. Rajiv Gandhi is believed to have said that he would never forgive his brother for what he had done to their mother at a time when Indira was isolated, depressed and humiliated after her defeat in the 1977 elections. ==Emergency== {{main|Indian Emergency}} Indira's government faced major problems after 1971. [[Sycophant|Sycophancy]] enveloped her administration, leaving the Congress Party entirely dependent on her leadership for its election fortunes. Socialism and a burgeoning bureaucracy brought major inefficiency and corruption into the national economy and administration. The Green Revolution was transforming the lives of India's vast underclasses, but not with the speed promised under ''Garibi Hatao''. Job growth was not strong enough to curb the widespread unemployment. A government contract to build India's first indigenous car was awarded to [[Sanjay Gandhi]], whose [[Maruti]] company subsequently failed to produce a single unit. Indira had stood accused of authoritarianism before. Using her strong parliamentary majority, she had amended the Constitution and stripped power from the states granted under the federal system. The Congress Party government had repeatedly imposed ''President's Rule'' by deeming states ruled by opposition parties as &quot;lawless and chaotic&quot;, thus winning administrative control of those states. Elected officials resented the growing influence of Sanjay Gandhi, who had become Indira's close political advisor at the expense of men like P.N. Haksar, the architect of Indira's political ascendancy. Renowned public figures and former freedom-fighters like [[Jaya Prakash Narayan]] and [[Acharya Jivatram Kripalani]] now spoke actively against her Government. Opponents had long alleged that Indira's party fraudulently won the 1971 elections. In June 1975 the [[High Courts of India|High Court of Allahabad]] found the sitting Prime Minister guilty of employing a government servant in her election campaign and Congress Party work. Technically, this constituted election fraud, and the court thus ordered her to be removed from her seat in Parliament and banned from running in elections for six years. It was known that the Congress Party were indulging in shady practices for a long time, but this was the first time that a judge had acted dramatically against that corruption. Indira appealed the decision; the opposition parties rallied en masse, calling for her resignation. Strikes by unions and protest rallies paralyzed life in many states. J.P. Narayan's [[Janata]] coa
butor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brown_last_of_england.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''The Last of England'', 1855]] '''Ford Madox Brown''' ([[April 16]], [[1821]] &amp;ndash; [[October 6]], [[1893]]) was an English painter of moral and historical subjects, notable for his distinctively graphic and often [[Hogarth]]ian version of the [[Pre-Raphaelite]] style. While he was closely associated with the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, he was never actually a member. Nevertheless, he remained close to [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]], with whom he also joined [[William Morris]]'s design company, [[Morris, Marshall, Faulkner &amp; Co.]], in 1861. One of his most famous images is &quot;The Last of England&quot;, a portrait of a pair of stricken immigrants as they sail away on the ship that will take them from England forever. It was inspired by the departure of the Pre-Raphaelite sculptor [[Thomas Woolner]], who had left for [[Australia]]. The painting is structured with Brown's characteristic linear energy, and emphasis on apparently grotesque and banal details, such as the cabbages hanging from the ship's side. [[Image:Brown_work.jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Work'']] Brown's most important painting was ''Work'' (1852&amp;ndash;1865), which he showed at a special exhibition. It attempted to depict the totality of the mid-[[Victorian era|Victorian]] social experience in a single image, depicting 'navvies' digging up a road, and disrupting the old social hierarchies as they did so. The image erupts into proliferating details from the dynamic centre of the action, as the workers tear a hole in the road &amp;ndash; and, symbolically, in the social fabric. Each character represents a particular social class and role in the modern urban environment. Brown wrote a catalogue to accompany the special exhibition of ''Work.'' This publication included an extensive explanation of ''Work'' that nevertheless leaves many questions unanswered. Brown's major achievement after ''Work'' was the cycle of twelve paintings depicting the history of Manchester, England in [[Manchester Town Hall]]. These present a partly ironic and satirical view of Mancunian history. His son '''Oliver Madox Brown''' ([[1855]]&amp;ndash;[[1874]]) showed promise both as an [[artist]] and [[poet]], but died of blood-poisoning. He was the grandfather of novelist [[Ford Madox Ford]] and great-grandfather of [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] [[Home Secretary]] [[Frank Soskice]]. == See also == *[[British art]] *[[English school of painting]] == External links == *[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/brown/ The iBiblio Web Museum exhibit on Brown] *Some of his paintings in the [http://cgfa.sunsite.dk/b/b-14.htm#brown Carol Gerten Fine Art] library *[http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/collections/19c/brown.asp Waiting: An English fireside of 1854&amp;ndash;5] *Spartacus Educational: [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Jford.htm Ford Madox Brown] *[http://www.britainunlimited.com/Biogs/BrownF.htm Chronology on Britain Unlimited] *[http://www.stainedglassphotography.com/Galleries/Morris/Morris5.htm Some stained glass designs by Ford Madox Brown] [[Category:1821 births|Brown, Ford Madox]] [[Category:1893 deaths|Brown, Ford Madox]] [[Category:British painters|Brown, Ford Madox]] [[Category:Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood|Brown, Ford Madox]] [[de:Ford Madox Brown]] [[es:Ford Madox Brown]] [[fr:Ford Madox Brown]] [[it:Ford Madox Brown]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Francis Crick</title> <id>11461</id> <revision> <id>42126686</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:15:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nigosh</username> <id>221949</id> </contributor> <comment>+ [[Category:Humanists]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Professor '''Francis Harry Compton Crick''', [[Order of Merit|OM]] [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[8 June]], [[1916]] &amp;ndash; [[28 July]], [[2004]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[physics|physicist]], [[molecular biology|molecular biologist]] and [[neuroscience|neuroscientist]], most noted for being one of the co-discoverers of the structure of the [[DNA]] molecule in 1953. He, [[James D. Watson]], and [[Maurice Wilkins]] were jointly awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine ''for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material''{{ref|nobel1}}. [[Image:Francis Crick lecturing.jpg|thumbnail|right|350px|Photomontage of Francis Crick lecturing]] === Biography, Family and education=== Born in [[Northamptonshire]], [[England]] as a son of Harry and Anne Elisabeth Crick (nee Wilkins), he studied [[physics]] at [[University College London]], and obtained a [[Bachelor's degree|B.Sc.]] in [[1937]]{{ref|mad}}. During [[World War II]], he worked on the design of magnetic and acoustic [[Naval mine|mine]]s; he began studying [[biology]] in 1947 after the war's end. Crick was born and raised in [[Weston Favell]] near the town of Northampton where Crick’s father and uncle ran the family’s boot and shoe factory. At an early age he was attracted to science and what he could learn about it from books. As a child he was taken to church ([[Congregationalist]]) by his parents, but by about age 12 he told his mother that he no longer wanted to attend{{ref label|mad|2|a}}. Crick preferred the scientific search for answers over belief in any dogma. He was educated at Northampton [[Grammar schools in the United Kingdom|Grammar School]] (now [[Northampton School For Boys]]) and, after the age of 14, [[Mill Hill School]] in London (on scholarship) where he studied [[mathematics]], [[physics]] and [[chemistry]]. At the age of 21, Crick earned a [[Bachelor of Science|B.Sc. degree]] in physics from [[University College London]] (UCL). Unfortunately he had failed to gain a place at a Cambridge college as he wanted to, probably through falling foul of their requirement for Latin; his contemporaries in British DNA research Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins both went to Cambridge colleges, i.e. to [[Newnham College, Cambridge|Newnham]] and [[St John's College, Cambridge|St. John's]] respectively. Cambridge was the subsequent pinnacle of his long scientific career, but he left Cambridge in 1977 after 25 years, having been offered (and he refused) the Mastership of a college. Crick began a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] research project in the laboratory of physicist Edward Neville da Costa Andrade but with the outbreak of World War II, Crick was deflected from a possible career in physics. After the war, Crick became part of an important migration of physical scientists into [[biology]] research. This migration was made possible by the newly won influence of physicists such as [[Sir John Randall|John Randall]] who had helped win the war with inventions like [[radar]]. Crick had to adjust from the “elegance and deep simplicity” of physics to the “elaborate chemical mechanisms that natural selection had evolved over billions of years.” He described this transition as, “almost as if one had to be born again.” According to Crick, the experience of learning physics had taught him something important - hubris - and the conviction that since physics was already a success, great advances should also be possible in other sciences like biology. Crick felt that this attitude encouraged him to be more daring than typical biologists who mainly concerned themselves with the daunting problems of biology and not the past successes of physics. For the better part of two years Crick worked on the physical properties of [[cytoplasm]] at Cambridge's Strangeways Laboratory, headed by Honor Bridget Fell, with an MRC studentship, until he joined [[Max Perutz|Perutz]] and [[John Kendrew|Kendrew]] at the [[Cavendish Laboratory|Cavendish]]. The Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge was under the general direction of [[William Lawrence Bragg|Sir Lawrence Bragg]], a Nobel Prize winner at the age of 25 in 1915; Bragg was influential on the determination of [[DNA]]'s structure to beat the leading American chemist [[Linus Pauling]] to the discovery. At the same time Bragg's Cavendish Laboratory was also effectively competing with King's College London under Sir John Randall. (Randall had turned down Francis Crick from working at King's College, London.) ===Biology Research=== {{Double helix3|Name=&lt;big&gt;'''Francis Crick'''&lt;/big&gt;}} Crick was interested in two fundamental unsolved problems of biology. First, how [[molecule]]s make the transition from the non-living to the [[Life|living]], and second, how the [[brain]] makes [[mind]]. He realized that his background made him more qualified for research on the first topic and the field of [[biophysics]]. It was at this time of Crick’s transition from physics into biology that he was influenced by both Linus Pauling and [[Erwin Schrödinger]]. It was clear in theory that [[covalent bond]]s in biological molecules could provide the structural stability needed to hold [[Genetics|genetic]] information in cells. It only remained as an exercise of experimental biology to discover exactly which molecule was the genetic molecule. In Crick’s view, [[Charles Darwin]]’s theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]], [[Gregor Mendel]]’s genetics and knowledge of the molecular basis of genetics, when combined, reveal the secret of life. It was clear that some [[macromolecule]] such as [[protein]] was likely to be the genetic molecule. However, it was well known that proteins are “doers”, macromolecules that carry out the many [[Enzyme|enzymatic]] reactions of cells. In the 1940’s some evidence had been found pointing to another macromolecule, DNA, the other major component of [[Chromosome|chromosomes]], as a candidate genetic molecule. [[Oswald Avery]] and his collaborators showed that a [[pheno
ndustry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them from it.'' ==''The &quot;Adam Smith-Problem&quot;''== {{liberalism}} There has been considerable controversy as to whether there is a contradiction between Smith's emphasis on sympathy in his ''Theory of Moral Sentiments'' and the key role of self-interest in ''The Wealth of Nations''. Economist [[Joseph Schumpeter]] referred to this in German as ''[[:de:Adam-Smith-Problem|das 'Adam Smith-Problem']]''. In his ''Moral Sentiments'' Smith seems to emphasize the broad synchronization of human intention and behaviour under a beneficent Providence, while in ''The Wealth of Nations'', in spite of the general theme of &quot;the invisible hand&quot; Adam Smith makes the claim that, within the system of capitalism, an individual acting for his own good tends also to promote the good of his community. creating harmony out of conflicting self-interests, he finds many more occasions for pointing out cases of conflict and of the narrow selfishness of human motives. Yet it would be inaccurate to describe the Adam Smith of the ''Moral Sentiments'' as disbelieving of an essential selfishness of most human motives, for he writes that: :''Thus self-preservation, and the propagation of the species, are the great ends which Nature seems to have proposed in the formation of all animals. Mankind are endowed with a desire of those ends, and an aversion to the contrary; with a love of life, and a dread of dissolution; with a desire of the continuance and perpetuity of the species, and with an aversion to the thoughts of its entire extinction. But though we are in this manner endowed with a very strong desire of those ends, it has not been entrusted to the slow and uncertain determinations of our reason, to find out the proper means of bringing them about. Nature has directed us to the greater part of these by original and immediate instincts. Hunger, thirst, the passion which unites the two sexes, the love of pleasure, and the dread of pain, prompt us to apply those means for their own sakes, and without any consideration of their tendency to those beneficent ends which the great Director of nature intended to produce by them.'' Adam Smith himself cannot have seen any contradiction, since he produced a slightly revised edition of ''Moral Sentiments'' after the publication of ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]''. Both sets of ideas are to be found in his [[Lectures on Jurisprudence]]. He may have believed that moral sentiments and self-interest would always add up to the same thing. Some scholars have given another explanation: Adam Smith was trying to illustrate the complicated economy with two simple dimensions. It was the people who, due to historical limitations, emphasized the &quot;wealth&quot; part. In the future, due to the change of world economy, the emphasis may well change. ==Influence== ''The Wealth of Nations'', and to a lesser extent ''The Theory of Moral Sentiments'', have become the starting point for any defence or critique of forms of [[capitalism]], most influentially in the writings of [[Karl Marx|Marx]] and [[Humanism|Humanist]] [[economist]]s. Because capitalism is so often associated with unbridled [[selfishness]], there is a recent movement to emphasize the moral philosophy of Smith, with its focus on [[sympathy]] with one's fellows. There has been some controversy over the extent of Smith's originality in ''The Wealth of Nations''; some argue that the work added modestly to the already established ideas of thinkers such as [[Anders Chydenius]] ([[The National Gain]] (1765)), [[David Hume]] and the [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Baron de Montesquieu]]. Indeed, many of the theories Smith sets out simply describe historical trends away from [[mercantilism]], towards [[free trade]], that had been developing for many decades, and had already had significant influence on governmental policy. Nevertheless, it organizes their ideas comprehensively, and remains one of the most influential and important books in the field today. Smith was ranked #30 in [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. ==Major works== * ''[[The Theory of Moral Sentiments]]'' (1759) * ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' (1776) * ''[[Essays on Philosophical Subjects]]'' ==Notes== #{{note|cannan}} ''&quot;Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms&quot;'', 1896 #{{note|monboddo}} Cloyd, E.L.: ''&quot;[[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo]]&quot;'', pp 64-66. Oxford University Press, 1972 ==See also== *[[Liberalism]] *[[Contributions to liberal theory]] *[[Adam Smith rule]] *[[Capitalism]] *[[History of economic thought]] *[[Anders Chydenius]] *''[[The National Gain]]'' *[[Times obituary of Adam Smith]] *[[William Petty]] ==External links== {{Wikiquote}} {{Wikisource author}} ;General * {{gutenberg author| id=Adam+Smith | name=Adam Smith}} *[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Smith.html Biography] at the ''Concise Encyclopedia of Economics'' *[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Rae/raeLS.html ''Life of Adam Smith''] by John Rae, at the Library of Economics and Liberty *[http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/smith.htm Smith's works] *[http://econ161.berkeley.edu/Economists/smith.html Brad deLong's Adam Smith page] *[http://www.adamsmith.org The Adam Smith Institute] *[http://www.libertyforums.com/ LibertyForums] - Classical Liberal, Libertarian &amp; Objectivist Discussion Board. *[http://www.boomerbible.com/adam20.html Excerpt from &quot;The Book of the VIP Adam&quot;] *[http://web.uvic.ca/~rutherfo/a_smith.html Grave of Adam Smith] on the [http://web.uvic.ca/~rutherfo/mr_grvs.html Famous Economists Grave Sites] *[http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/ Images at the National Portrait Gallery] *[http://www.importantscots.com/adam-smith.htm Adam Smith - Important Scots] *[http://www.cfh.ufsc.br/ethic@/et42art2.pdf Reflections on Smith's ethics] ;Works *[http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN.html ''The Wealth of Nations''] at the [http://www.econlib.org/index.html Library of Economics and Liberty]. Cannan edition. Definitive, fully searchable, free online. *{{Gutenberg|no=3300|name=The Wealth of Nations}} *[http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/wealthofnations/toc.htm ''The Wealth of Nations''] from [http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/ Mondo Politico Library] - full text; formatted for easy on-screen reading. *[http://www.adamsmith.org/smith/won-intro.htm ''The Wealth of Nations''] from the [http://www.adamsmith.org/ Adam Smith Institute] - elegantly formatted for on-screen reading *[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/BookSetToCPage.php?recordID=0141 ''Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith'']. Glasgow edition, 7 volumes at the [http://oll.libertyfund.org/ Online Library of Liberty]. Definitive, free online. *[http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smMS.html ''The Theory of Moral Sentiments''] at the [http://www.econlib.org/index.html Library of Economics and Liberty] [[Category:1723 births|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:1790 deaths|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Adam Smith]] [[Category:Business theorists|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Economists|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Glaswegians|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Natives of Fife|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Scottish economists|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Scottish Enlightenment|Smith]] [[Category:Scottish philosophers|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Scottish writers|Smith, Adam]] [[bg:Адам Смит]] [[bn:এডাম স্মিথ]] [[bs:Adam Smith]] [[ca:Adam Smith]] [[cs:Adam Smith]] [[da:Adam Smith]] [[de:Adam Smith]] [[eo:Adam SMITH]] [[es:Adam Smith]] [[et:Adam Smith]] [[eu:Adam Smith]] [[fi:Adam Smith]] [[fr:Adam Smith]] [[ga:Adam Smith]] [[gd:Adam Smith]] [[he:אדם סמית]] [[hr:Adam Smith]] [[hu:Adam Smith]] [[id:Adam Smith]] [[io:Adam Smith]] [[is:Adam Smith]] [[it:Adam Smith]] [[ja:アダム・スミス]] [[ko:애덤 스미스]] [[lt:Adamas Smitas]] [[ms:Adam Smith]] [[nl:Adam Smith]] [[nn:Adam Smith]] [[no:Adam Smith]] [[pl:Adam Smith]] [[pt:Adam Smith]] [[ro:Adam Smith]] [[ru:Смит, Адам]] [[scn:Adam Smith]] [[sco:Adam Smith]] [[sh:Adam Smith]] [[simple:Adam Smith]] [[sk:Adam Smith]] [[sr:Адам Смит]] [[sv:Adam Smith]] [[th:แอดัม สมิท]] [[tr:Adam Smith]] [[vi:Adam Smith]] [[zh:亚当·斯密]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AntoineLavoisier</title> <id>1820</id> <revision> <id>15900283</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antoine Lavoisier]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Antoine Laurent Lavoisier</title> <id>1821</id> <revision> <id>15900284</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antoine Lavoisier]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Antoine Lavoisier</title> <id>1822</id> <revision> <id>41585319</id> <timestam
lothing decorated with cross-stitch, especially from continental [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. Two-dimensional (unshaded) cross-stitch in floral and geometric patterns, usually worked in black and red cotton floss on linen, is characteristic of folk embroidery in [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Central Europe]]. In the United States, the earliest known cross-stitch sampler is currently housed at [[Pilgrim Hall]] in [[Plymouth, Massachusetts]] ([http://www.pilgrimhall.org/s_sampler.htm Pilgrim Hall]).The sampler was created by Loara Standish, the daughter of Captain [[Myles Standish]], circa 1653. Multicoloured, shaded, painting-like patterns as we know them today are a recent development, deriving from similar shaded patterns of [[Berlin wool work]] of the mid-[[nineteenth century]]. ==External links== *[http://www.realistitch.com/ Realistitch]: Unusual Cross stitch designs! *[http://www.superstitcher.com/downloads/Instructions%20for%20Cross%20Stitching.pdf Cross Stitch]: Instructions for Cross Stitching. *[http://users.rcn.com/kdyer.dnai/ Software for Needlework]: lists software for Windows, Macintosh, Amiga, Linux *[http://alitadesigns.com/ Cross Stitch]: The history of needlework and x-stitch patterns *[http://www.kits2stitch.com/history.php Cross Stitch History]: The history of sewing and cross stitch *[http://www.darklilac.com/upload.jsp Cross Stitch Chart Design Generator]: Create a Cross Stitch Chart Design from any image. [[Category:Embroidery]] [[it:Punto croce]] [[nl:Kruissteek]] [[sv: Korsstygn]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Casino game</title> <id>5362</id> <revision> <id>36912634</id> <timestamp>2006-01-27T07:21:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Scottmci</username> <id>841543</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Cards */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Game|Games]] available in most [[casino]]s are commonly called '''casino games'''. In a casino game, the players [[gambling|gamble]] [[casino token|casino chips]] on various possible [[random]] outcomes or combinations of outcomes. Casino games are available in [[online casino]]s, where permitted by law. Casino games can also be played outside of casinos for entertainment purposes, some on machines that simulate gambling. ==House advantage== Casino games generally provide a predictable long-term advantage to the casino, or &quot;house&quot;, while offering the player the possibility of a large short-term payout. Casino games often include an [[illusion of control]], in which the player must make choices. However, in most cases it is not mathematically possible for a player to eliminate his or her inherent long-term disadvantage (the '''house advantage''') in a casino game. The player's disadvantage is a result of the casino not paying winning wagers according to the game's &quot;true odds&quot;, which are the payouts that would be expected considering the odds of a wager either winning or losing. For example, if a game is played by wagering on the number that would result from the roll of one die, true odds would be 6 times the amount wagered since there is a 1 in 6 chance of any single number appearing. However, the casino may only pay 5 times the amount wagered for a winning wager. ==Categories of casino games== There are three general categories of casino games: ===Table games=== Table games are played on a large table covered with a printed felt layout and may contain seating locations for players, with a dealer and other casino employees located on one side of the table (known as the &quot;pit&quot;) and players located on the opposite side. Table games may be played with cards, dice, or other gaming equipment. ===Gaming machines=== Gaming machines, such as slot machines, are usually played by one player at a time and do not require the involvement of casino employees to play. ===Random number games=== Random number games are based upon the selection of random numbers, either from a computerized [[random number generator]] or from other gaming equipment. Random number games may be played at a table, such as Roulette, or through the purchase of paper tickets or cards, such as Keno or Bingo. ==Common table games== ===Cards=== * [[Asian stud]] * [[Baccarat]] * [[Blackjack]] * [[Caribbean Stud Poker]] * [[Chinese poker]] * [[Chuck-a-luck]] * [[Faro_(card-game)|Faro]] * [[Four card poker]] * [[Let It Ride]] * [[Mambo stud]] * [[Pai gow poker]] * [[Red dog (card game)|Red dog]] * [[Spanish 21]] * [[Texas Hold'em Bonus Poker]] * [[Three card poker]] * [[Two-up]] ===Dice / Tiles=== * [[Craps]] * [[Pai Gow]] * [[Sic bo]] ===Random numbers=== * Big Wheel / Big Six * [[Roulette]] ==Common random number games (non-table)== * [[Bingo]] * [[Keno]] ==Common gaming machines== * [[Slot machine]] * [[Video Lottery Terminal]] * [[Video poker]] ==See also== * [[Gambler's fallacy]] [[Category:Casinos]] [[Category:Gambling]] [[ja:世界のカジノゲーム一覧]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Computer and video games</title> <id>5363</id> <revision> <id>41973186</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:48:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Krash</username> <id>219529</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>dab &quot;Keyboard&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This art is about computer and video games. For the magazine see [[Computer and Video Games (magazine)]].'' :''For the list, see [[list of computer and video games]]. [[Image:Pac-man.png|thumb|250px|[[Namco]]'s ''[[Pac-Man]]'' was a hit, and became a cultural phenomenon. The game spawned merchandise, a [[cartoon series]], [[popular music|pop]] [[song]]s and was one of the most heavily cloned video games ever.]] {{portal}} A '''computer game''' is a [[computer]]-controlled [[game]] that [[player (game)|player]]s may interact with. A '''video game''' is a computer game where a [[video display]] such as a monitor or television is the primary [[feedback]] device. These terms are not always interchangeable as some games, particularly older games, do not use a video display. There must also be some sort of [[input]] device, usually in the form of [[Button (control)|button]]/[[joystick]] combinations (on [[arcade]] games), a [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]] &amp; [[Computer mouse|mouse]]/[[trackball]] combination ([[PC game|PC games]]), or a [[Game controller|controller]] ([[Video game console|console games]]), or a combination of any of the above. Also, more esoteric devices have been used for input (also see [[Game controller]]). Usually there are rules and goals, but in more open-ended games the player may be free to do whatever they like within the confines of the virtual universe. The phrase '''interactive entertainment''' is the formal reference to computer and video games. To avoid ambiguity, this game software is referred to as &quot;''computer and video games''&quot; throughout this article, which explores things common to both types of game. In common usage, &quot;computer game&quot; or &quot;[[PC game]]&quot; refers specifically to games played on a [[personal computer]], &quot;[[console game]]&quot; refers to games played on specifically-designed set top box, that play through a TV and &quot;video game&quot; (or &quot;videogame&quot;) refers to any game played on a device that plays through your TV but also includes PC, [[Console]], [[Mobile Phone]] or [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] or other handheld device. *''For specific information regarding &quot;computer games&quot;, see [[personal computer game]].'' *''For specific information regarding &quot;console games&quot;, see [[console game]].'' ==History== {{main|History of computer and video games}} The first primitive computer and video games were developed in the 1960s and 1970s and ran on platforms such as [[oscilloscope]]s, [[university]] [[mainframe]]s and [[EDSAC]] computers. The first video game was ''[[Tennis for Two]]'' created by [[William Higginbotham]] in [[1958]]. [[Arcade games]] were developed in the 1970s (Pac-man to Frogger) and led to the so-called &quot;[[Golden Age of Arcade Games]]&quot;. One of the best-known of these games is ''[[Pong]]'', a simple game simulating Ping Pong. The paddles were white bars with a dot moving between them. The 1970s also saw the release of the first home [[video game console]]s. The first home console video games were created by [[Ralph Baer]], who is now known as the creator of home console video games. He created a system with limited capabilities called the [[Magnavox Odyssey]], which paved the way for the next wave of home consoles. The late 1970s to early 1980s brought about the improvement of home consoles and the release of the [[Atari 2600]], [[Intellivision]] and [[Colecovision]]. The [[video game crash of 1983]], however, produced a ''dark age'' in the market that was not filled until the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] (NES) reached North America in 1985.This presented Americans with games such as Mario Bros. and many others of today's popular Nintendo genre. The last two decades of game history have been marked by separate markets for games on [[video game consoles]], [[home computers]] and [[handhelds]]. See the article on [[Console wars]] for additional information on that facet of game history. In 1989, Nintendo released the [[Game Boy]], the first popular [[Handheld game console|handheld console]]. Included with the system was [[Tetris]], which became a popular puzzle game. Several rival handhelds also made their debut around that time, including the [[Sega Game Gear]] and [[Atari Lynx]]. While some of the other systems remained in production until the mid-90s, the Game Boy remained at the top spot in sales throughout its lifespan. The North American market was dominated by the [[Sega]] [[Sega Mega Drive/Sega G
to being independent games. With the collapse of the Hero-ICE alliance, the Hero System went into limbo for several years. The Champions franchise released a new version under the [[Fuzion]] system, which had been a joint development with [[R. Talsorian Games]], called [[Champions: the New Millenium]]. Although two editions were published, it was very poorly received by Champions fans. In 2001, a reconstituted Hero Games was formed under the leadership of [[Steve Long (Hero Games) | Steve Long]], who had written several books for the earlier version of the system. It regained the rights to the Hero System and to the Champions trademark. In [[2001]], the Fifth Edition of the Hero System Rulebook was released that had been heavily revised by Long. A large black hardcover, it was critically well-received and attained a degree of commercial success. A revised version was issued in [[2004]]. Also in 2004, a condensed version of the rulebook called [[HERO System Sidekick]] was released with a cover price of under $10. == Trivia == * When preparations were made for the release of the Fifth Edition rulebook, Steve Long was asked what fans should use as a shorthand for the new release. He was quoted as saying &quot;I don't care if you call it ''Fred'', as long as you buy it.&quot; The name stuck, and the Fifth Edition is frequently referred to in fandom as FREd, which is claimed to stand for &quot;Fifth Rules Edition&quot;. The revised rulebook is often referred to as &quot;Fiver&quot;, a reference to &quot;Fifth Edition&lt; revised&quot; and to the character in the [[Richard Adams (author)|Richard Adams]] novel ''[[Watership Down]]''. * Although no mathematics operation more complex than division is required to make a HERO System character, the complexity of some contructions has led to a demand for [[software]] to automate the bookkeeping involved. A DOS program called [[Heromaker]] was distributed with some versions of [[Champions]], and a program called [[Hero Designer]] for multiple OS platforms supports the Fifth Edition. The latter is supported by numerous character packs and other extensions linked to Hero Games book releases. * The massive bulk of the Hero System Rulebook Revised led to much speculation that the volume might actually be ''bulletproof''. The Hero Games website includes a video in which damaged copies of the book are shot with several different firearms, and some of the bullets actually do not penetrate the entire book. ==See also== * * [[Champions (role-playing game)|Champions]] * [[Fantasy Hero]] * [[Justice, Inc. (role-playing game)|Justice, Inc.]] * [[Star Hero]] * [[Hero Games]] == External links == *[http://www.herogames.com/Products/hero5.htm Hero Games: Hero System 5th edition] *[http://dmoz.org/Games/Roleplaying/Genres/Universal/Hero_System/ Open Directory Project Hero System category] [[Category:Hero System]] [[Category:Role-playing game systems]] [[Category:Superhero role-playing games]] [[Category:Universal role-playing games]] [[de:Hero System]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Humphry Davy</title> <id>14369</id> <revision> <id>41851068</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:39:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Chalybs</username> <id>690313</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sir Humphry Davy.jpg|thumb|right|Sir Humphry Davy.]] '''Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet''', [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[17 December]] [[1778]] &amp;ndash; [[29 May]] [[1829]]), often incorrectly spelled ''Humphrey'', was an esteemed [[Cornwall|Cornish]] [[chemist]] and [[physicist]]. He was born in [[Penzance, Cornwall]], [[United Kingdom]]. Sir Humphry revelled in his status, as his lectures gathered many spectators. Davy became well known due to his experiments with the physiological action of some [[gas]]es, including laughing gas ([[nitrous oxide]]) - to which he was addicted, once stating that its properties bestowed all of the benefits of alcohol but was devoid of its flaws. Davy later damaged his eyesight in a laboratory accident with [[nitrogen trichloride]]. In 1801 he was nominated [[professor]] at the [[Royal Institution]] of Great Britain and Fellow of the [[Royal Society]], over which he would later preside. [[Image:Humphrydavy.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Humphry Davy in his youth.]] In [[1800]], [[Alessandro Volta]] introduced the first electric pile or [[battery (electricity)|battery]]. Davy used this electric battery to separate [[salt]]s by what is now known as [[electrolysis]]. With many batteries in series he was able to separate elemental [[potassium]] and [[sodium]] in 1807 and [[calcium]], [[strontium]], [[barium]], and [[magnesium]] in 1808. He also studied the energies involved in separating these salts, which is now the field of [[electrochemistry]]. In 1812 he was knighted, gave a farewell lecture to the Royal Institution, and married a wealthy widow, [[Jane Apreece]]. In October 1813 he and his wife, accompanied by [[Michael Faraday]] as his scientific assistant (and valet) traveled to [[France]] to collect a medal that [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] had awarded Davy for his electro-chemical work. Whilst in Paris, Davy was asked to by [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac|Gay-Lussac]] to investigate a mysterious substance isolated by [[Barnard Courtois]]. Davy showed it to be an element, which is now called [[iodine]]. The party continued to travel though mainland [[Europe]], visiting, amongst others, [[Rome]], [[Mount Vesuvius]] and [[Switzerland]]. After his return to England in 1815, Davy went on to produce the [[Davy lamp]] which was used by miners, although there is evidence to show that Davy &quot;invented&quot; his device at about the same time as an engineer, [[George Stephenson]], but claimed all the credit for the invention. He also showed that [[oxygen]] could not be obtained from the substance known as [[hydrochloric acid|oxymuriatic acid]] and proved the substance to be an element, which he named [[chlorine]]. (However [[Carl Scheele]] is credited as the discoverer of chlorine. Scheele had discovered it 36 years before Davy, but was unable to publish his findings.) This discovery overturned [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier's]] definition of acids as compounds of oxygen. In 1815 Davy suggested that acids were substances that contained replacable [[hydrogen]] &amp;ndash; hydrogen that could be partly or totally replaced by [[metals]]. When acids reacted with metals they formed [[salt]]s. [[Base (chemistry)|Base]]s were substances that reacted with acids to form salts and water. These definitions worked well for most of the century. Today we use the [[Brønsted-Lowry]] theory of acids and bases. In 1818, he was awarded a [[baronet|baronetcy]]. In 1824 he proposed and eventually mounted chunks of iron to the hull of a copper clad ship in the first use of [[cathodic protection]]. Whilst this was effective in preventing the corrosion of copper, it eliminated the anti-fouling properties of the copper hull, leading to the attachment of molluscs and barnacles to the &quot;protected&quot; hull, slowing these ships and requiring extensive time in dry docks for defouling operations. Davy died in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], his various inhalations of chemicals finally taking its toll on his health. His laboratory assistant [[Michael Faraday]] went on to enhance his work and in the end became more famous and influential &amp;ndash; to such an extent that Davy is supposed to have claimed Faraday as his greatest discovery. However, he later accused his assistant of [[plagiarism]], causing Faraday to cease all research in [[classical electromagnetism|electromagnetism]] until his mentor's death. ==Davy's Statue== In the town of [[Penzance]] in [[Cornwall]] a statue of Sir Humphry Davy stands in front of the imposing Market House, now owned by [[Lloyds TSB]], at the summit of [[Market Jew Street]], the town's main high street. On the plinth a plaque reads as follows: '''Sir Humphry Davy''' The most famous son of Penzance was one of the leading scientists of the 19th century. Davy was born in Penzance in 1778, the son of a woodcarver. At the age of 16 he was apprenticed to a local doctor and became interested in chemistry. In 1798 he left to work in a medical laboratory in Bristol. There he discovered the pain releaving effects of laughing gas (nitrous oxide) and suggested its anaesthetic use. By the age of 24, Davy was a professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution. He founded the science of electro-chemistry and discovered 6 new elements including potassium and sodium. He became famous and was honoured throughout Europe. Davy is remembered now for his work on the miner's safety lamp which bears his name, but perhaps his greatest contribution to science was the encouragement he gave to the young Michael Faraday. Davy kept in touch with his roots and supported the Royal Geological Society in Penzance and left money to his old school. He died in 1829. This statue was erected in 1872 and was produced by the sculptors Wills of London and is of white marble. == External links == {{Commons|Humphry Davy}} [[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom|Davy, Humphry, 1st Baronet]] [[Category:Presidents of the Royal Society]] [[Category:British inventors|Davy, Humphry]] [[Category:British scientists|Davy, Humphry]] [[Category:British chemists|Davy, Humphry]] [[Category:1778 births|Davy, Humphry]] [[Category:1829 deaths|Davy, Humphry]] [[Category:Natives of Cornwall|Davy, Humphry]] [[Category:Autodidacts|Davy, Humphry]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Davy, Humphry]] [[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements|Davy, Humphry]] [[bg:Хъмфри Дейви]] [[de:Humphry Davy]] [[es:Humphry Davy]] [[eo:Humphry DAVY]] [[fa:هامفری ديوی]] [[fr:Humphry Davy]] [[gl:Humphry Davy]] [[it:Humphry Davy]] [[he:האמפרי דייווי]] [[hr:Humphry Davy]] [[nl:Humphry Davy]] [[ja:ハンフリー・デービー]] [[pl:Hump
dern democracy was no doubt the most wholesome and needed reaction against the abuses of absolutism and of a selfish, often corrupt, bureaucracy. That the wishes and thoughts of the people should find expression, and that the form of government should conform to these wishis is an axiom that has pervaded the whole Western world, and that is even taking root in the Far East. It is a quite different question, however, in how far the particular machinery of democratic government is identical with democratic institutions .... To claim as we often do, that our solution is the only democratic and the ideal one is a one-sided expression of Americanism. I see no reason why we should not allow the Germans, Austrians, and Russians, or whoever else it may be, to solve their problems in their own ways, instead of demanding that they bestow upon themselves the benefactions of our régime. Although Boas felt that scientists have a responsibility to speak out on social and political problems, he was appalled that they might involve themselves in disingenuous and deceitful ways. Thus, in 1919, when he discovered that four anthropologists, in the course of their research in other countries, were serving as spies for the American government, he wrote an angry letter to ''The Nation''. It is perhaps in this letter that he most clearly expresses his understanding of his commitment to science: :A soldier whose business is murder as a fine art, a diplomat whose calling is based on deception and secretiveness, a politician whose very life consists in compromises with his conscience, a business man whose aim is personal profit within the limits allowed by a lenient law -- such may be excused if they set patriotic deception above common everyday decency and perform services as spies. They merely accept the code of morality to which modern society still conforms. Not so the scientist. The very essence of his life is the service of truth. We all know scientists who in private life do not come up to the standard of truthfulness, but who, nevertheless, would not consciously falsify the results of their researches. It is bad enough if we have to put up with these, because they reveal a lack of strength of character that is liable to distort the results of their work. A person, however, who uses science as a cover for political spying, who demeans himself to pose before a foreign government as an investigator and asks for assistance in his alleged researches in order to carry on, under this cloak, his political machinations, prostitutes science in an unpardonable way and forfeits the right to be classed as a scientist. Although Boas did not name the spies in question, he was referring to a ring led by Sylvanus G. Morley, who was affiliated with Harvard University's Peabody Museum. While conducting research in Mexico, Morley and his confederates looked for evidence of German submarine bases, and collected intelligence on Mexican political figures and German immigrants in Mexico. Boas's stance against spying took place in the context of his struggle to establish a new model for academic anthropology at Columbia University. Previously, American anthropology was based at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the Peabody Museum at Harvard, and these anthropologists competed with Boas's students for control over the American Anthropological Association (and its flagship publication ''American Anthropologist''). When the National Academy of Sciences established the National Research Council in 1916 as a means by which scientists could assist the United States government prepare for entry into the war in Europe, competition between the two groups intensified. Boas's rival, W.H. Holmes, was appointed to head the NRC; Morley was a protegé of Holmes. When Boas's letter was published, Holmes wrote to a friend complaining about &quot;the Prussian control of anthropology in this country&quot; and the need to end Boas's &quot;Hun regime.&quot; The Anthropological Society of Washington passed a resolution condemning Boas's letter for unjustly criticizing President Wilson; attacking the principles of American democracy; and endangering anthropologists abroad, who would now be suspected of being spies. This resolution was passed on to the American Anthropological Association and the National Research Council. Members of the American Anthropological Association (among whom Boas was a founding member in 1903), meeting at the Peabody Museum, voted by 20 to 10 to censure Boas. As a result, Boas resigned as the AAA's representative to the NRC, although Boas remained an active member of the AAA. This censure was rescinded in 2004. Boas continued to speak out against racism and for intellectual freedom. When the [[Naziism|Nazi Party]] in Germany denounced &quot;[[Jewish Science (diasmbiguation)|Jewish science]]&quot; (which included not only Boasian Anthropology but Freudian psychoanalysis and Einsteinian physics), Boas responded with a public statement signed by over 8,000 other scientists, declaring that there is only one science, to which race and religion are irrelevant. (In his 1998 book ''[[Culture Of Critique|The Culture Of Critique]]'', [[Kevin B. MacDonald]] resurrected the notion of a &quot;[[Jewish Science|Jewish science]]&quot; to critique Boas's work; this book has been criticized for shoddy scholarship and [[anti-Semitism]]). ==Influence and students== Between 1901 and 1911, [[Columbia University]] produced only 7 PhD.s in anthropology. Although by today's standards this is a very small number, at the time it was sufficient to establish Boas's Anthropology Department at Columbia as the preeminant anthropology program in the country. Moreover, many of Boas's students went on to establish anthropology programs at other major universities. Boas's first doctoral student was [[Alfred L. Kroeber]] (1901), who, along with fellow Boas student [[Robert Lowie]] (1908), started the anthropology program at the [[University of California at Berkeley]]. He also trained William Jones (1904), one of the first Native American Indian anthropologists ([[Fox (Native American)|the Fox nation]]) who was killed while conducting research in the Philippines in 1909, and Albert B. Lewis (1907). Boas also trained a number of other students who were influential in the development of academic anthropology: [[Frank Speck]] (1908) who trained with Boas but received his PhD. from the [[University of Pennsylvania]] and immediately proceeded to found the anthropology department there; [[Edward Sapir]] (1909) and [[Fay-Cooper Cole]] (1914) who developed the anthropology program at the [[University of Chicago]]; [[Alexander Goldenweiser]] (1910), who, with [[Elsie Clews Parsons]] (who received her doctorate in sociology from Columbia in 1899, but then studied ethnology with Boas), started the anthropology program at the [[New School for Social Research]]; [[Leslie Spier]] (1920) who started the anthropology program at the University of Washington, and [[Melville Herskovits]] (1923) who started the anthropology program at [[Northwestern University]]. He also trained [[John Reed Swanton]] (who studied with Boas at Columbia for two years before receiving his doctorate from Harvard in 1900), [[Paul Radin]] (1911), [[Ruth Benedict]] (1923), [[Gladys Reichard]] (1925) who had begun teaching at [[Barnard College]] in 1921 and was later promoted to the rank of professor, [[Ruth Bunzel]] (1929), [[Alexander Lesser]] (1929), [[Margaret Mead]] (1929), and [[Gene Weltfish]] (who defended her dissertation in 1929, although she did not officially graduate until 1950 when Columbia reduced the expenses required to graduate). His students at Columbia also included [[Mexico|Mexican]] anthropologist [[Manuel Gamio]], who earned his MA after studying with Boas from 1909-1911, and became the founding director of Mexico's Bureau of Anthropology in 1917; [[Esther Goldfrank]], who travelled with Boas to New Mexico in 1919 to conduct research among the Pueblo Indians; [[Gilberto Freyre]], who shaped the concept of &quot;racial democracy&quot; in Brazil; and anthropologist, folklorist and novelist [[Zora Neale Hurston]], who graduated from [[Barnard College]], the women's college associated with Columbia, in [[1928]]. He was also an influence on [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], whom he met during the latter's stay in New York in the 1940s. Several of Boas's students went on to serve as editors of the American Anthropological Association's flagship journal, ''American Anthropologist'': John R. Swanton (1911, 1921-1923), Robert Lowie (1924-1933), Leslie Spier (1934-1938), and Melville Herskovits (1950-1952). Edward Sapir's student John Alden Mason was editor from 1945-1949, and Alfred Kroeber and Robert Lowie's student, [[Walter Goldschmidt]], was editor from 1956-1959. Most of Boas's students shared his concern for careful, historical reconstruction, and his antipathy towards speculative, evolutionary models. Moreover, Boas encouraged his students, by example, to criticize themselves as much as others. For example, Boas originally defended the [[cephalic index]] (systematic variations in head form) as a method for describing hereditary traits, but came to reject his earlier research after further study; he similarly came to criticize his own early work in Kwakiutl (Pacific Northwest) language and mythology. Encouraged by this drive to self-criticism, as well as the Boasian commitment to learn from one's informants and to let the findings of one's research shape one's agenda, Boas's students quickly diverged from his own research agenda. Several of his students soon attempted to develop theories of the grand sort that Boas typically rejected. Kroeber called his colleagues' attention to [[Sigmund Freud]] and the potential of a union between cultural anthropology and [[psychoanalysis]]. [[Ruth Benedict]] developed theories of &quot;culture and personality&quot; a
- [[Paul Reubens|Paul &quot;Pee-Wee Herman&quot; Reubens]], American actor *[[1953]] - [[Peter Stormare]], Swedish-born actor *[[1954]] - [[Derek Warwick]], British race car driver *[[1955]] - [[Diana Scarwid]], American actress *[[1957]] - [[Bernhard Langer]], German golfer *[[1958]] - [[Tom Lanoye]], [[Belgian]] author *1958 - [[Stalking Cat]], American body modificationist *[[1959]] - [[Gerhard Berger]], Austrian race car driver *[[1962]] - [[Adam Oates]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player *[[1963]] - [[Downtown Julie Brown]], Welsh television personality *[[1965]] - [[Wayne James]], Zimbabwe cricketer *[[1966]] - [[Juhan Parts]], [[Prime Minister of Estonia]] *[[1969]] - [[Reece Shearsmith]], British actor and comedian *[[1970]] - [[Peter Ebdon]], English snooker player *1970 - [[Tony Kanal]], American-British musician ([[No Doubt]]) *1970 - [[Jim Thome]], baseball player *[[1973]] - [[Dietmar Hamann]], German footballer *[[1974]] - [[Jose Vidro]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player *[[1974]] - [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1595731/ Mike Chrzanowski], American Game Designer *[[1975]] - [[Jonny Moseley]], American skier *[[1976]] - [[Sarah Chalke]], Canadian actress *1976 - [[Carlos Moya]], Spanish tennis player *1976 - [[Mark Webber]], Australian race car driver *[[1977]] - [[Deco]], Brazilian footballer *[[1979]] - [[Tian Liang]], Chinese diver *[[1988]] - [[Alexa Vega]], American actress ==Deaths== *[[1312]] - [[Arthur II, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1262]]) *[[1394]] - [[Chokei]], Emperor of Japan (b. [[1343]]) *[[1450]] - [[Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr]], English politician (b. [[1395]]) *[[1521]] - [[Josquin Des Prez]], Flemish composer *[[1545]] - [[Piotr Gamrat]], Polish Catholic archbishop (b. [[1487]]) *[[1572]] - [[Claude Goudimel]], French composer *[[1577]] - [[Titian]], Italian artist *[[1590]] - [[Pope Sixtus V]] (b. [[1521]]) *[[1635]] - [[Félix Lope de Vega]], Spanish poet and playwright (b. [[1562]]) *[[1664]] - [[Francisco Zurbarán]], Spanish painter (b. [[1598]]) *[[1748]] - [[James Thomson (Seasons)|James Thomson]], Scottish poet (b. [[1700]]) *[[1773]] - [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz]], Prussian general (b. [[1721]]) *[[1875]] - [[William Chapman Ralston]], American banker (b. [[1826]]) *[[1909]] - [[Emil Christian Hansen]], Danish fermentation physiologist (b. [[1842]]) *[[1929]] - [[Herman Potocnik|Herman Poto&amp;#269;nik Noordung]], Slovenian rocket scientist (b. [[1892]]) *[[1931]] - [[Frank Harris]], Irish author and editor (b. [[1856]]) *1931 - [[Francis Marion Smith]], American borax magnate (b. [[1846]]) *[[1948]] - [[Charles Evans Hughes]], U.S. Supreme Court justice (b. [[1862]]) *[[1958]] - [[Ernest Lawrence]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1901]]) *[[1963]] - [[Garrett Morgan]], American inventor (b. [[1877]]) *1963 - [[W.E.B. DuBois]], American civil rights activist and scholar (b. [[1868]]) *[[1964]] - [[Gracie Allen]], American actress and comedienne *[[1965]] - [[Le Corbusier]], Swiss architect (b. [[1887]]) *[[1967]] - [[Brian Epstein]], English manager of [[The Beatles]] (b. [[1934]]) *[[1968]] - [[Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark|Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent]] (b. [[1906]]) *[[1969]] - [[Ivy Compton-Burnett]], English novelist (b. [[1884]]) *1969 - [[Erika Mann]], German writer and daughter of [[Thomas Mann]] (b. [[1905]]) *[[1971]] - [[Bennett Cerf]], American publisher and television personality (b. [[1898]]) *[[1975]] - [[Haile Selassie]] I, [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1892]]) *[[1976]] - [[Mukesh]], Indian playback singer (b. [[1923]]) *[[1979]] - [[Earl Mountbatten]], British admiral and statesman (assassinated) (b. [[1900]]) *[[1980]] - [[Douglas Kenney]], American humorist (b. [[1947]]) *[[1988]] - [[William Sargant]], British psychiatrist (b. [[1907]]) *[[1990]] - [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]], American guitarist (b. [[1954]]) *[[1997]] - [[Brandon Tartikoff]], American television producer (b. [[1949]]) *[[2002]] - [[Richard Ricci]], American handyman wrongly suspected of being a kidnapper in the Elizabeth Smart case (b. [[1953]]) *[[2003]] - [[Pierre Poujade]], French politician (b. [[1920]]) *[[2004]] - [[Willie Crawford]], baseball player (b. [[1946]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Roman festivals]] - [[Volturnalia]] held in honor of [[Volturnus]] *[[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] - Saint [[Monica of Hippo]] *[[Moldova]] - Independence Day (from the USSR, [[1991]]) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/27 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 26]] - [[August 28]] - [[July 27]] - [[September 27]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:27 Augustus]] [[ar:27 أغسطس]] [[an:27 d'agosto]] [[ast:27 d'agostu]] [[bg:27 август]] [[be:27 жніўня]] [[bs:27. august]] [[ca:27 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 27]] [[cv:Çурла, 27]] [[co:27 d'aostu]] [[cs:27. srpen]] [[cy:27 Awst]] [[da:27. august]] [[de:27. August]] [[et:27. august]] [[el:27 Αυγούστου]] [[es:27 de agosto]] [[eo:27-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 27]] [[fo:27. august]] [[fr:27 août]] [[fy:27 augustus]] [[ga:27 Lúnasa]] [[gl:27 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 27일]] [[hr:27. kolovoza]] [[io:27 di agosto]] [[id:27 Agustus]] [[ia:27 de augusto]] [[ie:27 august]] [[is:27. ágúst]] [[it:27 agosto]] [[he:27 באוגוסט]] [[jv:27 Agustus]] [[ka:27 აგვისტო]] [[csb:27 zélnika]] [[ku:27'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 27]] [[lb:27. August]] [[hu:Augusztus 27]] [[mk:27 август]] [[ms:27 Ogos]] [[nap:27 'e aùsto]] [[nl:27 augustus]] [[ja:8月27日]] [[no:27. august]] [[nn:27. august]] [[oc:27 d'agost]] [[pl:27 sierpnia]] [[pt:27 de Agosto]] [[ro:27 august]] [[ru:27 августа]] [[sco:27 August]] [[sq:27 Gusht]] [[scn:27 di austu]] [[simple:August 27]] [[sk:27. august]] [[sl:27. avgust]] [[sr:27. август]] [[fi:27. elokuuta]] [[sv:27 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 27]] [[tt:27. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 27]] [[th:27 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:27 tháng 8]] [[tr:27 Ağustos]] [[uk:27 серпня]] [[wa:27 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 27]] [[zh:8月27日]] [[pam:Agostu 27]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alcohol</title> <id>1014</id> <revision> <id>42102518</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:15:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jidan</username> <id>258229</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about organic compounds containing -OH groups. For other uses, see [[Alcohol (disambiguation)]].'' In [[chemistry]], '''alcohol''' is any [[organic compound]] in which a [[hydroxyl]] [[Functional group|group]] (''-[[oxygen|O]][[hydrogen|H]]'') is bound to a [[carbon]] atom, which in turn is bound to other [[hydrogen]] and/or [[carbon]] atoms. The general formula for a simple [[acyclic]] alcohol is '''C&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2n+1&lt;/sub&gt;OH'''. In general usage, '''alcohol''' refers almost always to [[ethanol]], also known as '''grain alcohol''', and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see ''[[alcoholic beverage]]''). This sense underlies the term [[alcoholism]] ([[addiction]] to alcohol). As a [[Medication|drug]], ethanol is known to have a [[depressant|depressing effect]] that decreases the responses of the [[central nervous system]] (see [[effects of alcohol on the body]]). Other forms of alcohol are usually described with a clarifying adjective, as in ''[[isopropyl alcohol]]'' or by the suffix ''-ol'', as in ''isopropanol''. The word dates to the 16th century when it was used to refer to any chemical substance arrived at by sublimation. This derived from the [[Medieval Latin]] ''alcohol'' (&quot;powdered ore of [[antimony]]&quot;), originating from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''{{ArabDIN|al-kuḥūl}}'' ({{ar|&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1604;}}), which is also the source of ''[[kohl (cosmetics)|kohl]]'' and related to the root ''k-ḥ-l'', attested in the [[Arabic]] word for eye makeup. == Structure == [[Image:alcohol_general.jpg|150px|right|An alcohol]] The [[functional group]] of an alcohol is a [[hydroxyl group]] bonded to an sp³ hybridized carbon. It can therefore be regarded as a derivative of [[water_(molecule)|water]], with an [[alkyl]] group replacing one of the hydrogens. If an [[aryl]] group is present rather than an alkyl, the compound is generally called a [[phenol]] rather than an alcohol. Also, if the [[hydroxyl group]] is bonded to one of the sp² hybridized carbons of an alkenyl group, the compound is referred to as an [[enol]]. The oxygen in an alcohol has a bond angle of around 109&amp;deg; (c.f. 104.5&amp;deg; in water), and two nonbonded electron pairs. The O-H bond in methanol (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;OH) is around 96 pico[[metre]]s long. === Primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols === There are three major subsets of alcohols- 'primary' (1°), 'secondary' (2°) and 'tertiary' (3°), based upon the number of carbons the C-OH carbon (shown in red) is bonded to. [[Methanol]] is the simplest 'primary' alcohol. The simplest secondary alcohol is [[isopropanol]] (propan-2-ol), and a simple tertiary alcohol is ''tert''-[[butanol]] (2-methylpropan-2-ol). [[Image:alcohol_common.jpg|450px|Some common alcohols]] === Methanol &amp; ethanol === The simplest and most commonly used alcohols are [[methanol]] and [[ethanol]] (common names [[methyl]] alcohol and [[ethyl]] alcohol, respectively), which have the structures shown above. Methanol was formerly obtained by the distillation of wood, and was called &quot;wood alcohol&quot;. It is now a cheap commodity chemical produced by the high pressure reaction of [[carbon monoxide]] with [[hydrogen]]. In common usage, &quot;alcohol&quot; often refers simply to ethanol or &quot;grain alcohol&quot;. [[Methylated spirits]] (&quot;Meths&quot;), also called &quot;surgical spirits&quot;, is a form of ethanol rendered undrinkable by the addition of methanol. Aside from its major use in alcoholic beverages, ethanol is also used (though highly controlled) as an indus
** [[Wyvern]] ==Notable dragons in modern literature and culture== * [[Puff the Magic Dragon]], a poem, then song; dragons in children's culture. * [[Smaug]], from [[The Hobbit]] by [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] * [[Dragons (Pern)|Pernese dragons]], from the books by [[Anne McCaffrey]] * [[Dragon (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|Dragons in ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'']] and other [[fantasy]] [[role-playing game]]s (e.g. [[Rêve de Dragon]]). * [[Dragon Tales]] the animated children's series on [[PBS]] * [[Bahamut]] from [[Final Fantasy]], [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]], and [[Arabic Mythology]] ==See also== {{wiktionarypar|dragon}} {{commons|Category:Dragons}} * [[List of dragons]] * [[Draconity]] * ''[[An Instinct for Dragons]]'' *[[Dragon Kung Fu]] *''[[Dragonology (book)|Dragonology]]'' ==Further reading== * ''Dragons, A Natural History'' by [[Karl Shuker|Dr. Karl Shuker]] * ''The Flight of Dragons'' by [[Peter Dickinson|Peter Dickinson]] ==External links== *[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/BL1620xB7/ The Babylonian Legends of the Creation] and the Fight between Bel and the Dragon, as told by Assyrian Tablets from Nineveh, 1921 *[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GR830xD7xV8/ The Dragon in China and Japan], by Dr. M. W. De Visser, 1913 *[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/BL313xS648/ The Evolution of the Dragon], by G. Elliot Smith, 1919 [[Category:Dragons| ]] [[ca:Drac]] [[cs:Drak]] [[da:Drage]] [[de:Drache]] [[eo:Drako]] [[es:Dragón]] [[fa:اژدها]] [[fr:Dragon (créature fantastique)]] [[hr:Zmaj]] [[hu:Sárkány]] [[it:Drago]] [[ja:ドラゴン]] [[ku:Ejdiya]] [[lt:Draco]] [[nl:Draak]] [[no:Drage]] [[pl:Smok]] [[ru:Дракон]] [[sco:Dragoun]] [[simple:Dragon]] [[fi:Lohikäärme]] [[sv:Drake]] [[th:มังกร]] [[zh:&amp;#40845; (&amp;#28040;&amp;#27495;&amp;#32681;)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Depeche Mode</title> <id>8533</id> <revision> <id>41953251</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:22:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>206.171.91.132</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band | band_name = Depeche Mode | image = [[Image:Exciterpromopicture.jpg|right|300px|]]| status = Active | country = [[Basildon]], [[England]] | years_active = 1980–present | music_genre = [[Synth Pop]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Post Punk]]&lt;br /&gt;[[New Wave music|New Wave]]| record_label = [[Mute Records]] | current_members = [[David Gahan]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Martin Gore]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Andrew Fletcher (musician)|Andrew Fletcher]] | past_members = [[Vince Clarke]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Alan Wilder]] }} '''Depeche Mode''' is a [[synthpop]] band from the town of [[Basildon]], [[England]], originally founded in 1980. They have been one of the longest-lived and most successful bands to have emerged during the [[New Wave music|New Wave]]&lt;nowiki&gt;/&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[New Romantic]] era; many of their videos have been heavily rotated on [[MTV]] and [[Fuse (television)|Fuse]]. As of 2005, it is estimated that Depeche Mode has sold over 70 million albums worldwide. They have influenced many of today's popular recording artists, in part due to their innovative work, recording techniques and use of sampling. Though influential in the modern electronic dance scene, they remain in the alternative genre. The three current members of Depeche Mode are: *[[Martin Gore]] (primary songwriting, vocals, [[guitars]], [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]) *[[David Gahan]] (lead [[vocals|vocals]], recent songwriting, occasional instruments) *[[Andrew Fletcher (musician)|Andrew Fletcher]] (early [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], primary management, other occasional instruments) Former members include: *[[Alan Wilder]] (production, [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[drums]], [[vocals]], occasional songwriting) from 1982 to 1995. *[[Vince Clarke]] (primary songwriting, [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]), from 1980 to 1981. ==Early history== [[Image:DepecheMode1981.jpg|right|300px||thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 1981. Left to right, Martin Gore, Andy Fletcher, Dave Gahan, Vince Clarke.]] Depeche Mode's origins can be traced back to 1976, when [[Vince Clarke]] and [[Andrew Fletcher (musician)|Andrew Fletcher]] formed a band known as &quot;No Romance in China.&quot; The band was unsuccessful and in 1979, Vince Clarke formed a new band named &quot;French Look&quot; with Martin Gore. Andrew Fletcher then became part of the band and it was renamed &quot;Composition of Sound.&quot; David Gahan joined the band in 1980 after Vince Clarke heard him perform at a local gig, and &quot;Depeche Mode&quot; was born. The new name was taken from a French fashion magazine, &quot;Dépêche-mode&quot;, which translates to &quot;Fashion Update&quot; or &quot;Fashion News Dispatch,&quot; though it has commonly been mistranslated as &quot;Fast Fashion.&quot; The band became part of [[Daniel Miller]]'s [[Mute Records|Mute]] label by verbal contract, and released their first album, ''[[Speak &amp; Spell (album)|Speak and Spell]]'', in 1981. Soon after, Vince Clarke left and went on to form several other bands including [[Yazoo (band)|Yazoo]] (''Yaz'' in the [[United States|U.S.]]) with [[Alison Moyet]], [[The Assembly]] with [[Eric Radcliffe]], and later [[Erasure]] with [[Andy Bell (singer)|Andy Bell]]. After Clarke's departure, [[Martin Gore]], who had written &quot;Tora! Tora! Tora!&quot; and &quot;Big Muff&quot; on their debut album, took over as the band's primary songwriter and in 1982 the album ''[[A Broken Frame]]'' was released by the remaining trio. Prior to this, [[Alan Wilder]] replaced Vince Clarke on tour, but he did not contribute to ''A Broken Frame''. Shortly afterwards, he became a full-fledged member of Depeche Mode, in time for their 1983 non-album single &quot;[[Get the Balance Right]]&quot;. He wrote &quot;The Landscape is Changing&quot; and &quot;Two Minute Warning&quot; for their 1983 album, ''[[Construction Time Again]],'' as well as &quot;Fools,&quot; the B-side to the &quot;[[Love, in Itself]]&quot; single, &quot;In Your Memory,&quot; the B-side to the &quot;[[People Are People]]&quot; single, and &quot;If You Want&quot; on the 1984 album ''[[Some Great Reward]]'', but his main contribution to Depeche Mode was in technical and musical production. In the early 1980s the band's popularity was largely confined to Europe (particularly Germany). However, in 1984 Depeche Mode made inroads into the U.S., spawning the North American-only releases of the [[Compilation album|compilations]] ''[[People Are People (album)|People Are People]]'' and 1985s ''[[Catching Up with Depeche Mode]]'', the former featuring their first transatlantic hit &quot;People Are People&quot;. This period is seen as the beginning of the band's long association with Britains's Gothic movement that was gaining popularity in America. [[Image:DepecheMode1984.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 1984. Left: Martin Gore (top), Alan Wilder (bottom). Right: Andy Fletcher (top), Dave Gahan (bottom).]] This may have owed more to its sound than to its image, due to the band's late exposure to the American market and its unfortunate string of inconsistent, budget-driven music videos prior to this time. As heard with 1984's &quot;[[Blasphemous Rumours]]&quot;, a bitter commentary on the unfairness of life, and the dour B-side to 1985's &quot;[[It's Called a Heart]]&quot;, called &quot;Fly on the Windscreen&quot; (thereafter remixed and released as &quot;Fly on the Windscreen - Final&quot; on the 1986 album ''[[Black Celebration]]''), lead songwriter Martin began a decade-long descent into dark, brooding synthesized dance music. At the time, many associated this sound with that of the then-ascendent Goth movement - an association the band later tried to downplay, with little effect. The first five years of Depeche Mode's career was documented by a singles compilation (&quot;[[The Singles 81-85]]&quot;). The compilation was revised and retitled in North America as the aforementioned &quot;[[Catching Up with Depeche Mode]]&quot;. After the video of their 1986 single &quot;[[A Question of Time]]&quot; garnered attention, its director [[Anton Corbijn]] began a long-lasting friendship and working relationship with the band, eventually directing 20 of their videos (the latest being 2006's &quot;[[Suffer Well]]&quot;). For his part, Corbijn -- an internationally renowned photographer and newly emerging music video director ([[U2]]'s &quot;Pride (In the Name of Love)&quot; (1984) and [[Echo &amp; the Bunnymen|Echo and the Bunnymen]]'s &quot;Bring on the Dancing Horses&quot; (1985)) -- was catapulted into near stardom, eventually directing music videos for the likes of [[Joy Division]] (&quot;Atmosphere&quot; (1988)), [[Front 242]] (&quot;Headhunter&quot; (1988), &quot;Tragedy for You&quot; (1991)), [[Bryan Adams]], [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]], and U2 (&quot;One&quot; (1991), &quot;Please&quot; (1997), &quot;Electrical Storm&quot; (2002)). With a newly-coherent, striking image and a brooding sound, the band resonated with an emerging taste for all things Gothic in the U.S. On the heels of their ironically titled 1987 album ''[[Music for the Masses]]'', Depeche Mode played a follow-up U.S. tour in 1988, to sold-out venues. ==Middle history== [[Image:DepecheMode1990.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 1990.]] In the mid-80s and '90s, the band's popularity in the U.S. grew, as did their influence on the emerging [[Techno music|techno]] and [[house]] music scenes. Techno pioneers [[Derrick May]], [[Kevin Saunderson]] and [[Juan Atkins]] regularly quoted Depeche Mode as an influence in their development of proto-techno music during the [[Detroit Techno]] explosion in the late 80s. The band's 1988 [[Music for the Masses]] tour culminated in a final concert at the [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]] [[Rose Bowl (stadium)|Rose Bowl]] with a sell-out attendance of 80,000 (the highest in 8 years for the venue). The
f the '''Clock Tower''' of the [[Palace of Westminster]] in [[London]], and an informal name for the '''Great Bell of Westminster''', the largest [[bell (instrument) | bell]] in the tower and part of the '''Great Clock of Westminster'''. Coordinates: {{coor dms|51|30|2.6|N|0|7|28.6|W|}}. The clock tower is at the north-eastern end of the building, the home of the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]], and contains the famous [[striking clock]] and bell. ==Naming== The name, &quot;Big Ben&quot; is almost universally used to describe the clock tower as a whole. However, officially, &quot;Big Ben&quot; refers specifically to the prinicpal bell within the tower - the largest and lowest in pitch that counts the number of hours, following each hourly chime sequence. One theory says that the bell is named after Sir [[Benjamin Hall, 1st Baron Llanover|Benjamin Hall]], the Chief Commissioner of Works. Another theory suggests that at the time anything which was heaviest of its kind was called &quot;Big Ben&quot; after the then-famous prizefighter [[Benjamin Caunt]], making it a natural name for the bell. The tower is also sometimes referred to as '''St Stephen's Tower''', though this name refers to the other tower at the Palace of Westminster. This name might originate from '''St Stephen's Hall''', site of the old [[House of Commons]] in the western wing of the Palace of Westminster, which is the entrance used by visitors wishing to view the proceedings of the Houses of Parliament, and British subjects wishing to [[lobbying|lobby]] their [[Member of Parliament|MP]]. ==History and construction== ===The Clock Tower=== [[image:clock.tower.from.westminster.br.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px| The [[Palace of Westminster]] and the Clock Tower on the north-eastern end, from [[Westminster Bridge]].]] The tower was raised as a part of [[Charles Barry]]'s design of a new palace, after the old [[Palace of Westminster]] was destroyed by fire on the night of [[October 16]], [[1834]]. The tower is designed in the [[Victorian Gothic]] style, and is 96.3 m (316 ft) high. The 61 m (200 ft) tower consists of brickwork with stone cladding; the remainder of the tower's height is accounted for by a framed spire of cast iron. The tower is founded on a 15 by 15 m (49 by 49 ft) raft, made of 3 m (9 ft) thick concrete, at a depth of 7 m (23 ft) below ground level. The tower has an estimated weight of 8,667 t. The four clock faces are 55 m (180 ft) above ground. Due to ground conditions present since construction, the tower leans slightly to the north-west, by roughly 220 mm. It also oscillates annually by a few millimetres east and west, due to thermal effects. [http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/template.cfm?name=BA5] ===The clock and its faces=== The clock in the tower was once the biggest in the world, able to strike the first blow for each hour with an accuracy of one second. The clock mechanism was completed by [[1854]], but the tower was not fully constructed until four years later. [[image:big.ben.scaled.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The face of the Great Clock of Westminster. A 5 foot 4 inch person (1.63 m) has been inserted into the picture at correct scale. The hour hand is 9 feet (2.7 m) long and the minute hand is 14 feet (4.3 m) long]] The clock faces and dials were designed by [[Augustus Pugin]]. It is an iron framework 23 feet in diameter supporting 312 pieces of opal glass, rather like a stained glass window. Some of the glass pieces may be removed for inspection of the hands. The surround of the dials is heavly gilded. At the base of each clock face in gilt letters is the [[Latin]] inscription 'DOMINE SALVAM FAC REGINAM NOSTRAM VICTORIAM PRIMAM' which means 'Lord save our [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria I]]'. The name ''Big Ben'' was first given to a 16-ton hour bell, cast in [[1856]]. Since the tower was not yet finished, the bell was mounted in [[New Palace Yard]] but the bell cracked under the striking hammer, and its metal was recast as the 13.8 ton bell which is in use today. The new bell was mounted in the tower in [[1858]] alongside four quarter-hour bells. On [[September 7]], [[1859]], the clock became fully operational. The mechanisms of the clock and chimes have been overhauled several times since then. ===The Great Bell of Westminster=== The bell weighs [[1 E4 kg|13.762]] [[tonne|t]] (13 tons 10 cwt 99 lb or 30,339 lb), with a striking hammer weighing 203 kg (4 cwt), and was originally tuned to [[note|E]]. There is a delay of 5 seconds between strikes. It is a common misconception that Big Ben is the heaviest bell in Britain. In fact, it is the third heaviest, the second heaviest being ''Great George'' found at [[Liverpool Cathedral]] at 14 tons 15 cwt 2 qtr 2 lb (33,098 lb or 15.013 t) and the heaviest being ''Great Paul'' found at [[St Paul's Cathedral]] at 16 tons 14 cwt 2 qtr 19 lb (37,483 lb or 17.002 t). The original tower designs demanded a 14-ton bell to be struck with a 6-cwt (300-kg) hammer. A bell was produced by John Warner and Sons in [[Stockton-on-Tees]] in [[1856]], weighing 16 tons. However, this cracked under test in the Palace Yard. The contract for the bell was then given to the [[Whitechapel Bell Foundry]], who in [[1858]] re-cast the bell into the 13.8 t bell used today. It too started to crack under the hammer, and a legal battle arose. For two years, the largest of the quarter bells was used as a substitute, and after two years of having the Great Bell out of commission, the 6 cwt (300 kg) hammer was replaced with a 4 cwt (200 kg) hammer, and the bell itself was turned 90° so the crack would not develop any further, and it came back into use in [[1862]]. However, the crack (now filled) and the turn meant that it no longer struck a true E. The tongue of the bell was forged at Hopper's foundry, [[Houghton-le-Spring]], [[Tyne and Wear]] in 1858. ===Other bells=== Along with the main bell, the [[belfry (architecture)|belfry]] houses four [[quarter bells]] which play the [[Westminster Quarters]], derived from [[Handel]]'s ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]'', on the quarter hours. The C note in the chime is repeated twice in quick succession, faster than the chiming train can draw back the hammers, so the C bell uses two separate hammers. ==Similar turret clocks== A 20 foot (6 m) metal replica of the clock tower, known as [[Little Ben]], complete with working clock, stands on a traffic island close to [[Victoria Station (London)|Victoria Station]]. Several [[turret clock]]s around the world are inspired by the look of the Great Clock, including the clock tower of the [[Gare de Lyon]] in [[Paris]] and the [[Peace Tower]] of the [[Parliament of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]]. ==Reliability== [[Image:BigBenAtDusk.jpg|thumb|left|The Clock Tower at dusk, with [[The London Eye]] in the background]] The clock is famous for its reliability. This is due to the skill of its designer, the lawyer and amateur [[horologist]] [[Edmund Beckett, 1st Baron Grimthorpe|Edmund Beckett Denison]], later Lord Grimthorpe. As the clock mechanism, created to Denison's specification by clockmaker [[Edward John Dent]], was completed before the tower itself was finished, Denison had time to experiment. Instead of using the [[Escapement#Deadbeat escapement|deadbeat escapement]] and [[remontoire]] as originally designed, Denison invented the double three-legged [[gravity escapement]]. This [[escapement]] provides the best separation between pendulum and clock mechanism. Together with an enclosed, wind-proof box sunk beneath the clockroom, the Great Clock's pendulum is well isolated from external factors like snow, ice and pigeons on the clock hands, and keeps remarkably accurate time. The idiom of ''putting a penny on'', with the meaning of slowing down, sprung from the method of fine-tuning the clock's pendulum by adding or subtracting penny coins. Even to this day, old pennies, phased out of British currency by the [[1971]] [[decimalisation]], are used. Despite heavy bombing, it ran accurately throughout [[The Blitz]]. It slowed down on [[New Year's Eve]] [[1962]] due to heavy snow, causing it to chime in the new year 10 minutes late. The clock had its first and only major breakdown in [[1976]]. The chiming mechanism broke due to [[metal fatigue]] on [[5 August]] [[1976]], and was reactivated again on [[9 May]] [[1977]]. During this time [[BBC Radio 4]] had to make do with the [[BBC pips|pips]]. It stopped on [[30 April]] [[1997]], the day before the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|general election]], and again three weeks later. On Friday, [[27 May]] [[2005]] the clock stopped ticking for 90 minutes from 10.07pm, possibly due to hot weather (temperatures in London had reached an unseasonal 31.8&amp;deg;C/90&amp;deg;F). It resumed keeping time, but stalled again at 10.20 p.m. and remained still for about 90 minutes before starting up again. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4589527.stm] On [[29 October]] [[2005]], Big Ben was stopped for approximately 33 hours so that the clock and its chimes could be worked on. It was the lengthiest maintenance shutdown in 22 years. In [[2005]], [[Abu Hamza]] had a terrorist manual in his house which was found labelling Big Ben as a terrorist target. It also labelled [[The Statue of Liberty]] and the [[Eiffel Tower]]. In his trial at [[The Old Bailey]] in [[2006]] he denied all knowledge of them being potential targets. ==Culture== [[image:ItvNEWS_bigben_clockface.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[ITV News]] opening titles featuring a digital Big Ben clock face]] [[image:big.ben.toweralone.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Clock Tower from Westminster Bridge]] Big Ben is a focus of [[New Year]] celebrations in [[England]], with radio and TV stations tuning to its chimes to welcome the start of the year. Similarly, on [[Remembrance Day]], the chimes of Big Ben are broadcast to mark the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month and the start of two minu
greens.org link] *[[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]]: [http://www.ca.lp.org link] *[[United States Natural Law Party|Natural Law Party]]: [http://www.natural-law.org link] *[[Peace and Freedom Party (United States)|Peace and Freedom Party]]:[http://www.peaceandfreedom.org link] *[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]: [http://www.cagop.org link] ''See also:'' [[List of California Governors]], [[U.S. Congressional Delegations from California]], [[List of California counties]], [[List of California ballot propositions]] == Geography == {{main|Geography of California}} {{ussm|california.png|ca}} California borders the [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Oregon]], [[Nevada]], [[Arizona]], and the [[Mexico|Mexican]] state of [[Baja California]]. The state has strikingly beautiful natural features, including an expansive central valley, tall mountains, hot deserts, and hundreds of miles of scenic coastline. With an area of [[1 E11 m²|411,000]] [[square kilometre|km²]] it is the third largest state in the U.S and larger than Germany in size. Most major cities are at or near the Pacific coastline, notably [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]], [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[Santa Ana, California|Santa Ana]]/[[Orange County, California|Orange County]], and [[San Diego, California|San Diego]]. However, the [[capital]], [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], is in the [[Central Valley]]. California has extremely varied geography. In the center of the state lies the [[Central Valley|California Central Valley]], a huge, fertile [[valley]] bounded by the [[Pacific Coast Ranges|coastal mountain ranges]] in the [[Western United States|west]], the granite [[Sierra Nevada (US)|Sierra Nevada]] to the [[east]], the volcanic [[Cascade Range]] in the [[Northern California|north]] and the [[Tehachapi Mountains]] in the [[Southern California|south]]. Mountain-fed [[river]]s, dams, and canals provide water to irrigate the Central Valley. Water supply for much of the state, particularly the more populous cities in Southern California, is provided by the [[California Department of Water Resources|State Water Project]]. The [[Central Valley Project]] also provides municipal water supply, though it primarily provides water supply to irrigated agriculture. With dredging, several of these rivers have become sufficiently large and deep that several inland cities, notably [[Stockton, California|Stockton]], are [[seaport]]s. The hot, fertile Central Valley is California's agricultural heartland and grows a large portion of America's food, yet near freezing temperatures are not uncommon during winter which sometimes wipe out portions of crops. The southern part of the valley, which is part desert, is known as the San Joaquin Valley (drained by the [[San Joaquin River]]), while the northern half is known as the Sacramento Valley (drained by the [[Sacramento River]]). The [[Sacramento River Delta|Sacramento-San Joaquin Bay Delta]] is major estuary that supports a brackish ecosystem, while serving as the water supply hub for much of the state's population. In the center and east of the state are the Sierra Nevada (meaning Snowy Range in Spanish), containing the highest peak in the contiguous lower 48 states, [[Mount Whitney]], at 14,505 feet (4421 m). Also located in the Sierra are the world famous [[Yosemite National Park]] and a deep freshwater lake, [[Lake Tahoe]], the largest lake in the state by volume. To the east of the Sierra are [[Owens Valley]] and [[Mono Lake]], an essential [[seabird]] habitat. To the west is [[Clear Lake]], California's largest freshwater lake by area. The Sierra Nevada reaches arctic temperatures in the winter and holds several dozen small glaciers, including the most southern glacier in the United States (Palisade Glacier). California has about 35% of its total surface area covered by forests. California's diversity of pine species is unmatched by any other state. Though other states have a higher percentage of their land area covered by forests, in terms of total area, California contains more forestland than any other state except Alaska. Most of the forest is found in 2 places. First, in the northwestern part of the state and along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada. Smaller forests, mainly consisting of oaks, can be found along the coast ranges of California closer to the coast, and also in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada. Smaller areas of pine forests can be found in the San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains of Southern California and also in the mountain areas of Central San Diego Country. [[Image:wiki_california.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Greetings from California]] Deserts in California make up about 25% of the total surface area. In the south lie the [[Transverse Ranges]] and a large salt lake, the [[Salton Sea]]. The south-central desert is called the [[Mojave Desert|Mojave]]. To the northeast of the Mojave lies [[Death Valley]], which contains the lowest, hottest point in [[North America]]. The lowest point of Death Valley and the peak of Mount Whitney are less than 200 miles apart. The hiking trek between the two points has been attempted, several times, most notably by [[Lee Bergthold]]. Indeed, almost all of southeastern California is arid, hot desert, with the [[Coachella Valley]] and [[Imperial Valley]] routinely experiencing extreme high temperatures during the summer. Along the densely-populated and long California coast lie a number of major metropolitan areas, including those of [[San Jose, California|San Jose]]-[[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]-[[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]-[[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]], Santa Ana-Irvine-Anaheim, and [[San Diego, California|San Diego]]. Climates near the [[Pacific Ocean]] are remarkably moderate compared with inland climates. Winter temperatures never reach freezing (snow is virtually unheard of) and summer temperatures rarely reach above the high 80's Fahrenheit (low 30's Celsius). California is famous for [[earthquake]]s due to the presence of a number of faults, in particular the [[San Andreas Fault]]. While powerful earthquakes in the United States have occurred in other states such as [[Alaska]], [[Washington]], [[Oregon]], and the Midwestern state of [[Missouri]], (along the [[New Madrid fault]]), people are more aware of California's earthquakes due to their frequency and tendency to strike in highly populated areas. California is also home to several [[volcano]]es, some active such as [[Mammoth Mountain]]. Other volcanoes include [[Lassen Peak]], which erupted from 1914 and 1921, and [[Mount Shasta]]. === Climate === Different regions of California have very different climates, depending on their latitude, elevation, and proximity to the coast. Most of the state has a [[Mediterranean climate]], with rainy [[winter]]s and dry [[summer]]s. The influence of the ocean generally moderates temperature extremes, creating warmer winters and substantially cooler summers, and the cold oceanic California Current offshore often creates summer fog near the coast. As one moves away from the coast, the climate becomes more [[continental climate|continental]], with colder winters and markedly hotter summers. The temperature gradient between immediate coast and low-lying inland valleys in the north is about 7 °F (4 °C) in winter, coast being warmer, and in summer roughly 25 °F (14 °C) but opposite. In the south, the figures are approximately 4 and 23 °F (2 °C and 13 °C), respectively; however 4 °F and 35 °F (2 °C and 20 °C) between [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] and [[Death Valley]]. Westerly winds from the ocean also bring moisture, and the northern parts of the state generally receive higher rainfall than the south. California's mountain ranges influence the climate as well: moisture-laden air from the west cools as it ascends the mountains, dropping moisture; some of the rainiest parts of the state are west-facing mountain slopes. Northwestern California has a [[temperate climate]] with rainfall of 15&amp;ndash;40 inches (400&amp;ndash;1000 mm) per year. The Central Valley has a Mediterranean climate, but with greater temperature extremes than the coastal areas; parts of the valley are often filled with thick fog, similar to that found in the coastal valleys. The high mountains, including the [[Sierra Nevada (US)|Sierra Nevada]], have a [[mountain climate]] with [[snow]] in winter and mild to moderate heat in summer. On the east side of the mountains is a drier &quot;[[rain shadow]].&quot; California's [[desert climate]] regions lie east of the high Sierra Nevada and southern California's [[Transverse Ranges]] and [[Peninsular Ranges]]. The low deserts east of the southern California mountains, including the Imperial and Coachella valleys and the lower [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]], are part of the [[Sonoran Desert]], with hot summers and mild winters; the higher elevation deserts of [[eastern California]], including the [[Mojave Desert]], [[Owens Valley]], and the [[Modoc Plateau]], are part of the [[Great Basin]] region, with hot summers and cold winters. [[Death Valley]], in the northern portion of the [[Mojave Desert]] on the east side of the state, is the hottest spot on the [[Western Hemisphere]], with high temperatures over 120 °F common in the summer. The highest temperature in the Western Hemisphere, 134 °F (56.6 °C), was recorded in Death Valley on [[July 10]], [[1913]]. Temperatures of 130 °F or higher have been recorded as recently as 2005. The 24-hour average July temperature in Death Valley is 101 °F (38 °C) (1961--1990 standard). ==Ecology== {{main|Ecology of California}} Ecologically, California is one of the richest and most divers
ing it. Despite numerous similarities in phrasing and factual errors, the court found Wells not guilty. In 1938, he published a collection of essays on the future organisation of knowledge and education, titled ''[[World Brain]]'', including the essay ''The Idea of a Permanent World Encyclopaedia''. Near the end of the Second World War Allied forces discovered that the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] had compiled lists of intellectuals and politicians slated for immediate liquidation upon the invasion of England in the abandoned [[Operation Sea Lion]]. The name &amp;#8220;H.G. Wells&amp;#8221; appeared high on the list for the &quot;crime&quot; of being a socialist. Wells, as president of the International [[PEN]] (Poets, Essayists, Novelists), had already angered the [[Nazism|Nazis]] by overseeing the expulsion of the German PEN club from the international body in 1934 following the German PEN's refusal to admit non-[[Aryan]] writers to its membership. In his later years, he grew increasingly pessimistic about the prospects for humanity (mostly because of the [[World War II|Second World War]]) as the title of his last book, ''[[Mind at the End of its Tether]]'' (1945) suggests. His later books are often thought to do more preaching than storytelling or lack the energy and invention of his earlier works. One critic complained: &quot;He sold his birthright for a pot of message&quot;.{{fn|5}}, though ''[[The Happy Turning]]'', a short book from 1944, contains a great deal of wit and imagination. ==Legacy== In his lifetime and after his death, Wells was considered a prominent socialist thinker. In his book ''[[The Road to Serfdom]]'', [[Friedrich Hayek]], one of the twentieth century's most famous proponents of [[laissez-faire]] [[capitalism]], held up Wells in particular as a person who believed in &quot;the most comprehensive central planning&quot; and could &quot;at the same time, write an ardent defence of the rights of man&quot;.{{fn|6}} In later years, however, Wells' image has shifted and he is now thought of simply as one of the pioneers of science fiction; [[Newt Gingrich]], former [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives]] and staunch [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], praised Wells in his book ''To Renew America'', writing &quot;Our generation is still seeking its [[Jules Verne]] or H.G. Wells to dazzle our imaginations with hope and optimism&quot;.{{fn|7}} ==Appearances in other contexts== H. G. Wells appears as a character in the ''[[Doctor Who]]'' serial ''[[Timelash]]''. He also appears as a character in the novel and motion picture [[Time After Time (1979 film)|''Time After Time'']], where he chases [[Jack The Ripper]] after the latter stole his time machine and escaped to 1979-era [[San Francisco]]. He also appears as a character in multiple episodes of ''[[Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman]]''. The novel ''[[The Time Ships]]'', by British author [[Stephen Baxter]], was designated by the Wells estate as an authorised sequel to ''[[The Time Machine]]'', marking the centenary of its publication, and features characters, situations and [[technobabble]] from several of Wells' stories, as well as a representation of Wells (unnamed, and referred to as 'my friend, the Author'). Arthur Sammler, the main character of [[Saul Bellow]]'s ''[[Mr. Sammler's Planet]]'' is working on a biography of H. G. Wells. Sammler is a [[Holocaust]] survivor and a self-made philosopher who treasures his pre-war acquaintance with Wells. In [[C. S. Lewis]]' novel [[That Hideous Strength]], the character Jules is a caricature of Wells, and much of Lewis' science fiction is written both under the influence of Wells and as an antithesis to his work. ==Works== A partial listing of his works: (Entries marked with an * are available at the [[Project Gutenberg]] website.) *''[[The Chronic Argonauts]]'' ([[1888]]) *''[[Textbook of Biology (Wells)|Textbook of Biology]]'' ([[1893]]) *''[[Honours Physiography]]'', co-written with [[R.A. Gregory]], ([[1893]]) *''[[Select Conversations with an Uncle]]'' ([[1895]]) *''[[The Time Machine]]'' ([[1895]])* *''[[The Wonderful Visit]]'' ([[1895]]) *''[[The Stolen Bacillus and Other Incidents]]'' ([[1895]])* *''[[The Island of Dr. Moreau]]'' ([[1896]])* *''[[The Red Room (Wells)|The Red Room]]'' ([[1896]])* *''[[The Wheels of Chance]]'' ([[1896]])* *''[[The Plattner Story, and Others]]'' ([[1897]]) *''[[The Invisible Man]]'' ([[1897]])* *''[[Certain Personal Matters]]'' ([[1897]]) *''[[The Star]]'' - short story, Graphic, Christmas ([[1897]])* *''[[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]]'' ([[1898]])* *''When the Sleeper Wakes'' ([[1899]]) (later revised as ''[[The Sleeper Awakes]]'', 1910)* *''[[Love and Mr Lewisham]]'' ([[1900]])* *''[[The First Men in the Moon]]'' ([[1901]])* *''[[Anticipations]]'' ([[1901]]) *''[[The Discovery of the Future]]'' ([[1902]]) *''[[Mankind in the Making]]'' ([[1903]])* *''[[Twelve Stories and a Dream]]'' ([[1903]]) *''[http://www.geocities.com/martinwguy/sceptins.txt The Scepticism of the Instrument]'' - A portion of a paper read to the Oxford Philosophical Society, November 8, ([[1903]]) *''[[The Food of the Gods and How It Came to Earth]]'' ([[1904]])* *''[[Kipps|Kipps: The Story of a Simple Soul]]'' ([[1905]]) *''[[A Modern Utopia]]'' ([[1905]])* *''[[In the Days of the Comet]]'' ([[1906]])* *''[[The Future in America]]'' ([[1906]]) *''[[Faults of the Fabian]]'' ([[1906]]) *''[[Socialism and the Family]]'' ([[1906]]) *''[[Reconstruction of the Fabian Society]]'' ([[1906]]) *''[[This Misery of Boots]]'' ([[1907]]), reprinted from the Independent Review, Dec. 1905. *''[[Will Socialism Destroy the Home?]]'' (paper, written in [[1907]]) *''[[New Worlds for Old]]'' ([[1908]]) *''[[The War in the Air]]'' ([[1908]])* *''[[First and Last Things]]'' ([[1908]])* *''[[Ann Veronica]]'' ([[1909]])* *''[[Tono-Bungay]]'' ([[1909]])* *''[[The History of Mr. Polly]]'' ([[1910]])* *''[[The Sleeper Awakes]]'' ([[1910]])* - Revised edition of ''When the Sleeper Wakes'' *''[[The New Machiavelli]]'' ([[1911]])* *''[[The Country of the Blind and Other Stories]]'' ([[1911]])* *''[[The Door in the Wall and Other Stories]] ([[1911]]) *''[[Floor Games]]'' ([[1911]])* *''[[Marriage_(HG_Wells_Novel)|Marriage]]'' ([[1912]]) *''[[Little Wars]]'' ([[1913]])* *''[[The World Set Free]]'' ([[1914]])* *''[[The Research Magnificent]]'' ([[1915]])* *''[[God the Invisible King]]'' ([[1917]])* *''[[War and the Future]]'' ([[1917]])* *''[[The Soul of a Bishop]]'' ([[1917]])* *''[[The Outline of History]]'' I, II [[1920]], [[1931]], [[1940]] (1949, 1956, 1961, 1971) *''[[A Short History of the World]]'' ([[1922]]) *''[[The Secret Places of the Heart]]'' ([[1922]])* *''[[Men Like Gods]]'' ([[1923]]) *''[[Christina Alberta's Father]]'' ([[1925]]) *''[[The World of William Clissold]]'' ([[1926]]) *''[[Meanwhile]]'' ([[1927]]) *''[[Mr Blettsworthy on Rampole Island]]'' ([[1928]]) *''[[The Open Conspiracy]]'' ([[1928]]) *''[[The Science of Life]]'' ([[1930]]) *''[[The Outline of Man's Work and Wealth]]'' ([[1931]]) *''[[The Shape of Things to Come]]'' ([[1933]]) *''[[Star-Begotten]]'' ([[1937]]) *''[[Crux Ansata (H. G. Wells)|Crux Ansata]]'' ([[1943]]) His autobiography was published in [[1934]], as ''An Experiment in Autobiography''. ==Footnotes== *{{fnb|1}} [http://library.thinkquest.org/27864/data/wells/hgwbio.html ThinkQuest Library]. ''H.G. Wells Biography''. *{{fnb|2}} [http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/passionate_friends.htm New York University]. ''The Passionate Friends: H. G. Wells and Margaret Sanger''. *{{fnb|3}} [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/hgwells.htm Pegasos - A Literature Related Resource Site]. ''H(erbert) G(eorge) Wells (1866-1946)''. *{{fnb|4}} ''An Experiment in Autobiography'' p. 215, 687-689 *{{fnb|5}} The &quot;pot of message&quot; remark comes from a [[1948]] [[Theodore Sturgeon]] short story entitled ''Unite and Conquer'', a character in the story was quoting a &quot;Dr. Pierce&quot;. *{{fnb|6}} Hayek, Friedrich. ''The Road to Serfdom''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944 (1994 edition). p. 94. *{{fnb|7}} Gingrich, Newt. ''To Renew America''. New York: [[HarperCollins]], 1995. p. 189. ==Sources== * ''The War of the Worlds'' Front Page. ==Honours== * [[H. G. Wells (crater)|H. G. Wells crater]] on the [[Far side (Moon)|far side]] of the [[Moon]] is named for him. ==See also== *[[H. G. Wells Society]] *[[Science Fiction]] *[[Invasion literature]] *[[Fabian Society]] *[[List of Socialists]] *[[Cosmotheism]] *[[Noosphere]] *[[Omega Point]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{Wikisource author}} * [http://www.hgwellsusa.50megs.com/ H. G. Wells Society] * [http://www.hgwellsusa.50megs.com/UK/wellsian.html ''The Wellsian'', the journal of the H. G. Wells Society] * [http://jch.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/39/1/45.pdf An Essay on the Politics of H. G. Wells and George Orwell] * {{gutenberg author|id=H._G._Wells|name=H. G. Wells}} *[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Wells%2C+H.+G.&amp;amode=start E-texts on The Online Books Page] *[http://library.thinkquest.org/27864/data/wells/hgwbio.html?tqskip1=1&amp;tqtime=0806 Another profile of him] *[http://quotesandpoem.com/literature/ListofLiteraryWorks/Wells__H._G._(Herbert_George) H. G. Well’s Works and Quotes] *[http://www.geocities.com/originalroman/ A more detailed look at his life and work] *[http://www.online-literature.com/wellshg/invisibleking/ eBook: ''God the Invisible King''] * {{isfdb name|id=H._G._Wells|name=H. G. Wells}} *[http://www.costik.com/littlewars.html Little Wars &amp; Floor Games] Introduction to the [[1995]] edition of Wells' gaming books. *[https://www.audioville.co.uk/store/search.php?Search=hg+wells&amp;Submit=Search audioVille] Audio dramatisations and readings of a number of HG Wells stories. *[http://www.english-literature-online.com/h-g-wells/ eBooks by H G Wells at English Literature Online including War of the Worlds]
ion. The Inuit language of [[Quebec]] is called ''Inuttitut'' by its speakers, and often by other people, but this is a minor variation in pronunciation. In [[Labrador]], the language is called ''Inuttut'' or, often in official documents, by the more descriptive name ''[[Labradorimiutut]]''. Furthermore, Canadians - both Inuit and non-Inuit - sometimes use the word ''Inuktitut'' to refer to ''all'' of the Inuit language variants, including those of Alaska and Greenland. The phrase ''&quot;Inuit language&quot;'' is largely limited to professional discourse, since in each area, there is one or more conventional terms that cover all the local variants; or it is used as a descriptive term in publications where readers can't necessarily be expected to know the locally used words. But, this means that while you can call the [[French language]] ''French'', you cannot call the Inuit language ''Inuit''. Saying ''&quot;Peter speaks Inuit&quot;'' is a very strange usage that most people who are familiar with the Inuit language would recognise as suspect, comparable to asserting that [[Hispanic]]s must speak ''&quot;Hispanic&quot;''. The word ''Inuit'' is generally reserved for the ethnic group, both from its Inuit language meaning - it refers specifically to a group of people - and in the way the word has been adopted in [[English language|English]]. Although many people refer to the Inuit language as ''Eskimo language'', this is an ambiguous term that can also include [[Yupik language|Yupik]] (see [[Eskimo-Aleut languages]]), and is in addition strongly discouraged in Canada and diminishing in usage elsewhere. See the article on ''[[Eskimo]]'' for more information on this word. ==Classification and history== The language of the Inuit is an [[Eskimo-Aleut languages|Eskimo-Aleut language]]. It is fairly closely related to the [[Yupik language]]s, and more remotely to the [[Aleut language]]s. These cousin languages are all spoken in Western [[Alaska]] and Eastern [[Chukotka]], [[Russia]]. It is not discernibly related to other [[Native American languages|North American]] or [[Asian languages|northwest Asian]] indigenous languages, although some have proposed that it is related to [[Indo-European languages]] as part of the hypothetical [[Nostratic]] superphylum, and there are those who consider it a [[Paleo-Siberian languages|Paleo-Siberian language]], although that is more a geographic than a linguistic grouping. Early forms of the Inuit language were spoken by the [[Thule (people)|Thule people]], who overran the [[Dorset (culture)|Dorset civilisation]], which had previously occupied Arctic America, at the beginning of the [[second millennium]]. By [[1300]], the Inuit and their language had reached western Greenland, and finally east Greenland roughly at the same time the [[Viking]] colony in southern Greenland disappeared. It is generally believed that it was during this centuries-long eastwards migration that the Inuit language became distinct from the [[Yupik language]]s spoken in Western Alaska and Chukotka. Until [[1902]], an enclave of [[Dorset (culture)|Dorset people]] or ''Sadlermiut'' (in modern [[Inuktitut]] spelling ''Sallirmiut'') existed on [[Southampton Island]]. Almost nothing is known about their language, but the few eyewitness accounts tell of them speaking a &quot;strange dialect&quot;. This suggests that they also spoke an [[Eskimo-Aleut]] language, but one quite distinct from the forms spoken in Canada today. The Yupik and Inuit languages are very similar syntactically and morphologically. Their common origin can be seen in a number of cognates: &lt;center&gt; {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;70%&quot; ! English !! Central Yupik !! Iñupiatun !! North Baffin Inuktitut |- | person || yuk || iñuk [iɲuk] || inuk |- | frost || kaneq || kaniq || kaniq |- | river || kuik || kuuk || kuuk |- | outside || ellami || siḷami [siʎami] || silami |} &lt;/center&gt; The western Alaskan variants retain a large number of features present in proto-Inuit language and in Yup'ik, enough so that they might be classed as Yup'ik languages if they were viewed in isolation from the larger Inuit world. ==Geographic distribution and variants== [[Image:Inuktitut dialect map.png|thumb|right|Distribution of Inuit language variants across the Arctic.]]The Inuit language is a fairly closely linked set of dialects which can be broken up using a number of different criteria. Traditionally, Inuit describe dialect differences by means of place names to describe local idiosyncracies in language: The dialect of [[Iglulik]] versus the dialect of [[Iqaluit]], for example. However, political and sociological divisions are increasingly the principal criteria for describing different variants of the Inuit language because of their links to different writing systems, literary traditions, schools, media sources and borrowed vocabulary. This makes any partition of the Inuit language somewhat problematic. This article will use labels that try to synthesise linguistic, sociolinguistic and political considerations in splitting up the Inuit dialect spectrum. This scheme is not the only one used or necessarily one used by Inuit themselves, but its labels do try to reflect the usages most seen in popular and technical literature. In addition to the territories listed below, some 7,000 Greenlandic speakers are reported to live in mainland [[Denmark]] [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kal], and according to the 2001 census roughly 200 self-reported Inuktitut native speakers regularly live in parts of [[Canada]] which are outside of traditional Inuit lands. ===Alaska=== ''See ''[[Inupiatun]]'' and ''[[Qawiaraq]]'' for more information.'' Of the roughly 13,000 Alaskan [[Inupiat]], as few as 3,000 may still be able to speak Inuit language variants, with most of them over the age of 40. [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/langs/i.html] Alaskan Inuit speak at least two fairly distinct dialects: *'''[[Qawiaraq]]''' is spoken on the southern side of the [[Seward Peninsula]] and the [[Norton Sound]] area. It was also in the past spoken in [[Chukotka]], particularly [[Diomede Islands|Big Diomede island]], but appears to have vanished in [[Russia]]n areas through assimilation into [[Yupik]], [[Chukchi]] and [[Russian language|Russian]] speaking communities. It is radically different in phonology from other Inuit language variants. Some people consider the '''[[Bering Strait]]''' dialect to be separate from Qawariaq. *'''[[Inupiatun]]''' is spoken in [[North Slope]] and the [[Kotzebue Sound]] area. The variants of the [[Kotzebue Sound]] area and the northwest of Alaska are sometimes called '''Malimiutun''' or '''Malimiut Inupiatun'''. However, despite significant differences in phonology, Malimiutun is readily comprehensible to other Alaskan [[Inupiat]]. [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/langs/i.html] ===Canada=== ''See ''[[Inuktitut]]'' for more information.'' The Inuit language is an official language in the [[Northwest Territories]], the official and dominant language of [[Nunavut]], enjoys a high level of official support in [[Nunavik]], a semi-autonomus portion of [[Quebec]], and is still spoken in some parts of [[Labrador]]. Generally, Canadians refer to all dialects spoken in Canada as ''[[Inuktitut]]'', but the terms ''[[Inuvialuktun]]'', ''[[Inuinnaqtun]]'' and ''[[Labradorimiutut]]'' have some currency in referring to the variants of specific areas. ===Greenland=== ''See ''[[Kalaallisut]]'' for more information.'' [[Greenland]] counts approximately 50,000 speakers of Inuit language variants, of whom over 90% speak west Greenlandic dialects at home. *'''[[Kalaallisut]]''', or in English '''Greenlandic''', is the name given to the standard dialect and official language of Greenland. This standard national language is now taught to all Greenlanders in school, regardless of their native dialect. It reflects almost exclusively the language of western Greenland and has borrowed a great deal of vocabulary from [[Danish language|Danish]], while Canadian and Alaskan Inuit language variants have tended to take vocabulary from [[English language|English]] or sometimes [[French language|French]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. It is written using the Roman alphabet. The dialect of the [[Upernavik]] area in northwest Greenland is somewhat different in phonology from the standard dialect. *'''Tunumiit oraasiat''', (or '''Tunumiisut''' in Kalaallisut, often '''[[East Greenlandic]]''' in other languages), is the dialect of eastern Greenland. It differs sharply from other Inuit language variants and has roughly 3,000 speakers according to [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kal Ethnologue]. *'''Avanersuaq''' is the dialect of the area around [[Qaanaaq]] in northern Greenland. It is sometimes called the '''Thule''' dialect or '''North Greenlandic'''. This area is the northernmost settlement area of the Inuit and has a relatively small number of speakers. It is reputed to be fairly close to the North Baffin dialect, since a group of migratory Inuit from [[Baffin Island]] settled in the area during the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]]. It counts under 1,000 speakers according to [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kal Ethnologue]. ==Phonology and Phonetics== ''See main article ''[[Inuit language phonology and phonetics]]''.'' Eastern Canadian Inuit language variants have fifteen [[consonant]]s and three [[vowel]]s (which can be long or short). Consonants are arranged with five [[place of articulation|places of articulation]]: [[bilabial]], [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]], [[palatal]], [[velar]] and [[uvular]]; and three [[manner of articulation|manners of articulation]]: voiceless [[Stop consonant|stop]]s, voiced [[continuant]]s and [[nasals]], as well as two additional sounds — voiceless [[Fricative consonant|fricative]]s. The Alaskan dialects
but think nothing of heavenly things; for this reason they are mercenaries.&quot; * Saint [[John Chrysostom]] (ca 344 - 407 CE) - wrote of the Jews and of Judaizers in eight homilies ''Adversus Judaeos'', ''Against The Jews'' (or ''Against the Judaizers'') [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/chrysostom-jews6.html]. These quotes are translations from the original Greek posted by Paul Halsall: other researchers give slightly different translations. : &quot;Shall I tell you of their plundering, their covetousness, their abandonment of the poor, their thefts, their cheating in trade? the whole day long will not be enough to give you an account of these things. But do their festivals have something solemn and great about them? They have shown that these, too, are impure.&quot; (Homily I, VII, 1) : &quot;But before I draw up my battle line against the Jews, I will be glad to talk to those who are members of our own body, those who seem to belong to our ranks although they observe the Jewish rites and make every effort to defend them. Because they do this, as I see it, they deserve a stronger condemnation than any Jew.&quot; (HOMILY IV, II, 4) : &quot;Are you Jews still disputing the question? Do you not see that you are condemned by the testimony of what Christ and the prophets predicted and which the facts have proved? But why should this surprise me? That is the kind of people you are. From the beginning you have been shameless and obstinate, ready to fight at all times against obvious facts.&quot; (HOMILY V, XII, 1) : ''Historical note'' The goal of these sermons was to discourage Christians from intermixing Jewish belief and practice with Christian belief and practice, because he believed that Jewish belief and practice were incompatible with Christianity. They were delivered while Chrysostom was a tonsured Reader, well before his ordination to the priesthood. * Saint [[Fulgentius of Ruspe]] (467-533 CE) - In his &quot;Writings&quot;, written about 510 CE, he states &quot;Hold most firmly and doubt not that not all the pagans, but also all the Jews, heretic and schismatics who depart from the present life outside the Catholic Church, are about to go into eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels.&quot; (See also: [[Extra ecclesiam nulla salus]].) ==Later Christian writers== * Thomas of Monmouth, a monk in the [[Norwich]] Benedictine monastery, wrote a detailed anti-Semitic tractate holding that Jews tortured to death Christian children during Passover. His tractate was called ''The Life and Miracles of St. William of Norwich, 1173''. :[http://www.unc.edu/courses/pre2000fall/westciv/readings/antisemitism.html Excerpt from the Life and Miracles of St. William of Norwich] * [[Thomas Aquinas]] ([[1225]] - [[1274]]) preached that the Jews were damned because they had slain Jesus, and the only way they could be saved was to renounce their faith and be baptized as Christians. * [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] (?[[1343]]-[[1400]]) wrote in &quot;The Prioress's Tale&quot; of his ''Canterbury Tales'' of a devout little Christian child who was murdered by Jews affronted at his singing a hymn as he passed through the Jewry, or Jewish quarter, of a city in Asia: :Our primal foe, the serpent Sathanas, :Who has in Jewish heart his hornets' nest, :Swelled arrogantly: &quot;O Jewish folk, alas! :Is it to you a good thing, and the best, :That such a boy walks here, without protest, :In your despite and doing such offense :Against the teachings that you reverence?&quot; :From that time forth the Jewish folk conspired :Out of the world this innocent to chase; :A murderer they found, and thereto hired, :Who in an alley had a hiding-place; :And as the child went by at sober pace, :This cursed Jew did seize and hold him fast, :And cut his throat, and in a pit him cast. :I say, that in a cesspool him they threw, :Wherein these Jews did empty their entrails. :O cursed folk of Herod, born anew, :How can you think your ill intent avails? :Murder will out, 'tis sure, nor ever fails, :And chiefly when God's honour vengeance needs.[http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/gchaucer/bl-gchau-can-pri.htm] * [[Martin Luther]], founder of the Lutheran Protestant Christian denomination, at first made overtures towards the Jews, believing that the evils of [[Catholicism]] had prevented their conversion to Christianity. When his call to convert to his version of Christianity was understandably rebuffed he became hostile to them and preached, in his book ''On the Jews and their Lies'', that they were &quot;venomous beasts, vipers, disgusting scum, canders, devils incarnate. Their private houses must be destroyed and devastated, they could be lodged in stables. Let the magistrates burn their synagogues and let whatever escapes be covered with sand and mud. Let them force to work, and if this avails nothing, we will be compelled to expel them like dogs in order not to expose ourselves to incurring divine wrath and eternal damnation from the Jews and their lies.&quot; It is to be noted that the many Lutheran churches and councils across the world have been slow in disassociating themselves from these statements. * [[Pope Clement VIII]] (1536-1605). &quot;All the world suffers from the [[usury]] of the Jews, their monopolies and deceit. They have brought many unfortunate people into a state of poverty, especially the farmers, working class people and the very poor. Then, as now, Jews have to be reminded intermittently that they were enjoying rights in any country since they left Palestine and the Arabian desert, and subsequently their ethical and moral doctrines as well as their deeds rightly deserve to be exposed to criticism in whatever country they happen to live.&quot; Many websites have lists of supposed quotes by Christian leaders and saints. For example, one page on [http://www.nt-antisemitism.ic24.net/antisem/hate.htm More Christian Jew Haters] claims to list &quot;quotes that reveal shocking hatred against the Jewish people and false accusations against the Jews by popes, 'saints' and other Christian religious functionaries&quot;. Many of these quotes turn out to be partly or completely fabricated by people seeking to discredit Christianity. Amongst the victims of these misquotations is [[Gregory of Nyssa]]. ==The Jews' expulsion from England== [[Edward I of England]] expelled all the Jews from England in 1290 (only after ransoming some 3,000 among the most wealthy of them). ==The Jews' expulsion from Spain== In [[1481]], [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and [[Isabella I of Castile]], the rulers of [[Spain]] who financed [[Christopher Columbus]]' voyage to the New World just a few years later in [[1492]], declared that all Jews in their territories should either convert to Christianity or leave the country. While some converted, many others left for [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Holland]], the [[Ottoman Empire]], and [[North Africa]]. Estimates are that between four and eight thousand Jews who had formally converted, were burnt alive based on the accusation that they were still [[marrano|secretly practising Judaism]]. It is arguable whether this constitutes anti-Semitism in the racist sense, since it was directed at recent (though forced) converts from [[Judaism]]. ==Christians in [[Nazi Germany]]== ===Collaborating Christians=== See: * ''[[Gleichschaltung]]''; * [[German Christians]]; * [[Protestant Reich Church]]; * [[Hanns Kerrl]], Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs * [[Hitler's Pope]] * [[Positive Christianity]] (the approved Nazi version of Christianity) ===Opposition to the Holocaust=== The [[Confessing Church]] was, in [[1934]], the first Christian opposition group. The Catholic Church officially condemned the Nazi theory of racism in Germany in 1937 with the [[Encyclical]] &quot;[[Mit Brennender Sorge]]&quot;, signed by [[Pope Pius XI]], and [[Michael Cardinal von Faulhaber]] led the Catholic opposition, preaching against racism. However, there was not enough organized resistance by Christian groups to prevent the Nazis' anti-Semitic policies. Many individual Christian clergy and laypeople of all denominations had to pay for their opposition with their life, including: * the Lutheran pastors [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]] and [[Martin Niemöller]] (who was imprisoned, but not executed); * the Catholic parson of Berlin Cathedral, [[Bernhard Lichtenberg]]. * the members of the group [[White Rose]] around [[Hans Scholl|Hans]] and [[Sophie Scholl]]. By the 1940s, fewer Christians were willing to oppose Nazi policy publicly, but many secretly helped save the lives of Jews. There are many sections of Israel's Holocaust Remembrance Museum, [[Yad VaShem]], dedicated to honoring these &quot;[[Righteous Among the Nations]]&quot;. See also: [[Christian opposition to anti-Semitism#Pius XII]] ===Comparisons between Nazi Germany and early Christian states' policies with regards to Jews=== Some Nazi policies towards Jews had forerunners in similar laws enacted in Europe by Christian rulers centuries before Nazism. Examples include: * The Synod of Clermont (Franks), 535 CE, prohibited Jews from holding public office. * Nazi Germany, 1935 CE - Prohibited Jews from holding public office. * The 12th Synod of Toledo (Spain), 681 CE, ordered the burning of the Talmud and other Jewish books. * Nazi Germany - Ordered the burning of the Talmud and other Jewish books. * In 692, the [[Council in Trullo|Trulanic Synod]] forbade Christians to go to Jewish doctors, attend Jewish religious feasts or have friendly relations with Jews. * Nazi Germany - The Nuremberg laws forbade people to go to Jewish doctors * The Fourth Lateran Council, 1215 CE, forced Jews to wear a distinctive badge on their clothing. * Pope Paul IV, in 1555, issues a [[papal bull]] forcing Jews to wear yellow hats; this same papal bull confines Jews to ghettos, and bans them from working in most professions. * Nazi Germany adopted eve
-lane, high-level structure, was opened to traffic in October 1982. The cost of the complete replacement project was $200 million. The current bridge has a shoulder in each direction for emergency use and a two-way [[bicycle]] and pedestrian path on the eastbound side. A 340 foot center span provides 85 feet of vertical clearance for [[ship]]ping. The approach spans on both sides of the Bay are of prestressed [[lightweight concrete]] [[girder]]s supporting a lightweight concrete deck. The center spans are twin steel trapezoidal girders which also support a lightweight concrete deck. The rail bridge is currently unused, but a successful March [[2004]] regional transportation ballot measure included funding to rehabilitate the rail bridge for commuter rail service. ==Connections to the western circulation system== The bridge is part of [[California State Route 84]], and is directly connected to [[Interstate 880]] by a freeway segment north of the Fremont end. However, it is not directly connected to [[U.S. Highway 101 in California|US 101]] at its southern end in Menlo Park. Motorists must traverse one of three at-grade routes to connect from the Bayshore Freeway to the bridge. Although this has led to severe traffic problems on the bridge itself and in Menlo Park and [[East Palo Alto, California|East Palo Alto]], [[Caltrans]] has been unable to upgrade the relevant portion of Highway 84 to Interstate standards, due to opposition from the cities of Menlo Park, [[Atherton, California|Atherton]] and [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]]. The freeway opponents fear that upgrading Highway 84 will encourage more people to live in [[Alameda County, California|Alameda County]] (where housing is more affordable) and commute to jobs in the mid-Peninsula area, thus increasing traffic in their neighborhoods to the south of the bridge. Bus service across the bridge is provided by the [[Dumbarton Express]], run by a consortium of local transit agencies ([[SamTrans]],[[AC Transit]], [[VTA]] and others) which connects to [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]] at Union City and [[Caltrain]] at Palo Alto and California Avenue (Mayfield). ==Film credits== An extended sequence in the movie ''[[Harold and Maude]]'' takes place on the [[1927]] span and its eastern approach. The Dumbarton Bridge is also mentioned in the dialog of the [[1992]] film ''[[Sneakers (film)|Sneakers]]''. ==References== * {{note|Hogan}} [[C. Michael Hogan]], Harry Seidman, Leda Patmore, Gary latshaw et al., ''Air Quality and acoustical analysis of the Dumbarton Bridge replacement project'', prepared for Caltrans by [[ESL Inc.]], Sunnyvale, Ca. (1974) * {{note|San}} ''San Francisco Bay Shoreline Guide'', by California State Coastal Conservancy, University of california Press (1995) ISBN: 0520088786 == External links == * [http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/traffops/hwybrdg/tollbridge/History/Dumbarton.html California Dept. of Transportation: Dumbarton Bridge History &amp;amp; Information] * [http://baytrail.abag.ca.gov/vtour/map3/access/Btdmbrtn/Btdmbrtn.htm Bay Trail: Dumbarton Bridge] {{Geolinks-US-hoodscale|37.5069|-122.1169}} {{SFBridges}} [[Category:Bridges in California]] [[Category:Toll bridges in California]] [[Category:Bridges completed in 1984]] [[Category:Bridges completed in 1927]] [[bg:Дъмбартън (Калифорнийски мост)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dock</title> <id>8118</id> <revision> <id>39474353</id> <timestamp>2006-02-13T10:46:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CarolGray</username> <id>239028</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix link to ferry slip</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dock''' can refer to several things: *Places for the transfer of [[person|people]] and [[material]]s to, from, or between different forms of [[transport]] or working with transport: ** A [[dock (maritime)|maritime dock]]. ** [[Loading dock]], the land equivalent. ** A [[dry dock]]. ** In [[American English]] dock is technically synonymous with [[pier]] or [[wharf]]; any human-made structure intended for people to be on. However, in modern use, pier is generally used to refer to structures originally intended for industrial use, such as [[seafood processing]] or [[shipping]], and more recently for [[cruise ship]]s, and dock is used for most everything else, often with a qualifier, such as [[Ferry slip|ferry dock (ferry slip)]], [[swimming dock]], etc. **In [[cottage]] country in [[Canada]] a dock is a wooden platform build over water with one end secured to the shore. The platform is used for boarding and off loading small boats. The platform elevation is typically 50 [[Metre#SI_multiples|centimetre]] above the water. ** [[Space vehicle]]s also ''dock'' in space to allow the transfer of [[astronaut]]s from one vehicle to another in a [[space rendezvous]]. **In [[United Kingdom|British]] [[courtroom]]s, it is a small enclosed place where the [[defendant]] stands during the [[trial (law)|trial]]. ::These meanings of the word came from [[Old Norse]] ''dokk'' = &quot;small recess or corner&quot;. * [[Plant]]s in the genus ''[[Rumex]]'' are also often known as [[Rumex|Dock]]s. * [[Docking]], the process of removing part of an animal's tail or ears. * The [[Dock (computing)|Dock]] in some [[computer]] [[operating systems]], especially NeXT Step and Mac OS X * [[Molecular docking|Computational molecular docking]] is a technique used to predict whether a small molecule will bind to a protein. This is particularly important in [[rational drug design]]. * [[Protein-protein docking]] is a field of theoretical biochemistry aimed at predicting the associations of two or more [[protein]]s. * [[The Docks]], a multi-purpose enterainment complex in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. * '''The Docks''' is a level in the video game [[Heretic (video game)|Heretic]]. * [[Gay slang#D|Docking]], a male-male sexual activity. {{disambig}} [[ja:ドック]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dockyard</title> <id>8119</id> <revision> <id>15906140</id> <timestamp>2003-10-20T01:02:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jamesday</username> <id>22105</id> </contributor> <comment>Redirect to shipard</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Shipyard]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dorothy Sayers</title> <id>8120</id> <revision> <id>15906141</id> <timestamp>2002-08-15T09:35:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>-- April</username> <id>166</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect as per talk</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dorothy L. Sayers]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dallas Cowboys</title> <id>8121</id> <revision> <id>42131915</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:58:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phbasketball6</username> <id>851404</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Not to be forgotten */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Dallas Cowboys | logo = DallasCowboys_100.png | founded = 1960 | city = Irving, Texas | colors = Royal Blue, Metallic Silver, Blue, and White | coach = [[Bill Parcells]] | owner = [[Jerry Jones]] | general manager = Jerry Jones | nicknames = The 'Boys | mascot = Rowdy [http://www.dallascowboys.com/rowdy.cfm] | stations = KLUV (98.7 FM) | announcers = Babe Laufenberg, Kristi Scales, and Brad Sham | hist_yr = 1960 | NFL_start_yr = 1960 | division_hist = *Western Conference (1960) *Eastern Conference (1961-1969) **Capitol Division (1967-1969) *'''[[National Football Conference]] (1970-present)''' **'''[[NFC East]] (1970-present)''' | no_league_champs = 5 | no_sb_champs = 5 | no_conf_champs = 10 | no_div_champs = 18 | sb_champs = 1971&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl VI|VI]]), 1977&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XII|XII]]), 1992&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXVII|XXVII]]), 1993&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXVIII|XXVIII]]), 1995&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXX|XXX]]) | conf_champs = *'''NFL Eastern:''' 1966, 1967 *'''NFC:''' 1970, 1971, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1992, 1993, 1995 | div_champs = *'''NFL Capitol:''' 1967, 1968, 1969 *'''NFC East:''' 1970, 1971, 1973, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1981, 1985, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998 | stadium_years = *[[Cotton Bowl (stadium)|Cotton Bowl]] (1960-1970) *'''[[Texas Stadium]] (1971-present)''' }} The '''Dallas Cowboys''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in the [[Dallas, Texas]] [[metropolitan area]], and play their home games in the suburb of [[Irving, Texas|Irving]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC East|Eastern Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Cowboys joined the NFL as a 1960 [[expansion team]]. The team is sometimes referred to colloquially as ''[[America's Team]]'' due to its having a large fanbase that lives outside its immediate local area (the term itself is derived from the title of the team's 1979 [[NFL Films]] [[highlight film]]). The Cowboys are one of the most successful teams in the history of the NFL, holding the league records for most consecutive winning seasons (20, from 1966 to 1985) and most seasons with at least 10 wins (24). The team has earned the most postseason appearances (27, as of 2004, which includes another league record of 54 postseason games, winning 32 of them) and the most [[Super Bowl]] appearances (8). The Cowboys became the first team in NFL history to win 3 Super Bowls in just 4 years (a feat that has been matched only once since, by the [[New England Patriots]]), and are tied with the [[San Francisco 49ers]] and the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] for having the most number of Super Bowl wins (5). :'''Uniform colors:''' White jerseys have royal blue numbers and lettering; colored jerseys feature a darker shade of blue as background (similar to that of the star logo
apita income]] for the city is $22,055. 8.1% of the population and 6.5% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 9.7% of those under the age of 18 and 8.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. ===Entertainment=== A lot of people will talk about coming to see Columbus' architecture, and others will talk about Mill Race and Donner's park. As of now, there are 3 theatres: new movies (Kerasotes Showplace 12); one showing movies about to hit DVD for $2.00 (Commons Cinema); and Yes Cinema showing Indie flicks and older movies. ==External links== * [http://www.indiana.edu/~radiotv/wtiu/columbus/columbus.html Columbus Indiana: different by design] * [http://www.uwbarthco.org/vac Volunteer Action Center, Columbus, Indiana] * [http://www.ceenonline.com/ Columbus Entertainment and Events Network, Columbus, Indiana] * [http://www.kid-at-art.com/htdoc/kids.html A Kid's Columbus, Columbus, Indiana] * [http://www.historiccolumbusindiana.org A History of Columbus Indiana] {{Mapit-US-cityscale|39.213998|-85.911056}} {{Indiana}} [[Category:Cities in Indiana]] [[Category:Columbus, Indiana| ]] [[Category:Bartholomew County, Indiana| ]] [[de:Columbus (Indiana)]] [[io:Columbus, Indiana]] [[ja:コロンバス (インディアナ州)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CD-RW</title> <id>6832</id> <revision> <id>42056859</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:32:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brossow</username> <id>483309</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Redirect bypass from [[Disk or disc]] to [[disk]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Compact Disc ReWritable (CD-RW)''' is a rewritable [[optical disc]] format. Known as CD-Erasable (CD-E) during its development, CD-RW was introduced in 1997. While a prerecorded [[compact disc]] has its information permanently stamped into its polycarbonate plastic substrate, a CD-RW disc contains a phase-change alloy recording layer composed of a [[phase change]] material, most often [[AgInSbTe]], an alloy of [[silver]], [[indium]], [[antimony]] and [[tellurium]]. An infra-red [[laser]] beam is employed to selectively heat and melt the [[crystal]]lized recording layer into an [[amorphous]] state or to [[anneal]] it at a lower temperature back to its crystalline state. The different reflectance of the resulting areas make them appear like the pits and lands of a prerecorded CD. A CD-RW recorder can rewrite 700 [[mebibyte|MiB]] of data to a CD-RW disc roughly 1000 times. CD-RW recorders can also write [[CD-R]] discs. Except for the ability to completely erase a disc, CD-RWs act very much like CD-Rs and are subject to the same restrictions; i.e., they can be extended, but not selectively overwritten, and writing sessions must be closed before they can be read in CD-ROM drive or players. The [[Universal_Disk_Format|UDF]] 1.5 file system allows CD-RWs to be randomly rewritten, but limits disc storage capacity to roughly 530MB. Written CD-RW discs do not meet [[Red Book]] or [[Orange Book Part II]] standards for prerecorded or recordable CDs (e.g. reduced signal levels). Consequently, CD-RWs cannot be read in CD-ROM drives built prior to 1997. CD-R is considered a better technology for archival purposes as disc contents cannot be modified and manufacturers claim greater longevity. CD-RW discs need to be blanked before reuse. Different blanking methods can be used, including &quot;full&quot; blanking in which the entire surface of the disc is cleared, and &quot;fast&quot; blanking in which only meta-data areas are cleared: PMA, [[TOC (CD)|TOC]] and [[pregap]], comprising a few percent of the disc. Fast blanking will obviously be much quicker, and is usually sufficient to allow rewriting the disc. Full blanking removes traces of the former data, often for [[confidentiality]]. == CD-MO == Prior to the introduction of the CD-RW technology, a standard for [[magneto-optical]] recordable and erasable CDs called [[CD-MO]] was introduced in [[1988]] and set in the [[Orange Book|Orange Book, part 1]], and was basically a CD with a magneto-optical recording layer. The CD-MO standard also allowed for an optional non-erasable zone on the disk, which could be read by normal CD-ROM reader units. Data recording (and erasing) was achieved by heating the magneto-optical layer's material (eg. [[TbFeCo]], [[DyFeCo]], or [[GdFeCo]]) up to its [[Curie point]] thus erasing all previous data and then using a magnetic field to write the new data, in a manner very similar to Sony's [[Minidisc]]. Reading of the discs relied on the [[Kerr effect]]. This was also the first major flaw of this format: it could only be read in special drives and was physically incompatible with non magneto-optical enabled drives, in a much more radical way than the later CD-RWs. The format never caught on commercially, as it was mostly marketed as a replacement for [[tape drive|tape backup]] devices, intended for use in bulky, usually external proprietary drives (each company made its own device) which very frequently used proprietary [[data backup]] software and proprietary, non-standard recording formats (even at a physical level) and file systems. Recording speed was, also, low, as it was typical for a magneto-optical device of this era, meeting CD 1x or 2x speed at best, if not less. These combined factors rendered the disks unreadable on standard CD drives or on other similar devices, or even on the same device without the specific backup software. A similar situation was also present for early [[CD-WORM]] media, which suffered from massive standarization problems. Also, since the CD-MO was otherwise physically identical to &quot;normal&quot; CDs, it still adopted a spiral-groove recording scheme, which rendered it hard to use as a normal floppy or as a medium for repeated, small scale deletions and recordings. There were (and are) however some [[magneto-optical]] drives and media with the same form factor that don't have this limitation. This early introduction along with the lack of standards for software, file systems and disks, low recording speeds, physical incompatibility, along with the cost of the recording devices and the disks themselves back in the early [[1990s]], as well as the introduction of the relatively more economical CD-R disks and (especially) faster and more compact drives restricted the CD-MO to niche markets, and the format was almost forgotten, being essentially replaced by [[phase change]] CD-RW and other, better specified magneto-optical media such as the [[Zip drive]]. As of [[2006]], it is very hard to find actual CD-MO record-capable drives or even CD-MO disks. ==Speed Spec== Unlike CD-R, CD-RW have different speed spec and is not always [[backward compatible]] (i.e. A CD-RW recorder labelled &quot;Ultra Speed&quot; may not (re-)write discs of original spec.) {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left: 1em;&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; !Spec !Speed |- |(Original) |1x - 4x |- |High Speed |4x - 12x |- |Ultra Speed |16x - 24x |- |Ultra Speed+ |32x |} ==See also== * [[computer storage|Computer Storage]] * [[computer hardware|Computer Hardware]] * [[disk|Disk or Disc]] * [[DVD-RW]] * [[DVD plus RW|DVD+RW]] * [[DVD-RAM]] * [[MultiLevel Recording]] * [[Phase-change Dual]] == References == * Bennett, Hugh. &quot;CD-E: Call it Erasable, Call it Rewritable, but will it Fly?&quot; ''CD-ROM Professional'' Sept. 1996: 28+ * Bennett, Hugh. ''Understanding CD-R &amp; CD-RW''. Cupertino: Optical Storage Technology Association, Jan. 2003. * Steinmetz, Ralf and Nahrstedt Klara. &quot;Multimedia Fundamentals Volume 1: Media Coding and Content Processing&quot;,[[ISBN 0-13-031399-9]] {{FOLDOC}} == External links == * [http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa.htm Understanding CD-R &amp; CD-RW] by Hugh Bennett * [http://www.cdrfaq.org/ The CD-R FAQ] * [http://gentoo-wiki.com/HOWTO_Packet_Writing_on_CD-RW HOWTO Packet Writing on CD-RW under Linux] [[Category:CD]] [[Category:120 mm discs]] [[Category:Audio storage]] [[Category:Video storage]] [[de:CD-RW]] [[es:CD-RW]] [[fr:Disque compact réinscriptible]] [[it:CD riscrivibile]] [[he:CD-RW]] [[ja:CD-RW]] [[pl:CD-RW]] [[zh:CD-RW]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CD-ROM</title> <id>6833</id> <revision> <id>41042096</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:58:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.227.9.195</ip> </contributor> <comment>Reverting edits done by 220.225.130.245 to last version by Bovineone</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''CD-ROM''' (an abbreviation for &quot;[[Compact disc|Compact Disc]] [[Read-only memory|Read-Only Memory]]&quot;) is a [[Non-volatile storage|non-volatile]] [[Optical storage|optical]] [[computer storage|data storage]] medium using the same physical format as audio CDs, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive. A CD-ROM is a flat, metallized plastic disc with digital information encoded on it in a spiral from the center to the outside edge. The CD-ROM [[Yellow Book (CD-ROM_standards)|Yellow Book]] standard was established in [[1985]] by [[Sony]] and [[Philips]]. [[Microsoft]] and [[Apple Computer]] were early enthusiasts and promoters of the CD-ROM. [[John Sculley]], CEO of Apple at the time, said as early as [[1987]] that the CD-ROM would revolutionize the use of [[personal computer]]s. [[image:CDR-large.jpg|thumb|250px|CD-R]] CD-ROM reading devices are a standard component of most modern [[personal computer]]s. In general, audio CDs are distinct from CD-ROMs, and CD players intended for listening to audio cannot make sense of the data on a CD-ROM; though personal computers can generally read audio CDs. It is possible to produce composite CDs containing both data and audio with the latter capable of being played
ee]] selected Atlanta as the site for the [[1996 Summer Olympics]]. Following the announcement, Atlanta undertook several major construction projects to improve the city's parks, sports facilities, and transportation. Former Mayor [[Bill Campbell]] allowed many &quot;tent cities&quot; to be built creating a carnival atmosphere around the games. Atlanta became the first [[United States|American]] capital city to host the Olympics. The games themselves were a wonderful achievement in sports, but were marred by the [[Centennial Olympic Park bombing]], which resulted in the death of two people and injured several others. The bombing was carried out by [[Eric Robert Rudolph]]. ==Geography== [[Image:Midtown Atlanta.JPG|thumb|Midtown Atlanta's skyline]] According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 343.0 km² (132.4 mi²). 341.2 km² (131.8 mi²) of it is land and 1.8 km² (0.7 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 0.51% water. At about 1000 feet or 300 meters above mean sea level, Atlanta sits atop a ridge south of the [[Chattahoochee River]]. Amongst the 25 largest [[United States metropolitan area|MSA]]s, Atlanta is the third-highest in elevation, slightly lower than [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] and 1 mile (1,600 m) high [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]]. According to folklore, its central avenue, [[Peachtree Street]], runs through the center of the city on the [[Eastern Continental Divide]]. In actuality, the divide line enters Atlanta from the southwest, proceeding to downtown. From downtown, the divide line runs eastward along DeKalb Avenue and the [[CSX]] rail lines through Decatur. Rainwater that falls on the south and east side runs eventually into the [[Atlantic Ocean]] while rainwater on the north and west side of the divide runs into the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The latter is via the [[Chattahoochee River]], part of the [[ACF River Basin]], and from which Atlanta and many of its neighbors draw most of their water. Being at the far northwestern edge of the city, much of the river's natural habitat is still preserved, in part by the Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area. Downstream however, excessive water use during droughts and pollution during floods has been a source of contention and legal battles with neighboring states [[Alabama]] and [[Florida]]. ==Climate== [[Image:AtlantaSnow.jpg|thumb|200px|A wintry snow landscape in midtown Atlanta, January 2003.]] Due to the several reasons Atlanta experiences a cooler climate than most cities in the southern U.S. Among these are: distance from the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico with their moderating effect, elevation, prevailing wind patterns, and an extensive tree cover that mitigates the [[urban heat island]]. This contrast seems especially pronounced in comparison with the subtropical areas of coastal [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. In fact, contrary to the perception of many visitors, the oft-heard nickname &quot;Hotlanta&quot; is a reflection primarily of the area's prosperity dominant status within the South, rather than of high temperatures. At 33°39' north, Atlanta lies at approximately the same latitude as such cities as [[Los Angeles]], [[Dallas]], [[Casablanca]], and [[Beirut]], but it experiences colder winter temperatures than all of these, with frost being recorded 48 times in an average year. The cold fronts that sweep south from Canada through the U.S. Midwest bring cold spells, severe enough to drop the temperature below -10°C (14°F) and even lower a few times a year. The record low temperature in the city being a frigid -22°C (-9°F) dating to Feb. 13 1899, which was nearly tied on Jan. 21, 1985, when -21°C (-8°F) was recorded. Snowfall is variable, averaging some 5 centimeters (2 inches) per year, but every year sees at least some accumulation. It occurs as moisture from the Gulf of Mexico hits a strong cold front from the north. Though summers are quite humid, actual temperatures are only moderately hot, with afternoon high temperatures most often around 30°C (86°F). Only very rarely does the thermometer hit the oppressive mark of 38°C (100°F), this occurring in the past 30 years in 1980, 1983, 1986, 1993, 1995, and 2000, with the all-time record high of 41°C (105°F) being reached on July 13 and 17, 1980. Like the rest of the southeastern U.S., Atlanta enjoys abundant rainfall, which is evenly distributed throughout the year. The area receives some 127 centimeters (50.5 inches) of rain annually, which is surpassed only by [[Miami]] and [[New Orleans]] among major U.S. cities. The table below shows monthly average high and low temperatures as well as monthly average precipitation {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color: #000080&quot; height=&quot;17&quot; | Month ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Jan ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Feb ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Mar ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Apr ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | May ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Jun ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Jul ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Aug ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Sep ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Oct ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Nov ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Dec ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Year |- ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Avg high [°C](°F) | style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;&quot; | 11 (52) | style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;&quot; | 14 (57) | style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color:#000080;&quot; | 18 (65) | style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 23 (73) | style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 27 (80) | style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 31 (87) | style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 32 (89) | style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 31 (88) | style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 28 (82) | style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 23 (73) | style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color:#000080;&quot; | 17 (63) | style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;&quot; | 13 (55) | style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 22 (72) |- ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; height=&quot;16;&quot; | Avg low temperature [°C](°F) | style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 1 (34) | style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 3 (37) | style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 7 (45) | style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 10 (50) | style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 15 (59) | style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 19 (66) | style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color: black;&quot; | 22 (72) | style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 21 (70) | style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 18 (64) | style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 12 (54) | style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 7 (45) | style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 2 (36) | style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 11 (52) |- ! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Rainfall ([[millimeters]])(inches) | style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 127.8 (5.03) | style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | 118.9 (4.68) | style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 136.7 (5.38) | style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 91.9 (3.62) | style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 100.3 (3.95) | style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 92.2 (3.63) | style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 130.0 (5.12) | style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 92.2 (3.63) | style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | 103.9 (4.09) | style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 79.0 (3.11) | style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | 104.1 (4.10) | style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 97.0 (3.82) | style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 1274 (50.16) |} ==People and culture== ===Demographics=== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px;text-size:80%; text-align:right&quot; |align=center colspan=2| '''City of Atlanta &lt;br&gt;Population by year''' [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html] |- |[[1860]] || 9,554 |- |[[1870]] || 21,789 |- |[[1880]] || 37,409 |- |[[1890]] || 65,533 |- |[[1900]] || 89,872 |- |[[1910]] || 154,839 |- |[[1920]] || 200,616 |- |[[1930]] || 270,366 |- |[[1940]] || 302,288 |- |[[1950]] || 331,314 |- |[[1960]] || 487,455 |- |[[1970]] || 496,973 |- |[[1980]] || 425,022 |- |[[1990]] || 394,017 |- |[[2000]] || 416,474 |- |[[2004]] || 425,000 |} [[Image:Black atlanta1.gif|thumb|right|Thematic map of [[African American]]s, the largest ethnic group in Atlanta]] The [[census]] of 2000 states there are 416,474 people, (423,019 as of 2003 estimates), 168,147 households, and 83,232 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 1,221/km² (3,161/mi²). There are 186,925 housing units at an average density of 548/km² (1,419/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 61.39% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]], 33.22% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.93% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.18% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.99% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.24% from two or more races. 4.49% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. The city has one of the largest gay populations in the nation; according to Census 2000 both DeKalb and Fulton counties are