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ded the order into two suborders, [[Fissipedia]], which included the families of primarily land carnivores, and suborder [[Pinnipedia]], which included the [[true seal]]s, [[eared seal]]s, and [[walrus]].
Newer classification schemes have been able to integrate the findings from molecular techniques for discovering genetic relationships. They generally divide the Carnivora into the suborders Feliformia (cat-like) and Caniformia (dog-like), which includes the [[pinniped]]s. The pinnipeds form a [[clade]] with the [[Ursidae|bear]]s to form the '''Arctoidea''' superfamily. The arctoids form a clade that includes another superfamily, containing the [[Mustelidae|mustelid]]s, [[Procyonidae|procyonid]]s, [[Mephitidae|skunk]]s and [[Ailurus]] - the '''Musteloidea'''. The [[Canidae|dog]]s form an outgroup to these two superfamilies, they were the first of the extant Caniforms to split from the others.
The same studies finally resolve the exact position of ''Ailurus'' : the Red Panda is not a Procyonid nor an Ursid, but forms a monotypic family with the Musteloids as closest living relatives. The same study also shows that the Mustelids are not a primitive family, as was once thought. Their small bodysize is a secondairy trait - the primitive bodyform of the Arctoids was large, not small.
Recent molecular studies suggest that the endemic '''Carnivora''' of [[Madagascar]], including three genera classed with the [[Viverridae|civet]]s and four genera of [[mongoose]]s classed with the Herpestidae, are all descended from a single ancestor. They form a single sister [[taxon]] to the Herpestidae. The [[hyena]]s are also closely related to this clade.
The exact position of the [[Felidae|cat]]s in relation to the other families is somewhat disputed. [[Nandinia]] seems to be the most primitive of all the Feliforms and the very first to split from the others. The genus [[Prionodon]] (of the Viverrids) might form a family of its own as well, as some studies show they are the closest living relatives to the cats.
The position of extinct carnivore families is not clear. Recent studies suggest that the ancient families [[Miacidae]] and [[Viverravidae]] are not basal members of the Caniformia and Feliformia, so they are not the direct ancestors of any living carnivore family. The Miacidae is not even [[monophyletic]], rather it appears to represent a paraphyletic array of stem taxa. However, the Miacidae and the Viverravidae are classified as a third, extinct superfamily, the [[Miacidae|Miacoidea]], from which the direct ancestors of the other two superfamilies did come.
The [[Nimravidae]] are seen as the most basal of all Feliforms, and the first to split from the others. Other studies, however, show that the Nimravids and Felids are closely related. The position of many extinct 'Felids' is not clear - they may or may not be true cats after all. The [[Amphicyonid]]s are the first of the Caniforms to split off - they do not have the Ursids as closest relatives (as most scientists thought), bur are rather an outgroup to all other Caniforms.
The results of the same study further suggest a much younger minimum age for the crown-clade Carnivora (the divergence age of the subclades Caniformia and Feliformia) than had been inferred in many previous studies: middle-[[Eocene]] (ca. 43 million years ago), rather than early [[Paleocene]] (60 Ma). It remains unknown if the [[Creodonta]] are the closest relatives of the Carnivora, but it seems they are. They are united with the [[Pholidota]] and some extinct orders in the clade [[Ferae]].
==Classification==
* '''Order Carnivora'''
** '''Suborder Feliformia''' ("Cat-like")
*** Family [[Felidae]]: cats; 37 species in 18 genera
*** Family [[Herpestidae]]: [[mongoose]]s and allies; 35 species in 17 genera
*** Family [[Hyaenidae]]: [[hyena]]s and [[aardwolf]]; 4 species in 4 genera
*** Family [[Nandiniidae]]: [[African palm civet]]s; 1 species in 1 genus
*** Family [[Nimravidae]]: false sabre-tooths ([[extinct]])
*** Family [[Viverridae]]: [[civet]]s and allies; 35 species in 20 genera
** '''Suborder Caniformia''' ("Dog-like")
*** Family [[Ailuridae]]: [[red panda]]; 1 species in 1 genus.
*** Family [[Amphicyonid]]ae: beardogs ([[extinct]])
*** Family [[Canidae]]: [[dog]]s and allies; 35 species in 10 genera
*** Family [[Mephitidae]]: [[skunk]]s and stinkbadgers; 10 species in 3 genera
*** Family [[Mustelidae]]: [[weasel]]s, [[marten]]s, [[badger]]s, and [[otter]]s; 55 species in 24 genera
*** Family [[Odobenidae]]: [[Walrus]]es; 1 species in 1 genus
*** Family [[Otariidae]]: [[sea lion]]s, [[eared seal]]s, [[fur seal]]s; 14 species in 7 genera
*** Family [[Phocidae]]: [[true seal]]s; 19 species in 9 genera
*** Family [[Procyonidae]]: [[raccoon]]s and allies; 19 species in 6 genera
*** Family [[Ursidae]]: [[bear]]s; 8 species in 4 genera
==See also==
*[[Cat-fox]] - new carnivore discovered on [[Borneo]]
==References==
*[http://home.uchicago.edu/~johnf/pdf/Flynn_etal_2005.pdf Flynn et al: Molecular Phylogeny of Carnivora]
*[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=285903&jid=SYP&volumeId=3&issueId=01&aid=285902 Wesley-Hunt: Phylogeny of the Carnivores]
{{wikispecies|Carnivora}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Carnivora}}
{{Mammals}}
[[Category:Carnivores| ]]
[[bg:Хищници]]
[[cs:Šelmy]]
[[cy:Carnivora]]
[[da:Rovdyr (Carnivora)]]
[[de:Raubtiere]]
[[et:Kiskjalised]]
[[eo:Karnovoro]]
[[fr:Carnivora]]
[[he:טורפים (סדרת יונקים)]]
[[it:Carnivori]]
[[ja:ネコ目]]
[[ko:식육목]]
[[la:Carnivora]]
[[li:Carnivore (orde)]]
[[nl:Carnivora]]
[[pt:Carnivora]]
[[sk:Mäsoravce (cicavce)]]
[[fi:Petoeläimet]]
[[sv:Rovdjur]]
[[ru:Хищные]]
[[vi:Carnicova]]
[[zh:&#39135;&#32905;&#30446;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colombia</title>
<id>5222</id>
<revision>
<id>41928298</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:06:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MJCdetroit</username>
<id>627347</id>
</contributor>
<comment>English measurements per [[WP:MOSNUM]] and formating</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = '''República de Colombia'''
|common_name = Colombia
|image_flag = Flag of Colombia.svg
|image_coat = Colombia's Coat of Arms.JPG
|image_map = LocationColombia.png
|national_motto = Libertad y Orden<br>([[English language|English]]: Liberty and Order)
|national_anthem = [[Oh Gloria Inmarcesible!]]
|official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
|capital = [[Bogotá]]
|latd= |latm= |latNS= |longd= |longm= |longEW=
|largest_city =
|government_type = Republic
|leader_titles = [[List of Presidents of Colombia|President]]
|leader_names = [[Álvaro Uribe Vélez]]
|area_rank = 25th
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area= 1,138,910
|areami² = 439,736 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|percent_water = 8.8%
|population_estimate = 42,954,279 <!-- cia.gov -->
|population_estimate_rank = 30th <!-- cia.gov -->
|population_estimate_year = July 2005 <!-- cia.gov -->
|population_census = 44,531,434
|population_census_year = 2003
|population_density =36
|population_densitymi² = 93 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|population_density_rank = 134th
|GDP_PPP = $315,548 million
|GDP_PPP_rank = 28th
|GDP_PPP_year= 2004 <!--IMF -->
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6,962
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 88th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = From [[Spain]]
|established_dates = &nbsp;- Declared:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;[[July 20]], [[1810]]<br>&nbsp;- Recognised:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;[[August 7]], [[1819]]
|HDI = 0.785
|HDI_rank = 69th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>
|currency = [[Colombian peso|Peso]]
|currency_code = COP
|country_code =
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = -5
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld = [[.co]]
|calling_code = 57
|footnotes =
}}
{{portal}}
The '''Republic of Colombia''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: {{audio|República de Colombia.ogg|''República de Colombia''}}, [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'puβ̞lika ð̞e ko'lombja]}}) is a country in northwestern [[South America]]. It is bordered to the east by [[Venezuela]] and [[Brazil]], to the south by [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]], and to the west by [[Panama]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]].
== History ==
:''Main article:'' [[history of Colombia]]
Around [[1450 BC]] there was cultural activity near Bogotá, in "El Abra". In [[1000 BC]], groups of Amerindians developed the political system of "cacicazgos" (answering to a figure known as the [[Cacique]]) with a pyramidal structure of power, especially in the cases of the [[Muisca]] or [[Chibcha]] people. They have been considered to have one of the most developed political systems in South America, after the [[Incas]]. [[Spain|Spanish]] explorers made the first exploration of the [[Caribbean]] littoral in [[1500]] led by Rodrigo de Bastidas. [[Christopher Columbus]] navigated near the Caribbean or western coast of [[Chocó Department|Choco]] in [[1502]]. In [[1508]] [[Vasco Nuñez de Balboa]] started the conquest of the territory through the region of [[Urabá]]. In 1513, he also discovered the [[Pacific Ocean]] which he called "The Sea of the South" and which in fact would bring the Spaniards to [[Peru]] and [[Chile]]. In [[1525]], the first European city in the [[Americas|American Continent]] was founded, Santa María la Antigua del Darién in what is today the [[Chocó|Chocó Department]]. The territory's main population was made up of hundreds of tribes of the [[Chibchan]] and "Karib", currently known as the [[Caribbean]] people, whom the Spaniards conquered through warfare, while resulting disease, exploitation, and the conquest itself caused a tremendous demographic reduction among t |
med forces make considerable distinction between the army or land forces, the [[navy]], and the [[air force]], often maintaining three independent organizations. Many air forces were formerly part of an army; historically, the [[United States Air Force]] originated as part of the [[United States Army]], for example.
Modern armies comprise several branches (also called ''services'', or ''[[administrative corps]]''). These may include the [[combat]] branches: [[infantry]], [[armoured]], [[artillery]], and [[combat engineers]], as well as the [[support]] branches: [[Military communications |communications]], [[Military intelligence |intelligence]], [[Combat medic |medics]], [[Military logistics |supply]], and [[army aviation]] (as opposed to a national air force).
== Formations ==
An '''army''' can also be a large [[military organization]] ([[formation (military) |formation]]) comprising one or more [[corps]]. A particular army is named or numbered to distinguish it from military land forces in general&mdash;for example, the [[U.S. First Army]] and the [[Army of Northern Virginia]]. In the [[British Army]] it is normal to spell out the ordinal number of an army (e.g. First Army), whereas lower formations use figures (e.g. 1st Division).
Armies (as well as [[army group]]s and [[Theater (military)|theater]]s) are large formations which vary significantly between armed forces in size, composition, and scope of responsibility.
In the [[Soviet Union |Soviet]] [[Red Army]], "armies" were actually [[corps]]-sized formations, subordinate to an army-sized "[[Front (Soviet Army)|front]]" in wartime. In peacetime, a [[Army (Soviet Army)|Soviet army]] was usually subordinate to a [[military district]].
For the hierarchy of land force organizations, see [[military organization]].
== See also ==
* [http://www.polictera.com.my Ex-Police & Army Personnel Association of Malaysia]
* [[List of armies]]
* [[List of armies by name]]
* [[List of armies by number]]
* [[List of countries without an army]]
* [[War]]
* [[Military history]]
* [[Military science]]
* [[Marines]]
* [[Citizen army]]
* [[Murder]]
[[Category:Military unit types]]
[[Category:Armies| ]]
[[Category:Types of military]]
[[ca:Exèrcit]]
[[cs:Armáda]]
[[da:Hær]]
[[de:Heer]]
[[es:Ejército]]
[[fa:&#1575;&#1585;&#1578;&#1588;]]
[[fr:Armée]]
[[he:&#1510;&#1489;&#1488;]]
[[id:Militer]]
[[io:Armeo]]
[[nl:Leger]]
[[ka:სახმელეთო ჯარები]]
[[ja:&#38520;&#36557;]]
[[no:Armé]]
[[pl:Armia]]
[[pt:Exército]]
[[ro:Armată]]
[[ru:&#1040;&#1088;&#1084;&#1080;&#1103;]]
[[sq:Ushtria]]
[[simple:Army]]
[[sl:Vojska]]
[[fi:Armeija]]
[[sv:Armé]]
[[zh:&#38470;&#20891;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Air Force</title>
<id>1377</id>
<revision>
<id>15899865</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-10T16:03:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neutrality</username>
<id>68411</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Air force]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Air force]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Applied mathematics</title>
<id>1379</id>
<revision>
<id>40515065</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T03:29:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Heja helweda</username>
<id>565030</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Applied mathematics''' is a branch of [[mathematics]] that concerns itself with the application of mathematical knowledge to other domains. Such applications include [[numerical analysis]], [[mathematical physics]], mathematics of [[engineering]], [[linear programming]], [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimization]] and [[operations research]], [[continuous modelling]], [[control theory]], [[mathematical biology]] and [[bioinformatics]], [[information theory]], [[game theory]], [[probability]] and [[statistics]], [[mathematical economics]], [[financial mathematics]], [[actuarial science]], [[cryptography]] and hence [[combinatorics]] and even [[finite geometry]] to some extent, [[graph theory]] as applied to [[network theory|network analysis]], and a great deal of what is called [[computer science]].
The question of what is applied mathematics does not answer to logical classification so much as to the sociology of professionals who use mathematics. The mathematical methods are usually applied to the specific problem field by means of a [[mathematical model]] of the system.
Engineering mathematics describes physical processes, and so is often indistinguishable from [[theoretical physics]]. Important subdivisions include: [[fluid dynamics]], [[acoustic theory]], [[Maxwell's equations]] that govern [[electromagnetism]], [[mechanics]], [[numerical relativity]], etc.
Fundamental applied mathematics is taught at second-level in some countries, such as [[Ireland]], where it is a minority option at [[Leaving Certificate]].
== See also ==
*[[pure mathematics]]
== External links ==
{{Wikibookspar|School of Mathematics|Applied Mathematics}}
* The [http://www.siam.org/ Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics] is a professional society dedicated to promoting the interaction between mathematics and other scientific and technical communities.
[[Category:Applied mathematics]]
[[da:Anvendt matematik]]
[[de:Angewandte Mathematik]]
[[es:Matemática aplicada]]
[[eo:Aplika matematiko]]
[[fa:ریاضیات کاربردی]]
[[fr:Mathématiques appliquées]]
[[he:מתמטיקה שימושית]]
[[pt:Matemática aplicada]]
[[ro:Matematică aplicată]]
[[ru:Прикладная математика]]
[[su:Matematik terapan]]
[[th:คณิตศาสตร์ประยุกต์]]
[[vi:Toán học ứng dụng]]
[[zh:应用数学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alligatoridae</title>
<id>1380</id>
<revision>
<id>38284009</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T08:41:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cuchullain</username>
<id>196153</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Alligators and Caimans
| image = alligator.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[American Alligator]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Reptile|Reptilia]]
| ordo = [[Crocodilia]]
| familia = '''Alligatoridae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1844
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision =
''Alligator'' <br />
''Caiman'' <br />
''Melanosuchus'' <br />
''Paleosuchus''
}}
'''Alligators''' and '''caimans''' are [[reptile]]s closely related to the [[crocodile]]s and forming the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Alligatoridae''' (sometimes regarded instead as the [[subfamily]] '''Alligatorinae'''). Together with the [[Gharial]] (family Gavialidae) they make up the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Crocodilia]].
[[Alligator]]s differ from crocodiles principally in having wider and shorter heads, with more obtuse snouts; in having the fourth, enlarged tooth of the under jaw received, not into an external notch, but into a pit formed for it within the upper one; in lacking a jagged fringe which appears on the hind legs and feet of the crocodile; and in having the toes of the hind feet webbed not more than half way to the tips. In general, the more dangerous crocodilians to human beings tend to be [crocodiles rather than alligators.
[[Image:Florida Alligator.jpg|left|200px|Alligator]]
Alligators proper occur in the fluvial deposits of the age of the [[Cretaceous|Upper Chalk]] in Europe, where they did not die out until the [[Pliocene]] age.
The true alligators are now restricted to two species, ''[[American Alligator|A. mississippiensis]]'' in the [[Southern United States]], which grows up to 4 m (12 ft) in length, and the small ''[[Chinese Alligator|A. sinensis]]'' in the [[Yangtze River]], [[People's Republic of China]]. Their name derives from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''el lagarto'', "the lizard").
In [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]] alligators are represented by five species of the [[genus]] ''[[Caiman]]'', which differs from the alligator by the absence of a bony septum between the nostrils, and the ventral armour is composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed of two parts united by a suture. Some authorities further divide this genus into three, splitting off the smooth-fronted caimans into a genus ''Paleosuchus'' and the Black Caiman into ''Melanosuchus''.
''C. crocodilus'', the Spectacled Caiman, has the widest distribution, from southern Mexico to the northern half of Argentina, and grows to a modest size of about 7 feet. The largest, attaining an enormous bulk and a length of 20 ft., is the near-extinct ''Melanosuchus niger'', the Jacare-assu, Large, or Black Caiman of the Amazon. The [[Black Caiman]] is the only member of the alligator family posing the same danger to humans as the larger species of the [[crocodile]] family.
Although the Caiman has not been studied in-depth, it has been discovered that their mating cycles (previously thought to be spontaneous or year-round) are linked to the rainfall cycles and the river levels in order to increase their offspring's chances of survival.
Some crocodiles can be found in salty water, but most alligators stay in fresh water.
<br clear=left>
==Species==
* '''ORDER [[Crocodilia]]'''
** '''Family Alligatoridae'''
*** Genus ''[[Leidyosuchus]]'' (extinct)
*** Genus ''[[Deinosuchus]]'' (extinct)
*** '''Subfamily Diplocynodontinae'''
**** Genus ''[[Tadzhikosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Baryphracta]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Diplocynodon]]'' (extinct)
*** '''Subfamily Alligatorinae'''
**** Genus ''[[Akantosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Albertochampsa]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Chrysochampsa]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Hassiacosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Navahosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[C |
ompounds that has a typical pungent odor usually associated with cole crops.
Whilst some members have seeds with a high [[erucic acid]] content, making these unsafe to eat in large doses, all members of this family are edible.
;Genera
{|
|- valign=top
|
*''[[Acanthocardamum]]''
*''[[Aethionema]]''
*''[[Agallis]]''
*''[[Alliaria]]''
*''[[Alyssoides]]''
*''[[Alysopsis]]''
*''[[Alyssum (genus)|Alyssum]]''
*''[[Ammosperma]]''
*''[[Anastatica]]''
*''[[Anchonium]]''
*''[[Andrzeiowskia]]''
*''[[Anelsonia]]''
*''[[Aphragmus]]''
*''[[Aplanodes]]''
*''[[Arabidella]]''
*''[[Arabidopsis]]''
*''[[Arabis]]''
*''[[Arcyosperma]]''
*''[[Horseradish|Armoracia]]''
*''[[Aschersoniodoxa]]''
*''[[Asperuginoides]]''
*''[[Asta (genus)|Asta]]''
*''[[Atelanthera]]''
*''[[Athysanus]]''
*''[[Aubrieta]]''
*''[[Aurinia]]''
*''[[Ballantinia]]''
*''[[Barbarea]]''
*''[[Beringia (plant)|Beringia]]''
*''[[Berteroa]]''
*''[[Berteroella]]''
*''[[Biscutella]]''
*''[[Bivonaea]]''
*''[[Blennodia]]''
*''[[Boleum]]''
*''[[Boreava]]''
*''[[Bornmuellera]]''
*''[[Borodinia]]''
*''[[Botscantzevia]]''
*''[[Brachycarpaea]]''
*''[[Brassica]]''
*''[[Braya]]''
*''[[Brayopsis]]''
*''[[Brossardia]]''
*''[[Bunias]]''
*''[[Cakile]]''
*''[[Calepina]]''
*''[[Calymmatium]]''
*''[[Camelina]]''
*''[[Camelinopsis]]''
*''[[Capsella]]''
*''[[Cardamine]]''
*''[[Cardaminopsis]]''
*''[[Cardaria]]''
*''[[Carinavalva]]''
*''[[Carrichtera]]''
*''[[Catadysia]]''
*''[[Catenulina]]''
*''[[Caulanthus]]''
*''[[Caulostramina]]''
*''[[Ceratocnemum]]''
*''[[Ceriosperma]]''
*''[[Chalcanthus]]''
*''[[Chamira]]''
*''[[Chartoloma]]''
*''[[Cheesemania]]''
*''[[Cheiranthus]]''
*''[[Chlorocrambe]]''
*''[[Chorispora]]''
*''[[Christolea]]''
*''[[Chrysobraya]]''
*''[[Chrysochamela]]''
*''[[Cithareloma]]''
*''[[Clastopus]]''
*''[[Clausia]]''
*''[[Clypeola]]''
*''[[Cochlearia]]''
*''[[Coelonema]]''
*''[[Coincya]]''
*''[[Coluteocarpus]]''
*''[[Conringia]]''
*''[[Cordylocarpus]]''
*''[[Coronopus]]''
*''[[Crambe]]''
*''[[Crambella]]''
*''[[Cremolobus]]''
*''[[Crucihimalaya]]''
*''[[Cryptospora]]''
*''[[Cuphonotus]]''
*''[[Cusickiella]]''
|
*''[[Cycloptychis]]''
*''[[Cymatocarpus]]''
*''[[Cyphocardamum]]''
*''[[Dactylocardamum]]''
*''[[Degenia]]''
*''[[Delpinophytum]]''
*''[[Descurainia]]''
*''[[Diceratella]]''
*''[[Dichasianthus]]''
*''[[Dictyophragmus]]''
*''[[Didesmus]]''
*''[[Didymophysa]]''
*''[[Dielsiocharis]]''
*''[[Dilophia]]''
*''[[Dimorphocarpa]]''
*''[[Diplotaxis]]''
*''[[Dipoma]]''
*''[[Diptychocarpus]]''
*''[[Dithyrea]]''
*''[[Dolichirhynchus]]''
*''[[Dontostemon]]''
*''[[Douepea]]''
*''[[Draba]]''
*''[[Drabastrum]]''
*''[[Drabopsis]]''
*''[[Dryopetalon]]''
*''[[Eigia]]''
*''[[Elburzia]]''
*''[[Enarthrocarpus]]''
*''[[Englerocharis]]''
*''[[Eremobium]]''
*''[[Eremoblastus]]''
*''[[Eremodraba]]''
*''[[Eremophyton]]''
*''[[Ermania]]''
*''[[Ermaniopsis]]''
*''[[Erophila]]''
*''[[Erucaria]]''
*''[[Erucastrum]]''
*''[[Erysimum]]''
*''[[Euclidium]]''
*''[[Eudema]]''
*''[[Eutrema]]''
*''[[Euzomodendron]]''
*''[[Farsetia]]''
*''[[Fezia]]''
*''[[Fibigia]]''
*''[[Foleyola]]''
*''[[Fortuynia]]''
*''[[Galitzkya]]''
*''[[Geococcus]]''
*''[[Glaribraya]]''
*''[[Glastaria]]''
*''[[Glaucocarpum]]''
*''[[Goldbachia]]''
*''[[Gorodkovia]]''
*''[[Graellsia]]''
*''[[Grammosperma]]''
*''[[Guiraoa]]''
*''[[Gynophorea]]''
*''[[Halimolobos]]''
*''[[Harmsiodoxa]]''
*''[[Hedinia]]''
*''[[Heldreichia]]''
*''[[Heliophila]]''
*''[[Hemicrambe]]''
*''[[Hemilophia]]''
*''[[Hesperis]]''
*''[[Heterodraba]]''
*''[[Hirschfeldia]]''
*''[[Hollermayera]]''
*''[[Hornungia]]''
*''[[Hornwoodia]]''
*''[[Hugueninia]]''
*''[[Hymenolobus]]''
*''[[Ianhedgea]]''
*''[[Iberis]]''
*''[[Idahoa]]''
*''[[Iodanthus]]''
*''[[Ionopsidium]]''
*''[[Irenepharsus]]''
*''[[Isatis]]''
*''[[Ischnocarpus]]''
*''[[Iskandera]]''
*''[[Iti]]''
*''[[Ivania]]''
*''[[Kernera]]''
*''[[Kremeriella]]''
*''[[Lachnocapsa]]''
*''[[Lachnoloma]]''
|
*''[[Leavenworthia]]''
*''[[Lepidium]]''
*''[[Lepidostemon]]''
*''[[Leptaleum]]''
*''[[Lesquerella]]''
*''[[Lignariella]]''
*''[[Lithodraba]]''
*''[[Lobularia]]''
*''[[Lonchophora]]''
*''[[Loxostemon]]''
*''[[Lunaria]]''
*''[[Lyocarpus]]''
*''[[Lyrocarpa]]''
*''[[Macropodium]]''
*''[[Malcolmia]]''
*''[[Mancoa]]''
*''[[Maresia]]''
*''[[Mathewsia]]''
*''[[Matthiola]]''
*''[[Megacarpaea]]''
*''[[Megadenia]]''
*''[[Menkea]]''
*''[[Menonvillea]]''
*''[[Microlepidium]]''
*''[[Microsysymbrium]]''
*''[[Microstigma]]''
*''[[Morettia]]''
*''[[Moricandia]]''
*''[[Moriera]]''
*''[[Morisia]]''
*''[[Murbeckiella]]''
*''[[Muricaria]]''
*''[[Myagrum]]''
*''[[Nasturtiopsis]]''
*''[[Nasturtium (scientific name)|Nasturtium]]''
*''[[Neomartinella]]''
*''[[Neotchihatchewia]]''
*''[[Neotorularia]]''
*''[[Nerisyrenia]]''
*''[[Neslia]]''
*''[[Neuontobotrys]]''
*''[[Notoceras]]''
*''[[Notothlaspi]]''
*''[[Ochthodium]]''
*''[[Octoceras]]''
*''[[Olimarabidopsis]]''
*''[[Onuris (plant)|Onuris]]''
*''[[Oreoloma]]''
*''[[Oreophyton]]''
*''[[Ornithocarpa]]''
*''[[Orychophragmus]]''
*''[[Otocarpus]]''
*''[[Oudneya]]''
*''[[Pachycladon]]''
*''[[Pachymitus]]''
*''[[Pachyphragma]]''
*''[[Pachypterygium]]''
*''[[Parlatoria]]''
*''[[Parodiodoxa]]''
*''[[Parolinia]]''
*''[[Parrya]]''
*''[[Parryodes]]''
*''[[Pegaeophyton]]''
*''[[Peltaria]]''
*''[[Peltariopsis]]''
*''[[Pennellia]]''
*''[[Petiniotia]]''
*''[[Petrocallis]]''
*''[[Phaeonychium]]''
*''[[Phlebolobium]]''
*''[[Phlegmatospermum]]''
*''[[Phoenicaulis]]''
*''[[Physaria]]''
*''[[Physocardamum]]''
*''[[Physoptychis]]''
*''[[Physorrhynchus]]''
*''[[Platycraspedum]]''
*''[[Polyctenium]]''
*''[[Polypsecadium]]''
*''[[Pringlea]]''
*''[[Prionotrichon]]''
*''[[Pritzelago]]''
*''[[Pseuderucaria]]''
*''[[Pseudoarabidopsis]]''
*''[[Pseudocamelina]]''
*''[[Pseudoclausia]]''
*''[[Pseudofortuynia]]''
*''[[Pseudovesicaria]]''
*''[[Psychine]]''
*''[[Pterygiosperma]]''
|
*''[[Pterygostemon]]''
*''[[Pugionium]]''
*''[[Pycnoplinthopsis]]''
*''[[Pycnoplinthus]]''
*''[[Pyramidium]]''
*''[[Quezeliantha]]''
*''[[Quidproquo]]''
*''[[Raffenaldia]]''
*''[[Raphanorhyncha]]''
*''[[Raphanus]]''
*''[[Rapistrum]]''
*''[[Reboudia]]''
*''[[Redowskia]]''
*''[[Rhizobotrya]]''
*''[[Ricotia]]''
*''[[Robeschia]]''
*''[[Rollinsia]]''
*''[[Romanschulzia]]''
*''[[Roripella]]''
*''[[Rorippa]]''
*''[[Rytidocarpus]]''
*''[[Sameraria]]''
*''[[Sarcodraba]]''
*''[[Savignya]]''
*''[[Scambopus]]''
*''[[Schimpera]]''
*''[[Schivereckia]]''
*''[[Schizopetalon]]''
*''[[Schlechteria]]''
*''[[Schoenocrambe]]''
*''[[Schouwia]]''
*''[[Scoliaxon]]''
*''[[Selenia]]''
*''[[Sibara]]''
*''[[Silicularia]]''
*''[[Sinapidendron]]''
*''[[Sinapis]]''
*''[[Sisymbrella]]''
*''[[Sisymbriopsis]]''
*''[[Sisymbrium]]''
*''[[Smelowskia]]''
*''[[Sobolewslia]]''
*''[[Sohms-Laubachia]]''
*''[[Sophiopsis]]''
*''[[Sphaerocardamum]]''
*''[[Spirorhynchus]]''
*''[[Spryginia]]''
*''[[Staintoniella]]''
*''[[Stanfordia]]''
*''[[Stanleya]]''
*''[[Stenopetalum]]''
*''[[Sterigmostemum]]''
*''[[Stevenia]]''
*''[[Straussiella]]''
*''[[Streptanthella]]''
*''[[Streptanthus]]''
*''[[Streptoloma]]''
*''[[Stroganowia]]''
*''[[Stubebdorffia]]''
*''[[Subularia]]''
*''[[Succowia]]''
*''[[Synstemon]]''
*''[[Synthlipsis]]''
*''[[Taphrospermum]]''
*''[[Tauscheria]]''
*''[[Teesdalia]]''
*''[[Teesdaliopsis]]''
*''[[Tetracme]]''
*''[[Thelypodiopsis]]''
*''[[Thelypodium]]''
*''[[Thlaspeocarpa]]''
*''[[Thlaspi]]''
*''[[Thysanocarpus]]''
*''[[Trachystoma]]''
*''[[Trichotolinum]]''
*''[[Trochiscus]]''
*''[[Tropidocarpum]]''
*''[[Turritis]]''
*''[[Vella]]''
*''[[Warea]]''
*''[[Wasabia]]''
*''[[Weberbauera]]''
*''[[Werdermannia]]''
*''[[Winklera]]''
*''[[Xerodraba]]''
*''[[Yinshania]]''
*''[[Zerdana]]''
*''[[Zilla (genus)|Zilla]]''
|}
==References==
<references/>
== External links ==
* [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/crucifer.htm Brassicaceae] in [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.] http://delta-intkey.com
* [http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/carr/brassic.htm Brassicaceae at www.botany.hawaii.edu]
[[Category:Plant families]]
[[Category:Brassicaceae| ]]
[[da:Korsblomst-familien]]
[[de:Kreuzblütengewächse]]
[[es:Brassicaceae]]
[[eo:Brasikacoj]]
[[fr:Brassicaceae]]
[[la:Brassicaceae]]
[[lt:Bastutiniai augalai]]
[[nl:Kruisbloemenfamilie]]
[[ja:アブラナ科]]
[[pl:Kapustowate]]
[[pt:Brassicaceae]]
[[sv:Korsblommiga växter]]
[[zh:十字花科]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Books of the Bible</title>
<id>3796</id>
<revision>
<id>40465331</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T19:32:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Licio</username>
<id>950741</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The canonical list of the '''Books of the Bible''' differs among [[Jew]]s, and [[Catholic]], [[Protestantism |Protestant]], and [[Greek Orthodox]] [[Christians]], even though there is a great deal of overlap. Below a table is presented to compare the canons of these denominations (other faiths are not currently included) for both the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[New Testament]]. A detailed discussion of the differences is found in the article on [[Biblical canon]].
It should be noted that the [[Greek Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], and [[Eastern Catholic]] churches may have minor differences in the list of accepted books. The list given here for these churches is the most broad list of canonical books &mdash; that is, if at least one eastern church accepts the book, it is included in the list here. The books included by the Roman Catholic Church are universally included in the eastern canons.
== The Tanakh and the Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Greek Orthodox Old Testaments ==
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2"
|-
! ''[[Tanakh]]''<br>
! Protestant Old Testament
! Catholic Old Testament
! aligh="center" | Greek Orthodox Old Testament
|- align="center"
| colspan="4" rowspan="1" | ''[[Torah]] or Pentateuch''
|-
| align="cen |
operations with [[No. 100 Group RAF|RAF 100 Group]].
During World War II, some forty B-17s were repaired by the [[Luftwaffe]] after crash-landing or being forced down and put back into the air in the service of the Reich. These were codenamed "Dornier Do 200," given German markings, and used for clandestine spy and reconnaissance missions by the Luftwaffe. Other B-17s retained their Allied markings{{fact}} and were used to infiltrate B-17 formations, then report their position and altitude to German ground-control stations. The practice was intially successful, but it did not take the Army Air Force combat aircrews long to figure out what was happening. Standard procedure shortly became to first warn off, and then fire upon, any 'stranger' trying to join a group's formation.
When [[Israel]] achieved statehood in [[1948]], the [[Israeli Air Force]] had to be assembled quickly to defend the new nation from the war it found itself embroiled in almost immediately. Among the first aircraft acquired by the Israeli Air Force were three surplus American B-17s, smuggled via South America and Czechoslovakia to avoid an arms trading ban imposed by the United States. A fourth plane was captured and confiscated by American officials. In their delivery flight from Europe, the aircraft were ordered to bomb the Royal Palace of [[King Farouk]] in [[Cairo]] before continuing to Israel, in retaliation for Egyptian bombing raids on [[Tel-Aviv]]. They performed the mission (despite some of the crew fainting due to defective oxygen equipment) but caused little damage to the target. The B-17s were generally unsuitable for the needs of the Israeli Air Force and the nature of the conflict, in which long-range bombing raids on large-area targets were relatively unimportant. They were mainly used in the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], flown by [[69 Squadron Israeli Air Force]]. They were withdrawn in [[1958 in aviation|1958]].
== Obsolescence ==
Following World War II, the B-17 was obsolete, and the Army Air Force retired the fleet. Flight crews ferried the bombers back across the Atlantic to the United States, where they were melted down and sold for scrap.
A number of B-17s survive in museums and at airports. A handful of these still fly, visiting airports or performing in airshows. Since the bombers that served in World War II were sold for scrap, most of these survivors are surplus or training aircraft, which stayed in the U.S. during the War. However, there are few exceptions.
The [[Memphis Belle]], which flew 25 missions over Europe before touring the United States to advertise [[war bonds]], is preserved in [[Memphis, TN]].The Memphis Belle has been transported to Wright Patterson Air Force base for restoration and display. The Dayton Daily News has more information on this move and how you can view the plane during its restoration.
The Swoose, the only surviving example of the narrow-tailed B-17s of the A, B, C and D series, fought in the Pacific Theatre before being converted to an unarmed transport/flying command post used by general officers of the Fifth Air Force in Australia, and was then ordered back to the United States in 1943. The oldest surviving B-17 in the world, The Swooses is presently in storage at the Smithsonian Institution's Silver Hill aircraft storage and restoration facility in Maryland. As of 2000, the Smithsonian was planning to restore her, though whether to full airworthiness or to static display standard had not been determined.
Another noteworthy combat veteran is [[Shoo Shoo Shoo Baby]], which flew 24 combat missions out of England before being forced to land in Sweden in late 1944. Sweden, which was neurtral, interned the crew and later returned them, but kept the plane and converted it to be a transport.
In the period November to October 1947 it was flying for the Danish Air Lines as Stig Viking (OY-DFA. March 1948 to December 1949 Danish Army, December 1949 to October 1952 Danish Navy.
October 1952 Royal Danish Air Force all its service time in Denmark her name was Store Bjørn.
It was later sold to a French aerial mapping company. Abandoned in 1961, the remains of the plane were donated to the [[U.S Air Force]] in 1972, with a restoration undertaken between 1978-1988 by a crew at [[Dover Air Force Base]], [[Delaware]]. The end result was nothing short of magnificent and the plane can be seen today at the [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]] in [[Dayton]], [[Ohio]].
It has also been recently discovered that the B-17G at the [[March Field Air Museum]] in [[Riverside]], [[California]] was delivered to the [[15th Air Force]] and most likely flew combat missions over [[North Africa]] and in the [[Mediterranean]] (Something that was confirmed by battle damage found after the plane was paint stipped during restoration). The exact detail of that plane's service, though, are not yet known.
Two B-17s navigating and acting as mother ships for six [[P-38|P-38 Lightnings]] were forced to land on a glacier in Greenland during a ferry flight to the UK on July 15, 1942. Incredibly, none of the crews were lost. By the 1990s, these eight aircraft had been buried under more than 250 feet of ice. One of the P-38s was recovered and restored as "Glacier Girl." One of the B-17s was also recovered (My Gal Sal, 41-9032), but it remains dismantled in storage in [[Cincinnati, OH]]. None of the 'Lost Squadron' ever saw combat, however.
[[Image:BoeingB17BigYank.gif|thumb|right|300px|''Big Yank'', served in [[1945 in aviation|1945]].]]
== Noted B-17 pilots ==
* [[Robert Morgan]]
* [[Gene Roddenberry]]
* [[James Stewart (actor)|James Stewart]]
* [[Robert Webb (pilot)|Robert Webb]]
* [[Francis Burke (pilot)]]
==Operators==
* Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Israel, Portugal, United Kingdom, United States (Army Air Corps, Army Air Force, Air Force, Coast Guard, Navy),
== Specifications (B-17G) ==
{{airtemp|
<!-- if you do not understand how to use this template, please ask at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Aircraft]] -->
<!-- please answer the following questions -->
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=prop
<!-- Now, fill out the specs. Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses).
If an item doesn't apply, like capacity, leave it blank. For additional lines, end your alt units with a right paranthesis ")" and start a new, fully-formatted line -->
|crew=10
|length main=74 ft 9 in
|length alt=22.7 m
|span main=103 ft 10 in
|span alt=31.6 m
|height main=19 ft 1 in
|height alt=5.8 m
|area main=1,420 ft&sup2;
|area alt=131.9 m&sup2;
|airfoil=[[NACA airfoil|NACA 0018]] / NACA 0010
|empty weight main=36,135 lb
|empty weight alt=16,390 kg
|loaded weight main=54,000 lb
|loaded weight alt=24,495 kg
|max takeoff weight main=72,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=32,660 kg
|engine (prop)=[[Wright R-1820]]-97 Cyclone
|type of prop=turbosupercharged [[radial engine]]s
|number of props=4
|power main=1,200 hp
|power alt=895 kW
|max speed main=287 mph
|max speed alt=462 km/h
|cruise speed main=150 mph
|cruise speed alt=240 km/h
|range main=1,850 mi
|range alt=2,980 km
|ceiling main=35,600 ft
|ceiling alt=10,850 m
|climb rate main=900 ft/min
|climb rate alt=4.6 m/s
|loading main=38.0 lb/ft&sup2;
|loading alt=185.7 kg/m&sup2;
|power/mass main=0.089 hp/lb
|power/mass alt=0.15 kW/kg
|armament=
* 13&times; [[M2 machine gun|Browning M-2]] 0.50 calibre (12.11 mm) machine guns (with optional extra nose armament fitted in glazed nose)
* 8,000 lb (3,630 kg) of bombs long range
* 17,600 lb (7,985 kg) of bombs short range
}}
== References ==
* {{cite book
| last = Hess | first = William N.
| title = Big Bombers of WWII
| location = Ann Arbor, Michigan
| publisher = Lowe & B. Hould
| year = 1998
| id = ISBN 0681075708
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Jablonski | first = Edward
| title = Flying Fortress
| location = New York
| publisher = Doubleday
| year = 1965
| id = ISBN 0385038550
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Johnson | first = Frederick A.
| title = Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress (Warbird Tech Series, Volume 7)
| location = Stillwater, Minnesota
| publisher = Voyageur Press
| year = 2001
| id = ISBN 1580070523
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Lloyd | first = Alwyn T.
| title = B-17 Flying Fortress in detail and scale
| location = Fallbrook, California
| publisher = Aero Publishers
| year = 1986
| id = ISBN 0816850291
}}
* {{cite book
| last = O'Leary | first = Michael
| title = Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress (Osprey Production Line to Frontline 2)
| location = Botley, Oxford, United Kingdom
| publisher = Osprey Publishing
| year = 1999
| id = ISBN 1855328143
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Thompson | first = Scott A.
| year = 2000
| title = Final Cut: The Post War B-17 Flying Fortress the Survivors: Revised and Updated Edition
| publisher = Pictorial Histories Publishing Company
| id = ISBN 1575100770
}}
* {{cite web
| title = BQ-7
| work = Encyclopedia of American Aircraft
| url = http://home.att.net/~jbaugher2/b17_14.html
| accessdate = January 12
| accessyear = 2005
}}
[[Image:FlyingFortressDuxfordJM.jpg|thumb|right|250px|B-17 tail gun position, Duxford]]
==External links==
* [http://home.att.net/~jbaugher2/b17.html Encyclopedia of American Aircraft]
* [http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b2-21.htm USAF Museum]
* [http://www.fantasyofflight.com/aircraftpages/b17.htm Fantasy of Flight's B17] B-17 Flying Fortress on display at [[Fantasy of Flight]]
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0100133/ Memphis Belle (1990)] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0036152/ The Memphis Belle A Story of a Flying Fortress (1944)] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
* [http://www.ww2incolor.com/gallery/movies/pilot Combat America:The B-17 Story] - Watch real combat footage in color from WWII
* [http://www.ratol.fi/~tmannine/b-17/ Tony's B-17 page] - B-17 stories, |
'', XIV). However, Isidore refused to take a clear position on the matter, preferring to report other philosophers' opinions, and he also admitted the possibility of the antipodes' existence. Isidore's wheel analogy continued to be used by authors clearly favouring a spherical earth, e.g. the [[9th century]] bishop [[Hrabanus Maurus]] who compared the habitable part of the northern hemisphere ([[Aristotle]]'s northern temperate clime) with a wheel, as it were imagined as slice of the whole sphere.
*[[Bede]] (c.672 – 735) wrote that Earth was round, and clearly indicated that it was round in the sense of a ball or sphere, rather than a flat disc.
*[[Vergilius of Salzburg|Vergilius]] (c.700 – 784) thought "that beneath the Earth there was another world and other men, another Sun and Moon." [[Saint Boniface]] accused him of "teaching a doctrine in regard to the rotundity of the Earth, which was 'contrary to the Scriptures.'". [[Pope Zacharias]] decided that "if it be proved that he held the said doctrine, a council be held, and Vergilius expelled from the Church and deprived of his priestly dignity."[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15353d.htm] Vergilius succeeded in freeing himself from the charge, he later became a [[bishop]] and was [[canonised]] in the thirteenth century.
Of course, it was probably the priests in the pulpits, not the few noted intellectuals, who defined public opinion, and as they left no records it is difficult to tell what awareness the wider population may have had. However the symbolism of the orb ([[Globus cruciger]]), used in imperial regelia from the [[5th century]] onwards, presupposes that at least the political establishment (which at that time was generally not literate and drew its world view precisely from such visual symbols) could relate to the concept of a spherical world.
=== Later Middle Ages ===
By the [[11th century]], [[Europe]] had learned of [[Arab]] astronomy, and abundant records suggest that any doubts that Europeans had had in earlier times were generally eliminated. A few examples: the most important and widely taught theologian of the Middle Ages, [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225&ndash;1274), believed in a spherical earth. [[Hermannus Contractus]] (1013&ndash;1054) is among the earliest Christian scholars to estimate the circumference of Earth with [[Eratosthenes]]' method. In addition, Dante's [[Divine Comedy]] portrays Earth as a sphere.
The fact that the Elucidarius (c. [[1120]]), an important manual for the instruction of low order clergy in the middle ages, explicitly refers to a spherical Earth supports the contention that the spherical shape of Earth was also common knowledge outside scholarly circles. Likewise, the fact that [[Bertold von Regensburg]] (mid-13th century) used the spherical Earth as a sermon illustration shows that he could assume this knowledge among his congregation. The sermon was held in the vernacular (i.e. German as opposed to Latin), and thus was not intended for a learned audience.
However, as late as [[1400s]], the Spanish theologian [[Tostatus]] disputed the existence of any unreachable [[antipodes]][http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/andrew_white/Chapter2.html#III].
==Modern times==
[[Image:Flammarion.jpg|270px|thumb|left|the Flammarion woodcut. Flammarion's caption translates to "''A medieval missionary tells that he has found the point where heaven and Earth meet...''"]]
During the [[19th century]], the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] conception of a European "[[Dark Ages|Dark Age]]" gave much more prominence to the Flat Earth model than it ever possessed historically. The widely circulated woodcut of a man poking his head through the firmament of a flat Earth to view the mechanics of the spheres, executed in the style of the [[16th century]] cannot be traced to an earlier source than [[Camille Flammarion]]'s ''L'Atmosphere: Météorologie Populaire'' (Paris, [[1888]], p. 163) [http://homepage.mac.com/kvmagruder/flatEarth/source.html]. The woodcut illustrates the statement in the text that a medieval missionary claimed that "he reached the horizon where the earth and the heavens met", an anecdote that may be traced back to [[Voltaire]], but not to any known medieval source. In its original form, the woodcut included a decorative border that places it in the 19th century; in later publications, some claiming that the woodcut did, in fact, date to the 16th century, the border was removed. Flammarion, according to anecdotal evidence, had commissioned the woodcut himself. In any case, no source of the image earlier than Flammarion's book is known.
Russell, a professor of history at Santa Barbara who has written widely on mediaeval religion, heresy and witchcraft, explored the issue in ''Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians''. Russell claims that the Flat Earth theory is a fable used to impugn pre-modern civilisation, especially that of the Middle Ages in Europe. Today essentially all professional mediaevalists agree with Russell that the "mediaeval flat earth" is a nineteenth-century fabrication, and that the few verifiable "flat earthers" were the exception.
As of the beginning of the [[21st Century]], there remain populations within rural cultures which, unexposed to technological civilisation, consider the world to be flat. With no long-distance communication requirements or other technological endeavours, their beliefs appear to suffice.
From a European perspective, [[Portugal|Portuguese]] exploration of [[Africa]] and [[Asia]] in the [[15th century]] removed any serious doubts, and [[Ferdinand Magellan]]'s circumnavigation any remaining ones. The erroneous belief that [[Christopher Columbus]]'s sailors feared they would fall off the edge of the world is false: they were understandably uncertain about a voyage into the unknown, and were also worried that food supplies would run out. In fact, Columbus did not provide sufficient supplies to reach [[China]] or the [[East Indies]], his original destination; and if [[The Americas|America]] had not existed then his expedition might have died of starvation. Columbus believed the Earth to be much smaller than it is now known to be; about the size of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], in fact.
Some Christians in [[England]] and [[United States]] tried to revive Flat Earth thinking in the [[19th century]]. When [[Joshua Slocum]] arrived in the [[Transvaal]] Republic during his solo [[circumnavigation]] of the world, [[Paul Kruger|President Kruger]] berated him, telling him "you don't mean around the world; it is impossible! You mean in the world!"
Modern people who do not accept the spherical Earth and base this opinion on Scripture do not represent a continuing school of [[Biblical exegesis]], although some small groups such as the [[Flat Earth Society]] in the USA work hard to keep the concept alive, and have claimed a few thousand followers [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/flatearth.html]. [[Charles K. Johnson]] ran the Flat Earth Society from his home in [[California]] until he died in [[2001]].
==In fiction==
In the fictional [[interactive fiction|text adventure]] universe of [[Zork]], [[Quendor]] is located on a flat planet held up by a giant [[Creatures in Zork|Brogmoid]].
[[Terry Pratchett]]'s [[Discworld]] novels are set on a [[Discworld (world)|disc-shaped world]] resting on the backs of four huge elephants which are in turn standing on the back of an enormous turtle.
==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}}It was against this theory that [[George Best (16th Century)|George Best]] wrote his chapter entitled "Experiences and reasons of the Sphere, to prove all parts of the worlde <!--sic--> habitable, and thereby to confute the position of the five zones" (''A True Discourse'', 1578).
==See also==
*[[Islam and flat-earth theories]]
*[[Antipodes]]
*[[T and O map]]
*[[Hollow earth]]
*The ''[[Discworld]]'' series, written by [[Terry Pratchett]]
*The [[Flat Earth Society]]
==Further reading==
*''Inventing the Flat Earth'', Jeffrey Burton Russell, Praeger Paperback, 1997, ISBN 027595904X; see [http://www.id.ucsb.edu/fscf/library/RUSSELL/FlatEarth.html his summary]
*Andrew White, [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/andrew_white/Andrew_White.html The Warfare Of Science With Theology] (1896)
* Gingerich, O. 1992. "Astronomy in the age of Columbus". Scientific American, 267(5), (November), 66-71. (An expansion of some of Russell’s historical material, with comments on the subsequent Copernican Revolution.)
* Gould, S.J. 1996. The late birth of a flat Earth. In: Dinosaur in a haystack, Jonathan Cape, London, 3-40. (Reprinted from "The persistently flat Earth", Natural History, 103, March 1994, 12-19. Draws extensively from Russell and discusses the way a desire to see "progress" has led to the rewriting of history and to the advocacy of a warfare between science and religion).
* Tyler, D.J. 1996. The impact of the Copernican Revolution on biblical interpretation, Origins, July (No. 21), 2-8. (Discusses the "language of appearance" used in the Bible and the way hermeneutical issues were clarified by the Copernican revolution. The principles developed in this article are directly applicable to any claim that the Bible "teaches a Flat Earth".)
==External links==
* [http://www.ethicalatheist.com/docs/flat_earth_myth_ch5.html 7000 Years of Thinking Regarding Earth's Shape]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_087.html You say the earth is round? Prove it] (from [[The Straight Dope]])
[http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/febible.htm Biblical arguments for a flat Earth]
* [http://www.stnews.org/Commentary-1068.htm Science & Technology News - 'Debunking The Flat Earth Myth against Christianity']
* [http://archives.math.utk.edu//hypermail/historia/feb00/0164.html Flat Earth Fallacy]
[[de:Flache Erde]]
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000, an independent government agency was established to oversee the practice of Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture in the state of Victoria. The Chinese Medicine Registration Board of Victoria [http://www.cmrb.vic.gov.au/] aims to protect the public, ensuring that only apropriately experienced or qualified practitioners are registered to practice Chinese Medicine. The legislation put in place stipulates that only practitioners who are state registered may use the following titles: Acupuncture, Chinese Medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine, Registered Acupuncturist, Registered Chinese Medicine Practitioner, Registered Chinese Herbal Medicine Practitioner.
Warming an acupuncture point, typically by [[moxibustion]] (the burning of [[mugwort]]), is a different treatment than acupuncture itself and is often, but not exclusively, used as a supplementing treatment. The Chinese term zhēn jǐu (針灸), commonly used to refer to acupuncture, comes from ''zhen'' meaning "needle", and ''jiu'' meaning "moxibustion". Moxibustion is still used in the [[21st century|21<sup>st</sup> century]] to varying degrees among the schools of traditional Chinese medicine. For example, one well known technique is to insert the needle at the desired acupuncture point, attach dried mugwort to the external end of an acupuncture needle, and then ignite the mugwort. The mugwort will then smolder for several minutes (depending on the amount adhered to the needle) and conduct heat through the needle to the tissue surrounding the needle in the patient's body.
Most modern acupuncturists use disposable [[stainless steel]] needles of very fine [[diameter]] (approximately .015"), sterilized with [[ethylene oxide]] or by [[autoclave]]. The upper third of these needles is wound with a thicker wire (typically bronze) to stiffen the needle, provide a handle for the acupuncturist to grasp while inserting the needle, and also provide a surface to which dried mugwort will more easily adhere.
==Theory==
Acupuncture treats the human body as a whole that involves several "systems of function" that are in many cases associated with (but not identified on a one-to-one basis with) physical organs. Some systems of function, such as the "triple heater" ([[San Jiao]], also called the "triple burner") have no corresponding physical organ. Disease is understood as a loss of homeostasis among the several systems of function, and treatment of disease is attempted by modifying the activity of one or more systems of function through the activity of needles, pressure, heat, etc. on sensitive parts of the body of small volume traditionally called "acupuncture points" in English, or "xue" (穴, cavities) in Chinese.
Treatment of acupuncture points may be performed along the twelve main or eight extra [[meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]], located throughout the body. Of the eight extra meridians, only two have acupuncture points of their own. The other six meridians are "activated" by using a master and couple point technique which involves needling the acupuncture points located on the twelve main meridians that correspond to the particular extra meridian. Ten of the main meridians are named after organs of the body (Heart, Liver, etc.), and the other two are named after so called body functions (Heart Protector or [[Pericardium]], and ''San Jiao''). The two most important of the eight "extra" meridians are situated on the midline of the anterior and posterior aspects of the trunk and head.
The twelve primary meridians run vertically, bilaterally, and symmetrically and every channel corresponds to and connects internally with one of the twelve [[Zang Fu]] ("organs"). This means that there are six [[yin]] and six [[yang]] channels. There are three [[yin]] and three [[yang]] channels on each arm, and three [[yin]] and three [[yang]] on each leg.
The three [[yin]] channels of the hand ([[Lung]], [[Pericardium]], and [[Heart]]) begin on the chest and travel along the inner surface (mostly the anterior portion) of the arm to the hand.
The three [[yang]] channels of the hand ([[Large intestine]], [[San Jiao]], and [[Small intestine]]) begin on the hand and travel along the outer surface (mostly the posterior portion) of the arm to the head.
The three [[yang]] channels of the foot ([[Stomach]], [[Gallbladder]], and [[Urinary bladder|Bladder]]) begin on the face, in the region of the eye, and travels down the body and along the outer surface (mostly the anterior and lateral portion) of the leg to the foot.
The three [[yin]] channels of the foot ([[Spleen]], [[Liver]], and [[Kidney]]) begin on the foot and travel along the inner surface (mostly posterior and medial portion) of the leg to the chest or flank.
The movement of [[qi]] through each of the twelve channels is comprised of an internal and an external pathway. The external pathway is what is normally shown on an acupuncture chart and it is relatively superficial. All the acupuncture points of a channel lie on its external pathway. The internal pathways are the deep course of the channel where it enters the body cavities and related Zang-Fu organs. The superficial pathways of the twelve channels describe three complete circuits of the body.
The distribution of [[psuedoscience|energy]] through the meridians is said to be as follows:
Lung channel of hand [[taiyin]] to Large Intestine channel of hand [[yangming]] to Stomach channel of foot [[yangming]] to Spleen channel of foot [[taiyin]] to Heart channel of hand [[shaoyin]] to Small Intestine channel of hand [[taiyang]] to Bladder channel of foot [[taiyang]] to Kidney channel of foot [[shaoyin]] to Pericardium channel of hand [[jueyin]] to [[San Jiao]] channel of hand [[shaoyang]] to Gallbladder channel of foot [[shaoyang]] to Liver channel of foot [[jueyin]] then back to the Lung channel of hand [[taiyin]]
Traditional Chinese medical theory holds that acupuncture works by normalizing the balance of ''[[qi]]'' "vital energy" throughout the body. Pain or illnesses are treated by attempting to remedy local or systemic accumulations or deficiencies of qi. Pain is considered to indicate blockage or stagnation of the flow of qi, and an axiom of the medical literature of acupuncture is "no pain, no blockage; no blockage, no pain".
Many patients claim to experience the sensations of stimulus known in Chinese as "deqi" (得氣 "obtaining the qi"). This kind of sensation was historically considered to be evidence of effectively locating the desired point. There are some electronic devices now available which will make a noise when what they have been programmed to describe as the "correct" acupuncture point is pressed.
The [[acupuncturist]] will decide which points to treat by thoroughly questioning the patient, and utilizing the diagnostic skills of [[traditional Chinese medicine]] which include observation of the left and right radial pulses at three levels of imposed pressure and analysis of the tongue coating, color and the absence or presence of teeth marks around the edge.
There are also theories being developed to explain effects observed for acupuncture within the orthodox Western medical paradigm.
According to the NIH consensus statement on acupuncture[http://consensus.nih.gov/1997/1997Acupuncture107html.htm]:
: Despite considerable efforts to understand the anatomy and physiology of the "acupuncture points", the definition and characterization of these points remains controversial. Even more elusive is the basis of some of the key traditional Eastern medical concepts such as the circulation of [[Qi]], the meridian system, and the five phases theory, which are difficult to reconcile with contemporary biomedical information but continue to play an important role in the evaluation of patients and the formulation of treatment in acupuncture.
==An example of acupuncture practice==
[[Image:Acupuncture.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Acupuncture]]
In western medicine, vascular headaches (the kind that are accompanied by throbbing veins in the temples) are typically treated with analgesics such as aspirin and/or by the use of agents such as niacin that dilate the affected blood vessels in the scalp, but in acupuncture a common treatment for such headaches is to stimulate the sensitive points that are located roughly in the center of the webs between the thumbs and the palms of the patient, the ''hé gǔ'' points. These points are described by acupuncture theory as "targeting the face and head" and are considered to be the most important point when treating disorders affecting the face and head. The patient reclines, and the points on each hand are first sterilized with alcohol, and then thin, disposable needles are inserted to a depth of approximately 3-5 mm until a characteristic "twinge" is felt by the patient, often accompanied by a slight twitching of the muscle between the thmb and hand. Most patients report a pleasurable "tingling" sensation and feeling of relaxation while the needles are in place. The needles are retained for 15-20 minutes while the patient rests, and then are removed.
In the clinical practice of acupuncturists, patients frequently report one or more of certain kinds of sensation that are associated with this treatment, sensations that are stronger than those that would be felt by a patient not suffering from a vascular headache: (1) Extreme sensitivity to pain at the points in the webs of the thumbs. (2) In bad headaches, a feeling of nausea that persists for roughly the same period as the stimulation being administered to the webs of the thumbs. (3) Simultaneous relief of the headache. (See ''Zhen Jiu Xue'', p. 177f et passim.)
The [[Cochrane Collaboration]], an international organization dedicated to [[evidence-based medicine]], concluded |
ced was a bomb strike next to the despatch riders' entrance, shifting the whole of Hut 4 (the Naval Intelligence hut) two metres on its base. The bomb was thought to have been intended for [[Bletchley railway station]].
The first government visitors to Bletchley Park described themselves as members of ''Captain Ridley's shooting party''. The intelligence produced from decrypts at Bletchley was eventually code-named "[[ULTRA]]".
When the United States joined the war, a small number of American cryptographers were posted to Bletchley Park.
==Cryptanalysis==
Among the famous [[mathematician]]s and [[cryptanalysis|cryptanalyst]]s working there, perhaps the most influential and certainly the best-known in later years was [[Alan Turing]]. In 1943, the [[Colossus computer|Colossus]], the world's first programmable digital electronic computer, was designed at Bletchley Park by [[Max Newman]] and his team. The computer was designed and built to help break the [[FISH (cryptography)|Fish Cyphers]], in particular the [[Lorenz cipher]]. [[Tommy Flowers]] of the [[General Post Office (United Kingdom)|British Post Office]], whose crew actually built the computer(s) at its [[Post Office Research Station|Dollis Hill]] facility.
Some 9,000 people were working at Bletchley Park at the height of the codebreaking efforts in January 1945<ref>Smith, 1998, pp. 175-176</ref>, and over 10,000 worked at some point during the war<ref>Smith, 1998, p. 176</ref>. They were selected for various intellectual achievements{{fact}}, whether they were chess champions, crossword experts, polyglots or great mathematicians. Some of them completed a five-year course in Japanese in just six months{{fact}}.
The Bletchley Park effort was comparable in influence to other WWII-era technological efforts, such as the cryptographic work at [[Arlington Hall]], the [[Naval Communications Annex]] (both in Washington, DC, and both in commandeered private girls' schools), the development of sophisticated microwave [[radar]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s [[Radiation Lab]], and the [[Manhattan Project]]'s development of [[nuclear weapon]]s{{fact}}.
==After the war==
At the end of the war, much of the equipment used and its blueprints were destroyed. Although thousands of people were involved in the decoding efforts, the participants remained silent for decades about what they had done during the war, and it was only in the 1970s that the work at Bletchley Park was revealed to the general public. After the war, the site belonged to several owners, including [[British Telecom]], the Civil Aviation Authority<ref>[http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art9678.asp]</ref> and PACE ([[Property Advisors to the Civil Estate]]). The post-war successor organisation to GC&CS, GCHQ, ended training courses at Bletchley Park in 1987.
By 1991, the site was nearly empty and the buildings were at risk of demolition to make room for property development. The Bletchley Park Trust was formed on [[13 February]] [[1992]] in order to further the maintenance of the site as a museum devoted to the codebreakers. The site opened to visitors in 1993, with the museum officially inaugurated in July 1994. The trust is volunteer-based and relies on public support to continue its efforts. The current director of the trust, Christine Large, was appointed in March 1998.
A team headed by Tony Sale has undertaken a reconstruction of a [[Colossus computer]] in H block<ref>[http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/rebuild.htm]</ref>. Another team has undertaken a rebuild of the [[bombe]], led by John Harper<ref>[http://www.jharper.demon.co.uk/bombe1.htm]</ref>.
{|style="margin:1em auto 0 auto"
|- style="vertical-align:top"
|[[Image:BletcleyPark SubModel.JPG|thumbnail|right|A scale model of a German World War II [[U-boat]], used in the film ''[[Enigma (movie)|Enigma]]'' and later donated to the Bletchley Park museum.]]
|[[Image:Colossus-rebuild.jpg|thumbnail|The Colossus rebuild project is undertaking a reconstruction of a [[Colossus computer|Colossus Mk II computer]].]]
|[[Image:Bombe-rebuild.jpg|thumbnail|left|A project to construct a working replica of a [[bombe]] is underway.]]
|}
==Buildings==
[[Image:Hut-1.jpg|thumbnail|right|Hut 1 was the first hut to be constructed.]]
[[Image:BletchleyPark Hut4 01.JPG|thumbnail|right|Hut 4, sited adjacent to the mansion, was used during wartime for naval intelligence. Today, it has been refurbished as a bar and restaurant for the museum.]]
[[Image:Hut6.jpg|right|thumbnail|Hut 6 in 2004.]]
The huts were designated by numbers; in some cases, the hut numbers became associated as much with the work which went on inside the buildings as with the buildings themselves. Because of this, when a section moved from a hut into a larger building, they were still referred to by their "Hut" code name.
Some of the hut numbers, and the associated work, are:
* ''Hut 1'' &mdash; the first hut, built in 1939<ref>[http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/bletchleypark/tour3.htm]</ref><!--; translation-->
<!--* ''Hut 2'' &mdash; recreational hut-->
* ''Hut 3'' &mdash; intelligence: translation and analysis of Army and Airforce Enigma decrypts
* ''Hut 4'' &mdash; Naval intelligence: analysis of Naval Enigma decrypts
<!--* ''Hut 5'' &mdash; Army intelligence-->
* ''[[Hut 6]]'' &mdash; Cryptanalysis of Army and Airforce Enigma
<!--* ''Hut 7'' &mdash; Punched card machines -->
* ''[[Hut 8]]'' &mdash; Cryptanalysis Naval Enigma
<!--* ''Hut 9'' &mdash; Pay and administration
* ''Hut 10'' &mdash; Meteorological section; German air section; Italian air section -->
* ''Hut 11'' &mdash; The first [[Bombe]] building<ref>[http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/bletchleypark/tour4.htm]</ref>
* ''Hut 14'' &mdash; main [[teleprinter]] building<ref>[http://beaumanor.hosted.pipemedia.net/History/operational%20Huts.htm]</ref>
<!--* ''Hut 19'' &mdash; Currently used by 2366 ATC Squadron-->
==See also==
* [[List of people associated with Bletchley Park]]
* [[Arlington Hall]]
* [[National Cryptologic Museum]]
* [[Danesfield House]]
==External links==
* [http://www.bletchleypark.org/ Bletchley Park Trust]
* [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/bletchleypark/ Bletchley Park — Virtual Tour] — by Tony Sale
* [http://www.lightstraw.co.uk/bletchley/tour.html Telecoms at Bletchley Park]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/oz/colinday/bletchley/index.html Photographs and information about the Bletchley Park site]
* [http://www.project-x.org.uk/bletpark.html] &mdash; Bletchley Park Groups website
* [http://www.bletchleyparkheritage.org.uk/ Codes and Ciphers Heritage Trust]
* [http://portal.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml?html=/archive/1997/03/03/nblet03.html "New hope of saving Bletchley Park for nation"] ([[Daily Telegraph]] [[3 March]] [[1997]])
* [http://www.2366atc.co.uk 2366 (Bletchley Park)ATC Squadron]
==References==
{{commons|Bletchley Park|Bletchley Park}}
<references/>
''Other''
* Ted Enever, ''Britain's Best Kept Scret: Ultra's Base at Bletchley Park'', 3rd edition, 1999, ISBN 0750923555.
* F. H. Hinsley and Alan Stripp, eds. ''Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1993.
* Christine Large, ''Hijacking Enigma: The Insider's Tale'', 2003, ISBN 047086346-3.
* Hugh Sebag-Montefiore, ''Enigma: the Battle for the Code'', London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000.
* Michael Smith, ''Station X'', Channel 4 Books, 1998. ISBN 0330419293.
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[[Category:World War II espionage]]
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[[Category:History of the United Kingdom]]
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<title>Banach Tarski Paradoxical Decomposition</title>
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<timestamp>2006-01-15T11:54:42Z</timestamp>
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<username>Dbenbenn</username>
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<comment>#redirect [[Banach-Tarski paradox]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Banach-Tarski paradox]]</text>
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<title>B.C</title>
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<comment>upd. redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[BC]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bede</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-26T01:11:40Z</timestamp>
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<ip>70.144.123.49</ip>
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<comment>/* Other historical and theological works */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beda Venerabilis.jpg|thumb|200px|Bede depicted in an early medieval manuscript]]
[[Image:Nuremberg Chronicle Venerable Bede.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Depiction of Bede from the [[Nuremberg Chronicle]], [[1493]].]]
'''Bede''' ([[Latin]] ''Beda''), also known as '''Saint Bede''' or, more commonly, the '''Venerable Bede''' (ca. [[672]] or [[673]] &ndash; [[May 27]], [[735]]), was a [[monasticism|monk]] at the [[Northumbria]]n [[monastery]] of Saint Peter at [[Wearmouth]], today part of [[Sunderland]], and of its companion monastery, Saint Paul's, in modern [[Jarrow]]. He is well k |
rian Bolland]].]]
Moore's British work brought him to the attention of DC Comics [[editor]] [[Len Wein]], who hired him in 1983 to write ''[[Swamp Thing]]'', then a fairly formulaic monster comic, and also one of the poorest selling of DC's titles at the time. Moore, along with artists [[Stephen R. Bissette]], [[Rick Veitch]] and [[John Totleben]], deconstructed and rebuilt the character from the ground up, writing a series of formally experimental stories that addressed environmental and social issues alongside the horror and fantasy.
Once it was clear that Moore had revitalised ''[[Swamp Thing]]'' and that he brought great critical acclaim, he was given new assignments by DC. These included backup [[Green Arrow]] (in ''[[Detective Comics]]'') and [[Omega Men]] stories, a two part story in ''[[Vigilante (comics)|Vigilante]]'', plus various [[Batman]] and [[Superman]] stories. The most acclaimed of this work was the final two part Superman story (''[[Superman: Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?|Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?]]'') before [[John Byrne]]'s revamp in 1986 and ''[[Batman: The Killing Joke|The Killing Joke]]'' with artist [[Brian Bolland]].
It was with the limited series ''[[Watchmen]]'', begun in 1986 and collected as a graphic novel in 1987, that he cemented his reputation. Imagining what the world would be like if superheroes had really existed since the 1940s, Moore and artist [[Dave Gibbons]] created a twisted [[Cold War]] mystery in which the shadow of [[nuclear war]] threatens the world. The heroes who are caught up in this escalating crisis either work for the [[United States of America|U.S.]] government or are outlawed; they are variously neurotic, amoral, sexually dysfunctional, borderline-fascistic and, ultimately, woefully human. ''Watchmen'' is formally ambitious, densely written, intricately constructed, non-linear and told from multiple points of view; it is a rare example of a [[graphic novel]] that in its scope and depth can be genuinely considered a [[novel]] in comics form. Moore was widely acclaimed for revitalising the medium, not least in his decision to tackle dense philosophical issues such as predestination, free will and moral reasoning, which previously had not been so skillfully broached in a mainstream comic.
[[Image:V for vendettax.jpg|thumb|150px|Cover art for the collected edition of ''[[V for Vendetta]]'' by [[David Lloyd (comic artist)|David Lloyd]].]]
''Watchmen'' is also notable for widening the rift between Moore and DC Comics which originated during Moore's tenure as writer on ''Swamp Thing''. DC marketed a limited edition badge set featuring characters and images from the series, as well as the iconic 'smiley badge' featured in the series. This badge set caused friction between Moore and DC - the publisher claimed that they were a "promotional item" and not merchandising, and therefore DC did not pay Moore or Gibbons any royalties from the sale of the sets.
Alongside roughly contemporaneous work such as [[Frank Miller]]'s ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'', [[Art Spiegelman]]'s ''[[Maus (comics)|Maus]]'' and [[Jaime Hernandez|Jaime]] and [[Gilbert Hernandez]]'s ''[[Love and Rockets (comics)|Love and Rockets]]'', ''Watchmen'' was part of a late 1980s trend towards comics with more adult sensibilities. Moore briefly became a media celebrity, and the resulting attention led to him withdrawing from [[fandom]] and no longer attending comics conventions (at one [[UKCAC]] in [[London]] he is said to have been followed into the toilet by eager autograph hunters).
''Marvelman'' was reprinted and continued for the American market as ''[[Miracleman]]'', published by independent publisher [[Eclipse Comics]]. The change of name was prompted by [[Marvel Comics]]' complaints of possible [[trademark]] infringement. Despite [[copyright]] disputes with artists and allegations of non-payment against the publisher, Moore, with artists [[Chuck Austen]], Rick Veitch and John Totleben, finished the story he wanted to tell and handed the character to writer [[Neil Gaiman]] and artist [[Mark Buckingham]] to continue. The legal ownership of the character continues to be rather murky.
Moore and Lloyd took ''V for Vendetta'' to DC, where it was reprinted and completed in full colour and released as a graphic novel. However Moore (along with [[Frank Miller]] and [[Howard Chaykin]]) fell out with DC over a proposed age-rating system similar to those used for films, and he stopped working for them after completing ''V for Vendetta'' in 1989.
====''Twilight of the Superheroes''====
There is a "lost work" from this period, a miniseries proposal called ''Twilight of the Superheroes'' which Moore submitted to DC at some point in 1987. A superheroic pun on [[Richard Wagner]]'s opera act, the "Twilight of the Gods" ([[Götterdämmerung]]), this story was to be set two decades in the future of the [[DC Universe]] and would feature an epic final conflict between good and evil, as well as between the older and younger generations of superheroes. ''Twilight'' was conceived as a standalone [[limited series]] which could optionally also be tied into ongoing titles, much like the then-recent 12-issue limited series ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]''. However, it would also undo one element of the prior series by restoring writers' access to the various multiple earths which had been eliminated during ''Crisis''. Cleverly, Moore did this in such a way as to leave the single timeline of the post-''Crisis'' continuity intact.
The story would feature a world ruled over by superheroic houses, in which the two most powerful, the House of Steel (presided over by [[Superman]] and [[Wonder Woman]]) and the House of Thunder (consisting of the [[Captain Marvel (DC Comics)|Marvel]] family) are about to join forces through a political marriage between the children of the two families. Such a marriage would make the combined houses an unstoppable force and a potential danger to freedom, and as such certain characters set about a complex plot to prevent the marriage and free humanity from the power of the superheroes. By the climax of the story, elements from all across the universe and from up and down the timestream would be brought in. Unusually, the series would highlight many obscure and forgotten DC characters by putting them in important roles, and the lead character would be [[John Constantine]], whose interaction with the superheroes of the DC Universe had up until then (and indeed since) been rather minor.
With Moore's departure from DC, the series never got beyond the proposal stage, although copies of Moore's very lengthy notes have appeared on the internet and in print. DC have been quite thorough in tracking down and suppressing these copies as the story, though unpublished, is still considered the property of the company. Elements of ''Twilight'' can be seen in the concept of [[Hypertime (comics)|hypertime]] and particularly in DC's similar-themed series [[Kingdom Come (comic)|''Kingdom Come'']], leading cynics to remark that the suppression of copies of the ''Twilight'' proposal may be an attempt by DC to hide the fact that they are strip-mining unused Moore concepts. Both [[Mark Waid]] and [[Alex Ross]], the creators of ''Kingdom Come'', have admitted that they had read the ''Twilight'' proposal before starting work on their series, but claim that any similarities are both minor and unintended.
===Independent period===
A variety of projects followed, including ''[[Brought to Light]]'', a history of [[CIA]] covert operations with illustrator [[Bill Sienkiewicz]] for [[Eclipse Comics]], and an anthology, ''[[AARGH (Artists Against Rampant Government Homophobia)]]'' campaigning against [[Section 28|anti-homosexual legislation]], which Moore published himself through his newly-formed publishing company, Mad Love.
After prompting by cartoonist and self-publishing advocate [[Dave Sim]], Moore then used Mad Love to publish his next project, ''[[Big Numbers]]'', a proposed 12-issue series set in contemporary Britain and based on [[chaos theory]] and the mathematical ideas of [[Benoît Mandelbrot]]. Bill Sienkiewicz illustrated in an intense, painted style but the workload became too much for him after only two issues. His assistant [[Al Columbia]] took over and painted a third issue, which never saw print, and the series was abandoned. Mad Love was financially wiped out.
Moore contributed two serials to the horror anthology ''Taboo'', edited by Stephen R. Bissette. ''[[From Hell]]'' examined the [[Jack the Ripper]] murders as a microcosm of the 1880s, and the 1880s as the root of the 20th Century. Illustrated in an appropriately sooty pen and ink style by [[Eddie Campbell]], ''From Hell'' took nearly ten years to complete, outlasting ''Taboo'' and going through two more publishers before being collected as a graphic novel by Eddie Campbell Comics. ''[[Lost Girls]]'', with artist [[Melinda Gebbie]] (who would eventually become Moore's second wife), is an [[erotic]] series decoding the sexual meanings in ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'', ''[[Peter Pan]]'' and ''[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]]''. A collected edition is due in early 2006.
He also wrote a graphic novel for [[Victor Gollancz Ltd]], ''[[A Small Killing]]'', illustrated by [[Oscar Zarate]], about a once idealistic advertising executive haunted by his boyhood self, published in 1988 through Mad Love and reprinted in 2003 by [[Avatar Press]].
===Return to the mainstream===
After several years out of the mainstream, Moore worked his way back into superhero comics by writing several series for [[Image Comics]] and the companies that later broke away from it. He felt that his influence on comics had in many ways been detrimental. Instead of taking inspiration from the more innovative aspects of his work, creators who followed him had merely imitated the violence and grimness. As a reac |
Konrad_Adenauer|Adenauer]] administration ([[1949]]-[[1963]]) and later federal chancellor ([[1963]]-[[1966]]), is widely recognized as having been the "father" of this profound rise in the country's economic and social wealth.
Germany continues to struggle with a number of social issues although problems created by the [[German Reunification]] of 1990 have begun to diminish. The standard of living is higher in the western half of the country, but easterners now share a reasonably high standard of living. Germans continue to be concerned about a relatively high level of unemployment. Germany has passed several reforms to curb unemployment. Some of these reforms will require people in the labour force to work harder and more efficiently.
For centuries, a woman's role in German society was summed up by the three words: Kinder (children), Kirche (church), and Küche (kitchen). Throughout the twentieth century, however, women have gradually won victories in their quest for equal rights. Despite significant gains, discrimination remains in united Germany. Women are noticeably absent in the top tiers of German business. They only hold 9.2 % of jobs in Germany's upper and middle management positions, according to 2002 figures from the Hoppenstedt business databank. Since 2001 women are in active duty in the Bundeswehr.
Since World War II, Germany has experienced intermittent turmoil from various extremist groups. In the 1970s the terrorist [[Red Army Faction]] engaged in a string of assassinations and kidnappings against political and business figures and there has been a recent surge in right-wing extremist crimes. According to former Interior Minister [[Otto Schily]], the number of these crimes rose 8.4% to 12,553 cases in 2004, which the minister attributed to such crimes as the display of illegal [[Nazism|Nazi]] symbols being reported more frequently. The majority of these cases are not violent crimes, although these do exist as well.
Germany is also burdened with an extremely low fertility/birthrate. Obviously, this has and will continue to cause many economic and social problems. For instance, the low birthrate has caused a shortage of young workers to replace the aging ones. This is expected to cause trouble in Germany's generous social welfare system, due less taxpayers and more elderly who will receive benefits. There is much debate as to what should be done to curb this trend. More daycare centers, paying cash to mothers for babies that are born, and incentives for men or women to stay home with the children have all been offered as solutions to this problem. So far none have been fully implemented.
Germany has failed to implement EU laws prohibiting racial discrimination. The European Court of Justice ruled on [[29 April]] [[2005]], that Germany had breached EU law by failing to transpose fully the 'Racial Equality Directive' prohibiting discrimination on the grounds of race or ethnic origin (Directive 2000/43/EC). The deadline for EU Member States to transpose this Directive was [[19 July]] [[2003]] – except for the 10 new Member States, who had to ensure that their legislation complied with the Directives by their accession to the EU on [[1 May]] [[2004]]. Immigrants to Germany may generally face integration issues and other difficulties. In addition to the challenges of adapting to a new language and culture, they may be subject to security-related police inquiries and violence from right-wing extremist groups. The government has attempted to improve immigrant integration by mandating courses on language, culture, politics, and society for some immigrants.
Some German states have banned Muslim teachers from wearing [[headscarf|headscarves]] in class and all states have banned crosses from the classroom as well, generally by prohibiting the use of all [[religious symbol]]s by teachers. This is legitimate by combining the German states' privilege of educational laws with the principle of separation of church and state, both provided for in the German federal constitution: According to this legal view, teachers in their vocational function within a state administered educational system are obliged to maintain and publicly exhibit religious neutrality when on duty. As this status of employment does not hold for pupils, whose constitutional right to religious freedom thus remains unencumbered by these provisions, this ban cannot legally be extended to them as it is in [[France]]. The question of headscarves and crosses in schools has been heavily discussed politically throughout Germany in recent years, but could only be solved by a decision of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) in 2003.
===Culture===
[[Image:Goethecut.png|thumb|right|240px|[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] is regarded as a major German poet]]
{{main|Culture of Germany}}
Germany's contributions to the world's cultural heritage are numerous, and the country is often known as ''das Land der Dichter und Denker'' (the land of poets and thinkers). German '''literature''' can be traced back to the Middle Ages, in particular to such authors as [[Walther von der Vogelweide]] and [[Wolfram von Eschenbach]], considered some of the most important poets of medieval Europe. The [[Nibelungenlied]], whose author is not known, is also a major contribution to German literature. Theologian [[Martin Luther|Luther]], who translated the Bible into German, is widely credited for having set the basis for modern "High German" language. The mostly admired German poets and authors are without doubt [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[E.T.A. Hoffmann|Hoffmann]], [[Gottfried Keller|Keller]] and [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]]. Other poets include [[Heinrich Heine]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke]] and authors of the 20th century include [[Nobel prize]] winners [[Thomas Mann]], [[Hermann Hesse]], [[Heinrich Böll]], and [[Günter Grass]]. Other authors include [[Bertolt Brecht|Brecht]] and [[Hans Magnus Enzensberger|Enzensberger]]. Germany's influence on world '''philosophy''' was significant as well, as exemplified by [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], [[Feuerbach]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]], [[Eduard von Hartmann|Hartmann]], [[Karl Jaspers|Jaspers]], [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]], [[Hans-Georg Gadamer|Gadamer]] and [[Jürgen Habermas|Habermas]].
In the field of '''sociology''' influential German thinkers were [[Georg Simmel|Simmel]], [[Max Weber|Weber]], [[Ferdinand Tönnies|Tönnies]], [[Theodor Adorno|Adorno]] and [[Niklas Luhmann|Luhmann]].
In the field of '''music''', Germany's influence is noted through the works of, among others,
[[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]],[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], [[Georg Friedrich Händel|Händel]], [[Telemann]], [[Heinrich Schütz|Schütz]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], [[Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy|Mendelssohn Bartholdy]], [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]], [[Robert Schumann|Schumann]], [[Schubert]], [[Franz Liszt|Liszt]], [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]], [[Max Reger|Reger]], [[Richard Strauss|Strauss]], [[Anton Webern|Webern]], [[Carl Orff|Orff]], [[Hans Werner Henze|Henze]] and [[Helmut Lachenmann|Lachenmann]].
In '''Art''', there are several fine German painters such as the [[Renaissance]] artist [[Albrecht Dürer|Dürer]], the romanticist [[Caspar David Friedrich|Friedrich]], the [[Surrealism|surrealist]] [[Max Ernst|Ernst]], the [[Expressionism|expressionists]] [[Franz Marc|Marc]] and [[George Grosz|Grosz]], the [[Conceptualism|conceptual]] artist [[Joseph Beuys|Beuys]] or the neo expressionist [[Georg Baselitz|Baselitz]]. Architecture also flourished in Germany. Several [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s are scattered throughout Germany (including, for instance, the cathedral of [[Cologne]] and the [[Museum Island]] in [[Berlin]]). Famous architects include [[neoclassicism|neoclassicist]] [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel|Schinkel]] and [[Walter Gropius|Gropius]], the founder of the [[Bauhaus]]. A significant part of the architectural heritage of Germany, however, has been irrevocably destroyed by air raids on city centers during World War II.
Germany was also the homeland of '''scientists''' like [[Hermann von Helmholtz|Helmholtz]], [[Joseph von Fraunhofer|Fraunhofer]], [[Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit|Fahrenheit]], [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]], [[Ernst Haeckel|Haeckel]], [[Wilhelm Wundt|Wundt]], [[Rudolf Virchow|Virchow]], [[Paul Ehrlich|Ehrlich]], [[Alexander von Humboldt|Humboldt]], [[Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen|Röntgen]], [[Karl Ferdinand Braun|Braun]], [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]], [[Max Born|Born]], [[Max Planck|Planck]], [[Werner Heisenberg|Heisenberg]], [[Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt|Creuzfeldt]], [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz|Hertz]], [[Robert Koch|Koch]], [[Otto Hahn|Hahn]], [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[Justus von Liebig|Liebig]], [[Ernst Mayr|Mayr]] and [[Robert Bunsen|Bunsen]]; and inventors and engineers such as [[Johann Gutenberg|Gutenberg]], [[Nikolaus August Otto|Otto]], [[Robert Bosch|Bosch]], [[Werner von Siemens|Siemens]], [[Wernher von Braun|von Braun]], [[Gottlieb Daimler|Daimler]], [[Carl Benz|Benz]] and [[Rudolf Diesel|Diesel]].
Important '''mathematicians''' were born in Germany such as [[Adam Ries|Ries]], [[Richard Dedekind|Dedekind]], [[Friedrich Bessel|Bessel]], [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauß]], [[David Hilbert|Hilbert]], [[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi|Jacobi]], [[Bernhard Riemann|Riemann]], [[Felix Klein|Klein]] and [[Karl Weierstrass|Weierstraß]].
Many historical figures, though not citizens of Germany in the modern sense, were important and influential figures in German culture, such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Stefan Zweig]] and [[Nicolaus Copernicus]].
The '''[[German language]]''' was once the [[lingua franca]] of central, eastern and northern Europe. Within the [[European Un |
working out in secret.
[[Image:Daredevilv1issue1splashpage.png|thumb|175px|left|Daredevil's first costume, from ''Daredevil'' Vol. 1, #1 (April 1964). Splash-page art by [[Jack Kirby]] (penciler) and [[Bill Everett]] (inker).{{fn|1}}]]
While saving an old man from an oncoming truck, Matt was blinded by [[radioactive]] material. Though no longer able to see, Murdock found the radioactive exposure had heightened his remaining senses beyond normal human thresholds, and had additionally given him a sixth "radar sense", as he termed it, that enabled him to detect the shape and location of objects around him. A mysterious man named [[Stick (comics)|Stick]] became the young Murdock's mentor, teaching him how to control his new abilities and honing the youth's natural aptitude in [[acrobatics]] and [[martial arts]]. Throughout his accident and recovery, Matt honored his father's wishes by continuing his law studies.
Jack struggled, however, and began working as an enforcer for small-time criminal the [[Fixer (comics)|Fixer]], who also served as fading boxers' manager-of-last-resort. After Jack refused to throw a title bout Matt was attending, the Fixer had Jack killed. Matt was devastated both by the loss of his father and the judicial system's failure to convict the men responsible. Mindful of his childhood promise not to lead a violent life, he created a new vigilante identity. Creating a yellow-black-and-red costume from his father's boxing robes, taking his derisive childhood nickname for the irony, and using his superhuman abilities, Matt confronted the killers. The Fixer died of a heart attack while running from the newly minted Daredevil.
With friend and law-school roommate [[Franklin Nelson|Franklin "Foggy" Nelson]], Murdock opened a practice and hired [[secretary]]-[[receptionist]] [[Karen Page]]. Realizing the judicial system was imperfect, he felt he could better serve society and work through his own personal torment with a dual career as attorney and costumed crime-fighter. {{-}}
===Analysis===
Matt Murdock is one of the most complicated characters in comic books, mostly due to the additions made by Frank Miller:
====Identity crisis====
Though never as splintered as a character like [[Moon Knight]], Daredevil has often found himself adorning different identities. In issue #7 a move was made by [[Wallace Wood]] away from the yellow costume and into Daredevil's now classic red one. Stan Lee's early stories had Matt donning oversized sunglasses and a tweed jacket to portray his fictional brother Mike Murdock (the "true" identity of Daredevil, according to Matt). Miller's ''Born Again'' storyline had a devastated Murdock unsure of who he actually was. The nineties saw the introduction of the infamous razor costume as well as the symbolic burial of Murdock's past life. Issue #350 brought a similar breakdown and a brief reintroduction of the yellow costume. <!--Though this theme is likely an accumulation of mischaracterizations, it has been refined to be a central issue to the character's life. Above and beyond — or perhaps because of — his struggle to balance the order and chaos in his life, Murdock has often found himself questioning who he really is.-->
====Issues with women====
<!--It could be argued that Murdock seeks punishment and rejection in his relationships with women as a result of unresolved anger stemming from his early and defining interactions with members of the opposite sex.
Matt had no maternal influence in his early years given that he was raised without a mother and that his father was never shown to have any significant relationship that would provide a female presence after Matt was born. Moreover, whereas a single father might therefore be forced to play the father and the mother to a child, boxer/alcoholic/enforcer dad was shown to be very much a testosterone-driven force.
Murdock's social interactions were not normal either. His father's emphasis from an early age that his son put his full energy into his studies led Matt to socially withdrawal from other children. His withdraw was only reinforced when it caused schoolmates to bully and taunt him. That Matt pulled away from his schoolmates as a whole means he was also precluding himself from normal social interaction with girls his own age.-->
Matt's first shown relationship was with Elektra after he had moved on to university (and out of his father's apartment). Though Elektra would later become a ninja-trained assassin, it should be noted that at this point she was nothing more than the exotic and aloof daughter of a Greek diplomat (albeit one who heard voices which urged her to beat up street punks). Their relationship was well within the boundaries of "normal" but it would not remain that way, as Elektra left everything and everyone behind following the murder of her father.
Matt was heartbroken, but it wasn't until the introduction of Karen Page that the first signs of a problem began to appear. Although Karen was clearly in love with Matt, and despite the fact that he clearly felt the same, he would not allow himself to reciprocate, instead inventing the notion that Karen harbored feelings for no one but Daredevil <!--(a sign perhaps of one of Daredevil's other problems - his inability to keep his psyche from splintering under undue stress)-->. When eventually, after a few years of an emotional stalemate, the barrier of the Daredevil identity was brought down by Karen's discovery of Matt's secret, Murdock's problems were only compounded: Karen felt betrayed and quit her job, proving to be the third woman in Matt's young life to leave.
<!--Though he had not had much success with women to date, Murdock tried one more time, establishing a relationship with the Black Widow. Additionally, perhaps as an attempt to psychologically distance himself from the origin of his grief, Murdock moved with her to San Francisco with the Black Widow. Their relationship soon also fell apart, with Natasha signalling to Matt that she couldn't bear the burden of their struggling romance any longer.-->
A few years later <!--the pattern reversed and women began reentering Matt's life, to disastrous results. First--> Elektra returned as an assassin, nearly unrecognizable of the woman she had been. <!--Murdock could only have seen her re-entrance into his life as some sort of minor miracle, which would have been all the more damaging to him given how cold and unresponsive she was to her former lover. And to compound his troubles,--> Elektra slowly bled to death in his arms.
Then Karen Page returned. The woman who had been the most "normal" of Murdock's early loves had become a porn star and junkie, and had in a moment of weakness sold away Murdock's most valued possesion: his identity. Matt forgave her and rebuilt a life and a trust with her, only to have her die in his arms as well.
But right before Karen's death came <!--the last dagger to Murdock:--> the discovery that his mother was still alive. <!--While his discovery of his maternal link to Sister Maggie could be seen as a blessing, it's effects were probably more damaging. If his mother was dead, her absence from Matthew's early years could obviously be forgiven. However, that Maggie was alive meant that she had made a choice ''not'' to be a part of Matthew's life. Therefore the three most significant women of Murdock's early years had ''all'' chosen to leave Murdock.-->
====Catholicism====
Reflecting upon the character of Daredevil in the special features of the ''Daredevil 2-disc DVD'', [[Frank Miller]] has said that a person so conflicted as to be both a [[lawyer]] and a [[vigilante]] must be a [[Catholic]]. Identifying a religious affiliation was uncommon in comics as it was often seen to alienate those who were not part of that religion, though also, perhaps, because many early comic creators were [[Jewish]]. Miller's addition of the character's Catholicism offered many opportunities to comment on the overwhelming "Catholic guilt" that would cause him to think of himself as a devil. [[Kevin Smith]], a Catholic himself, also utilized this aspect of the character prominently in his run on the series.
====Tragedy====
Matt Murdock's life is practically defined by tragedy and pain. Matt's blindness and the murder of his father led to his becoming a superhero. Most of Matt's girlfriends are dead, usually from Matt's double life. While many super heroes like [[Batman]] and [[Spider-Man]] deal with their fair share of loss, no other mainstream hero has had more than Daredevil. Frank Miller has said on the ''Daredevil 2-disc DVD'' that, with as much tragedy in Matt's life, he should be the ultimate villain. Yet, Murdock's sense of right and wrong has made him probably the most determined hero in the Marvel Universe. Often, these tragedies lead Murdock to brood by himself and isolate himself from others, save a small circle of friends. Eventually, the weight of this cracked Matt's psyche during Bendis's run. He developed a [[nervous breakdown]], beat both Bullseye and the Kingpin nearly to death, took on the mantle of the Kingpin, and hastily married a woman he barely knew. While Matt has seemed to recover from the breakdown, tragedy still pushes Matt's life as Daredevil.
<!--====Order and chaos====
A common theme in Daredevil is his conflicting attractions to order and chaos, peace and violence, defender and attacker. This may be caused by his father, a violent man who wanted his son to be a pacifist. Matt's father wanted him to be a lawyer, a paragon of virtue who would never need violence, but Matt was always drawn toward adventure and could never ignore the violent realities of life. Eventually, this split him into two personas each with their own friends and lifestyles, one a vigilante with the face of a demon, the other a |
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<comment>/* Geography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><div style="float:right; width: 400px">
[[Image:Gz-map.png|right|framed|Map of the Gaza Strip from [[The World Factbook]].]]
[[Image:Flag_of_Palestine.svg|125px|center]]
{| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%;" width="300px"
|+ <font size="+1">'''&#x642;&#x637;&#x627;&#x639; &#1594;&#1586;&#1577;'''</font><br />
<font size="+1">'''Qita' Ghazzah'''</font><br />
<font size="+1">'''&#1512;&#1510;&#1493;&#1506;&#1514; &#1506;&#1494;&#1492;'''</font><br />
<font size="+1">'''Retzu'at 'Azza'''</font>
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" |
|-
| [[Official Language]]s
| [[Arabic language|Arabic]]<br/>
([[Domari language|Domari]] also spoken)
|-
| [[Area]]<br/>
&nbsp;- Total<br/>
&nbsp;- % water
| (not ranked)<br/>
360 [[square kilometre|km²]]<br/>
0%
|-
| [[Population]]<br/>
&nbsp;- Total<br/>
&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| (not ranked)<br/>
1,376,289 (July 2005 est)<br/>
3,823/km² (July 2005 est)
|-
| [[Currency]] || 1 [[New Israeli sheqel]]<br/>
(NIS) = 100 Agorot
|-
| [[Time zone]] || [[UTC]] +2/[[Daylight saving time|+3]]
|}
</div>
<div> The '''Gaza Strip''' is a narrow coastal [[strip of land]] along the [[Mediterranean]], in the [[Middle East]], not currently recognized internationally as a ''[[de jure]]'' part of any [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] country. It takes its name from [[Gaza]], its main city. It is one of the most densely populated territories on earth, with about 1.4 million residents in an area of 360 km². The Strip is under the jurisdiction of the [[Palestinian Authority]]. The official Palestinian position is that the territory remains under [[military occupation]], and that Israel holds the status of occupying power. The Israeli government disputes this, especially after the [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|withdrawal of Israel]] in 2005.
== Background ==
Geographically, the Strip forms the westernmost portion of the [[Palestinian territories]] in [[Southwest Asia]], having land borders with [[Egypt]] on the south-west and [[Israel]] on the north and east. On the west, it is bounded by the [[Mediterranean Sea]].
The Strip's borders were originally defined by the [[1949 Armistice Agreements|armistice lines]] between Egypt and Israel after the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], which followed the dissolution of the [[British mandate of Palestine]]. It was occupied by [[Egypt]] (except for four months of Israeli occupation during the [[Suez Crisis]]) until it was captured by Israel in the 1967 [[Six-Day War]]. In 1993, after the Palestinian-Israeli agreements known as the [[Oslo Accords]], much of the Strip came under limited [[Palestinian Authority]] control. In February 2005 the Israeli government voted to implement [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan of 2004|Prime Minister Ariel Sharon's plan for unilateral disengagement]] from the Gaza Strip beginning on [[August 15]], [[2005]]. The plan required the dismantling of all Israeli settlements there, and the removal of all Israeli settlers and military bases from the Strip, a process that was completed on [[September 12]], [[2005]] as the Israeli cabinet formally declared an end to military rule in the Gaza Strip after 38 years of control. The withdrawal was highly contested by the radical nationalist right in Israel, particularly the religious nationalist tendency, and some supporters of these tendencies now consider the Gaza Strip to be an occupied part of Israel. Following withdrawal, Israel retains offshore maritime control and control of airspace over the Strip. Israel withdrew from the "[[Philadelphi Route]]" that is adjacent to the Strip's border with [[Egypt]] after an agreement with the latter to secure its side of the border. The future political status of the Gaza Strip remains undecided, and is claimed as part of any prospective Palestinian state.
== Demographics ==
Around [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gz.html 1.37 million] [[Palestinian]]s live in the Gaza Strip. The majority of the Palestinians are direct descendants of refugees who fled or were expelled from Israel during the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]. By 1967, the population had grown about six-fold, and the Strip's population has continued to increase since that time. Poverty, unemployment, and poor living conditions are widespread, and their causes have been attributed to the extremely high birth rate, disruptions to the economy due to Israeli closure policies since the first [[intifada]], and/or corruptness and inefficiency of the Palestinian Authority. From the 1970s onwards, 25 [[Israeli settlement]]s were constructed in the Gaza Strip, but these were removed in August 2005. The Palestinian population is growing by around 4% a year. Over 99% residents of the strip are Palestinian [[Muslim]], with a small Palestinian [[Christianity|Christian]] (0.7%) minority.
Demographic numbers for the Gaza Strip are acquired from the Palestine Ministry of Health (2005 estimates)[http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&pranchid=62&action=details&serial=350]:
* ''Birth rate'': 30.8 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) [http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&pranchid=62&action=details&serial=350]
* ''Death rate'': 3.2 deaths/1,000 population [http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&pranchid=62&action=details&serial=350]:
* ''net migration'': 1.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population
* ''infant mortality'': 21.3 deaths/1,000 live births [http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&pranchid=62&action=details&serial=362]
* |
original one. If the next time around the orbit loops around phase space a different way, then it is impossible to rectify the vector field in the whole series of patches.
=== Near periodic orbits ===
In general, in the neighborhood of a periodic orbit the rectification theorem cannot be used. Poincaré developed an approach that transforms the analysis near a periodic orbit to the analysis of a map. Pick a point ''x<sub>0</sub>'' in the orbit &gamma; and consider the points in phase space in that neighborhood that are perpendicular to ''v(x<sub>0</sub>)''. These points are a ''Poincaré section'' ''S(&gamma;, x<sub>0</sub>)'', of the orbit. The flow now defines a map, the ''Poincaré map'' ''F : S &rarr; S'', for points starting in ''S'' and returning to ''S''. Not all these points will take the same amount of time to come back, but the times will be close to the time it takes ''x<sub>0</sub>''.
The intersection of the periodic orbit with the Poincaré section is a fixed point of the Poincaré map ''F''. By a translation, the point can be assumed to be at ''x''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0. The Taylor series of the map is ''F(x) = J&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;x + O(x&sup2;)'', so a change of coordinates ''h'' can only be expected to simplify ''F'' to its linear part
: <math> h^{-1} \circ F \circ h(x) = J \cdot x \,. </math>
This is known as the conjugation equation. Finding conditions for this equation to hold has been one of the major tasks of research in dynamical systems. Poincaré first approached it assuming all functions analytic and in the process discovered the non-resonant condition. If &lambda;<sub>1</sub>,&hellip;,&lambda;<sub>&nu;</sub> are the eigenvalues of ''J'' they will be resonant if one eigenvalue is an integer linear combination of two or more of the others. As terms of the form &lambda;<sub>i</sub> &ndash; &sum; (multiples of other eigenvalues) occurs in the denominator of the terms for the function ''h'', the non-resonant condition is also known as the small divisor problem.
=== Conjugation results ===
The results on the existence of a solution to the conjugation equation depend on the eigenvalues of ''J'' and the degree of smoothness required from ''h''. As ''J'' does not need to have any special symmetries, its eigenvalues will typically be complex numbers. When the eigenvalues of ''J'' are not in the unit circle, the dynamics near the fixed point ''x<sub>0</sub>'' of ''F'' is called ''hyperbolic'' and when the eigenvalues are on the unit circle and complex, the dynamics is called ''elliptic''.
In the hyperbolic case the theorem of Hartman and Grobman gives the conditions for the existence of a continuous function that maps the neighborhood of the fixed point of the map to the linear map ''J&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;x''. The hyperbolic case is also ''structurally stable''. Small changes in the vector field will only produce small changes in the Poincaré map and these small changes will reflect in small changes in the position of the eigenvalues of ''J'' in the complex plane, implying that the map is still hyperbolic.
The [[Kolmogorov-Arnold-Moser theorem|KAM]] theorem gives the behavior near an elliptic point.
== Bifurcations ==
When the evolution map ''f<sup>&nbsp;t</sup>'' (or the vector field it is derived from) depends on a parameter &mu;, the structure of the phase space will also depend on this parameter. Small changes may produce no qualitative changes in the phase space until a special value &mu;<sub>0</sub> is reached. At this point the phase space changes qualitatively and the dynamical system is said to have gone through a bifurcation.
[[Bifurcation theory]] considers a structure in phase space (typically a fixed point, a periodic orbit, or an invariant torus) and studies its behavior as a function of the parameter &mu;. At the bifurcation point the structure may change its stability, split into new structures, or merge with other structures. By using Taylor series approximations of the maps and an understanding of the differences that may be eliminated by change of coordinates, it is possible to catalog the bifurcations of dynamical systems.
The bifurcations of a hyperbolic fixed point ''x<sub>0</sub>'' of a map family ''F<sub>&mu;</sub>'' can be characterized by the eigenvalues of the first derivative ''DF(x<sub>0</sub>)'' of the map computed at the bifurcation point. The bifurcation will occur when there are eigenvalues of ''DF'' on the unit circle. If there is an isolated eigenvalue of value 1 on the unit circle, then the bifurcation is a ''saddle-node bifurcation''. If there is an isolated eigenvalue &ndash;1 on the unit circle, then it is a ''flip bifurcation''. And if there is a pair of complex conjugate eigenvalues on the unit circle, then it is a [[Hopf bifurcation]].
Some bifurcations can lead to very complicated structures in phase space. The [[Ruelle-Takens scenario]] describes how a periodic orbit bifurcates into a torus and the torus into a strange attractor. The [[Bifurcation diagram|Feigenbaum period-doubling]] describes how a stable periodic orbit goes through a series of doublings of its period.
== Ergodic systems ==
:''See main article [[ergodic theory]].''
In many dynamical systems it is possible to choose the coordinates of the system so that volume (really a &nu;-dimensional volume) in phase space is invariant. This happens for mechanical systems derived from Newton's laws as long as the coordinates are the position and the momentum and the volume is measured in units of (position) &times; (momentum). The flow takes points of a subset ''A'' into the points ''f<sup>&nbsp;t</sub>(A)'' and invariance of the phase space means that
: <math> \mathrm{vol} (A) = \mathrm{vol} ( f^t(A) ) \,. </math>
In the [[Hamiltonian mechanics|Hamiltonian formalism]], given a coordinate it is possible to derive the appropriate (generalized) momentum such that the associated volume is preserved by the flow. The volume is said to be computed by the Liouville measure.
In a Hamiltonian system not all possible configurations of position and momentum can be reached from an initial condition. Because of energy conservation, only the states with the same energy as the initial condition are accessible. The states with same energy form an energy shell &Omega;, a sub-manifold of the phase space. The energy shell has its Liouville measure that is preserved.
For systems where the volume is preserved by the flow, Poincaré discovered the [[Poincaré recurrence theorem|recurrence theorem]]: Assume the phase space has a finite Liouville volume and let ''F'' be a phase space volume-preserving map and ''A'' a subset of the phase space. Then almost every point of ''A'' returns to ''A'' infinitely often. The Poincaré recurrence theorem was used by [[Zermelo]] to object to [[Boltzmann]]'s derivation of the increase in entropy in a dynamical system of colliding atoms.
One of the questions raised by Boltzmann's work was the possible equality between time averages and space averages, what he called the [[ergodic hypothesis]]. The hypothesis states that the length of time a typical trajectory spends in a region ''A'' is vol(''A'')/vol(&Omega;).
The ergodic hypothesis turned out not to be the essential property needed for the development of [[statistical mechanics]] and a series of other ergodic-like properties were introduced to capture the relevant aspects of physical systems. [[Bernard Koopman|Koopman]] approached the study of ergodic systems by the use of [[functional analysis]]. An observable ''a'' is a function that to each point of the phase space associates a number (say instantaneous pressure, or average height). The value of an observable can be computed at another time by using the evolution function ''f<sup>&nbsp;t</sup>''. This introduces an operator ''U''<sup>&nbsp;t</sup>, the [[transfer operator]],
: <math> (U^t a)(x) = a(f^{-t}(x)) \,. </math>
By studying the spectral properties of the linear operator ''U'' it becomes possible to classify the ergodic properties of ''f<sup>&nbsp;t</sup>''. In using the Koopman approach of considering the action of the flow on an observable function, the finite-dimensional nonlinear problem involving ''f<sup>&nbsp;t</sup>'' gets mapped into an infinite-dimensional linear problem involving ''U''.
The invariance of the Liouville measure on the energy surface &Omega; is essential for the [[Statistical mechanics#Canonical ensemble|Boltzmann factor exp(&minus;&beta;''H'')]] used in the statistical mechanics of Hamiltonian systems. This idea has been generalized by [[Yakov G. Sinai|Sinai]], [[Robert Edward Bowen|Bowen]], and [[David Ruelle| Ruelle]] to a larger class of dynamical systems that includes dissipative systems. SRB measures replace the Boltzmann factor and they are defined on [[attractor]]s of chaotic systems.
=== Chaos theory ===
Simple nonlinear dynamical systems and even [[piecewise linear]] systems can exhibit a completely unpredictable behavior, which might seem to be random. (Remember that we are speaking of completely deterministic systems!). This unpredictable behavior has been called ''[[chaos theory|chaos]]''. [[Anosov diffeomorphism|Hyperbolic systems]] are precisely defined dynamical systems that exhibit the properties ascribed to chaotic systems. In hyperbolic systems the tangent space perpendicular to a trajectory can be well separated into two parts: one with the points that converge towards the orbit (the ''stable manifold'') and another of the points that diverge from the orbit (the ''unstable manifold' |
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<page>
<title>Ice hockey</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:37:34Z</timestamp>
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<username>Flibirigit</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Terminology */ added photo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] [[video game]] of the same title, see [[Ice Hockey (video game)]].}}
[[Image:Calgary saddledome hitmen game.JPG|thumb|250px|right|A junior ice hockey game, being played at the [[Pengrowth Saddledome]] in [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary, Alberta, Canada]].]]
'''Ice hockey''', referred to simply as "'''[[hockey]]'''" in [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], is a team [[sport]] played on [[ice]]. It is one of the world's fastest sports, with players on [[skates]] capable of going high speeds on natural or artificial ice surfaces. The most prominent ice hockey nations are [[Canada]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Finland]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], [[Slovakia]], and the [[United States]]. While there are 64 total members of the [[International Ice Hockey Federation]], those seven nations have traditionally dominated the field for decades. Of the sixty medals awarded in men's competition at the Olympic level from 1920 on, only six did not go to one of those countries (or a former entity thereof, such as [[Czechoslovakia]] or the [[Soviet Union]]) and only one such medal was awarded above bronze. {{ref|medals}}
Unsurprisingly, ice hockey's worldwide popularity is concentrated primarily in locales cold enough for natural, long-term seasonal ice cover. It is one of the four major North American professional sports, represented by the [[National Hockey League]] (NHL) at the highest level. It is the official [[national pastime|national winter sport]] of Canada, where the game enjoys immense popularity ([[lacrosse]] is Canada's national summer sport). Tellingly, six of the thirty NHL franchises are based in Canada, which has only a combined two teams in the three other professional sports. Despite Canada having only about one-tenth of the population of the United States, Canadians currently outnumber Americans in the league by a ratio of almost three to one. Nevertheless, the sport is comparably popular in certain regions of the United States, notably the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]], the [[Upper Midwest]], and [[Alaska]].
While most of the countries mentioned above have their own professional ice hockey league, the NHL is considered the world's premier professional ice hockey league and attracts almost all of the world's elite players. While Canadians and Americans rank first and second, respectively, in NHL representation, about thirty percent of the league's players are non-North Americans. The other five major hockey powers occupy the third through seventh ranks of NHL representation.
==History==
[[image:Avercamp_scenewin.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Dutch Burghers playing a game that looks much like Ice hockey.]] [[image:SCENEONICE.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Dutch Burghers playing a game that looks much like Ice hockey.]]
The origin of the word hockey is officially unknown. It may derive from the Old French word <i>hoquet</i>, shepherd's crook, but it may also derive from the Middle Dutch word <i>hokkie</i> which is the diminutive of 'hok', meaning literally 'shack' or 'doghouse' but in popular use meant goal. The Irish game of [[hurling]] is a closely related game that is played on a field as opposed to ice, it is also close to hockey in name.
Proponents of Windsor as the birthplace of hockey claim the game was named after an individual, as in 'Colonel Hockey's game'.{{ref|Vaughan}} The surname Hockey still exists in the district surrounding Windsor.
The history of ice hockey is one of the most contested in all of sports. The [[Montreal|city of Montreal]] had been traditionally credited with being the birthplace of hockey, but early paintings contest this claim; 16th-century Dutch paintings show a number of townsfolk playing a hockey-like game on a frozen canal.
[[Kingston, Ontario]] and [[Windsor, Nova Scotia]] also lay claim to its origins for similar reasons. And many think that hockey began in Virginia, the evidence of this was a post on a Williamsburg Newspaper in colonial time that recorded a snow storm and recorded hockey being played in Virginia.
By [[1893]], [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]] hockey players incorporated [[cricket]] pads to better protect the [[goaltender]]'s legs. They also introduced the "scoop" shot, later known as the wrist shot.
When [[Great Britain]] [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|conquered]] [[New France]] from [[France]] in [[1763]] (much of which would later become part of Canada), soldiers used their knowledge of [[field hockey]] and the physically aggressive aspects of what the [[Mi'kmaq]] [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]] [[First Nation]] in [[Nova Scotia]] called dehuntshigwa'es ([[lacrosse]]). As Canadian winters are long and harsh, new winter sports were always welcomed. Using cheese cutters strapped to their boots, both [[English language|English]]- and [[French language|French]]-speaking Canadians played the game on frozen rivers, lakes, and ponds. Early paintings show hockey being played in [[Nova Scotia]], as well as in the state of [[Virginia]] in the United States.
On [[March 3]], [[1875]], the first organized indoor game was played in Montreal, as recorded in the [[Montreal Gazette]]. In [[1877]], in order to make some sense of the game, [[McGill University|McGill]] students, [[James Creighton (hockey)|James Creighton]], [[Henry Joseph]], [[Richard F. Smith]], [[W. F. Robertson]] and [[W. L. Murray]], invented seven ice hockey rules. Having an organized system in place, the game became so popular that it was featured for the first time in Montreal's annual Winter Carnival in [[1883]]. In [[1888]], the governor general of Canada, [[Frederick Stanley, 16th Earl of Derby|Lord Stanley of Preston]] (whose sons and daughter were hockey enthusiasts), attended the Carnival and was so impressed with the hockey spectacle that he thought there should be a championship trophy for the best team. The [[Stanley Cup]] was first awarded then to the champion amateur team in Canada, and continues to be awarded today to the [[NHL|National Hockey League]]'s championship team. As an interesting historical footnote, one of Lord Stanley's sons was instrumental in introducing ice hockey to the United Kingdom and from there, to Europe at large.
[[Houghton, MI]], located in the [[Upper Peninsula]] of [[Michigan]], was the birthplace of professional ice hockey in the [[United States]] when the Portage Lakers were formed in [[1899]].
The [[National Hockey League]] was formed in November of 1917, when members of the former National Hockey Association were engaged in a dispute with one of their fellow owners over insurance proceeds. The NHA disbanded, and the new league began play in December of that year.
On [[February 16]], [[2005]], the [[NHL]] became the first major professional team sport in North America to [[2004-05 NHL lockout|cancel an entire season]] because of a labor dispute. Play resumed again in the fall of 2005.
One of the best places to learn about the history of ice hockey is at the [[Hockey Hall of Fame]] in [[Toronto]] Canada. It is the official museum for the NHL.
==Equipment==
[[Image:Amateur ice hockey skates.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Modern amateur (Swiss) ice hockey skates]]
The hard surfaces of the ice and boards, pucks flying at high speed (over 160 kilometers per hour (100 mph) at times), and other players maneuvering (and often intentionally colliding) pose a multitude of inherent safety hazards. Besides [[ice skates]] and [[Hockey stick|sticks]], hockey players are usually equipped with an array of safety gear to lessen their risk of serious injury. This usually includes a [[Hockey_helmet|helmet]], shoulder pads, elbow pads, mouth guard, protective gloves, heavily padded pants, a 'jock' athletic protector, leg guards and sometimes a neck guard. Goaltenders wear masks and much bulkier, specialized equipment designed to protect them from many direct hits from pucks.
The hockey skate is a heavy-duty skate with rounded edges on both ends of the blade to allow for easy maneuvering. The skate is usually made of a thick layer of leather or nylon to protect the feet and lower legs of the player from injury.
Youth and college hockey players are required to wear a mask made from metal wire or transparent plastic attached to their helmet that protects their face during play. Professional and adult players may instead wear a visor that protects only their eyes, or no mask at all; however, some provincial and state legislation require full facial protection at all non-professional levels. Rules regarding visors and face masks are mildly controversial at professional levels. Some players feel that they interfere with their vision or breathing, or encourage carrying of the stick up high in a reckless manner, while others believe that they are a necessary safety precaution.
In fact, the adoption of safety equipment has been a gradual one at the North American professional level, where even helmets were not mandatory until the 1980s. The famous goalie, [[Jacques Plante]], had to suffer a hard blow to the face with a flying puck in [[1959]] before he could persuade his coach to allow him to wear a protective [[goalie mask]] in play.
==Game==
[[Image:Eishockey_Eisbaeren_gegen_Capitals.jpg|frame|right|Two defencemen and a goaltender guard their goal. The referee's raised arm indicates that he intends to call a penalty.]]
Ice hockey is played on a ''[[hockey rink]]''. During normal play, there are six players per side on the ice at any t |
d also be interpreted as a contrast between love and friendship; love presents difficulties not inherent in a non-erotic relationship.
For debates of a somewhat similar nature, compare [[Sexuality of William Shakespeare]].
===Marlowe's death===
In early May [[1593]] several bills were posted about London threatening Protestant refugees from [[France]] and the [[Netherlands]] who had settled in the city. One of these, the "Dutch church libel"[http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/libell.htm], written in [[blank verse]], contained allusions to several of Marlowe's plays and was signed "[[Tamburlaine]]." On [[11 May]] the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] ordered the arrest of those responsible for the libels. The next day, Marlowe's colleague [[Thomas Kyd]] was arrested. Kyd's lodgings were searched and a fragment of a [[heretical]] tract was found. Kyd asserted, possibly under [[torture]], that it had belonged to Marlowe. Two years earlier they had both been working for an [[aristocratic]] patron, probably [[Ferdinando Stanley, 5th Earl of Derby|Ferdinando Stanley]], Lord Strange, and Kyd assumed that at this time, when they were sharing a workroom, the document had found its way among his papers. Marlowe's arrest was ordered on [[18 May]]. Marlowe was not in London, but was staying with Thomas Walsingham, the cousin of the late Sir [[Francis Walsingham]]. However, he duly appeared before the Privy Council on [[20 May]] and was instructed to "give his daily attendance on their Lordships, until he shall be licensed to the contrary." On [[30 May]], Marlowe was murdered.
Various versions of what happened were current at the time. [[Francis Meres]] says Marlowe was "stabbed to death by a bawdy serving-man, a rival of his in his lewd love" as punishment for his "epicurism and atheism". In [[1917]], in the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', Sir [[Sidney Lee]] wrote that Marlowe was killed in a drunken fight, and this is still often stated as fact today.
The facts only came to light in [[1925]] when the scholar [[Leslie Hotson]] discovered the [[coroner]]'s report on Marlowe's death in the [[Public Record Office]] [http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/inquis~2.htm]. Marlowe had spent all day in a house (not a tavern) in [[Deptford, London|Deptford]], owned by the widow Eleanor Bull, along with three men, Ingram Frizer, Nicholas Skeres and Robert Poley. All three had been employed by the Walsinghams. Skeres and Poley had helped snare the conspirators in the [[Babington plot]]. Frizer was a servant of Thomas Walsingham. Witnesses testified that Frizer and Marlowe had earlier argued over the bill, exchanging "divers malicious words." Later, while Frizer was sitting at a table between the other two and Marlowe was lying behind him on a couch, Marlowe snatched Frizer's dagger and began attacking him. In the ensuing struggle, according to the coroner's report, Marlowe was accidentally stabbed above the right eye, killing him instantly. The coroner concluded that Frizer acted in self-defense, and he was promptly pardoned. Marlowe was buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard of St Nicholas, Deptford, on [[1 June]], 1593.
Marlowe's death is considered by some to be suspicious for the following reasons:
# The three men who were in the room with him when he died all had links to the intelligence service as well as to the [[London]] underworld. Frizer and Skeres also had a long record as loan sharks and con-men, as shown by court records.
# Their story that they were on a day's pleasure outing to [[Deptford]] is implausible. In fact, they spent the whole day closeted together, deep in discussion. Also, [[Robert Poley]] was carrying confidential despatches to the Queen, who was at Greenwich nearby, but instead of delivering them, he spent the day with Marlowe and the other two.
# It seems too much of a coincidence that Marlowe's death occurred only a few days after his arrest for heresy.
# The unusual way in which his arrest for heresy was handled by the Privy Council. He was released in spite of ''[[prima facie]]'' evidence, and even though the charges implicitly connected [[Sir Walter Raleigh]] and the Earl of [[Northumberland]] with the heresy. This strongly suggests that the Privy Council considered the heresy charge to be a set-up, and/or that it was connected with a power struggle within the Privy Council itself.
# Marlowe's own record of involvement with the intelligence service, as shown by the Privy Council minutes of 1587; by a subsequent strange incident in which he was arrested in [[Holland]] for counterfeiting money and appeared before the Privy Council, but was never charged; and by the fact that his patron was [[Thomas Walsingham]], Sir Francis' nephew, who was actively involved in intelligence work.
For these reasons and others, it seems likely that there was more to Marlowe's death than emerged at the inquest. However, on the basis of our current knowledge, it is not possible to draw any firm conclusions about what happened or why. There are many different theories, of varying degrees of probability, but no solid evidence.
Since we have only written documents on which to base our conclusions, and since it is probable that the most crucial information about Marlowe's death was never committed to writing at all, we are unlikely ever to know for certain the full circumstances of Marlowe's death.
===Marlowe's reputation among contemporary writers===
Whatever the particular focus of modern critics, biographers and novelists, for his contemporaries in the literary world, Marlowe was above all an admired and influential artist. Within weeks of his death, [[George Peele]] referred to him as "Marley, the Muses' darling"; [[Michael Drayton]] noted that he "Had in him those brave translunary things/That the first poets had", and [[Ben Jonson]] wrote of "Marlowe's mighty line". [[Thomas Nashe]] wrote warmly of his friend, "poor deceased Kit Marlowe". So too did the publisher Edward Blount, in the dedication of ''Hero and Leander'' to Sir Thomas Walsingham.
The only contemporary dramatist to say anything negative about Marlowe was the anonymous author of the Cambridge University play ''[[The Return From Parnassus]]'' ([[1598]]) who wrote, "Pity it is that wit so ill should dwell, Wit lent from heaven, but vices sent from hell."
The most famous tribute to Marlowe was paid by Shakespeare in his only reference to a contemporary writer, in ''[[As You Like It]]'', where he quotes a line from ''Hero and Leander'':
:Dead Shepherd, now I find thy saw of might,
:"Who ever loved that loved not at first sight?"
===Recent Marlowe controversies===
In November 2005, a production of ''Tamburlaine'' at the [[Barbican Arts Centre]] in [[London]] was accused of defering to [[Islam|Muslim]] sensibilities by amending a section of the play in which the title character burns the [[Qu'ran]] and excoriates the prophet [[Muhammad]]; the sequence was changed so that Tamburlaine instead defiles books representing all religious texts. The director (in the view of many, mendaciously) denied censoring the play, stating that the change was a "purely artistic" decision "to focus the play away from anti-Turkish pantomime to an existential epic". This however shifts a considerable degree of focus from a number of anti-theist (and specifically anti-Muslim) points within the play and changes, significantly, the tone and tenor of the work. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-1887902,00.html] [http://www.guardian.co.uk/arts/comment/story/0,16472,1650659,00.html]
Additionally, given the often murky inconsistencies concerning the account of Marlowe's death, an ongoing conspiracy theory and debate continues to give rise to claims that Marlowe may have faked his death and ultimately assumed the pen name of William Shakespeare, authoring much of the known Shakespearean canon and contributing to Cervantes' Don Quixote. The argument first surfaced in 1895, proferred by American literary sleuth Wilbur Gleason Zeigler, was more famously made popular by Calvin Hoffman in his 1955 work, ''The Murder of the Man Who Was Shakespeare'' [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/muchado/readings/hoffman.html], and is further expanded upon in Louis Ule's biography, ''Christopher Marlowe (1564-1607): A Biography''.
==Works==
The dates of composition are approximate.
===Plays===
*''[[Dido, Queen of Carthage]]'' (''c''.1583) (with [[Thomas Nashe]])
*''[[Tamburlaine (play)|Tamburlaine]]'' (''c''.1587)
*''[[The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus|Doctor Faustus]]'' (''c''.1589, revised ''c''.1592)
*''[[The Jew of Malta]]'' (''c''.1589)
*''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]'' (''c''.1592)
*''[[The Massacre at Paris]]'' (''c''.1593)
===Poetry===
*Translation of [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]]'s ''[[Pharsalia]]'' (''c''.1582)
*Translation of [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Amores]]'' (''c''. 1582)
*'[[The Passionate Shepherd to His Love]]' (1590s)
*''[[Hero and Leander]]'' (''c''. 1593, unfinished; completed by George Chapman, 1598)
==Appearances in fiction==
*Marlowe features heavily in the [[Harry Turtledove]] alternate history novel ''[[Ruled Britannia]]'' ([[2002]]), about an [[England]] ruled by [[Catholicism|Catholics]]. He is depicted as a contemporary and friend of [[Shakespeare]].
*Marlowe is played by [[Rupert Everett]] in the film ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]'' ([[1998]]), in which he is depicted as the source of some of Shakespeare's ideas.
==Additional reading==
*Brooke, C.F. Tucker. ''The Life of Marlowe and "The Tragedy of Dido, Queen of Carthage."'' London: Methuen, 1930. (pp. 107, 114, 99, 98)
*Marlow, Christopher. ''Complete Works.'' Vol. 3: ''Edward II.'' Ed. R. Rowland. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. (pp. xxii-xxiii)
*Louis Ule ''Christopher Marlowe (1564-1607): A Biography'', Carlton Press, 1996. ISBN |
information age makes eventual anarchy inevitable.<ref>[http://www.modulaware.com/a/?m=select&id=0684832720 The Sovereign Individual -- Mastering the transition to the information age]</ref> ''See also'': [[Crypto-anarchism]] and [[Cypherpunk]].
*'''Pacifism''' - Some anarchists consider [[Pacifism]] (opposition to [[war]]) to be inherent in their philosophy. [[Anarcho-pacifism|anarcho-pacifists]] take it further and follow [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s belief in [[Nonviolence|non-violence]]. Anarchists see war as an activity in which the state seeks to gain and consolidate power, both domestically and in foreign lands, and subscribe to [[Randolph Bourne]]'s view that "war is the health of the state"<ref>[http://struggle.ws/hist_texts/warhealthstate1918.html War is the Health of the State]</ref>. A lot of anarchist activity has been [[anti-war]] based.
*'''Parliamentarianism''' - In general terms, the anarchist ethos opposes voting in elections, because voting amounts to condoning the state.<ref>[http://members.aol.com/vlntryst/hitler.html The Voluntaryist - Why I would not vote against Hitler]</ref>. [[Voluntaryism]] is an anarchist school of thought which emphasizes "tending your own garden" and "neither ballots nor bullets." The anarchist case against voting is explained in ''The Ethics of Voting''<ref>[http://www.voluntaryist.com/nonvoting/ethics_of_voting.php Voluntaryist - The ethics of voting]</ref> by [[George H. Smith]]. (Also see "Voting Anarchists: An Oxymoron or What?" by [[Joe Peacott]], and writings by [[Fred Woodworth]]).
*'''Sectarianism''' - Most anarchist schools of thought are, to some degree, [[sectarian]]. There is often a difference of opinion ''within'' each school about how to react to, or interact with, other schools. Some, such as [[panarchy|panarchists]], believe that it is possible for a variety of modes of social life to coexist and compete. Some anarchists view opposing schools as a social impossibility and resist interaction; others see opportunities for coalition-building, or at least temporary alliances for specific purposes. ''See [[anarchism without adjectives]].''
==Criticisms of anarchism==
:''Main article:'' [[Criticisms of anarchism]]
'''Violence.''' Since anarchism has often been associated with violence and destruction, some people have seen it as being too violent. On the other hand hand, [[Frederick Engels]] criticsed anarchists for not being violent enough:
:''"A revolution is certainly the most authoritarian thing there is; it is the act whereby one part of the population imposes its will upon the other part by means of rifles, bayonets and cannon — authoritarian means, if such there be at all; and if the victorious party does not want to have fought in vain, it must maintain this rule by means of the terror which its arms inspire in the reactionists. Would the Paris Commune have lasted a single day if it had not made use of this authority of the armed people against the bourgeois?"<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1872/10/authority.htm ''On Authority'']</ref>
'''Utopianism.''' Anarchism is often criticised as unfeasible, or plain [[utopian]], even by many who agree that it's a nice idea in principle. For example, Carl Landauer in his book ''European Socialism'' criticizes anarchism as being unrealistically utopian, and holds that government is a "lesser evil" than a society without "repressive force." He holds that the belief that "ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears" is an "absurdity."<ref>[[Carl Landauer|Landauer]], Carl. ''European Socialism: A History of Ideas and Movements'' (1959) (retrieved from "Anarchist Theory FAQ" by [[Bryan Caplan]] on [[January 27]] [[2006]]</ref> However, it must be noted that not all anarchists have such a utopian view of anarchism. For example, some, such as Benjamin Tucker, advocate privately-funded institutions that defend individual liberty and property. However, other anarchists, such as Sir [[Herbert Read]], proudly accept the characterization "utopian."
'''[[Social class|Class]] character.''' [[Marxists]] have characterised anarchism as an expression of the class interests of the [[petite bourgeoisie]] or perhaps the [[lumpenproletariat]]. See e.g. Plekhanov<ref>[[G. V. Plekhanov]] ''"[http://www.marxists.org/archive/plekhanov/1895/anarch/index.htm Anarchism and Socialism]"''</ref> for a Marxist critique of 1895. Anarchists have also been characterised as spoilt [[middle-class]] [[dilettante]]s, most recently in relation to [[anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] protesters.
'''Tacit authoritarianism.''' In recent decades anarchism has been criticised by 'situationists', 'post-anarchists' and others of preserving 'tacitly statist', authoritarian or bureaucratic tendencies behind a dogmatic facade.<ref>[http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SI/en/display/20 ''Society of the Spectacle] Paragraph 91</ref>
'''Hypocrisy.''' Some critics point to the [[sexist]]<ref>[[Jenny P. d'Hericourt]], ''"[http://www.pinn.net/~sunshine/whm2003/hericourt2.html Contemporary feminist critic of Proudhon]"''</ref> and [[racist]] views of some prominent anarchists, notably [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]] and [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], as examples of [[hypocrisy]] inherent within anarchism. While many anarchists, however, dismiss that the personal prejudices of 19th century theorists influence the beliefs of present-day anarchists, others criticise modern anarchism for continuing to be [[eurocentric]] and reference the impact of anarchist thinkers like Proudhon on [[fascism]] through groups like [[Cercle Proudhon]].<ref>[http://www.stewarthomesociety.org/ai.htm ''Anarchist Integralism]</ref> Anarcho-capitalist [[Bryan Caplan]] argues that the treatment of fascists and suspected fascist sympathizers by Spanish Anarchists in the Spanish Civil War was a form of illegitimate coercion, making the proffessed anarchists "ultimately just a third faction of totalitarians," alongside the communists and fascists. He also criticizes the willingness of the CNT to join the (statist) Republican government during the civil war, and references [[Stanley G. Payne]]'s book on the Franco regime which claims that the CNT entered negotiations with the fascist government six years after the war.<ref>[[Bryan Caplan|Caplan]], Bryan. ''"[http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/spain.htm The Anarcho-Statists of Spain]"''</ref>
==Cultural phenomena==
[[Image:Noam_chomsky.jpg|thumb|150px|right| [[Noam Chomsky]] (1928–)]]
The kind of anarchism that is most easily encountered in popular culture is represented by celebrities who publicly identify themselves as anarchists. Although some anarchists reject any focus on such famous living individuals as inherently élitist, the following figures are examples of prominent publicly self-avowed anarchists:
* the [[MIT]] professor of [[Linguistics]] [[Noam Chomsky]]
* the [[science fiction]] author [[Ursula K. Le Guin]]
* the social historian [[Howard Zinn]]
* entertainer and author [[Hans Alfredsson]]
* the [[Avant-garde]] artist [[Nicolás Rosselló]]
In [[Denmark]], the [[Freetown Christiania]] was created in downtown [[Copenhagen]]. The housing and employment crisis in most of [[Western Europe]] led to the formation of [[commune (intentional community)|communes]] and squatter movements like the one still thriving in [[Barcelona]], in [[Catalonia]]. Militant [[antifa|resistance to neo-Nazi groups]] in places like Germany, and the uprisings of [[autonomous Marxism]], [[situationist]], and [[Autonomist]] groups in France and Italy also helped to give popularity to anti-authoritarian, non-capitalist ideas.
In various musical styles, anarchism rose in popularity. Most famous for the linking of anarchist ideas and music has been punk rock, although in the modern age, hip hop, and folk music are also becoming important mediums for the spreading of the anarchist message. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] this was associated with the [[punk rock]] movement; the band [[Crass]] is celebrated for its anarchist and [[pacifism|pacifist]] ideas. The [[Dutch people|Dutch]] punk band [[The Ex]] further exemplifies this expression.
''For further details, see [[anarcho-punk]]''
==See also==
<!-- (Please take care in adding to this list that it not grow excessively large, consider adding to the list of anarchist concepts page) -->
There are many concepts relevant to the topic of anarchism, this is a brief summary. There is also a more extensive [[list of anarchist concepts]].
* [[individualist anarchism]], [[anarcho-communism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism]], [[anarcho-capitalism]], [[mutualism]], [[Christian anarchism]], [[anarcha-feminism]], [[green anarchism]], [[nihilist anarchism]], [[anarcho-nationalism]], [[black anarchism]], [[national anarchism]]. [[post-anarchism]], [[post-left anarchism]]
* [[Libertarian Socialism]]
* [[Anarchist symbolism]]
* [[Anarchism/Links|List of anarchism links]]
* [[List of anarchists]]
* [[List of anarchist organizations]]
* [[Major conflicts within anarchist thought]]
* [[Past and present anarchist communities]]
===Historical events===
*[[Paris Commune]] (1871)
*[[Haymarket Riot]] (1886)
*[[The Makhnovschina]] (1917 &mdash; 1921)
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]] (1921)
*[[Spanish Revolution]] (1936) (see [[Anarchism in Spain]] and [[Spanish Revolution]])
*May 1968, France (1968)
*[[WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999|WTO Meeting in Seattle]] (1999)
===Books===
{{main|List of anarchist books}}
The following is a sample of books that have been referenced in this page, a more complete list can be found at the [[list of anarchist books]].
*[[Mikhail Bakunin]], ''[[God and the State]]' |
e virtually no cancellations.
::For all the yelling and screaming by outraged editors, I remain convinced that the larger Sunday strip gave newspapers a better product and made the comics section more fun for readers. Comics are a visual medium. A strip with a lot of drawing can be exciting and add some variety. Proud as I am that I was able to draw a larger strip, I don't expect to see it happen again any time soon. In the newspaper business, space is money, and I suspect most editors would still say that the difference is not worth the cost. Sadly, the situation is a vicious circle: because there's no room for better artwork, the comics are simply drawn; because they're simply drawn, why should they have more room? {{ref_harvard|SundayPages|Watterson 2001:15|none}}
Despite the change, ''Calvin and Hobbes'' remained extremely popular and thus Watterson was able to expand his style and technique for the more spacious Sunday strips without losing carriers.
Since ending the strip, Watterson has kept aloof from the public eye and has given no indication of resuming the strip or creating new works based on the characters. He refuses to sign [[autograph]]s or license his characters, staying true to his stated principles. In previous years, he was known to sneak autographed copies of his books onto the shelves of a family-owned bookstore near his home in Chagrin Falls, Ohio. However, after discovering that some people were selling the autographed books on [[eBay]] for high prices, he ended this practice as well.
===Merchandising===
Bill Watterson is notable for his insistence that cartoon strips should stand on their own as an art form, and he has resisted the use of ''Calvin and Hobbes'' in merchandising of any sort {{ref_harvard|Christie|Christie 1987|none}}. This insistence stuck despite what was probably a cost of millions of dollars per year in additional personal income. Watterson explains in a 2005 press release:
::Actually, I wasn't against all merchandising when I started the strip, but each product I considered seemed to violate the spirit of the strip, contradict its message, and take me away from the work I loved. If my syndicate had let it go at that, the decision would have taken maybe 30 seconds of my life. {{ref_harvard|Andrews|Andrews McMeel 2005|none}}.
Watterson did ponder animating Calvin and Hobbes, and has expressed admiration for the art form. In a 1989 interview in ''[[The Comics Journal]]'', Watterson states:
::If you look at the old cartoons by Tex Avery and Chuck Jones, you’ll see that there are a lot of things single drawings just can’t do. Animators can get away with incredible distortion and exaggeration [...] because the animator can control the length of time you see something. The bizarre exaggeration barely has time to register, and the viewer doesn’t ponder the incredible license he's witnessed.
::In a comic strip, you just show the highlights of action - you can’t show the buildup and release... or at least not without slowing down the pace of everything to the point where it’s like looking at individual frames of a movie, in which case you’ve probably lost the effect you were trying to achieve. In a comic strip, you can suggest motion and time, but it’s very crude compared to what an animator can do. I have a real awe for good animation.{{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}}
After this he was asked if it was "a little scary to think of hearing Calvin's voice." He responded that it was "very scary," and although he loved the visual possibilities animation had, the thought of casting voice actors to play his characters was something he felt uncomfortable doing. Plus, he wasn't sure he wanted to work with an animation team, as he'd done all previous work by himself. Ultimately, Calvin and Hobbes was never made into an [[animated series]].
Except for the [[Calvin and Hobbes#Calvin and Hobbes books | books]], two 16-month calendars (1988–1989 and 1989–1990), and a children's textbook, virtually all ''Calvin and Hobbes'' merchandise, including T-shirts as well as the ubiquitous stickers for [[automobile]] rear windows which depict Calvin urinating on a company's or sports team's name or logo, are unauthorized. After threat of a lawsuit alleging infringement of copyright and trademark, some of the sticker makers replaced Calvin with a different boy, while other makers ignored the issue. Watterson wryly commented "I clearly miscalculated how popular it would be to show Calvin urinating on a [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] logo." [http://www.andrewsmcmeel.com/calvinandhobbes/interview.html] Some legitimate special items were produced, such as promotional packages to sell the strip to newspapers, but these were never sold outright.
==Popular Culture==
Comedian [[David Spade]] has a tattoo of Calvin on his left bicep. It was given to him by actor [[Sean Penn]] during an interview on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''.
==Style and Influences==
''Calvin and Hobbes'' strips are characterized by sparse but careful draftsmanship, intelligent humor, poignant observations, witty social and political commentary, and well-developed characters that are full of personality. Precedents to Calvin's fantasy world can be found in [[Charles M. Schulz]]'s ''[[Peanuts]],'' [[Percy Crosby]]'s ''[[Skippy (comic strip)|Skippy]],'' [[Berkeley Breathed]]'s ''[[Bloom County]],'' and [[George Herriman]]'s ''[[Krazy Kat]],'' while Watterson's use of comics as sociopolitical commentary reaches back to [[Walt Kelly]]'s ''[[Pogo]].'' Schulz and Kelly in particular influenced Watterson's outlook on comics during his formative years {{ref_harvard|Christie|Christie 1987|none}}.
Notable elements of Watterson's artistic style are his characters' diverse and often exaggerated expressions (particularly those of Calvin), elaborate and bizarre backgrounds for Calvin's flights of imagination, well-captured kinetics, and frequent visual jokes and metaphors. In the later years of the strip, with more space available for his use, Watterson experimented more freely with different panel layouts, stories without dialogue, and greater use of whitespace.
Watterson's technique started with minimal [[pencil]] sketches (though the larger Sunday strips often required more elaborate work); he then would use a small sable brush and [[India ink]] to complete most of the remaining drawing. He was careful in his use of color, often spending a great deal of time in choosing the right colors to employ for the weekly Sunday strip.
===Art and academia===
Watterson has used the strip to criticize the artistic world, principally through Calvin's unconventional creations of [[snowman|snowmen]]. When Miss Wormwood complains that he is wasting class time drawing incomprehensible things (a [[stegosaurus]] in a rocket ship, in fact), Calvin proclaims himself "on the cutting edge of the [[avant-garde]]". He begins exploring the medium of snow when a warm day melts his [[snowman]]. His next sculpture "speaks to the horror of our own mortality", inviting the viewer to contemplate the fleeting nature of life, much in the vein of [[Ecclesiastes]]. Over the years, Calvin's creative instincts diversify into sidewalk drawings ("suburban [[postmodernism]]").
Watterson also directed criticism toward the [[academia|academic world]]. Calvin writes a "[[revisionism|revisionist]] autobiography", giving himself a [[flame thrower]]; he carefully crafts an "artist's statement", knowing that such essays convey more messages than artworks themselves ever do. ("You misspelled ''[[Weltanschauung]],''" Hobbes notes.) He indulges in what Watterson calls "pop [[Psychobabble (jargon) | psychobabble]]" to justify his destructive rampages and shift blame to his parents, citing "toxic [[codependency]]." Once, he pens a book report entitled, "The dynamics of interbeing and monological imperatives in ''[[Dick and Jane]]:'' a study in psychic transrelational gender modes." Displaying his creation to Hobbes, he remarks, "[[Academia]], here I come!" Watterson explains that he adapted this jargon (and similar examples from several other strips) from an actual book of art criticism {{ref_harvard|Watterson|Watterson 1995:184|b}}.
Overall, Watterson's satirical essays serve to attack both sides, criticizing both the commercial mainstream and the artists who are supposed to be "outside" it. Walking contemplatively through the woods, not long after he began drawing his "''Dinosaurs in Rocket Ships'' Series", Calvin tells Hobbes,
::The hard part for us avant-garde post-modern artists is deciding whether or not to embrace commercialism. Do we allow our work to be hyped and exploited by a market that's simply hungry for the next new thing? Do we participate in a system that turns high art into low art so it's better suited for mass consumption?
::Of course, when an artist goes commercial, he makes a mockery of his status as an outsider and free thinker. He buys into the crass and shallow values art should transcend. He trades the integrity of his art for riches and fame.
::Oh, what the heck. I'll do it.
Such sentiments echo Watterson's own struggles with his Syndicate over merchandising issues.
===Distorted reality===
Upon several occasions, Watterson began a strip with a distorted view of reality: inverted colors, all objects turning "neo-[[Cubism|Cubist]]", or the world turning to black-and-white, for example. Only Calvin is able to perceive these changes, which the reader can interpret as Calvin's way of seeing certain situations, issues and subjects which he has difficulty understanding or accepting.
In the ''Tenth Anniversary Book,'' Watterson indicates that some of these strips were [[metaphor]]s for his own conflicts, typically against his Syndicate's desire to produce ''Calvin and Hobbes'' merchandise. Accused of only seein |
t is from his political side, he may strongly suggest the adoption of such or such legislation, or request his prime minister to take such or such regulation.
In the original 1958 constitution, the President was elected by an [[electoral college]] of elected officials. However, in 1962, [[Charles de Gaulle]] obtained, through a referendum, an amendment to the constitution whereby the president would be directly elected by citizens. Given France's [[runoff voting]] system, this means that the presidential candidate is required to obtain a nationwide majority of non-blank votes at either the first or second round of balloting, which presumably implies that the president is somewhat supported by at least half of the voting population; this gives him considerable legitimacy. Despite his somewhat restricted ''[[de jure]]'' powers, the president thus enjoys considerable aura and effective power.
As a consequence, the President is the pre-eminent figure in French politics. He names the Prime Minister; though he may not ''de jure'' dismiss him, if the Prime Minister is from the same political side, he can, in practice, have him resign on demand. He appoints the ministers, ministers-delegate and secretaries. When the President's political party or supporters control parliament, the President is the ''dominant'' player in executive action, choosing whomever he wishes for the government, and having it follow ''his'' political agenda (parliamentary disagreements do occur, though, even within the same party).
However, when the President's political opponents control parliament, the President's dominance can be severely limited, as he must choose a Prime Minister and cabinet who reflect the majority in parliament, and who will implement the agenda of the parliamentary majority. When parties from opposite ends of the political spectrum control parliament and the presidency, the power-sharing arrangement is known as [[cohabitation (government)|cohabitation]].
[[Jacques Chirac]] has been President since [[17 May]] [[1995]]. He was reelected in 2002 for 5 more years.
===The ''gouvernement''===
[[Image:Dominique_villepin.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Current prime minister, [[Dominique de Villepin]]]]
The ''gouvernement'' is headed by the Prime Minister. It has at its disposal the [[French Civil Service|civil service]], the government agencies, and the [[Military of France|armed forces]]. (The term "[[cabinet]]" is rarely used to describe the ''gouvernement'', even in translation, as it is used in French to mean a minister's private office, composed of politically-appointed aides. In [[French language|French]], the word ''gouvernement'' can refer to government in general, but generally refers to the cabinet.)
The ''gouvernement'' is responsible to Parliament, and the National Assembly may pass a motion of censure, forcing the resignation of the cabinet. This, in practice, forces the ''gouvernement'' to be from the same political stripe as the majority in the Assembly. Ministers have to answer questions from members of Parliament, both written and oral; this is known as the ''questions au gouvernement'' (questions to the government). In addition, ministers attend meetings of the houses of Parliament when laws pertaining to their areas of responsibility are being discussed.
[[French government ministers|Government ministers]] cannot pass legislation without parliamentary approval, though the prime minister may issue regulations (''décrets'' with a value of ''réglement'') within certain constraints. Ministers, however, can propose legislation to Parliament; since the Assembly is from the same political stripe as the ministers, such legislation is, in general, very likely to pass. However, this is not guaranteed, and, on occasion, the opinion of the majority parliamentarians may differ significantly from those of the executive, which often results in a large number of amendments.
{{French Government}}
Traditionally, the cabinet comprises members of three ranks. Ministers are the most senior members of the government; ministers-delegate (''ministres délégués'') assist ministers in particular areas of their portfolio; secretaries of state (''secrétaires d'État'') assist ministers in less important areas, and attend cabinet meetings only occasionally. Before the [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]], some ministers of particular political importance were called "ministers of state" (''ministres d'État''); the practice has continued under the Fifth Republic in a purely honorific fashion: ministers styled Minister of State are considered of a higher importance in the cabinet.
The number of ministries and the splitting of responsibilities and administrations between them varies from government to government. While the name and exact areas of responsibility of each ministry may change, one generally finds at least:
* [[Ministry of the Economy, Finance and Industry (France)|Ministry of the Economy, Finance and Industry]] (taxes, budget),
* [[Ministry of the Interior (France)|Ministry of the Interior]] (law enforcement, relationships with local governments),
* [[Ministry of Justice (France)|Ministry of Justice and Keeper of the Seals]] (prisons, running the court system, supervision of the prosecution service)
* [[Ministry of National Education (France)|Ministry of National Education]],
* [[Ministry of Defence (France)|Ministry of Defence]],
* [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (France)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]],
* [[Minister of Transportation (France)|Ministry of Transportation]].
(For more on French ministries, see [[French government ministers]])
The ''gouvernement'' has a leading role in shaping the agenda of the houses of Parliament. It may propose laws to Parliament, as well as amendments during parliamentary meetings. It may make use of some procedures to speed up parliamentary deliberations.
The cabinet has weekly meetings (usually on Wednesday mornings), chaired by the President, at the [[Élysée Palace]].
Following the referendum rejecting the [[European Constitution]], [[Dominique de Villepin]] replaced [[Jean-Pierre Raffarin]] as the French Prime Minister on [[May 31]], [[2005]].
===Executive-issued regulations and legislation===
The French executive has a limited power to establish regulation or legislation. (See [[#Statute law vs executive regulations|below]] for how such regulations or legislative items interact with statute law.)
====Decrees and other executive decisions====
Only the President and Prime Minister sign [[decree]]s (''décrets''), which are akin to US [[executive order]]s. Decrees can only be taken following certain procedures and with due respect to the constitution and statute law.
* The President signs decrees naming and dismissing most senior civil and military servants, for positions listed in the Constitution or in Statutes. He also signs decrees establishing some regulations (''décrets en conseil des ministres''). All such decrees must be countersigned by the Prime Minister and the ministers concerned.
* The Prime Minister signs decrees establishing [[regulation]]s, which the concerned ministers countersign. In some areas, they constitute [[primary legislation]], in some others they must be subordinate to an existing [[statute]]. In some cases, statutes impose a compulsory advisory review by the ''[[Conseil d'État]]'' (''décrets en Conseil d'État''), as opposed to ''décrets simples''.
The individual ministers take administrative decisions (''arrêtés'') in their fields of competence, subordinate to statutes and decrees.
Contrary to a sometimes used polemical ''[[cliché]]'', neither the president nor the prime minister may [[rule by decree]] (outside of the narrow case of presidential emergency powers).
====Ordinances====
The executive cannot issue decrees in areas that the Constitution puts under the responsibility of legislation, issued by Parliament. Still, Parliament may, through a habilitation law, authorize the executive to issue [[ordinance]]s (''ordonnances''), with legislative value, in such areas. Habilitation laws specify the scope of the ordinance. After the ordinance is issued, Parliament is asked whether it wants to ratify it. If Parliament votes no to ratification, the ordinance is cancelled. Most of the time, ratification is not voted upon.
The use of ordinances should normally be reserved for very urgent matters, or for technical, uncontroversial texts (such as the ordinances that converted all sums in [[French Franc]]s to [[Euro]]s in the various laws in force in France). They are sometimes used to push controversial legislation through, such as when Prime Minister [[Dominique de Villepin]] created new forms of work contracts in 2005. The use of ordinances in such contexts is then criticized by the opposition as anti-democratic, and demeaning to Parliament. It must be said, however, that since the National Assembly can dismiss the government through a motion of censure, the government necessarily relies on a majority in Parliament, and this majority would be likely to adopt the controversial law anyway.
===Internal limits of the executive branch; checks and balances===
The general rule is that government agencies and the civil service are at the disposal of the ''gouvernement'', or cabinet. However, various agencies are independent agencies (''autorités administratives indépendantes'') that have been statutorily excluded from the executive's authority, although they belong in the executive branch. These independent agencies have some specialized regulatory power, some executive power, and some [[Quasi-judicial body|quasi-judicial]] power. They can impose sanctions that are named "administrative sanctions" ''sanctions administratives''.
Some examples of independent agencies:
* The ''[[Banque de France]]'', the central bank, is independent ([http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&code=CMONFINL.rcv financial and economic code, L14 |
es have been in color, each book covers approximately six months of comics, including the larger weekend comics (in black and white in all except the recent editions).
The titles of these books were styled as [[double entendre|double entendres]] alluding to Garfield's weight or his habits. These books introduced the "Garfield format" in publishing, whereby the books are horizontally oriented to match comic strip dimensions. They are currently being reprinted in a larger format, showing the Sunday strips to be formatted in a size as they usually are, instead of shrunken-down to meet the book size. Newer versions of the books will be released in paperback only, and in full color for every cartoon, not just the Sunday strips.
# ''Garfield At Large: His First Book'' 1980
# ''Garfield Gains Weight: His Second Book'' 1981
# ''Garfield Bigger than Life: His Third Book'' 1981
# ''Garfield Weighs In: His Fourth Book'' 1982
# ''Garfield Takes the Cake: His Fifth Book'' 1982
# ''Garfield Eats His Heart Out: His Sixth Book'' 1983
# ''Garfield Sits Around the House: His Seventh Book'' 1983
# ''Garfield Tips the Scales: His Eighth Book'' 1984
# ''Garfield Loses His Feet: His Ninth Book'' 1984
# ''Garfield Makes it Big: His 10th Book'' 1985
# ''Garfield Rolls On: His 11th Book'' 1985
# ''Garfield Out to Lunch: His 12th Book'' 1986
# ''Garfield Food for Thought: His 13th Book'' 1987
# ''Garfield Swallows His Pride: His 14th Book'' 1987
# ''Garfield World Wide: His 15th Book'' 1988
# ''Garfield Rounds Out: His 16th Book'' 1988
# ''Garfield Chews the Fat: His 17th Book'' 1989
# ''Garfield Goes to Waist: His 18th Book'' 1990
# ''Garfield Hangs Out: His 19th Book'' 1990
# ''Garfield Takes Up Space: His 20th Book'' 1991
# ''Garfield Says a Mouthful: His 21st Book'' 1991
# ''Garfield By the Pound: His 22nd Book'' 1992
# ''Garfield Keeps His Chins Up: His 23rd Book'' 1992
# ''Garfield Takes His Licks: His 24th Book'' 1993
# ''Garfield Hits the Big Time: His 25th Book'' 1993
# ''Garfield Pulls his Weight: His 26th Book'' 1994
# ''Garfield Dishes it Out: His 27th Book'' 1995
# ''Garfield Life in the Fat Lane: His 28th Book'' 1995
# ''Garfield Tons of Fun: His 29th Book'' 1996
# ''Garfield Bigger and Better: His 30th Book'' 1996
# ''Garfield Hams it Up: His 31st Book'' 1997
# ''Garfield Thinks Big: His 32nd Book'' 1997
# ''Garfield Throws His Weight Around: His 33rd Book'' 1998
# ''Garfield Life to the Fullest: His 34th Book'' 1999
# ''Garfield Feeds the Kitty: His 35th Book'' 1999
# ''Garfield Hogs the Spotlight: His 36th Book'' 2000
# ''Garfield Beefs Up: His 37th Book'' 2000
# ''Garfield Gets Cookin': His 38th Book'' 2001
# ''Garfield Eats Crow: His 39th Book'' 2003
# ''Garfield Survival of the Fattest: His 40th Book'' 2004
# ''Garfield Older and Wider: His 41st Book'' 2005
# ''Garfield Pigs Out: His 42nd Book'' 2006
* In the UK, over 60 Garfield books, mainly 'Pocket Books' or paperbacks, have been published by [[Ravette]]. The format is slightly different, as the strips are presented in a vertical style.
==Other books==
*''[[Garfield: His 9 Lives]]'' (1984) - [[graphic novel]], later made into a TV special.
*''Garfield and the Truth About Cats'' (1991)
*''Garfield's Guide to Everything'' (2004)
*''Garfield book of Cat Names'' (1988)
*''Garfield Crazy about Numbers'' (sticker book)
*''Give Me Coffee and No One Gets Hurt'' (discontinued)
*''Garfield's Big Book of Excellent Excuses'' (2000)
*''Garfield and the Santa Spy''
Additionally, adaptations of Garfield television specials have been published in comic format:
*''A Garfield Christmas'' (1987)
*''Garfield Travel Adventures'' (2005) collects three previous books:
:*''Garfield in the Rough'' (1984)
:*''Garfield in Paradise''(1986)
:*''Garfield Goes to Hollywood''(1988)
Several early-reader adventure novels featuring Garfield were published in the late 1990's:
*''Garfield and the Beast in the Basement'' (1998)
*''Garfield and the Mysterious Mummy'' (1998)
*''Garfield and the Teacher Creature'' (1998)
*''Garfield and the Wicked Wizard'' (1999)
==Video games==
[[Image:S20558c8cot.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Title screen for ''Garfield: Caught in the Act'']]
Garfield was also transported into [[video game]]s, the first being a never-released [[Atari 2600]] [[prototype]], in 1983, and there was also a [[NES]] game of Garfield made in Japan in 1989.
Other titles:
#''Create With Garfield'' [http://www.thelogbook.com/phosphor/apple/q2-02/g.htm] (1985) for [[Apple II]] and [[Commodore 64]]
#''[[Garfield: A Big Fat Hairy Deal]]'' (1987) for [[ZX Spectrum]] and [[Commodore 64]]
#''[[Garfield: A Winter's Tail]]'' (1989) for [[Atari ST]] (Will not work on Atari STe computers), [[Amiga]], ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64
#''[[Garfield no Isshukan]] (1989) for the [[NES]]
#''[[Garfield Labyrinth]]'' (Unknown year) for [[Nintendo Game Boy]]
#''[[Garfield: Caught in the Act]]'' (1995), for [[Sega Genesis|Genesis]] , [[Game Gear]] and [[Personal computer|PC]]
#''[[Garfield (game)|Garfield]]'' (2004), for [[Personal computer|PC]] and [[PlayStation 2|PS2]]
#''[[Garfield's Mad About Cats]]'' (2005), for [[Personal computer|PC]]
#''[[Garfield: The Search for Pooky]]'' (2005) for [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]]
#''[[Garfield & His Nine Lives]]'' (2006) for [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]]
#''[[Garfield: A Tale of Two Kitties]]'' (2006) for [[Nintendo DS]]
#''[[Garfield Bound for Home]]'' (2006) for [[Nintendo DS]]
==Films==
* ''[[Garfield (film)|Garfield: The Movie]]'' (2004) — [[Breckin Meyer]], [[Jennifer Love Hewitt]], and [[Bill Murray]] as the voice of Garfield.
* ''[[Garfield's A Tale of Two Kitties]]'' (2006) — same cast.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.garfield.com/ Official site]
* [http://www.gamerwithin.com/?view=article&article=990 Garfield on the Nintendo DS]
[[Category:Garfield|*]]
[[Category:Comic strips]]
[[Category:Comics characters]]
[[Category:Animated characters]]
[[Category:Fictional cats]]
[[Category:Fictional overeaters]]
[[Category:Anthropomorphic comics]]
[[id:Garfield]]
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[[he:גארפילד (קומיקס)]]
[[nl:Garfield (strip)]]
[[ja:ガーフィールド]]
[[no:Pusur]]
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[[sv:Gustaf (seriefigur)]]
[[zh:加菲猫]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grovers algorithm</title>
<id>13023</id>
<revision>
<id>15910665</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-20T16:16:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CYD</username>
<id>45</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to Grover's algorithm</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grover's algorithm]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Graham Chapman</title>
<id>13024</id>
<revision>
<id>41635221</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:06:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fritzsokol</username>
<id>201356</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Lifestyle */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chapman.jpg|right|thumb|Chapman in one of his calmer moments]]
'''Graham Chapman''' ([[8 January]] [[1941]]–[[4 October]] [[1989]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[comedian]] and [[writer]]. He was one of the six [[Monty Python]] members and lead actor in their two narrative films playing [[King Arthur]] in ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'' and Brian in ''[[Life of Brian]]''.
==Education and early performance==
Chapman was educated at [[Melton Mowbray]] Grammar School and studied medicine at [[Emmanuel College, Cambridge|Emmanuel College]] at the [[University of Cambridge]], where he began writing comedy with fellow University student [[John Cleese]]. He qualified as a [[medical doctor]] at the [[Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry|Barts Hospital Medical College]], but rarely practised medicine.
While at Cambridge, Chapman joined the infamous [[Footlights]]. Fellow members were [[John Cleese]], [[Tim Brooke-Taylor]], [[Bill Oddie]], [[David Hatch]], [[Jonathan Lynn]], [[Humphrey Barclay]], and [[Jo Kendall]]. Their revue ''A Clump of Plinths'' was so successful at the [[Edinburgh Fringe Festival]] that they renamed it ''[[Cambridge Circus (comedy)|Cambridge Circus]]'', and took the revue to the [[West End theatre|West End]] in [[London]] and later [[New Zealand]] and [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]]. The revue appeared in [[October]] [[1964]] on ''[[The Ed Sullivan Show]]''.
==Writing for the BBC==
Chapman and Cleese wrote professionally for the [[BBC]] during the [[1960s]], primarily for the ubiquitous [[David Frost (broadcaster)|David Frost]], but also for [[Marty Feldman]]. Chapman also contributed sketches to the BBC radio series ''[[I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again]]'' and television programs such as ''[[The Illustrated Weekly Hudd]]'' (starring [[Roy Hudd]]), ''[[Cilla Black]]'', ''[[This is Petula Clark]]'', and ''[[This is Tom Jones]]''. Chapman, Cleese, and Tim Brooke-Taylor then joined Marty Feldman in the television comedy series ''[[At Last the 1948 Show]]''. Chapman (and Cleese on occasion) also wrote for the long-running television comedy series ''[[Doctor in the House (TV series)|Doctor in the House]]''. Chapman also co-wrote several episodes with [[Bernard McKenna]] and [[David Sherlock]].
==Monty Python's Flying Circus is born==
In [[1969]] Chapman and Cleese joined [[Michael Palin]], [[Terry Jones]], [[Eric Idle]] and [[United States|American]] artist [[Terry Gilliam]] for ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''. Cleese and Chapman's classic Python sketches include "[[The Ministry of Silly Walks]]" and "[[Dead Parrot]]". One of Chapman's most famous characters was "The Colonel", a stuffy army officer who occasionally appeared out of nowhere to order the end of a sketch for being too silly. After Cleese left the series in [[1973]], Chapman wro |
marily desert, with mild winters and hot summers.
Typically, from late fall to early spring, the weather is mild, averaging a minimum of 60 degrees Fahrenheit (15&nbsp;&deg;C). November through February are the coldest months with temperatures typically ranging from 40&ndash;75 degrees Fahrenheit (4&ndash;24&nbsp;&deg;C), although occasional frosts are not uncommon. About midway through February, the temperatures start to rise again with sunny warm days, and cool breezy nights. The summer months of May through August bring a dry heat ranging from 90&ndash;100 degrees Fahrenheit (32&ndash;38&nbsp;&deg;C), with occasional high temperatures exceeding 125 °F (52&nbsp;&deg;C) having been observed in the desert area. Due to the primarily dry climate, large temperature swings often occur between day and night, with some as large as 50 °F (10&nbsp;&deg;C) in the summer months.
However, the northern third of Arizona is a plateau at significantly higher altitudes than the lower desert, and has an appreciably cooler climate, with cold winters and mild summers. Extreme cold temperatures are not unknown; cold air systems from the northern states and [[Canada]] occasionally push into the state, bringing temperatures below 0 °F (-18&nbsp;&deg;C) to the higher parts of the state.
Monsoon season in Arizona is from the end of July through August. Monsoon season storms bring lightning, thunderstorms, wind, and torrential, if usually brief, downpours. It is rare for tornadoes to occur in Arizona. <!-- how much precipitation is missing-->
Indicative of the variation in climate, Arizona is the state which has both the metropolitan area with the most days over 100 degrees Fahrenheit (37.8&nbsp;&deg;C) (Phoenix), and the metropolitan area in the lower 48 states with the most days with a low temperature below freezing (Flagstaff).
==Economy==
[[Image:AZlicenseplt.gif|thumb|right|Current Arizona License Plate. Courtesy Arizona DOT/MVD]]
The 2004 total [[gross state product]] was $187.27 billion. If Arizona were an independent country, it would have the 61<sup>st</sup> largest economy in the world ([http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html CIA - The World Factbook]). This figure gives Arizona a larger economy than most other countries, including [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Ireland]], [[Finland]], and [[New Zealand]]. Arizona currently has the 21<sup>st</sup> largest economy among states in the [[U.S.]].
[[Image:wiki_arizona.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Greetings from Arizona]]
The state's [[per capita income]] is $27,232, 39<sup>th</sup> in the U.S. Early in its history, Arizona's economy relied on the "Five C's": [[copper]], [[cotton]], [[cattle]], [[citrus]], and [[climate]] ([[tourism]]). At one point Arizona was the largest producer of cotton in the country. Copper is still extensively mined from many expansive open-pit and underground mines, accounting for two-thirds of the nation's output.
[[Image:Entering Arizona on I-10 Westbound.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Entering Arizona on I-10 from New Mexico]]
The state government is the Arizona's largest employer, while [[Wal-Mart]] is the state's largest private employer, with 17,343 employees ([[2003]]). Arizona lost much of its comparative advantage as a [[high-tech]] industry leader between [[1990]] and [[2001]], according to a state [http://www.commerce.state.az.us/ Department of Commerce] report.
In [[2001]], 161,166 Arizonans were employed in the high-tech sector, accounting for about 8.3 percent of total private-sector employment of more than 1.9 million. High-tech payroll in 2001 was $2.2 billion, or 14.7 percent of the private-sector total. High-tech employment was led by [[Computer software|software]] and [[computers]], with 34,314; [[electronics]] components manufacturing, 30,358; [[aerospace]] manufacturing, 25,641; architectural and engineering services, 21,378; telecommunications, 21,224; and instruments manufacturing, 13,056.
==Demographics==
{| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations
|-
! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population
|-
| colspan=2|<hr>
|-
| align="center"| 1860 || align="right"| 6,482
|-
| align="center"| 1870 || align="right"| 9,658
|-
| align="center"| 1880 || align="right"| 40,440
|-
| align="center"| 1890 || align="right"| 88,243
|-
| align="center"| 1900 || align="right"| 122,931
|-
| align="center"| 1910 || align="right"| 204,354
|-
| align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 334,162
|-
| align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 435,573
|-
| align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 499,261
|-
| align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 749,587
|-
| align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 1,302,161
|-
| align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 1,770,900
|-
| align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 2,718,215
|-
| align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 3,665,228
|-
| align="center"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align="right"| 5,130,632
|}
As of 2005, Arizona has an estimated population of 5,939,292, which is an increase of 199,413, or 3.5%, from the prior year and an increase of 808,660, or 15.8%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 241,732 people (that is 462,739 births minus 221,007 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 576,238 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 168,078 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 408,160 people.
The racial breakdown of the state is as follows:
*63.8% [[Whites|White]] non-Hispanic
*25.3% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]]
*5% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*3.1% [[Blacks|Black]]
*1.8% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*2.9% [[Mixed race]]
According to 2003 U.S. Census estimates, Arizona has the second highest number (and the 6th highest percentage) of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s of any state in the Union. 286,680 reportedly live in Arizona, representing more than 10% of the country's total Indian population of 2,752,158. Only [[California]] has more Indians than Arizona, and Arizona has slightly more Indians than [[Oklahoma]] [http://eire.census.gov/popest/data/states/ST-EST2002-ASRO-03.php].
The largest ancestry groups in Arizona are [[Mexico|Mexican]] (21 percent), [[Germany|German]], [[England|English]], [[Ireland|Irish]], and [[American Indian]]. The southern and central parts of the state are heavily Mexican-American, especially in Yuma and Santa Cruz counties. The north-central and northwestern counties are largely inhabited by residents of English ancestry. The northeastern part of Arizona has many American Indians.
Arizona is projected to become a [[minority-majority]] state by the year 2035, if current population growth trends continue. In 2003, for the first time, there were more Hispanic births in the state than white non-Hispanic births.
As of 2000, 74.1% of Arizona residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 19.5% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[Navajo language|Navajo]] is the third most spoken language at 1.9%, followed by Other Native North American languages at 0.6% and [[German language|German]] at 0.5%.
49.9% of the population is male, 50.1% is female.
''See also the list of [[Natives of Arizona|Arizona Natives]]. ''
===Religion===
Four in five Arizonans are self-described Christians, with large numbers of both Catholics and Protestants living in the state. There is also a significant Latter-day Saint (Mormon) population.
Religious affiliations in Arizona:
*[[Christianity|Christian]] &ndash; 79.9%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &ndash; 42%
***[[Baptist]] &ndash; 9%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &ndash; 5%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &ndash; 4%
***Other Protestant/general Protestant &ndash; 24%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &ndash; 31%
**[[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS]] &ndash; 6%
**Other Christian &ndash; 1%
*Other Religions &ndash; 2%
*Non-Religious &ndash; 18%
==Important cities and towns==
{{ussm|arizona.png|az}}
[[Image:phoenix sykline.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Phoenix ]]
[[Image:City Street of Tucson, AZ.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Tucson]]
See: [[List of cities in Arizona]], [[List of cities in Arizona (by population)]], [[List of Arizona counties]]
[[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] is the largest, primary city and capital of the state. The [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] metro area includes [[Mesa, Arizona|Mesa]], [[Glendale, Arizona|Glendale]], [[Chandler, Arizona|Chandler]], [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], and [[Scottsdale, Arizona|Scottsdale]]. The Phoenix metropolitan area supports a population of nearly 3.9 million.
[[Tucson, Arizona|Tucson]] is the state's second largest city, located 135 miles (220 km) [[southeast]] of the Phoenix metropolitan area. The Tucson metropolitan area has a population rapidly nearing 1 million.
Each city named in '''bold''' has a population greater than 100,000.
{|
|-
| valign="top" |
*[[Apache Junction, Arizona|Apache Junction]]
*[[Avondale, Arizona|Avondale]]
*[[Benson, Arizona|Benson]]
*[[Bullhead City, Arizona|Bullhead City]]
*[[Camp Verde, Arizona|Camp Verde]]
*[[Casa Grande, Arizona|Casa Grande]]
*[[Casas Adobes, Arizona|Casa |
ed than were awarded.
An appeal ''as of right'' is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle. The appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal. An appeal ''by leave'' or ''permission'' requires the appellant to move for leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the appellate court have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant's demand to appeal the lower court's decision.
In [[tort]], [[equity]], or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal. In criminal matters, however, the state or prosecution generally has no appeal ''as of right''. And due to the [[double jeopardy]] principle, the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict. But in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal ''as of right'' from a trial court's dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court's granting of a defendant's suppression motion. Likewise, in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law ''by leave'' from the trial court and/or the appellate court.
==How an appeal is processed==
Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of [[evidence (law)|evidence]] presented in the trial court and the [[law]] that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not. The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court's findings of fact (such as whether a defendant committed a particular act), unless clearly erroneous, and so will focus on the court's application of the law to those facts (such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue).
If the appellate court finds no defect, it "affirms" the judgment. If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision "below" (i.e., in the lower court), it may "modify" the ruling to correct the defect, or it may nullify ("reverse" or "vacate") the whole decision or any part of it. It may in addition send the case back ("remand" or "remit") to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect.
In some cases an appellate court may review a lower court decision ''de novo'' (or completely), challenging even the lower court's findings of fact. This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial [[motion to dismiss]] or motion for [[summary judgment]] which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony.
Another situation is where appeal is by way of ''re-hearing''. Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court. An example would be an appeal from a [[Magistrate's court]] to the [[Crown Court]] in [[England and Wales]].
Sometimes the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below. (This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court's rules, to file the appeal.) In [[England]] and many other jurisdictions, however, the phrase ''appeal dismissed'' is equivalent to the [[United States|U.S.]] term ''affirmed''; and the phrase ''appeal allowed'' is equivalent to the U.S. term ''reversed''.
Generally there is no [[Jury trial|trial]] in an appellate court, only consideration of the [[record]] of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed &#8212; unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in ''very'' rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as [[prosecutorial misconduct]].
In some systems an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court, together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems, the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court.
The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee (or respondent) can present arguments against it. Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate [[lawyer]]s, if represented, or ''[[pro se]]'' if the party has not engaged legal representation. Those arguments are presented in written [[brief (law)|briefs]] and sometimes in [[oral argument]] to the court at a [[hearing (law)|hearing]]. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs.
It is important to note that in an [[adversarial system]] appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner or against [[legal precedent]] that judgment will stand even if it might have been overturned on appeal.
In the [[United States]], a [[lawyer]] traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words "May it please the court."
==See also==
* [[List of legal topics]]
* [[Appellate review]]
* [[Supreme Court of the United States]]
* [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales]]
[[Category:Court systems]]
[[Category:Appellate_review]]
[[cs:Apelační soud]]
[[de:Berufung (Recht)]]
[[es:Apelación]]
[[hu:Fellebbezés]]
[[ja:抗告]]
[[nl:Hoger beroep]]
[[pl:Apelacja (prawo)]]
[[pt:Recurso de apelação]]
[[sv:Appellationsdomstol]]
[[th:ศาลอุทธรณ์]]
[[zh:上訴法院]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Answer</title>
<id>642</id>
<revision>
<id>41984073</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:13:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Met8304</username>
<id>1020725</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">''For the US radical anti-war protest group, see [[A.N.S.W.E.R.]]''
''See also [[Google Answers]], [[Answers.com]]''
{{CivilProcedure}}
An '''answer''' (derived from ''and'', against, and the same root as ''swear'') was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to some one or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defence, a reply to a question or objection, or a correct solution of a problem. In the [[common law]], an '''answer''' is the first [[pleading]] by a [[defendant]], usually filed and served upon the [[plaintiff]] within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[information]] or [[indictment]] has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an ''optional'' "pre-answer" [[motion to dismiss]] or [[demurrer]]; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant ''must'' file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse [[default judgment]].
The ''answer'' establishes which allegations ([[cause of action]] in civil matters) set forth by the complaining party will be contested by the defendant, and states all the defendant's [[Defense (legal)|defense]]s, thus establishing the nature and parameters of the controversy to be decided by the [[court]].
In the case of a criminal case there is usually an [[arraignment]] or some other kind of appearance before the court by the defendant. The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is either [[guilt|guilty]] or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of [[equitable remedy]] such as [[restitution]] or an [[injunction]]. Criminal cases may lead to [[fine]]s or other [[punishment]], such as [[imprisonment]].
The famous Latin ''Responsa Prudentum'' ("answers of the learned") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative.
In music an "'''answer'''" is the technical name in counterpoint for the repetition by one part or instrument of a theme proposed by another.
{{wiktionarypar|answer}}
G.
sup garrett
1902 1807
1983 1861
1872 1961
(back)
1309 1827
1931 1962</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Appellate court</title>
<id>643</id>
<revision>
<id>24603435</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-02T23:58:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tarret</username>
<id>450465</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Appeal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arithmetic and logic unit</title>
<id>644</id>
<revision>
<id>15899172</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-02T15:48:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wernher</username>
<id>19431</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arithmetic and logical unit</title>
<id>645</id>
<revision>
<id>15899173</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-02T15:45:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wernher</username>
<id>19431</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aircraft Carrier</title>
<id>647</id>
<revision>
<id>15899174</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
|
'black'') and ''byllia'' (билля, ''grass blades'' or ''stalks''); hence it literally means ''black grass'' or ''black stalks'' -- though no parts of mugwort or wormwood are black. The plants are pale green, and wormwood has a whitish tinge from a fine fuzz on the bottom of its leaves.
On occasion, Chornobyl has been translated controversially to mean simply "[[Artemisia (plant)|wormwood]]" (which most commonly refers to ''Artemisia absinthium''), with consequent [[Chernobyl accident#Chernobyl and the Bible|apocalyptic associations]], that spread as far as Poland before [[Serge Schmemann]] of the New York Times published "Chernobyl Fallout: Apocalyptic Tale", July 25, 1986. The article quoted an unnamed "prominent Russian writer" as claiming the Ukrainian word for wormwood was chernobyl.
In fact, there are over 160 kinds of ''Artemisia'', and the terminology is not generally accepted. Some sources refer to ''Artemisia vulgaris'' as "common wormwood", while other claim that "common wormwood" is ''Artemisia absinthium''.
Wormwood is a different (but related) plant, ''[[Artemisia absinthium]]'', Полин (Polyn). "Polyn" has no English equivalent, but corresponds to the botanical genus ''Artemisia''. Botanically, mugwort is "Common Polyn" (Ukr. Полин звичайний); while wormwood is "Bitter Polyn" (Ukr. Полин гіркий).
Still more confusion comes from the fact that the word "wormwood" is used in the English text of the Apocalypse, whose usage as the name of a plant does not necessarily match that of the original Greek.
Chernobyl bears poetic connotations in folklore, for a number of reasons. Its strong smell is evocative of the [[steppe]], as various species of ''[[Artemisia (plant)|Artemisia]]'' are widespread there -- though the town of Chornobyl is in the wooded and swampy Polissia region, quite far from the steppe. Chernobyl roots were used in folk medicine for deworming and to heal neurotic conditions, although an overdose could lead to neurological disorders, including memory loss. In Ukrainian folklore, it is used to banish the mischeivous water nymphs called ''rusalky''.
The word "Chernobyl" is also sometimes used as slang to describe certain nuclear installations.
==History==
Chernobyl first appeared in a charter of [[1193]] described as a hunting-lodge of [[knyaz]] [[Rostislavich]]. Some time later it was taken into the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], where it became a crown village. The castle was built for defence against marauding [[Tatars]]. In [[1566]], three years before the [[Grand Duchy]]'s rule, Ukrainian provinces were transferred to the [[The Jagiellon Era|Kingdom of Poland]], Chernobyl was granted in perpetuity to a Captain of the royal cavalry, [[Filon Kmita]], who thereafter styled himself ''[[Kmita Czarnobylski]]''. In due course, it passed by marriage to the [[Sapieha]]s, and in [[1703]] to the [[Chodkiewicz]] family. It was annexed by the [[Russian Empire]] after the [[Partition of Poland|Second Partition of Poland]] in [[1793]].
Chernobyl had a very rich religious history. The [[Jewish]] community, which formed an absolute majority, would probably have been imported by Filon Kmita as agents and arendators during the Polish campaign of colonisation. Later on, they would have included [[Hasidic Judaism|Chasidim]] as well as [[Orthodox Jews]]. The traditionally [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Ukrainian peasantry of the district was largely forced by Poland to the [[Greek Catholic]] (Uniate) religion after [[1596]], and returned to [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Russian Orthodoxy]] after Ukraine's unification with [[Russia]].
The [[Dominican order|Dominican]] church and monastery were founded in [[1626]] by [[Lukasz Sapieha]], at the height of the [[Counter-reformation]]. There was a group of [[Old Catholics]], who opposed the decrees of the [[Council of Trent]], just as the seventeenth century saw the arrival of a group of ''Raskolniki'', or "[[Old Believers]]", from Russia. They all escaped the worst horrors of the [[Bohdan Chmielnicki|Chmielnicki Uprising]] of [[1648]]-[[1654|54]] (also known as [[Polish-Cossack War]]) and those of [[1768]]-[[1769|9]], when one of the rebel leaders, [[Bondarenko]], was caught and brutally executed by [[Jan Karol Chodkiewicz]]'s [[hussar]]s.
The Dominican monastery was sequestrated in [[1832]], the church of the ''Raskolniki'' in [[1852]]. Since [[1880]], Chernobyl has seen many changes of fortune. In [[1915]], it was occupied by the [[Germany|Germans]], and in the ensuing [[Russian Civil War]], was fought over by [[Bolshevik]]s, [[White Army|Whites]], and Ukrainians. In the [[Polish-Soviet War]] of [[1919]]-[[1920|20]], it was taken first by the Polish Army and then by the Red Cavalry of the [[Red Army]]. From [[1921]], it was incorporated into the [[Ukrainian SSR]], and experienced the mass killings of [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]'s collectivisation campaign and [[Holodomor]]. The [[Poland|Polish]] population was deported during the [[Frontier Clearances]] of [[1936]]. The [[Jewish]] community was killed by the [[Nazi|Nazis]] during the German occupation of [[1941]]-[[1944|44]]. Twenty years later, it was chosen as the site of one of the first [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[nuclear power]] stations.
On [[April 26]], [[1986]], the Chernobyl-4 [[nuclear reactor]], located 14.5 km north-northwest of the city, exploded. All permanent residents were evacuated because [[radioactive contamination|radiation]] levels in the area had become unsafe. See [[Chernobyl accident]].
Chernobyl remains inhabited by a small number of residents who decided to return to their homes after the accident, but the majority of the evacuated population now live in specially constructed towns such as Slavutich. Many animals have been introduced into the town to promote the growth and success of the ecosystem there; some of these appear to be flourishing in the radioactive environment, whilst others appear to be affected adversely.
==See also==
* [[Chernobog]]
* [[Chernobyl accident]]
* [[Pripyat, Ukraine]]
* [[Zone of alienation]]
* [[Elena Filatova]]
* [[Chernobyl (Hasidic dynasty)]]
* [[Chernobyl2020]]
* [[Chernobyl Children's Project International]]
* [[Adi Roche]]
== External links ==
{{commonscat|Chernobyl}}
* [http://www.bike2belarus.com bike2belarus], an Irish Student Charity Organisation
* [http://www.mosnews.com/news/2005/08/11/traveltochernobyl.shtml Biological diversity in Chernobyl region is higher]
* [http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/195/davies.html Chernobyl], [[Norman Davies]], Sarmatian Review, 1/95
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=51.370923,30.140305&spn=0.200761,0.481407&t=k&hl=en Satellite images of Chernobyl area], Google Maps
* [http://www.opuszczone.com Chernobyl and Pripet Photos], Chernobyl Photos
[[Category:Cities in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Chernobyl accident]]
[[bg:Чернобил]]
[[cs:Černobyl]]
[[da:Tjernobyl]]
[[de:Tschornobyl]]
[[eo:Cxernobilo]]
[[es:Chernóbil]]
[[fi:Tshernobyl]]
[[fr:Tchernobyl (ville)]]
[[gd:Tearnòbail (sgiorradh)]]
[[it:Chernobyl]]
[[he:צ'רנוביל]]
[[hu:Csernobil]]
[[mo:Чернобыл]]
[[nl:Tsjernobyl]]
[[ja:チェルノブイリ]]
[[no:Tsjernobyl]]
[[pl:Czarnobyl]]
[[pt:Chernobil]]
[[ro:Cernobîl]]
[[ru:Чернобыль]]
[[sv:Tjernobyl]]
[[uk:Чорнобиль]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cyan</title>
<id>6102</id>
<revision>
<id>41615747</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:12:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Notinasnaid</username>
<id>86195</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Remove incorrect assertion that cyan ink is not actually cyan in color: see talk for reference. Also reworded a bit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the color. For other senses of this word see [[cyan (disambiguation)]].''
{{infobox color|
title= Cyan|
hex= 00FFFF|
r= 0|g=255|b=255|
c=100|m= 0|y= 0|k= 0|
h=180|s=100|v=100
}}
'''Cyan''' is the name of any of a number of colours. One definition is a color made by mixing equal amounts of [[green]] and [[blue]] [[light]] (it also is a pure [[optical spectrum|spectral]] [[color]]). As such, cyan is the [[complementary color|complement]] of [[red]]: cyan [[pigment]]s absorb red light. Cyan is sometimes called blue-green or [[Turquoise (color)|turquoise]] and often goes undistinguished from light blue. Cyan is often referred to as "Electric Blue".
Cyan is also one of the common inks used in [[four-color printing]], along with [[magenta]], [[yellow]], and [[black]]; this set of colors is referred to as [[CMYK]].
Note that while both of these colors are called ''cyan'' they are actually substantially different from one another. Cyan printing ink is much less vivid--indeed, CMYK printing technology cannot accurately reproduce pure cyan as described above (100% blue + 100% green) on [[paper]].
[[Image:Cyan1.png|left|framed|spectral reflectance curve]]<br clear="left"/>
== See also ==
*[[List of colors]]
{{EMSpectrum}}
{{color-stub}}
[[Category:Shades of cyan|*]]
[[af:Siaan (kleur)]]
[[ca:Cian]]
[[de:Cyan]]
[[eo:Cejana]]
[[es:Cian]]
[[fr:Cyan]]
[[he:ציאן]]
[[it:Ciano]]
[[ja:シアン (色)]]
[[nl:Cyaan]]
[[nb:Cyan]]
[[ru:сине-зелёный]]
[[sv:Cyan]]
[[vi:Xanh lơ]]
[[zh:青色]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European classical music</title>
<id>6104</id>
<revision>
<id>42005689</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:19:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gandalf1491</username>
<id>922626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Timeline */ spelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[genre]] of '''classical music''' or [[art music]] in the Western musical tradition. For articles on classical music of non-Western cultures, see [[Classical music (disambiguation)|Classical music]]. For the perio |
gh the laws as written do not address the issue directly.
Since American copyright law specifically protects parody, and also includes a provision that the specifically protected categories are not necessarily the only protected categories, fan fiction remains in a legal gray area. But even without an official ruling on the legality of fan fiction, the owners of intellectual property can exert a great deal of influence on fans. For instance, a [[cease and desist]] letter from an entity with deep pockets exerts a great deal of influence on a single person who can scarcely afford legal representation. Conversely, the bad publicity and ill will generated by attacking one's own fan base can give even a large corporation second thoughts about conducting a legal campaign against fan writers.
It must also be noted that, separate from copyright issues, many characters in American television and film productions are also [[registered trademark]]s of the producing company. However, this only requires that fan fiction producers make certain that their work cannot be confused with the trademark holder, and does not claim to be endorsed or produced by them; it does not ban the use of a character any more than the registered trademark status of [[Coca-Cola]] prohibits its mention here. Most authors avoid legal trouble by including short disclaimers at the beginnings of stories or chapters.
Also, fan writers argue that their work does not cost the owner of the source material any income, and often acts as free promotion, while fan writers themselves earn no profit. Legally, copyright (and trademark) infringement can still occur even when the infringers do not profit; however, the non-profit nature of fan fiction is important legally, because it limits or eliminates the damages that a court could find and also makes possible some defense against claims of infringement under copyright [[fair use]].
Most major studios and production companies tolerate fan fiction, and some even encourage it. [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]], for example, has allowed the production of two series of ''[[Star Trek]]'' fan fiction anthologies, ''Star Trek: Strange New Worlds,'' a series of seven anthologies of fan fiction selected by contest, and Bantam's ''Star Trek: The New Voyages'' which followed Bantam's ''Star Trek Lives'' by reprinting stories from various fanzines.
A noted exception is [[Lucasfilm]], which has threatened or sued many sites precisely because of their non-commercial nature. Strangely, though, the company encourages fan-produced films, and once made available a small library of sound effects.
Most writers and producers do not read fan fiction, somewhat ironically, for fear that they might be accused of stealing a fan's ideas. But many encourage it: When [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]] went off the air, for instance, creator [[Joss Whedon]] encouraged fans to read fanfiction during the show's timeslot. [[J. K. Rowling]] says she loves fan fiction of all kinds, though she admits to finding some of the works to be 'quite bizarre'. [[Douglas Adams]] also reportedly appreciated fan fiction based on his works, to the extent that some would say that there are scenes in ''[[So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish]]'' that seem to be inspired by fan fiction.
Noteworthy in regard to acceptance of fan fiction is [[Eric Flint]], who has set up a formal site for the submission of fan fiction into his canon in the [[1632 series]] at [http://bar.baen.com Baen's Bar] and has to date published five issues of the ''[[Grantville Gazette]]'' featuring fan fiction and fan-non-fiction alongside his original work. Flint contends that this allows the expansion of the alternate history universe into something approaching the complexity of reality.
Also noteworthy is the series of ''[[Darkover]]'' anthologies published by [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]], beginning in [[1980]] consisting largely of fan fiction extended into her canon. The author eventually discontinued these after a skirmish with a fan, which cost Bradley a book. This incident led to a "zero tolerance" policy on the part of a number of professional authors, including [[Andre Norton]], [[David Weber]] and [[Mercedes Lackey]]. Some television producers have implemented similar constraints, one example being ''[[Babylon 5]]'' creator [[J. Michael Straczynski]]. His demand that ''Babylon 5'' fan fiction be clearly labeled or kept off the net confined most of the ''Babylon 5'' fan fiction community to mailing lists. The repercussions of this incident are still being felt to date.
[[Anne Rice]] also aggressively prevents any fan fiction of any of her characters (mostly those from her famous ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'' book) or anything to do with any of her books. Similar efforts have also been taken by [[George R. R. Martin]], author of the famous ''[[Song of Ice and Fire]]'' series, among other fantasy and science fiction novels. Many authors do this, they claim, in order to protect their intellectual copyright and prevent any dilution, saturation and distortion of the universes and people portrayed in their works.
One curious case is that of [[Larry Niven]]'s ''[[Known Space]]'' universe. In an author's note in ''The Ringworld Engineers'', Niven stated that he was finished writing stories in this universe, and that "[i]f you want more ''Known Space'' stories, you'll have to write them yourself." Internet writer [[Elf Sternberg]] took him up on that offer, penning a [[parody]] in which members of Niven's hyper-masculine Kzin species engage in gay sex and [[BDSM]]. [http://www.drizzle.com/~elf/other/The_Only_Fair_Game.html] Niven responded by denouncing Sternberg's story in the introduction to a later volume and issuing a cease-and-desist for copyright violation. To date, Sternberg holds that the story is constitutionally protected parody [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/rec.arts.sf.written/msg/6eadf6478c3e30dd?dmode=source], while Niven maintains that it is a copyright violation (but has not legally pursued the matter further). [http://interviews.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=03/03/10/167206&mode=thread&tid=134&tid=192]
In [[Russia]], where copyright laws have been lax at best, it is not uncommon to see fan fiction based on the work of popular authors published in book form. [[Sergey Lukyanenko]], a popular science fiction author, went as far as to incorporate some fan fiction based on his stories into official [[Canon (fiction)|canon]] (with permission of the writers of the said fan fiction).
In the [[United States]], tie-in novels have the curious status of officially sanctioned, for-profit fan fiction. Series from ''[[Star Trek]]'' to ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' have numerous books that exist outside the canonical world of the series, much like fan fiction, but which have the official sanction of the show's creators. The refusal by [[Paramount Pictures]] (owners of the ''Trek'' franchise) to allow printed adventures to be considered part of the [[canon (fiction)|canon]] has led many fans to consider the books to be fan fiction despite their legal and licensed status. The official ''[[Star Wars]]'' book series is part of the continuity of the ''Star Wars'' universe, and cannot strictly be considered fan fiction, either.
In [[Japan]] the writing and even sale of fan fiction (especially in the form of [[doujinshi]]) is totally legal, and in many cases encouraged. It is looked on, more often than not, as a form of advertising, a similar attitude to that developed by many sectors of the recording industry toward [[Cassette culture|tape trading]]. In some cases, the actual creators of anime and manga series have even produced doujinshi based on their own works, without the involvement or approval of their publishers. While such stories can be useful in determining authorial intent, because of their unofficial status they are usually not considered canon.
The attitude of copyright holders toward incorporating fan fiction into the canon varies. It is generally the case that the writers hired for a television or movie are under strict orders not to read fan fiction out of fear that doing so will cause the copyright holder to be sued later for infringement. However, some copyright holders such as the case of the [[BBC]] and ''[[Doctor Who]]'' have mechanisms to allow for unsolicited submissions of stories into the official canon, and it is also the case that the writers of canon stories have sometimes been recruited from fan fiction writers.
==Fan fiction timelines==
===Slash timeline===
* [[1968]]: The "Ring of Shoshern" was circulating privately in the United Kingdom. While it would not be published until 1989 by Alien Brothers, it may have originally been written as early as 1969 or 1970.[http://www.beyonddreamspress.com/history.htmlink Source]
====1970s====
* [[1970]]: Slash has begun to show up on the scene, in underground, distributed by hand stories. While these stories were not published in the Star Trek community for another four years, Henry Jenkins notes that the Star Trek fan fiction community initially greeted this material with stiff resistance. It would take many years before this material was viewed as broadly acceptable in the Star Trek community, with some fen going out of their way in an attempt to marginalize this material by sending copies to various actors whose characters were being portrayed as gay. In one case, a fan sent a piece of slash to William Shatner hoping the actor would crack down on the material. According to several sources, the author consulted his lawyer who told him to let it go as it would do more harm than good to go after it.
* [[1970]] to [[1975]]: [[Henry Jenkins]] cited this period in the early 1970s as having a slash fan fiction community with 90% female composition. This trend of females being the large majority of slash readers and writers would continue well up until the |
, meant for electrical engineers and technical specialists. Discusses recursion, partial-recursion with reference to Turing Machines, halting problem. Has a [[Turing Machine]] model in it. References at end of Chapter 9 catch most of the older books (i.e. 1952 until 1967 including authors Martin Davis, F. C. Hennie, H. Hermes, S. C. Kleene, M. Minsky, T. Rado) and various technical papers. See note under Busy-Beaver Programs.
* [[Busy Beaver]] Programs are described in Scientific American, August 1984, also March 1985 p. 23. A reference in Booth attributes them to Rado, T.(1962), On non-computable functions, Bell Systems Tech. J. 41. Booth also defines Rado's Busy Beaver Problem in problems 3, 4, 5, 6 of Chapter 9, p. 396.
* [[David Bolter]], ''Turing’s Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age'', The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1984. For the general reader. May be dated. Has yet another (very simple) Turing Machine model in it.
[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Theory of computation]]
[[Category:Problems]]
[[cs:Problém zastavení]]
[[de:Halteproblem]]
[[fa:مسألهى توقف]]
[[fi:Pysähtymisongelma]]
[[fr:Problème de l'arrêt]]
[[he:בעיית העצירה]]
[[ja:チューリングマシンの停止問題]]
[[ko:정지 문제]]
[[nl:Beslissingsprobleem]]
[[pl:Problem stopu]]
[[ru:Проблема зависания]]
[[th:ปัญหาการยุติการทำงาน]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hans-Dietrich Genscher</title>
<id>13669</id>
<revision>
<id>41011592</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T13:44:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.13.72.153</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Added Quote from Prague Embassy speech</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bush senior und Hans-Dietrich Genscher.jpg|thumb|[[George H. W. Bush]] and '''Hans-Dietrich Genscher''', November 21st, 1989.]]
'''Hans-Dietrich Genscher''' (Born [[March 21]], [[1927]]) is a [[Germany|German]] [[politician]] and member of the [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|Free Democratic Party (FDP)]]. He was [[Foreign Minister]] of the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] from 1974-1992, making him Germany's longest serving Foreign Minister.
Genscher was born at [[Reideburg]] ([[Saalkreis]]), near [[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]], in what later became [[East Germany]]. At a young age, Genscher joined the [[Hitler Youth]] and later served as a [[Luftwaffenhelfer]] in the [[Wehrmacht|Army]] from [[1943]] to [[1945]]. As an adult, he was also a member of the [[NSDAP]], despite regulations encouraging active duty military members to avoid holding membership in political organizations (these regulations were widely ignored in the later days of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s Germany).
At the end of the Second World War, Genscher briefly became an American and British [[prisoner of war]]. After [[World War II]], he studied law and economics at the universities of Halle and [[Leipzig]] ([[1946]]-[[1949]]) and joined the East-German Liberal Democratic Party (LDPD) in 1946.
In [[1952]], Genscher fled to West Germany, where he joined the [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|Free Democratic Party (FDP)]]. He passed his second state examination in law in [[Hamburg]] in 1954 and became a solicitor in [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]].
In [[1965]], he was elected to the [[Bundestag|German parliament]] for the first time from Bremen, a seat he would hold until his retirement in [[1998]]. After serving in several party offices, he was appointed Minister of the Interior by [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] [[Willy Brandt]], whose [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] was in coalition with the FDP, in [[1969]]; in [[1974]], he became foreign minister and [[Vice Chancellor of Germany|Vice Chancellor]]).
In the SPD-FDP coalition, he helped shape Brandt's policy of deescalation with the communist East, commonly known as ''[[Ostpolitik]]'', which was continued under [[Helmut Schmidt]] after Brandt's resignation in [[1974]].
Still, Genscher was one of the FDP's driving forces when, in [[1982]], the party switched sides from its coalition with the SPD to support the [[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]]/[[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]] in their [[Constructive Vote of No Confidence]] to have [[Helmut Schmidt]] replaced with [[Helmut Kohl]] as Chancellor. Despite the great controversy that accompanied this switch, he remained one of the most popular politicians in Germany. He retained his posts as foreign minister and vice chancellor until [[1992]], when he stepped down for health reasons. Some believe his 18-year tenure as foreign minister made him the longest-serving holder of such an office anywhere in the world.
He is mostly respected for his efforts that helped end the [[Cold War]], to lead to [[German reunification]], when, in eastern Europe, the communist government toppled; for example, he visited [[Poland]] to meet [[Lech Wałęsa]] as early as [[1988]]. One event remembered by many is his [[September 30]], [[1989]] speech from the balcony of the German embassy in [[Prague]], in whose court yard thousands of East German citizens had assembled to flee to the west, when he announced that he had reached an agreement with the communist government that the refugees could leave: "We have come to you to tell you that today, your departure ..." (german: "Wir sind zu Ihnen gekommen, um Ihnen mitzuteilen, daß heute Ihre Ausreise ..."). After these words, the speech drowned in cheers.
Genscher did not run for reelection in 1998. Since then, he has been active as a lawyer, in a public company, and in bona-fide international relations organizations. He founded his own Hans-Dietrich Genscher Consult GmbH in 2000.
Genscher was also an active participant in the further development of the [[European Union]], taking active part in the [[Single European Act]] Treaty negotiations in the mid [[1980s]], as well as the joint publication of the Genscher-Colombo plan with Italian Prime Minister Colombo which advocated further integration and deepening of relations in the [[European Union]] towards a more [[federalist]] European State.
==See also==
* [[Politics of Germany]]
* [[History of Germany since 1945]]
{| align="center" border="1"
| width="30%" align="center"|'''Preceded by:'''<br>(first term)<br>[[Walter Scheel]]
| width="40%" align="center" rowspan="2"|[[Foreign Minister of Germany]]<br>1974-1982, 1982-1992
| width="30%" align="center"|'''Succeeded by:'''<br>(first term)<br>[[Helmut Schmidt]]
|-
| align="center"|'''Preceded by:'''<br>(second term)<br>[[Helmut Schmidt]]
| align="center"|'''Succeeded by:'''<br>(second term)<br>[[Klaus Kinkel]]
|}
[[Category:1927 births|Genscher, Hans-Dietrich]]
[[Category:Living people|Genscher, Hans-Dietrich]]
[[Category:Politicians of FDP|Genscher, Hans-Dietrich]]
[[Category:German ministers|Genscher, Hans-Dietrich]]
[[de:Hans-Dietrich Genscher]]
[[nds:Hans-Dietrich Genscher]]
[[nl:Hans-Dietrich Genscher]]
[[no:Hans-Dietrich Genscher]]
[[pl:Hans-Dietrich Genscher]]
[[ru:Геншер, Ханс-Дитрих]]
[[sv:Hans-Dietrich Genscher]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holy Trinity</title>
<id>13670</id>
<revision>
<id>15911265</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-29T02:35:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shanes</username>
<id>94147</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv back to redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Trinity]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Herod Agrippa I</title>
<id>13673</id>
<revision>
<id>15911267</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-07T18:56:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Llywrch</username>
<id>5094</id>
</contributor>
<comment>turning dupe into redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Agrippa I]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Herod Agrippa II</title>
<id>13674</id>
<revision>
<id>15911268</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-07T18:30:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Llywrch</username>
<id>5094</id>
</contributor>
<comment>making dupe article into a redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Agrippa II]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry Ainsworth</title>
<id>13675</id>
<revision>
<id>41890318</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:39:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Disambig: congregational</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry Ainsworth''', ([[1571]]&ndash;[[1622]]) was an English Nonconformist clergyman and scholar, was born of a farming family of Swanton Morley, [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]]. He was educated at [[Caius College, Cambridge]], and, after associating with the [[Puritan party]] in the Church, eventually joined the [[Separatist]]s.
Driven abroad about [[1593]], he found a home in "a blind lane at [[Amsterdam]]", acting as "porter" to a bookseller, who, on discovering his knowledge of Hebrew, introduced him to other scholars. When part of the London church, of which [[Francis Johnson]] (then in prison) was pastor, reassembled in Amsterdam, Ainsworth was chosen as their doctor or teacher. In [[1596]] he drew up a confession of their faith, reissued in Latin in 1598 and dedicated to the various universities of Europe (including St Andrews,
Scotland). Johnson joined his flock in 1597, and in 1604 he and Ainsworth composed ''An Apology or Defence of such true Christians as are commonly but unjustly called Brownists''.
Organizing the church was not easy and dissension was rife. Though often involved in controversy, Ainsworth was not arrogant, but was a stead |
ections.
In the case of new sailing-ship designs [[as of 2004]], hulls are often made of layers of foam and [[plastic]], forming [[composite material|composite]] hulls, with a minimum of weight. Variations on the single hull can be found with [[outrigger]]s, and [[multihull]] craft with at least one hull nested inside the outermost one.
Hull construction is usually performed in a [[dry dock]] or on a [[slipway]].
==See also==
*[[double hull]]
{{Sailing ship elements}}
[[Category:Ship construction]]
[[Category:Sailing ship elements]]
[[da:Skibsskrog]]
[[de:Schiffsrumpf]]
[[fr:Coque (bateau)]]
[[ja:船体]]
[[pl:Kadłub]]
[[pt:Casco (navio)]]
[[sv:Skrov]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hymn</title>
<id>13756</id>
<revision>
<id>41395302</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:19:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.222.83.115</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Christian tradition */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings see [[hymn (disambiguation)]]''
A '''hymn''' is a song specifically written as a [[song]] of praise, adoration or [[prayer]], typically addressed to a [[deity|god]].
A writer of hymns is known as a '''hymnist''' or '''hymnodist''', and the process of singing a hymn is called ''hymnody''; the same word is used for the collectivity of hymns belonging to a particular denomination or period (e.g. "nineteenth century Methodist hymnody" would mean the body of hymns written and/or used by Methodists in the nineteenth century). Books called hymnals are collections of hymns, which may or may not include music.
Ancient hymns include the ''[[Great Hymn to the Aten]]'', composed by the [[pharaoh]] [[Akhenaten]], and the [[Veda]]s, a collection of hymns in the tradition of [[Hinduism]]. The Western tradition of hymnody begins with the [[Homeric Hymns]], a collection of ancient Greek hymns, the oldest of which were written in the 7th century BCE in praise of the gods of [[Greek mythology]].
== Christian tradition ==
In [[Christianity|Christian]] religions, hymns are usually directed toward [[God]]. However, some hymns used by [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] and other communions may be to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] and sometimes to other [[saint]]s. Most Christian worship services have, since the earliest times, incorporated the singing of hymns, either by the congregation or by a selected [[choir]], often accompanied by an [[Organ (music)|organ]].
[[Thomas Aquinas]], in the introduction to his commentary on the Psalms, defined the Christian hymn thus: "''Hymnus est laus Dei cum cantico; canticum autem exultatio mentis de aeternis habita, prorumpens in vocem''." ("A hymn is the praise of God with song; a song is the exultation of the mind dwelling on eternal things, bursting forth in the voice.)
Since there is a lack of musical notation in early writings, the actual musical forms in the early church can only be surmised. During the Middle Ages a rich hymnody developed in the form of [[Gregorian chant]] or plainsong. This type was sung in unison, in one of eight [[Musical mode#Church modes|Church modes]], and most often by monastic choirs. While they were written originally in [[Latin]], many have been translated. A familiar hymn of this type is the 11th century plainsong ''Divinum Mysterium'', (although the words ''Of the Father's Love Begotten'' date back to around the 4th century), that is a common part of church Christmas repertoires in the English language.
The [[Protestant Reformation]] produced a burst of hymn writing and congregational singing. [[Martin Luther]] is notable not only as a reformer, but as the author of many hymns including ''A Mighty Fortress Is Our God'' which is sung today even in Roman Catholicism. Luther and his followers often used their hymns, or chorales, to teach tenets of the faith to worshipers. The earlier English writers tended to paraphrase bibical text, particularly [[Psalm]]s; [[Isaac Watts]] followed this tradition, but is also credited as having written the first English hymn which was not a direct paraphrase of Scripture. Later writers took even more freedom, some included [[allegory]] and [[metaphor]] in their texts. Four part harmony also became the norm, rather than unison singing.
[[Charles Wesley]]'s hymns spread Methodist [[theology]], not only within Methodism, but in most Protestant churches. He developed a new focus - expressing one's personal feelings in the relationship with God as well as the simple worship seen in older hymns. Wesley wrote:
:''Where shall my wondering soul begin?''
:''How shall I all to heaven aspire?''
:''A slave redeemed from death and sin,''
:''A brand plucked from eternal fire,''
:''How shall I equal triumphs raise,''
:''Or sing my great deliverer's praise.''
Wesley's contribution, along with the [[Second Great Awakening]] in [[United States|America]] led to a new style called gospel, and a new explosion of sacred music writing with [[Fanny Crosby]], [[Ira D. Sankey]], and others who produced testimonial music for revivals, camp meetings and evangelistic crusades.
[[African-American]]s developed a rich hymnody from [[spiritual (music)|spiritual]]s during times of slavery to the modern, lively black gospel style.
The [[Methodist Revival]] of the eighteenth century created an explosion of hymnwriting in [[Welsh language|Welsh]], which continued into the first half of the nineteenth century. The most prominent names among Welsh hymn-writers are [[William Williams]] of Pantycelyn and [[Ann Griffiths]]. The second half of the nineteenth century witnessed an explosion of hymntune composition and choir singing in [[Wales]].
Some Christians today are using Christian lyrics in the [[Contemporary Christian Music|rock music]] style although this often leads to some controversy between older and younger congregants. This is not new; the Christian [[Contemporary Christian Music|pop music]] style began in the late 1960s and became very popular during the 1970s, as young hymnists sought ways in which to make the music of their religion relevant for their generation.
This long tradition has resulted in a rich lode of hymns. Some modern churches include within hymnody, the traditional hymn (usually addressed to God), praise choruses (often sung scripture texts) and gospel (expressions of one's personal experience of God). This distinction is not perfectly clear; and purists remove the second two types from the classification as hymns. It is a matter of debate, even sometimes within a single congregation, often between revivalist and traditionalist movements.
Some Christian hymnists and their more well known hymns are:
* [[Thomas Aquinas]] : ''[[Pange Lingua]]'', ''[[Verbum Supernum Prodiens]]''
* [[Thomas of Celano|Tommaso da Celano]] : ''[[Dies Irae|Dies Iræ]]''
* [[William Cowper]] : ''[[There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood]]''
* [[Fanny Crosby]] : ''[[Blessed Assurance]]'' and 8,000 others
* [[Paul Gerhardt]] : ''[[O Sacred Head, Sore Wounded]]''
* [[Martin Luther]] : ''[[A Mighty Fortress is Our God]]''
* [[John Newton]] : ''[[Amazing Grace]]''
* [[Dan Schutte]] : ''Here I Am, Lord''
* [[Joseph M. Scriven]] : ''What a Friend We Have in Jesus'
* [[Knowles Shaw]] : ''[[Bringing in the Sheaves]]'''
* [[Timothy Dudley-Smith]] : ''Tell Out My Soul''
* [[Eliza R. Snow]] : ''[[O My Father (hymn)|O My Father]]''
* [[Isaac Watts]] : ''[[When I Survey the Wondrous Cross]]'', ''[[Joy to the World]]''
* [[Charles Wesley]] : ''[[Christ the Lord Is Risen Today]]'', ''[[Hark, The Herald Angels Sing]]'',
:''[[Love Divine, All Loves Excelling]]'', ''[[O for a Thousand Tongues to Sing]]'', many others
* [[John Greenleaf Whittier]] : ''Dear Lord and Father of mankind''
Christian hymns, especially in more recent centuries, were often written in four-part vocal harmony. Today, except for choirs and more musically inclined congregations, hymns are typically sung in unison. In some cases complementary full settings for organ are also published, in others, organists and other accompiansts are expected to mentally transcribe the four-part vocal score for their instrument of choice.
===Hymn meters===
Following Isaac Watts it has been common for English hymnody to use a conventionally named [[meter (poetry)|poetic meters]] to pair lyrics with melodies. Those used the most often are:
*'''C.M.''' - Common Meter; a quatrain (four-line stanza) with alternating lines of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter, which rhymes in the second and fourth lines and sometimes in the first and third (8/6/8/6); also called Ballad Meter.
*'''C.P.M.''' - Common Particular Meter; a six-line stanza of which the first, second, fourth and fifth lines are iambic tetrameter, and the third and sixth lines are iambic trimeter (8/8/6/8/8/6).
*'''D.''' - Doubled; indicates an eight-line stanza instead of four, as in C.M.D. or D.C.M. - Common Meter Doubled or Doubled Common Meter, (8/6/8/6/8/6/8/6).
*'''H.M.''' - Hallelujah Meter; a six-line stanza of which the first four lines are trimeter and the last two are tetrameter, which rhymes most often in the second and fourth lines and the fifth and sixth lines (6/6/6/6/8/8).
*'''L.M.''' - Long Meter; a quatrain in iambic tetrameter, which rhymes in the second and fourth lines and often in the first and third (8/8/8/8).
*'''L.P.M.''' - Long Particular Meter; a six-line stanza of iambic tetrameter (8/8/8/8/8/8).
*'''M.T.''' (or '''12s.''') - Meter Twelves; a quatrain in anapestic hexameter (12/12/12/12).
*'''P.M.''' - may stand for Psalm Meter (more commonly known as 8s.7s), Particular Meter, or Peculiar Meter (each indicating poetry with its own peculiar, non-standard, meter).
*'''S.M.''' - Short Meter; iambic lines in the first, second, and fourth are in trimeter, and the third in tetrameter, which rhymes in the second and fourth lines and sometimes in the first and third (6/6/8/6).
*'''S.P.M.''' - Short Par |
ite social, psychological, practical, and other reasons for their beliefs.
Some people hold atheistic beliefs on the grounds that it is conducive towards living a better life, such as the belief that atheism is more ethical or useful than theism. Such atheists may hold that searching for explanations through natural science is more beneficial than doing it through faith.
Moral reasons for atheism include "cases where the requirement to do what is right favors being an atheist, or at the very least, not supporting certain sects or practices of theism.'''...''' Those who cannot accept the notion of an evil god must conclude that any immoral religion is necessarily false." Practical reasons for atheism include "reasons why accepting atheism over theism produces positive overall effects on a person's life." [http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/necessityofatheism.html]
Arguments that theism promotes immorality often center around the contention that a great deal of violence, including [[war]], has been brought about by religious beliefs and practices.
Some people are atheists at least partly because of growing up in an environment where atheism is relatively common, such as being raised by atheist parents.
<blockquote>"Many people are atheists not because they've reasoned things out like that, but because of the way they were brought up or educated, or because they have simply adopted the beliefs of the culture in which they grew up." [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/reasons/index.shtml BBC].</blockquote>
Most atheists contend that the same is true for many believers. For instance, most of the population in predominantly Jewish, Muslim, or Christian countries follow the religion that is more prevalent without much questioning. <!-- Cyclic logic. "More people believe in Christianity in places where more people believe in Christianity." -->
Christian psychologist Paul Vitz (1999) argues that, "Many people have psychological reasons for atheism" [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/arch/frear/vitz.htm] and "neurotic psychological barriers to belief in God are of great importance" [http://www.origins.org/articles/vitz_psychologyofatheism.html]. See Vitz (1999) and, for a similar view, Rizzuto (1998).
While it is common to point out the psychological reasons for not being an atheist, it is important to note that emotion and "feelings" play an important role for many people, not just theists. However, an understanding of the psychological origins for belief in a god may contribute to some atheists' lack of religious belief; see [[true believer syndrome]] and [[psychology of religion]].
===Historical reasons===
Without even taking into account scientific research, some atheists have come to the conclusion that the existence of one or more gods can be dismissed due to historical reasons. Looking at very old civilizations such as [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome]], people believed in multiple gods, linking each of them to an unexplained physical reality, such as [[Hades]] the god of the dead, [[Helios]] the god of the sun, [[Zeus]] the god of thunder and [[Poseidon]] the god of earthquakes. These people could not explain a phenomenon using a [[scientific theory]] and thus invented a god to explain it, from fear of the unexplained.
In our current times, all of these things, except one, have been explained scientifically. There are no significant group of people believing earthquakes are the direct action of a god shaking the [[Earth]]. The only item from the original gods that is still a near complete mystery is death, and as such only one god remains in most modern religions, and looking at the various religions, death (along with afterlife) is usually a central topic.
Looking at [[Historical persecution by Christians|historical records]], one can also see how the fears that people have of unexplained phenomenons have been used by various religious leaders both to persecute other religions, and to gain more believers. It seems likely to some atheists, that if the result of death could someday be explained beyond a reasonable doubt by science, the last god would no longer be worshiped by a majority of people, just as was the case for every previous mythical god.
==Criticisms of atheism==
{{main|Criticism of Atheism}}
Atheists and atheism have received much criticism and opposition, chiefly from theistic sources, throughout human history. Opponents of atheism have frequently associated atheism with immorality and evil, often characterizing it as a willful and malicious rejection of gods. This, in fact, is the original definition and sense of the word, but changing sensibilities and the normalization of nonreligious viewpoints have caused the term to lose its negative connotations, at least in secular cultures.
The most direct arguments against atheism are those in favor of the existence of deities, which would imply that atheism is simply untrue. For examples of this type of argument, see [[Existence of God#Arguments for the existence of God|Existence of God]].
Many common criticisms of atheism are rooted in a misunderstanding of what it is, or an incorrect assumption that all atheists are "strong" atheists who assert that there is no such thing as God anywhere in the universe. [[Ray Comfort]] exhibits this fallacy in "The Atheist Test" [http://ecclesia.org/truth/atheist.html]: ''"To say 'There is no God,' and to be correct in the statement, I must be omniscient. I must know how many hairs are upon every head, every thought of every human heart, every detail of history, every atom within every rock...nothing is hidden from my eyes...I know the intimate details of the secret love-life of the fleas on the back of the black cat of Napoleon's great-grandmother. To make the absolute statement 'There is no God.' I must have absolute knowledge that there isn't one.""
Other criticisms of atheism are based in conceptions that it leads to poor morals or ethics, that it is impossible for a person to truly have faith in nothing, or that lack of belief in a god is as much (or more) a leap of faith than belief in a god. These criticisms have been answered to the satisfaction of many atheists. [http://www.infidels.org/news/atheism/intro.html]
==See also==
* [[List of atheists]]
* [[Strong atheism]]
* [[Weak atheism]]
===Related concepts===
* [[Brights]]
* [[Criticism of Religion]]
* [[Existence of God]], [[Pascal's Wager]]
* [[Faith and rationality]], [[Religiousness and intelligence]]
* [[Freethinking]]
* [[Irreligion]]
* [[Nihilism]]
* [[Objectivism]]
* [[Pantheism]]
* [[Rationalism]]
* [[Religious freedom]] - freedom of religion ''and'' belief
* [[Scientific skepticism]]
* [[Secular Humanism]]
* [[Secularism]]
===Organizations===
* [[Camp Quest]]
* [[American Atheists]]
* [[Atheist Foundation of Australia]]
* [[Freedom From Religion Foundation]]
* [[Rationalist International]]
* [[Internet Infidels]]
* [[Fellowship of Reason]]
* [[Society of the Godless]]
===Satire===
* [[Apatheism]]
* [[Evil Atheist Conspiracy]]
* [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]]
* [[Invisible Pink Unicorn]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
=== Web sites ===
* Associations
**[http://www.atheistalliance.org/ Atheist Alliance International]
**[http://www.atheists.org/ American Atheists]
**[http://www.ffrf.org/ Freedom From Religion Foundation]
**[http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/ Atheist Foundation of Australia]
**[http://www.secularism.org.uk/ The National Secular Society (UK)]
**[http://www.the-brights.net/ The Brights]
**[http://idahoatheists.org/ Idaho Atheists]
* Web communities
**[http://www.frostcloud.com/forum/forumdisplay.php?f=9 FrostCloud.com] Discuss atheism.
**[http://www.atheistparents.org/ Atheist Parents Group]
**[http://www.booktalk.org BookTalk.org - the freethinker's book discussion community]
**[http://www.churchofreality.org/wisdom/ Church of Reality]
**[http://www.nobeliefs.com/ Freethinkers (NoBeliefs.com)]
**[http://www.positiveatheism.org/ Positive Atheism]
**[http://www.infidels.org/ The Secular Web]
**[http://www.atheistcoalition.com/ The Atheist Coalition]
**[http://www.faithless.org/ The Faithless Community]
**[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/eudaimonistseuphoria/ Eudaimonist's Euphoria]
* Internet radios
**[http://www.atheistnetwork.com/ Atheist Network (Internet Radio)]
**[http://www.infidelguy.com/index.php The Infidel Guy Radio Show]
**[http://www.freethoughtradio.com Freethought Radio] - Internet Radio Station
* Miscellaneous
**{{About.com|topic=Atheism}}
**[http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism Ebon Musings: The Atheism Pages]
**[http://www.exchristian.net/ ExChristian.net &mdash; Encouraging Ex-Christians]
**[http://www.godlessgeeks.com/LINKS/Debate.html Links related to atheism] by [[Atheists of Silicon Valley]]
**[http://www.cybamall.com/america/ Political and Atheist Thought]
**[http://www.camp-quest.com/ Camp Quest: A Secular Summer Camp for Children]
**[http://www.atheists.net/ Darwin Bedford, Atheist Messiah and Spiritual Reality Therapist]
**[http://www.religioustolerance.org/atheist.htm religioustolerance.org]
**http://www.qsmithwmu.com (Web site of [[Quentin Smith]], atheist philosopher)
**http://www.abstractatom.com (Web site of [[Jeffrey Grupp]], atheist philosopher)
=== Articles ===
* History of
**[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/religious_criticism.htm A Historical Outline of Modern Religious Criticism in Western Civilization] - History of atheistic thought going back to the 1500s
* Definitions
**[http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/A/atheism.html AllRefer atheism article] - brief discussion of polemical usage
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/ "Atheism and Agnosticism"] by [[John Smart]] for [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
**[http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/aboutus.htm "Definition of Atheism&qu |
ser=91&private=0&date=1087393206&formcall=edit&authid=6cf17d59bec57532a03e9ae26c3ee526&catview=0&sortview=0&formsearch=&all=1&menuprivate=0&total=94&page=1&char= Homepage]
*{{sv icon}} [http://www.indek.kth.se/indek/medarbetare/index.php?module=ContentExpress&func=display&ceid=11&bid=21&btitle=Personliga%20sidor&meid=19 Extended homepage]
[[Category:1950 births|Kaijser, Arne]]
[[Category:Living people|Kaijser, Arne]]
[[Category:Swedish scholars|Kaijser, Arne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Archipelago</title>
<id>911</id>
<revision>
<id>41732236</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:13:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ChongDae</username>
<id>243919</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''archipelago''' is a [[landform]] which consists of a chain or cluster of [[island|islands]]. Archipelagoes usually occur in the open sea; less commonly a large [[land mass]] may neighbour them. Archipelagoes are often [[volcano|volcanic]], forming along [[ocean ridge]]s or [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]], but there are many other processes involved in their construction, including [[erosion]] and [[deposition (geology)|deposition]].
The word comes from the [[Aegean Sea]] ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''&#945;&#961;&#967;&#953;&#960;&#941;&#955;&#945;&#947;&#959;&#962;'', [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Arcipelago''), which literally means "chief sea", from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''arkhi'' (leader) and ''pelagos'' ([[sea]]). The Aegean Sea is located between [[Greece]] in the west and [[Turkey]] in the east. In the Aegean, the [[Venice|Venetian]] [[Duchy of the Archipelago|Dukes of the Archipelago]] ruled from [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]], [[1210]]&ndash;[[1566]].
The [[Archipelago Exchange]] is a fully electronic [[stock exchange]] that agreed to merge with the [[New York Stock Exchange]] in April 2005 to form the for-profit NYSE Group.
==List of archipelagoes==
*[[ABC islands]]
*[[Aegean islands]]
**[[Cyclades]]
**[[Dodecanese]]
*[[Aleutian Islands]]
*[[Alexander Archipelago]]
*[[Andaman Islands]]
*[[Antilles]] (West Indies)
**[[Greater Antilles]]
***[[Islands of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican Islands]]
**[[Lesser Antilles]]
***[[Leeward Islands]]
***[[Windward Islands]]
*[[Azores]]
*[[Bahama Islands]]
**[[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
*[[Balearic Islands]]
*[[Baltic Sea]] archipelagoes
**[[Stockholm archipelago]]
**[[Archipelago_Sea|Turku archipelago]]
**[[Åland Islands]]
** Bermuda Islands
*[[Bight of Bonny]] islands
*[[British Isles]]
**[[Channel Islands]]
**[[Hebrides]]
**[[Isles of Scilly]]
**[[Orkney Islands]]
**[[Shetland Islands]]
*[[Canadian Arctic islands]]
**[[Belcher Islands]]
**[[Queen Elizabeth Islands]]
*[[Chagos Archipelago]]
*[[Channel Islands of California]]
*[[Chausey]]
*[[Chonos Archipelago]]
*[[Comoro Islands]]
*[[Diego Ramírez Islands]]
*[[Falkland Islands]] (Malvinas)
*[[Faroe Islands]]
*[[Florida Keys]]
*[[Fox Islands]]
*[[Franz Josef Land]]
*[[Frisian Islands]] (or Wadden Islands)
**[[East Frisian Islands]]
**[[North Frisian Islands]]
**[[West Frisian Islands]]
*[[Furneaux Group]]
*[[Galápagos Islands]] (Colón
*[[Gothenburg archipelago]]
*[[Guayaneco Archipelago]]
*[[Japanese Archipelago]]
*[[Juan Fernández Islands]]
*[[Kerguelen Islands]]
*[[Kermadec Islands]]
*[[Kornati]]
*[[Lakshadweep]] (Laccadives)
*[[Lofoten]]
*[[Los Roques]]
*[[Macaronesia]]
**[[Canary Islands]]
**[[Cape Verde Islands]]
***[[Barlavento]]
***[[Sotavento]]
**[[Madeira Islands]]
*[[Magdalen Islands]]
*[[Malay archipelago]] (the world's largest)
**[[Maluku Islands]]
**[[Philippine Islands]]
***[[Luzon#Island_Group_of_Luzon|Luzon Group]]
***[[Mindanao#Island_Group_of_Mindanao|Mindanao Group]]
****[[Sulu Archipelago]]
***[[Visayas]]
**[[Sunda Islands]]
***[[Greater Sunda Islands]]
***[[Lesser Sunda Islands]]
*[[Maldives]]
*[[Maltese islands]]
*[[Mascarene Islands]]
**[[Seychelles Islands]]
***[[Aldabra Group]]
***[[Amirante Islands]]
***[[Farquhar Group]]
*[[Melanesia]]
**[[Bismarck Archipelago]]
**[[Fiji Islands]]
**[[New Caledonia]] (Kanaky)
***[[Loyalty Islands]]
**[[Solomon Islands]]
**[[Vanuatu]] (New Hebrides)
*[[Mergui Archipelago]]
*[[Micronesia]]
**[[Caroline Islands]]
**[[Gilbert Islands]] (Kiribati)
**[[Line Islands]]
**[[Mariana Islands]]
**[[Marshall Islands]]
***[[Ralik Chain]]
***[[Ratak Chain]]
**[[Palau]]
**[[Phoenix Islands]]
*[[New Siberian Islands]]
*[[Nicobar Islands]]
*[[New England]] and [[New York]] islands ([[Manhattan]], [[City Island]], [[Long Island]], [[Rikers Island]], [[Roosevelt Island]], [[Staten Island]], [[Block Island]], [[Nantucket]], [[Martha's Vineyard]], [[Liberty Island]], [[Ellis Island]], [[Governors Island]], [[Long Beach Island]], [[Elizabeth Islands]])
*[[Novaya Zemlya]] islands
*[[Polynesia]]
**[[Cook Islands]] (Hervey Islands)
**[[French Polynesia]]
***[[Austral Islands]]
***[[Gambier Islands]]
***[[Marquesas]]
***[[Society Islands]]
****[[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Îles du vent]] (Windward Islands)
****[[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Îles sous le vent]] (Leeward Islands)
***[[Tuamotus]]
**[[Hawaiian Islands]] (Sandwich Islands)
**[[Islands of New Zealand|New Zealand]] islands (Aotearoa)
**[[Pitcairn Islands]]
**[[Samoan Islands]] (Navigators' Islands)
***[[American Samoa]] ([[Eastern Samoa]])
***[[Samoa]] ([[Western Samoa]])
**[[Tonga Islands]] (Friendly Islands)
**[[Tokelau]] (Union Islands)
**[[Tuvalu]] (Ellice Islands)
**[[Wallis and Futuna Islands]]
***[[Horne Islands]]
*[[Pontine Islands]]
*[[Queen Charlotte Islands]] (Haida Gwaii)
*[[Saint Helena]] islands
*[[San Juan Islands]]
*[[Severnaya Zemlya]]
*[[Solentiname Islands]]
*[[South China Sea Islands]]
**[[Paracel Islands]]
**[[Spratly Islands]]
*[[South Orkney Islands]]
*[[South Sandwich Islands]]
*[[South Shetland Islands]]
*[[Svalbard]]
*[[Thousand Islands]]
*[[Tierra del Fuego]]
*"[[The World (archipelago)|The World]]", an archipelago of [[artificial island]]s being constructed off [[Dubai]]
*[[Tuscan Archipelago]]
*[[Venice]] islands
*[[Virgin Islands]]
==See also==
*[[Island arc]]
*[[Geography]]
*[[Earth science]]
*[[Geomorphology]]
*[[Landform|List of landforms]]
*[[Plate tectonics]]
Lists of islands:
*[[List of islands of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Arctic Ocean]]
*[[List of islands of Asia]]
*[[List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean]]
*[[List of islands of Australia]]
*[[List of islands of Canada]]
*[[List of islands in the Caribbean]]
*[[List of islands in the Indian Ocean]]
*[[List of islands of New Zealand]]
*[[List of islands of North America]]
*[[Pacific Islands|List of islands in the Pacific]]
*[[List of islands of South America]]
*[[List of islands in the United States]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes| ]]
[[an:Archipielago]]
[[ar:أرخبيل]]
[[bg:Архипелаг]]
[[da:Arkipelag]]
[[de:Archipel]]
[[et:Saarestik]]
[[es:Archipiélago]]
[[fr:Archipel]]
[[gl:Arquipélago]]
[[io:Archipelago]]
[[id:Kepulauan]]
[[is:Eyjaklasi]]
[[it:Arcipelago]]
[[ko:군도]]
[[he:ארכיפלג]]
[[nl:Archipel]]
[[ja:列島]]
[[pl:Archipelag]]
[[pt:Arquipélago]]
[[ru:Архипелаг]]
[[fi:Saaristo]]
[[sv:Skärgård]]
[[tl:Kapuluan]]
[[zh:群島]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ann Arbor</title>
<id>912</id>
<revision>
<id>15899425</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-04T08:54:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.26.98.90</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*combined material into &quot;Ann Arbor, Michigan&quot; and redirected</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
</text>
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<page>
<title>Arthur Conan Doyle</title>
<id>913</id>
<revision>
<id>42026562</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:14:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Conan doyle.jpg|thumb|right|Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]
'''Sir Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle''' ([[May 22]] [[1859]] &ndash; [[July 7]] [[1930]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] author most famously known for his stories about the [[Detective fiction|detective]] [[Sherlock Holmes]], which are generally considered a major innovation in the field of [[crime fiction]]. He was a prolific writer whose other works include [[science fiction]] stories, [[historical novel]]s, plays and romances, poetry, and non-fiction.
Conan was originally a [[middle name]] but he used it as part of his surname in his later years.
==Life==
Arthur Conan Doyle was born in 1859 in [[Edinburgh]] to [[Charles Altamont Doyle|Charles]] and Mary Doyle. He was sent to the [[Jesuits|Jesuit]] [[preparatory school]] Stonyhurst at the age of nine, and by the time he left the school in [[1875]] he rejected [[Christianity]] to become an [[agnosticism|agnostic]]. From [[1876]] to [[1881]] he studied medicine at the [[University of Edinburgh]], including a period working in the town of [[Aston]] (now a district of [[Birmingham]]). Following his term at University he served as a ship's doctor on a voyage to the West [[Africa]]n coast, and then in [[1882]] he set up a practice in [[Plymouth]]. He achieved his doctorate in 1885. His medical practice was unsuccessful; while waiting for patients he began writing stories. His first literary experience came in ''Chambers's Edinburgh Journal'' before he was 20.
It was only after he subsequently moved his practice to [[Southsea]] that he began to indulge more extensively in literature. His first significant work was ''A Study in Scarlet'' which appeared in ''Beeton's Christmas Annual'' for [[1887]] and featured the first appearance of Sherlock Holmes who was modelled after Doyle's former University professor, [[Joseph Bell]]. Interestingly, [[R |
[[sv:Brevroman]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Evidence-Based Medicine</title>
<id>10012</id>
<revision>
<id>15907858</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Evidence-based medicine]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evidence-based medicine</title>
<id>10013</id>
<revision>
<id>40452664</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:40:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hugh2414</username>
<id>47936</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Categories of recommendations */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Evidence-based medicine''' (EBM) is a [[Medicine|medical]] movement based upon the application of the [[scientific method]] to medical practice, recognizing that many long-established medical [[tradition]]s are not yet subjected to adequate scientific scrutiny. According to the [http://www.cebm.net/ Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine], ''"Evidence-based medicine is the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients."''
==Overview==
Using techniques from [[science]], [[engineering]] and [[statistics]], such as [[meta-analysis]] of the existing literature, [[risk-benefit analysis]], and [[randomized controlled trial]]s, it aims for the ideal that all [[medical doctor|doctors]] and other [[healthcare]] professionals should make "conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence" in their everyday practice.
Evidence-based medicine categorizes different types of clinical evidence and ranks them according to the strength of their freedom from the various biases that beset medical research. For example, the strongest evidence for therapeutic interventions is provided by [[randomized trial|randomized]], [[double-blind]], [[placebo]]-controlled trials involving a homogeneous patient population and medical condition. In contrast, patient testimonials, case reports, and even expert opinion have little value as proof because of the placebo effect, the biases inherent in observation and reporting of cases, difficulties in ascertaining who is an expert, and more.
Practising evidence-based medicine implies not only clinical expertise, but expertise in retrieving, interpreting, and applying the results of scientific studies, and in communicating the risks and benefit of different courses of action to patients.
For all its problems, evidence-based medicine has very successfully demoted the ''ex cathedra'' statement of the "medical [[expert]]" to the least valid form of evidence, and all "experts" are now expected to be able to reference their pronouncements to the relevant literature. One way that physicians facilitate the integration of evidence-based medicine in daily practice is via participation in a [[journal club]].
==History==
Professor [[Archie Cochrane]] was a Scottish epidemiologist whose book ''Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services'' (1972) and subsequent advocacy caused increasing acceptance of the concepts behind evidence-based practice. Cochrane's work was honoured through the naming of centres of evidence-based medical research &mdash; ''Cochrane Centres'' &mdash; and an international organisation, the [[Cochrane Collaboration]]. The term "evidence-based medicine" first appeared in the medical literature in 1992 in a paper by Guyatt ''et al''. <ref name="Guyatt"> Guyatt G, Cairns J, Churchill D, et al. [&#8216;Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group&#8217;] "Evidence-based medicine. A new approach to teaching the practice of medicine." ''JAMA'' 1992;268:2420-5. PMID 1404801</ref>
==Qualification of evidence==
Systems to stratify evidence by quality have been developed, such as this one by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force:
*Level I: Evidence obtained from at least one properly designed randomized controlled trial.
*Level II-1: Evidence obtained from well-designed controlled trials without [[randomization]].
*Level II-2: Evidence obtained from well-designed [[cohort]] or [[case-control]] analytic studies, preferably from more than one center or research group.
*Level II-3: Evidence obtained from multiple time series with or without the intervention. Dramatic results in uncontrolled trials might also be regarded as this type of evidence.
*Level III: Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies, or reports of expert committees.
The UK National Health Service uses a similar system with categories labelled A, B, C, and D.
==Categories of recommendations==
In guidelines and other publications, recommendations are classified according to the level of evidence on which they are based. The U.S. Preventive Service Task Force uses:
*Level A: Recommendations are based on good and consistent scientific evidence.
*Level B: Recommendations are based on limited or inconsistent scientific evidence.
*Level C: Recommendations are based primarily on consensus and expert opinion.
This is a distinct and conscious improvement on older fashions in recommendation and the interpretation of recommendations where it was less clear which parts of a guideline were most firmly established.
The Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine uses these "grades of recommendations" according to the study designs and critical appraisal of prevention, diagnosis, prognosis, therapy, and harm studies:<ref name="OxfordCentreLevels"> Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine [http://www.cebm.net/levels_of_evidence.asp#levels Levels of Evidence and Grades of Recommendation]</ref>
*Level A: consistent Randomised Controlled Clinical Trial, Cohort Study, All or None, Clinical Decision Rule validated in different populations.
*Level B: consistent Retrospective Cohort, Exploratory Cohort, Ecological Study, Outcomes Research, Case-Control Study; or extrapolations from level A studies.
*Level C: Case-series Study or extrapolations from level B studies
*Level D: Expert opinion without explicit critical appraisal, or based on physiology, bench research or first principles
"Extrapolations" are where data is used in a situation which has potentially clinically important differences than the original study situation.
==Limitations of available evidence==
It is recognised that not all evidence is made accessible, that this can limit the effectiveness of any approach, and that effort to reduce various publication and retrieval biases is required.
Failure to publish negative trials is the most obvious gap, and moves to register all trials at the outset, and then to pursue their results are underway. Changes in publication methods, particularly related to the Web should reduce the difficulty of getting a paper on a trial that concludes it did not prove anything new, including its starting hypothesis, published.
Treatment effectiveness reported from clinical studies may be higher than that achieved in later routine clinical practice due to the closer patient monitoring during trials that leads to much higher compliance rates.<ref name="BandolierStatins2004"> "Patient Compliance with statins" ''[[Bandolier (journal)|Bandolier]] [http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/cardiac/patcomp.html Review] 2004</ref>
==Criticism of evidence-based medicine==
Critics of evidence-based medicine maintain that good evidence is often deficient in many areas, that lack of evidence and lack of benefit are not the same, and that the more data are pooled and aggregated, the more difficult it is to compare the patients in the studies with the patient in front of the doctor, i.e. EBM applies to populations, not necessarily to individuals. In ''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11728302&dopt=Abstract The limits of evidence-based medicine]'', Tonelli argues that "the knowledge gained from clinical research does not directly answer the primary clinical question of what is best for the patient at hand." Tonelli suggests that proponents of evidence-based medicine discount the value of clinical experience.
Although evidence-based medicine is quickly becoming the "[[gold standard (test)|gold standard]]" for clinical practice and treatment guidelines, there are a number of reasons why most current medical and surgical practices do not have a strong literature base supporting them. First, in some cases, conducting randomized controlled trials would be unethical--such as in open-heart surgery--although [[observational studies]] are designed to address these problems to some degree. Second, certain groups have been historically under-researched (women, racial minorities, people with many co-morbid diseases) and thus the literature is very sparse in areas that do not allow for generalizeability. Third, the types of trials considered 'gold standard' (i.e. randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trials) are very expensive and thus funding sources play a role in what gets investigated. For example, the government funds a large number of preventive medicine studies that endeavor to improve public health as a whole, while pharmaceutical companies fund studies intended to demonstrate the efficacy and safety of particular drugs. Fourth, the studies that are published in medical journals may not be representative of all the studies that are completed on a given topic (published and unpublished) or may be misleading due to conflicts of interest (i.e. publication bias).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract& |
unters another U-Boat in the middle of the [[North Atlantic]].]]
After 23 days, the storm finally ends. The U-96 spots a British [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]] [[convoy]] and launches a successful [[torpedo]] attack which sinks two ships. Two escorts - [[destroyer]]s - attack the submarine and use [[ASDIC]] detection. The Captain decides to dive to 230 metres, far beyond the safety threshold of 165 metres, but is still hit by the depth charges of the destroyers; the submarine buckles under this strain. The submarine takes heavy damage and is nearly crushed by the water pressure. Johann, the mechanic, panics and his [[mental health]], already somewhat precarious, breaks down. Despite heavy damage, the crew manages to patch up enough to resurface safely. They see the wreckage of the tankers and celebrate, but then everything turns into horror when they see burning British sailors dying in the sea. Fearing further torpedo attacks, the convoy had not stopped to pick up the survivors. The Captain orders to fall back and abandon the doomed sailors, unable to save them because of the possible presence of escorts.
The demoralized U-96 crew look forward to returning home to La Rochelle, but then the High Command orders that their new destination be [[La Spezia]] in [[Italy]], meaning the U-96 must cross the [[Gibraltar]] bottleneck, which is crawling with British ships. Obviously, this is a [[suicide]] mission.
The U-96 secretly meets a covert supply ship at night &mdash; a ship operating under the cover of a civilian liner &mdash; in neutral [[Vigo]] ([[Spain]]).
[[Image:DasBoot(Planes).jpg|thumb|233px|right|U-96 under aerial attack.]]
The Captain orders Lt. Werner and the LI to leave the ship to spare their lives, but this request is overruled by the High Command. In Gibraltar, the U-96 attempts to break through the British barrier, but it is shot at by British forces, forced to dive and - heavily damaged - starts to sink to its doom. The U-96 falls to 280 metres depth, but just before the hull breaks, the submarine lands on a sand bar on the ocean floor. Numerous hull breaches occur, water floods in with full force, and the battery cells and the water pumps are broken, but the crew manages to make repairs and to resurface just before they would have suffocated. Seriously damaged, the U-96 escapes in the safety of the dark to its base in La Rochelle.
The crew gets a heroes' welcome in La Rochelle, but during their reception, allied fighter planes bomb and strafe the facilities. Several crew members are killed, among them Johann and the 2WO. Werner finds the Captain, who sees his U-96 sinking to the dock's bottom. When the submarine disappears, the Captain dies.
===Reception===
[[Image:DasBoot(Crew).jpeg|thumb|233px|right|A light-hearted moment among the crew.]]
The action-packed, psychologically deep and emotionally draining movie drew high critical acclaim and is seen as the [[Films that have been considered the greatest ever|premier German movie]], along with [[Metropolis (movie)|''Metropolis'']] by [[Fritz Lang]] and ''[[Der blaue Engel]]'' with [[Marlene Dietrich]]. It is regarded as being virtually peerless in the [[subgenre]] of submarine movies, rivalled only by ''[[The Hunt for Red October]]'' (which arguably focuses more on action than on authenticity).
When the film premiered in Germany and in the US, audience members cheered at the pre-title card that stated that thousands of U-boat crews never returned from their mission to starve out England by disrupting shipping lanes in the North Atlantic. Reportedly, audience opinion changed dramatically by the end of the film after they had seen the horrors of living on a U-boat during WWII.
===Criticism===
[[Image:Dasboot056.jpeg|thumb|233px|right|U-96 in the Straits of Gibraltar.]]
*Critics remarked that the roles of [[Nazism]], [[Hitler]] and of the [[Holocaust]] were underplayed. In the movie, there is only one ardent Nazi in the crew of 40, namely the First Lieutenant (referred to comically in one scene as ''Unser [[Hitlerjugendführer]]'' or "Our Hitler Youth Leader"), and the rest of the crew remains either indifferent or openly anti-Nazi (the Captain). Some have stated that this scenario is quite unlikely as most U-Boat crews were selected from those naval service members with strong belief in the Nazi Party. At this stage in the war, morale was high and this degree of scepticism would have been unlikely.
*Buchheim himself was a U-boat correspondent. He has stated that following film scenes are unrealistic:
**In the film, an unidentified member of the engine-room crew throws an oil-stained towel into Lt. Werner's face to drive him out of the engine room. Being a Lieutenant, Werner is a person who commands special respect. In reality, the culprit would have been court-martialed and received a hefty sentence.
**After surviving a bombing, the crew celebrate loudly in their bunks, even with a sailor dressing up as a woman in a red-lit room. Buchheim has stated that this scene is flat out unrealistic.
**During patrols, Buchheim stated that the crew is behaving far too loudly. Especially the celebrations after getting a torpedo hit were ridiculed by him as unprofessional.
===Ethnic German accents===
The movie features characters who speak German with a regional [[dialect]]. Johann speaks with a strong accent from [[Austria]], Pilgrim talks with the dialect of [[Hamburg]] and Schwalle with the one found in [[Berlin]]. In addition, one sailor speaks with a heavy [[Bavarian]] dialect (the one who gets his crotch examined for [[lice]]).
===Music===
The characteristic lead melody of the soundtrack, written by composer [[Klaus Doldinger]], took on a life of its own after German [[rave]] producer [[Alex Christensen]] created a remixed rave-version under the title [[U96]] in [[1991]]. The song ''Das Boot'' later became an international hit.
{{Listen|filename=Klaus Doldinger - Das Boot excerpt.ogg|title=Klaus Doldinger - Das Boot excerpt|description=An excerpt from Klaus Doldinger's theme music to ''Das Boot''}}
==Versions==
[[Image:DasBoot(Depth Charge).jpeg|233px|right|thumb|DEPTH CHARGES!]]
===Versions (contents)===
Several versions of the film and video releases have been made:
The first version to be released was the theatrical 150-minute (2 1/2-hour) cut, released to theatres in [[Germany]] in [[1981]], and in the [[United States]] in [[1982]]. It was nominated for six [[Academy Award]]s ([[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Cinematography]], [[Academy Award for Directing|Directing]], [[Academy Award for Film Editing|Film Editing]], [[Academy Award for Sound|Sound]], [[Academy Award for Sound Editing|Sound Effects Editing]], and [[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Writing]]). Much more footage had been shot for the film than was shown in the theatrical version, and in [[1985]], a TV miniseries of ''Das Boot'' was shown on German television. Aired in three parts, it had a runtime of almost five hours. Petersen then oversaw the editing of six hours of film, from which was distilled ''Das Boot: The Director's Cut'', 216 minutes long (3 hours, 36 minutes), released in [[1997]], which combines the action sequences seen in the feature-length version with character-development scenes contained in the mini-series. In 2003, the [[Starz|Starz/Encore]] movie networks finally premiered the complete, uncut miniseries version on U.S. television. This version, running 293 minutes (4 hours, 53 minutes), without commercials, was released to DVD on [[June 1]], [[2004]], as ''Das Boot: The Original Uncut Version''.
=== Versions (dubbings and subtitles) ===
[[Image:DasBoot(Chief).jpeg|thumb|233px|right|Klaus Wennemann as the Chief Engineer.]]
* In the U.S. DVD there are no German subtitles. English-speaking students of German wishing to read the German while listening in German will need to obtain an appropriate European region code DVD (such as the French version "le bateau", with subtitles and soundtracks including American English) and a multiregion DVD player with PAL to NTSC conversion.
* Cabaret scene: In the U.S. DVD there is a minor background comment during the drunk hero captain's speech ("He'd better watch his mouth!") that is not subtitled in English with the German sound track but which is heard in the English dubbing.
* All of the main actors speak fluent English as well as German; when the film was dubbed into English, each actor recorded his own part. (The German version is actually dubbed as well; the film itself was shot "silent", since in any case the dialogue spoken on-set would have been drowned out by background noise during filming.)
==Special effects==
===Sets and models===
[[Image:DasBoot(Captain).jpeg|thumb|233px|right|Jürgen Prochnow as the Captain, stalking a British convoy.]]
Several different sets were used. Two full-size mock-ups of a [[Type VII U-boat|Type VIIC boat]] were built, one representing the portion above water for use in outdoor scenes, and the other a cylindrical tube on a motion mount for the interior scenes. The mock-ups were built according to U-boat plans found in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]'s [[Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago|Museum of Science and Industry]].
The outdoor mock-up was basically a shell propelled with a small engine, and stationed in [[La Rochelle]], [[France]] and has a history of its own. One morning the production crew walked out to where they kept it afloat and found it missing. Someone had forgotten to inform the crew that an American filmmaker had rented the mock-up for his own movie shooting in the area. This filmmaker was [[Steven Spielberg]] and the movie he was shooting was ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''. A few weeks later, during production, the mock-up cracked in a storm and sank, was recovered and patched to stand in for the final scenes.
A mock-up of a conning tower was placed in a water tank at the Bavaria Studios in [[ |
Kingdom|George V]]. After a General Election in December 1910, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords. The Prime Minister proposed, and the King agreed, that the House of Lords could be flooded by the creation of 500 new Liberal peers if it failed to pass the bill. (This was the same device used earlier to force the Upper House to consent to the passage of the Reform Act 1832.) The [[Parliament Act|Parliament Act 1911]] soon came into effect, destroying the House of Lords' power to reject most bills. Money Bills (bills that dealt solely with matters related to revenue and public expenditures, such as the Budget) could be delayed by the House of Lords for no more than one month, and most other bills for no more than three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years. The Parliament Act 1911 was not meant to be a permanent solution; rather, more comprehensive reforms were planned. Neither party, however, pursued the matter with much enthusiasm, and the House of Lords remained primarily hereditary. In [[1949]], the Parliament Act was slightly modified, so that the delaying power of the House of Lords with respect to most bills was reduced from three sessions or two years to two sessions or one year.
In [[1958]], the predominantly hereditary nature of the House of Lords was changed by the [[Life Peerages Act 1958]], which authorised the creation of life baronies, with no numerical limits. In [[1968]], the Labour Government of [[Harold Wilson]] attempted to reform the House of Lords by introducing a system under which hereditary peers would be allowed to remain in the House and take part in debate, but would be unable to vote. This plan, however, was defeated in the House of Commons by a combination of traditionalist Conservatives (such as [[Enoch Powell]]) and Labour members who advocated the outright abolition of the Upper House (such as [[Michael Foot]]). When Michael Foot attained the leadership of the Labour Party, abolition of the House of Lords became a part of the party's agenda; under [[Neil Kinnock]], however, a reformed Upper House was instead proposed. In the meantime, the creation of hereditary peerages (except for members of the Royal Family) has been arrested, with the exception of three creations during the administration of the Conservative [[Margaret Thatcher]] in the [[1980s]].
===Reform===
The Labour Party's return to power in [[1997]] under [[Tony Blair]] finally heralded the reform of the House of Lords. The Blair Government introduced legislation to remove all hereditary peers from the Upper House as the first step in Lords reform. As a part of a compromise, however, it agreed to permit 92 hereditary peers to remain until the reforms are complete. The hereditary peers were removed under the [[House of Lords Act 1999]] (see below for its provisions).
Since then however, reform has stalled. The [[Wakeham Commission]] proposed introducing a 20% elected element to the Lords, but this plan was widely criticised. A [[Joint Committee]] was established in 2001 to resolve the issue, but it reached no conclusion and instead gave Parliament seven options to choose from (fully appointed, 20% elected, 40% elected, 50% elected, 60% elected, 80%, and fully elected). In a confusing series of votes in February [[2003]] all of these options were defeated although the 80% elected option fell by just three votes. MPs favouring outright abolition voted against all the options. Another proposal was put forward by a group of MPs, proposing a 70% elected house, with most of the remainder appointed by a Commission to ensure a mix of skills, knowledge and experience. This proposal also did not reach the statute book. New peers, therefore, are only created by appointment to the house.
The Labour Party now intends to introduce reform early in the next Parliament, although they are yet to state exactly what system they will be proposing. It is understood, however, that they may be inclined to support [[Billy Bragg]]'s [[Secondary Mandate]] system. The Conservative Party favour an eighty per cent elected Second Chamber, while the Liberal Democrats are calling for a fully elected [[Senate]]. [[Elect the Lords]] is a cross-party campaign initiative that was set up to make the case for a predominantly elected Second Chamber in the run up to the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]]. The post-election [[Queen's Speech]] saw an announcement that the government "will bring forward proposals to continue the reform of the House of Lords" in the 2005/2006 legislative session.
''[[The Times]]'' reported on [[July 19]] [[2005]] that Labour Party proposals would see the House of Lords 80% elected and renamed the "Second Chamber."
The [[Lord Chancellor]] [[Lord Falconer]] has announced plans to develop a cross party consensus on House of Lords reform. A cross-party group of senior MPs ([[Ken Clarke]], [[Robin Cook]], [[Paul Tyler]], [[Tony Wright]] and [[George Young]]) published a report in 2005 proposing that 70% of members of the House of Lords should be elected by the [[single transferable vote]] system.
==Lords Spiritual==
Members of the House of Lords who sit by virtue of their ecclesiastical offices are known as Lords Spiritual. Formerly, the Lords Spiritual comprised a majority in the House of Lords, including the [[Church of England]]'s [[archbishop]]s, [[bishop|diocesan bishops]], [[abbot]]s, and [[priory|priors]]. After [[1539]], however, only the archbishops and bishops continued to attend, for the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] suppressed the positions of abbot and prior. In [[1642]], during the English Civil War, the Lords Spiritual were excluded altogether, but they returned under the [[Clergy Act 1661]]. The number of Lords Spiritual was further restricted by the [[Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847]], and by later acts. Now, there can be no more than 26 Lords Spiritual, always including the five most important prelates of the Church: the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], the [[Archbishop of York]], the [[Bishop of London]], the [[Bishop of Durham]], and the [[Bishop of Winchester]]. Membership of the House of Lords also extends to the 21 longest-serving other diocesan bishops of the Church of England.
The [[Church of Scotland]] is not represented by any Lords Spiritual; being a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] institution, it has no archbishops or bishops. The [[Church of Ireland]] did obtain representation in the House of Lords after the union of Ireland and Great Britain in 1801. Of the Church of Ireland's ecclesiastics, four (one archbishop and three bishops) were to sit at any one time, with the members rotating at the end of every parliamentary session (which normally lasted approximately one year). The Church of Ireland, however, was disestablished in [[1871]], and ceased to be represented by Lords Spiritual. The same is true for the [[Church in Wales]] which was disestablished in [[1920]]. The current Lords Spiritual, therefore, only represent the Church of England.
==Lords Temporal==
Since the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], the Lords Temporal have been the most numerous group in the House of Lords. Unlike the Lords Spiritual, they may be publicly partisan. Publicly non-partisan Lords are called [[cross-bencher]]s. Originally, the Lords Temporal included several hereditary peers (that is, those whose peerages may be inherited), who ranked variously as [[duke]]s, [[marquess]]es, [[earl]]s, [[viscount]]s, [[baron]]s, and [[Lord of Parliament|lords of Parliament]]. Such hereditary dignities are created by the Crown, in modern times on the advice of the Prime Minister of the day. Reforms enacted in 1999 (see above) caused several hundred hereditary peers to lose their seats in the House of Lords. The House of Lords Act 1999 provides that only 92 individuals may continue to sit in the Upper House by virtue of hereditary peerages. Two hereditary peers remain in the House of Lords because they hold hereditary offices connected with Parliament: the [[Earl Marshal#England|Earl Marshal]] and the [[Lord Great Chamberlain]]. Of the remaining 90 hereditary peers in the House of Lords, 15 are elected by the whole House. Seventy-five hereditary peers are chosen by fellow hereditaries in the House of Lords, grouped by party. The number of peers to be chosen by a party reflects the proportion of hereditary peers that belongs to that party (see [[#Current composition|current composition]] below). When an elected hereditary peer dies, a by-election is held, with a variant of the [[Alternative Vote]] system being used. If the recently deceased hereditary peer was elected by the whole House, then so is his or her replacement; a hereditary peer elected by a specific party is replaced by a vote of elected hereditary peers belonging to that party (whether elected as part of that party group or by the whole house).
The Lords Temporal also include the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, a group of individuals appointed to the House of Lords so that they may exercise its judicial functions. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, more commonly known as Law Lords, were first appointed under the [[Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876]]. They are selected by the Prime Minister, but are formally appointed by the Sovereign. A Lord of Appeal in Ordinary must retire at the age of 70, or, if his or her term is extended by the Government, at the age of 75; after reaching such an age, the Law Lord cannot hear any further legal cases. The number of Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (excluding those who are no longer able to hear cases due to age restrictions) is limited to twelve, but may be changed by [[statutory instrument]]. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary traditionally do not participate in political debates, so as to maintain judicial independence. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary hold seats the House of Lords for life, remaining members even after reaching the |
blin division, Connolly, as well as Clarke, MacDermott, Plunkett, and a young captain named [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]]. Meanwhile the 1st battalion under Commandant [[Ned Daly]] seized the [[Four Courts]] and areas to the northwest, the 2nd battalion under [[Thomas MacDonagh]] established itself at Jacob's Biscuit Factory, south of city center, in the east Commandant [[Eamon de Valera]] commanded the 3rd battalion at Boland's Bakery, and Ceannt's 4th battalion took the workhouse known as the South Dublin Union to the southwest. Members of the ICA also commandeered [[St. Stephen's Green]] and Dublin's [[City Hall]]. The breakdown of law and order that accompanied the rebellion was marked by widespread looting, as Dublin's slum population ransacked the city's shops. Ideological tensions came to the fore when a Volunteer officer gave an order to shoot looters, only to be angrily countermanded by James Connolly.
As MacNeill's countermand basically prevented all areas outside of Dublin from rising, the command of all active rebels fell under Connolly, who some say had the best tactical mind of the group. After being badly wounded, Connolly was still able to command by having himself moved around on a bed. (Although he had the dubious achievement of insisting that a [[capitalist]] government would never use artillery against their own property. It took the British less than 48 hours to prove him wrong.) The British commander, General Lowe, worked slowly, unsure of how many he was up against, and with only 1200 troops in the city. Lowe declared [[martial law]] and the British forces put their efforts into securing the approaches to Dublin Castle and isolating the headquarters at the GPO. Their main firepower was provided by the [[gunboat]] ''Helga'' and field artillery summoned from their garrison at [[Athlone]], positioned on the northside of the city at Prussia street, [[Phibsborough]] and Cabra road. These guns shelled large parts of the city throughout the week and burned much of it down. (The first building shelled was [[Liberty Hall]], which ironically had been abandoned since the beginning of the Rising.) Interestingly the Helga's guns had to stop firing as the elevation necessary to fire over the railway bridge meant that her shells were endangering the Vice-regal Lodge in Phoenix Park, (''Helga'' was later Given to the Government of the [[Irish Free State]] and was the first ship in its Navy)
Reinforcements were rushed to Dublin from England, along with a new commander, General Maxwell. Outnumbering the rebels with approximately 4500 British troops and 1000 [[Royal Irish Constabulary|RIC]] (the Volunteers are estimated at about 1000 and the ICA at under 250), they bypassed many of the defences, and isolated others to the extent that by the end of the week the only order they were able to receive was the order to surrender. The headquarters itself saw little real action. The heaviest fighting occurred at the rebel held positions around the [[Grand Canal]], which the British seemed to think they had to take to bring up troops who had landed in [[Dún Laoghaire]] port. The rebels held only a few of the bridges across the canal and the British might have availed themselves of any of the others and isolated the positions. In particular, the [[Sherwood Foresters]] regiment were repeatedly caught in a cross-fire trying to cross the canal at Mount Street. They suffered 240 killed and wounded. The rebel position at the South Dublin Union, further west along the canal, also inflicted heavy losses on British troops trying to advance towards Dublin Castle. [[Cathal Brugha]], a rebel officer distinguished himself in this action and was badly wounded. Shell fire and shortage of ammunition eventually forced the rebels to abandon these positions before the end of the week. The rebel position at [[St Stephen's Green]], held by the Citizen Army under [[Michael Mallin]], was made untenable after the British placed snipers and machine guns in the surrounding buildings. As a result, Mallin's men retreated to the [[Royal College of Surgeons]] building, where they held out until they received orders to surrender.
The volunteers' headquarters' most noteworthy moment was when Pearse read the [[Easter Proclamation|Proclamation of the Republic]] to a largely indifferent crowd outside the GPO. After that the rebels barricaded themselves within the post office and were soon shelled from afar, unable to return effective fire, until they were forced to abandon their headquarters when their position became untenable. On Saturday, [[April 29]], from the new headquarters on Moore Street, after realizing that all that could be achieved was further death, Pearse issued an order for all companies to surrender.
The rebels had little public support at the time, and were largely blamed for hundreds of people being killed and wounded, (mostly civilians caught in the crossfire). The total casualties for the weeks fighting came to over 1200. Sixty four rebel volunteers were killed and 16 more were executed after the Rising. The [[British Army]] suffered 140 killed and 318 wounded. The police ([[RIC]] and [[DMP]], suffered 17 deaths. At least 220 civilians were killed and 600 wounded. There may have been further civilian casualties which were never reported to the authorities. The only leader of the rising to die in the course of the hostilities themselves was [[The O'Rahilly]].
Some 3430 suspects were arrested and 15 leaders (including all seven signatories of the independence proclamation) were executed ([[May 3]]&ndash;[[May 12|12]]). Among them was the already mortally wounded Connolly, shot while tied to a chair because he was unable to stand. At the time the executions were demanded in motions passed in Irish local authorities and by many newspapers, including the [[Irish Independent]] in an editorial. A total of 1480 people were interned after the Rising. Prisoners being transported to internment camps in [[Wales]] were jeered and spat upon by angry Dubliners.
===The Rising outside Dublin===
Irish Volunteer units turned out for the Rising in several places outside of Dublin, but due to Eoin McNeil's countermanding order, most of them returned home without fighting. Several companies were mobilised in [[Tyrone]] and 132 men on the [[Falls Road]] in [[Belfast]]. [[Liam Mellows]] led an abortive attack on Police station in [[Galway]] which was soon abandoned. [[Sean MacEntee]] and [[Louth]] Volunteers killed a policeman and a prison guard. In [[county Wexford]], the Volunteers took over [[Enniscorthy]] from Tuesday until Friday, before symbolically surrendering to the British Army at Vinegar Hill - site of a famous battle during the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798]]. Around 1000 Volunteers mustered in [[Cork]] on Easter Sunday, but they dispersed after receiving contradictory orders from Dublin.Only at [[Ashbourne]] in [[Meath]] was there real fighting, when Volunteers ambushed a police patrol, killing 8 and wounding 15.
==Infiltrating Sinn Féin==
The executions marked the beginning in a change in Irish opinion, much of which had until now seen the rebels as irresponsible adventurists whose actions were likely to harm the nationalist cause. As freed detainees reorganised the Republican forces, nationalist sentiment slowly began to swing behind the hitherto small monarchist [[Sinn Féin]] party, ironically not itself involved in the uprising, but which the British government and Irish media wrongly blamed for being behind the Rising. The surviving Rising leaders, under Eamon de Valera, infiltrated Sinn Féin and deposed its previous monarchist leadership under [[Arthur Griffith]], who had founded the party in 1905 to campaign for an [[Anglo-Irish]] dual [[monarchy]]. Sinn Féin and the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]] under [[John Redmond]] fought a series of inconclusive battles, with each winning [[by-elections]], until the [[Conscription Crisis of 1918 (Ireland)|Conscription Crisis of 1918]] (when Britain tried to force conscription on Ireland) swung public opinion behind Sinn Féin.
"What if the British had been lenient to the Irish rebel leaders?" is a question that still lends itself to lively debate [[fn|1]].
==1918 General Election==
The [[Irish (UK) general election, 1918|general elections]] to the [[British Parliament]] in December 1918 resulted in a Sinn Féin landslide in Ireland (many seats were uncontested), most of whose MPs gathered in Dublin to proclaim the [[Irish Republic]] ([[January 21]], [[1919]]) under the [[President of Dáil Éireann]], Eamon de Valera, who had escaped execution in 1916 through luck. (His physical location away from the other prisoners prevented his immediate execution, while his American citizenship led to a delay while the legal situation was clarified. By the time a decision was taken to execute him, and his name had risen to the top of the executions list, ''all'' executions had been halted.)
==Legacy of the Rising==
Critics of the Rising have pointed to the fact that the Rising is generally seen as having been doomed to military defeat from the outset, and to have been understood as such by at least some of its leaders. Such critics have therefore seen in it elements of a "blood sacrifice" in line with some of the romantically-inclined Pearse's writings. Though the violent precursor to Irish statehood, it did nothing to reassure Irish unionists nor alleviate the demand to partition [[Ulster]].
Nationalist views of the Rising have stressed the role of the Rising in stimulating latent sentiment towards Irish independence. On this view the momentous events of 1918-22 are directly attributable to the revitalisation of the nationalist consciousness as a result of the Rising and its immediate aftermath.
The theory has also been mooted that the Rising would have given the Irish Republic a role in a peace conference following an anticipated German victory in |
loss, to the ALP. This was a major change in Territory politics, and in [[2005]] the ALP won a second landslide victory and in the process reduced the CLP to just four members in the Legislative Assembly.
==External links==
*[http://www.clp.org.au/ Country Liberal Party official site]
*[http://www.clp.org.au/about/origins%20history.htm Official history]
{{Australian political parties}}
[[Category:Liberal-conservative parties]]
[[Category:Political parties in Australia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canon law</title>
<id>6469</id>
<revision>
<id>41178417</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T15:56:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Workman</username>
<id>738547</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed broken link to Vatican website with 1983 Code of Canon Law</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{christianity}}
In [[Western society|Western culture]], '''canon law''' is the [[law]] of the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] and [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] churches. The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] concept of ''canon law'' is similar to but not identical to the more [[legislative power|legislative]] and [[court|juridical]] model of the West. In both traditions, a canon is a rule adopted by a [[ecumenical council|council]] (From [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kanon'' / κανών, for rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law.
In the official Anglican [[Church of England]], the [[ecclesiastical court]]s that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of certain church-related matters (e.g., discipline of clergy, alteration of church property, and issues related to churchyards). Their separate status dates back to the 12th century when the [[Normans]] split them off from the mixed secular/religious county and local courts used by the Saxons. In contrast to the other [[court]]s of England the law used in ecclesiastical matters is at least partially a [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system, not [[common law]], although heavily governed by parliamentary statutes. Since the [[Reformation]], ecclesiastical courts in England have been royal courts. The teaching of canon law at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge was abrogated by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]; thereafter practitioners in the [[ecclesiastical courts]] were trained in [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], receiving a [[Doctor of Civil Law]] (D.C.L.) degree from Oxford, or an LL.D. from Cambridge. Such lawyers (called "doctors" and "civilians") were centered at "[[Doctors' Commons|Doctors Commons]]," a few blocks south of [[St Paul's Cathedral]] in [[London]], where they monopolized [[probate]], matrimonial, and [[admiralty]] cases until their jurisdiction was removed to the [[common law]] courts in the mid-19th century. (Admiralty law was also based on civil law instead of common law, thus was handled by the civilians too.)
Other churches in the [[Anglican Communion]] around the world (e.g., the [[Episcopal Church in the United States]], and the [[Anglican Church of Canada]]) still function under their own private systems of canon law.
In the Roman Catholic church, the canons of the councils were supplemented with [[decretal|decretals]] of the [[Pope]]s, which were gathered together into collections such as the ''Liber Extra'' (1234), the ''Liber Sextus'' (1298) and the ''Clementines'' (1317).
In the [[20th century]], the Roman Catholic Church began attempting to [[codification|codify]] canon law, which two millennia of development had become a complex and difficult system of interpretation and cross-referencing. The [[1917 Code of Canon Law|first code of canon law]] was promulgated in [[1917]] and took force in 1918. A revised code, the [[1983 Code of Canon Law|Codex Iuris Canonici]] (Code of Canon Law, CIC) was promulgated in January [[1983]] and took effect in November 1983. Canon law within the Catholic Church is a fully developed legal system, with all the familiar trappings of courts (including lawyers); the highest degree of education in canon law is the J.C.D. (''Juris Canonici Doctor'', [[Doctor of Canon Law]]).
The [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] have a separate code of canon law. The first attempt to codify Eastern law under the name Codex Iuris Canonici Orientalis ([[Code of Eastern Canon Law]]) was partially completed when [[Pope Pius XII]] promulgated portions of the canons in [[1948]]. However, when the project neared completion in [[1959]], [[Pope John XXIII]] suspended work as the expected conciliar reforms would affect the code. The Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium ([[Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches]], CCEO) was promulgated in November [[1990]]. The majority of canons correspond closely to the Roman code, but incorporates certain differences in the hierarchy, administration and other areas.
The Orthodox Christian tradition is generally much less legalistic, and treats many of the canons more as guidelines than as absolute laws, adjusting them to cultural and other local circumstances. Some Orthodox canon scholars point out that, had the [[Ecumenical Councils]] (which deliberated in Greek) meant for the canons to be used as laws, they would have called them ''nomoi/&#957;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#953;'' (laws) rather than ''kanones/&#954;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#957;&#949;&#962;'' (standards).
Greek-speaking Orthodox have collected canons and commentary upon them in a work known as the ''Pedalion/&#928;&#949;&#948;&#945;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#957;'' (rudder--so called because it is meant to "steer" the Church). However, this is not a codification, but simply a compilation of one tradition of interpretation of the canons.
==See also==
*[[Probatio diabolica]]
*[[Gratian (jurist)]]
*[[Decretum Gratiani]]
==External links==
*[http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_INDEX.HTM Roman Catholic 1983 Code of Canon Law, IntraText edition with referenced concordance, hosted by the Vatican]
*[http://www.intratext.com/BCI/default.htm#DC Canon Law section (including Eastern Catholic Churches) of the IntraText Digital Library]
*[http://canonlaw.anglican.org/ "Resources for Anglican Canon Law"]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09056a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon Law]
[[Category:Canon law]]
[[cs:Kanonické právo]]
[[da:Kirkeret]]
[[de:Kanonisches Recht]]
[[el:Κανονικό Δίκαιο]]
[[es:Derecho canónico]]
[[fr:Droit canonique]]
[[ko:교회법]]
[[it:Diritto canonico]]
[[he:משפט קנוני]]
[[nl:Canoniek recht]]
[[pl:Prawo kanoniczne]]
[[pt:Direito canónico]]
[[sv:Kanonisk rätt]]</text>
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<title>Colleges and universities/ByCountry</title>
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<title>List of colleges and universities starting with A</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''A''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
==Aa-Ai==
#[[Aachen University of Technology]]
#[[Aalborg Business College]]
#[[Aalborg University]]
#[[Aarhus School of Business]]
#[[Aarhus Technical College]]
#[[Abant Izzet Baysal University]]
#[[Aberdeen University]]
#[[Abertay University]]
#[[Abilene Christian University]]
#[[Åbo Akademi University]]
#[[Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College]]
#[[Academy Canada]]
#[[Academy of Economics, Wroclaw]]
#[[Academy of Media Arts]]
#[[Academy of New Chur |
er]]'', which featured the hit song "[[Mr. Jones]]".
== Entertainment ==
* ''[[Two Black Crows]]'' — Long-running [[minstrel]] [[sketch comedy]] series by [[Moran and Mack]], [[United States|American]] [[vaudeville]] [[comedian]]s of the [[1920s]]
* [[Crow T. Robot]] — One of the [[robot]] characters in the ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' television series.
* Black Crow is the name of a character who has appeared several times in ''[[Spider-Man]]'' comic books.
* ''[[The Crow]]'' — A [[comic book]] by [[James O'Barr]] and film [[The Crow (movie)|of the same name]] starring [[Brandon Lee]]
== Synonyms ==
* "Crow" is also another word for [[mucus|snot]].
* In police slang, a "crow" is a [[terrorism|terrorist]].
* CROW is an acronym for Coupled-Resonator Optical Waveguide
== Miscellaneous ==
* ''[[Crow (poetry)|Crow]]'' — The literary work by [[Ted Hughes]]
* [[Crows (candy)|Crow]] — [[liquorice]] [[candy]]
* The ''[[Adelaide Crows|Crows]]'' - [[Australian rules football]] team from [[Adelaide, South Australia]] playing in the elite [[Australian Football League]].
* "Crows" is a nickname given to brothers of the [[Alpha Chi Rho]] Fraternity
{{disambig}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Coinage Metals</title>
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<title>Coin</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about monetary coins. For other meanings see: [[Coin (disambiguation)]]''
{{Numismatics}}
A '''coin''' is usually a piece of hard material, generally [[metal]] and usually in the shape of a [[disc]], which is issued by a government to be used as a form of [[money]]. Along with [[banknote]]s, coins make up the cash forms of all modern money systems. Coins are usually used for lower-valued units, and banknotes are usually used for the higher values; also, in most money systems, the highest value coin is worth less than the lowest-value note.
==Collecting coins==
See [[Coin collecting]] and [[Numismatics]] for more information on the collecting of coins, bank notes, [[token coins]] and [[Exonumia]].
==The value of a coin==
The market exchange value of a coin comes from its [[historic value]], and/or the [[intrinsic value]] of the component metal (for example [[gold coin]]s, [[silver coin]]s or [[platinum coin]]s).
However, in modern times, most coins are made of a [[base metal]] and their value comes strictly from their status as [[fiat money]]. This means that the value of the coin is decreed by government fiat rather than agreed by the people, which really makes it less a coin and more a [[Token (Numismatics)|token]] in the strictest sense.
To distinguish between these two types of coins, as well as from other forms of tokens which have been used as money, monetary scholars have defined three criteria that an object must meet to be a "true coin". These criteria are:
# It must be made of a valuable material, and trade for close to the market value of that material.
# It must be of a standardized weight and purity.
# It must be marked to identify the authority that guarantees the content.
By the above definition, the invention and first known usage of coins comes from the Kingdom of [[Lydia]] circa 643-630 B.C. Under three generations of Lydian kings, the money of Lydia gradually moved from being lumps of [[electrum]] (a naturally occurring alloy of silver and gold) to coins of a guaranteed weight and purity, marked with the seal of the King. True coins also developed very close to this time frame in both [[India]] and [[China]].
The [[history of coins]] is a long and interesting one. For example, in 1979 and 1980, a Chinese architectural team excavating the region surrounding the ancient kingdom of [[Loulan]] discovered some [[Mesolithic]] stone [[tools]] and '''coins''' (see [[Loulan#Modern Chinese Expeditions|Loulan: Modern Chinese Expeditions]]).
==Coin debasement==
[[image:US_price_history.png|frame|[[United States|US]] price levels, 1800&ndash;2000<br>Red line marks leaving silver standard]]
Throughout history, governments have been known to create more coinage than their supply of precious metals would allow. By replacing some fraction of a coin's precious metal content with a base metal (often [[copper]] or [[nickel]]), the intrinsic value of each individual coin was reduced (thereby ''"debasing"'' their money), allowing the coining authority to produce more coins than would otherwise be possible. [[Debasement]] of money almost always leads to price [[inflation]] unless [[price control]]s are also instituted by the governing authority. Some consider a classic example of this phenomenon to be the behavior of price levels in the [[United States]] since [[1964]] (the last year circulating [[United States Coin]]s were minted of 90 percent silver). It should be remembered, however, that for most of the era of U.S. silver coinage, such coins were actually fiat money, because the value of silver was relatively low. For example, in 1960, the silver in a dime was worth less than four cents. It also should not be inferred that such debasement and inflation were unique to the U.S. Virtually every other country debased their coinage too. The United Kingdom saw similar inflation during the same era. What is unique to the United States, among the developed countries, is that the U.S. has never revised its coinage system to accommodate this inflation, and as a result, coins in America today are scarcely regarded as "money" in any practical sense. Increasingly common are coin counting machines which charge money to consumers for converting their "coins" into "cash".
==Features of modern coinage==
The milled, or reeded, edges still found on many coins were originally designed to show that none of the valuable metal had been shaved off the coin. Prior to the use of milled edges, circulating coins suffered from "shaving," a common problem where unscrupulous persons would shave a small amount of precious metal from the edge of a circulating coin. Circulating unmilled British [[sterling silver]] coins were known to be shaved to almost half of their minted weight. This form of debasement in [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor]] England led to the formulation of [[Gresham's Law]]. The monarch would have to periodically recall, paying only bullion value of the silver, and re-mint circulating coins.
Traditionally the side of a coin carrying a bust of a monarch or other authority, or a [[national emblem]], is called the ''obverse'', or colloquially ''heads''. The back side is called the ''reverse'', or colloquially ''tails''. However, the rule is violated in some cases. [http://www.ucalgary.ca/~cns/euro.html] Another rule is that the side carrying the year of [[mint (coin)|mint]]ing is the obverse, although most [[Canada|Canadian]] coins, and all [[Japan]]ese coins, are an exception.
The orientation of the obverse with respect to the reverse differs between countries. Some coins have [[coin orientation]], where the coin must be flipped vertically to see the other side; other coins, such as British coins, have [[medallic orientation]], where the coin must be flipped horizontally to see the other side.
Coins that are not round (British [[British Fifty Pence coin|50 pence]] for example) usually have an odd number of sides, with the edges rounded off. This is so that the coin has a [[Curve of constant width|constant diameter]], and therefore will be recognised by machines whichever way it is inserted. If a coin had an even number of sides this would not be true. Some older such designs remain, such as the [[dodecagon|12-sided]] [[Australian dollar|Australian 50 cent coin]].
Coins are popularly used as a sort of two-sided [[dice|die]]; in order to choose between two options with a random possibility, one choice will be labeled "heads" and the other "tails," and a coin will be flipped or "tossed" to see whether the heads or tails side comes up on top. See [[Bernoulli trial]]; a fair coin is defined to have the probability of heads (in the parlance of Bernoulli trials, a "success") of exactly 0.5. A widely publicized example of an asymmetrical coin is the [[Belgian euro coins|Belgian one euro coin]] [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn1748]. See also [[coin flipping]].
Coins are sometimes falsified to make one side weigh more. Such a coin is often said to be "weighted."
Some coins, called [[Bracteate|bracteates]], are so thin they can only be struck on one side.
Bi-metallic coins are used for comemorative purposes and in the 1990s,France used a tri-metallic coin.
Coins with guitar shapes were issued in Somalia this year.
Poland issued a fan-shaped 10 zloty coin but the oddest coin ever was the 2002 Nauru,Europe-shaped coin.
==See also==
{{commonscat|Coins}}
*[[Bracteate]]
*[[Numismatics]]
*[[Banknote]]
*[[Coin collecting]]
*[[Coinage Metals]]
*[[Counterfeit]]
*[[Currency]]
*[[Euro coins]]
*[[Roman currency]]
*[[List of coins]]
*[[Greek coinage]]
==External links==
* [http://www.goldeneaglecoin.com/ Current US Coin Prices]
*[http://www.heritagecoin.com/features/numisarticles.php?id=96 The Numismatic Frontier] article surveying the variety of coins in the world.
*[http://www.coinagent.com/ Coi |
the [[Antarctic Circumpolar Wave]], a periodic oscillation that affects the climate of much of the southern hemisphere. Another is the [[Antarctic Oscillation]], which involves changes in the location and strength of Antarctic winds. Trends in the Antarctic Oscillation have been hypothesized to account for an increase in the transport of the Circumpolar Current over the past two decades.
== References ==
Orsi, A.H., T. Whitworth and W.D. Nowling, 1995, On the meridional extent and fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, Deep Sea Research, Series I, 42, 641-673.
== External links ==
* http://www.literaturecollection.com/a/london/149/
* http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/chapter13/chapter13_04.htm
[[Category:Ocean currents]]
[[Category:Geography of Antarctica]]
[[de:Antarktischer Zirkumpolarstrom]]
[[it:Corrente Circumpolare Antartica]]
[[ru:Антарктическое циркумполярное течение]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Arbor Day</title>
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<comment>Arbor Day in China</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Arbor Day''' is an [[United States|American]] [[holiday]] that encourages the planting and care of [[tree]]s. In China, it also commemorates the passing of Dr. [[Sun Yat-sen]].
==Observance==
Arbor Day occurs in the [[United States]] every year on the last Friday in April. The customary observance is to plant a tree, but it is not a public holiday and is no longer widely observed in [[United States|America]] (except in [[Nebraska]], where it is a public holiday); in other states, it has been displaced by the emphasis on [[Earth Day]].
Similar holidays exist worldwide, some going by the same name, as in [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]], and spelt '''Arbour Day'''.
==Quotes==
:''Other holidays repose upon the past; Arbor Day proposes for the future.''
:::&mdash; J. Sterling Morton.
:''Each generation takes the Earth as trustees. We ought to bequeath to posterity as many forests and orchards as we have exhausted and consumed.''
:::&mdash; J. Sterling Morton, 1887.
==History==
Arbor Day was established by [[J. Sterling Morton]] of [[Nebraska City, Nebraska]] in [[1872]].
J. Sterling Morton and his wife moved from [[Detroit, Michigan]] to the [[Nebraska Territory]] in [[1854]], where he was the editor of Nebraska's first newspaper. His influence as a journalist led to his involvement in politics, and he became a promoter of the settlement of Nebraska. The lack of trees, however, was an obstacle.
The [[Great Plains]] had been described as the ''"[[Great American Desert]]."'' The [[tallgrass prairie]] that covered much of Nebraska at that time could provide rich farmland, but without wood for building houses or for fuel to heat homes, few found it convenient to settle there. Even the allotment of free land by the [[Homestead Act]] failed to entice sufficient numbers of families to relocate to [[Nebraska]].
[[J. Sterling Morton|Morton]] proposed Arbor Day as a tree planting holiday in 1872 at a meeting of the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture. On the first Arbor Day, prizes were offered to counties and to individuals for properly planting the largest number of trees. It was claimed that more than 1 million trees were planted in Nebraska on that day.
During the course of the 1870s, several other states passed legislation to observe Arbor Day. Schools began to adopt the tradition beginning in 1882. By 1894, Arbor Day was celebrated in each state of the [[United States]].
==Memorial parks==
Morton's home in Nebraska City, [[Arbor Lodge]], is a state historical park, which includes an [[arboretum]] and extensive landscaped grounds. Adjacent to the public park, Morton's farm, now called '''Arbor Day Farm''', is run for the benefit of the '''National Arbor Day Foundation'''.
==Arbor Day in China==
Arbor Day (植樹節) is a [[Holidays in the Republic of China|public holiday]] in the [[Republic of China]] on [[March 12]]. It commemorates the passing of Dr. [[Sun Yat-sen]], the [[Father of the Nation]], in [[1925]].
== See also ==
* [[Earth Day]]
* [[Oak Apple Day]]
* [[Timeline of environmental events]]
== External links ==
* [http://arbor-day.net/ Arbor-day.net]
* [http://www.arborday.org/arborday/arborDayDatesinternational.cfm International Arbor Days]
* [http://www.arborday.org National Arbor Day Foundation]
* [http://www.arborday.org/arborday/arbordaydates.cfm State Arbor Days and state trees]
[[Category:Holidays of the United States]]
[[Category:Days for environmentalism]]
[[Category:History of Nebraska]]
[[ar:يوم الشجرة]]
[[de:Tag des Baumes]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Alfred Ayer</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
<!-- Philosopher Category -->
region = Western Philosophers |
era = 20th-century philosophy |
color = #B0C4DE |
<!-- Image and Caption -->
image_name = AlfredJulesAyer.jpg |
image_caption = |
<!-- Information -->
name = [[Alfred Jules Ayer]] |
birth = [[October 29]], [[1910]] |
death = [[June 27]], [[1989]] |
school_tradition = [[Analytic philosophy|Analytic]] |
main_interests = [[Philosophy of language|Language]], [[Epistemology]], [[Ethics]], [[Meaning]] |
influences = [[Vienna Circle]], [[Karl Popper|Popper]], [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] |
influenced = [[R. M. Hare]]|
notable_ideas = [[Logical positivism]], [[verification principle]], [[emotivist ethics]] |
}}
:''"Ayer" redirects here. For the town in [[Massachusetts]], see [[Ayer, Massachusetts]].''
'''Sir Alfred Jules Ayer''' ([[October 29]], [[1910]] &ndash; [[June 27]], [[1989]]), better known as '''A. J. Ayer''' (or Freddie by his friends), was a British philosopher known for his promotion of [[logical positivism]], particularly in his books ''[[Language, Truth and Logic]]'' (1936) and ''The Problem of Knowledge'' (1956).
Ayer was the Grote Professor of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic at the [[University College London]] from 1946 until 1959, when he became [[Wykeham Professor]] of Logic at the [[University of Oxford]]. He was knighted in 1970.
==Life==
Ayer received an education in the humanities at [[Eton College]], and served in the British military during [[World War II]], working in military intelligence for a time. He was a noted social mixer and womanizer, and was married four times, including to Dee Wells and Vanessa Lawson (nee Salmon). Reputedly he liked dancing and attending the clubs in [[London]].
He was a friend of [[Isaiah Berlin]].
Ayer was an avowed atheist, and followed in the footsteps of [[Bertrand Russell]] by debating with the Jesuit scholar [[Frederick Copleston]] on the topic of religion.
Ayer was closely associated with the British [[secular humanism|humanist]] movement. He was an Honorary Associate of the [[Rationalist Press Association]] from 1947 until his death. In 1965, he became the first president of the Agnostics' Adoption Society and in the same year succeeded [[Julian Huxley]] as president of the [[British Humanist Association]], a post he held until 1970. In 1968 he edited "The Humanist Outlook", a collection of essays on the meaning of humanism.
He taught or lectured several times in the [[United States]], including serving as a visiting professor at [[Bard College]] in the fall of 1987. At a party that same year held by fashion designer [[Fernando Sanchez]], Ayer, then 77, confronted [[Mike Tyson]] harassing [[Naomi Campbell]]. When Ayer demanded that Tyson stop, the boxer said: "Do you know who the fuck I am? I'm the heavyweight champion of the world," to which Ayer replied: "And I am the former Wykeham Professor of Logic. We are both pre-eminent in our field. I suggest that we talk about this like rational men" (Rogers 1999:344).
Shortly before his death in 1989 he received publicity after having an unusual [[near-death experience]], which some erroneously interpreted as a move away from his lifelong and famous [[religious skepticism]].
==Works==
In some ways, Ayer was the philosophical successor to [[Bertrand Russell]], and he wrote two books on the philosopher: ''Russell and Moore: The Analytic Heritage'' (1971) and ''Russell'' (1972). He also wrote an introductory book on the philosophy of [[David Hume]].
Ayer is perhaps best known for his [[verification principle]], as presented in "[[Language, Truth, and Logic]]" (1936), according to which a sentence is meaningful only if it has verifiable empirical import. He started work on the book at the age of 24 and it was published when he was 26. Ayer's philosophical ideas were deeply influenced by those of the [[Vienna Circle]]. His clear, vibrant and polemical exposition of them makes [[Language, Truth and Logic]] essential reading on the tenets of [[logical positivism]] -- the book is regarded as a classic of 20th century philosophy, and is widely read in philosophy courses around the world.
In 1972-73 Ayer gave the [[Gifford Lectures]] at [[St. Andrews University]], later published as ''The Central Questions of Philosophy''. He still believed in the viewpoint he shared with the logical positivists: that large parts of what was traditionally called "philosophy" - including the whole of [[metaphysics]], [[theology]] and [[aesthetics]] - |
sh town was besieged or occupied. During the war there were three capital cities of belligerent European countries that were not occupied by force at some stage: [[London]], [[Moscow]] and [[Helsinki]]. Ultimately, Finland was successful in retaining independence, [[parliamentary democracy]] and [[market economy]].
After the war, Finland preserved her independence while adjusting [[Foreign relations of Finland|her foreign policy]] to avoid offence to the USSR, now the world's second [[superpower]], a concession which the Soviet government reciprocated by surrendering part of its gains from the postwar settlement and refraining from too obvious intrusions in Finland's domestic affairs. Finland also signed a pact of co-operation and mutual assistance that guaranteed that in the event of a war between the western powers and the Soviet Union, Finland would defend her territory and airspace against the western powers. To [[Moscow]], an independent Finland linked to her by a cooperation treaty was seemingly a price worth paying for keeping Sweden formally neutral in the [[Cold War]], a ''quid pro quo'' that for forty years safeguarded wider Soviet strategic interests in the region.
== Battles and operations==
* [[Operation Silberfuchs]] ([[1941]])
* [[Battle of Tali-Ihantala]] ([[1944]])
== See also ==
* [[British military history]]
* [[Co-belligerence]]
* [[Finlandization]]
* [[Finnish Waffen SS volunteers]]
* [[History of Finland]]
* [[History of Russia]]
* [[List of Finnish corps in the Continuation War]]
* [[List of Finnish divisions in the Continuation War]]
* [[List of Finnish wars]]
* [[Lotta Svärd]]
* [[Paasikivi doctrine]]
* [[Paasikivi-Kekkonen Line]]
* [[Salpalinja]]
* [[Volkhov Front]]
*[[Luftwaffe Nortern(Artic)detachment(Luftflotte 5)(Finland-Norway)]]
== References ==
* {{cite book
| author = Jokipii, Mauno
| year = [[1987]]
| title = Jatkosodan synty
| publisher = [[Otava]]
| id = ISBN 951-1-08799-1
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Seppinen, Ilkka
| year = [[1983]]
| title = Suomen Ulkomaankaupan ehdot 1939-1944
| publisher =
| id = ISBN 951-9254-48-X
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Platonov, S.P. (editor)
| year = [[1964]]
| title = Битва за Ленинград
| publisher = Voenizdat Ministerstva oborony SSSR
| id =
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Maanpuolustuskorkeakoulun Historian laitos (editor)
| year = [[1994]]
| title = Jatkosodan historia 1-6
| publisher = [[WSOY]]
| id =
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Leskinen, Jari & Juutilainen, Antti (editors)
| year = [[2005]]
| title = Jatkosodan pikkujättiläinen
| publisher = [[WSOY]]
| id = ISBN 951-0-28690-7
}}
{{WWIITheatre}}
[[Category:Continuation War| ]]
[[cs:Pokračovací válka]]
[[de:Fortsetzungskrieg]]
[[fi:Jatkosota]]
[[ja:継続戦争]]
[[ko:제2차 소련-핀란드 전쟁]]
[[nl:Vervolgoorlog]]
[[nn:Finske framhaldskrigen]]
[[no:Den finske fortsettelseskrigen]]
[[pl:Wojna radziecko-fińska 1941-1944]]
[[ru:Война-продолжение]]
[[sv:Finska fortsättningskriget]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese remainder theorem</title>
<id>7713</id>
<revision>
<id>41797830</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:45:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<comment>n_i not necessary positive</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Several related results in [[number theory]] and [[abstract algebra]] are known under the name '''''Chinese remainder theorem'''''.
== Simultaneous congruences of integers ==
The original form of the theorem, contained in a [[third-century]] book by [[China|Chinese]] mathematician [[Sun Tzu (mathematician)|Sun Tzu]] and later republished in a [[1247]] book by [[Qin Jiushao]], is a statement about simultaneous congruences (see [[modular arithmetic]]). Suppose ''n''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''n''<sub>''k''</sub> are [[integer|integers]] which are pairwise [[coprime]] (meaning [[greatest common divisor|gcd]]
(''n''<sub>''i''</sub>, ''n''<sub>''j''</sub>) = 1 whenever ''i'' &ne; ''j''). Then, for any given integers ''a''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''a''<sub>''k''</sub>, there exists an integer ''x'' solving the system of simultaneous congruences
:<math>x \equiv a_i \pmod{n_i} \quad\mathrm{for}\; i = 1, \ldots, k.</math>
Furthermore, all solutions ''x'' to this system are congruent modulo the product ''n'' = ''n''<sub>1</sub>...''n''<sub>''k''</sub>.
A solution ''x'' can be found as follows. For each ''i'' the integers ''n<sub>i</sub>'' and ''n''/''n<sub>i</sub>'' are coprime, and using the [[extended Euclidean algorithm]] we can find integers ''r'' and ''s'' such that ''r n<sub>i</sub>'' + ''s'' ''n''/''n<sub>i</sub>'' = 1. If we set ''e<sub>i</sub>'' = ''s'' ''n''/''n<sub>i</sub>'', then we have
:<math>e_i \equiv 1 \pmod{n_i} \quad\mathrm{and}\quad
e_i \equiv 0 \pmod{n_j}</math>
for ''j'' &ne; ''i''.
One solution to the system of simultaneous congruences is therefore
:<math> x = \sum_{i=1}^k a_i e_i.\ </math>
For example, consider the problem of finding an integer ''x'' such that
:<math>x \equiv 2 \pmod{3}, </math>
:<math>x \equiv 3 \pmod{4}, </math>
:<math>x \equiv 2 \pmod{5}. </math>
Using the [[extended Euclidean algorithm]] for 3 and 4&times;5 = 20, we find (-13) &times; 3 + 2 &times; 20 = 1, i.e. ''e''<sub>1</sub> = 40. Using the Euclidean algorithm for 4 and 3&times;5 = 15, we get (-11) &times; 4 + 3 &times; 15 = 1. Hence, ''e''<sub>2</sub> = 45. Finally, using the Euclidean algorithm for 5 and 3&times;4 = 12, we get 5 &times; 5 + (-2) &times; 12 = 1, meaning ''e''<sub>3</sub> = -24. A solution ''x'' is therefore 2 &times; 40 + 3 &times; 45 + 2 &times; (-24) = 167. All other solutions are congruent to 167 modulo 60, which means that they are all congruent to 47 modulo 60.
Sometimes, the simultaneous congruences can be solved even if the <i>n<sub>i</sub></i>'s are not pairwise coprime. The precise criterion is as follows: a solution ''x'' exists if and only if ''a<sub>i</sub>'' &equiv; ''a<sub>j</sub>'' ('''mod''' gcd(''n<sub>i</sub>'', ''n<sub>j</sub>'')) for all ''i'' and ''j''. All solutions ''x'' are congruent modulo the [[least common multiple]] of the ''n<sub>i</sub>''.
The [[method of successive substitution]] can often yield solutions to simultaneous congruences, even when the moduli are not pairwise coprime.
== Statement for principal ideal domains ==
For a [[principal ideal domain]] ''R'' the Chinese remainder theorem takes the following form: If ''u''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''u<sub>k</sub>'' are elements of ''R'' which are pairwise coprime, and ''u'' denotes the product ''u''<sub>1</sub>...''u<sub>k</sub>'', then the [[quotient ring]] ''R/uR'' and the [[product of rings|product ring]] ''R/u''<sub>1</sub>''R'' x ... x ''R/u<sub>k</sub>R'' are isomorphic via the [[ring homomorphism|isomorphism]]
:<math>f : R/uR \rightarrow R/u_1R \times \cdots \times
R/u_k R </math>
such that
:<math>f(x +uR) = (x + u_1R, \ldots , x +u_kR) \quad\mbox{ for every } x\in R. </math>
The inverse isomorphism can be constructed as follows. For each ''i'', the elements ''u<sub>i</sub>'' and ''u/u<sub>i</sub>'' are coprime, and therefore there exist elements ''r'' and ''s'' in ''R'' with
:<math>r u_i + s u/u_i = 1. </math>
Set ''e<sub>i</sub>'' = ''s u/u<sub>i</sub>''. Then the inverse of ''f'' is the map
:<math>g : R/u_1R \times \cdots \times R/u_kR
\rightarrow R/uR </math>
such that
:<math>g(a_1+u_1R,\ldots ,a_k+u_kR)=
\left( \sum_{i=1}^k a_i e_i \right) + uR \quad\mbox{ for all }a_1,\ldots,a_k\in R. </math>
Note that this statement is a straightforward generalization of the above theorem about integer congruences: the ring '''Z''' of [[integer]]s is a principal ideal domain, the [[surjective|surjectivity]] of the map ''f'' shows that every system of congruences of the form
:<math>x \equiv a_i \pmod{u_i} \quad\mathrm{for}\; i = 1, \ldots, k</math>
can be solved for ''x'', and the [[injective|injectivity]] of the map ''f'' shows that all the solutions ''x'' are congruent modulo ''u''.
== Statement for general rings ==
The general form of the Chinese remainder theorem, which implies all the statements given above, can be formulated for [[ring (algebra)|rings]] and (two-sided) [[ring ideal|ideals]]. If ''R'' is a ring and ''I''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''I<sub>k</sub>'' are two-sided ideals of ''R'' which are pairwise [[coprime]] (meaning that ''I<sub>i</sub>'' + ''I<sub>j</sub>'' = ''R'' whenever ''i'' &ne; ''j''), then the product ''I'' of these ideals is equal to their intersection, and the [[quotient ring]] ''R/I'' is isomorphic to the [[product of rings|product ring]] ''R''/''I''<sub>1</sub> x ''R''/''I''<sub>2</sub> x ... x ''R''/''I''<sub>''k''</sub> via the [[ring homomorphism|isomorphism]]
:<math>f : R/I \rightarrow R/I_1 \times \cdots \times R/I_k </math>
such that
:<math>f(x + I) = (x +I_1, \ldots , x+I_k) \quad\mbox{ for all } x\in R.</math>
== Applications ==
In the [[RSA|RSA algorithm]] calculations are made modulo <math>n</math>, where <math>n</math> is a product of two primes <math>p</math> and <math>q</math>. Common sizes for <math>n</math> are 1024, 2048 or 4096 [[bit]]s, making calculations very time-consuming. Using Chinese remaindering these calc |
old and silver were mined, along with the location of the miners’ shelters, wells, and the road network that linked the region with the mainland. Its originality can be seen in the map’s inscriptions, its precise orientation and the use of colour.
Ancient [[Greeks]] were the first people to adopt a scientific approach to mapping. They were excellent observers of natural phenomena. Observations of the sun, the moon, and the curvature of the earth were fundamental to the theoretical thinking of early [[Greek philosophers]], scientists, and geographers. The Greeks’ philosophical conception of the world and their growing knowledge in [[geography]] contributed to establishing the concept of mapmaking and to the development of cartographic techniques.
This chapter presents one of the most momentous periods in the history of cartography by illustrating the works of early Greek philosophers who pioneered the concept of mapping. It traces the evolution of Greek ideas concerning the geography of the earth and cartographic techniques of representing natural phenomena in a map form. In addition to an examination of reconstructed maps of the world as conceived by [[Anaximander of Miletus]], Hecataeus, [[Herodotus]], [[Eratosthenes]], and [[Ptolemy]], this paper also assesses the writings of early Greek poets who tried to give a written picture of the known world of the time. This section will hopefully allow the reader to comprehend the stages through which the Greeks developed their geographical ideas and cartographic knowledge; from blurry and obscure notions of [[Mediterranean]] mariners -- as related by [[Homer]] -- to more scientific and mathematical approach of Claudius Ptolemy’s geography.
In reviewing the literature of early geography and early conceptions of the earth, all sources lead to Homer , who is considered by many (Strabo, Kish and Dilke) as the founding father of Geography. Regardless of the doubts about Homer’s existence, one thing is certain he never was a mapmaker. The enclosed map (soon), which represents the conjectural view of the Homeric world was never created by him. It is an imaginary reconstruction of the world as Homer described it in his two poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is worth mentioning that each of these writings involves strong geographic symbolism. They can be seen as descriptive pictures of life and warfare in the Bronze Age and the illustrated plans of actual journeys. Thus, each one develops a philosophical view of the world, which makes it possible to show this information in the form of a map.
Additional written statements about ancient geography can be found in [[Hesiod]] poems, written probably during the [[7th century]] BCE
The first steps in the development of scientific thought in ancient Greece belonged to [[Ionians]] from their well-known city of [[Miletus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. Miletus was favourably placed to absorb aspects of Babylonian science and culture and to profit from the expanding commerce of the Mediterranean.
[[Thales]] of Miletus (c. [[6th century BCE|600 BCE]]) thought that the earth was a disk supported by water.
[[Anaximander]] of Miletus (c. 611 – 546 BCE) was a pupil of Thales. It has been said that he believed that the earth was a cylindrical form [http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancientimages/106A.GIF], like a stone pillar and suspended in space. The inhabited part of his world was a circular, disk-shaped, and presumably located on the upper surface of the cylinder.
Anaximander was the first ancient Greek to draw a map of the known world. It is for this reason that he is considered by many to be the first mapmaker (Dilke). A scarcity of archaeological and written evidence prevents us from giving any assessment of his map. What we can assume is that he portrayed land and sea in a map form. Unfortunately, any definite geographical knowledge that he included in his map is lost. What is certain is that 50 years after Anaximander’s alleged map, Hecataeus of Miletus (550 – 475 BC) produced another map [http://sophistikatedkids.com/turkic/btn_GeographyMaps/World%20according%20to%20Hecataeus%20(6%20th%20century%20BC).gif] that he claimed was an improved version of the map of his illustrious predecessor.
Another interesting figure in that era was [[Anaximenes]] of Miletus (6th century BCE), who studied under Anaximander. He rejected the views of his teacher regarding the shape of the earth and instead, he visualized the earth as a rectangular form supported by compressed air (Picture soon).
What is interesting here is that his incorrect idea about the shape of the world somehow persisted in the form of how the contemporary maps are presented today. Extend of the current maps are always kind of limited to this rectangular shape (i.e. border of the map [neatline], computer screen, or any document page).
Although, only a very limited portion of the Earth was known to these ancient Greeks, the shape of the Earth was always going to be of fundamental importance in world maps. For example, [[Pythagoras]] of Samos (c. 560 – 480 BCE) first speculated about the notion of a spherical earth with a central fire at its core. He is also credited with the introduction of a model that divides a spherical earth into five zones. One hot, two temperate, and two cold -- northern and southern. It seems likely that he illustrated his division in the form of a map, however, no evidence of this has survived to the present.
Whereas a number of previous philosophers assumed the earth to be spherical, [[Aristotle]] (384 – 322BCE) is the one to be credited with proving the earth’s sphericity. Those arguments can be summarized as follows:
[[Image:Al-Idrisi's world map.JPG|thumb|[[Muhammad al-Idrisi]]'s world map from 1154. Note that south is at the top of the map.]]
*The [[lunar eclipse]] is always circular.
*Ships seem to sink as they move away from view and pass the horizon.
*Some stars can only be seen from certain parts of the earth.
It is unclear if he ever produced a map of the world according to his specifications, but if he did we have yet to find it.
In [[288 BCE]], [[Aristarchus of Samos]] was the first to say that the [[sun]] was the center of universe (see [[heliocentric theory]]). Also [[Hipparchus]] (astronomer)
A vital contribution to mapping the reality of the world came with a scientific estimate of the circumference of the earth. This event has been described as the first scientific attempt to give geographical studies a mathematical basis. The man credited for this achievement was [[Eratosthenes]] (275-195 BCE). He was a devoted geographer who set out to reform and perfect the map of the world. Eratosthenes argued that accurate mapping, even if in two dimensions only, depends upon the establishment of an accurate linear measurements.
His great achievement in the field of cartography was the use of new techniques called (A) meridian -- his imaginary north/south line -- and (B) parallel -- his imaginary west/east line [http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancientimages/112B.jpg]. These axis lines were placed over the map of the earth with their origin in the city of Rhodes and divided the world into sectors. Then, Eratosthenes used these earth partitions to reference places on the map.
He provided the logical framework of reference for all future maps, which ensures that every city, area, and ocean is drawn in its proper place on the map -- one accurately located in relation to the other. Although not as precise as the latter, his earth partitions were the forerunners of parallels and meridians.
Eratosthenes’ map of the world was a very striking achievement and may be considered as the first scientific map. A map that laid the basis to produce accurate maps, which were implemented in the work of all later cartographers and geographers.
The accumulated cartographic achievements of the early Greeks and their predecessors that have been presented up to this point culminate with the contribution of the famous Greek scholar named Claudius [[Ptolemy]] (A.D. [[90]]-[[168]]). This pivotal figure in geography concluded that with the aid of astronomy and mathematics the earth could be mapped very accurately. Ptolemy revolutionized the depiction of the spherical earth on the map by using [[perspective projection]], and suggested precise methods for fixing the position of geographic features on its surface using [[coordinate system]] -- parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.[http://geology.cwru.edu/~huwig/catalog/slides/769.G.2.jpg]
His great work ''[[Geographia]]'' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy] comprises of eight books and by today’s standards, it would be called a geographic atlas. The form of his atlas and the maps themselves are the prototypes of modern mapmaking. And the listing of place-names, with the latitude and longitude of each place to guide the search, is not so different from the system employed by today’s user. Additional standard features on modern maps that are Ptolemaic in origin are: a scale that is used for precise interpretation of phenomena, conventional signs with legends, a table that contains supplemental information about the specific places on the map, and the practice of orienting maps so that North is at the top and East to the right of the map -- a universal custom today.
But for all his important innovations Ptolemy was not infallible. His most important error was a miscalculation of the circumference of the earth. He believed that [[Eurasia]] covered 180° of the globe, which convinced [[Christopher Columbus]] to sail across the Atlantic to look for a simpler and faster way to travel to India. Had Columbus known that the true figure was much greater, it is conceivable that he would never have set out on his momentous voyage.
It is undeniable that Ptolemy made a fundamental contribution to the development of cartography and proved to be a decisive influence on accurate mapmaking in the future. Hi |
om/ The Official Bruce Campbell Website]
* {{imdb name|id=0132257|name=Bruce Campbell}}
* [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=05/07/16/0721238&tid=186&tid=97&tid=133 Salon Interviews Bruce Campbell]
* [http://www.kittenpants.org/21_ray/bruce.asp Kittenpants.org interview]
* [http://www.thegate.ca/gallery/thumbnails.php?album=11 ''Make Love the Bruce Campbell Way''] - Book Signing Photo Gallery @ TheGATE.ca
* [http://www.sweatpantserection.com/bruce-campbell-interview.html Bruce Campbell Interview] (fan interview) <!--Note: this link is not porn-->
* [http://www.badmouth.net/interview-bruce-campbell-part-1-of-3/ Interview: Bruce Campbell] (Badmouth.net)
{{Evil Dead}}
[[Category:1958 births|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:Living people|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:American actors|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:SubGenii|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:Evil Dead|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:Evil Dead actors|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:Michigan State University alumni|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:B-movie actors|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:American film actors|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:American television actors|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:Spider-Man actors|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[de:Bruce Campbell]]
[[es:Bruce Campbell]]
[[fr:Bruce Campbell]]
[[fi:Bruce Campbell]]
[[sv:Bruce Campbell]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baron Aberdare</title>
<id>4671</id>
<revision>
<id>42086755</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:09:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Choess</username>
<id>245519</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>date</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The title of '''Baron Aberdare''', of Duffryn in the [[Glamorgan|County of Glamorgan]], was created in the [[Peerage of the United Kingdom]] on [[August 23]], [[1873]] for [[Henry Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare|Henry Bruce]], then [[Secretary of State for the Home Department|Home Secretary]].
==Barons Aberdare ([[1873]])==
*[[Henry Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare|Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare]] ([[1815]]&ndash;[[1895]])
*[[Henry Bruce, 2nd Baron Aberdare|Henry Campbell Bruce, 2nd Baron Aberdare]] ([[1851]]&ndash;[[1929]])
*[[Clarence Bruce, 3rd Baron Aberdare|Clarence Napier Bruce, 3rd Baron Aberdare]] ([[1885]]&ndash;[[1957]])
*[[Morys Bruce, 4th Baron Aberdare|Morys George Lyndhurst Bruce, 4th Baron Aberdare]] ([[1919]]&ndash;[[2005]]) (elected into House of Lords, 1999)
*[[Alastair Bruce, 5th Baron Aberdare|Alastair John Lyndhurst Bruce, 5th Baron Aberdare]] (b. [[1947]])
[[Category:Baronies|Aberdare]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bodhran</title>
<id>4672</id>
<revision>
<id>15902932</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-31T18:31:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.77.186.50</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bodhrán]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boy band</title>
<id>4673</id>
<revision>
<id>41825263</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:06:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sweetiepetie</username>
<id>634280</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''boyband''' ([[British English]]) - or '''boy band''' ([[American English]]) - is a style of [[pop group]] featuring between three and six young male [[singer]]s who are usually also [[dancer]]s. They also sing [[R&B]] songs as well and sometimes [[hip-hop]]. Often, they evolve out of church choral groups, or are put together by managers or producers who audition the groups for appearance, dancing, and singing ability, and often seen to be [[prefabricated]]. They are similar in concept to [[girl group]]s. However, even though the term is boyband, the ability to play instruments is not generally seen as a requirement, as the acts are basically a 'vocal harmony group'. Due to this and the fact that the acts are aimed at a '[[teenybopper]]' or '[[tween]]' audience the term has slight negative connotations in the serious rock press. This is why acts such as [[Pete Waterman]]'s [[One True Voice]] try not to be labeled with it.
==Definition==
Maurice Starr is usually credited with starting the trend, with his protégés [[New Kids On The Block]] (though the term 'boyband' did not occur till later in the 1990s). Starr's brainwave was to take the traditional template from the R&B genre (in this case his teenage band [[New Edition]]) and apply it to a pop genre. This formula was then in turn redefined by a number of European managers such as [[Nigel Martin-Smith]] and [[Louis Walsh]], till the UK pop marketplace was saturated with the genre.
Though the term is mostly associated with the 1990s onwards, antecedents exist throughout the history of pop music. [[The Temptations]], popular in the 1960s, may be considered a boyband, while [[The Monkees]] certainly were prefabricated, and Latin boy band [[Menudo]] was founded in 1977. Boybands often achieve great commercial success.
Equally important to the group's commercial success is the group's image, carefully controlled by managing all aspects of the group's dress, promotional materials (which are supplied to [[teen magazine]]s), and [[music video]]s, the most famous boy band manager being [[Lou Pearlman]]. Typically, each member of the group will have some distinguishing feature and be portrayed as having a particular personality stereotype, such as "the baby," "the bad boy," "the nice boy." Whilst managing the portrayal of popular musicians is as old as [[popular music]], the particular pigeonholing of boy band members is a defining characteristic of boy and girl bands.
In most cases, their music is written, arranged, and produced by a producer who works with the band at all times and controls the group's sound - if necessary, to the point of hiring [[session singers]] to record guide vocals for each member of the group to sing individually (if the members cannot harmonize together well). A typical boy band performance features elaborately [[choreography|choreographed]] dancing, with the members taking turns singing (or, sometimes, [[lip-sync]]ing, even some of Pearlman's band's have been known to) to pre-recorded vocals and music. More often than not, boy bands are disallowed from composing or producing their own material, unless the members lobby hard enough for creative control (e.g. [[The Monkees]] and [[*NSYNC]]).
Boy bands tend to be heavily criticized by certain musical press for appealing only to pubescent female teenagers and for emphasizing marketing and packaging over quality of music. Such views are reflected in the humorous definition in the [[Chambers Dictionary]]: "a pop group, targeting mainly the teenage market, composed of young males chosen because they look good and can dance and sometimes even sing". Some critics compare boy band output to the "machine-generated" popular music found in [[George Orwell]]'s novel, ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', noting that much of their music (as well as the bands' compositions) is extremely formulaic. Other critics point to boy bands (and related musical groups) as case studies in [[commercialism]] and [[postmodernism]], with little cultural content. Such criticisms can become extremely scathing:
::'' After scouring the country for five boys who could belt out tunes while doing the splits, (Lou Pearlman) assembled a clean-cut collection of effeminate white and Latino-looking boys, all pink cheeks and crew cuts with peroxided tips. Just like the Backstreet Boys and *NSYNC, there's the cute blond guy, one with curly hair, the dark one with big dimples, the guy with the funny facial hair and the less cute, but really sensitive, guy.''
::''Pearlman herded them into a tiny apartment, forcing these guys in their late teens and early 20s to share bedrooms (hey, less opportunity for illicit sexual activity -- at least with the opposite sex), and forbade them to stay out past midnight. He dressed them in coordinated red and silver "rave" outfits and spoon-fed them sugary-sweet lyrics like "Would I cross an ocean just to hold you ... Would I give up all I have to see you smile?" And then he set them loose on concert halls full of 12-year-old girls, who dutifully screamed their lungs out in a kind of mass orgasm fueled by all that scrubbed-clean testosterone.'' (Janelle Brown, "Sluts and Teddy Bears," Salon.com, 2001).
Though some fans are wildly supportive of the music, the commercial success of specific boy bands does not tend to last long. As the fans (mostly preteen girls) age and their musical tastes evolve, they tend to outgrow such groups' appeal. If success is sustained, often one or more members of the band will leave and seek a solo career (particularly if they have some songwriting ability), often with some success (for instance: [[Michael Nesmith]], [[Michael Jackson]], [[George Michael]], [[Robbie Williams]], [[Justin Timberlake]], [[Ronan Keating]], [[Ricky Martin]]).
==Famous boybands==
Even though the term 'boyband' as one word is a late 90s creation, here is a list of acts that have fitted the formula of the genre:
* [[112 (band)|112]] ([[United States]]) ([[1995]]-present)
* [[17:28 (musical group)|17:28]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[2Be3]] ([[France]])
* [[3rd Wish]] ([[United States]])
* [[3SL]] ''"Three Scott-Lee"'' ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[3T]] ([[United States]])
* [[4PM]] ([[United States]])
* [[5ive]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[1997]]-[[2001]])
* [[5566]] ([[Taiwan]])
* [[604 (musical group)|604]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[911 (musical group)|911]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[98 Degrees]] ([[United States]]) ([[1996]]-present)
* [[A1 (band)|a1]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[1999]]-[[2002]])
* [[The Akafellas]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[Another Level]] ([[United Kingdom |
ficial fight song "Ever True To Brown" was written by Donald Jackson (Class of 1909). The song is played by the Brown Band at varsity athletic events. The unofficial version is alternately played by the Band as well.
{|
! width="40" |
! align="left" width="225" | Traditional version
! align="left" width="300" | Unofficial version
|-
|
| valign="top" |
We are ever true to Brown,<br />
For we love our college dear,<br />
And wherever we may go,<br />
We are ready with a cheer,<br />
And the people always say,<br />
That you can't outshine Brown Men,<br />
With their Rah! Rah! Rah!<br />
And their Ki! Yi! Yi!<br />
And their B-R-O-double U-N!
| valign="top" |
We are ever true to Brown,<br />
For we love our college dear,<br />
And wherever we may go, (Where are we going?)<br />
We are ready with a beer,<br />
And the people always say, (What do they say?)<br />
That you can't outdrink Brown Men, (and Women!)<br />
With a scotch and rye,<br />
And a whiskey dry,<br />
And a B-O-U-R-B-O-N!<br />
|}
== Computing projects ==
Several projects of note involving hypertext and other forms of electronic text have been developed at Brown, including:
* [[BrainGate]]
* [[FRESS]]
* [[Hypertext Editing System]]
* [[Women Writers Project]]
In addition, the Computer Science department at Brown is home to [[Cave Automatic Virtual Environment|The CAVE]], part of the [[Thomas J. Watson, Sr. Center for Information Technology]]. This project is a complete virtual reality room, one of few in the world, and is used for everything from three-dimensional drawing classes to tours of the [[circulatory system]] for medical students.
== Notable alumni and faculty ==
''See [[List of Brown University people]].''
== Trivia ==
* The John Hay library contains three books bound in human skin: a 1568 edition of [[Andreas Vesalius|Vesalius]]' ''De Humani Corporis Fabrica'' and two 19th century editions of "The Dance of Death," a medieval morality tale. According to Associated Press reporter M.L. Johnson, other large university libraries also have such volumes, and quotes a rare book cataloger as saying that while the idea of making leather from human skin seems bizarre and cruel today, it was not uncommon in centuries past.{{ref|skin}}
==References==
#{{note|WalterCBrunson}}{{note label|WalterCBrunson|1|}} {{cite book
| author=Brunson, Walter C.
| title=The History of Brown University, 1764-1914
| year=1972
| pages=p. 500
}}
*{{note|eb1911}}''Encyclopedia Britannica,'' 1911, 11th edition, vol 22(POL-RHE), p. 511c. [http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/PRE_PYR/PROVIDENCE.html]<!--Verified against print edition--p. 511c--dpbsmith--->: (Makeup of board, 22 Baptists, etc. No religious tests for admission. "Considered extraordinary liberal.")
* Howell, Ricardo (2001, July). "Slavery, the Brown Family of Providence and Brown University." ''Brown University News Service''. Retrieved [[April 27]], [[2004]] from http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/Info/Slavery.html.
* Perkins, Sara (2004, April 19). "Fashion Journal likes what Brown is wearing." ''The Brown Daily Herald''. Retrieved [[June 29]], [[2004]] from http://www.browndailyherald.com/stories.asp?storyID=2869.
* Poulson, Dan (2001, March 1). "Investigating the death of campus traditions." ''The Brown Daily Herald''. Retrieved [[June 29]], [[2004]] from http://www.browndailyherald.com/post/stories.asp?ID=84.
* {{note|skin}} Johnson, M.L., "Some of nation's best libraries have books bound in human skin," Associated Press, [[January 7th]], [[2006]], [http://www.boston.com/news/local/rhode_island/articles/2006/01/07/some_of_nations_best_libraries_have_books_bound_in_human_skin/?p1=MEWell_Pos1], [http://www.qando.net/details.aspx?Entry=3208], [http://www.thewbalchannel.com/news/5890916/detail.html], [http://www.wfsb.com/Global/story.asp?S=4332152], [http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=15884032&BRD=2212&PAG=461&dept_id=465812&rfi=6] <!--Multiple links to identical story, hopefully some of them will last more than a couple of days--->
* {{note|almamater}} Mitchell, Martha. "[http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/Databases/Encyclopedia/search.php?serial=A0170 Alma Mater]". ''Encyclopedia Brunoniana''. 2003.
==See also==
* [[Brown ACLU]]
* ''[[Brown Daily Herald]]''
* [[Brown Debating Union]]
* [[Brown Medical School]]
* [[Brown Stadium]]
* ''[[Critical Review]]''
* [[Ivy League]]
* [[Program in Liberal Medical Education]]
* [[Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology]]
* [[Undergraduate Council of Students]]
* [[Undergraduate Finance Board]]
* [[Watson Institute for International Studies]]
* [[WBRU]] - a commercial radio station based on campus and run by Brown students.
==External links==
* [http://www.brown.edu/ Brown University]
* [http://gradschool.brown.edu/ Brown Graduate School]
* [http://bms.brown.edu/ Brown Medical School]
* [http://brownbears.collegesports.com/ Official Brown athletics site]
* [http://www.browndailyherald.com/ ''The Brown Daily Herald'' student newspaper]
* [http://www.brown.edu/Students/INDY/ ''The College Hill Independent'' student newspaper]
* [http://www.brown.edu/Students/Critical_Review/ ''The Critical Review'' undergraduate academic guide]
* [http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/Databases/Encyclopedia/ ''Encyclopedia Brunoniana'']
{{Mapit-US-buildingscale|41.826839|-71.401262}}
** Official campus maps:
*** Welcome Map in [http://fm-cad.plantops.brown.edu/482840841/Welcome_8.5x11.pdf PDF] or [http://fm-cad.plantops.brown.edu/482840841/Welcome_8.5x11.jpg JPEG] format
*** Visitor Map in [http://fm-cad.plantops.brown.edu/482840841/PAUR_Campus_Map.pdf PDF] format
{{Ivy_League}}
{{ECAC Hockey League}}
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[[ja:ブラウン大学]]
[[pt:Universidade de Brown]]
[[ru:Браунский университет]]
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[[zh:布朗大学]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bill Atkinson</title>
<id>4158</id>
<revision>
<id>38845511</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T00:33:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angelic Wraith</username>
<id>136463</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>he joined Apple in '78.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bill Atkinson''' worked at [[Apple Computer]] from [[1978]] to early [[1980s]]. He received his undergraduate degree from the [[University of California, San Diego]], where [[Apple Macintosh]] [[visionary]] [[Jef Raskin]] was one of his professors. Atkinson continued his studies as a graduate student at the [[University of Washington]].
He designed and implemented [[HyperCard]], the first popular [[hypertext]] system. Atkinson was also part of the [[Apple Macintosh]] development team and was the creator of the ground-breaking [[MacPaint]] application, among others. Atkinson also designed and implemented [[QuickDraw]], the fundamental toolbox that the Macintosh used for graphics. QuickDraw's performance was essential for the success of the Macintosh's [[graphical user interface]].
Around [[1990]], [[General Magic]] was founded and Bill Atkinson was one of the three co-founders.
<blockquote>The obstacles to General Magic's success may appear daunting, but General Magic is not your typical start-up company. Its partners include some of the biggest players in the worlds of computing, communications, and consumer electronics, and it's loaded with top-notch engineers who have been given a clean slate to reinvent traditional approaches to ubiquitous worldwide communications. ([http://www.byte.com/art/9402/sec3/art1.htm Source]) </blockquote>
[[As of 2002]], he was involved full-time in fine-art [[digital photography|digital]] [[nature photography]]. Some of his [[photograph]]s are available as [[e-cards]] in the "iCards" section of the [[.Mac]].
Some of Atkinson's noteworthy contributions to the field of computing include:
* Macintosh [[QuickDraw]] and Lisa [[LisaGraf]]
* [[Marching ants]]
* The [[Selection lasso]]
* [[Fat bits]]
* [[HyperCard]]
==External links==
* [http://www.billatkinson.com/Homepage.pl Bill Atkinson Photography]
* [http://www.billatkinson.com/aboutTheArtist.html About Bill Atkinson]
* [http://folklore.org/ProjectView.py?project=Macintosh&characters=Bill%20Atkinson&detail=medium Folklore.org anecdotes about Bill Atkinson]
{{compu-bio-stub}}
[[Category:Apple employees|Atkinson, Bill]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Lostwithiel</title>
<id>4160</id>
<revision>
<id>39857533</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T09:28:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Second Battle of Lostwithiel, 1644 */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There were two '''Battles of Lostwithiel''', both in the 1640s.
===First Battle of Lostwithiel, 1642===
===Second Battle of Lostwithiel, 1644===
After the overwhelming defeat at the [[Battle of Marston Moor]], which cost him the entire north of [[England]], [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] continued to defy the Parliamentarian forces.
From his headquarters in [[Oxford, Eng |
gue and cutaneous ''Bacillus anthracis'') to infection in the absence of living or recently-dead humans, as in Sicily (which speaks against most viruses). Also, diseases with similar symptoms were generally not distinguished between in that period (see ''murrain'' above), at least not in the Christian world; Chinese and Muslim medical records can be expected to yield better information which however only pertains to the specific disease(s) which affected these areas. ''See ISBN 0060014342''
====Counterarguments====
There is still a thriving majority of historians that support the bubonic plague as cause, and so counterarguments have been drawn in defense of the bubonic plague theory.
The uncharacteristically rapid spread of the plague could be due to low levels of immunity in that period's European population. Historical examples of pandemics of other diseases in populations without previous exposure, such as [[smallpox]] and [[tuberculosis]] amongst [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indians]], show that the low levels of inherited adaptation to the disease cause the first epidemic to spread faster and to be far more virulent than later epidemics among the descendants of survivors. Also, the plague returned again and again and was regarded as the same disease through succeeding centuries into modern times when the ''Yersinia'' bacterium was identified.
In addition, it was previously argued that tooth pulp tissue from a 14th-century plague [[cemetery]] in [[Montpellier]] tested positive for molecules associated with Y. Pestis. However, such a finding was never confirmed in any other cemetery, nor were any DNA samples recovered. In September [[2003]], a team of researchers from [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] tested 121 teeth from 66 skeletons found in 14th-century mass graves. The remains showed no genetic trace of ''Yersinia pestis'', and the researchers suspect that the Montpellier study was flawed.
==Consequences==
===Depopulation===
''See also: [[Medieval demography]].''
Information about the [[death toll]] varies widely by area and from source to source. Approximately 25 million deaths occurred in Europe alone, with many others occurring in northern [[Africa]], the Middle East and [[Asia]].
Estimates of the demographic impact of plague in Asia are based on both population figures during this time and estimates of the disease's toll on population centers. The initial outbreak of plague in the [[China|Chinese]] [[province]] of [[Hubei]] in 1334 claimed up to 90 percent of the population, an estimated five million people. During 1353&ndash;54, outbreaks in eight distinct areas throughout the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol/Chinese empires]] may have caused the death of two-thirds of China's population, often yielding an estimate of 25 million deaths.
It is estimated that between one-third and one-half of the European population died from the outbreak between 1348 and 1350. As many as 25% of all villages were depopulated, mostly the smaller communities, as the few survivors fled to larger towns and cities. The Black Death hit the [[culture]] of towns and cities disproportionately hard. Some rural areas, for example, [[Poland|Eastern Poland]] and [[Lithuania]], had such low populations and were so isolated that the plague made little progress. Larger cities were the worst off, as population densities and close living quarters made disease transmission easier. Cities were also strikingly filthy, infested with lice, fleas and rats, and subject to diseases related to malnutrition and poor hygiene. According to historian John Kelly, ''"(w)oefully inadequate sanitation made medieval urban Europe so disease-ridden, no city of any size could maintain its population without a constant influx of immigrants from the countryside''." (p. 68) The influx of new citizens facilitated the movement of the plague between communities, and contributed to the longevity of the plague within larger communities.
The precise demographic impact of the disease in the [[Middle East]] is impossible to calculate. Mortality was particularly high in rural areas, including significant areas of Palestine and [[Syria]]. Many surviving rural people fled, leaving their fields and crops, and entire rural provinces are recorded as being totally depopulated. Surviving records in some cities reveal a devastating number of deaths. The 1348 outbreak in [[Gaza]] left an estimated 10,000 people dead, while [[Aleppo]] recorded a death rate of 500 a day during the same year. In [[Damascus]], at the disease's peak in September and October 1348, a thousand deaths were recorded every day, with overall mortality estimated at between 25 and 38 percent. Syria lost a total of 400,000 people by the time the epidemic subsided in March 1349. In contrast to some higher mortality estimates in Asia and Europe, scholars believe the mortality rate in the Middle East was less than one-third of the total population, with higher rates in selected areas.
===Socio-economic effects===
The [[government]]s of Europe had no apparent response to the crisis because no one knew its cause or how it spread. Most [[monarchs]] instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned [[black market]] [[speculators]], set [[price controls]] on grain, and outlawed large-scale fishing. At best, they proved mostly unenforceable, and at worse they contributed to a continent-wide downward spiral. The hardest hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain abroad, from France because of the prohibition, and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labor. Any grain that could be shipped was eventually taken by [[pirates]] or [[looters]] to be sold on the black market. Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and [[Scotland]], had been at war, using up much of their [[treasury]] and exacerbating [[inflation]]. In [[1337]], on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what would become known as the [[Hundred Years' War]]. This, another of the crises of the fourteenth century, would deplete the treasuries, [[manpower]], and [[infrastructure]] of both [[monarchy|kingdoms]] throughout and beyond the worst of the plague. Malnutrition, poverty, disease and hunger, coupled with war, growing inflation and other economic concerns made Europe in the mid-fourteenth century ripe for tragedy.
The plague did more than just devastate the medieval population; it caused a substantial change in economy and society in all areas of the world. Economic historians like [[Fernand Braudel]] have concluded that Black Death began during a [[recession]] in the European economy that had been under way since the beginning of the century, and only served to worsen it. As a consequence, it greatly accelerated social and economic change during the 14th and 15th centuries. First, the church's power was weakened, and in some cases, the social roles it had played were replaced by secular ones. It also led to [[Popular revolt in late medieval Europe|peasant uprisings]] in many parts of Europe, such as France (the [[Jacquerie rebellion]]), Italy (the [[Ciompi rebellion]], which swept the city of [[Florence]]), and in England (the [[English Peasant Revolt]]).
The Black Death should have opened the way to increased peasant prosperity. Europe had been overpopulated before the plague, and a reduction of 30% to 50% of the population should have meant less competition for resources: more available land and food, and higher wages. However, for reasons that are still debated, population levels in fact continued to decline until around 1420 and did not begin to rise again until 1470, so the initial Black Death event on its own does not entirely provide a satisfactory explanation to this extended period of decline in prosperity. See [[Medieval demography]] for a more complete treatment of this issue and current theories on why improvements in living standards took longer to evolve.
The great population loss brought economic changes based on increased social mobility, as depopulation further eroded the peasants' already weakened obligations to remain on their traditional holdings. In Western Europe, the sudden scarcity of cheap labor provided an incentive for landlords to compete for peasants with wages and freedoms, an innovation that, some argue, represents the roots of [[capitalism]], and the resulting social upheaval ''caused'' the [[Renaissance]] and even [[Reformation]]. In many ways the Black Death improved the situation of surviving peasants. In Western Europe, because of the shortage of labor they were in more demand and had more power, and because of the reduced population, there was more fertile land available; however, the benefits would not be fully realized until 1470, nearly 120 years later, when overall population levels finally began to rise again.
In [[Eastern Europe]], by contrast, renewed stringency of laws tied the remaining peasant population more tightly to the land than ever before through [[serfdom]]. Sparsely populated Eastern Europe was less affected by the Black Death and so peasant revolts were less common in the 14th and 15th centuries, not occurring in the east until the 16th through 19th centuries. Since it is believed to have in part caused the social upheavals of 14th- and 15th-century Western Europe, some see the Black Death as a factor in the Renaissance and even the Reformation in Western Europe. Therefore, historians have cited the smaller impact of the plague as a contributing factor in Eastern Europe's ''failure'' to experience either of these movements on a similar scale. Extrapolating from this, the Black Death may be seen as partly responsible for Eastern Europe's considerable lag in scientific and philosophical advances as well as in the move to liberalise government by restricting the power of the monarch and aristocracy. A common example is |
technical problems (for example a [[undercarriage|landing gear]] malfunction) while piloting an F-4 Phantom. In reality, he is trying to assemble a [[model airplane|model]] of an F-4 and not doing very well at it. The technical difficulties in his [[daydream]] reflected difficulties in assembling the model, such as being unable to see through the canopy due to smeared [[glue]].
The F-4 made movie appearances in ''[[The Great Santini]]'', ''[[Red Flag]]'', ''[[Iron Eagle II]]'', ''[[Forrest Gump]]'', and ''[[Hamburger Hill]]'' (where F-4E's from [[Clark Air Base]] in the Philippines were used during the shooting of the napalm scene from the movie in 1987).
The F-4E was also seen as the [[Aerialbot]] Fireflight in the cartoon ''[[The Transformers]]''. In the anime series [[Area 88]], The Royal Asranian Air Force employs several F-4Js in service with its mercenary corps. The F-4 is also featured in the [[Namco]] games [[Ace Combat 4: Shattered Skies]] and [[Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War]], and it was also featured in the game [[Flight of the Intruder]] along with the [[A-6 Intruder]]. The aircraft is a player flyable option in the [[flight simulator]]s [[Jane's USAF]] and [[Jane's IAF]], and was seen in [[Magnum P.I.]] as a [[Russia]]n fighter.
==References==
* Bowers, PM, Angellucci, E. (1987) ''The American Fighter.'' Orion Books. ISBN 0517565889
* Donald D., Lake J. (eds.) (1996) ''Encyclopedia of world military aircraft.'' AIRtime Publishing. ISBN 1880588242
* Donald, D, Lake J. (eds.) (2002) ''McDonnell F-4 Phantom: Spirit in the Skies.'' AIRtime Publishing. ISBN 1880588315
* Higham R, Williams C. (eds.) (1978) ''Flying combat aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol.2).'' Air Force Historical Foundation. ISBN 0813803756 (v.2)
* Swanborough, G, Bowers, PM. (1989) ''United States Military Aircraft Since 1909.'' Smithsonian. ISBN 0874748801
* Taylor, MJH. (1991) ''Jane's American Fighting Aircraft of the 20th Century.'' Mallard Press. ISBN 0792456270
* Wagner, R. (1982) ''American Combat Planes, Third Enlarged Edition.'' Doubleday. ISBN 0385131208
==External links==
*[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/fighter/f110.htm USAF Museum: F-4 as F-110 Spectre]
*[http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyID=123009465 ‘Silver Lobos’ fly into retirement]
*[http://www.vogue-web.ch/f4 ‘F-4 Phantom Web]
==Related content==
{{aircontent|
|sequence=
* '''Pre-1962:'''
** Navy ''A'' sequence: [[A-4 Skyhawk|A4D]] - [[AF Guardian|AF]] - [[A-6 Intruder|A2F]] - '''AH''' - [[AJ Savage|AJ]] - [[AJ Savage|A2J]] - [[A-5 Vigilante|A3J]]
** Navy ''F'' sequence: [[FH Phantom|FH]] - [[F2H Banshee|F2H]] - [[F3H Demon|F3H]] - '''F4H''' - [[FJ Fury|FJ]] - [[P-39 Airacobra|FL]] - [[P-63 Kingcobra|F2L]]
** Air Force sequence: [[F-106 Delta Dart|F-106]] - [[YF-107 Ultra Sabre|YF-107]] - [[XF-108 Rapier|XF-108]] - '''F-110''' - [[F-111 Aardvark|F-111]] - [[F-117 Nighthawk|F-117]]
* '''Post-1962:'''
** [[FJ Fury|F-1]] - [[F2H Banshee|F-2]] - [[F3H Demon|F-3]] - [[F-4 Phantom II|F-4]] - [[F-5 Freedom Fighter|F-5]] - [[F4D Skyray|F-6]] - [[F2Y Sea Dart|F-7]]
|related=
* [[F3H Demon]]
|similar aircraft=
* [[F-8 Crusader]]
* [[MiG-19]]
* [[MiG-21]]
* [[English Electric Lightning]]
|lists=
* [[List of fighter aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
|see also=
}}
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[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1950-1959|F-004 Phantom II]]
[[Category:Vietnam War aircraft]]
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<page>
<title>F-110 Spectre</title>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[F-4 Phantom II]]
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<page>
<title>FH Phantom</title>
<id>11761</id>
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<id>41273875</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T05:33:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Emt147</username>
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<minor />
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:fh1.phantom.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|McDonnell FH-1 Phantom.]]
The [[McDonnell Aircraft Corporation|McDonnell]] '''FH-1 Phantom''' was a twin-engine jet [[fighter aircraft]] designed during [[World War II]] for the [[United States Navy]]. On [[July 21]], [[1946]], a Phantom became the first combat jet aircraft to operate from an American [[aircraft carrier]], the [[USS Franklin D. Roosevelt|USS ''Franklin D. Roosevelt'']].
In early [[1943]], the McDonnell was invited by the U.S. Navy to co-operate in the development of a shipboard jet fighter, using an engine from the set turbojets under development by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Three prototypes were ordered on August 30, 1943 and the designation '''XFD-1''' was assigned. Then, after evaluating a number of engine combinations, from using eight 9.5 inch (241 mm) diameter engines down to two engines of 19 inch (483 mm) diameter, a selection using the two 19 inch (483 mm) engines was found to be the lightest and simplest configuration.
An aircraft design with the engines buried in the wing root was selected to keep intake and exhaust ducts short, an arrangement that offered greater aerodynamic efficiency than underwing nacelles. Provisions for four 0.5 in (12.7 mm) machine guns were made in the nose.
When the first XFD-1 was completed in January 1945 only one Westinghouse 19XB-2B engine was available for installation. Ground runs and taxi test were conducted with the single engine, and such was the confidence in the aircraft that the first flight on January 26, 1945 was made with only the one turbojet engine. With successful completion of tests, a production contract was awarded on March 7, [[1945]] for one hundred '''FD-1''' aircraft. Later the designation was changed to '''FH-1''' as the manufacturer’s letter “D” had already been assigned to the [[Douglas Aircraft Company]]. (22 years later, long after the last FH had been delivered, McDonnell and Douglas would merge to form McDonnell Douglas).
With the end of the war the number under contract was reduced to 60 aircraft and the first production aircraft was delivered in January 1947.
=== General characteristics ===
* First flight: [[January 26]], [[1945]]
* Wingspan: 40 ft 9 in (12.4 m), wings folded: 16 ft 3 in (5 m)
* Length: 38 ft 9 in (11.8 m)
* Height: 14 ft 2 in (4.3 m)
* Weight: 4,500 kg (9,920 lb)
* Speed: 500 mph (800 km/h)
* Ceiling: 41,100 ft (12,500 m)
* Range: 695 miles (1300 km)
* Accommodation: One crew
* Armament: 4 x 22 mm cannons
* Power plant: 2 x 1,600 lbf (7 kN) thrust [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]] J30-WE-20 [[Jet engine|turbojet]]s
==References==
* William Green (1961). ''War Planes of the Second World War - Fighters'', (Vol 4). London: MacDonald
==Related content==
{{aircontent|
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[[FH Phantom|FH]] -
[[F2H Banshee|F2H]] -
[[F3H Demon|F3H]] -
[[F-4 Phantom II|F4H]]
|related=
*[[F2H Banshee]]
|similar aircraft=
*[[FJ Fury]]
|lists=
*[[List of fighter aircraft]]
*[[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
|see also=
}}
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<revision>
<id>36879457</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T01:42:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbenbenn</username>
<id>38020</id>
</contributor>
<comment>change to [[Category:Fricative consonants]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Manner of articulation}}
'''Fricatives''' (or '''spirants''') are [[consonant]]s produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These are the lower lip against the upper teeth in the case of {{IPA|[&nbsp;f&nbsp;]}}, or the back of the tongue against the soft palate in the case of German {{IPA|[&nbsp;x&nbsp;]}}, the final consonant of ''Bach''. This turbulent airflow is called '''frication'''. A particular subset of fricatives are the '''[[sibilant]]s''' (sometimes referred to as '''stridents'''). When forming a sibilant, one still is forcing air through a narrow channel, but in addition the tongue is curled lengthwise to direct the air over the edge of the teeth. English {{IPA|[&nbsp;s&nbsp;]}}, {{IPA|[&nbsp;z&nbsp;]}}, {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʃ&nbsp;]}}, and {{IPA|[&nbsp;ʒ&nbsp;]}} are examples of this.
===Sibilant fricatives===
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;s&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless alveolar fricative|voiceless coronal sibilant]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;z&nbsp;]}} [[voiced alveolar fricative|voiced coronal sibilant]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;s’&nbsp;]}} [[alveolar ejective fricative|ejective coronal sibilant]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;s̪&nbsp;]}} [[voiceless dental sibilant]]
* {{IPA|[&nbsp;z̪&nbsp;]}} [[vo |
ry:Malaysian cuisine]]
[[bg:Къри]]
[[de:Curry]]
[[es:Curry]]
[[eo:Kareo]]
[[fr:Curry]]
[[nl:Kerrie]]
[[ja:カレー]]
[[no:Karri]]
[[nn:Karri]]
[[pl:Curry]]
[[sl:Curry]]
[[fi:Curry]]
[[sv:Curry]]
[[zh:咖哩]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Camel</title>
<id>6598</id>
<revision>
<id>42127336</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:20:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TigerShark</username>
<id>161478</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.128.131.74|71.128.131.74]] ([[User talk:71.128.131.74|Talk]]) to last version by TShilo12</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = Pink
| name = Camels
| image = Bactrian_Camel.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = [[Bactrian Camel]]
| image2 = Dromedary.02.jpg
| image2_width = 240px
| image2_caption = [[Dromedary]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| subordo = [[Tylopoda]]
| familia = [[Camelidae]]
| genus = '''''Camelus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[Camelus bactrianus]]''<br />
''[[Camelus dromedarius]]''
}}
A '''camel''' is either of the two species of large [[even-toed ungulate]] in the [[genus]] '''''Camelus''''', the [[Dromedary]] (single hump) and the [[Bactrian Camel]] (double hump). Both are native to the dry and [[desert]] areas of [[Asia]] and northern [[Africa]]. The average life expectancy of a camel is 30 to 50 years.
The term ''camel'' is also used more broadly, to describe any of the six camel-like creatures in the family [[Camelidae]]: the two true camels, and the four South American camelids: [[Llama]], [[Alpaca]], [[Guanaco]] and [[Vicuna]]. For an overview of the camel family, see [[Camelidae]]. For more information on the two true camels, see [[Dromedary]] and [[Bactrian Camel]].
The name ''camel'' comes via the [[Greek (language)|Greek]] ''kamelos'' from the [[Arabic (language)|Arabic]] ''jamal'' or the [[Hebrew (language)|Hebrew]] ''gahmal'', all meaning "camel".
Bactrian camels have two coats: the warm inner coat of down and a rough outer coat which is long and hairy. They shed their fiber in clumps consisting of both coats and is normally gathered. They produce about 5 pounds of fiber annually. The fiber structure is similar to [[cashmere]]. The down is usually 1-3 inches long. Camel down does not felt easily. The down is spun into [[yarn]] for [[knitting]].
Humans first domesticated camels approximately 5,000 years ago. The Dromedary and the Bactrian Camel are both still used for milk, meat, and as [[working animal|beasts of burden]]&mdash;the Dromedary in northern Africa and western Asia; the Bactrian Camel further to the north and east in central Asia.
== Distribution and numbers ==
Although there are almost 13 million Dromedaries alive today, the species is extinct in the wild: all but a handful are domesticated animals (mostly in [[Sudan]], [[Somalia]], [[India]] and nearby countries), as well as [[South Africa]], [[Namibia]] and [[Botswana]]. There is, however, a substantial [[feral]] population estimated at 700,000 in central parts of [[Australia]], descended from individuals that escaped from captivity in the late [[19th century]]. This population is growing at approximately 11% per year and in recent times the state government of [[South Australia]] has decided to cull the animals using aerial marksmen, the reason being that the camels use too much of the limited resources needed by sheep farmers. For more information, see [[Australian feral camel]].
The Bactrian Camel once had an enormous range, but is now reduced to an estimated 1.4 million animals, mostly domesticated. It is thought that there are about 1000 wild Bactrian Camels in the [[Gobi Desert]], and small numbers in [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Turkey]] and [[Russia]].
A small population of introduced camels, Dromedaries and Bactrians, survived in the [[Southwest United States]] until the early [[20th century|1900s]]. These animals, imported from Turkey, were part of the [[US Camel Corps]] experiment and used as draft animals in mines, and escaped or were released after the project fell through.
==Camel Hybrids==
[[Image:Désert-du-Thar.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Throughout their domesticated history, Camels have been used as a means of transportation in arid regions. Shown here is a local tribe near [[Jaisalmer]], [[India]]]]
Bactrian camel have 2 humps and are rugged cold-climate camels while Dromedaries have one hump and are desert dwellers. Bactrian/Dromedary hybrids are called Bukhts, are larger than either parent, have a single hump and are good draft camels. The females can be mated back to a Bactrian to produce three-quarter bred riding camels. These hybrids are found in Kazakhstan.
The [[Cama]] is a camel/[[llama]] hybrid bred by scientists who wanted to see how closely related the parent species were. The Dromedary Camel is six times the weight of a Llama, hence artificial insemination was required to impregnate the Llama female (Llama male to Dromedary female have proven unsuccessful). Though born even smaller than a Llama calf, the Cama had the short ears and long tail of a camel, no hump and Llama-like cloven hooves rather than the Dromedary-like pads. At four years old, the Cama became sexually mature and interested in Llama and Guanaco females. A second Cama (female) has since been produced using artificial insemination. Because Camels and Llamas both have 74 chromosomes, scientists hope that the Cama will be fertile. If so, there is potential for increasing size, meat/wool yield and pack/draft ability in South American camels. The Cama apparently inherited the poor temperament of both parents as well as demonstrating the relatedness of the New World and Old World camelids.
The South American Camelids can be hybridized.
* A male Alpaca/female Llama results in a Huarizo.
* A male Vicuna/female Alpaca results in a Paco-vicuna.
* A female Alpaca/male Llama results in a Misti.
* A male Vicuna/female Llama results in a Llamo-vicuna.
* A male Alpaca/female Guanaco results in a Paco-guanaco.
* A male Guanaco/female Llama results in a Llama-guanaco (unusual in that the sire's name should form the first part of the hybrid's name).
* A Llama/Alpaca cross which resembles the Llama parent is also known as a Warilla; but if it resembles the Alpaca parent it is called a T'aqa.
== Adaptations to desert environment ==
Camels are well known for their humps. They do not store water in them as is commonly believed. Their humps are a reservoir of fatty tissue, while water is stored in their blood. However, when this tissue is metabolised, it is not only a source of energy, but yields through reaction with oxygen from the air 1111 g of water per 1000 g of fat. This allows them to survive without water for about two weeks, and without food for up to a month.
Their [[red blood cell]]s have an oval shape, unlike those of other animals, which are circular. This is to facilitate their flow in a [[Dehydration|dehydrated]] state. These cells are also more stable[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=816376&dopt=Abstract], in order to withstand high [[Osmosis|osmotic]] variation without rupturing, when drinking large amounts of water.
Camels are able to withstand changes in [[body temperature]] and water content that would kill most other animals. Their temperature ranges from 34&deg;C at night up to 41&deg;C at day; only above this threshold they start to sweat. This allows them to preserve about five litres of water a day. However, they can withstand at least 25% weight loss due to sweating.
The thick coat reflects sunlight. A shaved camel has to sweat 50% more to avoid overheating.
Their mouth is very sturdy, to be able to eat thorny desert plants. Long eyelashes and ear hairs, together with sealable nostrils prevent sand from entering. Their pace (always moving both legs of one side at the same time) and their widened feet help them move without sinking in.
== See also ==
* [[Camel racing]]
== External links ==
*[http://abbott-infotech.co.za/kalahari-use-of-camels-by-south-african-police.html Use of camels by South African police]
*[http://www.icar.org.in/nrccm/home.html National Camel Research Centre, Bikaner (Rajasthan), INDIA]
*[http://www.andycarvin.com/archives/2006/01/the_daily_grind.html The Daily Grind: Two Camels At Work] - Video of camels pressing olive oil and cutting grass in [[Djerba]], [[Tunisia]]
*[http://www.arab.net/camels/ The A-Z of Camels]
{{Camelids}}
[[Category:Camelids]]
[[Category:Livestock]]
[[af:Kameel]]
[[ca:Camell]]
[[cs:Velbloud]]
[[cy:Camel]]
[[de:Altweltkamele]]
[[es:Camello]]
[[eo:Kamelo]]
[[fr:Chameau]]
[[gl:Camelo]]
[[he:גמל]]
[[ia:Camelo]]
[[it:Dromedario]]
[[io:Kamelo]]
[[ko:낙타]]
[[hu:Teve]]
[[nl:Kamelen]]
[[no:Kamel]]
[[ja:ラクダ]]
[[pl:Wielbłąd]]
[[pt:Camelus]]
[[ru:Верблюд]]
[[simple:Camel]]
[[sv:Kamel]]
[[tr:deve]]
[[vi:Lạc đà]]
[[zh:骆驼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chaldea</title>
<id>6599</id>
<revision>
<id>41204871</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T19:47:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Garzo</username>
<id>140345</id>
</contributor>
<comment>copyedit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}}
'''Chaldea''', "the Chaldees" of the [[King James Version of the Bible|KJV]] [[Old Testament]], was a [[Hellenistic]] designation for a part of [[Babylonia]]. One early such reference is to the impending sack of [[Jerusalem]] by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] ([[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 1:6). The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name for ancient Chaldeans was כשדים (''Kaśdim'').
The ''[[Book of Genesis]]'' narrative of Abraham places him at [[Ur]] |
heodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)|USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71)]] after one dropped a bomb in Iraq. The plane was part of [[VF-31]] and the last pilot credited with a bomb drop in combat was Lt. Bill Frank. An F-14D from VF-213 was the last F-14 to land on an aircraft carrier after a combat mission, it was piloted by Capt. William G. Sizemore. During their final deployment with the [[USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)|USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71)]], VFs[[VF-31|-31]] and [[VF-213|-213]] collectively completed 1,163 combat sorties totaling 6,876 flight hours, and dropped 9,500 pounds of ordnance during reconnaissance, surveillance, and close air support missions in support of OIF. [[VF-213]] pilots who are making the transition to the Super Hornet will begin [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet|F/A-18F]] (double seat) training in April, and the squadron will be operational, or “safe for flight,” in September. [[VF-31]] pilots who are making the transition will begin [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet|F/A-18E]] (single seat) training in October, and the squadron will be safe for flight in April 2007. This will make [[VF-31]] the last official Tomcat squadron in the Navy.
<ref>[http://www.news.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=22325 ''TR Traps Last Tomcat from Combat Mission'', from Navy Newsstand</ref>
* First flight: [[December 21]], [[1970 in aviation|1970]] (F-14A), [[November 24]], [[1987 in aviation|1987]] (F-14D)
* [[Entry into service]]: 1973
* Unit Cost: [[United States dollar|US$]]38 million
* Avionics: [[Hughes Aircraft|Hughes]] [[AN/AWG-9]] (F-14A/B) radar, Hughes [[AN/APG-71]] radar (F-14D), AN/ASN-130 INS, IRST, TCS
===Operators===
*[[United States Navy]]
*[[Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force|Iranian Air Force]] (F-14A)
==USN squadrons==
*[[VF-1]] Wolfpack (Disestablished September 30, 1993)
*[[VF-2]] Bounty Hunters (Redesignated [[VFA-2]] with [[F/A-18F]] July 1, 2003)
*[[VF-11]] Red Rippers (Redesignated to [[VFA-11]] with [[F/A-18F]] in May, 2005)
*[[VF-14]] Tophatters (Redesignated [[VFA-14]] with [[F/A-18E]] December 1, 2001)
*[[VF-21]] Freelancers (Disestablished January 31, 1996)
*[[VF-24]] Fighting Renegades (Disestablished August 20, 1996)
*[[VF-31]] Tomcatters (Active; scheduled for redesignation to [[VFA-31]] with [[F/A-18E]] in Sept 2006)
*[[VF-32]] Swordsmen (Redesignated [[VFA-32]] with [[F/A-18F]] on October 1, 2005)
*[[VF-33]] Starfighters (Disestablished October 1, 1993)
*[[VF-41]] Black Aces (Redesignated [[VFA-41]] with [[F/A-18F]], December 1, 2001)
*[[VF-51]] Screaming Eagles (Disestablished March 31, 1995)
*[[VF-74]] Bedevilers (Disestablished April 30, 1994)
*[[VF-84]] Jolly Rogers (Disestablished October 1, 1995)
*[[VF-101]] Grim Reapers (Disestablished September 15, 2005)
*[[VF-102]] Diamondbacks (Redesignated [[VFA-102]] with [[F/A-18F]] in May 1, 2002)
*[[VF-103]] Sluggers/Jolly Rogers (Redesignated [[VFA-103]] with [[F/A-18F]] May 1, 2002)
*[[VF-111]] Sundowners (Disestablished March 31, 1995)
*[[VF-114]] Aardvarks (Disestablished April 30, 1993)
*[[VF-124]] Gunfighters (Disestablished September 30, 1994)
*[[VF-142]] Ghostriders (Disestablished April 30, 1995)
*[[VF-143]] Pukin' Dogs (Redesignated [[VFA-143]] with [[F/A-18E]] in early 2005)
*[[VF-154]] Black Knights (Redesignated [[VFA-154]] with [[F/A-18F]] October 1, 2003)
*[[VF-191]] Satan's Kittens (Disestablished April 30, 1988)
*[[VF-194]] Red Lightnings (Disestablished April 30, 1988)
*[[VF-201]] Hunters (Redesignated [[VFA-201]] with [[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18A]] January 1, 1999)
*[[VF-202]] Superheats (Disestablished December 31, 1999)
*[[VF-211]] Fighting Checkmates (Redesignated [[VFA-211]] with [[F/A-18F]] October 1, 2004)
*[[VF-213]] Black Lions (Active; scheduled for redesignation to [[VFA-213]] with [[F/A-18F]] in May 2006)
*[[VF-301]] Devil's Disciples (Disestablished December 31, 1994)
*[[VF-302]] Stallions (Disestablished December 31, 1994)
*[[VX-4]] Evaluators (Disestablished September 30, 1994)
*[[VX-9]] Vampires (Currently operates F/A-18C/D/E/F, EA-6B, AV-8B, & AH-1)
==IRIAF squadrons==
*[[82 TFS]]
*[[83 TFS]]
==Specifications (F-14 Tomcat)==
[[Image:F14Missile.jpg|thumb|300px|An F-14 launches an [[AIM-7 Sparrow]]]]
[[Image:F-14Schematic.jpg|An F-14 Schematic]]
===General characteristics===
* '''Crew:''' 2 ([[Aviator|Pilot]] and [[Naval Flight Officer|Radar Intercept Officer]])
* '''Capacity''' Air Superiority / Fighter Interceptor
* '''Length:''' 18.6 m (61 ft 9 in)
* '''Wingspan:''' 19 m (64 ft) unswept, 11.4 m (38 ft) swept
* '''Height:''' 16 ft (4.8 m)
* '''Wing area:''' 565 ft&sup2; (54.5 m&sup2;)
* '''Empty:''' 19,000 kg (42,000 lb)
* '''Loaded:''' 28,000 kg (61,000 lb)
* '''Maximum takeoff:''' 32,805 kg (72,900 lb)
* '''Powerplant:'''
** '''F-14A''': 2x [[Pratt & Whitney]] [[Pratt & Whitney TF-30|TF-30P-414A]] turbofans, 12,285 lbf (68 kN) installed thrust at sea level, 20,000 lbf (93 kN) installed thrust at sea level with afterburner
** '''F-14B/D''': 2x [[General Electric Aircraft Engines|General Electric]] [[General Electric F110|F110-GE-400]] turbofans, 13,810 lbf (72 kN) installed thrust at sea-level, 24,000 lbf (117 kN) installed thrust with afterburner at sea-level
===Performance===
* '''Maximum speed:''' 1,544 mph (2,485 km/h) Mach 2.34
* '''Combat radius:''' 576 miles <!-- nautical or statute? --> (927 km)
* '''Service ceiling:''' 50,000+ ft (16,000+ m)
* '''Rate of climb:''' F-14A: 30,000 ft/min (9,145 m/min); F-14B/D: 45,000+ ft/min (13715+ m/min)
* '''Wing loading:''' 113.4 lb/ft&sup2; (553.9 kg/m&sup2;)
* '''Thrust/weight:''' F-14A: 0.72 lbf/lb (7.1 N/kg); F-14B/D: 0.88lbf/lb (8.7 N/kg)
===Avionics===
* F-14A/B Hughes AN/AWG-9 Radar
* F-14D Hughes AN/APG-71 Radar
===Armament===
*13,000 lb (5,900 kg) of ordinance including;
**'''Guns:''' 1x [[M61 Vulcan]] 20 mm [[Gatling Gun]]
**'''Missiles:''' [[AIM-54 Phoenix]], [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] and [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] [[Air-to-air missile|air-to-air]]
**'''Loading configurations:'''
*** 2x AIM-9 + 6x AIM-54
*** 2x AIM-9 + 2x AIM-54 + 3x AIM-7
*** 2x AIM-9 + 4x AIM-54 + 2x AIM-7
*** 2x AIM-9 + 6x AIM-7
*** 4x AIM-9 + 4x AIM-54
*** 4x AIM-9 + 4x AIM-7
**'''Bombs:''' [[GBU-10]], [[GBU-12]], [[GBU-16]], [[GBU-24]], [[GBU-24E]] Paveway I/II/III LGB, [[GBU-31]], [[GBU-38]] [[JDAM]], [[Mk 20 Rockeye]], [[Mk-82]], [[Mark 83 bomb|Mk-83]] and [[Mk-84]] series iron bombs
== F-14 in combat ==
[[Image:gw-tomphoenix.jpg|thumb|300px|An F-14 launches an [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] during training]]
F-14s of the U. S. Navy have shot down five enemy aircraft for no losses. One has been lost to a [[surface-to-air missile]].
* F-14s from VF-1 and VF-2 flew top cover for [[Operation Frequent Wind]]; evacuation of [[Saigon]], [[Vietnam]] in the month of [[April]], [[1975]]
* On [[August 19]], [[1981 in aviation|1981]] two F-14As from [[VF-41 Black Aces]] shot down two [[Libya]]n ([[Soviet]]-built) [[Sukhoi]] [[Sukhoi Su-22|Su-22 "Fitters"]] using [[AIM-9 Sidewinder|AIM-9 "Sidewinders"]] after the lead Fitter pilot fired a [[Vympel]] [[Vympel K-13|AA-2 "Atoll"]] at one of the F-14s, which missed. One of the Su-22 pilots was seen to have ejected.
* F-14s from [[VF-11]] and [[VF-31]] [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/usmnf.htm flew cover for] multi-national peacekeeping forces in [[Lebanon]] in the early [[1980]]’s, they were fired at by [[Syrian]] [[AAA]] and [[SAM]] which resulted in retaliatory strikes by the US Navy where F-14s flew escort for the strikers. VF-11 even [http://www.anft.net/f-14/f14-history-combat.htm#lebanon engaged eight MiGs] over Lebanon. The section flew cover for a TARPS F-14 and was ready to open fire at four MiGs but the MiGs did a split S and ran for Syria. Four more MiGs emerged and blew through without engaging.
* F-14s also provided air cover for US ground forces in the [[invasion of Grenada]] in [[1983]].
* On [[October 10]] [[1985]], F-14s from [[VF-74]] and [[VF-103]] intercepted the [[Egyptian]] commercial air liner which [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/achille_lauro.htm transported terrorists] from the [[Achille Lauro]] hijackings. The airliner was forced down at the [[Sigonella Naval Air Station]] in [[Sicily]].
* F-14s from [[VF-33]] and [[VF-102]] provided air cover for offensive strikes against [[Libya]] during [[Operation Attain Document]] in the spring of [[1986]].
* F-14s also provided air cover for [[US Navy]] and [[US Air Force]] bombers during [[Operation El Dorado Canyon]].
* On [[January 4]], [[1989 in aviation|1989]], two F-14As from [[VF-32 Swordsmen]] assigned to [[USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)|''John F. Kennedy'']] shot down two [[Libya]]n (Soviet-built) [[Mikoyan-Gurevich]] [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23|MiG-23 "Floggers"]] with two [[AIM-7 Sparrow|AIM-7 "Sparrows"]] (one failed) and one AIM-9 "Sidewinder." The MiG-23s were pursuing the F-14s in an attempt to get into a missile firing position for several minutes before the F-14s concluded that they were under attack and outmanoeuvred the Floggers. Both of the Flogger pilots were seen to have ejected. An [http://www.ka8vit.com/sd/shootdown.htm audio recording of the engagement] is available. The AIM-7 which failed was probably either a failure to track the target or a failure for the rocket motor to ignite since the failure was noted almost immediately after launch and the second AIM-7 was launched about seven seconds later. A missile was launched at the F-14s just before the AIM-7 hit its target but they managed to avoid it.
* On [[February 6]], [[1991 in aviation|1991]] during [[Operation Desert Storm]], an F-14A from [[VF-1 Wolfpack]] shot down a [[Mil Moscow Helicopter Plant|Mil]] [[Mil Mi-8|Mi-8 "Hip"]] [[helicopter]] with an AIM-9 "Sidewinder."
* On [[January 21]], [[1991]] during Operation Desert Storm, an F-14B from [[VF-103|VF-103 Sluggers]] was shot down, possibly by an [[Iraq]]i [[SA-2 Guideline|SA-2 "Guidel |
n, and Petroleum Entrapment at the KT Boundary'' (GSA abstract)]
*[http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/CIDiameterSort.html List of 172+ impact craters in ''Earth Impact Database'' with Crater name, Diameter, Age, Country, Latitude, Longitude, etc.]
*[http://minerals.cr.usgs.gov/gips/na/0amber.htm#amber Air bubbles, amber, and dinosaurs]
*[http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/CIDiameterSort.html Earth Impact Database]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20050623.shtml "The KT Boundary"] - BBC Radio 4 Broadcast, ''In Our Time'', 23rd June 2005 - hosted by Melvyn Bragg (duration: approximately 45 minutes)
[[Category:Extinction events]]
[[Category:KT boundary]]
{{Link FA|pt}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[da:K/T-grænse]]
[[de:KT-Impakt]]
[[es:Extinción masiva del Cretáceo-Terciario]]
[[fr:Extinction du Crétacé]]
[[gl:Extinción dos dinosauros]]
[[nl:K-T-overgang]]
[[ja:K/T境界]]
[[pl:Wymieranie kredowe]]
[[pt:Extinção K-T]]
[[zh:白垩纪-第三纪灭绝事件]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction Event</title>
<id>5788</id>
<revision>
<id>15903982</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carlo Goldoni</title>
<id>5790</id>
<revision>
<id>41260484</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T03:18:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
<id>48742</id>
</contributor>
<comment>dramatist --> playwright</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Carlo_Goldoni.jpg|right|thumb|Carlo Goldoni]]
'''Carlo Osvaldo Goldoni''' ([[February 25]], [[1707]] - [[February 6]], [[1793]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[playwright]] and one of the most famous Italian writers of the period. Along with [[Pirandello]], Goldoni is probably the most famous name in Italian theatre, in his country and abroad. His work is most admired for its ingenius mix of wit and honesty.
==Biography==
===Memoirs===
There is an abundance of autobiographical information on Goldoni, most of which comes from the introductions to his plays and from his ''Memoirs''. However, these memoirs are known to contain many errors of fact, especially about his earlier years.
In these memoirs, he paints himself as a born comedian, careless, light-hearted and with a happy temperament, proof against all strokes of fate, yet thoroughly respectable and honorable. Such characters were common enough in Italy.
===Early life and studies===
Goldoni was born in [[Venice]] in 1707, the son of [[Margherita Goldoni|Margherita]] and [[Giulio Goldoni]]. In his memoirs, Goldoni describes his father as a [[physician]], and claims that he was introduced to theatre by his grandfather [[Carlo Alessandro Goldoni|Carlo Alessandro]]. In reality, it seems that Giulio was only an [[apothecary]], and he was born four years after his granfather's death. In any case, Goldoni was deeply interested in theatre since his earliest years, and all attempts to direct his activity into other channels were of no avail: his toys were puppets and his books, plays.
His father placed him under the care of the philosopher Caldini at [[Rimini]] but the youth soon ran away with a company of strolling players and came to Venice. In 1723 his father matriculated him into the stern [[Collegio Ghislieri]] in [[Pavia]], which imposed the [[tonsure]] and [[monk|monastic habits]] on its students. However, he relates in his ''Memoirs'' that a considerable part of his time was spent in reading [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] comedies. He had already begun writing at this time; and, in his third year, he composed a [[libel|libellous]] poem (''Il colosso'') in which he ridiculed the daughters of certain Pavian families. As a result of that incident (and/or of a visit paid with some schoolmates to a local brothel) he was expelled from the school and had to leave the city (1725). He studied law at [[Udine]], and eventually took his degree at [[Modena]]. He was employed as law clerk at [[Chioggia]] and [[Feltre]], after which he returned to his native city and began practicing.
Educated as a lawyer, and holding lucrative positions as secretary and councillor, he seemed, indeed, at one time to have settled down to the practice of law, but an unexpected summons to Venice, after an absence of several years, he changed his career, and thenceforth he devoted himself to writing plays and managing theatres. His father died in 1731. In 1732, to avoid an unwanted marriage, he left the town for [[Milan]] and then for [[Verona]], where the theatre manager Giuseppe Imer helped him on his way to becoming a comical poet as well as introducing him to his future wife, Nicoletta Conio. Goldoni returned with her to Venice, where he stayed until 1743.
===Theatrical career===
He entered the Italian theatre scene with a tragedy, ''Amalasunta'', produced at Milan. The play was a critical and financial failure. Submitting it to Count Prata, director of the opera, he was told that his piece "was composed with due regard to the rules of [[Aristotle]] and [[Horace]], but not according to those laid down for the Italian drama." "In France," continued the count, "you can try to please the public, but here in Italy it is the actors and actresses whom you must consult, as well as the composer of the music and the stage decorators. Everything must be done according to a certain form which I will explain to you." Goldoni thanked his critic, went back to his inn and ordered a fire, into which he threw the manuscript of his Amalasunta. His next play, ''Belisario'', written in 1734, was more successful, though of its success he afterward professed himself ashamed.
He wrote other tragedies for a time, but he was not long in discovering that his bent was for comedy. He had come to realize that the Italian stage needed reforming, and adopting [[Molière]] as his model, he went to work in earnest, and in 1738 produced his first real comedy, ''L'uomo di mondo'' ("The Man of the World"). During his many wanderings and adventures in Italy, he was constantly at work, and when, at [[Livorno]], he became acquainted with the manager [[Medebac]], he determined to pursue the profession of playwriting in order to make a living. He was employed by Medebac to write plays for his theater in Venice. He worked for other managers, and produced during his stay in that city some of his most characteristic works. He also wrote ''Momolo Cortesan'' in 1738. By 1743, he had perfected his hybrid style of playwriting (combining the model of Moliere, with the strengths of Commedia Dell'Arte and his own wit and sincerity). This style was typified in ''La Donna di garbo'', the first Italian comedy of its kind.
===Move to France and death===
In 1757, he engaged in a bitter dispute with playwright [[Carlo Gozzi]], which left him utterly disgusted with the tastes of his countrymen; so much that in 1761 he moved to Paris, where he received a position at court and was put in charge of the [[Italian Theatre, Paris|Theatre Italien]]. He spent the rest of his life in France, composing most of his plays in French and writing his memoirs in that language. Even though his works became extremely popular in Italy, he could never be induced to revisit his native land.
Among the plays which he wrote in French, the most successful was ''[[Le Bourru bienfaisant]]'', produced on the occasion of the marriage of [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] and [[Marie Antoinette]] in 1771. He enjoyed considerable popularity in France, and when he retired to [[Versailles]] the King gave him a pension. However, he lost this pension once the [[French Revolution]] broke out. The Convention voted to restore his pension the day after his death. It was restored to his widow, at the pleading of the poet [[André Chénier]]. "She is old," he urged, "she is seventy-six, and her husband has left her no heritage save his illustrious name, his virtues and his poverty."
==Goldoni's impact on Italian theatre==
Goldoni relates in considerable length in his ''Memoirs'' the state of Italian comedy when he began writing. At that time, Italian comedy revolved around the conventionality of the [[Commedia dell'Arte]], or improvised comedy. Goldoni took to himself the task of superseding the comedy of masks and the comedy of intrigue by representations of actual life and manners. He rightly maintained that Italian life and manners were susceptible of artistic treatment such as had not been given them before.
In this project, Goldoni was entirely successful. His works are a lasting monument to the changes which he brought about: a dramatic revolution that had been attempted but not achieved before, by men whose talents were unequal to the task. Goldoni's importance was rather in giving good examples than precepts. Goldoni says that he took for his models the plays of Molière, and whenever a piece of his own succeeded he whispered to himself, "Good, but not yet Molière." The great Frenchman was the object of his idolatry. However, Goldoni's plays are gentler and more optimistic in tone than Molière's.
It was this very success the object of harsh critiques by Carlo Gozzi, who accused Goldoni of having deprived the Italian theatre of the charms of poetry and imagination. The great success of Gozzi's fairy dramas so irritated Goldoni that led to his self-exile to France.
It is somewhat remarkable that Goldoni should have been the only one of his many talented countrymen to win a European reputation as a comic writer. In tragedy other names have appeared since the death of [[Vittorio Alfieri]], but Goldoni still stands alone. This may be partly e |
ced ''[[Oh Mercy]]'' ([[1989 in music|1989]]). Lanois's influence is audible throughout ''[[Oh Mercy]]''. "Ring Them Bells" seems to call for Christians to maintain a visible presence in the world, perhaps adding fuel to the debate over Dylan's religious orientation. The track "Most of the Time", a ruminative lost love composition, was later prominently featured in the film ''[[High Fidelity]]'' while "What Was It You Wanted?" was a love song that doubled as a dry comment on the expectations of fans.
Dylan made a number of music videos during this period, but only "Political World" found any regular airtime on [[MTV]].
====1990s====
Dylan's 1990s began with ''[[Under the Red Sky]]'' ([[1990 in music|1990]]), an odd about-face from the serious ''Oh Mercy''. The album was dedicated to "Gabby Goo Goo", and contained several apparently simple songs, including "Under the Red Sky" and "Wiggle Wiggle." The "Gabby Goo Goo" dedication was later explained as a nickname for Dylan's four-year-old daughter. However, the story that the album's songs were written for her entertainment is plainly apocryphal. Sidemen on the album included [[George Harrison]], [[Slash (musician)|Slash]] from [[Guns N' Roses]], [[David Crosby]], [[Bruce Hornsby]], [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]], and [[Elton John]].
The next few years saw Dylan returning to his folk roots with two albums covering old folk and blues numbers: ''[[Good As I Been to You]]'' ([[1992 in music|1992]]) and ''[[World Gone Wrong]]'' ([[1993 in music|1993]]), featuring nuanced interpretations and ragged but highly original acoustic guitar work. His [[1995 in music|1995]] concert on ''[[MTV Unplugged]]'', and the album culled from it, marked Dylan's only newly recorded output during the mid-1990s. Essentially a [[greatest hits]] collection, it also included "John Brown", an unreleased 1963 song detailing the ravages of both war and [[jingoism]].
With a sheaf of songs reportedly written while snowed-in on his Minnesota ranch, Dylan returned to the recording studio with Lanois in January 1997. Late that spring, before the album's release, Dylan was hospitalized with a life-threatening heart infection, [[pericarditis]], brought on by [[histoplasmosis]]. His scheduled European tour was cancelled, but Dylan made a speedy recovery and left the hospital saying, "I really thought I'd be seeing [[Elvis Presley|Elvis]] soon." He was back on the road by midsummer, and in early fall performed before [[Pope John Paul II]] at the World Eucharistic Conference in [[Bologna]], [[Italy]].
September saw the release of the new Lanois-produced album, Dylan's first collection of original songs in seven years. ''[[Time Out of Mind]]'', with its bitter assessment of love and morbid ruminations, was highly acclaimed and achieved an unforeseen popularity among young listeners, particularly the song "Love Sick". This collection of complex songs won him his first solo Album of the Year [[Grammy Award]] (he was one of numerous performers on [[Concert for Bangladesh|''The Concert for Bangladesh'']], the 1972 winner). The ballad "To Make You Feel My Love", covered by both Garth Brooks and Billy Joel, generated more royalties than any song he had written since the 1960s.
====2000 and beyond====
In 2001, his song "Things Have Changed", penned for the film ''[[Wonder Boys]]'', won a [[Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song]] and an [[Academy Award for Best Song]]. For reasons unannounced, the Oscar (by some reports a facsimile) tours with him, presiding over shows perched atop an amplifier.
''[["Love and Theft"]]'', an album that explores diverse styles of American music and revisits Dylan's own creative roots, was released on [[September 11]], [[2001 in music|2001]]. Dylan produced the album himself under the pseudonym Jack Frost, and its distinctive sound is owes much to the accompanists. [[Tony Garnier (musician)|Tony Garnier]], bassist and bandleader, had played with Dylan for 12 years, longer than any other musician. Larry Campbell[http://www.members.cox.net/larrycampbell2000], one of the most accomplished American guitarists of the last two decades, played on the road with Dylan from 1997 through 2004. Guitarist [[Charlie Sexton]] and drummer [[David Kemper]] had also toured with Dylan for years. Keyboard player [[Augie Meyers]], the only musician not part of Dylan's touring band, had also played on ''Time Out of Mind''. The album was critically well-received, nominated for several Grammy awards, and sold strongly.
2003 saw the release of the film ''[[Masked & Anonymous]]'', a creative collaboration with television producer [[Larry Charles]], featured many well-known actors. Dylan and Charles cowrote the film under the pseudonyms Rene Fontaine and Sergei Petrov. As difficult to decipher as some of his songs, ''Masked & Anonymous'' was panned by most major critics and had a limited run in theaters.
In 2005 preproduction began on a film entitled ''I'm Not There: Suppositions on a Film Concerning Dylan'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0368794/]. The movie makes use of seven characters to represent the different aspects of Dylan's life. The movie is to be directed by [[Todd Haynes]], and the cast currently includes [[Cate Blanchett]], [[Christian Bale]] and [[Richard Gere]].
[[Martin Scorsese]]'s film biography ''[[No Direction Home]]'' was shown on [[September 26]] and [[September 27]] [[2005]] on [[BBC Two]] in the United Kingdom and [[PBS]] in the United States. [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/dylan/] A DVD of this film was released on [[September 20]], with an accompanying soundtrack released on [[August 20]], [[2005]].
Dylan himself returned to recording studio at some point in 2005. He recorded at least one song, entitled "Tell Ol' Bill" for the motion picture [[North Country (2005 film)|North Country]]. The song is an original composition, not the similarly titled traditional folk song.
In February 2006, Dylan recorded tracks for a new album in New York City the following week; it is expected to be released late in the spring. He is scheduled to resume touring in April. In May or June, he plans to begin hosting a weekly radio program for [[XM Satellite Radio]].
====Recent live performances====
Dylan has played roughly 100 dates a year for the entirety of the 1990s and the 2000s, a heavier schedule than most performers who started out in the 1960s. The "Never Ending Tour" continues, anchored by longtime bassist Tony Garnier and filled out with talented musicians better known to their peers than to their audiences. To the dismay of some fans Dylan refuses to be a nostalgia act; his reworked arrangements, evolving bands and experimental vocal approaches keep the music unpredictable night after night.
Dylan, once known as a guitar player, has not been playing guitar in live performance since 2002 (with very rare exceptions). Instead he chooses to play on the keyboard, with increasingly frequent harmonica solos. Various rumors have circulated as to why Dylan gave up his guitar, none terribly reliable. According to David Gates, a Newsweek reporter who interviewed Dylan in 2004, "...it has to do with his guitar not giving him quite the fullness of sound he was wanting at the bottom... He's thought of hiring a keyboard player so he doesn't have to do it himself, but hasn't been able to figure out who."
Dylan chooses songs from throughout his 40-year career, seldom playing the same set twice.
==Fan base==
Bob Dylan's large and vocal fan base write books, essays, '[[zine]]s, etc. at a furious rate. They also maintain a massive Internet presence with daily Dylan news, a site which rigorously documents every song he has ever played in concert, and one where visitors bet on what songs he will play on upcoming tours. Within minutes of the end of concerts, set lists and reviews are posted by his loyal following.
The poet laureate of Britain, [[Andrew Motion]], is a vocal supporter of Dylan's work, as are musicians [[Lou Reed]], [[Tom Waits]], [[Bruce Springsteen]], [[Tom Petty]], [[David Bowie]], [[Ian Hunter]], [[Neil Young]], and [[Mike Watt]].
The [[Dylan pool]], which was created in 2001 has been featured on CNN, CBC, BBC, and the Associated Press. To the [http://groups.google.ca/group/rec.music.dylan/msg/209f4d59425fd990?hl=en Associated Press], "The pool reflects both the obsessive interest Dylan still draws 40 years into his career and the way this road warrior has structured his career." It allows interaction between fans while adding a level of competition through the unique online Bob Dylan fantasy game.
==Chronicles Vol. 1==
After a lengthy delay, [[October 2004]] saw the publishing of Bob Dylan's autobiography, ''[[Chronicles, Vol. 1]]''. He once again confounded expectations. Dylan wrote three chapters about the year between his arrival in [[New York City]] in 1961 and recording his first album. Dylan focused on the brief period before he was a household name, while virtually ignoring the mid-1960s when his fame was at its height. He also devoted chapters to two lesser-known albums, ''[[New Morning]]'' (1970) and ''[[Oh Mercy]]'' (1989), which contained insights into his collaborations with poet [[Archibald MacLeish]] and producer [[Daniel Lanois]]. In the ''[[New Morning]]'' chapter, Dylan expresses distaste for the "spokesman of a generation" label bestowed upon him, and evinces disgust with his more fanatical followers.
Another section features Dylan's account of a guitar-strumming style in mathematical detail that he claimed was the key to his renaissance in the 1990s. Despite the [[opacity]] of some passages, there is an overall clarity in voice that is generally missing in Dylan's other prose writings, and a noticeable generosity towards friends and lov |
</tr> </table> </center>
As can be seen, even a system of two particles exhibits different statistical behaviors between distinguishable particles, bosons, and fermions. In the articles on [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]] and [[Bose-Einstein statistics]], these principles are extended to large number of particles, with qualitatively similar results.
==The [[homotopy class]]==
To understand why we have the statistics that we do for particles, we first have to note that particles are point localized excitations and that particles that are spacelike separated do not interact. In a flat d-dimensional space M, at any given time, the configuration of two identical particles can be specified as an element of M &times; M. If there is no overlap between the particles, so that they do not interact (at the same time, we are not referring to time delayed interactions here, which are mediated at the speed of light or slower), then we are dealing with the space [M &times; M]/{coincident points}, the subspace with coincident points removed. (x,y) describes the configuration with particle I at x and particle II at y. (y,x) describes the interchanged configuration. With identical particles, the state described by (x,y) ought to be indistinguishable (which ISN'T the same thing as identical!) from the state described by (y,x). Let's look at the [[homotopy class]] of continuous paths from (x,y) to (y,x). If M is '''R'''<sup>d</sup> where <math>d\geq 3</math>, then this homotopy class only has one element. If M is '''R'''<sup>2</sup>, then this homotopy class has countably many elements (i.e. a counterclockwise interchange by half a turn, a counterclockwise interchange by one and a half turns, two and a half turns, etc, a clockwise interchange by half a turn, etc). In particular, a counterclockwise interchange by half a turn is NOT [[homotopic]] to a clockwise interchange by half a turn. Lastly, if M is '''R''', then this homotopy class is empty. Obviously, if M is not isomorphic to '''R'''<sup>d</sup>, we can have more complicated homotopy classes...
What does this all mean?
Let's first look at the case <math>d\geq 3</math>. The [[universal covering space]] of [M &times; M]/{coincident points}, which is none other than [M &times; M]/{coincident points} itself, only has two points which are physically indistinguishable from (x,y), namely (x,y) itself and (y,x). So, the only permissible interchange is two swap both particles. Performing this interchange twice gives us (x,y) back again. If this interchange results in a multiplication by +1, then we have Bose statistics and if this interchange results in a multiplication by -1, we have Fermi statistics.
Now how about '''R'''<sup>2</sup>? The universal covering space of [M &times; M]/{coincident points} has infinitely many points which are physically indistinguishable from (x,y). This is described by the infinite [[cyclic group]] generated by making a counterclockwise half-turn interchange. Unlike the previous case, performing this interchange twice in a row does not lead us back to the original state. So, such an interchange can generically result in a multiplication by exp(i&theta;) (its absolute value is 1 because of [[unitarity]]...). This is called [[anyon]]ic statistics. In fact, even with two DISTINGUISHABLE particles, even though (x,y) is now physically distinguishable from (y,x), if we go over to the universal covering space, we still end up with infinitely many points which are physically indistinguishable from the original point and the interchanges are generated by a counterclockwise rotation by one full turn which results in a multiplication by exp(i&phi;). This phase factor here is called the [[mutual statistics]].
As for '''R''', even if particle I and particle II are identical, we can always distinguish between them by the labels "the particle on the left" and "the particle on the right". There is no interchange symmetry here and such particles are called plektons.
The generalization to n identical particles doesn't give us anything qualitatively new because they are generated from the exchanges of two identical particles.
[[Category:Particle physics]]
[[Category:Permutations]]
[[es:Partículas idénticas]]
[[sk:Nerozlíšiteľné častice]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interstitial cystitis</title>
<id>15354</id>
<revision>
<id>40907834</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T20:42:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.174.140.81</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ de:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = {{PAGENAME}} |
ICD10 = {{ICD10|N|30|1|n|30}} |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|595.1}} |
ICDO = |
Image = |
Caption = |
OMIM = |
MedlinePlus = 000477 |
eMedicineSubj = med |
eMedicineTopic = 2866 |
DiseasesDB = 30832 |
}}
'''Interstitial cystitis''' (commonly abbreviated to "IC") is a [[urinary bladder]] [[disease]] of unknown cause characterised by pelvic and intense bladder pain, urinary frequency (as often as every 10 minutes), and pain with [[urination]]. It is not unusual for patients to experience [[nocturia]] and pain with [[sexual intercourse]]. IC is also known as painful bladder syndrome (PBS), particularly outside of the USA.
IC affects men and women of all cultures, socioeconomics and ages. Previously believed to be a condition of [[menopause|menopausal]] women, growing numbers of men and women are being diagnosed in their twenties and younger. IC is not a rare condition. Recent research suggests that IC prevalence ranges from 1 in 100,000 to 5.1 in 1,000 of the general population. New epidemiological data for the United States should be released in 2006.
It is not unusual for patients to have beeen misdiagnosed with a variety of other conditions, including: overactive bladder, [[urethritis]], [[urethral syndrome]], [[trigonitis]], [[prostatitis]] and other generic terms used to describe frequency/urgency symptoms in the urinary tract.
==Causes==
The cause of [[interstitial]] cystitis is unknown, though several theories have been put forward (these include [[autoimmune]], [[neurologic]], [[allergic]] and [[genetics|genetic]]). Regardless of the origin, it is clear that IC patients struggle with a damaged mucin, aka the GAG layer, aka bladdering lining. When this protective coating is damaged (perhaps via a UTI, excessive consumption of coffees or sodas, traumatic injury, etc.), urinary chemicals can "leak" into surrounding tissues causing pain, inflammation and urinary symptoms. Oral medications like [[Elmiron]] and medications which are placed directly into the bladder via a [[catheter]] work to repair and hopefully rebuild this damaged/wounded lining, allowing for a reduction in symptoms.
Recent work by the [[University of Maryland, Baltimore]] indicates that genetics are a factor in, and may even (in some cases) be the cause of IC. Two genes, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=606146 FZD8] and [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=167870 PAND], are associated with the syndrome. FZD8, at gene map locus 10p11.2, is assocated with an antiproliferative factor secreted by the bladders of IC patients which "profoundly inhibits bladder cell proliferation," thus causing the missing bladder lining. PAND, at gene map locus 13q22-q32, is associated with a constellation of disorders (a "pleiotropic syndrome") including IC and other bladder and kidney problems, thyroid diseases, serious headaches/migraines, panic disorder, and mitral valve prolapse.
==Symptoms==
It may well be that the symptoms of interstitial cystitis have multiple causes, and IC is actually several syndromes which will eventually be discerned. For example, patients with [[Hunner's Ulcers]] are believed to be the most advanced cases. They have larger "wounds" in the bladder that are much more difficult to treat. It is estimated that only 5 to 10% of patients have these ulcers. Far more patients may experience a very mild form of IC, in which they have no visible [[wounds]] in their bladder, yet struggle with symptoms of frequency, urgency and/or pain. Still other patients may have discomfort only in their [[urethra]], while others struggle with pain in the entire pelvis. Some patients may experience [[pelvic floor]] tightness and [[dysfunction]], while others have normal muscle tone.
Often the symptoms of IC are misdiagnosed as a "common" bladder infection ([[cystitis]]), however unlike cystitis, IC has not been conclusively proven to be a [[bacterial infection]] and the mis-prescribed treatment of [[antibiotics]] is ineffective. The symptoms of IC may also initially be attributed to [[prostatitis]] and [[epididymitis]] (in men) and [[endometriosis]] and [[uterine fibroids]] (in women).
==Diagnosis==
Diagnosis has been greatly simplied in recent years with the development of two new methodologies. The Pelvic Pain Urgency/Frequency (PUF) Patient Survey, created by C. Lowell Parsons, is a short questionnaire that will help doctors identify if pelvic pain could be coming from the bladder. The KCL Test, aka the Potassium Sensitivity Test, uses a mild [[potassium]] solution to test the integrity of the bladder wall. Though the latter is not specific for IC, it has been determined to be helpful in predicting the use of compounds, such as [[pentosan]], which are designed to help repair the GAG layer. The previous "gold standard" test for IC was the use of hydrodistention with cystoscopy. Researchers, however, determined that this visual examination of the bladder wall after stretching the bladder was also not specific for IC and that the test, itself, can contribut |
t; motion over a shape might delete the shape.
Gestural interfaces are rarer, and often harder to use, than plain pointing and clicking, because they require finer motor control from the user. However, a few gestural conventions have become widespread, including the ''[[drag-and-drop]]'' gesture, in which:
#The user presses the mouse button while the mouse cursor is over an object;
#Holds down the button while moving the cursor to a different location;
#Releases the mouse button.
This motion is commonly used to move the item from one location to another&mdash;the item is dragged from its old location and dropped in its new one. For example, a user might drag and drop a picture of a file from a folder onto a picture of a trash can, indicating that the file should be deleted.
Other uses of the mouse's input are common in special application domains. In interactive [[3D computer graphics|three-dimensional graphics]], the mouse's motion is often directly translated into changes in the virtual camera's orientation. For example, in the [[Quake computer game]], the mouse is usually used to control the direction in which the player's "head" faces: moving the mouse up will cause the player to look up, revealing the view above the player's head.
When mice have more than one button, software may assign different functions to each button. Often, the primary (leftmost in a [[right-handed]] configuration) button on the mouse will select items, and the secondary (rightmost in a right-handed) button will bring up a menu of alternative actions applicable to that item. For example, on platforms with more than one button, the [[Mozilla]] web browser will follow a link in response to a primary button click, will bring up a contextual menu of alternative actions for that link in response to a secondary-button click, and will often open the link in a new [[Tab (GUI)|tab]] or [[window (computing)|window]] in response to a click with the tertiary (middle) mouse button.
===One, two or three mouse buttons?===
[[Image:Apple mouse Pro.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A one-button Apple pro mouse, manufactured until [[August 2005]] ([[commons:apple_mouse|More Apple mice]])]]
The issue of whether a mouse should have exactly one button or more than one has attracted a surprising amount of controversy. From the first Macintosh until late [[2005]], Apple shipped computers with a single-button mouse, whereas most other platforms used a multi-button mouse. Apple and its advocates argued that single-button mice are more efficient, and that multi-button mice are confusing for novice users. The Macintosh user interface is designed so that all functions are available with a single button mouse. Apple's Human Interface Guidelines still specify that all functions need to be available with a single button mouse. However, [[X Window System]] applications, which [[Mac OS X]] can also run, were designed with the use of two or even three button mice in mind, causing even simple operations like "[[cut and paste]]" to become awkward. Mac OS X natively supports multi-button mice, so many users of older Macintoshes choose to use third-party mice on their machines. On [[August 2]], [[2005]], Apple introduced their [[Apple Mighty Mouse|Mighty Mouse]] multi-button mouse, which has four independently programmable buttons and a "scroll ball" which can be used to scroll in any direction. This is now the mouse supplied with all new Macintosh computers.
Advocates of multiple-button mice point out that support for a single button mouse often leads to clumsy workarounds in interfaces where more than one action may be useful for a given object. There are several common workarounds, and even widely used Macintosh software packages that otherwise fully conform to the Human Interface Guidelines, including [[web browser]]s and graphics editing programs, occasionally require the use of one of them.
One such workaround is the press-and-hold technique. In a press-and-hold, the user presses and holds the single button, and after a certain period, the button press is not perceived as a single click but as a separate action. This has two drawbacks: first, as with double-clicking, a slow user may press-and-hold inadvertently. Second, the user must wait while the software detects that the click is actually a press-and-hold, otherwise their press might be interpreted as a single click. Furthermore, the remedies for these two drawbacks conflict with each other: the longer the lag time, the more the user must wait; and the shorter the lag time, the more likely it is that some user will accidentally press-and-hold when meaning to click.
Alternatively, the user may be required to hold down a key on the [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] while pressing the button (otherwise known as [[mouse chording]] - Macintosh computers use the [[ctrl]] key). This has the disadvantage that it requires that both the user's hands be engaged. It also requires that the user perform two actions on completely separate devices in concert; that is, pressing a key on the keyboard while pressing a button on the mouse. This can be a very daunting task for a disabled user. Studies have found all of the above workarounds less usable than additional mouse buttons for experienced users.
Most machines running [[Unix]] or a [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]] run the [[X Window System]] which almost always requires a three button mouse. In X, the buttons are numbered by convention. This allows user instructions to apply to mice or pointing devices that do not use conventional button placement. For example, a left handed user may reverse the buttons, usually with a software setting. With non-conventional button placement, user directions that say "left mouse button" or "right mouse button" are confusing. The ground-breaking [[Xerox Parc]] [[Xerox Alto|Alto]] and [[Xerox Dorado|Dorado]] computers from the mid-[[1970]]s used three-button mice, and each button was assigned a color. [[Red]] was used for the left (or primary) button, [[yellow]] for the middle (secondary), and [[blue]] for the right (meta or tertiary). This naming convention lives on in some [[SmallTalk]] environments, such as [[Squeak]], and can be less confusing than the right, middle and left designations.
Newer mice have a [[scroll wheel]] between two buttons, and pressing the scroll wheel acts as a middle mouse button (button two). In addition, mice with five or more buttons can be useful in several environments. Microsoft's Intellimouse is the best-known of these mice, but other brands exist and are often preferred due to the bulk of some Intellimice. The extra buttons are most frequently used in browsing the web or navigating with a [[file browser]].
==Mice in gaming==
Mice are often used as an interface for PC-based [[computer and video games|computer games]] and sometimes for [[video game console]]s. They are often used in combination with [[Computer keyboard|keyboards]]. In arguments over which is the best gaming platform, the mouse is often cited as a major advantage for the PC.
=== First-person shooters ===
A combination of mouse and keyboard is a popular way to play [[First-person shooter|first-person shooter (FPS)]] games. The X axis of the mouse is used for looking left and right, while the Y axis is used for looking up and down. The left mouse button is usually for primary fire. Many gamers prefer this over a [[gamepad]] or [[joystick]] because it allows them to turn quickly and have greater accuracy. The right button is often used for secondary fire of the selected gun, if the game supports multiple fire modes. A scroll wheel is used for changing weapons. On most FPS games, these functions may also be assigned to thumb buttons. A keyboard is usually used for movement (for example, [[WASD]], for moving forward, left, backward and right, respectively) and other functions like changing posture. Since the mouse is used for aiming, a mouse that tracks movement accurately and with less lag will give a player an advantage over players with less accurate or slower mice.
==== Invert mouse setting ====
In many games, such as first or third person shooters, there is a setting called "invert mouse" or similar. It allows the user to look downward by moving the mouse forward, and upward by moving the mouse backward (the opposite of the default setting). This control system is similar to aircraft control sticks, where pulling back causes pitch up and pushing forward causes pitch down; this control configuration is also typically mimicked in computer [[joystick]]s.
After [[id Software]]'s [[Doom]], the game that popularized FPS games, but which did not support vertical aiming with a mouse (the y-axis was used for forward/backward movement), competitor [[3D Realms]]' ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'' was one of the first games that supported using the mouse to aim up and down. It and other games using the [[Build engine]] had an option to invert the Y-axis (moving the mouse forward aims up, moving the mouse backward aims down). The "invert" feature actually made the mouse behave in the way that we now regard as normal. Soon after, id Software released ''[[Quake]]'' which introduced the invert feature as we know it now. Other games using the [[Quake engine]] were released and kept this feature. Probably because of the overall popularity of ''Quake'', this became the current standard.
==== Super Nintendo ====
In the early 1990s, the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]] video game system became the first commercial gaming console to feature a [[SNES mouse|mouse]] in addition to its controllers. The best-known game to have used the mouse's capabilities was ''[[Mario Paint]]''.
==See also==
*[[Trackball]]
*[[SpaceBall]]
*[[Touchpad]], also known as trackpad
*[[Pointing stick]]
*[[Computer accessibility]]
*[[Mousepad]]
*[[Footmouse]]
*[[Mouse gesture]]
*[[Repetitive strain injury]]
==Further re |
oke may get started but within a few generations of distribution it evolves beyond recognition. A classic example is the well-known "[[you have two cows]]" joke - after circulating in more primitive media throughout the [[1980s]], it seems to have first appeared on the Internet in [[1993]] with simple descriptions of [[communism]], [[capitalism]], and [[socialism]]. However, it was later expanded to include all forms of government, regional variations, philosophical systems, and even art movements. Attempting to define an "author" of the joke hence becomes impossible, and it becomes a publicly owned resource, simply because no-one could validly claim legitimate ownership.
Though the Internet has allowed the global explosion of collectively-authored comedy, its precursors existed on [[bulletin board]]s, corporate messaging systems, and even through such low-tech mechanisms as the [[facsimile]] since at least the 1970s.
==Examples==
*[[Lightbulb joke]]s
*[[You have two cows]]
*[[Happening Happy Hippy Party]]
*[[Honor system virus]]
*[[Bash.org]]
*[[Shit happens]]
*[[You forgot Poland]]
*[[Evil Overlord List]]
*The [[Tourist guy|Accidental Tourist]] pictures
*[[YTMND]]
*[[All your base are belong to us]]
*[[Bert is Evil]]
*[[Internets_(colloquialism)|Internets]]
*[[Encyclopediadramatica]]
==See also==
*[[Urban legend]]
*[[Internet cartoons]]
*[[Internet phenomenon]]
[[Category:Web humor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>You have two cows</title>
<id>15129</id>
<revision>
<id>38924007</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T15:21:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wiki alf</username>
<id>303874</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.201.5.115|65.201.5.115]] ([[User talk:65.201.5.115|talk]]) to last version by 68.85.232.135</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Two cows grazing.jpg|256px|right|thumb|Your two cows.]]
"'''You have two cows'''" is the beginning phrase for a series of [[politics|political]] [[joke]] definitions. "You have two cows" jokes originated as a [[parody]] of typical introductory-level [[economics]] course material examples featuring a farmer in a moneyless society, using his cattle and produce to trade with his neighbors. The examples ran along the lines of ''"You have two cows; you want chickens; you set out to find another farmer who has chickens and wants a cow."'' They were meant to show the limitations of the [[barter]] system, leading to the eventual introduction of currency and [[money]]. The "two cows" parodies however, place the cow-owner in a fully fledged economic system where cows are used as a [[metaphor]] for all [[currency]], [[capital (economics)|capital]], [[means of production]] and economic [[property]]. The intent is often to point out flaws and absurdities in those systems.
==Cows and economic systems==
The first "two cows" jokes were meant to compare opposing [[economic system]]s such as [[capitalism]] and [[communism]], typically by describing how [[government]] and [[bureaucracy]] would interfere with one's quiet enjoyment of one's cows. The jokes evolved into [[satire]] of various political, cultural, social and philosophical systems and theories. Eventually, virtually anything has come to be usable as "cow joke fodder." Newsworthy events involving actual cows ([[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|Mad Cow]] outbreaks) have also been used as material.
==The early days of the internet==
The definitions are examples of the first [[internet humor|Internet jokes]] that circulated in the early days of the [[Internet]]. However, the initial variants of these jokes predated the widespread adoption of the Internet and were circulating in typewritten form even by the early [[1960s]]. Being such a readily understood source of humor in many cultures, "two cows" jokes became a part of the international development of the [[World Wide Web]]. The jokes are still circulated today, and are translated and quoted on many websites, in dozens of versions, with newer "definitions" added every year. [[Tucows]], the popular download site, is rumored to have taken its name from these jokes, rather than from ''The Ultimate Collection Of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]'' (or ''[[Winsock]]'') ''Software'' as implied by its logo, and thus alleged to be a [[backronym]] of the joke.
==Cross-cultural humor==
Because of their freedom and universality of topics, "two cows" jokes are sometimes considered a good example of "cross-cultural [[humor]]." They can be concise examples (not necessarily scientific) of how different cultures can express different visions of the same political concept, by [[paradox]], [[hyperbole]], or [[sarcasm]]. In practice, most such jokes reflect the views of outsiders to the systems being satirised. In the spirit of finding international common ground, some also see them as humorous manifestations of an underlying general scheme of [[political science]] that would compare legal or political concepts, such as the [[right]]s of [[ownership]], across cultures around the world.
==Other cows and humor==
Cows themselves are a frequent subject matter of humor, involved in works such as [[Wikipedia:Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense/ASCII cows|cow ASCII art]], [[cow tipping]], and [[The Far Side]]. Some have conjectured that the word ''cow'' may be an [[inherently funny word]], as invoked in the term "[[holy cow]]" and the [[compound (linguistics)|compound]] [[dvigu]]. Incidentally, "chicken" is also regarded as an inherently funny word.
==See also==
* [[Cow tipping]]
==External links==
*[http://www.YouHaveTwoCows.com/ TheCapitol.Net You Have Two Cows... at YouHaveTwoCows.com]
*[[Uncyclopedia:You have two cows]]
*[http://www.zodanet.com/lollerpedia/index.php/Jokebook:You_have_two_cows Lollerpedia You have two cows] ''GFDL wiki''
[[Category:Jokes]]
[[Category:Metaphors]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[he:יש לך שתי פרות]]
[[fr:Vous avez deux vaches]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Lightbulb joke</title>
<id>15134</id>
<revision>
<id>42160875</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:36:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ragesoss</username>
<id>319203</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Basic Variations */ add feminist joke</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Zarowa_ubt.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A light bulb]]
The '''lightbulb joke''' is an example of an endless-variations [[joke]] and has possibly thousands of versions covering every imaginable culture, belief, occupation and special-interest group. Generally the punchline is not complimentary to the group providing the subject of the joke.
The generally acknowledged "original" goes as follows:
:''Q: How many'' [insert chosen group here] ''does it take to change a [[lightbulb]]?''
:''A-1: Ten &mdash; one to hold the lightbulb and nine to turn the ladder around.''
:''A-2: Any quantity n &mdash; one to hold the lightbulb and n-1 to behave in a fashion generally associated with a negative [[stereotype]] of that group.''
==Basic Variations==
Even the original is subject to variation, the most common involving more people turning the entire house around.
Once the subject is chosen, variations on the joke tend to achieve their comedic effect by highlighting features of the cultural or social group based on altering five main variables:
* the '''quantity''' (ten, three, two, none, millions) of light bulb changers can be adjusted in unexpected ways in the punchline
:''Q: How many martians does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: One and a half.''
:'' Q: How many statisticians does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: 1.0 +/- 0.3, 19 times out of 20.''
:''Q: How many software engineers does it take to change a light bulb?''
:''A: None, it's a hardware problem.''
* the '''duration''' can be introduced as a variable, usually if the answer is "one"
:''Q: How many evolutionists does it take to change a light bulb?''
:''A: Only one, but it takes eight billion years.''
* the word '''screw''' can be used to mean either a [[screw|threaded fastener]], to make a mess of something, or the act of [[sexual intercourse]]
:''Q: How many bureaucrats does it take to screw in a lightbulb?''
:''A: Any number, but they always screw it up.''
:''Q: How many men does it take to install a light bulb?''
:''A: Three. One to install it, and two to listen to him brag about the ''screwing''.
:''Q: How many feminists does it take to screw in a lightbulb''
:''A: That's not funny!''
:''Q: How many Californians does it take to screw in a lightbulb?''
:''A: Californians don't screw in light bulbs, they screw in hot tubs.''
:''Q: How many mice does it take to screw in a lightbulb?''
:''A: Only two, but God knows how they got in there!''
* the word '''[[light]]''' can be used to mock or highlight the attitude of the subject towards light or darkness
:''Q: How many Zen gurus does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: None; only the inner light matters.''
* the word '''change''' can refer either to replacing a light bulb or making a cultural or structural change
:''Q: How many psychologists does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: One, but only if the lightbulb really wants to change.''
Other variations exist that achieve their effect through dramatic alteration of the joke paradigm itself; for example, by revealing the joke variables in an extremely long fashion.
:''Q: How many science fiction writers does it take to change a light bulb?''
:''A: Two, but it's actually the same person doing it. He went back in time and met himself in the doorway and then the first one sat on the other one's shoulder so that they were able to reach it. Then |
what's going on that's stronger than any one news organization could offer," said Jimmy Wales, founder of the online encyclopedia Wikipedia. "So many people are on the ground in different places. And people pick up very quickly which are the bloggers to read, and they bring that information to the forefront and amplify it."
::"Volunteers at Wikipedia, a collaborative site that can be edited by virtually anyone, quickly created a Web page dedicated to the earthquake and tsunamis. Users have posted photos, graphics and a robust list of links to other sources of information. As of Thursday, the page had been edited 1,500 times, Wales said."
::"It's a place for people to synthesize all of the information and sort through it," Wales said.
::''Please note that '''[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia as a press source]]''' is where to view or add articles in which the media uses Wikipedia as a source, but doesn't explicitly talk about the project itself.''
==Esperanto==
*'''"Esperanta Vikipedio atingis 10 000 artikolojn"''' - [http://www.uea.org/revuo/2004/enhavo_januaro.html ''Revuo Esperanto'' (UEA, Rotterdam), January 2004] pp. 6-7, 12 (unfortunately not one of the online articles) - Celebrating the 10,000th-article mark in the [[:eo:&#264;efpa&#285;o|Esperanto Wikipedia]], this 2½-page article goes into a fair amount of detail about the project, with emphasis on the Esperanto version and the multilingual nature of Wikipedia. Paragraph headings range from ''Kio &#285;i estas?'' [What is it?], through ''Kiel oni redaktas Vikion?'' [How does one edit a Wiki?], to ''Altaj Valoroj de Vikipedio'' [High values of Wikipedia], and ''Granda kreskrapido'' [Tremendous growth]. The article is attributed to [http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arno_LAGRANGE Arno Lagrange], "kunredaktita de la vikipediistoj".
*'''[http://gxangalo.com/noticoj/1720.html &#284;angalo]''' published the article ''Vikipedio atingis unu milionon da artikoloj'' (Wikipedia reached one million articles).
*The Esperanto staff of '''[http://www.radio.com.pl/polonia Radio Polonia]''' had a 20-minute interview with Chuck Smith about Wikipedia. See [http://members.aon.at/aldone/retradio/progr021.html] (27-04-2002) for RealAudio download.
==French==
*[http://www.largeur.com/printArt.asp?artID=1512 Largeur.com]
*[http://www.01net.com/ 01net.com]: '''[http://www.01net.com/article/252216.html Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie Web dont vous êtes le rédacteur].''' Notes the millionth article, forthcoming CD/DVD version from Mandrakesoft, Wikimedia Foundation's aims.
*A positive, albeit somewhat uninformed [http://www.liberation.fr/page.php?Article=255781&AG article] in the moderate left-wing national daily [[Libération]] (mentioned on the front page!).
*A very negative [http://leserged.online.fr/img/charliepedia.png] article in the far left-wing [[:fr:Charlie Hebdo|Charlie Hebdo]]. The author accuses Wikipedia of favoring the majority opinion, which may include [[cliché]]s, obsolete data and [[fad]]s, over scientific knowledge. The article finishes by criticizing the Wikipedia project as ''anarcho-libéral'' (anarcho-capitalist), replacing publicly-funded research by catalogues of beliefs.
*A short presentation of the French version of Wikipedia in [http://www.laviedunet.be/VDN/Viedunet/Le_Guide/Mise_au_net/Culturel/page_5043_285468.asp laviedunet.be], an extra of the Belgian newspaper [[Le Soir]].
==German==
*'''[http://www.sueddeutsche.de/jobkarriere/berufstudium/artikel/792/25767/ Süddeutsche Zeitung]''' publishes an article by [[user:Eloquence|Eloquence]] about wikipedia. It includes statements from the German Wikipedia press-liaison and from [[Brockhaus]], the publisher of a German Encyclopedia. January 30, 2004
*'''[http://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/netzkultur/0,1518,287730,00.html Spiegel Online]''', the online edition of the largest German news magazine publishes a full length article on Wikipedia including statements by four different Wikipedians. February 24, 2004
*The Austrian "quality" daily ''Die Presse'' ( http://www.diepresse.com ) publishes an article by their computer expert on the English and German Wikipedia. June 6, 2004 (weekend edition). [http://www.diepresse.com/Artikel.aspx?channel=h&ressort=ho&id=425222&archiv=false]
*The ''Frankfurter Rundschau'' runs a lengthy article on Wikipedia: "The Brockhaus [a popular German encyclopedia publisher] has got serious competition. Within a few years the Wikipedia encyclopedia has developed into one of the most extensive reference books on the Internet - and it continues to grow constantly." ("[http://www.fr-aktuell.de/ressorts/wissen/netzwert/?cnt=454244& Wissens-Wert]", June 16, 2004)
*The '''[http://www.heise.de/ct/tv/archiv/20041009/#51787 c't Magazin TV]''' will compare Wikipedia with the Brockhaus DVD and Microsoft Encharta on October 9 2004. The video will be available [http://www.heise.de/ct/tv/archiv/20041009/#51787 here]. See also the newsticker on [http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/51942 Heise online].
* Wikipedia recieves a very favourable review in a comparison of the leading digital encyclopedias by the German newspaper '''[[Die Zeit]]''': [http://www.zeit.de/2004/43/C-Enzyklop_8adien-Test], October 15 2004.
* German Wikipedia CD reviewed and promoted via the German [[AP]]: [http://de.news.yahoo.com/041026/12/49lc1.html], October 26, 2004
==Hebrew==
* Wikipedia is called "one of the most ambitious projects in the history of humanity" and an "optimistic worldview that has overcome cyncism and scepticism" in this very favourable article by the Israeli portal "Nana" on [[October 22]], [[2004]]. [http://weekend.nana.co.il/Article/?ArticleID=153606&sid=78]
==Hungarian==
* Wikipedia was a topic of ''Digitális'' (''Digital'') in the national radio "Kossuth" on [[February 11]], [[2004]]. (Number of registered editors jumped from 50 to 125.)
==Italian==
* An article on Wikipedia has come out on ''Corriere della Sera Magazine'' the weekly magasine distribuited with ''il Corriere della Sera'' one of the most important Italian newspeaper. The article is on page 156 of the number of [[02 december]] [[2004]]. The title is ''Da grande voglio fare il giornalista'' that I may translate as ''As an adult, I want to be a journalist''. The article point out the freedom to anyone to write, the vast eclectic argument trated, the neutral point of view system, the collaborative system and the review by other member system. The article deals of the internationalization of the project and point out both the English version and the Italian version
==Irish==
* '''[http://homepages.iol.ie/~rnl102/ Raidió na Life]''', an [[Irish language|Irish-language]] [[community radio]] station in Dublin, Ireland, recorded a brief interview (about five minutes) on 16th April with [[User:Kwekubo|Gabriel Beecham]] on Wikipedia, specifically focussing on the Irish version. The package was aired during the evening show ''Fios Feasa'' the following week.
==Norwegian==
*http://magasinet.kulturnett.no/artikkel.php?id=4050bede90712&sn=magasinet
*[http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/nett/article877281.ece '''Wikipedia mest populært i uke 39'''], [[Aftenposten]], [[September 25]], [[2004]].
*[http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/nett/article883072.ece '''Gratis leksikon verdens største'''], [[Aftenposten]], [[October 4]], [[2004]].
*[http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/nett/article883070.ece '''Overraskende bra'''], [[Aftenposten]], [[October 4]], [[2004]].
==Persian==
* In an Q&A column of the [[Shargh]] newspaper on [[December 13]], [[2003]], when someone asks "I need some information about the United Nations. Please help me to find some.", Shargh answers "'''www.un.org'''. But you can find answers to such questions on an Internet encyclopedia at '''www.wikipedia.com'''". [http://www.sharghnewspaper.com/820922/end.htm#s8697]
==Romanian==
===March===
* A short [http://www.gardianul.ro/articol.php?a=mediacultura2004030206.xml article] on Wikipedia appeared in the [[March 2]]nd, [[2004]] edition of [http://www.gardianul.ro Gardianul], a Romanian newspaper, following the 1/2 Million press release. The article is a highly stripped-down version of the [http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Primul_comunicat_de_pres%C4%83_al_Wikimedia actual press release].
===April===
* A [http://www.chip.ro/stiri.php?id=5068 detailed article] based on the press release [http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Primul_comunicat_de_pres%C4%83_al_Wikimedia/Arhiv%C4%83/7_aprilie_2004 Wikipedia in romanian, 5.000 articles] was written on [[April 8]]th, [[2004]] in the electronic version of [http://www.chip.ro Chip], a romanian IT magazine.
* A [http://www.evz.ro/social/?news_id=151704 brief summary] of the last press release, [http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Primul_comunicat_de_pres%C4%83_al_Wikimedia/Arhiv%C4%83/7_aprilie_2004 Wikipedia in romanian, 5.000 articles] appeared in the [[April 13]]th, [[2004]] edition of [http://www.ez.ro Evenimentul Zilei], a very large circulation Romanian newspaper.
===July===
* A [http://www.banateanul.ro/articol/ziar/timisoara/informatie-la-click/2694/162/ detailed article] about Wikipedia appeared in the [[July 27]]th, [[2004]] edition of [http://www.banateanul.ro B&#259;n&#259;&#355;eanul], a regional Romanian newspaper, with distribution in Timi&#351;oara and Banat.
==Russian==
*[http://www.computerra.ru/offline/2004/555/35627/ &#1050;&#1072;&#1082; &#1089;&#1090;&#1072;&#1090;&#1100; &#1042;&#1086;&#1083;&#1100;&#1090;&#1077;&#1088;&#1086;&#1084;, &#1080;&#1083;&#1080; &#1089;&#1072;&#1084;&#1072;&#1103; &#1089;&#1074;&#1086;&#1073;&#1086;&#1076;&#1085;&#1072;&#1103; &#1101;&#1085;&#10 |
he:אסון ביילמר]]
[[ja:エル・アル航空1862便墜落事故]]
[[nl:Bijlmerramp]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BSA</title>
<id>4959</id>
<revision>
<id>42088068</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:20:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Suppafly</username>
<id>83446</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[initialism|initials]] '''BSA''' could stand for:
* [[Bank Secrecy Act]]
* [[Basic Skills Agency]]
* [[Birmingham Small Arms Company]] - British manufacturer of military equipment and vehicles including motorcycles.
* [[Blackwell Science Asia]]
* [[Body surface area]]
* [[Boston Society of Architects]]
* [[Botanical Society of America]]
* [[Bovine serum albumin]]
* [[Boy Scouts of America]]
* [[British School at Athens]]
* [[British Snowboarding Association]]
* [[British Social Attitudes]]
* [[British Society of Audiology]]
* [[British Sociological Association]]
* [[British Stammering Association]]
* [[British Surfing Association]]
* [[Broadcasting Standards Authority]]
* [[Brookhaven Science Associates]]
* [[Building Societies Association]]
* [[Bulgarian Studies Association]]
* [[Business Software Alliance]]
* [[UK Boarding Schools Association]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:BSA]]
[[fr:BSA]]
[[nl:BSA]]
[[ja:BSA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Birmingham Small Arms Company</title>
<id>4960</id>
<revision>
<id>42119265</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:15:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rickwnz</username>
<id>1025723</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Post World War II */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Birmingham Small Arms Company''' ('''BSA''') was a [[United Kingdom|British]] manufacturer of [[military]] equipment and [[vehicle]]s.
==History==
BSA was founded in 1861 in the [[Gun Quarter, Birmingham]] by fourteen gunsmiths of the [[Birmingham]] Small Arms Trade Association, [[England]], who had together supplied arms to the British government during the [[Crimean War]]. The company branched out as the gun trade declined; in the 1880s the company began to manufacture [[bicycle]]s and in 1903 the company's first experimental [[motorcycle]] was constructed. Their first prototype automobile was produced in 1907 and the next year the company sold 150 automobiles. By 1909 they were offering a number of motorcycles for sale and in 1910 BSA purchased the British [[Daimler]] Company for its automobile engines.
===World War One===
During [[World War I]], the company returned to arms manufacture and greatly expanded its operations. BSA produced [[rifle]]s and [[Lewis gun]]s, but also [[shell (projectile)|shells]], motorcycles and other vehicles for the struggle. In 1920, it bought the assets of a short-lived plane builder [[Airco]].
In the 1930's the board of directors authorised expenditure on bringing their arms-making equipment back to use - it had been stored at company expense since the end of the Great War in the belief that BSA might again be called upon to perform its patriotic duty.
===World War Two===
By [[World War II]], BSA had 67 factories and was well positioned to meet the demand for [[gun]]s and [[ammunition]]. BSA operations were also dispersed to other companies under licence. During the war it produced over a million [[Lee-Enfield]] rifles and half a million [[Browning Model 1919 machine gun|Browning machine gun]]s. Wartime demands included motorcycle production. BSA supplied 126,000 M20 motorcycles to the armed forces, from 1937 (and later until 1950) plus military bicycles including the folding paratrooper bicycle. At the same time, the Daimler concern was producing armoured cars.
===Post war===
Post-war, BSA continued to expand the range of metal goods it produced. The BSA Group bought [[Triumph Motorcycles|Triumph]] in 1951, making them the largest producer of motorcycles in the world.
The company made automobiles in 1907 to 1915, 1921 to 1926, 1932 to 1939, and 1960. The [[Daimler]] nameplate produced cars for BSA from 1910 to 1915 and 1915 to 1960. [[Lanchester Motor Company]] cars also became part of the BSA. There were cars bearing the BSA name itself from 1930 to 1939 [http://www.bsafwdc.co.uk/]. In 1960 Daimler was sold off to [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]].
The Group continued to expand and acquire throughout the 1950s but by 1965 competition from [[Japan]] (in the shape of companies like [[Honda]]) and [[Germany]] was eroding BSA's market share. Some poor marketing decisions and expensive projects contributed to substantial losses. By 1972 BSA was so moribund that it was absorbed into [[Manganese Bronze]] in a rescue plan initiated by the Department of Industry and many of the acquisitions were separated or sold. The motorcycle business was hard hit - plans to rescue and combine Norton, BSA and Triumph failed in the face of worker resistance and Norton's and BSA's factories were shut down, while Triumph staggered on to fail four years later. Only the limited NVT Motorcycles survived. Enjoying the rights to the BSA marque, it was bought-out by the management and renamed the BSA Company.
The BSA cycle arm was sold off to [[Raleigh (bicycle)|Raleigh]] in 1957. Bicycles under the BSA name are currently manufactured and distributed within India by [[TI Cycles of India]].
The production of guns bearing the BSA name continued. In 1986 BSA Guns was liquidated, the assets bought and renamed BSA Guns (UK) Ltd. The company continues to make air rifles and shotguns, and are still based in [[Small Heath, West Midlands|Small Heath]] in Birmingham.
In 1991, the BSA (motorcycle) Company merged with Andover Norton International Ltd., to form a new BSA Group, largely producing spare parts for existing motorcycles. In December 1994, Colquhoun and Jackson's BSA Group was taken over by a newly formed BSA Regal Group.
The new company, based in [[Southampton]], has a large spares business and has produced a number of limited-edition, retro-styled motorcycles.
== Products ==
===Motorcycles===
====Pre World War II====
*Empire Star
*Blue Star
*Gold Star
*Shooting Star
*M20
:as the WD M20 the motorcycle of the [[British Army]] in WW2
====Post World War II====
*'''A series Twins''' (four-stroke, parallel twin)
**A7
***A7 Shooting Star
**A10
***A10 Golden Flash
***A10 Road Rocket
**A50
***A50R Royal Star
***A50C Cyclone
***A50W Wasp
**A65
***A65 Star Twin
***A65L Lightning
***A65R Rocket
***A65T Thunderbolt
***A65H Hornet
***A65S Spitfire
***A65F Firebird
**A70 Lightning 750
*'''Triples''' - share some engine components and cycle parts with the Triumph Trident (see [[Triumph Motorcycles]])but have BSA "slanted" engine cases, and BSA frame and tinware.
**A75V Rocket3 750
**A75RV Rocket3 750 - 5 speed
*B series (4 stroke single cylinder)
**B25 Fleet Star
**B31
**B32 Gold Star
**B33
**B34 Gold Star
**B40 350 Star
**B40 SS90
**B41 Victor
**B44
***B44SS Shooting Star
***B44VS Victor Special
**B50
***B50SS Gold Star 500
***B50T Victor Trials
***B50MX Motocross
*C series (Four-stroke unit singles)
**C10
**C11
**C12
**C15 Star
**C15T
*D series (Two-stroke single cylinder. See [[BSA Bantam]] for details)
**D1
**D3
**D5
**D7
**D10
**D14
*Others (may include some export versions of models listed above)
**[[BSA Barracuda]]
**[[BSA Beagle]]
**[[BSA Dandy 70]]
**BSA Sunbeam ''(Scooters, also produced as Triumph TS1, TW2 Tigress)''
***175B1
***250B2
**BSA Starfire
**BSA Rocket Scrambler
**BSA Rocket Gold Star
**BSA Fury
**BSA Hornet
**Winged Wheel (auxiliary power unit for bicycles)
**T65 Thunderbolt (essentially a Triumph TR6P with Police Badges)
===Cars===
'''Car timeline'''
*1907 to 1914 various forms with capacities ranging from 2.5 to 4.2 litre. The larger cars were based on the 1907 Peking-Paris Itala.
*1910 BSA purchased the [[Daimler]] Company who took over car manufacture.
*1911 BSA car with Daimler engine.
*1912 Car production transferred to [[Coventry]], BSA cars became rebadged Daimlers.
*1914 War stopped car production
*1921 BSA car production resumed with rear-wheel-drive air-cooled V-twin light car.
*1929 First BSA three-wheeler
*1931 TW-5 van version of the three-wheeler
*1931 BSA acquired [[Lanchester]].
*1932 T-9 open four seat four-wheeler with a water-cooled four cylinder 9 hp (6.7 kW) engine (1075 cc).
*1932 V-9 Van version also produced.
*1932 Another BSA Rear-wheel-drive fluid flywheel 10 hp (7.5 kW) car, sold alongside the T9.
*1932 FW32 Four wheeled version of the 3-wheeler produced for 1 year
*1933 T-9 and V-9 production ceased
*1933 Four-cylinder engine version of the three and four-wheeled car was added to the range.
*1935 First Scout Series 2/3
*1936 to 1937 Scout Series 4
*1936 Three wheeled cars dropped
*1937 to 1938 Scout Series 5
*1938 to 1939 Scout Series 6
*1940 WWII stopped production of BSA cars
*1960 [[Jaguar Cars]] Ltd. acquired The Daimler Co. Ltd. and its subsidiaries from the BSA group.
===Military vehicles===
*BSA Scout armoured car
*"Type G Apparatus", Folding paratrooper bicycle, 32 1/2 lb (15 kg) with parachute.
===Military equipment===
*[[Besa]] Machine gun
===Air Rifles===
*[[BSA Meteor Air Rifle]]
==See also==
*[[List of modern armament manufacturers]]
==External links==
* [http://www.bsaoc.org BSA Portal]
* [http://www.bsaguns.com/ BSA guns site]
* [http://bsa-regal.co.uk/ BSA motorcycle site]
* [http://www.TriplesOnline.com BSA Rocket 3 and Triumph Trident]
* [http://www.bsaocne.org BSA Owners Club of New England]
* [http://www.b50.org BSA B50 homepage]
* [http://www.bsaoc.org/swe Swedish BSA Owners Club]
[[Sv:BSA]]
[[Category:British automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Companies from Birmingham, England]]
[[Category:Firearms manufacturers]]
[[Category:Military vehicle manufacturers]]
[[Category:Motorcycle manufacturers]]
[[de:Birmingham Small Arms Company]]
[[nl:BSA (motorfiets)]]
[[pl:Birmingham Small Arms Company]]
[[sv:BSA]]</t |
ook)]]
*''Europa'', a film by Lars von Trier known in the United States as [[Zentropa]]
*[[Europa rocket]] was an early expendable launch system of the European Launcher Development Organisation, precursor to the European Space Agency's Ariane family of launch systems.
*[[Europa (ship)]], a traditionally-rigged tall ship from the Netherlands
*[[Europa (wargame)]], a series of board wargames launched in 1973
*[[M/S Silja Europa]], a car and passenger ferry in the Baltic Sea
*The [[Lotus Europa]], a sports car manufactured by Lotus Cars
* [[Europa Universalis]], a strategy computer game released in 2000 by Paradox Entertainment.
* [[Europa (album)]], by Covenant
* [[Europa (record label)]], a German record label
==See also==
* [[Europe (disambiguation)]]
{{disambig}}
[[als:Europa (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[da:Europa (flertydig)]]
[[de:Europa (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[es:Europa (desambiguación)]]
[[fr:Europe (homonymie)]]
[[ko:에우로파]]
[[it:Europa (disambigua)]]
[[lb:Europa]]
[[nl:Europa]]
[[pl:Europa (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]
[[pt:Europa (desambiguação)]]
[[ru:Европа (значения)]]
[[fi:Europa]]
[[tr:avrupa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euglenozoa</title>
<id>9241</id>
<revision>
<id>40950699</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T01:55:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Euglenozoa
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = '''Euglenozoa'''
| phylum_authority = [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith|Cavalier-Smith]] 1981</small>
| subdivision_ranks = Classes
| subdivision =
[[Euglenid|Euglenoidea]]<br>
[[Kinetoplastid|Kinetoplastea]]<br>
[[Diplonemid|Diplonemea]]<br>
[[Postgaardid|Postgaardea]]
}}
The '''Euglenozoa''' are a large group of [[flagellate|flagellate protozoa]], dominated by the [[euglenid]]s and [[kinetoplastid]]s. They include various common free-living forms as well as a few important parasites, some of which are parasitic in humans. Most are small, around [[1 E-5 m|15-40 µm]] in size, although many euglenids get up to 500 µm long.
Most Euglenozoa have two [[flagellum|flagella]], usually one leading and one trailing, which insert parallel to each other in an apical or subapical pocket. In most forms there is an associated cytostome (mouth) supported by one of three [[microtubule]] groups that arise from the flagellar bases. These are characteristic of the group; the other two support the [[dorsal]] and [[ventral]] surfaces of the cell, and in the euglenids support proteinaceous strips that form a pellicle. A number of other ultrastructural peculiarities also distinguish the group, most notably the presence of a paraxial rod in each flagellum, which respectively have tubular and latticed structures.
Most Euglenozoa feed by ingesting smaller organisms, typically [[bacterium|bacteria]], or by absorption. A number of euglenids, however, possess [[chloroplast]]s and so produce energy through photosynthesis. When present chloroplasts are green with chlorophylls a and b, beta carotene, xanthophylls,and a pyrenoid region surrounded by a triple membrane. These have generally lost the cytostome and often have other adaptations to an autotrophic life, such as light-sensitive eyespots. The chloroplasts are contained in three membranes and are pigmented similarly to the [[plant]]s, suggesting they were retained from some captured [[green alga]].
All Euglenozoa have [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] with discoid cristae, which in the kinetoplastids characteristically have a DNA-containing granule or ''kinetoplast'' associated with the flagellar bases. No examples of [[sexual reproduction]] in the group have been found. Reproduction is exclusively through cell division, characteristically with closed [[mitosis]] involving an internal spindle. The monophyly of the Euglenozoa is generally accepted, and they are believed to be related to the [[Percolozoa]] and other [[excavate]] flagellates.
== References ==
* {{cite journal | author=T. Cavalier-Smith | title=Eukaryote kingdoms: seven or nine? | journal=Biosystems | year=1981 | volume=14 | pages=461-481}}
[[Category:Protista]][[Category:Flagellates]][[Category:Euglenozoa|*]]
[[es:Euglenozoa]]
[[fr:Euglenozoa]]
[[nds:Euglenozoa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EigenVectors</title>
<id>9242</id>
<revision>
<id>24986230</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-07T16:30:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SeventyThree</username>
<id>183256</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eigenvalue, eigenvector and eigenspace]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EigenValue</title>
<id>9243</id>
<revision>
<id>24986261</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-07T16:31:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SeventyThree</username>
<id>183256</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eigenvalue, eigenvector and eigenspace]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EigenVector</title>
<id>9244</id>
<revision>
<id>24986267</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-07T16:31:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SeventyThree</username>
<id>183256</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eigenvalue, eigenvector and eigenspace]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Email (corporation)</title>
<id>9245</id>
<revision>
<id>40467970</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T19:55:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Last Avenue</username>
<id>707054</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Email]] to [[Email (corporation)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: {{otheruses3|E-mail}}
'''Email Pty Ltd''' is a company with two primary business divisions, ''viz:'' The service of [[white goods]] and the service of [[service station]] bowsers.
There is also a division which manufactures utility metering devices, and trades under the name ''AMPY Email Metering''.
At one time it was a wholly owned subsiduary of [[General Electric]], but has been sold numerous times.
Its company number is 000 029 407 and its registered office is in [[Melbourne, Victoria]].
==External Links==
[http://www.emailmetering.com/ http://emailmetering.com]
{{company-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eigen Vectors</title>
<id>9246</id>
<revision>
<id>24986282</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-07T16:31:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SeventyThree</username>
<id>183256</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eigenvalue, eigenvector and eigenspace]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epistemology</title>
<id>9247</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42067605</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:17:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>143.166.255.18</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Justified true belief */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Epistemology''', from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''[[episteme]]'' (knowledge) and ''[[logos]]'' (word/speech) is the branch of [[philosophy]] that deals with the nature, origin and scope of [[knowledge]]. Historically, it has been one of the most investigated and most debated of all philosophical subjects. Much of this debate has focused on analysing the nature and variety of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as [[truth]] and [[belief]]. Much of this discussion concerns the justification of knowledge claims, that is the grounds on which one can claim to know a particular fact.
Not surprisingly, the way that knowledge claims are justified both leads to and depends on the general approach to philosophy one adopts. Thus, philosophers have developed a range of epistemological theories to accompany their general philosophical positions. More recent studies have re-written centuries-old assumptions, and the field of epistemology continues to be vibrant and dynamic.
== Defining knowledge ==
=== Justified true belief ===
In Plato's dialogue the ''[[Theaetetus (Plato)|Theaetetus]]'', Socrates considers a number of definitions of knowledge. One of the prominent candidates is '''[[Theory of justification|justified]] [[truth|true]] [[belief]]'''. We know that for something to count as knowledge it must be true and be believed to be true (see section on defining belief in Epistemology, below). Socrates argues that this is insufficient; in addition one must have a ''reason'' or ''justification'' for that belief.
One implication of this definition is that one cannot be said to "know" something just because one believes something that subsequently turns out to be true. An ill person with no medical training, but a generally optimistic attitude, might believe that she will recover from her illness quickly. But even if this belief turned out to be true, on the Theaetetus account, the patient did not '''know''' that she would get well because her belief lacked justification.
Knowledge, therefore, is distinguished from true belief by its '''justification''', and much of epistemology is concerned with how true beliefs might be properly justified. This is sometimes referred to as the [[theory of justification]].
The Theaetetus definition agrees with the common sense notion that we can believe things without knowing them. Whilst ''knowing'' p [[Logical conditional|entails]] that p is true, ''believing'' in p does not, since we can have false beliefs. It also implies that we believe everything that we know. That is, the things we know form a [[subset]] of the things we believe.
F |
a sovereign state with its own diplomatic corps and Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Though a highly sentimental issue for both populations, the Cyprus problem is mainly a bilateral problem between northern and southern Cypriots.
On [[May 6]] [[2004]], Turkey's Prime Minister [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] became the first Turkish premier to visit Greece in sixteen years. Two days later, he became the first PM in 52 years to visit the Greek Muslim minority in Western Thrace, a community which has been at the centre of rifts between Greece and Turkey for decades. He said, "I'm specially addressing my brothers. You will, without doubt, protect your special identity. Nobody is telling you to lose or give up your Turkish identity. But don't forget you are citizens of Greece." His words were a clear indication of how much relations had improved, though the implications of the characterization of the Muslim minority as a "turkish" are potentially perplexing.
=== References ===
* BBC News Online ([[8 May]] [[2004]]). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3697293.stm Turkish PM visits Greek Muslims].
* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs. [http://www2.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/en-US/Policy/Geographic+Regions/South-Eastern+Europe/Turkey/]
=== See also ===
* [[Aegean dispute]]
* [[Cyprus dispute]]
* [[Greco-Turkish relations]]
==Balkans==
=== Bilateral relations with the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)===
Greek refusal to recognize the [[Republic of Macedonia|Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]] (FYROM) under its chosen name of "Republic of Macedonia" has been an important issue in Greek politics since [[1992]]. Greece was adamantly opposed to the use of the name "Macedonia" by the government in Skopje, claiming that the name is intrinsically Greek and should not be used by a foreign country.
Furthermore, Greece believes that an independent "Republic of Macedonia" bordering the Greek region of Macedonia would fuel [[irredentist]] tensions in FYROM. The dispute led to a Greek trade embargo against FYROM. in February 1994. Mediation efforts by the UN, U.S., and EU brokered an interim solution to some of these differences in September [[1995]], leading to the lifting of the Greek embargo.
The republic agreed to be recognised internationally as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) while retaining "Republic of Macedonia" as its constitutional name, as well as changing aspects of its national symbols and constitution to address Greek concerns that they laid claim to Greek cultural symbols and territory.
Since the signing of these interim accords, the two governments have concluded agreements designed to facilitate the movement of people and goods across their common border and improve bilateral relations. Talks on remaining issues are still being held under UN auspices in New York.
Greece's stance on the naming issue has come under increasing pressure in recent years. At least 20 countries have recognised the Republic of Macedonia, rather than FYROM. These include the [[United States]] (in November 2004), the [[Philippines]], [[Iran]], [[Estonia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Russia]], [[Pakistan]], the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Turkey]], [[Croatia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]], [[Lithuania]], and others. The [[European Union]], however, has publicly stated that it has no plans to recognise the FYROM as the Republic of Macedonia.
In the spring of [[2004]], FYROM substituted its army on the Greek border with police patrols, as part of its general border demilitarization framework.
Greek foreign policy strongly supports FYROM's integration into [[NATO]] and the [[European Union]], as a part of the long-term process of integration of the majority of Balkan states into the EU. Greece is the first among foreign investors in FYROM, having invested a total of more than 460 million euros. It is expected that the relations between the two countries will improve even more when FYROM is accepted as part of the European Union.
=== Bilateral relations with [[Albania]] ===
Greece restored diplomatic relations with Albania in [[1971]], but the Greek government retained a cease-of-fire and did not formally lift the state of war, declared during [[World War II|WWII]], until [[1987]]. After the fall of the Albanian communist regime in [[1991]], relations between Athens and Tirana became increasingly strained because of widespread allegations of mistreatment by Albanian authorities of the Greek ethnic minority in southern Albania, and of the same by the Greek authorities towards alleged Albanian minorities in northern Greece [see [[Chameria]]]. A wave of Albanian illegal economic migrants to Greece exacerbated tensions. On [[April 10]], [[1994]], there was an attack on an Albanian military post near the Greek border by Greek commandos that left two Albanian soldiers dead and three wounded. The crisis in Greek-Albanian relations reached its peak in late August of 1994, when an Albanian court sentenced five members (a sixth member was added later) of the ethnic Greek organization "Omonia" to prison terms on charges of undermining the Albanian state. This was in retaliation for the border attack. Greece responded by freezing all EU aid to Albania and deporting 115,000 Albanians working in Greece, most as illegal immigrants, and sealing its border with Albania [http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/ghm-greeks-albanians.PDF]. In December 1994, however, Greece began to permit limited EU aid to Albania, while Albania released two of the Omonia defendants and reduced the sentences of the remaining four.
Today, relations between the two countries are relatively good, and, at the Albanian Government's request, about 250 Greek military personnel are stationed in Albania to assist with the training and restructuring the Albanian [[armed forces]]. There are still many Albanian workers in Greece that have not received legal papers despite promises by the Greek government, though this is due to extensive bureaucracy of the Greek state. Furthermore, many Greeks believe the large in-flux of Albanians into Greece to be responsible for the rapid rise of crime in Greece.
== United States ==
The United States and Greece have long-standing historical, political, and cultural ties based on a common heritage, shared democratic values, and participation as Allies during [[World War II]], the [[Korean conflict]], and the [[Cold War]]. The U.S. is the largest foreign investor in Greece; U.S. foreign investment in Greece was about $1.5 billion in [[1994]].
About 3 millions Americans are of Greek ancestry. The [[Greek-American]]s are a well-organized community in the U.S., and they help cultivate close political and cultural ties with Greece. Greece has the seventh-largest population of U.S. [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] beneficiaries in the world.
During the Greek civil war of [[1946]]-[[1949]], the U.S. proclaimed the [[Truman Doctrine]], promising assistance to governments resisting communist subjugation, and began a period of substantial financial and military aid. The U.S. has provided Greece with more than $11.1 billion in economic and security assistance since [[1946]]. Economic programs were phased out by [[1962]], but military assistance has continued. In fiscal year [[1995]], Greece was the fourth-largest recipient of U.S. security assistance, receiving loans totaling $255.15 million in foreign military financing.
In [[1953]], the first defense cooperation agreement between Greece and the United States was signed, providing for the establishment and operation of American military installations on Greek territory. The current [[mutual defense cooperation agreement]] (MDCA) provides for continued U.S. military assistance to Greece and the operation by the U.S. of a major military facility at Souda Bay, Crete.
However, there is also much anti-American sentiment in Greece as a result of the United States meddling in Greece's affairs a number of times with negative results. The United States intervened in the Greek civil war, taking the side of the right extremists against the left National Liberation Army (ELAS), the organization that carried out most of the resistance during the Nazi occupation of Greece, and ELAS' successor in the civil war, the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE). The extreme right won and instituted a highly brutal regime, for which the [[CIA]] helped create a new internal security agency in 1953, KYP (now renamed [[Hellenic National Intelligence Service|EYP]]). Before long, KYP was carrying out systematic torture and other human rights violations commonly associated with secret police.
Furthermore, the United States CIA assisted in the 1967 coup. The military coup took place in April 1967, just two days before the campaign for national elections was to begin, elections which appeared certain to bring the veteran liberal leader [[George Papandreou, senior]] back as prime minister. Papandreou had been elected in February 1964 with the only outright majority in the history of modern Greek elections. The successful machinations to unseat him had begun immediately, a joint effort of the Royal Court, the Greek military, and the American military and CIA stationed in Greece.
The 1967 coup was followed immediately by [[martial law]], [[censorship]], arrests, beatings, [[torture]], and killings, the victims totaling some 8,000 in the first month. This was accompanied by a declaration, considered predictable and laughable by some leftists, that this was all being done to save the nation from a "Communist takeover". The new conservative regime decided to remove influences in Greek life it considered corrupting and subversive influences, including [[miniskirt]]s for women, long hair for men, and foreign newspapers; church attendance for the young would be c |
http://www.rane.com/par-d.html#decibel Rane Professional Audio Reference entry for "decibel"]
*[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/db.html#c1 Hyperphysics description of decibels]
*[http://decibelmagazine.com Decibel Magazine]
=== Converters ===
*[http://www.analog.com/Analog_Root/static/techSupport/designTools/interactiveTools/dbconvert/dbconvert.html V<sub>peak</sub>, V<sub>RMS</sub>, Power, dBm, dBu, dBV converter]
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-db-volt.htm Conversion: dBu to volts, dBV to volts, and volts to dBu, and dBV]
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-soundlevel.htm Conversion of sound level units: dBSPL or dBA to sound pressure p and sound intensity J]
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-volt.htm Conversion: Voltage V to dB, dBu, dBV, and dBm]
*[http://www.moonblinkwifi.com/dbm_to_watt_conversion.cfm Only Power: dBm to mW conversion]
== Reference ==
*Martin, W. H., "DeciBel &#8211; The New Name for the Transmission Unit", ''Bell System Technical Journal'', January 1929.
[[Category:Units of measure]]
[[Category:Sound]]
[[Category:Acoustics]]
[[cs:Decibel]]
[[da:Bel]]
[[de:Dezibel]]
[[es:Decibelio]]
[[fi:Desibeli]]
[[fr:Bel]]
[[he:&#1491;&#1510;&#1497;&#1489;&#1500;]]
[[it:Decibel]]
[[ja:&#12487;&#12471;&#12505;&#12523;]]
[[nl:Decibel]]
[[nn:Desibel]]
[[no:Desibel]]
[[pl:Decybel]]
[[pt:Decibel]]
[[sv:Decibel]]
[[th:เดซิเบล]]
[[zh:分貝]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Darwinism</title>
<id>8411</id>
<revision>
<id>40486380</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T22:45:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alienus</username>
<id>195268</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>not mutually exclusive, but a subset</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Darwinism as a philosophical concept; see [[evolution]] for the page on biological evolution; [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] for neo-Darwinism; and also [[evolution (disambiguation)]]''.
[[Image:Charles Darwin.jpg|frame|right|[[Charles Darwin]]]]
'''Darwinism''' is a term for the underlying theory in the ideas of [[Charles Darwin]], particularly concerning [[evolution]] and [[natural selection]]. Discussions of ''Darwinism'' usually focus on ''evolution by natural selection''.
__TOC__
== Darwinism and other -isms ==
In the [[United States]], the term "Darwinism" is sometimes used by [[creationism|creationists]] as a somewhat derogatory term for "evolutionary biology". Casting evolution as an "ism" &mdash; a doctrine or belief &mdash; is used to strengthen calls for "[[equal time]]" for other beliefs such as creationism. However, in other countries &mdash; such as the [[United Kingdom]] &mdash; "Darwinism" carries no such derogatory connotations and is freely used by evolutionary scientists. A notable example of a scientist who uses the term in a positive sense is [[Richard Dawkins]].
''Darwinism'' may also refer to a specific strand within evolutionary biology, dealing with the mechanism of [[natural selection]], which Darwin studied, as opposed to evolutionary processes that were unknown in Darwin's day, such as [[genetic drift]] and [[gene flow]]. It may also refer specifically to the role of [[Charles Darwin]] as opposed to others in the [[history of evolutionary thought]] &mdash; particularly contrasting Darwin's results with those of earlier theories such as [[Lamarckism]] or later ones such as the [[modern synthesis]].
== Classical Darwinism ==
In the 19th-century context in which Darwin's ''[[Origin of Species]]'' was first received, "Darwinism" came to stand for an entire range of evolutionary (and often revolutionary) philosophies about both biology and society. One of the more prominent approaches was that summed in the phrase "[[survival of the fittest]]" by the philosopher [[Herbert Spencer]], which was later taken to be emblematic of Darwinism even though Spencer's own understanding of evolution was more Lamarckian than Darwinian, and predated the [[publication of Darwin's theory]]. What we now call "[[Social Darwinism]]" was, in its day, synonymous with "Darwinism" &mdash; the application of Darwinian principles of "struggle" to society, usually in support of anti-[[philanthropy|philanthropic]] political agendas. Another interpretation, one notably favored by Darwin's cousin [[Francis Galton]], was that Darwinism implied that because natural selection was apparently no longer working on "civilized" people it was possible for "inferior" strains of people (who would normally be filtered out of the gene pool) to overwhelm the "superior" strains, and corrective measures would have to be undertaken &mdash; the foundation of [[eugenics]].
In Darwin's day there was no rigid definition of the term "Darwinism", and it was used by opponents and proponents of Darwin's biological theory alike to mean whatever they wanted it to in a larger context. The ideas had international influence, and [[Ernst Haeckel]] developed what was known as ''Darwinismus'' in [[Germany]]; though it should be noted that, like Spencer, Haeckel's "Darwinism" had only a rough resemblance to the theory of Charles Darwin, and was not centered around natural selection at all.
==Darwinism as selectionism==
To distinguish themselves from the very loose meaning of "Darwinism" prevalent in the 19th century, those who advocated evolution by natural selection after the death of Darwin became known as neo-Darwinists. [[August Weismann]] was the most prominent member of this school, and further articulated that neo-Darwinism referred to evolution specifically by forms of "selection" (natural selection, including sexual selection), and that it was articulated around the idea that the hereditary material of an organism was not modified by the further development of the organism. Neo-Darwinism poised itself against neo-Lamarckism, also popular at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, which argued that bodily modifications acquired during the lifetime of the organism could be hereditarily passed on to the next generation. Weismann's neo-Darwinism, on the other hand, argued that all of an organism's hereditary material was kept in its [[germ plasm]], which existed separately from the rest of the organism's development.
Neo-Darwinism was not terribly popular in the scientific community, as most biologists felt that the complete segregation of development and heredity actions seems unlikely or unwarranted. After the development of the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] in the 1930s, however, the selection theory became increasingly popular amongst biologists, and codified the more modern definition of Darwinism which we have today.
== Darwinian processes ==
In a modern definition of the term, a Darwinian process requires the following schema:
# '''[[Self-replication]]'''/[[Inheritance]]: Some number of entities must be capable of producing copies of themselves, and those copies must also be capable of reproduction. The new copies must inherit the traits of old ones. Sometimes the different variations are recombined in [[sexual reproduction]].
# '''[[Genetic variation|Variation]]''': There must be a range of different traits in the population of entities, and there must be a mechanism for introducing new variations into the population.
# '''[[Selection]]''': Inherited traits must somehow affect the ability of the entities to reproduce themselves, either by survival, or natural selection, or by ability to produce offspring by finding partners, or sexual selection.
If the entity or organism survives to reproduce, the process restarts. Sometimes, in stricter formulations, it is required that variation and selection act on different entities, variation on the [[replicator]] ([[genotype]]) and selection on the [[interactor]] ([[phenotype]]).
Darwinism asserts that any system given these conditions, by whatever means, evolution is likely to occur. That is, over time, the entities will accumulate complex traits that favor their reproduction. This is called Universal Darwinism, a term coined by Richard Dawkins in his 1972 book Selfish Gene.
Most obviously, this can refer to biological [[evolution]]. However, it has other potential spheres, the best known of which is the [[meme]], a concept of inheritance and modification of ideas introduced by [[Richard Dawkins]] in his [[1976]] book ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'' and further refined by researchers such as [[Richard Brodie]] and [[Susan Blackmore]]. It has been disputed if this was a Darwinian process, since it is unproven that memes undergo random mutations.
Perhaps surprisingly Darwinian theories have been proposed as explanations of the origin of the universe we live in. [[Lee Smolin]]'s theory [[Cosmological natural selection]] explains the selection of a universe with the correct fundamental physical parameters to support complex matter such as stars and ourselves. [[Wojciech Zurek]]'s theory of [[Quantum darwinism]] explains the selection of the our classical macroscopic world from underlying quantum processes.
Another example to illustrate are computer systems ([[Personal computer|PCs]]). Taking the software as the replicator and the whole system as the interactor, it could be seen as a Darwinian system, however, the code does not change randomly, but is directionally changed or rewritten from scratch; also systems do not reproduce.
[[Daniel Dennett]] (1995) in ''[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea]]'' argues for Universal Darwinism.
==See also==
*[[Neural Darwinism]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.universaldarwinism.com Universal Darwinism]
*[http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/ Charl |
e can then show that this completion is isomorphic to the [[inverse limit]] of the sequence ''(G/H<sub>r</sub>)''.
If ''H'' is a [[cofinal (mathematics)|cofinal]] sequence (i.e., any normal subgroup of finite index contains some ''H<sub>r</sub>''), then this completion is [[canonical]] in the sense that it is isomorphic to the inverse limit of ''(G/H)<sub>H</sub>'', where ''H'' varies over ''all'' normal subgroups of finite [[index of a subgroup|index]].
For further details, see ch. I.10 in Lang's "Algebra".
== References ==
* {{cite book | author=Lang, Serge | title=Algebra | edition = 3rd ed., reprint w/ corr. | publisher=Addison-Wesley | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-201-55540-9 }}
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<title>Cauchy sequences</title>
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<title>Copernicus</title>
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<page>
<title>Common Era</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Common Era''' ('''CE'''), sometimes known as the '''Christian Era''' or '''Current Era''', is the period of measured time beginning with the year [[1]] until the present. The term is used for a system of reckoning years that is both derived from and chronologically equivalent to the ''[[anno Domini]]'' (AD) ([[Latin]] for "in the year of the Lord") system, but with less overtly religious implications. Although ''common era'' was a term first used by some Christians in an age when Christianity was the common religion of the West, it is now a term preferred by some as a religiously neutral alternative, though others criticize it as an unnecessary attempt at [[political correctness]]. It has its equivalents in other languages. For example, [[Chinese language|Chinese]] uses its literal translation, ''gōngyuán'' (公元), for date notation.
==Chronology and notation==
{{main|Anno Domini}}
The calendar practice prompting the coining of the term ''common era'' is the system of numbering years from the birth of [[Jesus]]. This system was devised by the [[monk]] [[Dionysius Exiguus]] in the year 525, who named it ''anno Domini''. Two centuries later, the Anglo-Saxon historian [[Bede]] introduced a Latin term that is roughly equivalent to the [[English language|English]] term ''before Christ'' to identify years before the first year of this era.
The term "common era" is an alternative way of referring to this era. Using this nomenclature, [[human being]]s first [[Apollo 11|walked on the Moon]] in the year 1969 ''of the common era'', and the [[French Revolution]] is considered to have occurred in year 1789 ''of the common era''.
When used as a replacement for BC/AD notation, the common era is abbreviated as ''CE'' and its years are numerically equivalent to ''AD'' years. Similarly, the time before the common era is written as ''BCE'' and is equivalent to ''BC''. Both Common Era abbreviations are written following the year, thus [[Aristotle]] was born in 384 BCE (or 384 BC), and [[Genghis Khan]] died in 1227 CE (or AD 1227). As with ''anno Domini'', the [[year zero]] is not used, except for [[Astronomical year numbering|astronomical uses]]. So 1 CE is immediately preceded by 1 BCE.
On (rare) [http://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&q=%22Era+Vulgaris%22&btnG=Google+Search&meta= occasions], one may find the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" instead of "CE"; this stands for "Era Vulgaris", the Latin translation of "Common Era".
==Origins==
According to [[Peter Daniels]] (a [[Cornell University]] and [[University of Chicago]] trained linguist):
<blockquote>
CE and BCE came into use in the last few decades, perhaps originally in Ancient Near Eastern studies, where (a) there are many [[Jewish]] scholars and (b) dating according to a Christian era is irrelevant. It is indeed a question of sensitivity.
</blockquote>
However, the term "common era" has earlier antecedents. A 1716 book by English Bishop John Prideaux says, "The vulgar era, by which we now compute the years from his incarnation." In 1835, in his book ''Living Oracles'', [[Alexander Campbell]], wrote "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days." In its article on Chronology, the 1908 ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' uses the sentence: "Foremost among these (dating eras) is that which is now adopted by all civilized peoples and known as the Christian, [[Vulgar]] or Common Era, in the twentieth century of which we are now living."
"Vulgar" comes from the [[Latin]] word ''vulgāris'' (from ''vulgus'', the common people), meant "of or belonging to the common people, everyday," and acknowledges that the date was commonly used, even by people who did not believe that Jesus was divine. By the late 1800s, however, vulgar had come to mean "crudely indecent" and the Latin word was replaced by its English equivalent, "common".
The first known Jewish use of this practice is from an inscription on a gravestone in a Jewish cemetery in [[Plymouth, England]]:
<blockquote>
Here is buried his honour Judah ben his honour Joseph, a prince and honoured amongst philanthropists, who executed good deeds, died in his house in the City of Bath, Tuesday, and was buried here on Sunday, 19 Sivan in the year 5585. In memory of Lyon Joseph Esq (merchant of [[Falmouth, Cornwall]]). who died at Bath June [[Anno Mundi|AM]] 5585/VE 1825. Beloved and respected.
</blockquote>
This inscription uses the Jewish calendar (5585), but ends by providing the common year (1825); presumably the "VE" means "Vulgar Era", and presumably VE was used instead of AD in order to avoid the Christian implications.
In 1908, in its article on "Chronology", the Catholic Encyclopedia uses the sentence: "Foremost among these [dating eras] is that which is now adopted by all civilized peoples and known as the Christian, Vulgar, or Common Era, in the twentieth century of which we are now living." This may be the earliest use of "Common Era."
==Usage==
Jewish and Christian scholars have developed the BCE/CE terms for the benefit of cross-cultural dialogue.[http://www.torontoareamennonites.ca/danforth/dmc_notes/witmer10.htm]. Some Islamic scholars and others outside the [[Judeo-Christian]] religious traditions have used the system. Some Christians have used the term CE to mean "Christian era." Many non-religious academics in the fields of [[history]], [[theology]], [[archaeology]] and [[anthropology]] have also in recent decades begun using this system.
More visible uses of common era notation have recently surfaced at major museums in the English-speaking world: The [[Smithsonian Institution]] also prefers Common Era usage, though individual museums are not required to use it.[http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/educators/field_trips/standards/world_history_standards.html] As well, many style guides now prefer or mandate its usage. [http://www.egyptstudy.org/OstraconGuidelines.html][http://chass.colostate-pueblo.edu/natrel/pom/pomstyle.html][http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/american_journal_of_philology/guidelines.html][http://www.sagepub.com/journalManuscript.aspx?pid=10754][http://www.yorku.ca/topia/docs/styleguide] Some style guides for Christian churches even mandate its use; for example, that of the [[Anglicanism|Episcopal]] Diocese of Maryland.[http://www.ang-md.org/mcn/style-guide.pdf (pdf)]
The usage of the BCE/CE notation is growing in [[textbook]]s. It is used by the [[College Board]] in its history tests, as well as by the [[National Geographic Society]].
The US [[History Channel]] uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as [[Religious significance of Jerusalem#Jerusalem, Jews and Judaism|Jerusalem and Judaism]] [http://www.historychannel.com/exhibits/jerusalem/jerutime.html],[http://www.historychannel.com/exhibits/jerusalem/jud.html] and BC/AD in other cases [http://www.historychannel.com/timeline/].
==Support==
Supporters of common era notation promote it as a religiously neutral notation suited for cross-cultural use.
Arguments given for standardizing common era notation include:
*The calendar used by the West has become a global standard — one built into every computer's hardware. It should be religiously and culturally neutral out of consideration for those cultures compelled to use it out of necessity. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/brunel/A3176345]
* |
ve University]
* [http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/dict.htm Electrochemistry Dictionary at Case Western Reserve University] (size ~ 388KB)
* [http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/electro/electro.htm Experiments in Electrochemistry at Fun Science]
* [http://www.abc.chemistry.bsu.by/vi/ Potentiodynamic Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy]
* [http://www.nanoelectrode.com Nanoelectrode.com] News and research articles related to nanoelectrochemistry
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<page>
<title>Edinburgh</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{infobox Scotland place with map|
|Place= Edinburgh
|Population= 448,624
|GridReference= NT275735
|Map= Edinburgh_(location).png
|Council= [[City of Edinburgh]]
|Lieutenancy= Edinburgh
|Traditional= [[Midlothian, Scotland|Midlothian]]
|Westminster= [[Edinburgh South (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh South]] <br/> [[Edinburgh West (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh West]] <br/> [[Edinburgh South West (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh South West]] <br/> [[Edinburgh North and Leith (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh North and Leith]] <br/> [[Edinburgh East (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh East]]
|Holyrood= [[Edinburgh North and Leith (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh North and Leith]] <br/> [[Edinburgh Central]] <br/> [[Edinburgh East and Musselburgh]] <br/> [[Edinburgh Pentlands (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh Pentlands]] <br/> [[Edinburgh South (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh South]] <br/> [[Edinburgh West (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh West]] <br/> [[Lothians (Scottish Parliamentary Electoral Area)|Lothians]]
|PostalTown= EDINBURGH
|PostCode= EH1-EH13; EH14 (part); EH15-EH17
|DiallingCode= 0131
|Police= [[Lothian and Borders Police]]
}}
'''Edinburgh''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ˈɛdɪnˌbrə/}}), '''''Dùn Èideann''''' ({{IPA|/tuːn ˈeːtʃən/}}) in [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], is the second-largest [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]] in [[Scotland]] and its [[capital city]].
It is situated on the east coast of Scotland's [[Scottish Lowlands|central lowlands]] on the south shore of the [[Firth of Forth]] and in the unitary local authority of [[City of Edinburgh]]. It has been the capital of Scotland since 1437 and is the seat of the country's [[Scottish Executive|devolved government]]. The city was one of the major centres of the [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]], led by the [[University of Edinburgh]]. The Old Town and New Town districts of Edinburgh were listed as a [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in 1995. In the census of 2001, Edinburgh had a total resident population of 448,624.
Edinburgh is well known for the annual [[Edinburgh Festival]], the largest performing arts festival in the world, and for the [[Hogmanay]] street party. At the time of the art festivals the population of the city doubles. The city is one of the world's major tourist destinations, attracting roughly 13 million visitors a year, and is the second most visited tourist destination in the [[United Kingdom]] after [[London]].
==Origins of "Edinburgh"==
The origin of the city's name is understood to come from the [[Brythonic]] ''Din Eidyn'' (Fort of Eidyn) from the time when it was a [[Gododdin]] hillfort.
In the 1st century the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] recorded the [[Votadini]] as a [[Briton|British]] tribe in the area, and about 600 the poem [[Y Gododdin]] using the [[Brythonic]] form of that name describes warriors feasting "in Eidin's great hall".
After it was besieged by the [[Bernicia]]n [[Anglo-Saxon|Angles]] the name changed to ''Edin-burh'', which some have argued derives from the Anglo-Saxon for "Edwin's fort", possibly derived from the 7th century king [[Edwin of Northumbria]]. However, since the name apparently predates King Edwin, this is highly unlikely. The ''burgh'' element means "fortress" or "group of buildings", i.e. a town or city and is akin to the [[German language|German]] ''burg'', [[Latin]] ''parcus'', [[Greek language|Greek]] ''pyrgos'' etc. This word can be traced back to the [[Biblical Aramaic|Chaldean]] ''perach'' meaning "growth", in the sense that a group of buildings is a growth from the earth, and may be a borrowing.
''"Din Eidyn" is Brythonic Celtic for "Dun Eidyn" meaning "Eidyn Town", "Eidyn Dune", or "Eidyn Down(s)". A Celtic "Dun" was a hilltop fortress town, and the suffix appears throughout Caesar's "Gallic Wars". The Germanic equivalent is "Burgh"; for example, an "ice-berg" is literally an "ice-mountain". The sense is identical: a hilltop fortified town. Thus, the exact translation of "Din Eidyn" into the Germanic tongue of the Angles is "Eidyn Burgh", or more simply, "Edinburgh". As with the borrowing of "Brynaich" as "Bernicia", we see that the Angles adopted the honorific pronoun "Eidyn", translating only the modifier "Din" into their own tongue as "Bergh".''
The first evidence of the existence of the town as a separate entity from the fort lies in an early 12th century charter, generally thought to date from 1124, by [[David I of Scotland|King David I]] granting land to the Church of the Holy Rood of Edinburgh. This suggests that the town came into official existence between 1018 (when [[Malcolm II of Scotland|King Malcolm II]] secured the Lothians from the Northumbrians) and 1124.
[[Image:Hereford Mappa Mundi detail Britain.jpg|thumb|Edinburgh is clearly labeled on this [[T and O map]] from ca. 1300. (North lies roughly in the direction of the upper left corner.)]]
The charter refers to the recipients ([[Latin|in Latin]]) as "Ecclisie Sancte Crucis ''Edwin''esburgensi". This could mean that those who drafted the charter believed Edwin to be the original source of the name and decided to derive the Latinisation from what they believed to be the ancient name. It could also mean that at some point in the preceding 600 years the name had altered to include a ''w''. If the latter scenario was the case then it was soon to change; by the 1170s [[William I of Scotland|King William the Lion]] was using the name "''Edenesburch''" in a charter (again in Latin) confirming the 1124 grant of David I.
Documents from the 14th century show the name to have settled into its current form; although other spellings ("Edynburgh" and "Edynburghe") appear, these are simply spelling variants of the current name.
==Other names==
The city is affectionately nicknamed "Auld Reekie", [[Scots language|Lowland Scots]] for "Old Smoky".
Some have called Edinburgh the "[[Athens]] of the North" for a variety of reasons. The earliest comparison between the two cities showed that they had a similar topography, with the Old Town of Edinburgh performing a similar role to the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]]. Both of them had flatter, fertile agricultural land sloping down to a [[port]] several miles away. Although this arrangement is common in Southern Europe, it is rare in Northern Europe. The 18th century intellectual life, sometimes referred to as the [[Scottish Enlightenment]], was a key influence in gaining the name. Such beacons as [[David Hume]] and [[Adam Smith]] shone during this period. Having lost its political importance, some hoped that Edinburgh could gain a similar civilising influence on London as Athens had on Rome. Also a contributing factor was the later [[Neoclassicism|neoclassical]] architecture, particularly that of [[William Henry Playfair]], and the National Monument (see below). One writer has said,
facetiously, that the "[[Reykjavík]] of the South" would be more appropriate!
Edinburgh has also been known as "Dunedin", deriving from the [[Scottish Gaelic]], '''Dùn Èideann'''. [[Dunedin, New Zealand]], was originally called "New Edinburgh" and is still nicknamed the "Edinburgh of the South".
The Scots poets [[Robert Burns]] and [[Robert Fergusson]] sometimes referred to the city as "Edina" in their work. [[Ben Johnson]] described it as "Britaine's other eye", and [[Sir Walter Scott]] referred to the City as "yon Empress of the North".
Some Scots refer to the city affectionately and informally as "Embra".
==The Centre==
[[Image:Edinburgh-castle.jpg|thumb|right|[[Edinburgh Castle]] viewed from [[Princes Street]]<br />'''[[:Image:Edinburgh_castle.jpg|Alternate view]]''']]
===Geography===
Some 70 million years ago several volcanic vents in the area cooled and solidified to form tough [[basalt]] [[volcanic plug]]s, then, during the last [[ice age]], [[glacier]]s eroded the area, exposing the plug as a rocky [[crag]] to the west, and leaving a tail of material swept to the east. At the same time, the glacier gouged out ground to each side, leaving the ravine of the Grassmarket and Cowgate to the south, and th |
[http://www.molli.org.uk/explorers/the_regions/north_america.asp Ainu-North American cultural similarities]
*[http://www.rgj.com/news/specials/story9.html Spirit Cave Man May Rewrite Continent's History]
*[http://www.frpac.or.jp/eng/e_prf/index.html Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture]
*[http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/shogun.html Ainu Lineage]
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<title>Agrippina the Elder</title>
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<title>Aix-la-Chapelle</title>
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<title>Acorn (fruit of the oak tree)</title>
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<title>Acropolis</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about '''acropolis''' in general. For the best-known example of the kind, see [[Acropolis, Athens]].''
[[image:Athens_Acropolis.jpg|thumb|250px|Acropolis in [[Athens]].]]
'''Acropolis''' (Gr. ''akros,'' top, ''polis,'' city), literally the upper part of a town. For purposes of defence early settlers naturally chose elevated ground, frequently a hill with precipitous sides, and these early citadels became in many parts of the world the nuclei of large cities which grew up on the surrounding lower ground.
The word "Acropolis", though Greek in origin and associated primarily with Greek cities ([[Athens]], [[Argos]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], and [[Corinth]] with its [[Acrocorinth]]), may be applied generically to all such citadels ([[Rome]], [[Jerusalem]], Celtic [[Bratislava]], many in [[Asia Minor]], or even Castle Hill at [[Edinburgh]]).
The most famous example of the kind is the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis of Athens]], which, by reason of its historical associations and the famous buildings erected upon it, is generally known without qualification as simply "The Acropolis".
Because of its classical Greco-Roman style, the ruins of [[Mission San Juan Capistrano|Mission San Juan Capistrano's]] "Great Stone Church" (in [[California|California, United States]]) have been dubbed the "American Acropolis".
Other parts of the world developed other names for the high [[citadel]] or [[alcázar]], which often reinforced a naturally strong site. In Central [[Italy]], many small rural [[comune|commune]]s still cluster at the base of a fortified habitation known as "La Rocca" of the commune.
The term ''Acropolis'' is also used to described the central complex of overlapping structures, such as plazas and pyramids, in many [[Maya]]n cities, including [[Tikal]] and [[Copán]].
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<page>
<title>Acupuncture</title>
<id>1537</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:01:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pagingmrherman</username>
<id>7390</id>
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<comment>/* Theory */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Acupuncture chart 300px.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Acupuncture chart from the [[Ming dynasty]].]]
'''Acupuncture''' (from Lat. ''acus,'' "needle" (noun), and ''pungere,'' "prick" (verb) or in [[Standard Mandarin]], zhēn jiǔ (針灸) is one of the main branches of [[Traditional Chinese Medicine]], or TCM (others being [[herbal medicine]] and [[tui na]]). It is a [[therapy|therapeutic]] technique from that framework intended to restore health and well-being. The technique involves the insertion of needles into "[[acupuncture point]]s" on the body by trained practitioners. The needles most commonly used in present-day practice are made of [[stainless steel]] and are of approximately the same diameter as a medium thickness guitar string (approximately .01" to .02"). Acupuncture and related practices predate modern concepts of [[science]], and most but not all of its claims are not yet verified in modern studies and clinical practice to the standards of the [[Cochrane Collaboration]].
==History==
In [[China]], the practice of acupuncture can perhaps be traced as far back as the [[1st millennium BC|1<sup>st</sup> millennium BC]], and archeological evidence has been identified with the period of the [[Han dynasty]] (from 202 [[Anno Domini|BC]] to 220 [[Anno Domini|AD]]). The practice spread centuries ago into many parts of Asia; in modern times it is a component of [[traditional Chinese medicine]] (TCM), and forms of it are also described in the literature of [[traditional Korean medicine]] where it is called ''chimsul''. It is also important in [[Kampo]], the traditional medicine system of [[Japan]].
The earliest Chinese medical texts (Ma-wang-tui graves 68 BC) do not mention acupuncture. Later in Chinese history, 365 points along the meridians were spoken of, not because they were anatomically identified, but because there are 365 days in a year. Different acupuncture charts give different numbers and locations of points.
The Chinese medical text that first describes acupuncture is The Yellow Emperor’s ''Classic of Internal Medicine (History of Acupuncture)''. Some hieroglyphics have been found dating back to 1000 BC that may indicate an early use of acupuncture. Bian stones, sharp pointed stones used to treat diseases in ancient times, have also been discovered in ruins (History of Acupuncture in China) but are not directly related to acupuncture.
RC Crozier in the book ''Traditional medicine in modern China'' (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1968) says the early Chinese Communist Party expressed considerable antipathy towards TCM, ridiculing it as superstitious, irrational and backward, and claiming that it conflicted with the Party’s dedication to science as the way of progress. Acupuncture was included in this criticism. Reversing this position, Communist Party Chairman [[Mao]] later said that "Chinese medicine and pharmacology are a great treasure house and efforts should be made to explore them and raise them to a higher level"[http://www.healthy.net/scr/article.asp?ID=1708]. [[Barefoot doctors]] were trained to provide inexpensive health care in rural Chinese communities. After the [[Cultural Revolution]], TCM instruction was incorporated into university medical curricula under the "Three Roads" policy, wherein TCM, biomedicine and a synthesis of the two would all be encouraged and permitted to develop.
==Acupuncture in modern medicine==
Medical law in the [[United States]] regarding acupuncture varies widely from state to state. Notably, states furthest to the west ([[Hawaii]] most particularly, [[California]], etc.) have the most comprehensive laws and regulations regarding acupuncture. In many U.S. states -- those furthest to the east -- medical doctors (M.D.s) are permitted to practice acupuncture with no specific training in acupuncture. In some states, acupuncturists are required to work with an M.D. in a subservient relationship, even if the M.D. has no training in acupuncture. Contrastingly, Hawaii forbids M.D.s to practice acupuncture unless they have received specific training in it and have demonstrated related competency.
Acupuncture is becoming accepted today. Over fifteen million Americans in 1994 tried acupuncture. In 1996, the [[FDA]] changed the status of acupuncture needles from Class III to Class II medical devices, meaning that needles are regarded as safe and effective when used appropriately by licensed practitioners [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/departs/596_upd.html] [http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/pmapage.html]. Acupuncture is also in the curriculum of many colleges today.
In Australia, the legalities of practicing acupuncture also vary by state. In 2 |
tainees received better care than most Kansans. However, visiting politicians were not allowed to speak to any of the detainees [http://www.ccr-ny.org/v2/reports/report.asp?ObjID=ul3zV53kyG&Content=618]. Roberts commented on the high quality of the food on the detainee's menus while the detainees were in the midst of a widespread [[hunger strike]].
And in a similar vein, still others claim that the real abuse at the base is against the guards that work there: "Our young military men and women routinely endure the vilest invective imaginable, including death threats that spill over to guards' families". [http://fredericksburg.com/News/FLS/2005/102005/10232005/139151]
==U.S. government denial of allegations of mistreatment==
''Main article: [[Periodic Report of the United States of America to the United Nations Committee Against Torture]]''
The [[United States]] government, through the [[State Department]] makes periodic reports to the [[United Nations]] Committee Against Torture. In [[October 2005]], the report focused on pretrial detention of suspects in the [[War on Terror]], including those held in Guantánamo Bay. This particular Periodic Report is significant as the first official response of the U.S. government to allegations that prisoners are mistreated in Guantánamo Bay. The report denies the allegations, but does describe in detail several instances of misconduct that did not arise to the level of substantial abuse, as well as the training and punishments given to the perpetrators.
==See also==
*[[Afghanistan timeline]]
*[[Combatant Status Review Tribunal]]
*[[Criticisms of the War on Terrorism]]
*[[Extraordinary rendition]]
*[[List of Guantánamo Bay detainees]]
*[[Platt Amendment]] - Document that Guarantees U.S. Navy use in Cuba
*[[Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005]]
*[[Unlawful combatant]]
*[[War on terror]]
==External links and references==
===U.S. sources===
* [http://www.dcd.uscourts.gov/04-1519.pdf Ruling saying Hamdan needs competent tribunal to determine his POW status (PDF file)]
* GlobalSecurity.org: [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/guantanamo-bay_x-ray.htm Profile of Camp X-Ray]
*[http://www.campxray.org Website campaigning for an end of the detention of several inmates]
*[http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/2929045.htm Guantánamo detainees mostly young foot soldiers] Carol Rosenberg, ''The Miami Herald'', [[25 March]] [[2002]]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/24/international/worldspecial/24GITM.html Fate of Prisoners From Afghan War Remains Uncertain], Neil Lewis, ''New York Times'', [[24 April]] [[2003]]
*[http://nypress.com/16/18/news&columns/cage.cfm Do Unto Others: Neil Lewis, from Guantánamo to Plattsburgh], by Matt Taibbi, ''NYPress'', [[30 April]] [[2003]] - Taibbi takes NYT reporter Lewis to account for coverage of detainees
*[http://www.aclu.org/SafeandFree/SafeandFree.cfm?ID=14620&c=206 American Civil Liberties Union: Federal Court Decision Granting Guantánamo Bay Detainees Judicial Review Caps Red-Letter Day for Checks and Balances]
*[http://www.guantanamohrc.org/ Guantánamo Human Rights Commission]
*[http://www.commondreams.org/views04/0331-09.htm Maybe None of Them are Terrorists]
*Dana Priest and Joe Stephens. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A11017-2004May8.html Pentagon Approved Tougher Interrogations], ''Washington Post.'' ([[9 May]] [[2004]])
*''[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/21/politics/21GITM.html U.S. Said to Overstate Value of Guantánamo Detainees]'', [[The New York Times|NYT]] [[21 June]] [[2004]]
{{note|ElaineChao}} [http://www.dol.gov/_sec/media/speeches/20030507_ILAB_ChildSoldiers.htm “Children in the Crossfire: Prevention and Rehabilitation of Child Soldiers”] Speech delivered by [[Elaine Chao]], U.S. [[Secretary of Labor]] on [[May 7]] [[2003]]
*[http://www.defenselink.mil/photos/Jan1998/970318-N-2240H-007.html Archive - Defense Programs - Humanitarian De-mining]
===Miscellaneous sources===
*[http://hrw.org/press/2003/01/wr2003.htm Human Rights Watch report]
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/message-eng Irene Khan's foreword to Amnesty International 2005 report, qualifying Guantánamo base as the "gulag of our times"]
*[http://web.amnesty.org/pages/guantanamobay-index-eng Amnesty International - Guantánamo Bay]
*[http://www.amnesty.org.uk/deliver/document/14105 Amnesty International seeks assurances on Guantánamo]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4394069-111575,00.html Amnesty International delivers dossier of concerns]
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/usa-summary-eng Amnesty International 2004 report (USA section)]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2970279.stm BBC: Three youths under the age of 16 are being held...]
*[http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/allnews/content_objectid=14042696_method=full_siteid=50143_headline=-MY%2DHELL%2DIN%2DCAMP%2DX%2DRAY-name_page.html Daily Mirror: My Hell In Camp X-Ray] ([[12 March]] [[2004]])
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/guantanamo/story/0,13743,1169147,00.html?=rss Observer: Revealed: the full story of the Guantánamo Britons] ([[14 March]] [[2004]])
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/guantanamo/story/0,13743,1371609,00.html The Guardian: continued concerns about torture in the camp] (December 2004)
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3509750.stm BBC: Tipton three complain of beatings] ([[14 March]] [[2004]])
* "''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/guantanamo/story/0,13743,1163435,00.html Cuba? It was great, say boys freed from U.S. prison camp], James Astill meets teenagers released from Guantánamo Bay who recall the place fondly''". The Guardian. [[6 March]] [[2004]].
*[http://schema-root.org/region/americas/north_america/usa/government/executive/cabinet/defense/bases/guantanamo_bay/detainees/ Schema- root.org: Guantanamo detainees] News feeds for known Guantánamo detainees
*[http://www.guantanamohrc.org/ Guantánamo Human Rights Commission]
{{note|CliveStaffordSmith}} [[Clive Stafford Smith]], [http://www.cageprisoners.com/articles.php?id=7880 The Kids of Guantánamo Bay], ''[[cageprisoners.com]]'', [[June 6]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.berlinale.de/en/programm/berlinale_programm/datenblatt.php?film_id=20061707 The movie "The road to Guantánamo" at Berlin Film Festival
===UK Supreme Court case and parliamentarians' [[amici curi&aelig;]]===
* Guardian: [http://www.guardian.co.uk/guantanamo/story/0,13743,1120151,00.html MPs and peers in Camp Delta plea], [[January 10]], [[2004]].
* Jenner and Block: [http://www.jenner.com/news/news_item.asp?id=12520724 U.S. Supreme Court Guantánamo Bay Cases]: [http://www.jenner.com/files/tbl_s69NewsDocumentOrder/FileUpload500/79/AmiciCuriae_175_Members_Parliament_United_Kingdom_Northern_Ireland.pdf Brief amici curiae of 175 Members of Both Houses of Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]
* [http://www.findlaw.com/ FindLaw]: [http://supreme.lp.findlaw.com/supreme_court/docket/2003/unscheduled.html#02-1389 Shafiq Rasul, et al. v. George W. Bush, President of the United States, et al. etc.]
* Supreme Court of the United States of America: [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/docket/03-334.htm Docket for 03-334] (Rasul v Bush)
* [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,1217969,00.html 'They tied me up like a beast and began kicking me' ''The Observer'', Sunday [[16 May]] [[2004]]] Account of prisoner treatment in Camp X-Ray.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3867067.stm Q&A: U.S. Supreme Court Guantánamo ruling] ''BBC News.'' ([[8 July]] [[2004]])
==Fictional representations of Guantánamo==
* The movie ''[[A Few Good Men]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]) depicts a legal trial concerning an incident that took place in Guantánamo Bay, however the entire movie was filmed in the United States.
* Guantánamo Bay was featured in ''[[Bad Boys II]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]), however it was a movie set in [[Puerto Rico]].
* Guantánamo Bay was mentioned in the [[James Bond]] movie ''[[GoldenEye]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]), which was, however, shot in Puerto Rico.
* The base is frequently referenced in the TV series ''[[JAG]]'', and its [[spin-off]] series ''[[NCIS (TV series)|NCIS]]''.
* The animated series ''[[American Dad!]]'' features a real-estate agent being sent to Guantánamo Bay by the government.
* [[Ultimate Marvel]] comics make reference to Camp X-Factor, a detention camp in Guantánamo Bay designed to hold renegade [[Mutant (fictional)|mutants]].
* The book ''[[Seven Ancient Wonders]]'' features an assault on Guantánamo Bay by several of the main characters to break a prisoner out of a detention block.
==See also==
* [[Center for Constitutional Rights]]
* [[Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse]]
* [[Combatant Status Review Tribunal]]
* [[Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005]]
* [[List of Guantánamo Bay detainees]]
* [[Flora and fauna of Guantánamo Bay]]
* [[Guantánamo Province]]
* Compare with other [[foreign establishment]]s:
**[[United States|U.S.]]: [[Subic Bay]], [[Panama Canal Zone]]
**U.S./UK: [[Diego Garcia]], [[Ascension Island]]
**[[UK]]: ''current:'' [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]]([[Cyprus]]), [[Gibraltar]], ''historical:'' [[Hong Kong]], [[Treaty ports|Chinese treaty ports]], [[Treaty ports (Ireland)|Irish treaty ports]], [[Singapore]]
**[[Portugal]]: ''historical:'' [[Macau]], [[Goa]]
==Wikisource links==
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_States_-_Cuban_Agreements_and_Treaty_of_1934 Texts of United States - Cuban agreements and treaty of 1934]
==External links==
{{wikinewscat|Guantanamo Bay}}
*[http://www.ccr-ny.org] website of the New York City-based legal non-profit, the Center for Consitutional Rights, which is legally authorized to represent over 200 of the Guantánamo Bay detainees
*[http://wid.ap.org/documents/detainees/list.html The Associated Press Court Documents Archive]
A list of detainees at Guantánamo Bay Naval Base with links to Federal court documents, by detainee.
* [http://www.studiotheatre.org/plays/plays_d |
ger Gerard. Little is known of his mother other than the fact that her name was Margaret and she was the daughter of a physician. Despite being illegitimate, Erasmus was cared for by his parents until their early deaths from the [[Black Death|plague]] in [[1483]], and then given the best education available to a young man of his day in a series of monastic or semi-monastic schools. In [[1487]] Erasmus became deeply attached to a young man, Servatius Rogerus, whom he called "half my soul", writing "I have wooed you both unhappily and relentlessly".{{ref|Stevens}}
In [[1492]], he was admitted to the [[priesthood]] and took [[monk|monastic]] vows at about the age of twenty-five, but he never seems to have worked as a priest, and [[monasticism]] was one of the chief objects of his attack in his lifelong assault upon the evils of the Church. Soon after his ordination, he got his chance to leave the monastery when offered the post of secretary to the Bishop of Cambray, Henry of Bergen, on account of his great skill in [[Latin]] and his reputation as a [[man of letters]].
In [[1495]], with the bishop's consent and stipend, he went on to study at the [[University of Paris]], then the chief seat of scholastic learning, but already under the influence of the revived classical culture of [[Italy]]. The chief centers of his activity were [[Paris]], [[Leuven]] (Louvain), [[England]], and [[Basel]]; yet he never belonged firmly in any one of these places. His time in England was fruitful in the making of lifelong friendships with the leaders of English thought in the stirring days of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]: [[John Colet]], [[Thomas More]], [[John Fisher]], [[Thomas Linacre]], and [[William Grocyn]]. At the [[University of Cambridge]] he was [[Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity]], and had the option of spending the rest of his life as an English [[professor]]. He stayed at [[Queens' College, Cambridge]] and may have been an [[alumnus]].
Erasmus preferred to live the life of an independent scholar, and made a conscious effort to avoid any actions or formal ties that might inhibit his freedom of intellect and literary expression. Throughout his life, he was offered many positions of honour and profit throughout the academic world but declined them all, preferring the uncertain but sufficient rewards of independent literary activity. From [[1506]] to [[1509]] he was in Italy. He spent part of the time at the publishing house of [[Aldine Press|Aldus Manutius]] at [[Venice]], but apart from this he had a less active association with Italian scholars than might have been expected.
His residence at [[Leuven]] exposed Erasmus to much petty criticism, from those hostile to the principles of literary and religious progress to which he was devoting his life. He represented this lack of sympathy as persecution, and sought refuge in [[Basel]], where under the shelter of Swiss hospitality he could express himself freely and where he was surrounded by devoted friends. Here he was associated for many years with the great publisher [[Froben]], and to him came the multitude of his admirers from all quarters of Europe.
Erasmus's literary productivity began comparatively late in his life. Only when he had mastered [[Latin]] did he begin to express himself on major contemporary themes in [[literature]] and [[religion]]. His revolt against the forms of church life did not result from doubts about the truth of the traditional [[doctrine]], nor from any hostility to the organization of the Church itself. Rather, he felt called upon to use his learning in a purification of the doctrine and in a liberalizing of the institutions of [[Christianity]]. As a scholar, he tried to free the methods of scholarship from the rigidity and formalism of medieval traditions; but he was not satisfied with this. He saw himself as a preacher of righteousness. It was this lifelong conviction that guided Erasmus as he regenerated [[Europe]] through sound criticism applied frankly and without fear to the Catholic Church. This conviction gives unity and consistency to a life which might otherwise seem full of contradictions. Erasmus held himself aloof from all entangling obligations; yet he was in a singularly true sense the center of the literary movement of his time. He corresponded with more than five hundred men of the highest importance in the world of politics and of thought, and his advice on all kinds of subjects was eagerly sought, if not always followed.
While in England Erasmus began the systematic examination of manuscripts of the [[New Testament]] to prepare for a new edition and Latin translation. This edition was published by Froben of Basel in [[1516]] and was the basis of most of the scientific study of the Bible during the Reformation period (see Bible Text, II., 2, § 1). He published a [[Textual criticism|critical edition]] of the Greek [[New Testament]] in [[1516]] - ''Novum Instrumentum omne, diligenter ab Erasmo Rot. Recognitum et Emendatum''. This edition included a Latin translation and annotations. It used recently rediscovered additional manuscripts. In the second edition the more familiar term ''Testamentum'' was used instead of ''Instrumentum''. This edition was used by the translators of the [[King James Version]] of the Bible. The text later became known as the ''[[Textus Receptus]]''. Erasmus published three other editions - in [[1522]], [[1527]] and [[1535]]. Erasmus dedicated his work to [[Pope Leo X]] as a patron of learning, and he regarded this work as his chief service to the cause of Christianity. Immediately afterwards he began the publication of his ''Paraphrases of the New Testament'', a popular presentation of the contents of the several books. These, like all of his writings, were published in Latin, but were quickly translated into other languages, with his encouragement.
[[Martin Luther]]'s movement began in the year following the publication of the New Testament, and tested Erasmus's character. The issue between European society and the Roman Church had become so clear that few could escape the summons to join the debate. Erasmus, at the height of his literary fame, was inevitably called upon to take sides, but partisanship was foreign to his nature and his habits. In all his criticism of clerical follies and abuses he had always protested that he was not attacking church institutions themselves and had no enmity toward churchmen. The world had laughed at his [[satire]], but few had interfered with his activities. He believed that his work so far had commended itself to the best minds and also to the dominant powers in the religious world.
Erasmus was in sympathy with the main points in the Lutheran criticism of the Church. For [[Martin Luther]] personally he had the greatest respect, and Luther always spoke with admiration of Erasmus's superior learning. Luther hoped for his cooperation in a work which seemed only the natural outcome of his own. In their early correspondence Luther expressed boundless admiration for all Erasmus had done in the cause of a sound and reasonable Christianity, and urged him to join the Lutheran party. Erasmus declined to commit himself, arguing that to do so would endanger his position as a leader in the movement for pure scholarship which he regarded as his purpose in life. Only as an independent scholar could he hope to influence the reform of religion. When Erasmus hesitated to support him, it seemed to the straightforward Luther an avoidance of responsibility due either to [[cowardice]] or lack of purpose. Erasmus, however, dreaded any change in [[doctrine]] and believed that there was room within existing formulas for the kind of reform he valued most.
Twice in the course of the great discussion he allowed himself to enter the field of doctrinal controversy, a field foreign to both his nature and his previous practice. One of the topics he dealt with was the [[free will|freedom of the will]], a crucial point. In his ''De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio'' ([[1524]]), he lampoons the Lutheran view on free will. He lays down both sides of the argument impartially. The "Diatribe" did not encourage any definite action; this was its merit to the Erasmians and its fault in the eyes of the Lutherans. In response Luther wrote his ''De Servo Arbitrio'' ([[On the Bondage of the Will]]) ([[1525]]), which viciously attacks the "Diatribe" and Erasmus himself, going so far as to claim that Erasmus was not a Christian.
As the popular response to Luther gathered momentum, the social disorders which Erasmus predicted would result from Lutheran antinomianism began to appear. The [[Peasants' War]], the [[Anabaptist]] disturbances in Germany and in the Low Countries, [[iconoclasm]] and [[radicalism]] everywhere, seemed to confirm all his gloomy predictions. If these were the outcomes of reform, he was thankful he had kept out of it. Yet he was being ever more bitterly accused of having started the whole "tragedy." In [[Switzerland]] he was especially exposed to criticism through his association with men there who were more than suspected of extreme rationalistic doctrines.
When the city of [[Basel]] was definitely and officially "reformed" in 1529, Erasmus gave up his residence there and settled in the imperial town of [[Freiburg im Breisgau]].
[[Image:Hans Holbein d. J. 047.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Erasmus by [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Holbein]]]]
The test question was the doctrine of the [[sacrament]]s, and the crux of this question was the observance of the [[Eucharist]]. in [[1530]] Erasmus published a new edition of the orthodox treatise of [[Algerus]] against the heretic [[Berengar of Tours]] in the [[11th century]]. He added a dedication, affirming his belief in the reality of the Body of Christ after consecration in the Eucharist. The [[anti-sacramentarian]]s, headed by [[Johannes Oecolampa |
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<title>Achilles</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Achilles (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:The_wrath_of_Achilles.jpg|220px|thumb|right|The wrath of Achilles, by Léon Benouville]]{{Greek myth}}In [[Greek mythology]], '''{{polytonic|&#7944;χιλλεύς}}''', transliterated to '''Akhilleus''' or '''Achilleus'' in Roman letters, Latinized from this ancient Greek to '''Achilles''', appearing in Etruscan as '''Achle''', was a [[hero]] (ancient Greek heros, "defender") of the [[Trojan War]], the greatest and the most [[central character]] of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]''.
==Name==
The very first two lines of the ''Iliad'' read:
:{{Polytonic|μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος}}
:{{Polytonic|οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκεν,}}
Transliterated:
:Mēnin aeide thea, Pēlēiadeō Akhilēos
:oulomenēn, hē muri' Akhaiois alge' ethēken,
Translated:
:Sing, Muse, the wrath of Achilles the son of Peleus,
:the destructive wrath, that brought countless griefs upon the Achaeans,
[[Image:G-achilles-trojan-wars-bb-l.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Achilles]]In these lines, we see the name Akhilleus Peleides, which is a [[praenomen]] and a [[patronymic]], the latter being formed from Peleus with the suffix -ides producing ''Achilles the son of [[Peleus]]''. The system is similar to the names used by [[Scandinavians]] before modern times, such as Leif Erikson.
Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of {{Polytonic|ἄχος}} (''akhos'') "grief" and {{Polytonic|λαός}} (''laos'') "a people, tribe, nation, etc." [http://www.stanford.edu/group/shl/Crowds/hist/laos.htm] In other words, Achilles is an embodiment of the grief of the people, grief being a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (frequently by Achilles). Achilles' role as the hero of grief forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of Achilles as the hero of ''kleos'' (glory, usually glory in war).
''Laos'' has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean ''a corps of soldiers''. With this derivation, the name would have a double meaning in the poem: When the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring grief to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership.
==Birth==
Achilles was the son of the mortal [[Peleus]], king of the [[Myrmidons]] in [[Phthia]] (southeast [[Thessaly]]), and the sea nymph [[Thetis]]. [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until [[Prometheus]] the fire-bringer prophesized that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed to Peleus.
When Achilles was born, according to the most common version of the myth, Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]]. But she forgot to wet the heel she held him by, leaving him vulnerable at that spot. (See [[Achilles' tendon]].) In an earlier and less popular version of the story, Thetis anointed the boy in [[ambrosia]] and put him on top of a fire to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. Homer does not make reference to this invulnerability in the [[Iliad]]. To the contrary, he mentions Achilles being wounded, although not seriously.
Peleus gave him (together with his young friend or lover [[Patroclus]]) to [[Chiron]] the [[Centaur]], on Mt. [[Pelion]], to be raised.
==Achilles in the Trojan War==
===Telephus===
When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in [[Mysia]], ruled by King [[Telephus]]. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal".
According to other reports in [[Euripides]]' lost play about Telephus, he went to [[Aulis]] pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. [[Odysseus]] reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed. This is an example of [[sympathetic magic]].
===During the Trojan War===
[[Image:The_Rage_of_Achilles_by_Giovanni_Battista_Tiepolo.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|“The Rage of Achilles” by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]].]]
In Homer's Iliad, Achilles is the only mortal to experience consuming rage (''menon''). His anger is at some times wavering, at other times absolute. The humanization of Achilles by the events of the war is an important theme of the ''[[Iliad]]''.
Achilles' [[charioteer]]'s name was [[Automedon]].
====Troilus====
According to [[Dares Phrygius]]' ''Account of the Destruction of Troy'' [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/DaresTW.html], while [[Troilus]], the youngest son of [[Priam]] and [[Hecuba]] (whom some say was fathered by [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]]), was watering his horses at the Lion Fountain outside the walls of Troy, Achilles saw him and fell in love with his beauty (whose "loveliness of form" was described by [[Ibycus]] as being like "gold thrice refined"). The youth rejected his advances and took refuge inside the temple of Apollo. Achilles pursued him into the sanctuary and decapitated him on the god's own altar. ([[John Tzetzes|Tzetzes]], [[scholiast]] on [[Lycophron]]). At the time, Troilus was said to be a year short of his twentieth birthday, and the legend goes that if Troilus had lived to be twenty, Troy would have been invincible. ([[First Vatican Mythographer]])
====Agamemnon and the death of Patroclus====
[[Image:Patrocluspederastyscene.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Patroclus]] and Achilles. Achilles bandages the arm of his friend Patroclus. The latter turns his head aside to avoid the sight of blood and of Achilles noticing his pain grimaces. The scene has been interpreted as an act of welfare and comradeship, or as a scene with sexual overtones. Ancient Greek culture often held the two [[Iliad#The_relationship_of_Achilles_and_Patroclus|to be lovers]].]]
Achilles took 23 towns outside [[Troy]], including [[Lyrnessos]], where he captured [[Briseis]] to keep as a [[concubine]]. Meanwhile, [[Agamemnon]] took a woman named [[Chryseis]] and taunted her father, [[Chryses]], a priest of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], when he attempted to buy her back. Apollo sent a plague through the Greek armies, and Agamemnon was forced to give Chryseis back to her father; however, he took Briseis away from Achilles as compensation for his loss.
This action sparked the central plot of the [[Iliad]]: Achilles becomes enraged and refuses to fight for the Greeks any further. The war goes badly, through the influence of [[Zeus]], and the Greeks offer handsome reparations to their greatest warrior. After the Greeks are pushed back to the ships, which are just starting to be set on fire by the Trojan hero [[Hector]], Achilles is visited by [[Odysseus]], [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax]], and [[Phoenix (Iliad)|Phoenix]], who attempt to persuade him to return to battle.
Achilles still refuses to fight, but agrees to allow [[Patroclus]] to fight in his place, wearing his armor. The next day, [[Patroclus]] is killed and stripped of the armor by Hector, who mistakes him for Achilles. Achilles is overwhelmed with grief for his beloved friend, and the rage he once harbored toward Agamemnon begins shifting to Hector. Thetis, his mother, rises from the sea floor and sympathizes with his grief. She obtains magnificent new armor for him from [[Hephaestus]]. The goddess [[Athena]] provides him with the [[aegis]] of Zeus.
When he goes to the battlefield, the entire Trojan army flees behind the walls of Troy. Achilles' wrath is terrible, and he slays many Trojan warriors and allies, including Priam's son [[Lycaon]] (whom Achilles had previously captured and sold into slavery, but who had been returned to Troy). Eventually Hector comes out of the walls to defend the honour of Troy. He asked Achilles to agree that the body of the loser would be returned for proper burial by the winner. Achilles rejected this arrangement, saying, "Though twenty ransoms and thy weight in gold were offered, I would refuse it all."
Stories tell that Hector ran about Troy seven times and Achilles followed him, however seeing that Achilles would not be outrun, Hector stood his ground and fought. Other versions of the tale say that Achilles chased after Hector two times, and one time he was delivered by the gods, however, on their second encounter, Achilles trapped Hector and challenged him. After a legendary fight, Achilles kills Hector.
Influenced by his anger, he drags the body of Hector behind his chariot round the walls of Troy three times, and refuses to allow it to receive [[funeral rites]]. Much to the dismay of Achilles, the body of Hector miraculously heals and will not decay as normally expected. [[Aphrodite]], the goddess of love who sided with Troy throughout the whole conflict, put a protective barrier over [[Hector]], which kept him looking like he did before he was viciously killed by Achilles. When [[Priam |
[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]], the custom became even more widespread. In 1847, Prince Albert wrote: "I must now seek in the children an echo of what Ernest [his brother] and I were in the old time, of what we felt and thought; and their delight in the Christmas-trees is not less than ours used to be". The generous Prince Albert also presented large numbers of trees to schools and army barracks at Christmas. Images of the royal family with their Christmas tree at [[Osborne House]] were illustrated in English magazines, initially as a [[woodcut]] in the [[Illustrated London News]] of December 1848, and copied in the [[United States]] at Christmas 1850 (''illustration, left''). Such patriotic prints of the British royal family at Christmas celebrations helped popularise the Christmas tree in Britain and among the anglophile American upper class.
There are several cities in the United States which lay claim to that country's first Christmas tree. [[Windsor Locks, Connecticut]] claims that a Hessian soldier put up a Christmas tree in 1777 while imprisoned at the Noden-Reed House, thus making it the home of the first Christmas tree in New England. The "First Christmas Tree in America" is also claimed by [[Easton, Pennsylvania]], where German settlers purportedly erected a Christmas tree in 1816.
Many [[cities]], [[town]]s, and [[department store]]s put up public Christmas trees outdoors for everyone to enjoy, such as the [[Rich's Great Tree]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], the [[Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree]] in [[New York City]] and the large Christmas tree at [[Victoria Square]] in [[Adelaide]]. In some cities [[Festival of Trees|festivals]] are organised around the decoration and display of multiple trees as charity events. In some cases the trees represent special commemorative gifts, such as in [[Trafalgar Square]] in [[London]] where the City of Oslo presents a tree to the people of London as a token of appreciation for the British support of Norwegian resistance during the [[World War II|Second World War]]; in [[Boston]] where the tree is a gift from the city of [[Halifax, Nova Scotia (former city)|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]], in thanks for rapid deployment of supplies and rescuers to the 1917 [[Halifax Explosion|ammunition ship explosion]] that leveled Halifax harbor; and in [[Newcastle upon Tyne]], where the 15 [[metre|m]] tall main civic Christmas tree is an annual gift from the city of [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], [[Norway]] in thanks for the part played by soldiers from Newcastle in liberating Bergen from [[Nazi]] occupation.
[[Image:National-christmas-tree-2004.jpg|thumb|National Christmas Tree in Washington, D.C.]]
The [[United States]]' [[National Christmas Tree]] is lit each year south of the [[White House]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Today, the lighting of the National Tree is part of what has become a major holiday event at the White House. President [[Jimmy Carter]] only lit the crowning star atop the Tree in 1979 in honor of the Americans being [[Iran hostage crisis|held hostage in Iran]]; in 1980, the tree was only fully lit for 417 seconds, one second for each day the hostages had been in captivity.
The term ''[[Charlie Brown]] Christmas tree'' can be used to described any sad-looking, malformed little tree. Some tree buyers intentionally adopt such trees, feeling sympathetic to their plights. The term comes from the appearance of Charlie Brown's Christmas tree in the [[:Category:Christmas television specials|TV special]] ''[[A Charlie Brown Christmas]]''.
===Name controversy===
The term '''holiday tree''' has, since at least 1990 (and perhaps before), been used by some in the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and the [[UK]] to reflect the winter [[holiday season]] instead of any specific religious holiday. A recent campaign spearheaded by conservative [[Fox News Channel]] contributors [[Bill O'Reilly (commentator)|Bill O'Reilly]] and [[Sean Hannity]] has resulted in a backlash from some Christian groups and individuals who feel the designation "holiday tree" is part of the [[war on Christmas]].
===Usage controversy===
Some Christians, albeit a minority, feel that the practice of having "Christmas Trees" is prohibited by the [[Book of Jeremiah]] 10:1-5 which says,
:For the customs of the people [are] vain: for [one] cutteth a tree out of the forest, the work of the hands of the workman, with the axe. They deck it with silver and with gold; they fasten it with nails and with hammers, that it move not. They are upright as the palm tree, but speak not: they must needs be borne, because they cannot go. Be not afraid of them; for they cannot do evil, neither also is it in them to do good. [[KJV]].
Interpreting those verses as a ban on Christmas trees may be more common among individuals and [[Christian denomination|Christian denominations]] that are part of the [[King-James-Only Movement]].
In other [[English translations of the Bible]] the verses more explicitly refer to the practice of making idols to be worshipped:
:For the customs of the peoples are worthless; they cut a tree out of the forest, and a ''craftsman shapes it with his chisel''. They adorn it with silver and gold; they fasten it with a hammer and nails so it will not totter. Like a scarecrow in a melon patch, their idols cannot speak; ''they must be carried because they cannot walk''. ''Do not fear them''; they can do no harm nor can they do any good. (emphasis added) [[NIV]]
A full study of the passage shows that the people would cut down a tree and work it with a chisel to engrave an image in it. They would also carry it from place to place as an object to be feared and worshipped. The only consistencies with Christmas tree customs seem to be that both are made of wood and both are decorated.
Some Christians, again a minority, feel that since "Christmas Trees" are not biblically ordained, they should not be used. Such individuals and [[Christian denomination|Christian denominations]] are unlikely to celebrate [[Christmas]] at all, for the same reason, such as the [[United Church of God]].
Some churches use the same stripped Christmas tree as a [[Christian cross]] at [[Easter]]. This is comparable to the [[Old English]] poem [[The Dream of the Rood]].
==See also==
*[[Christmas customs in Germany]]
*[[New Year Tree]]
==External links==
{{commons|Christmas tree}}
*[http://www.nps.gov/whho/pageant/nctrees/1923/ US National Christmas Tree]
*[http://www.royalinsight.gov.uk/output/Page2821.asp British Royal Family Christmas trees]
*[http://www.firstchristmastree.com Riga, Latvia purported home of the original Christmas Tree]
*[http://www.conifers.org/topics/xmastree.htm An iconoclastic look at artificial Christmas trees, at the Gymnosperm Database]
*[http://realtytimes.com/printrtpages/20031212_fauxtree.htm Artificial tree usage data in the USA]
*[http://www.BCTGA.co.uk The British Christmas Tree Growers Association homepage]
*[http://www.sots.ct.gov/RegisterManual/SectionX/MUSEUMS.htm 1777 Christmas tree in Windsor Locks, CT]
[[Category:Christmas traditions]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Corporativism</title>
<id>7771</id>
<revision>
<id>15905821</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Corporatism]]
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<page>
<title>Carrier battle group</title>
<id>7772</id>
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<id>41716123</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:37:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AirBa</username>
<id>163034</id>
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<minor />
<comment>[[zh:航空母艦戰鬥群]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abraham-Lincoln-battlegroup.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The Abraham Lincoln battle group during the 2000 RIMPAC exercises]]
The '''carrier battle group''' ('''CVBG or CARBATGRU''') or '''carrier strike group''' ('''CVSG''') is a fleet of ships in support of an [[aircraft carrier]]. Such groups are primarily used by the [[United States Navy]], which has 12 carrier battle groups scattered across the world. Their existence is an important part of the [[power projection]] capability of the [[United States]] in that they provide the ability to strike quickly almost anywhere in the world.
The large number of CVBGs used by the United States reflects, in part, a division of labor allotted during the [[Cold War]], in which the United States assumed primary responsibility for [[blue water]] operations and for safeguarding supply lines between the United States and [[Europe]], while the [[NATO]] allies assumed responsibility for [[maritime geography|brown and green water]] operations.
==Design==
The need for a battle group is due to the fact that while the aircraft carrier has the ability to project a large amount of air power, it is vulnerable to attack from other surface ships and submarines. One way of looking at the CVBG is that the carrier performs the mission assigned to it while the primary role of the other ships is in protection of the carrier.
CVBGs have no definitive specification and are formed and dissolved on an ad-hoc basis, and one may be different from another. However, they all comprise similar types of ships, and a typical U.S. carrier battle group might include:
* a carrier, usually [[Nimitz class aircraft carrier|''Nim |
e dollar sign is ignored. If the string is translated and replaced, the replacement is double-quoted.
==Bash startup scripts==
When Bash starts, it executes the commands in a variety of different scripts.
When Bash is invoked as an interactive login shell, or as a non-interactive shell with the <tt>--login</tt> option, it first reads and executes commands from the file <tt>/etc/profile</tt>, if that file exists. After reading that file, it looks for <tt>~/.bash_profile</tt>, <tt>~/.bash_login</tt>, and <tt>~/.profile</tt>, in that order, and reads and executes commands from the first one that exists and is readable. The <tt>--noprofile</tt> option may be used when the shell is started to inhibit this behavior.
When a login shell exits, Bash reads and executes commands from the file <tt>~/.bash_logout</tt>, if it exists.
When an interactive shell that is not a login shell is started, Bash reads and executes commands from <tt>~/.bashrc</tt>, if that file exists. This may be inhibited by using the <tt>--norc</tt> option. The <tt>--rcfile file</tt> option will force Bash to read and execute commands from <tt>file</tt> instead of <tt>~/.bashrc</tt>.
When Bash is started non-interactively, to run a shell script, for example, it looks for the variable <tt>BASH_ENV</tt> in the environment, expands its value if it appears there, and uses the expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute. Bash behaves as if the following command were executed:
if [ -n "$BASH_ENV" ]; then . "$BASH_ENV"; fi
but the value of the <tt>PATH</tt> variable is not used to search for the file name.
If Bash is invoked with the name <tt>sh</tt>, it tries to mimic the startup behavior of historical versions of <tt>sh</tt> as closely as possible, while conforming to the [[POSIX]] standard as well. When invoked as an interactive login shell, or a non-interactive shell with the <tt>--login</tt> option, it first attempts to read and execute commands from <tt>/etc/profile</tt> and <tt>~/.profile</tt>, in that order. The <tt>--noprofile</tt> option may be used to inhibit this behavior. When invoked as an interactive shell with the name <tt>sh</tt>, Bash looks for the variable <tt>ENV</tt>, expands its value if it is defined, and uses the expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute. Since a shell invoked as <tt>sh</tt> does not attempt to read and execute commands from any other startup files, the <tt>--rcfile</tt> option has no effect. A non-interactive shell invoked with the name <tt>sh</tt> does not attempt to read any other startup files. When invoked as <tt>sh</tt>, Bash enters ''posix'' mode after the startup files are read.
When Bash is started in posix mode, as with the <tt>--posix</tt> command line option, it follows the POSIX standard for startup files. In this mode, interactive shells expand the <tt>ENV</tt> variable and commands are read and executed from the file whose name is the expanded value. No other startup files are read.
Bash attempts to determine when it is being run by the remote shell daemon, usually <tt>rshd</tt>. If Bash determines it is being run by <tt>rshd</tt>, it reads and executes commands from <tt>~/.bashrc</tt>, if that file exists and is readable. It will not do this if invoked as <tt>sh</tt>. The <tt>--norc</tt> option may be used to inhibit this behavior, and the <tt>--rcfile</tt> option may be used to force another file to be read, but <tt>rshd</tt> does not generally invoke the shell with those options or allow them to be specified.
==External links==
{{Wikibookspar||Bourne Shell Scripting}}
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/bash.html Bash home page]
*[ftp://ftp.cwru.edu/pub/bash/FAQ Bash FAQ]
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?dq=&lr=&ie=UTF-8&group=gnu.announce&selm=mailman.1865.1091019304.1960.info-gnu%40gnu.org Bash 3.0 Announcement]
*[http://www.network-theory.co.uk/bash/manual/ The GNU Bash Reference Manual], ([http://www.network-theory.co.uk/docs/bashref/ HTML version]) by [[Chet Ramey]] and [[Brian Fox]], ISBN 0954161777
*[http://bashdb.sourceforge.net/bashdb.html Debugging with the BASH debugger]
Bash guides from the [[Linux Documentation Project]]:
*[http://www.tldp.org/LDP/Bash-Beginners-Guide/html/ Bash Guide for Beginners]
*[http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Bash-Prog-Intro-HOWTO.html BASH Programming - Introduction HOW-TO]
*[http://www.tldp.org/LDP/abs/html/ Advanced Bash-Scripting Guide]
Other guides and tutorials:
*[http://www.cyberciti.biz/nixcraft/linux/docs/uniqlinuxfeatures/lsst/ Linux Shell Scripting Tutorial - A Beginner's handbook]
*[http://www.linux.ie/newusers/beginners-linux-guide/shells.php About Shells]
*[http://hypexr.homelinux.org/bash_tutorial.html Beginners Bash Tutorial]
*[http://deadman.org/bash.html Advancing in the Bash Shell tutorial]
*[http://www.vias.org/linux-knowhow/bbg_intro_10.html Linux Know-How] including the Bash Guide for Beginners
*[http://markhobley.yi.org/linux/packages/shells/bash/bashdiff.html Differences Between Bash and The Standard Unix Shell]
[[Category:Domain-specific programming languages]]
[[Category:Text-oriented programming languages]]
[[Category:Scripting languages]]
[[Category:Unix shells]]
[[Category:Unix software]]
[[Category:GNU project software]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Blizzard</title>
<id>4548</id>
<revision>
<id>41945969</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:27:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.17.178.140</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the software company|Blizzard Entertainment}} {{for|the story by [[Aleksandr Pushkin|Pushkin]] and the suite by [[Georgi Sviridov|Sviridov]]|The Blizzard}}
[[Image:blizzard.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Blizzards are characterized by high winds and blinding precipitation]]
[[Image:Train stuck in snow.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Sudden blizzards can cause terrible damage to [[infrastructure]] as well as danger to human life.]]
A '''blizzard''' is a [[severe winter storm]] condition characterized by low [[temperature]]s and strong [[wind]]s that greater than 35 [[mile]]s per hour or 56 [[kilometre]]s per hour, bearing a great amount of [[snow]], either falling or blowing.
Because the factors involving classification of winter storms are complex, there are many different definitions of blizzard. A major consensus is that in order to be classified as a blizzard, as opposed to merely a [[winter storm]], the weather must meet several conditions. The storm must decrease visibility to a quarter of a mile or 400 meters for three consecutive hours, including snow or ice as precipitation, and have wind speeds of at least 35 miles per hour or 56 kilometres per hour (this would be seven or more on the [[Beaufort Wind Scale]]).
Another standard, according to [[Environment Canada]], is that the winter storm must have winds of 40 km/h (25 mph) or more, have snow or blowing snow, visibility less than 1 km (about <small><sup>5</sup><big>⁄</big><sub>8</sub></small> mile), a wind chill of less than &minus;25 °C (&minus;13 °F), and all of these conditions must last for 4 hours or more, before the storm can be properly called a blizzard.
When all of these conditions persist after snow has stopped falling, meteorologists refer to the storm as a '''ground blizzard'''.
Severe blizzards can occur in conjunction with [[arctic cyclone]]s.
An extreme form of blizzard is a '''whiteout''', when [[downdraft]]s coupled with snowfall become so severe that it is impossible to distinguish the ground from the air. People caught in a whiteout can quickly become disoriented, losing their sense of direction. This poses difficulty for [[aviation]] flying in the altitude of the storm
The word ''blizzard'' is of unknown origin, but may originate from the surname Blizzard. It was first widely used after the great [[United States]] winter storm now known as the "Blizzard of [[1880]]." [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=blizzard]
Certain types of blizzards in the northeastern United States are colloquially known as ''[[Nor'easter]]s''. In the [[Upper Midwest]], a northerly weather pattern deemed likely to produce blizzards is called an [[Alberta clipper]].
== See also ==
*The [[Schoolhouse Blizzard]]
*The [[Great Blizzard of '88]]
*The [[Great Blizzard of 1899]]
*The [[Blizzard of 1977]]
*The [[Great Blizzard of 1978]]
*The [[1993 North American Storm Complex]]
*The [[North American blizzard of 1996]]
*The [[Blizzard of 1999]] Led Zeppelin
*The [[North American blizzard of 2003]]
*The [[North American blizzard of 2005]]
*The [[North American blizzard of 2006]]
*[[:Category:Blizzards]]
==External links==
*[http://www.projectshum.org/NaturalDisasters/blizzards.html Natural Disasters - Blizzards] Great research site for kids.
*[http://www.richardjwild.co.uk Dr Richard Wild - Heavy Snow, Blizzards, Snowstorms and Snowfall Site] Online home of Dr Richard Wild. Site includes history and news of heavy snow, blizzards, snowstorms, snow pictures, snow data and other historical snowfalls and blizzard related topics.
[[Category:Weather hazards]]
[[Category:Snow]]
[[Category:Storms]]
[[Category:Blizzards]]
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|
is the supreme truth”. [Lifton (1961) p. 545].
====Usage====
Some people speak of '''cultural coercion''' when the fear of falling out with the group may force people into wearing a certain style of dress, publicly reciting a [[creed]] or a pledge of allegiance they find morally reprehensible, starting to smoke when they'd rather not, etc. Within the definitional framework adopted here, all such things amount to (psychological) coercion if and only if the fear of falling out with the group is the result of ‘’purposeful’’ threats by someone. See [[Peer pressure]], [[Sociology of religion]], [[Pledge of Allegiance]].
Some people include [[deception]] in their definition of (psychological) coercion. Yet deception does not generally involve ‘’any’’ threat at all, as it works by creating a mere ‘’false perception’’ by the victim of his or her ‘’given’’ transformation rules. Although its effects may sometimes be very similar to those of a conditional threat, it may hence be useful to treat deception as separate phenomenon.
===Economic coercion===
Economic coercion is when a agent (the coercer) puts economic pressure onto the victim (coercee). The most common example of this is cutting off the supply to an essential resource, such as water. If someone is the owner of the only water supply another person can use, then his threat to refuse to supply him with water is a death threat. Even though it only involves the coercer's refusal to enter into a [[contract]], without any use of physical force, this kind of coercion can be very powerful indeed.
Economic coercion requires [[market power]]. In the above example, the coercer's refusal to [[supply]] the coercee would be meaningless if the coercee had access to other independent sources of [[supply]]. But the coercer can turn his conditional refusal into an vital threat only because of his pure [[monopoly]] power over an essential resource, with no other substitutes.
An analogous result can also be obtained through pure [[monopsony]] power (where there is only one buyer as opposed to one seller in a monopoly). To reverse the above example, suppose that there are numerous independent suppliers of water, who sell it at a [[competitive|competition]] [[market price]]. If someone can only sell potatoes (to get money to buy water), and there is only one potato buyer he can sell to, then the buyer's simple conditional refusal to buy his potatoes would be a death threat, just as before.
The idea that market power may imply a power of coercion has been underlined by some social philosophers. It shows that in some cases the social effects of market power may go far beyond those on economic [[distribution (business)|distribution]] and [[efficiency]]. <!-- ***NEEDS CITATION*** Economic coercion is rare in [[market economy|market economies]]. Indeed, the maximum degree of market power – and hence potential economic coercion - is attained in those [[centrally planned economy|centrally planned economies]] where a closed group tightly controls all or most [[means of production]]. -->
== Aims==
The aims of coercion can vary widely from totally "selfish" to totally ‘’altruistic’’ ones: from attempts to gain personal wealth and power at the expense of others to efforts aimed at saving other people’s souls.
===Predatory coercion===
The purely selfish kinds of coercion are a form of [[predatory behaviour]] by the coercing party, whose aim is to narrow down the scope of other people’s actions so as to make them instrumental to its own personal interests. According to many social philosophers, this sort of predatory behaviour would become the prevailing one under conditions of social [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]].
===Pedagogic and thought coercion===
At the other extreme of the spectrum one finds attempts to use coercion altruistically, as a pedagogical device to improve – in some supposedly objective sense – the way other people ‘’think’’, with particular regard to their basic attitudes and values. Pedagogic coercion may be applied within a strictly educational context, and it is then mostly directed towards children. In this article, however, attention will focus on ‘’thought coercion’’, i.e. the attempt to use coercion to affect the basic values of grown-up people in general.
In all forms of ‘’thought coercion’’ the immediate objective is to force other people to act ‘’as if’’ their basic choice rules were identical to those of the coercing party. However, this mere conformity of “outward” behaviour is but a first step. The true and final aim of thought coercion is to induce a change in the victim’s objective function itself, i.e. the basic set of values and rules by which the victim determines his or her own choice among the alternatives of ‘’any’’ feasible set. Thought coercion is thus generally meant to be only ‘’temporary’’. Once the desired change in values has been brought about, the victim is expected to conform spontaneously, without any need for further coercion.
Whether and under what conditions this final aim can in fact be stably achieved is a difficult question, and it will be considered in the section devoted to the effects of coercion. Here it is necessary to point out that, whatever its effectiveness, thought coercion has in fact been used very extensively throughout history.
====Religious coercion====
The most ancient, extensive and durable kind of thought coercion has concerned [[religion]]. Religious coercion is a subset of predatory coercion, in which the selfish entity is a supernatural one. The threat typically manifests as a promise by the entity to respond to incorrect behavior with '''damnation'''--eternal discomfort. This coercion has taken the form of religious [[discrimination]] and [[persecution]], including forced conversions, and on many occasions it has led to [[religious wars]].
[[Christianity]]'s early persecution by [[Rome]] had in fact political rather than strictly religious objectives. But its subsequent expansion was associated with a substantial amount of purely religious coercion, mainly by Christians against members of other religions and [[heretics]]. Moreover, Christianity’s tendency to strong and systematic religious coercion – particularly but not only by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] – has long outlived its first few centuries, and has only been finally checked – though by no means extinguished - by the emergence of modern [[liberal democracy|liberal democracies]], with their principle of firm separation between Church and State.
Although its past record has shown a somewhat higher degree of religious tolerance (e.g. towards [[Jews]]), [[Islam]] has also been and continues to be an important and durable source of religious coercion.
====Ideological coercion====
‘’Ideological coercion’’ is the use of thought coercion in the attempt to modify people’s [[social philosophy|social]] and [[political philosophy|political]] philosophy. This is of course quite different from plain propaganda, or even the simple persecution of political opponents, because its objective is to force individual ideological conversions. Unlike religious coercion, it is a quite recent phenomenon, confined to some of the [[totalitarian]] regimes of the [[twentieth century]].
The most notable single example of ideological coercion was the already mentioned Chinese “Thought Reform” campaign of 1951-52, which signalled itself for both thoroughness and number of people involved. Yet, it must be noticed that by [[1966]] the Chinese authorities found it necessary to follow that up with a new – albeit slightly milder – campaign, as part of the [[Maoist]] “Cultural Revolution” of [[1966]]-[[1968]].
Starting from the [[Soviet]] purges of the Thirties, similar “brainwashing” techniques were intermittently and less systematically used by most [[Communist]] regimes of the twentieth century. By contrast, the [[Fascist]] and [[Nazi]] regimes of [[Italy]] and [[Germany]] tended to confine their coercive activities to purely [[political]] aims, without any serious attempt to force the ideological conversion of their opponents. The use of (physical) ideological coercion was however theorised by some Fascist philosophers, like [[Giovanni Gentile]].
===Disciplinary coercion===
Somewhere in the middle between predatory and pedagogic coercion one finds the forms of coercion that are used as the main coordination tools of command systems. These are organisations that use coercion to enforce on their members patterns of division of labour aimed at reaching the organisation’s goals, which for a variety of reasons may not always be consistent with each member’s personal aims. The most typical example of a command system is a military organisation, but any large production team may easily fall into this category.
Through the punishment system of disciplinary coercion, each individual member is typically forced into altruistic behaviour in the interest of the whole group. This is why this kind of coercion is not predatory, and – unlike thought coercion – may often be accepted in advance by the members of the group.
==Scope==
The scope of coercion has to do with who uses a conditional threat against whom. It is closely linked with some of the other aspects already surveyed above, and may be of paramount importance in determining coercion’s effects and implications.
===Specific coercion===
Specific or ‘’personal’’ coercion is the most commonly considered kind. It takes place when the conditional threat is decided upon by one particular individual or small group, and/or directed against some other individual or small group. All forms of predatory and thought coercion fall into this category.
=== Unspecific coercion===
Under unspecific or ‘’impersonal’’ coercion the conditional threats come from well-known and socially accepted general rules – rather than any individual or sub-group – and are directed against anybody in the stated conditions, according to clearly |
f an operator|spectrum]] of any [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[linear operator]] on a [[Hilbert space]] is a compact subset of [[complex number|'''C''']].
* The [[spectrum of a ring|spectrum]] of any [[commutative ring]] or [[Boolean algebra]] is compact.
* The [[Hilbert cube]] is compact.
* The [[right order topology]] or [[left order topology]] on any bounded [[totally ordered set]] is compact. In particular, [[Sierpinski space]] is compact.
== Theorems ==
Some theorems related to compactness (see the [[Topology Glossary]] for the definitions):
* A [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] image of a compact space is compact.
* A closed subset of a compact space is compact.
* A compact subset of a [[Hausdorff space]] is closed.
* A nonempty compact subset of the [[real number|real numbers]] has a greatest element and a least element.
* A subset of [[Euclidean space|Euclidean ''n''-space]] is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded. ([[Heine–Borel theorem]])
* A [[metric space]] (or [[uniform space]]) is compact if and only if it is [[completeness (topology)|complete]] and [[totally bounded]].
* The [[product topology|product]] of any collection of compact spaces is compact. ([[Tychonoff's theorem]] -- this is equivalent to the [[axiom of choice]])
* A compact Hausdorff space is [[normal space|normal]].
* Every continuous [[bijective]] map from a compact space to a Hausdorff space is a [[homeomorphism]].
* A metric space is compact if and only if every [[sequence]] in the space has a convergent subsequence.
* A topological space is compact if and only if every [[Net (mathematics)|net]] on the space has a convergent subnet.
* A topological space is compact if and only if every [[mathematical filter|filter]] on the space has a convergent refinement.
* A topological space is compact if and only if every [[ultrafilter]] on the space is convergent.
* A topological space can be embedded in a compact Hausdorff space if and only if it is a [[Tychonoff space]].
* Every topological space ''X'' is a [[dense topological subspace|dense subspace]] of a compact space which has at most one point more than ''X''. ([[Compactification|Alexandroff one-point compactification]])
* A metric space ''X'' is compact if and only if every metric space [[homeomorphic]] to ''X'' is complete.
* If the metric space ''X'' is compact and an open cover of ''X'' is given, then there exists a number &delta; > 0 such that every subset of ''X'' of diameter < &delta; is contained in some member of the cover. (Lebesgue's number lemma)
* If a topological space has a sub-base such that every cover of the space by members of the sub-base has a finite subcover, then the space is compact. (Alexander's Sub-base Theorem)
* Two compact Hausdorff spaces ''X''<sub>1</sub> and ''X''<sub>2</sub> are homeomorphic if and only if their [[mathematical ring|rings]] of continuous real-valued functions C(''X''<sub>1</sub>) and C(''X''<sub>2</sub>) are [[ring homomorphism|isomorphic]].
== Other forms of compactness ==
There are a number of topological properties which are equivalent to compactness in [[metric spaces]], but are inequivalent in general topological spaces. These include the following.
* '''Sequentially compact''': Every [[sequence]] has a convergent subsequence.
* '''Countably compact''': Every countable open cover has a finite subcover. (Or, equivalently, every infinite subset has an &omega;-accumulation point.)
* '''Pseudocompact''': Every real-valued [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[function (mathematics)|function]] on the space is bounded.
* '''Weakly countably compact''' (or '''limit point compact'''): Every infinite subset has an accumulation point.
While all these conditions are equivalent for [[metric space]]s, in general we have the following implications:
* Compact spaces are countably compact.
* Sequentially compact spaces are countably compact.
* Countably compact spaces are pseudocompact and weakly countably compact.
Not every countably compact space is compact; an example is given by the first uncountable ordinal with the order topology.
Not every compact space is sequentially compact; an example is the infinite product space 2 <sup>'''[0, 1]'''</sup> with the product topology.
A metric space is called pre-compact or [[totally bounded]] if any sequence has a Cauchy subsequence; this can be generalised to [[uniform space]]s. For complete metric spaces this is equivalent to compactness. See [[relatively compact]] for the topological version.
Another related notion that is usually strictly weaker than compactness is [[locally compact space|local compactness]].
== See also ==
* [[exhaustion by compact sets]]
==References==
* Lynn Arthur Steen and J. Arthur Seebach, Jr., ''[[Counterexamples in Topology]]'' (1978) Springer-Verlag, New York
[[Category:Topology]]
[[Category:General topology]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]
[[de:Kompakter Raum]]
[[fr:Espace compact]]
[[ja:コンパクト (数学)]]
[[nl:Compact]]
[[pl:Przestrzeń zwarta]]
[[ru:Компактное пространство]]
[[tr:Tıkızlık]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Critical temperature</title>
<id>6043</id>
<revision>
<id>40765675</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T21:54:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.42.138.135</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''critical temperature''', T<sub>c</sub>, of a material is the [[temperature]] above which distinct [[liquid]] and [[gas]] [[phases of matter|phases]] do not exist. As the critical temperature is approached, the properties of the gas and liquid phases become the same. Above the critical temperature, there is only one phase. The critical [[pressure]] is the vapor pressure at the critical temperature. The critical [[mole (unit)|molar]] [[volume]] is the volume of one mole of material at the critical temperature and pressure. On diagrams showing [[thermodynamic]] properties for a given substance, the point at critical temperature and critical pressure is called the [[critical point]] of the substance.
Critical properties vary from material to material, just as is the case for the [[melting point]] and [[boiling point]]. Critical properties for many pure substances are readily available in the literature. Obtaining critical properties for mixtures is somewhat more problematic.
For pure substances, there is an [[inflection point]] in the critical [[isotherm]] on a PC diagram. This means that at the critical point:
:<math>\left(\frac{\partial P}{\partial V}\right)_T = \left(\frac{\partial^2P}{\partial V^2}\right)_T = 0</math>
This relation can be used to evaluate two parameters for an equation of state in terms of the critical properties.
Sometimes a set of reduced properties are defined in terms of the critical properties, ie.:
:<math>T_r = T/T_c</math>
:<math>P_r = P/P_c</math>
:<math>V_r = V/V_c</math>
The ''principle of corresponding states'' indicates that substances at equal reduced pressures and temperatures have equal reduced volumes. This relationship is approximately true for many substances, but becomes increasingly inaccurate for large values of P<sub>r</sub>
Two [[miscibility|immiscible]] liquids, such as oil and water, will also have a critical temperature and pressure at which the two phases will become consolute.
== Critical temperature of selected elements ==
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tr><td align="top"><table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
<tr><th>'''Element'''</th><th>'''Critical temperature (°C)'''</th></tr>
<tr><td>[[Argon]]</td><td>-122.29</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Arsenic]]</td><td>1400</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Bromine]]</td><td>315</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Chlorine]]</td><td>143.8</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Fluorine]]</td><td>-128.85</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Helium]]</td><td>-267.96</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Hydrogen]]</td><td>-240.17</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Iodine]]</td><td>546</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Krypton]]</td><td>-63.7</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Mercury_(element)|Mercury]]</td><td>1477</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Neon]]</td><td>-228.75</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Nitrogen]]</td><td>-146.9</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Oxygen]]</td><td>-118.57</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Phosphorus]]</td><td>721</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Radon]]</td><td>105</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Selenium]]</td><td>1493</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Sulfur]]</td><td>1041</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Xenon]]</td><td>16.58</td></tr>
</table></td></tr>
</table>
== Critical temperature of selected [[molecule]]s ==
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tr><td align="top"><table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
<tr><th>'''Compound'''</th><th>'''Critical temperature (°C)'''</th><th>'''Critical pressure (atm)'''</th></tr>
<tr><td>[[Ammonia]] (NH<sub>3</sub>)</td><td align=center>132</td><td align=center>115</td></tr>
<tr><t |
Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
'''Population of [[Canada]]:''' 32,320,000 (October 2005 est.); 30,007,894 (2001 Census)
See also: [[List of Canadian provinces and territories by population]].
==Age structure==
[[Image:Canada age structure 2001.png|thumb|right|300px|Age structure of Canadian population, 2001]]
''(2001 Census)''
<table border="1" cellpadding="1">
<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Males</b></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><b>Females</b></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="bottom"><td align="left"><i>Age <br>Group &nbsp;</i></td>
<td align="right"><i>Number</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>Per cent</i></td>
<td align="right"><i>Number</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>Per cent</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>0-4</td>
<td align="right">868,075 </td>
<td align="center">2.9%</td>
<td align="right">828,210 </td>
<td align="center">2.8%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>5-9</td>
<td align="right">1,011,460 </td>
<td align="center">3.4%</td>
<td align="right">964,675 </td>
<td align="center">3.2%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>10-14</td>
<td align="right">1,051,450 </td>
<td align="center">3.5%</td>
<td align="right">1,001,665 </td>
<td align="center">3.3%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>15-19</td>
<td align="right">1,052,145 </td>
<td align="center">3.5%</td>
<td align="right">1,001,180 </td>
<td align="center">3.3%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>20-24</td>
<td align="right">982,280 </td>
<td align="center">3.3%</td>
<td align="right">973,530 </td>
<td align="center">3.2%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>25-29</td>
<td align="right">935,510 </td>
<td align="center">3.1%</td>
<td align="right">962,685 </td>
<td align="center">3.2%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>30-34</td>
<td align="right">1,041,255 </td>
<td align="center">3.5%</td>
<td align="right">1,065,490 </td>
<td align="center">3.6%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>35-39</td>
<td align="right">1,245,000 </td>
<td align="center">4.1%</td>
<td align="right">1,277,855 </td>
<td align="center">4.3%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>40-44</td>
<td align="right">1,271,725 </td>
<td align="center">4.2%</td>
<td align="right">1,307,040 </td>
<td align="center">4.4%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>45-49</td>
<td align="right">1,151,155 </td>
<td align="center">3.8%</td>
<td align="right">1,182,380 </td>
<td align="center">3.9%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>50-54</td>
<td align="right">1,033,365 </td>
<td align="center">3.4%</td>
<td align="right">1,052,395 </td>
<td align="center">3.5%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>55-59</td>
<td align="right">789,205 </td>
<td align="center">2.6%</td>
<td align="right">805,030 </td>
<td align="center">2.7%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>60-64</td>
<td align="right">621,570 </td>
<td align="center">2.1%</td>
<td align="right">652,215 </td>
<td align="center">2.2%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>65-69</td>
<td align="right">543,825 </td>
<td align="center">1.8%</td>
<td align="right">589,800 </td>
<td align="center">2.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>70-74</td>
<td align="right">461,785 </td>
<td align="center">1.5%</td>
<td align="right">547,430 </td>
<td align="center">1.8%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>75-79</td>
<td align="right">338,820 </td>
<td align="center">1.1%</td>
<td align="right">474,850 </td>
<td align="center">1.6%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>80-84</td>
<td align="right">192,645 </td>
<td align="center">0.6%</td>
<td align="right">323,490 </td>
<td align="center">1.1%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>85+</td>
<td align="right">125,580 </td>
<td align="center">0.4%</td>
<td align="right">290,325 </td>
<td align="center">1.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Totals</b></td>
<td align="right"><b>14,716,850</b></td>
<td align="center"><b> 49.0%</b></td>
<td align="right"><b>15,300,245</b></td>
<td align="center"><b>51.0%</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
===Median age===
*''total:'' 37.8 years
**''male:'' 36.9 years
**''female:'' 38.8 years (2002)
'''Median age by province and territory, 2001 Census'''
#[[Nova Scotia]]: 38.8
#[[Quebec]]: 38.8
#[[New Brunswick]]: 38.6
#[[British Columbia]]: 38.4
#[[Newfoundland and Labrador]]: 38.4
#[[Prince Edward Island]]: 37.7
#[[Ontario]]: 37.2
#[[Manitoba]]: 36.8
#[[Saskatchewan]]: 36.7
#[[Yukon]]: 36.1
#[[Alberta]]: 35.0
#[[Northwest Territories]]: 30.1
#[[Nunavut]]: 22.1
*CANADA: 37.6
==Population growth rates==
Canada: 0.94% (2003 est.)
'''5-year Change (1996-2001) by province and territory'''
#Alberta: 10.3%
#Nunavut: 8.1%
#Ontario: 6.1%
#British Columbia: 4.9%
#Quebec: 1.4%
#Manitoba: 0.5%
#Prince Edward Island: 0.5%
#Nova Scotia: -0.1%
#Saskatchewan: -1.1%
#New Brunswick: -1.2%
#Northwest Territories: -5.8%
#Yukon: -6.8%
#Newfoundland and Labrador: -7.0%
*CANADA 4.0%
==Vital statistics==
'''Birth rate:''' 10.99 births/1,000 population (2003 est.)
'''Death rate:''' 7.61 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.)
'''Net migration rate:''' 6.01 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
* ''at birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female
* ''under 15 years:'' 1.05 male(s)/female
* ''15-64 years:'' 1.01 male(s)/female
* ''65 years and over:'' 0.74 male(s)/female
* ''total population:'' 0.98 male(s)/female (2003 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:''' 4.88 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
* ''total population:'' 79.83 years
* ''male:'' 76.44 years
* ''female:'' 83.38 years (2003 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:''' 1.61 children born/woman (2003 est.)
==Ethnicity==
'''Nationality:'''
* ''noun:'' [[Canada|Canadian]](s)
* ''adjective:'' Canadian
[[Image:Italian-Immigrants-to-Canad.jpg|thumb|300px|A statue commemorating Italian immigration to Canada.]]
===Ethnic groups===
''Note: Respondents to the 2001 Canadian Survey were free to fill in any ethnic group that applied, thus many people belong to more than one group, and the percentages from each ethnicity do not add up to 100% overall''. However the most popular choice was "Canadian", and this may mean that the other figures are not reliable as a record of the relative prevalence of the various ancestries represented by the other choices. Source: [http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/highlight/ETO/Table1.cfm?Lang=E&T=501&GV=1&GID=0 Statistics Canada 2001 Census]
* Canadian (39.42%)
* [[English-Canadian|English]] (20.17%)
* [[French Canadian|French]] (15.75%)
* [[Scottish-Canadian|Scottish]] (14.03%)
* [[Irish Canadian|Irish]] (12.90%)
* [[German-Canadian|German]] (9.25%)
* [[Italian-Canadian|Italian]] (4.29%)
* [[Chinese Canadian|Chinese]] (3.69%)
* [[Ukrainian Canadian|Ukrainian]] (3.61%)
* [[First Nations]] (3.38%)
* [[Dutch Canadians|Dutch]] (3.12%)
* [[Polish Canadian|Polish]] (2.76%)
* [[Indo-Canadian|East Indian]] (2.41%)
* [[Black Canadian|Black African]] (2.23%)
* [[Norwegian-Canadian|Norwegian]] (1.23%)
* [[Portuguese Canadians|Portuguese]] (1.21%)
* [[Welsh-Canadian|Welsh]](1.18%)
* [[Jews in Canada|Jewish]] (1.18%)
* [[Russian-Canadian|Russian]] (1.14%)
* [[Filipino Canadian|Filipino]] (1.11%)
* [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] (1.04%)
* [[Swedish-Canadian|Swedish]] (0.95%)
* [[Hungarian Canadians|Hungarian]] (0.90%)
''See also'': [[List of Canadians by ethnicity]]
===Visible minorities===
''Note that [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal peoples]] are not considered visible minor |
pporting [[iron]] scaffolding midway up the tower was dismantled; this was purchased and reconstructed in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], originally as the Tour Eiffel Restaurant, more recently known as the Red Room.
In the year [[2000]], flashing lights and four high-power [[searchlight|searchlights]] were installed on the tower. Since then the light show has become a nightly event. The searchlights on top of the tower make it a beacon in Paris' night [[sky]].
The [[tower]] received its 200,000,000th guest on [[November 28]], [[2002]].
At 19:20 on [[July 22]], [[2003]], a fire occurred at the top of the tower in the [[broadcasting]] equipment room. The entire tower was evacuated; the fire was extinguished after forty minutes, and there were no reports of injuries.
== The 72 names ==
[[Image:eiffel.trocadero.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right||200px|View to the northwest from the Tower, across the River [[Seine]], showing the [[Trocadéro]] gardens and the [[Palais de Chaillot]]. A pleasure boat cruises on the river]]
{{main|The 72 names on the Eiffel Tower}}
On the tower, the names of 72 French scientists and engineers are engraved in recognition of their contributions. This engraving was overpainted at the beginning of the 20th century and restored in 1986-1987 by [[SNTE]] ("Société Nouvelle d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel"), a company contracted to operate business related to the Tower (the Tower is owned by the City of Paris).
== Image copyright ==
Images of the Eiffel Tower have long been in the [[public domain]]; however in [[2003]], the operating company SNTE installed a new lighting display on the tower. The effect is to put the night-time image of the tower under copyright. It follows that it is no longer legal to publish contemporary photographs of the tower without permission.
The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation for SNTE, Stéphane Dieu, commented in January 2005 "It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it isn't used in ways we don't approve". However, it also potentially has the effect of prohibiting tourist photographs of the tower at night from being published. [http://blog.fastcompany.com/archives/2005/02/02/eiffel_tower_repossessed.html]
In a recent decision, the [[Court of Cassation]] ruled that an architect could not claim copyright over images including one building the design of which they held the copyright if the photograph encompasses a larger area. This seems to indicate that SNTE cannot claim copyright on photographs of Paris incorporating the lighted tower at night.
==Appearance in film==
[[Image:Paris to parents 079.jpg|200px|right|thumb|The Eiffel Tower is made from 18,038 pieces of puddled iron]]
* [[1923]]: [[René Clair]]'s ''[[Paris qui dort]]'' starts, ends and has many scenes on the Eiffel Tower.
* [[1949]]: In the film ''[[The Man On The Eiffel Tower]]'' the Tower plays a central role, and the climactic scene involves a climbing chase that predates the Mount Rushmore scene of ''[[North by Northwest]]''.
* [[1951]]: ''[[The Lavender Hill Mob]]'' - models of the tower are central to the plot, and the climax takes place on the real tower.
* [[1953]]: In the end of ''[[The War of the Worlds (1953 movie)|The War of the Worlds]]'', the tower is seen destroyed.
* [[1958]]: At the beginning of Francois Truffaut's ''[[The 400 Blows]]'' the tower is seen between Parisian apartment blocks
* [[1965]]: At the end of the Blake Edwards movie ''[[The Great Race]]'', starring [[Tony Curtis]] and [[Jack Lemmon]], [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0059243/] the tower is blown up by a misfired cannon shot from Professor Fate's car.
* [[1970]]: The tower is shown in the classic animated film ''[[The Aristocats]]''.
* [[1980]]: The tower (and the rest of [[Paris]]) were almost blown up by a terrorist nuclear bomb and Lois Lane almost plunged to her death under its elevator in [[Superman II]].
* [[1981]]: ''[[Condorman]]'' attempts to fly off of the tower in the movie by the same name.
* [[1985]]: The [[James Bond]] film ''[[A View to a Kill]]'' contains a scene in the Eiffel Tower including scenes in the ''Jules Verne'' restaurant there.
* [[1985]]: In the film ''[[National Lampoon's European Vacation]]'', Clark throws Rusty's beret off the Tower. A dog, thinking it is a frisbe, jumps after it. Because they sought a PG-13 rating, however, the dog is not seen dying, but rather, lands in a pond at the bottom of the tower.
* [[1991]]: In [[Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country]] the Eiffel Tower is shown as still standing in the 23rd Century and is visible from the office of the [[Federation President]]. The Eiffel Tower was also seen in the [[Star Trek]] franchise in 24th Century Paris in the episode of "[[We'll Always Have Paris]]"([[1988]]) of [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]] and in two episodes of [[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]], "Homefront" and "Paradise Lost" ([[1996]]).
* [[1995]]: In ''[[La Haine (movie)|La Haine]]'', the main protagonists lament the fact that they cannot switch the lights of the Eiffel Tower off ''like people can in the movies''. The lights switch off just after they have given up and turned their backs on the tower.
* 1995: In ''[[French Kiss]]'', Kate misses seeing the tower several times while she wanders around Paris, but later spends several minutes rapturously watching it while on the train to [[Cannes]] (which apparently doesn't actually go by the Tower).
* [[1996]]: The Eiffel Tower can be seen on TV in ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'' (and is destroyed in the French movie version).
* [[1996]]: In ''[[Mars Attacks!]]'', the Eiffel Tower is destroyed by Martians.
* [[1998]]: The tower is destroyed in ''[[Armageddon (movie)|Armageddon]]''.
* [[2000]]: In ''[[Rugrats in Paris: The Movie]]'', the babies are atop the tower while using the giant Reptar invention.
* [[2001]]: In ''[[The Royal Tenenbaums]]'', the tower appears reflected on the window in a brief scene of Margot Tenenbaum ([[Gwyneth Paltrow]]) with her french lesbian lover
* [[2001]]: In ''[[Moulin Rouge!]]'', an object thrown from ''[[Montmartre]]'' by Christian (''[[Ewan McGregor]]'') bounces off the tower underneath the smiling moon during the finale.
* [[2003]]: In ''[[Paris Season (The Real World)|The Real World Paris]]'' television show on the US [[MTV]] network, the tower is seen.
* [[2003]]: The Tower is featured in ''[[Looney Tunes: Back In Action]]''.
* [[2004]]: In ''[[Van Helsing]]'', the Eiffel Tower is under construction.
* [[2004]]: In ''[[Team America: World Police]]'', a rocket blows the tower up, then the tower falls on the [[Arc de Triomphe]].
* [[2004]]: The tower flew and moved around [[Paris]] in the puppet version of ''[[Without a Paddle]]'', in a scene that starts only after the credits end.
* [[2004]]: In ''[[Godzilla: Final Wars]]'', [[Kamacuras]] attacks the tower.
* [[2004]]: The tower is seen in ''[[Eurotrip]]''.
* [[2006]]: The tower was seen on ABC's ''[[The Bachelor]]''.
[[Image:eiffel.tower.cdmars.arp.jpg|thumb|right|200px|View southeast from the Tower, down the [[Champ de Mars]], with the [[Tour Montparnasse]] (Montparnasse Tower) in the distance]]
==Imitations and reproductions ==
Several [[reproduction]]s/[[model (physical)|model]]s of the Eiffel Tower (often smaller-[[scale (measurement)|scale]]) exist.
===Imitations (similar towers, not scale models)===
In order of decreasing height:
* [[Kiev TV Tower]], [[Kiev]], [[Ukraine]] - At 385m, the world's tallest lattice tower, with similarities to the Eiffel Tower, although with no observation deck for visitors.
* [[Riga Radio and TV Tower]], [[Riga]], [[Latvia]] - 368.5 m concrete tower on three legs, in similar style to the Eiffel Tower.
* [[Dragon Tower]], [[Harbin]] - a 336 metre high lattice tower at Harbin, China.
* [[Tokyo Tower]], [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]] - 9m higher than the original (33 m if the TV antenna is included)).
* [[Yerevan TV Tower]], [[Yerevan]], [[Armenia]] - 311.7 m high lattice tower built from 1974 to 1977.
* [[St. Petersburg TV Tower]], [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Russia]] - 310 m lattice tower without observation deck, resembling the Eiffel Tower.
* [[Star Tower]], [[Cincinnati, Ohio]] - 291.4 m transmission tower from a similar design, but without observation deck.
* [[Qingdao TV Tower]], [[China]] - 232 m TV tower with observation deck.
* [[Crystal Palace Transmitter]], [[London]], [[England]] - 222 m [[radio masts and towers|TV tower]] without observation deck, nicknamed London's Eiffel Tower.
* [[Brasilia TV Tower]], [[Brasilia]], [[Brazil]] - 218 m lattice tower with an observation deck at a height of 75 m.
* [[Guangzhou TV Tower]], [[Guangzhou]], [[China]] - A 217 metre high TV tower of lattice steel at Guangzhou
* [[Guangdong TV Tower]], [[Guangdong]], [[China]] - A 200 metre high TV tower of lattice steel at Guangdong
* [[Nagoya TV Tower]], [[Nagoya]], [[Japan]] - 180 m
* [[Odinstårnet]], [[Odense]], [[Denmark]] - A 177 metre high lattice tower, destroyed in 1944
* [[Blackpool Tower]], [[Blackpool]], [[England]] - 158 m (519 ft); it is not quite a free-standing structure, it stands above the Tower Circus complex, where the four "legs" can be seen.
* [[Mesquite Tower]], [[Mesquite, Texas|Mesquite]], [[Texas]] - 155.3 m transmission tower from a similar design, but without observation deck.
* [[Croydon Transmitter]] - A 152 metre high transmission tower at London without observation deck
* [[Funkturm Berlin|Radio Tower Berlin]], [[Berlin]], [[Germany]] - 150m [[radio masts and towers|transmission tower]] with observation deck. Sometimes nicknamed as a copy of the Eiffel Tower, although the two structures are not too similar. The Radio Tower Berlin is the only observation tower whose feet are insulated against ground.
* [[Sapporo TV Tower]], [[Sapporo]], [[Japan]] - 147 m.
* [[Beppu Tower]], [[Beppu]], [[Japan]] - 100 m, [http://www2. |
, which resulted in condemning his own works depicting [[nudity]], and he left all his possessions to the [[Jesuits]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1511 births|Ammanati, Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:1592 deaths|Ammanati, Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Italian architects|Ammanati, Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Italian sculptors|Ammanati, Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Natives of Tuscany|Ammannati]]
[[Category:Mannerism sculptors|Ammannati]]
[[de:Bartolomeo Ammanati]]
[[fr:Bartolomeo Ammanati]]
[[it:Bartolomeo Ammannati]]
[[nl:Bartolomeo Ammanati]]
[[pl:Bartolomeo Ammanati]]
[[sv:Bartolomeo Ammanati]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bishop</title>
<id>4092</id>
<revision>
<id>41910381</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:35:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Urshyam</username>
<id>390483</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Christian Methodist Episcopal Church */ Removing image with no source information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{christianity}}
''This article is about a religious Bishop.''
{{otheruses}}
A '''bishop''' is an [[ordained]] member of the [[Clergy#Christian_clergy|Christian clergy]] who, in certain [[Christianity|Christian]] churches, holds a position of authority.
==Meaning of bishop==
The [[etymology]] of the word ''bishop'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''episkopos'' (&epsilon;&pi;&iota;&sigma;&kappa;&omicron;&pi;&omicron;&sigmaf;), which can be generally translated as ''bishop'', ''overseer'', ''superintendent'', ''supervisor'', or ''foreman''. From the word ''episkopos'' are derived the English words ''episcopacy'', ''episcopate'' and ''episcopal''.
==Bishops in the New Testament==
The [[New Testament]] uses the word ''episkopos'' five times.
*[[Acts of the Apostles]] 20:28
*[[Epistle to the Philippians]] 1:1
*[[First Epistle to Timothy]] 3:2
*[[Epistle to Titus]] 1:7
*[[First Epistle of Peter]] 2:25
Words related to ''episkopos'' are used in two other verses. Some English Bibles translate this word as ''bishop'' ([[King James Version|KJV]], [[Revised Standard Version|RSV]], [[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]], etc.), while others, attempting to distance themselves from certain types of church [[hierarchy]], use a more neutral alternative, such as "overseers" ([[New International Version|NIV]], [[English Standard Version|ESV]], etc.).
The ministry of these [[New Testament]] ''episkopoi'' was not directly commissioned by [[Jesus]], but appears to be a natural, practical development of the church during the first and second centuries AD. The portions of the New Testament that mention ''episkopoi'' do not appear to be ordering a new type of ministry, but giving instructions for an already existent position within the early church. In places (particularly in the verses from the [[Epistle to Titus]]) it appears that the position of ''episkopos'' is similar or the same as that of ''[[presbyter]]'' (''&pi;&rho;&epsilon;&sigma;&beta;&upsilon;&tau;&epsilon;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;''), or [[Elder (religious)|elder]], and, later, [[priest]]. The Epistle to Timothy mentions [[deacon]]s (''&delta;&iota;&alpha;&kappa;&omicron;&nu;&omicron;&iota;'') in a manner that suggests that the office of deacon differs from the office of the bishop, and is subordinate to it, though it carries similar qualifications.
In the [[Acts of the Apostles]], episkopoi are mentioned as being ''shepherds'' of the ''flock'', imagery that is still in use today. The other passages from the [[New Testament]] describe them as stewards or administrators, and teachers. In [[First Epistle to Timothy|1 Timothy]] episkopoi are required to be 'the husband of but one wife'. It is unclear whether this forbids men who have married a second time in series, or [[polygamy|polygamists]]. However, it is clear that the New Testament has no prohibition against bishops marrying and having children.
It is interesting to note that in the second chapter of the [[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]], [[Jesus]] is described as 'the Shepherd and ''Episkopos'' of your souls' (''&tau;&omicron;&nu; &pi;&omicron;&iota;&mu;&epsilon;&nu;&alpha; &kappa;&alpha;&iota; &epsilon;&pi;&iota;&sigma;&kappa;&omicron;&pi;&omicron;&nu; &tau;&omega;&nu; &psi;&upsilon;&chi;&omega;&nu; &upsilon;&mu;&omega;&nu;'').
==Bishops in the Apostolic Fathers==
At the turn of the first century AD, the church started to acquire a clear organisation. In the works of the [[Apostolic Fathers]], and [[Ignatius of Antioch]] in particular, the role of the episkopos, or bishop, became more important.
<blockquote>''"Plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself"'' &mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians 6:1.<br>
''"your godly bishop"'' &mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 2:1.<br>
''"the bishop presiding after the likeness of God and the presbyters after the likeness of the council of the Apostles, with the deacons also who are most dear to me, having been entrusted with the diaconate of Jesus Christ"'' &mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 6:1.<br>
''"Therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, [being united with Him], either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters."'' &mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 7:1.<br>
''"Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father [according to the flesh], and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, that there may be union both of flesh and of spirit."'' &mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 13:2.<br>
''"In like manner let all men respect the deacons as Jesus Christ, even as they should respect the bishop as being a type of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and as the college of Apostles. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church."'' &mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallesians 3:1.<br>
''"follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles; and to the deacons pay respect, as to God's commandment"'' &mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 8:1.<br>
''"He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God; he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil"'' &mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 9:1.<br>
<div style="text-align:right">&mdash; Lightfoot translation.</div></blockquote>
It is clear that, by this period, a single bishop was expected to lead the church in each centre of Christian mission, supported by a council of [[presbyter]]s (now a distinct and subordinate position) with a pool of [[deacon]]s. As the church continued to expand, new churches in important cities gained their own bishop, but churches in the regions around an important city were served by presbyters and deacons from the bishop's city church. Thus, in time, the bishop changed from being the leader of a single church to being the leader of the churches of a given geographical area.
==Bishops and civil government==
The efficient infrastructure of the [[Roman Empire]] became the template for the organization of the church in the [[4th century|fourth century]], particularly after the [[Edict of Milan]]. As the church moved from the shadows of privacy into the public forum it acquired land for churches, burials and clergy. In 391, [[Theodosius I]] decreed that any land that had been confiscated from the church by Roman authorities be returned.
The most usual term for the geographical area of a bishop's authority and ministry, the [[diocese]], began as part of the structure of the [[Roman Empire]] under [[Diocletian]]. As Roman authority began to fail in the western portion of the empire, the church took over much of the civil administration. This can be clearly seen in the ministry of two [[pope]]s: [[Pope Leo I]] in the [[5th century|fifth century]], and [[Pope Gregory I]] in the [[6th century|sixth century]]. Both of these men were statesmen and public administrators in addition to their role as Christian pastors, teachers and leaders. In the Eastern churches, [[latifundia]] entailed to a bishop's [[see]] were much less common, the state power did not collapse the way it did in the West, and thus the tendency of bishops acquiring secular power was much weaker than in the West. However, the role of Western bishops as civil authorities, often called [[Prince-Bishop|prince bishop]]s, continued throughout much of the Middle Ages.
===Sovereign bishops===
[[Image:Popebenedictxvi firsttimeonthrone.jpg|thumb|left|[[Pope Benedict XVI]], Bishop of Rome]]
The most important of these [[Prince-Bishop|prince bishop]]s was the [[Pope]], who ruled as monarch of the [[Papal States]] by virtue of his title as Bishop of [[Rome]]. His claim to this [[fief]] rested on the forged [[Donation of Constantine]], but in fact his authority over this kingdom in central Italy grew slowly after the collapse of Roman and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] authority in the area. The Papal States were abolished when [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|King Victor Emmanuel II]] took possession of Rome in [[1870]] and completed the reunification of Italy. This became a perennial source of tension between the Papacy and the government of Italy. In [[1929]], [[Pope Pius XI]] made a deal with the [[Fascism|Fascist]] government of [[Benito Mussolini]] and became the independent sovereign of the [[Vatican City|Vatican]], while giving up any rights to |
se by case and person by person basis, not automatic. At state banquets, for example, toasts are made to the head of state, (eg. "Her Majesty the Queen of Australia"), never to a governor-general, except in so far as a ''personal'' toast may be proposed subsequently to "Governor-General and Mrs Smith" as hosts of, or guests at, the banquet. Similarly, [[Letter of Credence|Letters of Credence]] contain the name of the head of state, not the governor-general, even if it is the latter who signs and receives them. In 2005, [[Canada]] changed its policy and now all [[Letter of Credence|Letters of Credence]] are directed to the [[Governor General of Canada]] herself, not [[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. This caused controversy but is now the accepted pratice.
*As a colony or other dependent state or territory lacks the authority to vest in a true head of state of its own, it either has no comparable office, simply receiving those roles exercised by the paramount powers (in person or, most of the time, through an appointed representative, often styled (lieutenant-)[[governor]], but also various other titles, on the Cook Islands even simply King/Queen's Representative) or has one, such as a formerly sovereign dynasty, but under a form of metropolitan guardianship, such as protection, vassal or tributary status.
====Extraordinary arrangements====
In exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or a coup d'état, constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a lesser role (legitimating the power taken over behind the throne) or be suspended in favor of an emergency office (such as the original Roman [[Dictator]]) or eliminated by of new 'provisionary' regime (sincere or clinging to power), often a collective of the [[junta]] type, with endlessly varying names and composition, or simply find itself under military authority as imposed by an occupying force, such as a military governor (an early example being the Spartan Harmost)
===Theocratic, Ecclesiastic and other Religious states===
In Christianity (Roman Catholicism, and in some cases continued when turned protestant):
* The [[Pope]] as Sovereign Pontiff, first of the politically important Papal States, after the Italian reunification ultimately just over [[Vatican City]]
*various lower clerics (but mainly prelates) qualified as [[prince of the church]] (see there, e.g. [[prince-bishop]]); one case of a [[grand master (order)|grand master]] of a sovereign order remains, but it has been vested ex officio in the pope
*In the [[Church of England]] the reigning monarch also holds the title [[defender of the faith]] and acts as Supreme Governor of the [[Church of England]].
The ancient (now orthodox) monastic state known as Athonian Republic does not have a head of state.
In Islam:
*[[Caliph]]s were the spiritual and temporal, absolute successors of the Prophet, but lost political power
*[[Imam]] of rare theocratic Muslim states known as imamates; notably:
**the present sultante of [[Oman]] (`Uman) was ruled 661 - 1811/1821 by the [[Ibadi]] community under a religious leader styled ''Imam al-Muslimin'' "Imam of the Muslims"), a member of the Azd clan, with several interruptions under foreign rulers; 1784 while Imams rule continues, Muscat and Oman becomes a de facto sovereign state under a secular Al ´Bu Sa`id ruler; [[3 October]] [[1868]] - Jan 1871 Imams rule briefly restored.
**in [[Yemen]], and with suzerainty over other arts of the Arabian peninsula
**in (Lower) `Asir, under the Idris dynasty, the religious style of Imam was combined with the temporal ruler style of Sheikh since 1830, and since 1909 the higher style (assumed by the last of four Shaikhs) of Emir, until [[20 November]] [[1930]] the shaikhdom was incorporated Hejaz-Nejd (which became Saudi Arabia)
**in [[Nejd]] the Emirs (1744 - 1817) were from [[15 January]] [[1902]] also Imams and Protectors of the [[Wahhabi]]s (fundamentalist sect of Sunni islam)
**the Adal Imams 1526 - 1548 rule the later British Somalia and Somaliland (an inerlude bewteen Ottoman and other foreign regimes).
**in some of present Mali's traditional [[Jihad state]]s, notably Dina (the Sise Jihad state) and The Tijaniyya Jihad state and its successor states Segu and Massina after a split; the last ''fama'' of the Samori Empire (formerly Wassulu) tll its extinction by French colonization
**after the 1813 annexed into Russia by the Treaty of Gulistan, there was a nationalist 1828 - 1859 Imamate of [[Daghestan]] until its 1859 reincorporated into Russian Empire.
*[[Sheikh]] * e.g. of the Sunni [[Sanusi order]] in Cyrenaica since 1843, styled Emir since [[25 October]] [[1920]]
* In the Islamic Republic [[Iran]] the ''rahbar'' ([[Supreme Leader]], at present [[Ali Khamenei]]) and a council of guardians, all shiah clerics, hold perhaps the highest offices, but the only formal head of state is the elected president.
* The [[Aga Khan]]s were a special case
In Buddhism:
*the [[Dalai lama]] was the god-king of [[Tibet]] before its annexation by the [[PR of China]]
*Mongolia, the former homeland of the imperial Genghis Khan-dynasty, was another lamaist theocracy since 1585, using various styles in several languages, see [[Khutughtu]], replaced [[20 May]] [[1924]] by a communist republic (which assigned the head of state role to chairmanships).
===City states and crowned republics===
*Both the [[polis]] in Antiquity (actual Greek and many parallels, e.g. Italic) and the equivalent city states in the feudal era (many in Italy, the rest of the Holy Roman Empire, the Moorish taifa, essentially tribal-type but urbanized regions troughout the world in the Mayan civilization etc.), and in some cases even much later, offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, see [[Chief magistrate]]
*[[Doge]]s were elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but 'reigned' as sovereign dukes
The paradoxical term [[crowned republic]] (see there) refers to various state arrangements that combine 'republican' and 'monarchic' characteristics
*[[The Netherlands]] historical had officials called [[stadholder]]s, [[stadholder-general|stadholders-general]]
===Multiple or collective Heads of State===
[[Image:federalcouncil.jpg|250px|thumb|The [[Swiss Federal Council|Federal Council of Switzerland]] - ''The seven-member collective Head of State of Switzerland'' (also depicted: [[Federal Chancellor]], far right in gray)]]
*in republics (internal complexity): e.g. nominal [[triumvirate]]s, [[Directoire]], and even to date [[Switzerland]] (seven-member [[Federal Council of Switzerland|Federal Council]], each acting in turn as ceremonial chief of state); [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (three member presidium, from three different nations); [[San Marino]] (two "Captains-regent");
*[[condominium]] (external shared sovereignty): monarchic as in [[Andorra]] (president of [[France]] and bishop of [[Urgell]], [[Spain]], co-princes), mixed as the former Anglo-French [[New Hebrides]] (each's Head of state represented by a High Commissioner).
===Curiosa and residual cases===
In some nationalistic regimes (usually republics), the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning "leader" in the national language, such as nazi Germany's single party chief and Head of state and government Adolf Hitler [[Führer]] (see that article for equivalents).
When former crown colony [[Singapore]] ceased in 1959 to have the British crown as Monarch, represented by a Governor, it adopted the Malay style ''yang di-pertuan negara'', compare the Malaysian paramount ruler [[Yang Dipertuan Agong]]; the second and last incumbent kept the style at the [[31 August]] [[1963]] first independence and after the [[18 September]] [[1963]] accession to federal Malaysia (so now as a constitutive part of the federation, a non-sovereign level); after withdrawing from Malaysia [[22 December]] [[1965]], it became a republic within the Commonwealth, this time independent for good, and installed the same person as its first President.
There are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of Head of State is vague. Following the downfall of [[Liu Shaoqi]], who was [[Chairman of the People's Republic of China]], no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]].
In [[North Korea]], [[Kim Il-sung]] was named "eternal president" following his death and the presidency was abolished. As a result, the duties of the head of state are constitutionally delegated to the [[Supreme People's Assembly]] whose chairman is "head of state for foreign affairs" and performs some of the roles of a head of state, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors. However, the symbolic role of a head of state is generally performed by [[Kim Jong-il]], who as the leader of the party and military, is the most powerful person in North Korea.
In some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature. Thus in March 1979 colonel [[Muammar al-Qaddafi]], who kept absolute power (still known as "Guide of the Revolution"), after ten years as combined Head of state and Head of government of the Libyan ''Jamahiriya'' ("state of the masses"), styled Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally transferred both qualities, to the General secretaries of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker) respectively to a Prime Minister, in political reality both his creatures.
Sometimes a Head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before a formal title for the highest office i |
case, we replace Q in <math>\neg \Phi</math> with the formula <math>(\forall u)(\exists v)(P)\psi(x,y|x',y')</math>. <math>\neg \Phi</math> then becomes
:<math>\neg ( (\forall x')(\exists y') (\forall u)(\exists v)(P)\psi(x,y|x',y') \wedge (\forall x)(\forall y) ( (\forall u)(\exists v)(P)\psi \rightarrow (\forall u)(\exists v)(P) \psi ) )</math>
and this formula is provable; since the part under negation and after the <math>\wedge</math> sign is obviously provable, and the under negation and part before the <math>\wedge</math> sign is obviously &phi;, just with '''x''' and '''y''' replaced by '''x'''' and '''y'''', we see that <math>\neg \phi</math> is provable, and &phi; is refutable. We have proved that &phi; is either satisfiable or refutable, and this concludes the proof of the '''Lemma'''.
'''Proving the theorem for formulas of degree 1'''
As shown by the '''Lemma''' above, we only need to prove our theorem for formulas &phi; in '''R''' of degree 1. &phi; cannot be of degree 0, since formulas in R have no free variables and don't use constant symbols.
:''to be continued''
'''Extensions'''
'''Extension to first-order predicate calculus with equality'''
'''Extension to countable sets of formulas'''
[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Model theory]]
[[Category:Proofs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gerdur Gymisdottir</title>
<id>12728</id>
<revision>
<id>15910395</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-21T23:26:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jallan</username>
<id>13575</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Changing to a redirect to [[Gerd]] where material has been transferred.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gerd]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grits</title>
<id>12729</id>
<revision>
<id>41496621</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T19:36:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.105.157.197</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the corn-based Southern U.S. food; for other meanings, see [[Grit (disambiguation)]].
[[Image:Grits 1.jpg|thumb|Grits and a waffle]]
'''Grits''' is a type of [[maize]] [[porridge]] and a [[food]] common in the [[Southern United States]], [[East Africa]] (where it is called [[Ugali]] in [[Swahili]]) and southern [[Manchuria]] (where it is called Gezi in Chinese) consisting of coarsely ground [[maize|corn]], traditionally by a stone [[mill (grinding)|mill]]. The results are passed through screens, with the finer part being [[corn meal]], and the coarser being grits. Many communities in the South had a [[gristmill]] until the mid-[[20th century]], with families bringing their own corn to be ground, and the [[miller]] retaining a portion of the corn for his fee. Grits aficionados still prefer stone ground grits, although modern milling tends to prefer faster methods.
The word "grits" comes from Old English ''grytta'' meaning a coarse meal of any kind. Yellow grits include the entire [[seed|kernel]], while white grits use hulled kernels. Grits are prepared by simply boiling into a [[porridge]]; normally they are boiled until enough water evaporates to leave them semi-solid however. They are traditionally served at breakfast, but can also be used at any meal.
'''Hominy grits''' are ground from [[Hominy]], that is to say, from corn that is first hulled and treated through [[nixtamalization]] and then dried and coarsely ground. This contrasts with European [[polenta]], which is made from cornmeal made by grinding kernels which have not been hulled.
Grits are also similar to [[farina (food)|farina]].
Grits are commonly eaten with a variety of added foods:
*Butter
*Butter, salt and pepper
*Butter and sugar
*Gravy
*Butter, milk, and brown sugar (more typical of the Midwest than the South)
*Cheese
*Cheese and eggs
*Sugar
*Ketchup
*Tomatoes
*Bacon or ham
*[[Livermush]]
*Shrimp, popularized by [[Bill Neal]] at Crook's Corner in [[Chapel Hill, North Carolina]]
*Sour cream
''See also:'' [[grist mill]], [[United States Regional Cuisine]]
{{cookbookpar|Hominy Grits}}
[[Category:American cuisine]]
[[Category:Breakfast foods]]
[[Category:Cuisine of the Southern United States]]
[[de:Grütze]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>General Electric</title>
<id>12730</id>
<revision>
<id>41872097</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:10:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.19.153.31</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* GE's Brand */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = General Electric Co. |
company_logo = [[Image:GeneralElectric.jpg|center|200px|]] |
company_type = Public ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=GE GE]) |
company_slogan = Imagination at work |
foundation = [[1879]] |
location = [[Fairfield, Connecticut]] |
key_people = [[Jeff Immelt]], Chairman & CEO<br>[[Keith S. Sherin]], CFO<br>[[Sir William Castell]],Executive Vice Chairman<br>[[Gary M. Reiner]], CIO<br>[[Dennis Dammerman]],Executive Vice Chairman<br>[[Robert Charles Wright|Robert Wright]], Vice Chairman |
num_employees = ~315,000 ([[2004]]) |
revenue = [[Image:green up.png]]$152.363 Billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2004]]) |
industry = [[Conglomerate (company)|Conglomerates]] |
products = [[aircraft jet engine]]s<br>[[electricity]]<br>[[entertainment]]<br>[[finance]]<br>[[generation]]<br>[[industrial automation]] <br>[[lighting]]<br>[[medical imaging equipment]] <br>[[motor]]s<br>[[plastics]]<br>[[railway locomotive]]s<br>[[silicones]] |
homepage = [http://www.ge.com/ www.ge.com]
}}{{redirect|GE}}
The '''General Electric''' Company, or '''GE''' ({{nyse|GE}}) is a multinational technology and services company. Going into [[2005]], it was the world's largest [[corporation]] in terms of [[market capitalization]] ([http://screen.yahoo.com/b?mc=100000000/&b=1&z=mc&db=stocks&vw=1]). It should not be confused with [[The General Electric Company plc]], which was renamed [[Marconi plc]] in [[1999]].
In the [[1960s]], peculiarities in U.S. tax laws and accounting practices made it fashionable to assemble [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerates]]. GE, which was a conglomerate long before the term was coined, is one of the very few corporations to achieve great success with this kind of organization.
==History==
In [[1876]], [[Thomas Alva Edison]] opened a new [[laboratory]] in [[Menlo Park, New Jersey|Menlo Park]], [[New Jersey]]. Out of the laboratory was to come perhaps the most famous invention of all&mdash;a successful development of the [[light bulb|incandescent electric lamp]]. By [[1890]], Edison had organized his various businesses into the [[Edison General Electric Company]].
In [[1879]], [[Elihu Thomson]] and [[Edwin J. Houston]] formed the rival [[Thomson-Houston Electric Company]]. It merged with various companies and was later led by Charles A. Coffin, a former shoe manufacturer from [[Lynn, Massachusetts]]. [[Merger]]s with competitors and the [[patent]] rights owned by each company put them into dominant positions in the electrical industry. As businesses expanded, it became increasingly difficult for either company to produce complete electrical installations relying solely on their own technology. In [[1892]], these two major companies combined, in a merger arranged by [[financier]] [[J. P. Morgan]], to form the General Electric Company, with its headquarters in [[Schenectady, New York]].
In [[1896]], General Electric was one of the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average#History|original 12]] companies listed on the newly-formed [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]]. GE is the only one that remains today.
The [[Radio Corporation of America]] (RCA) was founded by GE and [[American Telephone & Telegraph]] (AT&T) in [[1919]] to further international [[radio]]. General Electric was one of the eight major [[computer]] companies (with [[IBM]] - the largest, [[Burroughs]], [[Scientific Data Systems]], [[Control Data Corporation]], [[Honeywell]], RCA and [[UNIVAC]]) through most of the [[1960s]]. GE had an extensive line of general purpose and special purpose computers. Among them were the [[GE-200 series|GE 200]], GE 400, and [[GE-600 series|GE 600]] series general purpose computers, the GE 4010, GE 4020, and GE 4060 real time process control computers, and the Datanet 30 message switching computer. A Datanet 600 computer was designed, but never sold. It has been said that GE got into the computer manufacturing business because in the [[1950s]] they were the largest user of computers outside of the [[United States federal government]]. In [[1970]] GE sold its computer division to Honeywell.
In [[1986]], GE re-acquired RCA, primarily for the [[NBC]] television network. The rest was sold to various companies, including [[Bertelsmann]] and [[Thomson SA|Thomson]].
In [[2004]], GE bought the television and movie assets of [[Vivendi Universal]] and became the third largest media conglomerate in the world. The new company was named [[NBC Universal]]. Also in [[2004]], GE completed the [[spinoff]] of most of its [[life insurance|life]] and [[mortgage]] [[insurance]] assets into an independent company, [[Genworth Financial]], based in [[Richmond, Virginia]]. In that same year, GE also acquired the [[credit card]] unit of the [[department store]] [[Dillard's]] for $1.25 billion.
In [[2005]], General Electric bought the financial assets of the [[Economy of Canada|Canadian]] airplane manufacturer [[Bombardier]] for $1.4 billion [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000082&sid=aeIc.zt1tBbc]
==Today==
GE is an enormous multinationa |
0-meter gauge; 25 km double track (1995 est.)
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]] - yes - 1000mm
* [[Transportation in Ghana|Ghana]] - no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1000mm/1067mm
* [[Transportation in Liberia|Liberia]] - no
* [[Transportation in Guinea|Guinea]] - no
* [[Transportation in Mali|Mali]] - no
== Highways ==
<br>''total:''
50,400 km
<br>''paved:''
4,889 km
<br>''unpaved:''
45,511 km (1996 est.)
== Waterways ==
980 km navigable rivers, canals, and numerous coastal lagoons
== Ports and harbors ==
[[Abidjan]], [[Aboisso]], [[Dabou]], [[San Pédro|San-Pedro]]
== Merchant marine ==
<br>''total:''
1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,200 GRT/1,500 DWT
<br>''ships by type:''
petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.)
== Airports ==
36 (1999 est.)[[Nouvelle Air Ivoire]] is the national carrier of Côte d'Ivoire. Recently formed from the failed [[Air Ivoire]], the airline operates an aging* fleet of Western built aircraft. The airline is owned by Air France and the U.S. Finance company AIG. Prior to its reformation, the airline was forced to cease operations a number of times due to technical and financial difficulties.
'''Security/Safety Concerns'''
There is rampant corruption among airport officials in Côte d'Ivoire. Immigration officials have been known to ask for bribes to 'expedite' processing the forms, or to offer to fill out the customs forms prior to demanding a 'fee' for doing so. The anti-French sentiment, peaking in early 2003, spilled over onto airports when 1,500 French nationals were trapped in Abidjan's airport by an anti-French mob.
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
7
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
4 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
29
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
8
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
12
<br>''under 914 m:''
9 (1999 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
{{CIAfb}}
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Côte d'Ivoire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Côte d'Ivoire</title>
<id>5571</id>
<revision>
<id>25066475</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-08T16:27:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SPUI</username>
<id>113059</id>
</contributor>
<comment>dab</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The 17,000-man Ivorian Armed Forces (FANCI) include an [[army]], [[navy]], [[air force]], and [[gendarmerie]]. The [[Joint Staff]] is assigned to the FANCI Headquarters in [[Abidjan]]. A two-star officer serves as the chief of staff and commander of the FANCI.
'''Military branches:''' Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary Gendarmerie, Republican Guard (includes Presidential Guard), Sapeur-Pompier (Military Fire Group)
== Figures ==
'''Military manpower'''
* Military age: 18 years of age
* Availability: ''males age 15-49:'' 3,743,353 (2000 est.)
* Fit for military service: ''males age 15-49:'' 1,952,882 (2000 est.)
* Reaching military age annually: ''males:'' 182,936 (2000 est.)
'''Military expenditures'''
* Dollar figure: $94 million (fiscal year [[1996]])
* Percent of Gross Domestic Product: 1% (fiscal year [[1996]])
== Military regions ==
[[Côte d'Ivoire]] is broken down into five military regions, each commanded by a [[colonel]]:
* The army has the majority of its forces in the First Military Region concentrated in and around Abidjan, its principal units there being a rapid intervention [[battalion]] (airborne), an [[infantry]] battalion, an armored battalion, and an air defense [[artillery]] battalion.
* The Second Military Region is located in [[Daloa]] and is assigned one infantry battalion.
* The Third Military Region is headquartered in [[Bouaké]] and is home to an artillery, an infantry, and an engineer battalion.
* The Fourth Military Region maintains only a Territorial Defense Company headquartered in [[Korhogo]].
* The fifth region is the Western Operational Zone, a temporary command created to respond to the security threat caused by the [[civil war]] in neighboring [[Liberia]].
== Gendarmerie ==
The gendarmerie is roughly equivalent in size to the army. It is a national [[police]] force which is responsible for territorial security, especially in [[rural]] areas. In times of national crisis the gendarmerie could be used to reinforce the army. The gendarmerie is commanded by a [[colonel-major]] and is comprised of four Legions, each corresponding to one of the four numbered military regions, minus the temporary military operational zone on the western border.
== Navy ==
Côte d'Ivoire has a brown-water navy whose mission is [[coast]]al surveillance and security for the nation's 340-mile coastline. It has two fast-attack craft, two patrol crafts, and one light transport ship. It also has numerous smaller vessels used primarily for traffic, [[immigration]], and [[contraband]] control within the [[lagoon]] system.
== Air Force ==
Recent reports suggest that the Ivory Coast no longer has any aircraft remaining in its Air Force. Until recent French attacks which appear to have destroyed all of its aircraft, it was believed to have in its inventory 5 [[Dassault-Breguet/Dornier Alpha Jet|Alpha Jet]]s, 12 transport/utility [[aircraft]], and 2 [[helicopter]]s.
Two jets belonging to the Ivorian Air Force were destroyed by the [[France|French]] military in retaliation for an Ivorian military attack on a French military base on [[November 6]] [[2004]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3989127.stm (BBC)]
French forces destroyed a number of aircraft, including three [[Mil Mi-24]] helicopters and two [[Sukhoi Su-25]] ground-attack aircraft.
== International agreements ==
A mutual defense accord signed with [[France]] in [[1961]] provides for the stationing of [[Military of France|French forces]] in Côte d'Ivoire. The 43rd [[French Marines|Marine]] Infantry Battalion is based in [[Port Bouet]] adjacent to the [[Abidjan Airport]] and has more than 500 troops assigned.
== See also ==
* [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Politics of Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Foreign relations of Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:Military of Côte d'Ivoire| Military of C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire]]
[[fr:Forces armées nationales de Côte d'Ivoire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Croatia</title>
<id>5573</id>
<revision>
<id>42137033</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:43:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dr.Gonzo</username>
<id>204836</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */ rv edits by anonymous --> SERBS AND SERBIA HAVE THEIR OWN ARTICLES, YOU MAY ADD ANYTHING PERTINENT THERE. Please stop vandalizing!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Republic of Croatia''' is a crescent-shaped country in [[Europe]] bordering the [[Mediterranean]] to the South, [[Central Europe]] to the North and the [[Balkans]] to the Southeast. Its [[capital city|capital]] is [[Zagreb]]. In recent [[history of Croatia|history]], it was a [[republic]] in the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|SFR Yugoslavia]], but it achieved independence in [[1991]]. It is a [[enlargement of the European Union|candidate]] for [[EU member states|membership]] of the [[European Union]].<!--BEGIN INFOBOX
To change the text of the article, just go below the Infobox. The Infobox represents the informations given in the table on the right.
-->
{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = Republika Hrvatska<br>Republic of Croatia |
common_name = Croatia |
image_flag = Flag_of_Croatia.svg |
image_coat = Croatian_Coat_of_Arms.svg |
image_map = LocationCroatia.png |
national_motto = none |
national_anthem = [[Lijepa naša domovino]] |
official_languages = [[Croatian language|Croatian]]<sup>1</sup>|
capital = [[Zagreb]] |
latd=45|latm=48|latNS=N|longd=16|longm=0|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Zagreb]] |
government_type= Democratic [[republic]] |
leader_titles = [[Presidents of Croatia|President]]<br>[[Prime ministers of Croatia|Prime minister]]|
leader_names = [[Stjepan Mesić]] <br> [[Ivo Sanader]] |
area_rank = 124th |
area_magnitude = 1_E10 |
area=56,542 |
areami² = 21,831 | <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
percent_water = 0.01 |
population_estimate = 4,496,869 |
population_estimate_year = July 2004 |
population_estimate_rank = 117th |
population_census = 4,437,460|
population_census_year = 2001|
population_density = 83 |
population_densitymi² = 215 | <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
population_density_rank = 116th |
GDP_PPP_year=2005 |
GDP_PPP = $55,638 million |
GDP_PPP_rank = 72nd |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $12,364 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 56th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.841 |
HDI_rank = 45th |
HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
established_events = |
established_dates = [[June 25]], [[1991]] |
currency = [[Kuna (currency)|Kuna (kn)]]&nbsp; |
currency_code = HRK |
time_zone= [[Central European Time|CET]] |
utc_offset= +1 |
time_zone_DST= [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |
utc_offset_DST= +2 |
cctld= [[.hr]] |
calling_code = 385 |
footnotes= <sup>1</sup>Locally also [[Italian language|Italian]] in [[Istria county]]. |
}}
<!-- END INFOBOX -->
== Name ==
''Croatia'' is the [[Latin]]ized version of the native name of the country: '''Hrvatska''' {{Audio|Hrvatska.ogg|listen}}. The letter "r" in the first syllable "hrv" is ''rolled'' or [[continuant]].
However, instead of the Latinized version, many languages use a form more similar to the native one. Various forms are [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Croatia#Translations listed in Wiktionary].
The country code for Croatia is [[HR]] (per [[ISO 3166]]), so Croatian Internet root domain end with [[.hr]]. |
ng new sound recordings from the [[White River (Arkansas)|White River of Arkansas]] supplied to them by the Cornell team that reported the rediscovery, they announced in August 2005 that they had concluded that the bird has indeed been rediscovered and withdrew their paper. Yale ornithologist [[Richard Prum]] stated:
<blockquote>We were very skeptical of the first published reports, and thought that the previous data were not sufficient to support this startling conclusion. But the thrilling new sound recordings provide clear and convincing evidence that the Ivory-billed Woodpecker is not extinct.</blockquote>
In August 2005, despite the arguments for the existence of at least one Ivory-billed Woodpecker, questions about the evidence remained. Cornell could not say with absolute certainty that the sounds recorded in Arkansas were made by Ivory-billeds[http://www.birds.cornell.edu/ivory/field/listening/expert/document_view].
Some skeptics, including Richard Prum, believe the video could have been of a [[Pileated Woodpecker]] [http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news-print.cfm?art=1940].
In December 2005, Richard Prum's position was presented this way:
<blockquote>Prum, intrigued by some of the recordings taken in Arkansas' Big Woods, said the evidence thus far is refutable.[http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/front/3532519.html]</blockquote>
On page 13 of the American Birding Association publication "Winging It" (Nov/Dec 2005), it says:
<blockquote>The ABA Checklist Committee has not changed the status of the Ivory-billed
Woodpecker from Code 6 (EXTINCT) to another level that would reflect a small
surviving population. The Committee is waiting for unequivocal proof that
the species still exists.</blockquote>
In a paper published in The Auk in January 2006, Jerome Jackson expressed skepticism of the Ivory-bill evidence:
<blockquote>Prum, Robbins, Brett Benz, and I remain steadfast in our belief that the bird in the Luneau video is a normal Pileated Woodpecker. Others have independently come to the same conclusion, and publication of independent analyses may be forthcoming...For scientists to label sight reports and questionable photographs as “proof” of such an extraordinary record is delving into “faith-based” ornithology and doing a disservice to science.[http://www.aou.org/persp1231.pdf]</blockquote>
==Other facts==
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is sometimes referred to as the '''Grail Bird''' or the '''Lord God Bird''' (a name shared with the [[Pileated Woodpecker]]). [[National Public Radio]] interviews concerning the rediscovery of the species were conducted with residents of [[Brinkley, Arkansas]], and then shared with musician [[Sufjan Stevens]] who used the material to write a song titled "Lord God Bird". More information and the song can be found on [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4721675 the NPR website].
== References ==
* [http://www.abirdshome.com/Audubon/VolIV/00426.html The Ivory-billed Woodpecker] from the now [[public domain]] ''Birds of America'' by [[John James Audubon]], hosted by a commercial website. ISBN 0810920611.
* [http://audubon2.org/webapp/watchlist/viewSpecies.jsp?id=110 Watchlist entry for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker], from the [[National Audubon Society]].
* {{cite book | author=Winkler, H., D. A. Christie, and D. Nurney | title=Woodpeckers: A Guide to the Woodpeckers of the World | publisher=Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company | year=1995 | id=ISBN 0395720435}}
* {{cite journal | author=Fitzpatrick JW, Lammertink M, Luneau MD Jr, Gallagher TW, Harrison BR, Sparling GM, Rosenberg KV, Rohrbaugh RW, Swarthout EC, Wrege PH, Swarthout SB, Dantzker MS, Charif RA, Barksdale TR, Remsen JV Jr, Simon SD, Zollner D | title=Ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) persists in continental North America | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume=308 | issue=5727 | year=2005 | pages=1460-1462 | id=PMID 15860589}}
* [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] ([[April 28]], [[2005]]). [http://www.fws.gov/southeast/news/2005/r05-029.html Once-thought Extinct Ivory-Billed Woodpecker Rediscovered in Arkansas]. Press Release
* {{cite book | author=Hoose, Phillip M. | title=The Race to Save the Lord God Bird | publisher=New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0374361738}} (children's book)
* {{cite book | author=Jackson, Jerome A | title=In Search of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker | publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1588341321}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Tim Gallagher|Gallagher, Tim]] | title=The Grail Bird: Hot on the Trail of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker | publisher=Houghton Mifflin | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0618456937}}
* Scott Weidensaul, "Ghost of a chance" ''Smithsonian Magazine'' August 2005 pp 97&ndash;102.
== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4493825.stm 'Extinct' woodpecker found alive] from [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/IBW.html The Search for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker], from a [[Louisiana State University]] website
* [http://www.nature.org/ivorybill/ The ivory-billed woodpecker has returned] with information on the Ivory-bill, its habitat, and the core search team, all from [http://www.nature.org/ The Nature Conservancy]
* [http://www.nature.org/magazine/fall2004/animals/ Online excerpt of ''The Race to Save the Lord God Bird''], a book about the history of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker by author Phillip Hoose
* [http://www.nature.org/chat/ Live audio chat about the ivory-bill] with Phillip Hoose, author of <em>The Race to Save the Lord God Bird</em>, on Tuesday, May 10, 2005 (archive to be posted after the chat)
* [http://birds.cornell.edu/ivory/ Website about the bird] with video and sound files, from the [[Cornell University|Cornell]] Lab of Ornithology (CLO) website
* [http://www.npr.org/programs/re/archivesdate/2002/march/ Radio Reports of the 2002 search], from [[National Public Radio]], with streaming [[RealAudio]]
* [http://news.fws.gov/NewsReleases/showNews.cfm?newsId=897957A5-1143-3066-401A20C9DFF1CE36 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service] - [[April 28]], [[2005]] news release regarding rediscovery of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker
*[http://www.ivorybill.org/ The Big Woods Conservation Partnership], a group led by the CLO and [[The Nature Conservancy]], formed in response to the bird's rediscovery
* [http://www.nature.org/pressroom/features/photos.html Ivory-billed woodpecker photos] from The Nature Conservancy, along with [http://www.nature.org/pressroom/features/maps.html maps of ivory-bill's habitat]
* [http://www.birdingamerica.com/Ivorybill/ivorybilledwoodpecker.htm The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is Rediscovered in Arkansas!], from the personal website of a birder in Arkansas
* [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/rapidpdf/1114103v1.pdf Ivory-Billed Woodpecker (''Campephilus principalis'') Persists in Continental North America], from Sciencexpress, in [[Portable Document Format|PDF format]]
* [http://narsal.ecology.uga.edu/ivoryga.htm Ivory-Billed Woodpecker habitat range in Georgia] from the Natural Resources Spatial Analysis Laboratory's Georgia GAP Project
* [http://www.cornellsun.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2005/04/29/4271dfcdb52d7?in_archive=1 'Extinct' Woodpecker Found] from the Cornell University newspaper
* [http://media.eurekalert.org/scipub/images/Cornell_high.mov Quicktime movie about the rediscovery of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker] &ndash; includes video footage that confirmed the woodpecker's rediscovery
* [http://www.yale.edu/opa/newsr/05-08-02-01.all.html Independent Researchers Confirm the Existence of Ivory-billed Woodpecker], an August 2005 [[Yale University]] press release
* [http://tomnelson.blogspot.com/2005/09/ivory-bill-skeptic-home.html Questions about the evidence], from a skeptic
* [http://audubon-print.com/ivory-billed-woodpecker.html Ivory Billed Woodpecker by John Audubon]
* [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/10/13/60minutes/main940587.shtml Finding The 'Lord God Bird'] from [[CBS News]]
* [http://ca.geocities.com/woodpeck2006/ivory.html Ivory-billed Woodpecker], a bibliographic source
[[Category:Woodpeckers]]
[[Category:Controversial birds]]
[[de:Elfenbeinspecht]]
[[es:Campephilus principalis]]
[[eo:Eburbeka pego]]
[[fr:Pic à bec ivoire]]
[[fy:Ivoarsnaffelspjocht]]
[[ja:ハジロキツツキ]]
[[nl:Ivoorsnavelspecht]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Federation of the Red Cross</title>
<id>14993</id>
<revision>
<id>24442760</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-01T00:45:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.202.108.226</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>I386</title>
<id>14994</id>
<revision>
<id>15912511</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-04T18:53:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>change redirect (now redirects to Intel_80386 instead of IA32)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intel_80386]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intel 386</title>
<id>14995</id>
<revision>
<id>15912512</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intel 80386]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International English</title>
<id>14996</id>
<revision>
<id>40880884</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T17:06:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>60.49.144.246</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>added to historical co |
the introduction of [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] liners (casings) around hydraulic cylinders which can be monitored for integrity. Recent innovations called machine room-less elevators may soon make the use of hydraulic elevators obsolete.
==Uses of elevators==
===Passenger service===
A passenger elevator is designed to carry people and small packages.
===Passenger elevator capacity===
Passenger elevators capacity is related to the available floor space. Generally passenger elevators are available in typical capacities from 1,500 to 5,000 lb (680 to 2,300 kg) in 500 lb (230 kg) increments. Generally passenger elevators in buildings four stories or less are hydraulic. In buildings up to ten stories, electric elevators are likely to have speeds up to 300 ft/min (1.5 m/s), and above ten stories speeds begin at 500 ft/min (2.5 m/s) up to about 1200 ft/min (6 m/s).
===Types of passenger elevators===
Passenger elevators may be specialized for the service they perform, including: Hospital emergency (Code blue), front and rear entrances, [[Double-deck elevator|double decker]], and other uses. Cars may be ornate in their interior appearance, may have audio visual advertising, and may be provided with specialized recorded voice instructions. The concern for entrapping passengers requires all elevators to have communication connection to an outside 24 hour emergency service, automatic recall capability in a fire emergency, and special access for [[fire station|fire department]] use in a fire. Elevators are not an acceptable means of escape during a fire and should not be used by the public for this purpose. Signs are required in almost all US jurisdictions to "USE STAIRS IN CASE OF FIRE."
Residential elevators may be small enough for one person while some are large enough for more than a dozen.
Wheelchair, or platform lifts, a specialized type of elevator designed to move a [[wheelchair]] 6 ft (2 m) or less, often can accommodate just one person in a wheelchair at a time with a maximum load of 750 lb ('''340 kg''').
===Freight elevators===
[[Image:Alter Elbtunnel - Autoaufzug.jpg|thumb|[[Old Elbe tunnel]] automobile lift]]
A ''freight elevator'' is an elevator designed to carry goods, rather than passengers. (Passengers often accompany the freight, however.) Freight elevators are often exempt from some code requirements. Freight Elevators or Service elevators may be exempt from some of the requirements for fire service. However, new installations would likely be required to comply with these requirements. Freight elevators are generally required to display a written notice in the car that the use by passengers is prohibited, though certain freight elevators allow dual use through the use of an [[inconspicuous riser]].
Freight elevators are typically larger and capable of carrying heavier loads than a passenger elevator, generally from 2,300 to 4,500 kg. Freight Elevators may have manually operated doors, and often have rugged interior finishes to prevent damage while loading and unloading. Although hydraulic freight elevators exist, electric elevators are more energy efficient for the work of freight lifting.
A small freight elevator is often called a [[dumb waiter]] (see next section), often used for the moving of small items such as dishes in a 2-story kitchen or books in a multi-story rack assembly. Passengers are never permitted on dumbwaiters. A specialized type of freight elevator is an ''Automobile Lift'', used to move automobiles around a parking garage or other facility. Stage and Orchestra lifts are specialized lifts for use in the performing arts, and are often exempt from some requirements. Local jurisdictions may govern their use, installation and testing, however they are often left out of local code enforcement provisions due to their infrequent installation.
===Dumb waiter===
A small box elevator designed for the carriage of lightweight freight is called a dumb waiter (or ''dumbwaiter''). Dumbwaiters are required to comply with ASME A18.1 in most US and Canadian Jurisdictions.
Dumbwaiters are generally driven by a small electric motor with a counterweight and their capacity is limited to about 750 lb (340 kg). They may also be hand operated using a roped pulley. Dumbwaiters are used extensively in the restaurant business (hence the name) and may also be used as book lifts in libraries, or to transport mail or similar items in an office tower. They can withstand heavy loads of up to 800 Lb pounds, that comply with the ASME A18.2
===Material handling belts===
A different kind of '''elevator''' is used to transport material. It generally consists of an inclined plane on which a conveyor belt runs. The conveyor often includes partitions to prevent the material from sliding backwards. These elevators are often used in industrial and agricultural applications.
When such mechanisms (or spiral screws or pneumatic transport) are used to elevate grain for storage in large vertical silos, the entire structure is called a [[grain elevator]].
==Types of elevator hoist mechanisms==
[[Image:Hospital Elevator.jpg|thumb|right|Elevator in a hospital]]
In general, there are three means of moving an elevator:
===Traction elevators===
*''Geared and gearless traction elevators''
Geared Traction machines are driven by AC or DC electric motors. Geared machines use worm gears to mechanically control movement of elevator cars by "rolling" steel hoist ropes over a drive sheave which is attached to a gearbox driven by a high speed motor. These machines are generally the best option for basement or overhead traction use for speeds up to 350 ft/min (1.8 m/s).
Gearless Traction machines are low speed, high torque electric motors powered by AC or DC current. In this case, the drive sheave is directly attached to the end of the motor. A brake is mounted between the motor and drive sheave (or gearbox) to hold the elevator stationary at a floor. This brake is usually an external drum type and is actuated by spring force and held open electrically; a power failure will cause the brake to hold the elevator in position.
In each case, cables are attached to a hitch plate on top of the cab or may be "underslung" below a cab, and then looped over the drive sheave to a counterweight attached to the opposite end of the cables which reduces the amount of power needed to move the cab. The counterweight is located in the hoistway and rides a separate rail system; as the car goes up, the counterweight goes down, and vice versa. This action is powered by the traction machine which is directed by the controller, typically a relay logic or computerized device that directs starting, acceleration, deceleration and stopping of the elevator cab. The weight of the counterweight is typically equal to the weight of the elevator cab plus 40 to 50 % of the capacity of the elevator. The grooves in the drive sheave are specially designed to prevent the cables from slipping. "Traction" is provided to the ropes by the grip of the grooves in the sheave. As the ropes age and the traction grooves wear, some traction is lost and the ropes must be replaced and the sheave repaired or replaced.
Some elevators have a system called compensation. This is a separate set of cables or a chain attached to the bottom of the counterweight and the bottom of the elevator cab. This makes it easier to control the elevator because the weight will fluctuate less over the entire system. If the elevator cab is at the top of the hoistway, there is a short length of hoist cable above the car and a long length of compensating cable below the car and vice versa for the counterweight. If the compensation is cables there is an additional sheave in the pit below the elevator, to guide the cables. If the compensation is a chain, the chain is guided by a bar mounted between the counterweight rails.
===Hydraulic type===
*''Conventional Hydraulic'' elevators are quite common for low and medium rise buildings (2-5 stories). They use a hydraulically powered plunger to push the elevator upwards. On some, the hydraulic piston (plunger) consists of telescoping concentric tubes, allowing a shallow tube to contain the mechanism below the lowest floor. On others, the piston requires a deeper hole below the bottom landing, usually with a PVC casing (also known as a [[Caisson (engineering)|caisson]]) for protection.
*''Roped hydraulic.''
*''Twin post hydraulic''
*''Holeless hydraulic'' elevators do not require holes to be dug for the hydraulic cylinder. In one [http://www.otis.com/products/detail/0,1355,CLI1_PRD735_PRT30_PST46_RES1,00.html design] manufactured by [[Otis Elevator Company|Otis]], the cab is lifted by a pair of hydraulic jacks, one on each side of the elevator.
===Climbing elevator===
A climbing elevator is a self-ascending elevator with its own propulsion. The propulsion can be done by an electric or a combustion engine. Climbing elevators are used in guyed masts or towers, in order to make easy access to parts of these constructions, such as flight safety lamps for maintenance.
==='''Paternoster'''===
[[Image:PaternosterBerlin.JPG|right|thumb|A paternoster in [[Berlin]] from the 1970s]]
A special type of elevator is the [[paternoster]], a constantly moving chain of boxes. A similar concept moves only a small platform, which the rider mounts while using a handhold and was once seen in multi-story industrial plants.
==Controlling elevators==
===General controls===
A typical modern passenger elevator will have:
*Call buttons to choose a floor. Some of these may be key switches (to control access). In some elevators, certain floors are inaccessible unless one swipes a security card or enters a passcode (or both).
*''Door open'' and ''door close'' buttons to instruct the elevator to close immediately or remain open longer. In some elevators, holding the door open for too long will trigger an audible alarm (This alarm might confuse some people to |
rmed the system of family and clan names, because many named themselves false names using higher ranked clan or family names.
Today scholars identify him with King Sai in the Book of Song, who was a king of Japan (referred to as ''[[Wa (Japan)|Wa]]'' by contemporary Chinese scholars) and sent messengers to the [[Song Dynasty (420-479)|Song Dynasty]] at least twice, in [[443]] and [[451]].
{{japan-bio-stub}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Hanzei]] | after=[[Emperor Anko|Emperor Ankō]] | years=411-453<br>''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:5th century deaths|Ingyo]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Ingyo]]
[[de:Ingyo]]
[[ja:&#20801;&#24685;&#22825;&#30343;]]
[[it:Ingyo imperatore del Giappone]]
[[zh:允恭天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Anko</title>
<id>10460</id>
<revision>
<id>31352919</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-14T18:15:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Ankō''' (安康天皇 ''Ankō Tennō'') was the 20th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the mid-[[5th century]] CE.
According to ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' Ankō was the second son of [[Emperor Ingyo|Emperor Ingyō]]. His elder brother Kinashikaru no Miko (Prince Kinashikaru) was the crown prince, but due to an incestuous relationship with his half-sister, Kinashikaru lost favour with the court. After an aborted attempt to rally troops against Ankō, Kinashikaru (and his half-sister) committed suicide.
Ankō was assassinated in his third year of reign by Mayowa no Ōkimi (Prince Mayowa), in retaliation for the execution of Mayowa's father.
{{japan-bio-stub}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Ingyo|Emperor Ingyō]] | after=[[Emperor Yuryaku|Emperor Yūryaku]] | years=453-456<br>''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:5th century deaths|Anko]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Anko]]
[[de:Anko]]
[[it:Angko imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&#23433;&#24247;&#22825;&#30343;]]
[[zh:安康天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Yuryaku</title>
<id>10461</id>
<revision>
<id>31844097</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-18T13:17:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jefu</username>
<id>256366</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Yūryaku''' (雄略天皇 ''Yūryaku Tennō'') (c. 418 - Seventh Day of the Eight Month of [[479]] ([[Sexagenary cycle|Kibi]]){{an|Japanese_dates1 1}}) was the 21st [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the late [[5th century]] CE. According to the [[Kojiki]] he is said to have ruled from the Thirteenth Day of the Eleventh Month of [[456]] ([[Sexagenary cycle|Heishin]]){{an|Japanese_dates1 1}} until his death on the Seventh Day of the Eight Month of [[479]] ([[Sexagenary cycle|Kibi]]){{an|Japanese_dates1 1}}.
According to ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', Yūryaku was named Prince Ohatsuse Wakatake at birth. He was the fifth and youngest son of [[Emperor Ingyo|Emperor Ingyō]]. After his elder brother [[Emperor Anko|Emperor Ankō]] was murdered, he won the struggle against his other brothers and became the new emperor.
He had three wives (including his consort Kusahahatahi) and his successor, Prince Shiraka ([[Emperor Seinei]]), was his son by his wife Katsuragi no Karahime.
Yūryaku is believed to be referred to as ''Bu'' in contemporary Chinese records. These records state that Bu began his rule before [[477]], was recognized as the ruler of Japan by the [[Song Dynasty (420-479)|Song]], [[Qi Dynasty|Qi]], and [[Liang Dynasty|Liang]] dynasties, and continued his rule through [[502]]. Bu sent messengers to the Song dynasty in 477 and 478.
==Notes==
#All dates are given in the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until [[1873]].
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Anko|Emperor Ankō]] | after=[[Emperor Seinei]] | years=456-479<br>''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:5th century births|Yuryaku]]
[[Category:5th century deaths|Yuryaku]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Yuryaku]]
[[de:Yuryaku]]
[[it:Yuryaku imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&#38596;&#30053;&#22825;&#30343;]]
[[zh:雄略天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Seinei</title>
<id>10462</id>
<revision>
<id>31353105</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-14T18:17:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Seinei''' (清寧天皇 ''Seinei Tennō'') was the 22nd [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the late [[5th century]] CE.
According to ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', he was a son of [[Emperor Yuryaku|Emperor Yūryaku]]. His name in birth was ''Shiraka''. After the death of his father, Seinei won the fight against Prince Hoshikawa, his brother, for the throne and so succeeded his father. He reigned from [[480]] till [[484]].
He had no children which concerned him greatly. However, two grandsons of [[Emperor Richu|Emperor Richū]], [[Emperor Ninken|Prince Oke]] and [[Emperor Kenzo|Prince Woke]], were found and Seinei adopted them as his heirs.
His tomb was made in Kawachi province, which is today in the eastern [[Osaka prefecture]].
{{japan-bio-stub}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Yuryaku|Emperor Yūryaku]] | after=[[Emperor Kenzo|Emperor Kenzō]] | years=480-484<br>''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:5th century births|Seinei]]
[[Category:5th century deaths|Seinei]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Seinei]]
[[de:Seinei]]
[[ja:清寧天皇]]
[[zh:清寧天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Kenzo</title>
<id>10463</id>
<revision>
<id>31354753</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-14T18:31:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kenzō''' (顕宗天皇 ''Kenzō Tennō'') was the 23rd [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the late [[5th century]] CE.
{{japan-bio-stub}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Seinei]] | after=[[Emperor Ninken]] | years=485-487<br>''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:5th century births|Kenzo]]
[[Category:5th century deaths|Kenzo]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kenzo]]
[[de:Kenzo (Kaiser)]]
[[it:Kenzo imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&#38997;&#23447;&#22825;&#30343;]]
[[zh:顯宗天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Ninken</title>
<id>10464</id>
<revision>
<id>31354874</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-14T18:32:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Ninken''' (仁賢天皇 ''Ninken Tennō'') (-c.[[489]]) was the 24th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the late [[5th century]] CE.
{{japan-bio-stub}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Kenzo|Emperor Kenzō]] | after=[[Emperor Buretsu]] | years=488-498<br>''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:5th century births|Ninken]]
[[Category:5th century deaths|Ninken]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Ninken]]
[[de:Ninken]]
[[it:Ninken imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&#20161;&#36066;&#22825;&#30343;]]
[[zh:仁賢天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Buretsu</title>
<id>10465</id>
<revision>
<id>38954095</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T19:27:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.208.12.17</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Buretsu''' (武烈天皇 ''Buretsu Tennō'') (c.[[489]]-[[507]]) was the 25th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He is a son of [[Emperor Ninken]] and his mother is ''Kasuga no Ōiratsume no Kōgō'' (春日大郎皇后). His name was Ohatsuse no Wakasazaki no Mikoto(小泊瀬稚鷦鷯尊).
No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the late [[5th century]] CE. According to various records including ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', he was born on [[489]] and died on [[January 7]], [[507]] and is believed to have ruled from [[498]] to [[507]].
He is described as a strongly wicked emperor in ''Nihonshoki'' likened to [[Di Xin]] of the [[Shang Dynasty]] but the record in ''Kojiki'' has no such indication. There are several theories on this difference. Some believe that this was to justify and praise his successor [[Emperor Keitai]] who took over under questionable circumstances. In history textbooks available before and during [[World War II]], part of Buretsu's record was intent |
r at the
[[Philadelphia School of Anatomy]]. He was appointed surgeon at
the Philadelphia Hospital in 1854 and was the founder of its
pathological museum.
For twenty-six years (1863-1889) he
was connected with the medical faculty of the University of
Pennsylvania, being elected professor of operative surgery
in 1870 and professor of the principles and practice of
surgery in the following year. From 1865 to 1884--except
for a brief interval --he was a surgeon at the Pennsylvania
Hospital. During the [[American Civil War]] he was consulting
surgeon in the Mower Army Hospital, near Philadelphia, and
acquired considerable reputation for his operations in cases
of gun-shot wounds. He attended as operating surgeon when
[[James Garfield|President Garfield]] was fatally wounded by the bullet of an assassin in 1881.
He was the author of several works, the most important being ''The Principles and Practice of Surgery'' (1878-1883). He died at Philadelphia on March 22, 1892.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1818 births|Agnew, David Hayes]]
[[Category:1892 deaths|Agnew, David Hayes]]
[[Category:People from Philadelphia|Agnew, David Hayes]]
[[Category:American surgeons|Agnew, David Hayes]]
[[Category:American Civil War people|Agnew, David Hayes]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni|Agnew, David Hayes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diving</title>
<id>8402</id>
<revision>
<id>42096265</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:24:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tailpig</username>
<id>312490</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 42095779 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article refers to the sport of jumping into water, often acrobatically, from a distance. For swimming below the surface of the water, see [[underwater diving]]. For other meanings of the term, see [[dive]].''
'''Diving''' refers to the sport [[acrobatics|acrobatically]] jumping or falling into water. Diving is an internationally-recognized [[sport]], which is part of the [[Olympic Games]]. In addition, unstructured and non-competitive diving is a common recreational pasttime in places where swimming is popular; sometimes the term '''jumping''' is used to disambiguate this activity from competitive diving.
While not a particularly popular participant sport, diving is one of the more popular [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sports with spectators. Successful competitors possess many of the same characteristics as [[gymnastics|gymnasts]], including strength, flexibility, and kinaesthetic judgment.
In the past, the success and prominence of [[Greg Louganis]] led to American strength internationally. More recently, however, the greatest diving nation is China, which came to prominence several decades ago when the sport was revolutionized by national coach Boxi Liang and has lost few world titles since. Other powers are generally those which import Chinese coaches, including Australia and Canada, home to the poster boy of the sport in recent years, [[Alexandre Despatie]].
==Competitive Diving==
[[Image:Diving.jpg|thumb|right|Competitive Springboard diving]]
[[Image:10MeterTower.jpg|thumb|right|Competitive Platform Diving]]
Competitive diving usually consists competing in one of three venues: one metre, three metre, and tower. Tower, or platform diving, allows the diver to select from one of three levels - five metre, seven-and-a-half metre (called seven metre) or ten metre. On occasion, in non-collegiate and non-Olympic environments, there are professional competitions at higher levels.
One and three meter dives are performed from a [[springboard]]. Five through ten meter dives are performed from concrete or wooden <u>[[Diving platforms|platforms]]</u> known colloquially by divers as "tower." In most regional, national and international competitions, there are two springboard height competitions, at 1 meter and 3 meter, as well as a platform competition in which all three tower heights can be combined. In Olympic competition, however, there is only the 3 meter springboard and the 10 meter platform.
Divers may perform a variety of dives, performing somersaults and twists in various directions and from different starting positions (see ''Components of a Dive'' below). Divers are judged on whether and how well they completed all aspects of the dive, the conformance of their body to the requirements of the nominated dive, and the amount of splash created by their entry to the water (less being better). A perfect entry, with no splash, is called a "rip," after the loud tearing or clapping sound it creates (as well as the sometimes painful bursting feeling on the hands of the diver). Theoretically, a score out of ten is supposed to be broken down into 3 points for the takeoff, 3 for the flight, and 3 for the entry, with 1 more available to give the judges flexibility. However, since judges must give their scores instantaneously, they base their scores more on a gut instinct and overall impression than actual calculations.
The raw score is multiplied by a difficulty factor, derived from the number and combination of movements attempted. The diver with the highest total score after a sequence of dives (which depend on age group and skill level in elite competition) is declared the winner.
While diving is closely related to gynmastics, it differs in one large way: Male and female gymansts compete vastly different skills on vastly different apparatus, while male and female divers compete the same dives on the same boards. Women are often required to perform one less dives than men (10 as opposed to 11, or 5 as opposed to 6), but there has been a movement in recent years to change this fact.
[[Synchronized diving]] was adopted as an Olympic sport in [[2000]]. In this event, two divers form a team and attempt to perform dives simultaneously. The dives are usually identical; however, sometimes the dives may be opposites, in what is called a pinwheel. This is an impressive spectacle, and requires great coordination between the team-mates. In these events, synchronicity is valued as highly as technical skill. Thus, if both divers perform their individual dives badly, but in the same way, they will still score fairly well.
===Components of a Dive and a Diving List===
A dive must be composed of one of four defined positions. They are: (A) layout or straight position--the body is, as the name implies, completely straight; (B) pike position--the body is folded in half, bent at the waist but not at the knees; (C) tuck position--the body is curled into a ball, with the knees brought up to the chin and the heels tucked against the back of the legs; or (D) free position--defined as the use of multiple positions during the flight, usually pike and layout, and used exclusively for twisting dives. There may be any multiple of half-twist rotations and half somersault revolutions performed in these positions.
On the springboards, dives are performed in one of four directions: (1) forward or front--beginning facing forwards and rotating forwards in the air; (2) backward or back--beginning facing the board and rotating backwards; (3) reverse or gainer--beginning facing forwards but rotating backwards, back towards the board; or (4) inward-- beginning facing backwards but rotating forwards, back towards the board. A forward or reverse dive begins with an approach (called a hurdle) moving towards the end of the diving board. A back or inward dive begins with either a standing or rocking motion by the diver standing at the end of the board and facing backwards. However, forward and inward are in fact technically almost identical to each other, as are backward and reverse.
Dives involving a twist during the somersault may be either front, back, reverse or (rarely) inward, but are considered a fifth direction altogether. Similarly, on platform only, dives in the front, back, or (rarely) reverse directions, with or without twist, may be performed starting from an armstand (i.e., handstand) rather than from standing on the feet. Armstand dives are considered a sixth direction.
A diver's "list" refers to the dives they compete. In high level meets, athletes are required to perform dives in all five of the directions on springboard, and five of the six on platform; children may only be expected to perform three or four, and men often have to perform enough dives that they must repeat one direction.
The diver's list is divided into two halves, referred to internationally as compulsory dives and optional dives. The compulsories are not, as the name suggests, dives strictly identified by the rules; rather, they are simply the easier dives, intended to exhibit technical mastery. However, since there are so few to choose from and since there is a limit on the total sum of the compulsory dives' degrees of difficulty (see Degree of Difficulty), most divers around the world have the same compulsories. The optionals are more difficult and therefore allow more freedom to show off sheer strength and skill, but given competitive standards, athletes of a similar competitive level will often have the same or very similar optionals.
All of the athletes are elite and skilful enough to perform compulsories admirably, but differences in ability become much more evident when optionals are performed. Therefore, it is not uncommon, in high level competitions, for optionals to be competed first, in preliminary rounds (as a way of separating the excellent divers from the very good ones) and compulsories to be performed only in final rounds, or for compulsories to not be done at all.
Each dive has a "dive number" - a code that describes its direction and number of twists and somersaults. Note that changing the position of the dive (tuck, pike, etc.) doe |
ightly ahead in the development and enunciation of his ideas, he confessed that he was baffled by many of Bergson's notions. James certainly neglected many of the deeper metaphysical aspects of Bergson's thought, which did not harmonize with his own, and are even in direct contradiction. In addition to this, Bergson can hardly be considered a pragmatist. For him, "utility," far from being a test of truth, was in fact the reverse: a synonym for error.
Nevertheless, William James hailed Bergson as an ally. Early in the century ([[1903]]) he wrote: "I have been re-reading Bergson's books, and nothing that I have read since years has so excited and stimulated my thoughts. I am sure that that philosophy has a great future, it breaks through old cadres and brings things into a solution from which new crystals can be got." The most noteworthy tributes paid by him to Bergson were those made in the [[Hibbert Lectures]] (A Pluralistic Universe), which James gave at [[Manchester College, Oxford]], shortly after meeting Bergson in London. He remarks on the encouragement he has received from Bergson's thought, and refers to the confidence he has in being "able to lean on Bergson's authority."
The influence of Bergson had led him "to renounce the intellectualist method and the current notion that [[logic]] is an adequate measure of what can or cannot be." It had induced him, he continued, "to give up logic, squarely and irrevocably" as a method, for he found that "reality, life, experience, concreteness, immediacy, use what word you will, exceeds our logic, overflows, and surrounds it."
Naturally, these remarks, which appeared in book form in [[1909]], directed many English and American readers to an investigation of Bergson's philosophy for themselves. A certain handicap existed in that his greatest work had not then been translated into English. James, however, encouraged and assisted Dr. [[Arthur Mitchell]] in his preparation of the English translation of ''L'Evolution créatrice''. In August of [[1910]] James died. It was his intention, had he lived to see the completion of the translation, to introduce it to the English reading public by a prefatory note of appreciation. In the following year the translation was completed and still greater interest in Bergson and his work was the result. By a coincidence, in that same year ([[1911]]), Bergson penned for the French translation of James's book, "Pragmatism", a preface of sixteen pages, entitled ''Vérité et Realité''. In it he expressed sympathetic appreciation of James's work, coupled with certain important reservations.
In April (5th to 11th) Bergson attended the [[Fourth International Congress of Philosophy]] held at [[Bologna]], in [[Italy]], where he gave a brilliant address on ''L'Intuition philosophique''. In response to invitations received he came again to England in May of that year, and paid England several subsequent visits. These visits were always noteworthy events and were marked by important deliverances. Many of these contain important contributions to thought and shed new light on many passages in his three large works: Time and Free Will, Matter and Memory, and Creative Evolution. Although necessarily brief statements, they were of more recent date than his books, and thus showed how this acute thinker could develop and enrich his thought and take advantage of such an opportunity to make clear to an English audience the fundamental principles of his philosophy.
== The lectures on change, and Bergson's later life ==
Bergson visited the [[University of Oxford]], where he delivered two lectures entitled ''La Perception du Changement'' (The Perception of Change), which were published in French in the same year by the [[Clarendon Press]]. As he had a delightful gift of lucid and brief exposition, when the occasion demands such treatment, these lectures on Change formed a most valuable synopsis or brief survey of the fundamental principles of his thought, and served the student or general reader alike as an excellent introduction to the study of the larger volumes. Oxford honoured its distinguished visitor by conferring upon him the degree of [[Doctor of Science]].
Two days later he delivered the [[Huxley Lecture]] at the [[University of Birmingham]], taking for his subject ''Life and Consciousness''. This subsequently appeared in ''[[The Hibbert Journal]]'' (October, 1911), and since revised, forms the first essay in the collected volume ''L'Energie spirituelle'' or Mind-Energy. In October he was again in England, where he had an enthusiastic reception, and delivered at [[University College London]] four lectures on ''La Nature de l'Ame''.
In [[1913]] he visited the [[United States|United States of America]], at the invitation of [[Columbia University]], [[New York]], and lectured in several American cities, where he was welcomed by very large audiences. In February, at Columbia University, he lectured both in French and English, taking as his subjects: ''Spiritualité et Liberté'' and The Method of Philosophy. Being again in England in May of the same year, he accepted the Presidency of the [[British Society for Psychical Research]], and delivered to the Society an impressive address: ''Fantômes des Vivants et Recherche psychique'' (Phantoms of Life and Psychic Research).
Meanwhile, his popularity increased, and translations of his works began to appear in a number of languages: [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Swedish (language)|Swedish]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. In [[1914]] he was honoured by his fellow-countrymen in being elected as a member of the [[Académie française]]. He was also made President of the Académie des Sciences morales et politiques, and in addition he became Officier de la [[Légion d'honneur]], and Officier de l'Instruction publique.
Bergson found disciples of many varied types, and in France movements such as [[Neo-Catholicism]] or [[Modernism]] on the one hand and [[Syndicalism]] on the other, endeavoured to absorb and to appropriate for their own immediate use and propaganda some of the central ideas of his teaching. That important continental organ of socialist and syndicalist theory, ''Le Mouvement [[Socialism|socialiste]]'', suggested that the realism of [[Karl Marx]] and [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] is hostile to all forms of intellectualism, and that, therefore, supporters of Marxian socialism should welcome a philosophy such as that of Bergson. Other writers, in their eagerness, asserted the collaboration of the Chair of Philosophy at the College de France with the aims of the ''[[Confédération Générale du Travail]]'' and the [[Industrial Workers of the World]]. It was claimed that there is harmony between the flute of personal philosophical meditation and the trumpet of social revolution.
While social revolutionaries were endeavouring to make the most out of Bergson, many leaders of religious thought, particularly the more liberal-minded theologians of all creeds, e.g., the Modernists and Neo-Catholic Party in his own country, showed a keen interest in his writings, and many of them endeavoured to find encouragement and stimulus in his work. The [[Roman Catholic Church]], however, which still believed that finality was reached in philosophy with the work of [[Thomas Aquinas]] in the thirteenth century, and consequently had made that mediaeval philosophy her official, orthodox, and dogmatic view, took the step of banning Bergson's three books by placing them upon the [[Index Librorum Prohibitorum|Index of prohibited books]] (Decree of June 1, 1914).
In 1914, the Scottish Universities arranged for Bergson to deliver the famous [[Gifford Lectures]], and one course was planned for the spring and another for the autumn. The first course, consisting of eleven lectures, under the title of ''The Problem of Personality'', was delivered at the [[University of Edinburgh]] in the Spring of that year. The course of lectures planned for the autumn months had to be abandoned because of the outbreak of war. Bergson was not, however, silent during the conflict, and he gave some inspiring addresses. As early as [[November 4]], 1914, he wrote an article entitled ''La force qui s'use et celle qui ne s'use pas'' (Wearing and Nonwearing forces), which appeared in that unique and interesting periodical of the ''poilus'', ''Le Bulletin des Armées de la République Française''. A presidential address delivered in December, 1914, to the Académie des sciences morales et politiques, had for its title ''La Significance de la Guerre''. This, together with the preceding article, has been translated and published in England as The Meaning of the War.
Bergson contributed also to the publication arranged by ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' in honour of the King of the [[Belgium|Belgians]], King Albert's Book (Christmas, 1914). In [[1915]] he was succeeded in the office of President of the ''Académie des Sciences morales et politiques'' by M. [[Alexandre Ribot]], and then delivered a discourse on The Evolution of German [[Imperialism]]. Meanwhile he found time to issue at the request of the Minister of Public Instruction a delightful little summary of French Philosophy. Bergson did a large amount of travelling and lecturing in America during the war. He was there when the French Mission under M. [[Viviani]] paid a visit in April and May of 1917, following upon America's entry into the conflict. M. Viviani's book ''La Mission française en Amérique'' ([[1917]]), contains a preface by Bergson.
Early in [[1918]] he was officially received by the ''Académie française'', taking his seat among "The Select Forty" as successor to [[Emile Ollivier]], the author of the large and notable historical work ''L'Empire libéral''. A ses |
ers. It is also possible to use pointers to functions.
A ''[[null pointer]]'' is a pointer value that points to no valid location. (Dereferencing a null pointer is therefore meaningless, and often results in a run-time error.) Null pointers are useful for indicating special cases such as the ''next'' pointer in the final node of a [[linked list]], or as an error return from functions that return pointers. Pointers to type <code>void</code> also exist, and point to objects of unknown type. A void pointer is therefore used as a "generic pointer" (see also [[generic programming]]). Since the size and type of the pointed-to object is not known, void pointers cannot be dereferenced, nor is pointer arithmetic on them possible, but they can be easily (and in fact implicitly) converted to and from any other object pointer type.
====Arrays====
<!-- Please be careful when editing this. C does NOT forbid bounds checking, nor does it require that pointers are memory addresses. Of course it does not require bounds checks, either, and all common implementations map those language constructs to the machine in the "obvious way", but there are ANSI-conforming implementations that handle these things in other ways. -->
Traditionally, array types in C were always one-dimensional and of a fixed, static size specified at compile time. (The latest "C99" standard does allow some forms of variable-length arrays.) However, it is also perfectly straightforward to allocate a block of memory (of arbitrary size) at run-time using the standard library and treat it as an array. C's unification of arrays and pointers (see below) means that true arrays and these dynamically-allocated, simulated arrays are virtually interchangeable. However, since arrays are always accessed (in effect) via pointers, array accesses are typically ''not'' checked against the underlying array size. Array bounds violations are therefore possible and rather common (see also the "Criticism" section below), and can lead to the usual sorts of repercussions: illegal memory accesses, corruption of data, run-time exceptions, etc.
C does not have a special provision for declaring multidimensional arrays, but rather uses recursion within the type system to declare arrays of arrays, which accomplishes approximately the same thing. The index values of the resulting "multidimensional array" can be thought of as flowing in [[row-major order]]. There are provisions for accessing the whole array or elements of the array. Because of the recursive nature of the type system that means that sub-array access is limited to row-by-row access.
====Unification of arrays and pointers====
A unique (and sometimes confusing) feature of C is its treatment of arrays and pointers.
The array-subscript notation <code>x[i]</code> can also be used when <code>x</code> is a pointer; the interpretation (using pointer arithmetic) is to access the <code>(i+1)</code>th of several adjacent data objects pointed to by <code>x</code>, counting the object that <code>x</code> points to (which is <code>x[0]</code>) as the first element of the array.
Formally, <code>x[i]</code> is equivalent to <code>*(x + i)</code>. Since the type of the pointer involved is known to the compiler at compile time, the address that <code>x + i</code> points to is ''not'' the address pointed to by <code>x</code> incremented by <code>i</code>, but rather incremented by <code>i</code> multiplied by the size of the objects that <code>x</code> points to. The size of these objects can be determined with the operator <code>sizeof<code> applied to the pointee of pointer <code>x</code> like in <code>n = sizeof (*x)</code>.
Also, when the name of an array is used in an expression without the subscript (<code>[...]</code>), a pointer to the array's first element is automatically derived and used thereafter: this means that arrays are never copied as a whole when passed as arguments to functions; only the address of its first element is passed.
(A consequence is that although C's function calls use [[call-by-value|pass-by-value]] semantics, arrays seem to be passed by [[Reference (computer science)|reference]].)
===Memory management===
One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing [[computer memory|memory]] and the objects that are stored in memory. C provides three distinct ways to allocate memory for objects:
* [[Static memory allocation]]: space for the object is provided in the binary at compile-time; these objects have an [[Variable#Scope and extent|extent]] (or lifetime) as long as the binary which contains them exists
* [[Automatic memory allocation]]: temporary objects can be stored on the [[stack (computing)|stack]], and this space is automatically freed and reusable after the block they are declared in is left
* [[Dynamic memory allocation]]: blocks of memory of any desired size can be requested at run-time using library functions such as <code>[[malloc|malloc()]]</code> from a region of memory called the [[dynamic memory allocation|heap]]; these blocks are reused after the library function <code>[[malloc|free()]]</code> is called on them
These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various tradeoffs. For example, static memory allocation has no allocation overhead, automatic allocation has a small amount of overhead during initialization, and dynamic memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation. On the other hand, stack space is typically much more limited than either static memory or heap space, and only dynamic memory allocation allows allocation of objects whose size is only known at run-time. Most C programs make extensive use of all three.
Where possible, automatic or static allocation is usually preferred because the storage is managed by the compiler, freeing the programmer of the error-prone hassle of manually allocating and releasing storage. Unfortunately, many data structures can grow in size at runtime; since automatic and static allocations must have a fixed size at compile-time, there are many situations in which dynamic allocation must be used. Variable-sized arrays are a common example of this (see "[[malloc]]" for an example of dynamically allocated arrays).
==Criticism==
Many beginning programmers have difficulty learning C's syntax and peculiarities. Enthusiasts contend that the language's unforgiving nature ''forces'' programmers to write better software by requiring them to carefully plan and implement their code.
A popular saying, repeated by such notable language designers as [[Bjarne Stroustrup]], is that "C makes it easy to shoot yourself in the foot" [http://www.research.att.com/~bs/bs_faq.html#really-say-that] In other words, C permits many operations that are generally not desirable, and thus many simple programmer errors are not detected by the compiler or even when they occur at runtime. This leads to programs with unpredictable behavior and security holes.
The designers wanted to avoid compile- and run-time checks that were too expensive when C was first implemented. Some checks were also relegated to external tools, such as those discussed in ''Compiler-external static-checking tools'' below. Nothing prevents an implementation from providing such checks, but nothing requires it to, either. The safe C dialect [[Cyclone programming language|Cyclone]] addresses some of these concerns.
===Memory allocation===
One issue to be aware of when using C is that automatically and dynamically allocated objects are not initialized; they initially have an indeterminate value (typically whatever value is present in the memory space they occupy, which might not even be a legal bitpattern for that type). This value is highly unpredictable and can vary between two machines, two program runs, or even two calls to the same function. If the program attempts to use such an uninitialized value, the results are undefined. Many modern compilers try to detect and warn about this problem, but both false positives and false negatives occur.
Another common problem is that heap memory has to be manually synchronized with its actual usage in any program for it to be correctly reused as much as possible. If the lifetime of the last pointer accessible by a live program variable ends (an auto pointer going out of scope, or being overwritten for example) and is referencing a particular allocation that is not freed via a call to <code>free()</code> then that memory cannot be recovered for later reuse and is essentially lost to the program. This is called a ''[[memory leak]]''. Conversely, it is possible to release memory too soon, and then continue to use it, but since the allocation system can re-allocate the memory at any time for unrelated reasons, this results in unpredictable behavior (typically in parts of the program that are different from where the erroneous operations actually occured). These issues in particular are ameliorated in languages with [[garbage collection (computer science)|automatic garbage collection]] or [[resource acquisition is initialization|RAII]].
===Pointers===
Pointers are a primary source of potential danger. Because they are typically unchecked, a pointer can be made to point to any arbitrary location (even within code), causing unpredictable effects. Although properly-used pointers point to safe places, they can be moved to unsafe places using pointer arithmetic; the memory they point to may be deallocated and reused ([[dangling pointer]]s); they may be uninitialized ([[wild pointer]]s); or they may be directly a |
?article=321 Why Does the Mossad Rely on Putin] AIA exclusive report.
*[http://www.axisglobe.com/article.asp?article=389 The Emissary of the Mossad in the heart of the Muslim East. The Conflict Which Didn't Happen]
*[http://www.axisglobe.com/article.asp?article=446 Russia as a Bridgehead of HAMAS]
[[Category:Israeli Security Forces]]
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[[Category:Intelligence agencies]]
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[[he:המוסד למודיעין ולתפקידים מיוחדים]]
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[[sv:Mossad]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hapworth 16, 1924</title>
<id>14268</id>
<revision>
<id>40455550</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T18:07:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Crasshopper</username>
<id>331972</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hapworth 16, 1924''' is the "youngest" of [[J.D. Salinger]]'s [[Glass Family]] stories, in the sense that the narrated events happen chronologically before all other Glass stories.
It is famous as the last work Salinger has published since it appeared in the [[June 19]], [[1965]] edition of ''[[The New Yorker]]''.
{{spoiler}}
It is in the form of letter from camp written by an (obviously precocious) seven-year-old [[Seymour Glass]] (the suicide of "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]").
In accordance with the wishes of the author, Orchises Press has now decided not to publish this work. While it is theoretically possible to look through [[archives]] of the ''New Yorker'' and find the story, few of these editions exist for public consumption due to the rarity of the Salinger story within. However, some clever people have found and reprinted its text online, including the following: http://www.geocities.com/deadcaulfields/stories/Hapworth_16_1924.txt.
{{story-stub}}
[[Category:Short stories]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hypnotic</title>
<id>14269</id>
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<id>36741725</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T03:42:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.19.134.45</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the debated psychological state, see [[Hypnosis]]''
'''Hypnotic''' drugs are a class of [[Psychoactive drug|drug]]s that induce [[sleep]], used in the treatment of severe [[insomnia]].
These drugs include [[barbiturate]]s, [[benzodiazepine]]s, [[zolpidem]], [[zopiclone]], [[eszopiclone]], [[chloral hydrate]], [[chlormethiazole]] or the [[antihistamine]]s [[doxylamine]], [[promethazine]], and [[diphenhydramine]]. [[Ethanol|Alcohol]] is often tried as a hypnotic drug but it is not particularly effective.
{{pharma-stub}}
[[Category:Hypnotics| ]]
[[fr:Hypnotique]]
[[pt:Hipnótico]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>High Fantasy</title>
<id>14272</id>
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<id>15911835</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[High fantasy]]
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<page>
<title>HMS Dunraven</title>
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<timestamp>2004-10-22T21:44:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lord Emsworth</username>
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</contributor>
<comment>proper name is "Royal Navy"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''HMS ''Dunraven''''' was a [[Q-Ship]] of the [[Royal Navy]] during [[World War I]].
On [[August 8]], [[1917]], 130 miles southwest of [[Ushant]] in the [[Bay of Biscay]], disguised as the collier ''Boverton'' and commanded by Captain Gordon Campbell V.C.,
''Dunraven'' spotted [[Unterseeboot 71|UC-71]], commanded by ''Oberleutnant zur See'' Reinhold Saltzwedel. Saltzwedel believed the disguised ship was a merchant vessel. The [[U-boat]] submerged and closed with ''Dunraven'' before surfacing
astern at 11:43 am and opening fire at long range. ''Dunraven'' made smoke and sent off a panic party (a small number of men who "abandon ship" during an attack to continue the impersonation of a merchant).
Shells began hitting ''Dunraven'', detonating her depth charges and setting her stern afire. Her crew remained hidden letting the fires burn. Then a 4 inch (102 mm) gun and crew were blown away revealing ''Dunraven'''s identity as a warship, and UC-71 submerged. A second "panic party" abandoned ship. ''Dunraven'' was hit by a torpedo. A third "panic party" went over the side, leaving only two guns manned. UC-71 surfaced, shelled ''Dunraven'' and again submerged. Campbell replied with two torpedoes that missed, and around 3 pm, the undamaged U-boat left that area.
Only one of ''Dunraven'''s crew was killed, but the Q-Ship was sinking.
British [[destroyer]] [[HMS Christopher|HMS ''Christopher'']] picked up ''Dunraven'''s survivors and took her in tow for [[Plymouth]], but ''Dunraven'' sank at 1:30 am early on [[August 10]], [[1917]] to the north of Ushant. Two [[Victoria Cross]]es were awarded by ballot, one to the ship's First Lieutenant, Lt. Charles George Bonner RNR, and the other to a 4 inch (102 mm) gunlayer, Petty Officer Ernest Herbert Pitcher.
Captain Campbell later wrote:
:"It had been a fair and honest fight, and I lost it. Referring to my crew, words cannot express what I am feeling. No one let me down. No one could have done better."
Captain Campbell had been previously awarded the Victoria Cross, in February [[1917]], for the sinking of [[Unterseeboot 83|U-83]].
=== General Characteristics ===
* Displacement: 3,100 tons
* Armament: 1 4 in (102 mm), 4 12 pounder (5 kg), 2 14 in (356 mm) torpedo tubes
* Built [[1910]]
[[Category:Royal Navy ships|Dunraven]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hacker ethic</title>
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<username>Batmanand</username>
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<minor />
<comment>removed "- -"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In modern parlance, the '''[[hacker]] ethic''' is either:
* the belief that information-sharing is a powerful positive good, and that it is an ethical duty of hackers to share their expertise by writing [[free software]] and facilitating access to information and computing resources wherever possible; and/or
* the belief that system cracking for fun and exploration is ethically acceptable as long as the hacker commits no [[theft]], [[vandalism]], or breach of [[confidentiality]].
Both of these normative ethical principles are widely, but by no means universally, accepted among hackers. The first, and arguably the second, emerged from the [[MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]] during the [[1960s|'60s]] and [[1970s|'70s]].
Most hackers subscribe to the hacker ethic in the first sense, and many act on it by writing [[free software]], giving the user permission to study, modify, and redistribute it. A few, such as the [[Free Software Foundation]], go further and assert that it is immoral to prevent computer users from sharing or altering software, as is typical with [[proprietary software]].
The second sense is more controversial: some people consider the act of cracking afoul of the government itself to be unethical, like [[breaking and entering]] into an office. But the belief that 'ethical' cracking excludes destruction at least moderates the behavior of people who see themselves as 'benign' crackers (see also [[samurai (hacking)|samurai]], [[grey hat]]). On this view, it may be one of the highest forms of hacker courtesy to (a) break into a system, and then (b) explain to the [[SysOp]], preferably by email from a [[superuser]] account, exactly how it was done and how the [[Software security vulnerability|hole]] can be plugged; effectively acting as an unpaid (and unsolicited) [[tiger team]].
The most reliable manifestation of either version of the hacker ethic is that almost all hackers are actively willing to share technical tricks, software, and (where possible) computing resources with other hackers. Huge cooperative networks such as [[Usenet]], [[FidoNet]] and the [[Internet]] itself can function without central control because of this trait; they both rely on and reinforce a sense of [[community]] that may be hackerdom's most valuable intangible asset.
==Origins and history==
The term "hacker ethic" was coined by journalist [[Steven Levy]] and used for the first time in ''[[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution#Hacker ethic|Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]]'' ([[1984]]). In Levy's account of the hacker ethic is in large parts based on the values of the "old school" hackers at MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. Among these hackers were [[Richard Stallman|Richard M. Stallman]], whom Levy at the time called the last true hacker. The similarities between the Hacker Ethic and values existing in open scientific communities is, therefore, no coincidence.
In Levy's codification, the principles of the Hacker Ethic were:
* Access to computers—and anything which might teach you something about the way the world works—should be unlimited and total. Always yield to the Hands-on Imperative!
* All information should be free.
* Mistrust authority—promote decentralization.
* Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as [[academic degree|degrees]], [[ageing|age]], [[race]], or position.
* You can create [[art]] and beauty on a computer.
* Computers can change your life for the better.
Later in [[2001] |
spatial abilities to interact with the world on the left visual field. Some say that it is as if two separate minds now share the same skull, but both still represent themselves as a single "I" to the outside world.
The bilateral removal of the [[Centromedian nucleus]] (part of the Intra-laminar nucleus of the Thalamus) appears to abolish consciousness, causing coma, PVS, severe mutism and other features that mimic [[brain death]]. The centromedian nucleus is also one of the principal sites of action of general anaesthetics and anti-psychotic drugs.
Neurophysiological studies in awake, behaving monkeys performed by neuroscientists point to advanced cortical areas in prefrontal cortex and temporal lobes as carriers of neuronal correlates of consciousness. [[Christof Koch]] and [[Francis Crick]] argued that neuronal mechanisms of consciousness are intricately related to prefrontal cortex — the most advanced cortical area. Experimental work of Steven Wise, [[Mikhail Lebedev]] and their colleagues supports this view. They demonstrated that activity of prefrontal cortex neurons reflects illusory perceptions of movements of visual stimuli. Nikos Logothetis and colleagues made similar observations on visually responsive neurons in the temporal lobe. These neurons reflect the visual perception in the situation when conflicting visual images are presented to different eyes (i.e., bistable percepts during binocular rivalry). The studies of [[blindsight]] — vision without awareness after lesions to parts of the visual system such as the primary visual cortex — performed by Lawrence Weiskrantz and David P. Carey provided important insights on how conscious perception arises in the brain. In recent years the theory of two visual streams, vision for perception versus vision for action was developed by Melvyn Goodale, David Milner and others. According to this theory, visual perception arises as the result of processing of visual information by the ventral stream areas (located mostly in the temporal lobe), whereas the dorsal stream areas (located mostly in the parietal lobe) process visual information unconsciously. For example, quick catching of the ball would engage mostly the dorsal stream areas, and viewing a painting would be handled by the ventral stream. Overal, these studies show that conscious versus unconscious behaviors can be linked to specific brain areas and patterns of neuronal activation.
==Physical approaches==
Even at the dawn of Newtonian science, [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] and many others [[pre-established harmony|were suggesting]] physical theories of consciousness. Modern physical theories of consciousness can be divided into three types: theories to explain behaviour and access consciousness, theories to explain phenomenal consciousness and theories to explain the quantum mechanical (QM) [[Quantum mind]]. Theories that seek to explain behaviour are an everyday part of [[neuroscience]], some of these theories of access consciousness, such as [[Gerald Edelman | Edelman's theory]], contentiously identify phenomenal consciousness with reflex events in the brain. Theories that seek to explain phenomenal consciousness directly, such as [[Space-time theories of consciousness]] and [[Electromagnetic theories of consciousness]], have been available for almost a century, but have not as yet been confirmed by experiment. Theories that attempt to explain the QM measurement problem include [[Karl Pribram | Pribram]] and [[David Bohm| Bohm's]] [[Holonomic brain theory]], [[Stuart Hameroff | Hameroff]] and [[Roger Penrose | Penrose's]] [[Orch-OR| Orch-OR theory]], [[Spin-Mediated Consciousness Theory]] and the [[Many-minds interpretation]]. Some of these QM theories offer descriptions of phenomenal consciousness, as well as QM interpretations of access consciousness. None of the quantum mechanical theories has been confirmed by experiment, and there are philosophers who argue that QM has no bearing on consciousness.
There is also a concerted effort in the field of [[Artificial Intelligence]] to create digital computer programs that can [[Artificial consciousness | simulate consciousness]].
== Spiritual approaches ==
Spiritual approaches to consciousness involve the idea of [[altered state of consciousness | altered states of consciousness]] or [[religious experience]]. Changes in the state of consciousness or a religious experience can occur spontaneously or as a result of religious observance. It is also maintained by some religions and religious factions that the universe itself is consciousness.
In [[shamanism | shamanic]] practices, changes in states of consciousness are induced by activities that create [[trance]] states, such as [[drum|drumming]], [[dance|dancing]], [[fasting]], [[sensory deprivation]], exposure to extremes of temperature, or the use of psychoactive [[Psychoactive drug|drugs]]. The experience that occurs is interpreted as entering a real, but parallel, world. In many polytheistic religions a change in emotional state is often attributed to the action of a god, for instance love was ruled by [[Aphrodite]] and [[Eros]] in Ancient Greek [[polytheism]]. In [[Hinduism]] the change in state is induced by the practice of [[yoga]]. Yoga means "joining" and is intended to produce a state of oneness between the practitioner and the divine. In [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]], the change of state can occur as a result of prayer or as a religious experience.
The change in state of consciousness in Hinduism, [[Buddhism]], Christianity and Islam is reported to be quite similar. The pursuit of yoga and the Buddhist [[Vipassana jhanas| Jhanas]] involve feelings of oneness with the world that give rise to a state of rapture. This is also reported by those undergoing some forms of Christian (or Islamic) religious experience; for instance, James (1902) provides the following report:
<blockquote>
I cannot express it in any other way than to say that I did "lie down in the stream of life and let it flow over me." I gave up all fear of any impending disease; I was perfectly willing and obedient. There was no intellectual effort, or train of thought. My dominant idea was: "Behold the handmaid of the Lord: be it unto me even as thou wilt," and a perfect confidence that all would be well, that all was well. The creative life was flowing into me every instant, and I felt myself allied with the Infinite, in harmony, and full of the peace that passeth understanding. There was no place in my mind for a jarring body. I had no consciousness of time or space or persons, but only of love and happiness and faith.
</blockquote>
[[Meditation]] is used in some forms of yoga such as [[Raja Yoga]], [[Hatha Yoga]], [[Transcendental meditation]], the Buddhist Jhanas, the Buddhist Immaterial Jhanas (there are several versions of the jhanas in different types of Buddhism), in the practices of Christian monks and Islamic scholars such as [[Sufi]]s. Meditation can have a calming influence on practitioners, as well as changing the state of consciousness. Therevada Buddhism views the Jhanas and some yogic practices view the early stages of meditation as a preliminary "serenity meditation" in which it is demonstrated that states such as rapture are delusions, products of mind rather than the soul. In most types of Buddhism, serenity meditation is followed by a philosophical "insight meditation" that focuses on the idea that the universe is [[consciousness-only | consciousness only]], one that is perhaps indistinguishable from [[Monism]].
== Functions of consciousness ==
We generally agree that our fellow human beings are conscious, and that much simpler life forms, such as bacteria, are not. Many of us attribute consciousness to higher-order animals such as dolphins and primates; academic research is investigating the extent to which animals are conscious. This suggests the hypothesis that consciousness has co-evolved with life, which would require it to have some sort of added value. People have therefore looked for specific ''functions'' of consciousness. [[Bernard Baars]] (1997), for instance, states that &#8220;consciousness is a supremely functional adaptation&#8221; and suggests a variety of functions in which consciousness plays a role: prioritization of alternatives, problem solving, decision making, brain processes recruiting, action control, error detection, planning, learning, adaptation, context creation, and access to information. [[Antonio Damasio]] (1999) regards consciousness as part of an organism&#8217;s ''survival kit'', allowing planned rather than instinctual responses. He also points out that awareness of self allows a concern for one&#8217;s own survival, which increases the drive to survive, although how far consciousness is involved in behaviour is an actively debated issue. Many psychologists, such as radical [[behaviourism | behaviourists]], and many philosophers, such as those that support [[Gilbert Ryle | Ryle's]] approach, would maintain that behaviour can be explained by non-conscious processes akin to [[artificial intelligence]], and might consider consciousness to be [[epiphenomenalism | epiphenomenal]] or only weakly related to function.
== Tests of consciousness ==
As there is still not a clear definition of consciousness, no empirical tests currently exist to test consciousness as a whole. Some have even argued that empirical tests of consciousness are intrinsically impossible. However, some researchers have devised tests to detect what they feel are certain aspects of consciousness. A test similar to this was used in the novel ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep'' by [[Philip K. Dick]] to see if a person was a robot or an actual human. In the [[Ridley Scott]] movie ''[[Blade Runner]]'', which was inspired by that book, it is known as the "Voigt-Kampf" test, and tests the subject |
band refers to on every album as a powerful force which has spoken to them and is directly opposed to [[the Devil]]. In ICP's songs, the Dark Carnival often took the shape of a travelling carnival road-show, where instead of harmless entertainment, the clowns and rides serve up death and pain as punishment for the wicked.
[[Image:icp-the_riddlebox-cover-200.jpg|right|thumb|Cover of [[The Riddle Box]]]]
The title and theme for each Joker's Card revealed a different "persona" of the Dark Carnival, directing the listener to confront both the sins and mortality of the self and of the world, in the form of fables about the Jokers' purpose within the Carnival. For example, [[The Great Milenko]], a magician, represents the illusions which people may present themselves in order to justify their actions. [[The Amazing Jeckel Brothers]] appear upon one's death and juggle fireballs, one for every sin committed in one's life. Jack represents one's evil spirit while Jake represents one's good spirit. If Jake drops any one ball thrown to him by Jack, then the newly-departed is banished to Hell. This concept of inner-duality is expanded-upon in the Sixth Joker's Card.
===The Sixth Joker's Card===
As explained by Violent J: "There is one Sixth Joker's Card, but there are two versions." While the face of the Sixth Joker's Card was "The Wraith" (or simply [[Death (personification)|Death]]), The Wraith had two "exhibits" to present to all who will listen, ''[[The Wraith: Shangri-La]]'' (Heaven) and ''[[The Wraith: Hell's Pit]]'' (Hell). Each of The Wraith's exhibits was given its own album. It was up to each listener, ICP claimed, to decide which version of "The Wraith" is the correct one.
In November [[2002]], ten years after the first Joker's Card was released, in the final track of [[The Wraith: Shangri-La]], ICP revealed their big secret &mdash; that nearly all the songs they wrote were masked with [[subliminal message]]s that have been pointing to one thing: "Truth is, we follow [[God]], we've always been behind Him. The Carnival is God, and may all Juggalos find Him! We're not sorry if we tricked you. We don't care what happens now."
ICP's ultimate message to the world was that we all have a choice as to where we will spend our afterlife, and that choice is made with every right and wrong deed one does in one's life. The choice of preference between ''The Wraith: Shangri-La'' and ''The Wraith: Hell's Pit'' appears to be a metaphor for that decision.
== Fan base and criticism ==
Fans of ICP are called [[Juggalo]]s (although Juggalo is not a gender based word, female fans are sometimes called Juggalettes to avoid some confusion, i.e. Two juggalos got married) and a [[Juggaho]] is a poser trying to act like a Juggalo. This derived from one of Violent J's habits, which is constantly inventing strange names and personas for himself in their songs. One of these personalities is "The Juggla", a psychotic carnival juggler, and somehow the fans came to be known as "Juggalos" in homage. Even more common is the sight of Juggalos painting their faces in clownface, the unofficial Juggalo badge.
ICP have been voted the worst band of any genre of music in various [[magazine]] polls including [[Spin Magazine|Spin]] and [[Rolling Stone]]. This has not discouraged the group, and they repeatedly state they do not care what music critics think of their work. In return, Spin, Rolling Stone, and [[Vibe]] have been singled out for mockery in several ICP raps.
. In an interview in PBS's Frontline documentary series, [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/cool/ Merchants of Cool],[[Violent J]] stated:
:"Everybody that likes our music feels a super connection. [...] they feel so connected to it because it's &mdash; it's exclusively theirs. See, when something's on the radio, it's for everybody, you know what I mean? It's everybody's song. 'Oh, this is my song.' That ain't your song. It's on the radio. It's everybody's song. But to listen to ICP, you feel like you're the only one that knows about it." " icp is the closest thing some of my friends have known to family, it's like a getaway from reality, whenever your feeling low just throw on your headphones and let the music take you.... it's not about all the killing and violence, that just makes them different from all the other mainstream groups."
On [[February 1]], [[2006]], self-described Juggalo [[Jacob D. Robida]] attacked people in a gay bar with a handgun and a [[hatchet]], a weapon featured on the logo of ICP's record label, Psychopathic Records. Mr. Robida wore a swastika tattoo and flaunted [[nazism|Nazi]] insignia and paraphernalia on his website, and was a former teen cadet in the Junior Police Academy. [http://news.bostonherald.com/localRegional/view.bg?articleid=124233] On [[February 5]], he killed a traffic officer at a routine stop. When police stopped him, he killed the passenger in the car and opened fire on the police. He shot himself with the same gun used in the bar shooting during the standoff. [http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Manhunt_on_for_gay_bar_attacker_in_Massachusetts]
On [[February 7]], [[2006]], Insane Clown Posse released a statement on the Robida attacks. [http://www.insaneclownposse.com/page.php?page_id=icp_news] <!-- Note that this link is not permanent and I can't figure out how to link to their news archive, so it won't last long. Best I could do. --> Alex Abbiss, ICP's manager, extended ICP's condolences and prayers to the families of the victims. "This guy had problems," said Abbiss, and "anyone going into a bar swinging an axe and shooting a gun ... would clearly have to be insane and out of their mind to do this." He went on, "it's quite obvious that this guy had no clue what being a Juggalo is all about. If anyone knows anything at all about ICP, then you know that they have never, ever been down or will be down with any racist or bigotry bull****." (This was in reference to ICP's long-standing mockery and contempt for racists in their song lyrics). Abbiss claimed ICP was being scapegoated by the media.
== Professional wrestling ==
The Insane Clown Posse have long been involved in [[professional wrestling]]. In [[1998]] they were brought in by the then [[World Wrestling Federation]], now known as the WWE, in a musical role for the stable The Oddities, a group of freak wrestlers led by Golga, a masked [[John Tenta]], formerly known as Earthquake. ICP entered [[World Championship Wrestling|WCW]] in [[1999]] and teamed with wrestler [[Ian Hodgkinson|Vampiro]], forming the group the Dead pool along with [[Raven]]. It was the first time fans saw ICP in a nationwide wrestling role, making their debut with a [[run-in (professional wrestling)|run-in]] on [[Oscar Gutierrez|Rey Mysterio]] and [[Konnan]]. One of their more infamous moments in WCW was a handicap hardcore match against [[Mike Alfonso|Mike Awesome]] (using the That 70s Guy moniker) where in a spot gone wrong Shaggy 2 Dope was [[powerbomb]]ed on top of the "70's Bus" and slid off the side falling to the ground below. They also run their own independent promotion, JCW or [[Juggalo Championshit Wrestling]]. JCW was modeled after the [[backyard wrestling]] of Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope's youth, as well as the Japanese hardcore wrestling matches featured in bootleg-style videos released by ICP. They are also main characters in the video game series ''Backyard Wrestling'' by [[Eidos Interactive|Eidos]] for the [[Microsoft Xbox]] and [[Sony]] [[PlayStation 2]]. ICP was also in [[Extreme Championship Wrestling]], [[Xtreme Pro Wrestling]], and [[Total Nonstop Action Wrestling]].
ICP are also involved in TNA's first ever house show in Plymoth, Michigan were they will help to heavily promote the event, as well as wrestling in it.
=== Signature moves ===
*Shaggy 2 Dope = [[Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Diving leg drop|'''''Triple Lindy From The Rafters''''' (Top Rope Leg Drop)]]
*Violent J = [[Moonsault|'''''720 Moonflip''''' (Moonsault)]]
== Discography ==
*The Pre-ICP Days
#''Party at the Top of the Hill'' (1989 &mdash; single) * [[The JJ Boys]]
#''Southwest Song'' (1989? &mdash; single) * [[The JJ Boys]]
#''Enter the Ghetto Zone'' (1990 &mdash; LP) * [[Violent J]]
#''Ghetto Territory'' (1990 &mdash; LP) * [[Inner City Posse]]
#''[[Intelligence and Violence]]'' (1990 &mdash; EP) * [[Violent J]] and [[D-Lyrical]]
#''[[Bass-ment Cuts]]'' (1991 &mdash; LP) * [[Inner City Posse]]
#''[[Dog Beats]]'' (1991 &mdash; EP) * [[Inner City Posse]]
#''Gangsta Codes'' (1992 &mdash; unreleased, became Carnival of Carnage) * [[Inner City Posse]]
*Insane Clown Posse &mdash; The Joker Card albums
#''[[Carnival of Carnage]]'' (1992)
#''[[The Ringmaster]]'' (1994)
#''[[The Riddlebox]]'' (1995)
#''[[The Great Milenko]]'' (1997) (Hollywood Records (Disney))
#''[[The Great Milenko]]'' (1998) (Island Records)
#''[[The Amazing Jeckel Brothers]]'' (1999)
#''[[The Wraith: Shangri-La]]'' (with bonus DVD of live concert) (2002)
#''[[The Wraith: Shangri-La]]'' (with bonus DVD of [[Gathering of the Juggalos|Gathering]] seminar) (2002)
#''[[The Wraith: Hell's Pit]]'' (with bonus DVD of the Bowling Balls video) (2004)
#''[[The Wraith: Hell's Pit]]'' (with bonus DVD containing Real Underground Baby and Bootlegged in Denver) (2004)
In the years between the fifth and sixth Joker's Cards, several sites announced the sixth as being "The Red Magician", even offering a track listing, featuring a wealth of otherwise unknown ICP tracks. Whether this was a hoax or an unreleased album is still unknown.
*Insane Clown Posse &mdash; The Side Shows / EPs
#''[[Beverly Kills 50187 EP]]'' (1993)
#''[[The Terror Wheel EP]]'' (1994)
#''[[Carnival X-Mas '94]]'' (1994)
#''[[Tunnel of Love EP]]'' (1996)
#''[[A Car |
both the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution. He was 70 years old when he signed the Declaration, and 81 when he signed the [[Constitution]].
Also in 1787, a group of prominent ministers in [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]] proposed the foundation of a new college to be named in Franklin's honor. Franklin donated £200 towards the development of Franklin College, which would later merge with Marshall College in 1853. It is now called [[Franklin and Marshall College]].
Between 1771 and 1788, he finished his [[autobiography]]. While it was at first addressed to his son, it was later completed for the benefit of mankind at the request of a friend.
In his later years, as Congress was forced to deal with the issue of slavery, Franklin wrote several essays that attempted to convince his readers of the importance of the abolition of slavery and of the integration of Africans into American society. These writings included:
*''[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Address_to_the_Public An Address to the Public from the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery]'', (1789)
*''[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Plan_for_Improving_the_Condition_of_the_Free_Blacks Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks]'' (1789), and
*''Sidi Mehemet Ibrahim on the Slave Trade'' [http://members.tripod.com/~american_almanac/ffslave.htm#ben](1790).
On [[February 11]], [[1790]], Quakers from New York and Pennsylvania presented their petition for abolition. Their argument against slavery was backed by the Pennsylvania Abolitionist Society and its president, Benjamin Franklin. Because of his involvement in abolition, its cause was greatly debated around the states, especially in the House of Representatives.
===Religious beliefs===
Franklin's parents had intended for him to have a career in the church. As a teenager, however, he became disillusioned with organized religion, after ''". . . Some books against Deism fell into my hands. . . It happened that they wrought an effect on me quite contrary to what was intended by them; for the arguments of the Deists, which were quoted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refutations; in short, I soon became a thorough Deist."''[http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm] He attacked Christian principles of free will and morality in a 1725 pamphlet, ''[[A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain]].''
Later in life Franklin would become more accommodating of the utilitarian function of Christianity. He paid his annual subscription to Philadelphia's Presbytarian minister in recognition of the church's service to the community. In a letter to [[Thomas Paine]], he wrote of his belief in the moral utility of faith: ''"If men are so wicked with religion, what would they be if without it."''[http://www.wallbuilders.com/resources/search/detail.php?ResourceID=93]
However, like most [[deists]], Franklin did not believe in an interventionist God, thinking it ''"great vanity in me to suppose that the Supremely Perfect does in the least regard such an inconsiderable nothing as man"''.[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_2_28/ai_114090213] He consistently attacked religious dogma and promoted tolerance, arguing that morality was dependant upon a person's actions rather than their religious beliefs: ''"I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me."''[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_2_28/ai_114090213/pg_2]
In contrast, it has been noted that Benjamin Franklin sometimes attended meetings with the [[Hellfire Club]] in England, which is widely believed to have been a Satanic group.
===Death and afterwards===
[[Image:Benjamin_Franklin_Memorial.jpg|right|thumb|165px|Memorial marble statue of Ben Franklin]]
Benjamin Franklin died on [[April 17]], [[1790]] at the extremely advanced age (for that time) of 84 (while weighing over 300 pounds), and was [[interred]] in [[Christ Church Burial Ground]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]].
At his death, Franklin [[bequest|bequeathed]] £1000 (about $4400 at the time) each to the cities of Boston and Philadelphia, in trust for 200 years. The origin of the trust began in 1785 when a French [[mathematician]] named Charles-Joseph Mathon de la Cour wrote a [[parody]] of Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanack called Fortunate Richard. In it he mocked the unbearable spirit of American optimism represented by Franklin. The Frenchman wrote a piece about Fortunate Richard leaving a small sum of money in his will to be used only after it had collected [[interest]] for 500 years. Franklin, who was 79 years old at the time, wrote back to the Frenchman, thanking him for a great idea and telling him that he had decided to leave a bequest of 1,000 pounds each to his native Boston and his adopted Philadelphia, on the condition that it be placed in a fund that would gather interest over a period of 200 years. As of 1990, over $2,000,000 had accumulated in Franklin's Philadelphia trust since his death. During the lifetime of the trust, Philadelphia used it for a variety of loan programs to local residents. From 1940 to 1990, the money was used mostly for mortgage loans. When the trust came due, Philadelphia decided to spend it on [[scholarships]] for local high school students. Franklin's Boston trust fund accumulated almost $5,000,000 during that same time, and eventually was used to establish a trade school that, over time, became the [[Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology|Franklin Institute of Boston]]. [http://www.mathsci.appstate.edu/~sjg/class/1010/wc/finance/franklin1.html (excerpt from Philadelphia Inquirer article by Clark De Leon)]
Franklin's likeness adorns the American [[U.S. hundred dollar bill|$100 bill]]. As a result, $100 bills are sometimes referred to in slang as "Benjamins" or "Franklins." From 1948 to 1964, Franklin's portrait was also on the [[Franklin half dollar|half dollar]]. He has also appeared on a $50 bill in the past, as well as several varieties of the $100 bill from 1914 and 1918, and every $100 bill from 1928 to the present. Franklin also appears on the $1,000 Series EE [[Treasury security#Savings bond|Savings bond]].
In 1976, as part of a [[United States Bicentennial|bicentennial]] celebration, Congress dedicated a 20-foot high marble statue in [[Philadelphia]]'s [[Franklin Institute]] as the [[Benjamin Franklin National Memorial]]. Many of Franklin's personal possessions are also on display at the Institute. It is one of the few National Memorials located on [[private property]].
In 1998, workmen restoring Franklin's London home ([[Benjamin Franklin House]]) dug up the remains of six children and four adults hidden below the home. ''[[The Times]]'' reported on [[February 11]], [[1998]]:
:Initial estimates are that the bones are about 200 years old and were buried at the time Franklin was living in the house, which was his home from 1757 to 1762, and from 1764 to 1775. Most of the bones show signs of having been dissected, sawn or cut. One skull has been drilled with several holes. Paul Knapman, the Westminster Coroner, said yesterday: "I cannot totally discount the possibility of a crime. There is still a possibility that I may have to hold an inquest."
The Friends of [[Benjamin Franklin House]] (the organization responsible for the restoration of Franklin's house at 36 Craven Street in London) note that the bones were likely placed there by William Hewson, a young surgeon who lived in the house for 2 years and who had built a small anatomy school at the back of the house. They note that while Franklin likely knew what Hewson was doing, he probably did not participate in any dissections because he was much more of a physicist than a medical man. Hewson ironically died of [[septicaemia]] on [[May 1]], [[1774]] which he contracted from cutting himself while dissecting a putrid corpse. [http://www.benjaminfranklinhouse.org/site/sections/news/pdf/Issue2.pdf]
==Franklin in popular culture==
*Benjamin Franklin is one of the main inventors of [[Gregory Keyes]]' ''[[Age of Unreason]]'' [[trilogy]].
*A fictionalized but somewhat accurate version of Franklin appears as a main character in the stage [[musical]] ''[[1776 (musical)|1776]]''. The film version of ''1776'' features [[Howard da Silva]], who originated the role of Franklin on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]].
*A young Benjamin Franklin appears in Neal Stephenson's novel of 17th century science and alchemy, ''[[Quicksilver (novel)|Quicksilver]]''.
*[[Walt Disney|Walt Disney's]] cartoon ''[[Ben and Me]]'' (1953), based on the book by [[Robert Lawson (author)|Robert Lawson]], counterfactually explains to children that Ben Franklin's achievements were actually the ideas of a mouse named Amos.
*Franklin surprisingly appears as a character in ''[[Tony Hawk's Underground 2]]'', a [[skateboarding]] [[video game]]. Players encounter Franklin in his hometown of Boston and are able to play as him thereafter.
*''Proud Destiny'' by [[Lion Feuchtwanger]], a novel mainly about [[Pierre Beaumarchais]] and Benjamin Franklin beginning in 1776's Paris.
*Ben Franklin appears in the [[LucasArts]] Entertainment Company Game ''[[Day of the Tentacle]]''.
*Benjamin Franklin is portrayed in a central role in the [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] cartoon ''[[Liberty's Kids]]'' voiced by [[Walter Cronkite]].
* The [[2004]] [[movie]], ''[[National Treasure]]'', has the main characters trying to collect clues left by Benjamin Franklin to discover a treasure that he supposedly hid. The character played by [[Nicolas Cage]] was named "Benjamin Franklin Gates", in following with the Gates family tradition to name sons after Frank |
p;nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other Asia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,509</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,236</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,591</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,895</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,260</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,054</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">864</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,231</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">377</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">63</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Africa</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,326</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16,126</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,992</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,538</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,207</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,204</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,657</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">526</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">551</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">65</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Africa excl. Atlantic Islands</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,859</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,781</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,992</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,538</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,207</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,204</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,657</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">526</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">551</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">65</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">66</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Atlantic Islands</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,467</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE=";1">10,345</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE=&quot;1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">66</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">67</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Oceania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">17,343</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,626</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,450</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,820</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,353</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,859</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,028</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,140</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">588</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">67</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">68</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Australia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,816</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,914</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,035</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,807</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,984</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,906</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,118</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,419</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">68</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">69</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sandwich Islands (Hawaii)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,304</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,147</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">584</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">435</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">588</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">69</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">70</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other Oceania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,527</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,712</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,415</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,013</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,065</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">806</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">326</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">286</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">70</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">71</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Latin America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">791,840</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">588,843</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">279,514</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">137,458</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">107,307</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">90,073</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57,871</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">38,315</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">20,773</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">71</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">72</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Caribbean</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">106,241</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">78,962</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">47,635</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">25,435</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">23,256</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16,401</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,570</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,353</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,772</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">72</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">73</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cuba</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,493</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,872</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15,133</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,081</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE= |
in the Earth at the [[Earth#The core|core]]-[[Earth#mantle|mantle]] boundary where it has a value of 10.7 m/s&sup2;.
===Comparative gravities of the Earth, Sun, Moon and planets===
The table below shows gravitational accelerations (in multiples of ''g'') ''at the'' surface of the Sun, the Earth's moon, and each of the planets in the solar system. The "surface" is taken to mean the cloud tops of the gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune). It is usually specified as the location where the pressure is equal to a certain value (normally 75 kPa?). For the Sun, the "surface" is taken to mean the [[photosphere]].
{| style="text-align: left;" class="wikitable"
| width="80px"|[[Sun]]
| width="40px"| 27.9
|-
| [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]
| 0.37
|-
| [[Venus (planet)|Venus]]
| 0.88
|-
| [[Earth (planet)|Earth]]
| 1.00 (by definition)
|-
| [[Moon]]
| 0.16
|-
| [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]
| 0.38
|-
| [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]
| 2.64
|-
| [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]
| 1.15
|-
| [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]]
| 0.93
|-
| [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]]
| 1.22
|-
| [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]]
| 0.06
|}
For spherical bodies, surface gravity in m/s<sup>2</sup> is 2.8 &times; 10<sup>&minus;10</sup> times the radius in metres times the average density in kg/m<sup>3</sup> (kilograms per cubic metre).
When flying from Earth to Mars, climbing against the field of the Earth at the start is 100 000 times heavier than climbing against the force of the sun for the rest of the flight.
==Mathematical equations for a falling body==
The equations below describe a value of the force pulling down a falling body, assuming that the acceleration due to gravity is a constant, ''[[gee|g]]'' (in which case Newton's law of gravitation simplifies to ''F'' = ''mg'' where m is the mass of the body). This assumption is reasonable for objects falling to earth over the relatively short vertical distances of our everyday experience, but is very much untrue over larger distances (such as spacecraft trajectories).
[[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] was the first to demonstrate and then formulate these equations. He used a [[ramp]] to study rolling balls, the ramp slowing the acceleration enough to measure the time taken for the ball to roll a known distance. He measured elapsed time with a [[water clock]], using an "extremely accurate balance" to measure the amount of water{{fn|2}}.
The equations ignore air resistance, which has a dramatic effect on objects falling an appreciable distance in air, causing them to quickly approach a [[terminal velocity]]. For example, a person jumping headfirst from an airplane will never exceed a speed of about 200 mph due to air resistance. The effect of air resistance varies enormously depending on the size and geometry of the falling object &ndash; for example, the equations are hopelessly wrong for a feather, which has a low mass but offers a large resistance to the air. (In the absence of an atmosphere all objects fall at the same rate, as astronaut [[David Scott]] demonstrated by dropping a hammer and a feather on the surface of the [[Moon]].)
The equations also ignore the rotation of the Earth, failing to describe the [[Coriolis effect]] for example. Nevertheless, they are usually accurate enough for dense and compact objects falling over heights not exceeding the tallest man-made structures.
Near the surface of the Earth, use '''''g'' = 9.8 m/s<sup>2</sup>''' (metres per second per second), approximately. For other planets, multiply ''g'' by the appropriate [[#Comparative gravities of the Earth, Sun, Moon and planets|scaling factor]]. It is essential to use consistent units for ''g'', ''d'', ''t'' and ''v''. Assuming [[SI units]], ''g'' is measured in metres per second per second, so ''d'' must be measured in metres, ''t'' in seconds and ''v'' in metres per second. To convert metres per second to kilometres per hour (km/h) multiply by 3.6. In all cases the body is assumed to start from rest.
{|cellspacing="10px"
|-
|style="width:40%"|Distance ''d'' travelled by an object falling for time ''t'':
|style="width:60%"|<math>\ d=\frac{1}{2}gt^2 </math><br>
|-valign="top"
||Time ''t'' taken for an object to fall distance ''d'':
||<math>\ t =\frac{ \sqrt {2gd}}{g} \ </math><br>
|-
||Instantaneous velocity ''v<sub>i</sub>'' of a falling object after elapsed&nbsp;time ''t'':
||<math>\ v_i = gt </math>
|-
||Instantaneous velocity ''v<sub>i</sub>'' of a falling object that has travelled distance ''d'':
|| <math>\ v_i = \sqrt {2gd}\ </math><br>
|-
||Average velocity ''v<sub>a</sub>'' of an object that has been falling&nbsp;for time ''t'' (averaged over time):
||<math>\ v_a =\frac{1}{2}gt </math><br>
|-
||Average velocity ''v<sub>a</sub>'' of a falling object that has travelled distance ''d'' (averaged over time):
||<math>\ v_a =\frac{ \sqrt {2gd}}{2} \ </math><br>
|-
|}
'''Example:''' the first equation shows that, after one second, an object will have fallen a distance of 1/2 &times; 9.8 &times; 1<sup>2</sup> = 4.9 meters. After two seconds it will have fallen 1/2 &times; 9.8 &times; 2<sup>2</sup> = 19.6 metres; and so on.
===Gravitational potential===
For any mass distribution there is a [[scalar field]], the gravitational [[potential]] (a [[scalar potential]]), which is the [[Potential energy#Gravitational potential energy|gravitational potential energy]] per unit mass of a point mass, as function of position. It is
<math>- G \int{1 \over r} dm</math>
where the integral is taken over all mass.
Minus its [[gradient]] is the gravity field itself, and minus its [[Laplace operator|Laplacian]] is the [[divergence]] of the gravity field, which is everywhere equal to -4&pi;''G'' times the local density.
Thus when outside masses the potential satisfies [[Laplace's equation]] (i.e., the potential is a [[harmonic function]]), and when inside masses the potential satisfies [[Poisson's equation]] with, as right-hand side, 4&pi;''G'' times the local density.
=== Acceleration relative to the rotating Earth ===
The acceleration measured on the rotating surface of the Earth is not quite the same as the acceleration that is measured for a free-falling body because of the [[centrifugal force]]. In other words, the apparent acceleration in the rotating frame of reference is the total gravity vector minus a small vector toward the north-south axis of the Earth, corresponding to staying stationary in that frame of reference.
==Gravity and astronomy==
:''"I deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their orbs must be reciprocally as the squares of their distances from the centres about which they revolve, and thereby compared the force requisite to keep the moon in her orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the earth and found them to answer pretty nearly."'' -- Isaac Newton, 1666
So Newton's original formula was:
:<math>{\rm Force\,of\,gravity} \propto \frac{\rm mass\,of\,object\,1\,\times\,mass\,of\,object\,2}{\rm distance\,from\,centers^2}</math>
where the symbol <math>\propto</math> means "is proportional to".
To make this into an equal-sided formula or equation, there needed to be a multiplying factor or constant that would give the correct force of gravity no matter the value of the masses or distance between them. This [[gravitational constant]] was discovered in 1797 by [[Henry Cavendish]].
Thus the discovery and application of Newton's law of gravity accounts for the detailed information we have about the planets in our solar system, the mass of the sun, the distance to stars and even the theory of [[dark matter]]. Although we haven't traveled to all the planets nor to the sun, we know their mass. This is through the study of the law of gravity.
In space everything is in an orbit around some massive object. They maintain [[orbit]] because of the force of gravity between them. Planets orbit stars, stars orbit [[galactic center]]s, [[galaxy]]s orbit a center of mass in clusters, and clusters orbit in [[supercluster]]s.
By watching how the position of a planet changes with respect to earth over the course of a year, we can determine by using geometry how far that planet is from the sun compared to how far the earth is, thus getting the distance from that planet to the sun. [[Copernicus]] calculated the distances of the inner planets and Kepler noticed a relation between them and their orbits. When Newton formulated his law of gravity, he generalized [[Kepler's third law]] to show that the masses of the sun and the planets were involved in the calculation. From Newton's law of gravity, science calculated the mass of the sun basically using Kepler's third law that the [[sidereal period]] of an object in orbit around another object cubed is equal to the distance between them, the radius, squared, in conjunction with Newton's law of gravity applying the product of the masses.
From this calculation using Newton's law of gravity any two orbiting objects in the universe could be compared and their masses could be calculated. Where the sidereal period is known then the [[centripetal acceleration]] is known given the distance between the objects. Therefore, from a known velocity of an astronomical object orbiting around another astronomical object and from the known distance between them, you can calculate the masses of the objects. This is all due to the law of gravity where the force between objects is proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the distance between them.
[[Image:Albireo.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Albireo]], [[binary star]] system. ]]
|
ican immigrants, children of immigrants, with American citizenship, but these groups tend to use the ethnic terms ''Latino'' or ''Hispanic'', or identify themselves by their countries of origin (i.e., as [[Dominican Republic|Dominican]] or [[Jamaican]] instead of African American). The term does not include white, Indian or Arab immigrants from the African continent, as they are not generally considered 'Africans'. Racial identification has always been somewhat arbitary, depending less on ancestry and more on community membership. Thus large numbers of African Americans "passed" into the white community and they and their descendants are not considered African American. The father of Senator [[Barak Obama]] was a man from Kenya, his mother was of European descent; he was raised in Hawaii and Indonesia and eventually chose to identify with the African American community, and has become an important leader. Many other political leaders, especially in New York City, are descended from West Indians, including [[Colin Powell]] and [[Shirley Chisholm]]. [[Walter White]], longtime NAACP leader, appeared white, a point he emphasized in his autobiography ''A Man Called White'' (p. 3): "I am a Negro. My skin is white, my eyes are blue, my hair is blond. The traits of my race are nowhere visible upon me."[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0820316989&id=bbMKSGD_TpUC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=Walter+White+NAACP&sig=LIfEA99_uvt-pOy5yXKb1Q2Ey-s]
In some contexts, the term ''African American'' has been used to refer to people such as the [[black Loyalist]]s who never gave their allegance to the USA - in this context "American" refers to the American continents.
==Current Demographics==
[[Image:USA 2000 black density.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Population density of African Americans in 2000]]
According to [[2003]] U.S. [[Census]] figures, some 37.1 million African Americans live in the United States, comprising 12.9 percent of the total population. At the time of the [[2000]] Census, 54.8 percent of African Americans lived in the [[Southern United States|South]]. In that year, 17.6 percent of African Americans lived in the Northeast and 18.7 percent in the Midwest, while only 8.9 percent lived in the western states. Almost 88 percent of African Americans lived in metropolitan areas in 2000. With over 2 million black residents, [[New York City]] had the largest black urban population in the United States in 2000. Among cities of 100,000 or more, [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]], [[Indiana]], had the highest percentage of black residents of any U.S. city in 2000, with 85 percent, followed closely by [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Michigan]], with 83 percent. [[Atlanta, Georgia]], has a large African-American population of about 65 percent. The nation's capital, [[Washington, D.C.]], had a 60 percent black population.
<BR clear=left>
==African American history==
''Main article: [[African American history]]''
Blacks in America, like their White counterparts, are composed of many diverse ethnic groups. Over 40 identifiable ethnic groups from 25 different kingdoms were sold to the United States during the Atlantic Slave trade. These people came from an area spanning from present day [[Senegal]] all the way to [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] as well as the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[colonies]] of [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]]. Over time, Africans in America formed a new and common identity focused on their mutual condition in America as opposed to cultural and historic ties to Africa. Africans were sold and traded into bondage and shipped to the American South from [[1619]]. In [[1807]], the importation of slaves by U.S. citizens became illegal, yet the practice continued. By [[1860]], there were 3.5 million enslaved Africans in the [[Southern United States]], and another 500,000 Africans lived free across the country. [[Slavery]] was a controversial issue in American society and politics. The growth of [[abolitionism]], which opposed the institution of slavery, culminated in the [[1860]] election of [[Abraham Lincoln]] as [[President of the United States]], and was one reason for the secession of the [[Confederate States of America]], which lead to the [[American Civil War]] ([[1861]] - [[1865]]).
The [[Emancipation Proclamation]] of [[1863]] declared all slaves in the Confederacy free under U.S. law. It did not, however, apply to people enslaved in territories that were still in the Union, and thus did not immediately free a single enslaved person, since U.S. law held no sway over the Confederacy at the time. The [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], ratified in 1865, freed all enslaved people, including those in states that had not seceded. During [[Reconstruction]], African Americans in the South obtained the right to vote and to hold public office, as well as a number of other civil rights they previously had been denied. However, when [[Reconstruction]] ended in [[1877]], southern, European American landowners reinstituted a regime of [[Disenfranchising|disenfranchisement]] and [[racial segregation]], and with it a wave of terrorism and repression, including [[lynchings]] and other [[vigilante]] violence.
The desperate conditions of African Americans in the South that sparked the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] of the early [[20th century]], combined with a growing African American intellectual and cultural elite in the [[Northern United States]], led to a movement to fight violence and [[discrimination]] against African Americans that, like [[abolitionism]] before it, crossed racial lines. One of the most prominent of these groups, the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People|NAACP]], galvanized by outspoken journalist and activist [[Ida B. Wells Barnett]], led an anti-lynching crusade. In the 1950s, the organization mounted a series of calculated legal challenges to overturn [[Jim Crow]] segregation, culminating in the landmark ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]] of Topeka, Kansas'' decision.
The [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]]'s decision in ''Brown v. Board'' was one of defining moments of the modern-day [[Civil Rights Movement]]. It was part of a long-term strategy to strike down Jim Crow segregation in public education, the hospitality industry, public transportation, employment and housing, granting equal access to African Americans and ensuring their right to vote. The movement reached its peak in the [[1960s]] under leaders such as Dr. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], [[Whitney Young]], and [[Roy Wilkins]], Sr. At the same time, [[Nation of Islam]] spokesman [[Malcolm X]] and, later, [[Stokely Carmichael]], the [[Black Panther Party]], and the [[Republic of New Africa]] called for African Americans to embrace [[black nationalism]] and black self-empowerment, propounding ideas of African (black) unity and solidarity and [[pan-Africanism]].
==Contemporary issues==
{{NPOV-section}}
{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
''Main article: [[African American contemporary issues]]''
African Americans significantly have improved their social and economic standing since the [[Civil Rights Movement]], and recent [[decade]]s have witnessed the expansion of a robust, African American [[middle class]] across the United States. African Americans as a group remain at a pronounced economic, educational, and social disadvantage relative to whites. Economically, the median income of African Americans is roughly 55 percent of that of European Americans{{fact}}. Persistent social, economic, and political issues for many African Americans include inadequate [[health care]] access and delivery; housing{{fact}}, [[education]], policing, [[criminal justice]] and [[employment]]; [[crime]]; [[poverty]]; and [[substance abuse]]. They are also more likely to be [[prison|incarcerated]]. African Americans also have higher prevalence of some chronic [[health]] conditions and out-of-wedlock births relative to the general population. These problems and potential remedies have been the subject of intense [[public policy]] debate in the United States in general, and within the African American community in particular.
==Culture==
''Main article: [[African American culture]]''
African American culture is an amalgam of influences, including [[African]], [[Caribbean]], [[European]], and [[Latino]] cultures. From its music and dance, to speech, demeanor, and foodways, African American culture bears the strong imprint of West Africa, particularly in rural portions of the [[Deep South]] and [[Sea Islands]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[South Carolina]].
[[African American music]] is one of the most pervasive African American cultural influences in the United States today. [[Hip hop music|Hip hop]], [[Rock music|rock]], [[R&B]], [[funk]], and other contemporary American musical forms evolved from [[blues]], [[jazz]], and [[gospel music]]. [[African American Vernacular English]] (AAVE) is a dialect of English spoken by many African Americans to varying degrees.
Many African American authors have written stories, poems, and essays influenced by their experiences as African Americans, and [[African American literature]] is a major genre in American literature. Famous examples include [[Langston Hughes]], [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], [[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]], [[Zora Neale Hurston]], [[Ralph Ellison]], [[Toni Morrison]], and [[Maya Angelou]].
==The term ''African American''==
===Political overtones===
The term ''African American'' carries important political overtones. Previous terms used to identify Americans of African ancestry were conferred upon the group by whites and were included in the wording of various laws and legal decisions which became tools of white supremacy and oppression. There developed among blacks in America a growing desire for a term of their ow |
Frost Monstreme"
:"The Terror from the Depths"
;1977
:"The Princess in the Tower 250,000 Miles High"
:"A Rite of Spring"
:"Sea Magic"
;1978
:"Black Glass"
:"The Mer She"
;1979
:"The Button Molder"
:"The Man Who Was Married to Space and Time"
;1981
:"The Great San Francisco Glacier"
;1982
:"Horrible Imaginings"
:"The Moon Porthole"
;1983
:"The Cat Hotel"
:"The Curse of the Smalls and the Stars"
;1984
:"Black Has Its Charms"
:"The Ghost Light"
==Trivia==
*''The Big Time'' contains an apparent numerical typo; in one chapter-head quotation it is stated that 100,000 metres equals 5.6 miles. Not one American or British editor has ever corrected this.
*Leiber is often mispronounced as "Leeber"; the correct pronunciation is "Lyber".
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.lankhmar.demon.co.uk/ Lankhmar - The Fritz Leiber Home Page]
* {{isfdb name|id=Fritz_Leiber|name=Fritz Leiber}}
<br clear=all>
----
'''Fritz Reuter Leiber Sr.''' ([[January 31]], [[1882]] - [[October 14]], [[1949]]), was an American actor, father of the author.
Leiber Sr. was a noted Shakespearean actor on stage and also in [[Hollywood]] from [[1916]] to his death.
[[Category:1910 births|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:1992 deaths|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:American horror writers|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:California writers|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Leiber]]
[[bg:Фриц Лейбър]]
[[et:Fritz Leiber]]
[[fr:Fritz Leiber]]
[[nl:Fritz Leiber (schrijver)]]
[[ja:フリッツ・ライバー]]
[[pl:Fritz Leiber]]
[[ru:Лейбер, Фриц]]
[[sv:Fritz Leiber]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fantasy fiction</title>
<id>10876</id>
<revision>
<id>34787407</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T19:13:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BPK2</username>
<id>476225</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[Fantasy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flanders</title>
<id>10878</id>
<revision>
<id>41839083</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:59:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>OrphanBot</username>
<id>621721</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing image with no copyright information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|1=the [[Belgium|Belgian]] region Flanders and the eponymous historical region of the [[Low Countries]].|2=other uses|3=Flanders (disambiguation)}}
{| class="infobox bordered" cellpadding="4" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%;"
|+ style="margin-left: inherit; font-size: medium;" | '''Vlaanderen'''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Vlagvlaanderengroot.png|150px]]
|-
| align="center" style="background:#ffffff; border: none;" | [[Image:Vlaams GewestLocatie.png|135px]]<br /><small>[[Flemish Region|The Flemish Region]]</small>
| align="center" style="background:#ffffff; border: none;" | [[Image:Vlaamse GemeenschapLocatie.png|135px]]<br /><small>[[Flemish Community|The Flemish Community]]</small>
|-
| [[Official language]]
| [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
|-
| [[Capital]]
| [[Brussels]]
|-
| [[List of Minister-Presidents of Flanders|Minister-President]]
| [[Yves Leterme]]
|-
| [[Area]]<br/>&nbsp;– Total
| <br />13,522 km²
|-
| [[Population]]<br />&nbsp;– In Flemish region <br /> &nbsp;– in Brussels region
| <br />6,043,161 ([[2005]]) <br /> ca. 200,000 <br /> 442/km²
|-
| [[National anthem|Regional anthem]]
| [[De Vlaamse Leeuw]]
|}
'''Flanders (Flemish, Fleming)''' ([[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Vlaanderen (Vlaams, Vlaming)'') has two main designations:
* a geographical region in the north of Belgium, corresponding to the [[Flemish Region]], a consituent part of the federal Belgian state.
* a constituent community of the federal Belgian state through its social and political organizations, and through the institutions of the [[Flemish Community]] (with its own [[government|Flemish government]] and [[Parliament|Flemish parliament]]) and the [[Flemish Region]];
The precise geographical area denominated by Flanders has changed a great deal over the centuries.
In the [[Middle Ages]], the term Flanders was applied to an area in western [[Europe]], the [[County of Flanders]], spread over:
* a part of what is now the [[Nord]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' ([[Nord-Pas de Calais]]), in north-eastern [[France]], sometimes called [[French Flanders]]
* the area that is now approximately the Flemish provinces of [[East Flanders]] and [[West Flanders]]
* a part of what is now [[Zeeland]] in south-western [[Netherlands]], called [[Zeeuws-Vlaanderen]].
The significance of the County and its [[Count of Flanders|counts]] eroded through time, but the designation remained in a very broad sense. In the [[Early Modern]], the term Flanders was associated to the southern part of the Low Countries, the [[Southern Netherlands]]. The term Walloon Flanders corresponds to the French-speaking Flemish region around [[Mons]]. In [[history of art]], the adjectives Flemish, Dutch and Netherlandish are commonly used to designate all the artistic production in this region. For examples, ''Flemish Primitives'' is synonym for ''[[early Netherlandish painting]]'', ''Franco-Flemish School'' for ''[[Dutch School (music)|Dutch School]]'', and it is not uncommon to see [[Mosan art]] categorized as Flemish art.
==Flanders in Belgium==
Sometime in the [[19th century]] it became commonplace to call the area now known as Flanders, from [[Maasmechelen]] to [[De Panne]] as "Flanders", including parts of the [[Duchy of Brabant]] and the [[Bishopric of Liège]] ([[Belgian Limburg]]). This usage started to find its modern usage in a "disambiguation" of the northern part of Belgium (''la partie septentrionale''), from [[1831]], the establishment of the Belgian monarchy, on.
At this time, for most, the term Flanders is normally taken to refer to either the political, social, cultural and linguistic community (and the corresponding official institution, the [[Flemish Community]]), or the geographical area, one of the three regions in Belgium, namely the [[Flemish Region]].
===Institutional Flanders===
Both the [[Flemish Community]] as the [[Flemish region]] are federal units of the Kingdom of Belgium. Institutionally, it is the [[Flemish Community|Community]]+[[Flemish Region|Region]] has its own parliament and government, whereas the region has nearly no proper institutions any more, as it was absorbed by the community.
The area of the Flemish Community is represented on the maps above plus the area of the Brussels region (seen as a white hole on the same map). Roughly, the Flemish Community is responsible for all cultural issues as education, culture, language, sports, ...
The area of the Flemish region is represented on the maps above. The Flemish Region has a population of around 6 million (excluding the Dutch-speaking community in the [[Brussels Capital region]], which is not a part of the Flemish region). Roughly, the Flemish Region is responsible for all economic issues.
The number of Dutch-speaking [[Flemings]] in [[Brussels]] (region) is estimated to be between 7.5% and 15% (official figures do not exist as there is no language census and no official subnationality). They are under the rule of the Brussels Region for economics affairs and under the rule of the Flemish Community for educational and cultural issues.
As of [[2005]], the Flemish institutions as its government, parliament, etc. represent the Flemish Community and the Flemish region. The region and the community thus de facto share the same parliament and the same government. All these institutions are based in Brussels. Nevertheless, both bodies (the community and the region) are still existing and the distinction between both is important for the people living in Brussels. Members of the flemish parliament who were elected in Brussels region cannot vote on flemish regional affairs.
The [[official language]] for all Flemish institutions is [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. French enjoys a limited official recognition in a few municipalities along the border with French-speaking [[Wallonia]] and the bilingual Brussels Region.
[[Image:FlandersProvinces.png|right|Provinces of Flanders]]
The Flemish Region covers 13,522 km² and contains over 300 municipalities.
It is divided into 5 [[communities, regions and provinces of Belgium|province]]s:
# [[Antwerp (province)|Antwerp]] (''Antwerpen'')
# [[Limburg (Belgium)|Limburg]] (''Limburg'')
# [[East Flanders]] (''Oost-Vlaanderen'')
# [[Flemish Brabant]] (''Vlaams-Brabant'')
# [[West Flanders]] (''West-Vlaanderen'')
Independently from the provinces, Flanders has its own local institutions in the [[Brussels-Capital region]], being the ''Vlaamse GemeenschapsCommissie'' (VGC), and its municipal antennae (''Gemeenschapscentra'', community centers for the Flemish community in Brussels). These institutions are independent from the educational, cultural and social institutions which depend directly on the Flemish government. They exert, among others, all those cultural competencies that outside Brussels fall under the provinces.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Toren met huisje Lissewege.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The village of Lissewege, near [[Bruges]] (Brugge)]] -->
===Political Flanders (in Belgium)===
''Main article: [[Politics |
rane.com/DanceDB/ Ted Crane's Dance Database]
*[http://www.io.com/~entropy/contradance/articles/swing-positions.html Some Swing Positions]
[[Category:European folk dances]]
[[Category:Social dance]]
[[Category:Historical dance]]
[[fr:Contredanse]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coin collecting</title>
<id>5413</id>
<revision>
<id>39906231</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T18:57:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.33.49.251</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Coin collecting details */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Coin collecting''' is the [[hobby]] of [[collecting]] [[coin]]s.
Coin collecting is to be distinguished from '''[[numismatics]]''', the scientific study of [[money]] and its history in all its varied forms. Numismatics includes the study of coins, [[banknotes]], stock certificates, [[medal]]s, medallions, and [[token coins]].
==History==
While [[hoarding]] coins due to their [[Value (economics)|value]] goes back to the beginning of coinage, collecting them as [[art]] pieces was a later development.
Known as the "Hobby of Kings", modern coin collecting is generally believed to have begun in the [[fourteenth century]] with [[Petrarch]].
Notes of [[Roman emperor]]s having coin collections are also known, but it remains somewhat unclear whether these coins were studied, considered curiosities or were merely hoarded.
==Coin collecting specialties==
[[Image:Many Coins.jpg|frame|right]]
There are almost as many different ways of collecting coins as there are collectors. Many collectors specialize in some area of collecting, at least for a time.
===Casual collector===
The most common type of coin collector is the casual collector. Casual collectors can be both kids and adults. They just collect random coins, because they like it, and because it's fun. The only difference is they don't spend nearly as much money on buying and preserving coins. When the casual collector comes across something out of the ordinary, such as a denomination that doesn't circulate often, or an obsolete type, perhaps [[Mint-made errors|error coins]] or a modified coin such as a two headed magician's piece he will toss it in a drawer. Casual collectors can get more involved when the chance of finding something interesting in circulation increases. For example, the recent [[statehood quarters]] circulating commemoratives in the [[United States]] has increased the number of casual collectors. Casual collectors often obtain more interesting pieces as gifts. The gift of a rare coin has converted many casual collectors to curious collectors.
===Curious collector===
When a collector goes beyond circulation finds and gifts, and develops more of an interest in coins, he often graduates to being a curious collector. The curious collector will buy some coins (usually inexpensive), browse coin shops, or look at coins on [[eBay]] or internet sites. He buys whatever seems interesting at the moment, without a really clear goal in mind. In this way, a survey of potentially interesting areas of coin collecting is made. As he interacts with more seasoned collectors, he is often encouraged to read books and study before making any serious decisions about buying expensive coins, or choosing an area of interest to settle into for a while. At some point, many curious collectors learn enough, and decide enough about their interest to become an advanced coin collector.
===Advanced coin collectors===
Each advanced coin collector is unique. Some become dedicated generalists, looking for a few examples of everything. If they have enough resources, this can result in an astounding collection, as that of [[King Farouk]] of [[Egypt]], who collected everything (and not just coins either). Some are completists, wanting an example of everything within a certain set. For example, [[Louis Eliasberg]] was the only collector thus far to assemble a complete set of known coins of the [[United States coinage|United States]]. Most collectors determine that they must focus their limited financial resources on a more narrow interest. Some focus on coins of a certain nation or historic period, some collect coins from various nations, some settle on error coins or [[exonumia]] like tokens and medals.
At the very highest levels of coin collecting, it can become a highly competitive sport. Recently, this has exhibited itself in registry sets, where the most complete set of coins with the highest numerical grades assigned by grading services are published by the grading service. This can lead to astronomical prices as dedicated collectors strive for the very best examples of each date and mint mark combination.
====National coin collecting====
It is common for collectors of national coins to specialise in the coins of their own country. Popular ways to collect national coins include collecting one of every date and [[mint (coin)|mint]] mark for a particular series (date/mint mark sets) a limited completist approach. Collecting a representative coin of each different series is termed collecting by type. For example, a date set in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] may include one [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] large [[penny]] for each year, 1837&ndash;1901. In another example, a [[United States|U.S.]] type set might include an example of each variety of each denomination produced. Many collectors of national coins create unique combinations of date, mint mark, and type sets.
====Historical coin collecting====
Collectors of ancient and medieval coins are often more interested in historical significance than other collectors. Coins of [[Roman currency|Roman]], [[Byzantine currency|Byzantine]], [[Greek coins|Greek]], [[India]]n, [[Celt]]ic, [[Parthian]], [[Merovingian]], [[Ostrogoth|Ostrogothic]] and ancient [[Israelite]] origin are amongst the more popular ancient coins collected. Specialties tend to vary greatly, but one prevalent approach is the collection of coins minted during a particular emperor's reign. A completist might strive for a representative coin from each emperor.
====World coin collecting====
World coins is the term given to collections of relatively recent modern coins from nations around the world. Collectors of world coins are often interested in geography. They can "travel the world" vicariously through their collecting. A popular completist way to collect world coins is to acquire representative examples from every country or coin issuing authority. Some collect by subject, for example, collecting coins from around the world featuring animals. Because world coins are usually very inexpensive, (sometimes being sold by the pound) it may be a good starting point for children. Many children find foreign coins by looking under change-to-cash machines, where customers throw away assorted coins found in their penny jars. These coins can range from Canada, to South Africa, to Korea. It is pretty amazing what people find worthless, and throw away.
====Error coin collecting====
The collecting of [[Mint-made errors|error coins]] is a modern development, made possible through the automation of coin manufacturing processes during the 19th century. Collectors of ancient and medieval coins accept coin "errors" because manual coin manufacturing proceses lend unique features to each coin struck. Collectors of modern coins find errors desirable because modern processes make the likelihood of their production very limited. Examples of coin errors include doubled dies, repunched mint marks, overdates, double strikes, off metal coins, displaced or off center coins, clipped coins, and mules (different denominations on two sides of one coin).
====Coin collecting for children====
The hobby of coin collecting requires very little skill whatsoever. All you need is an interest in coins, of course. There are many things to learn about holding the coins, and taking care of them. Many kids start by picking up a coin they have never seen before, and continue collecting. Of course, to get more serious about coin collecting, some spend money on books, coins, folders, and protective items. There are plenty of cheap collecting stores everywhere. There is no minimum or maximum to how much can be spent on coin collecting, and children of any age can start.
====Coin collecting details====
In coin collecting the condition of a coin is paramount to its value; a high-quality example is often worth many times as much as a poor example&mdash;although there are always exceptions to this general rule. Collectors have created systems to describe the overall condition of coins. One older system describes a coin as falling within a range from "poor" to "uncirculated". The newer Sheldon system, used primarily in America, has been adopted by the [[American Numismatic Association]]. It uses a 1&ndash;70 numbering scale, where 70 represents a perfect specimen and 1 represents a coin barely identifiable as to its type.
Several [[coin grading]] services will grade and encapsulate coins in a labeled, air-tight plastic holder. This process is commonly known as "[[coin slabbing|slabbing]]". Two highly respected grading services are the [[Numismatic Guaranty Corporation]] (NGC) and [[Professional Coin Grading Service]] (PCGS). However, professional grading services are the subject of controversy because grading is subjective&mdash;a coin may receive a different grade by a different service, or even upon resubmission to the same service. Due to potentially large differences in value over slight differences in a coin's condition, some commercial coin dealers will repeatedly resubmit a coin to a grading service in the hopes of a higher grade. Buyers are encouraged to look into the quality and features of the various grading services before deciding to purchase a coin based solely on the grade given by a service. The grading servic |
]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_45|45]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">
<p align="center">:||<br>
'''Sun<br>Wind'''</p>
</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_44|44]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_32|32]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_48|48]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_18|18]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_46|46]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_57|57]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_50|50]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_28|28]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">
<p align="center">|:|<br>
'''Li<br>Flame'''</p>
</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_13|13]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_55|55]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_63|63]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_22|22]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_36|36]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_37|37]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_30|30]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_49|49]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="10%">
<p align="center">||:<br>
'''Tui<br>Swamp'''</p>
</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_10|10]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_54|54]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_60|60]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_41|41]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_19|19]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_61|61]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_38|38]]</td>
<td align="center" width="10%">[[I_Ching_hexagram_58|58]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
=== The hexagrams ===
The text of the ''I Ching'' describes each of the 64 hexagrams, and later scholars added commentaries and analyses of each one; these have been subsumed into the text comprising the ''I Ching''.
Each hexagram's common translation is accompanied by the corresponding R. Wilhelm translation, which is the source for the [[Unicode]] names.
<table><tr><td valign="top">
<table border="1" align="center">
<tr><th>Hexagram</th><th>R. Wilhelm</th>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 01|01. |||||| Force (&#20094; qián) ]]</td><td>The Creative</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 02|02. :::::: Field (&#22372; k&#363;n) ]]</td><td>The Receptive</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 03|03. |:::|: Sprouting (&#23663; chún) ]]</td><td>Difficulty at the Beginning</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 04|04. :|:::| Enveloping (&#33945; méng) ]]</td><td>Youthful Folly</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 05|05. |||:|: Attending (&#38656; x&#363;) ]]</td><td>Waiting</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 06|06. :|:||| Arguing (&#35359; sòng) ]]</td><td>Conflict</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 07|07. :|:::: Leading (&#24107; sh&#299;) ]]</td><td>The Army</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 08|08. ::::|: Grouping (&#27604; b&#464;) ]]</td><td>Holding Together</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 09|09. |||:|| Small Accumulating (&#23567;&#30044; xi&#462;o chù) ]]</td><td>Small Taming</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 10|10. ||:||| Treading (&#23653; l&#474;) ]]</td><td>Treading (Conduct)</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 11|11. |||::: Prevading (&#27888; tài) ]]</td><td>Peace</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 12|12. :::||| Obstruction (&#21542; p&#464;) ]]</td><td>Standstill</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 13|13. |:|||| Concording People (&#21516;&#20154; tóng rén) ]]</td><td>Fellowship</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 14|14. ||||:| Great Possessing (&#22823;&#26377; dà y&#466;u) ]]</td><td>Great Possession</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 15|15. ::|::: Humbling (&#35609; qi&#257;n) ]]</td><td>Modesty</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 16|16. :::|:: Providing-For (&#35947; yù) ]]</td><td>Enthusiasm</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 17|17. |::||: Following (&#38568; suí) ]]</td><td>Following</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 18|18. :||::| Corrupting (&#34865; g&#468;) ]]</td><td>Work on the Decayed</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 19|19. ||:::: Nearing (&#33256; lín) ]]</td><td>Approach</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 20|20. ::::|| Viewing (&#35264; gu&#257;n) ]]</td><td>Contemplation</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 21|21. |::|:| Gnawing Bite (&#22124;&#21969; shì kè) ]]</td><td>Biting Through</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 22|22. |:|::| Adorning (&#36033; bì) ]]</td><td>Grace</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 23|23. :::::| Stripping (&#21085; b&#333;) ]]</td><td>Splitting Apart</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 24|24. |::::: Returning (&#24489; fù) ]]</td><td>Return</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 25|25. |::||| Without Embroiling (&#28961;&#22916; wú wàng) ]]</td><td>Innocence</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 26|26. |||::| Great Accumulating (&#22823;&#30044; dà chù) ]]</td><td>Great Taming</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 27|27. |::::| Swallowing (&#38948; yí) ]]</td><td>Mouth Corners</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 28|28. :||||: Great Exceeding (&#22823;&#36942; dà guò) ]]</td><td>Great Preponderance</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 29|29. :|::|: Gorge (&#22350; k&#462;n) ]]</td><td>The Abysmal Water</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 30|30. |:||:| Radiance (&#38626; lí) ]]</td><td>The Clinging</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 31|31. ::|||: Conjoining (&#21688; xián) ]]</td><td>Influence</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 32|32. :|||:: Persevering (&#24646; héng) ]]</td><td>Duration</td></tr>
</table></td>
<td valign="top">
<table border="1" align="center">
<tr><th>Hexagram</th><th>R. Wilhelm</th>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 33|33. ::|||| Retiring (&#36975; dùn) ]]</td><td>Retreat</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 34|34. ||||:: Great Invigorating (&#22823;&#22767; dà zhuàng) ]]</td><td>Great Power</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 35|35. :::|:| Prospering (&#26185; jìn) ]]</td><td>Progress</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 36|36. |:|::: Brightness Hiding (&#26126;&#22839; míng yí) ]]</td><td>Darkening of the Light</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 37|37. |:|:|| Dwelling People (&#23478;&#20154; ji&#257; rén) ]]</td><td>The Family</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 38|38. ||:|:| Polarising (&#30589; kuí) ]]</td><td>Opposition</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[I Ching hexagram 39|39. ::|:|: Limping (&#36423; ji&#462;n) ]]</td><td>Obstruction</td></tr& |
hey returned to London for a meeting with the BBC. Everyone was in agreement, ''East 8'' was to be tough, violent on occasion, funny and sharp - and it would start with a bang.
Through the next few months, the set was growing rapidly at Elstree, and a composer and designer had been commissioned to create the title sequence. [[Simon May]] (music) and Alan Jeapes (visuals) created it, and it remains one of the strongest title clips in television.
The launch was delayed for a second time until February 1985 due to a delay in the chat show ''Wogan'', that was to be a part of the major revamp in BBC One's schedules. Julia Smith was uneasy about the late start as ''EastEnders'' no longer had the winter months to build up a loyal following before the summer ratings lull. The press were invited to see Elstree and meet the cast and see the lot - and stories immediately started circulating about the show, about a rivalry with [[ITV]] (who were launching their own market-based soap, ''[[Albion Market]]'') and about the private lives of the cast. Anticipation and rumour grew in equal measure until the first transmission at 7pm on [[19 February]] [[1985]]. Both Holland and Smith could not watch, they both instead returned to the place where it all began. The next day viewing figures were confirmed at 17 million. The reviews were largely favourable, although after three weeks on air, BBC One's early evening share had returned to the pre-''EastEnders'' figure of 7 million, though ''EastEnders'' then climbed to highs of up to 23 million later on in the year. Following the launch, both group discussions and telephone surveys were conducted to test audience reaction to early episodes. Detailed reactions were taken after six months and since then regular monitoring has been conducted
Press coverage, already intense, went into overdrive. Within weeks the headline they had all dreaded had appeared &mdash; EASTENDERS STAR IS A KILLER. This referred to [[Leslie Grantham]], and set the tone for relations between [[Albert Square]] and the press for the next 20 years. By Christmas of 1985, the tabloids couldn't get enough of the show. 'Exclusives' about ''EastEnders'' storylines became a staple of tabloid buyers daily reading.
A precursor in UK soaps also set in a East End market was [[Associated TeleVision|ATV]]'s ''[[Market in Honey Lane]]'' between 1967 and 1969.
===Popularity===
As mentioned, ''EastEnders'' proved highly popular and Appreciation Indexes reflected this, rising from 55–60 at the launch to 85–5 later on, a figure which was nearly ten points higher than the average for British soap opera. Research suggested that people found the characters true to life, the plots believable and, importantly in the face of criticism of the content, people watched as a family and regarded it as viewing for all the family.
In the Christmas of 1986, it attracted a massive 30.15 million viewers who tuned in to see Den Watts hand over divorce papers to wife Angie. This remains the highest rated episode of a soap in British television history.
''EastEnders'' is one of the more popular programmes on [[British television]] and regularly attracts between 9 and 13 million viewers, while the show's ratings have fallen since its initial surge in popularity, the programme continues to be largely lucrative for the BBC.
Its main rival for ratings is usually ''Coronation Street''. In order to maximise ratings the BBC and ITV are usually careful to avoid scheduling clashes between their flagship soaps. In 2001 however, the soaps clashed for the first time. ''EastEnders'' won the battle with 8.4 million viewers (41% share) whilst ''Coronation Street'' lagged behind with 7.3 million viewers (36% share).
On [[21 September]] [[2004]] [[Louise Berridge]], the then executive producer, quit following criticism of the show. The following day the show received its lowest ever ratings (6.2 million) when ITV scheduled an hour long episode of its usually less-popular soap, ''[[Emmerdale]]'' against it. ''Emmerdale'' was watched by 8.1 million people. However, ''EastEnders'' was at a disadvantage as ''Emmerdale'' had began half an hour earlier, and the press were reporting viewers were bored with implausible and ill thought out storylines. [[Kathleen Hutchison]] who had been the producer of hospital drama ''[[Holby City]]'', was announced as the new executive producer. And within a few weeks later the producers announced a major shake-up of the cast with the highly-criticised Ferreira family, first seen in June 2003, set to leave at the beginning of 2005. Kathleen Hutchison went on to axe Den Watts, Andy Hunter, Juley Smith and Derek Harkinson. Whilst she was there she set about reversing the previous executive producer's work. It indicated a fresh start for ''EastEnders'' after declining ratings in 2004.
But in January 2005, after just four months it was the end for Kathleen Hutchison. [[John Yorke]] who led ''EastEnders'' through what [[Mal Young]] (the then head of BBC drama) said was one of its most successful periods in 2001, returned to the BBC as the head of drama, meaning his responsibilities included the running of ''EastEnders''. He also brought back long serving script writer [[Tony Jordan]]. It is reported that the cast and crew did not get on well with Kathleen Hutchison as she had them filming up to 12am. She is also said to have torn up many of the scripts that were planned and demanded re-writes. This was one of the reasons storylines such as the 'Real Walford' football team were suddenly ignored. But through her short reign she led ''EastEnders'' to some of its most healthy viewing figures in months.
John Yorke immediately stepped into her position until a few weeks later when [[Kate Harwood]] was announced as the new executive producer.
In autumn of 2005, ''EastEnders'' had seen its average audience share increase, with the unearthing of Den Watts' body and the marriage of Sharon and Dennis. Weeks after this, ITV again scheduled episodes of ''Emmerdale'' against ''EastEnders''. The episode of ''Emmerdale'', which saw the departure of one of its more popular characters, attracted 8.3 million viewers leaving ''EastEnders'' with 6.6 million for the funeral of Den Watts. However, this indirectly helped increase the audience of digital channel BBC Three as 1 million (10% share) tuned in to see the second showing.
However, the battle between ''EastEnders'' and ''Emmerdale'' saw ''EastEnders'' come out on top with 200,000 more viewers on the 1st December 2005.
==Viewership==
Based on market research by BBC commissioning in 2003, ''EastEnders'' is most watched by 16 - 24 year olds, closely followed by 25 - 34 year olds. An average ''EastEnders'' episode attracts a total audience share between 45% and 50%.
Aside from that, the 10pm repeat showing on ''[[BBC Three]]'' attracts an average of 500,000 viewers, whilst the Sunday omnibus attracts a further 3 million.
Ever since ''EastEnders'' began on the mainstream [[BBC One]], it has achieved some of the highest audiences in British television history.
The launch show attracted 17 million viewers in the 1980s, this was perhaps helped by the amount of press attention it received, something which continues today.
In 1986, just under two years since it had been on air, ''EastEnders'' attracted 30.15 million viewers, for the Christmas episode in which Den handed a divorce letter to wife Angie. This was its largest audience ever, the largest amount of viewers for a soap episode, the 4th largest audience for a British television channel ever and the highest television audience for a single channel of the 1980s.
In comparison, the smallest amount for an ''EastEnders'' episode was around 6.2 million in 2004, higher than the lowest of its rivals ''Coronation Street'' and ''Emmerdale''.
Despite a decade and a half of high ratings it was most popular in the early 2000s, attracting an average of 15 million for most episodes and peaks of upto 25 million for the climaxes of popular storylines. Sonia's shock birth in 2000 was watched by 19.3 million viewers and in 2001, Mel's marriage to Steve Owen was watched by 22.5 million viewers. ''EastEnders'' was perhaps at its least popular in the year 2004, its lowest ever audience share was 28% in early 2005.
===Scheduling===
For the past 20 years ''EastEnders'' has remained at the centre of BBC One's primetime schedule.
''EastEnders'' is currently aired at 7.30 p.m. on Tuesday & Thursday and 8.00 p.m. on Monday and Friday, the [[omnibus (broadcast)|omnibus]] is aired on Sunday, though the exact time differs.
Originally ''EastEnders'' was shown twice weekly at 7.00 p.m., however it soon moved to 7.30 p.m. as Michael Grade did not want the soap running in direct competition with ''Emmerdale Farm''; the BBC had originally planned to take advantage of the 'summer break' that ''Emmerdale Farm'' usually took in order to capitalise on ratings, but ITV added extra episodes and repeats so that ''Emmerdale Farm'' was not taken off over the summer. Realising the futility of the situation, Grade decided to move the show to the later 7:30 p.m. slot, but to avoid tabloid speculation that it was a 'panic move' on the BBC's behalf, they had to "dress up the presentation of that move in such a way as to protect the show" giving "all kinds of reasons" for the move .
''EastEnders'' output then increased to thrice after ''Coronation Street'' added an extra episode - in response to competition from ''EastEnders''. ''EastEnders'' then added its fourth episode (shown on Fridays) on [[August 10th]] 2001. This caused some controversy as it clashed with ''Coronation Street'', which at the time was moved to 8.00 p.m. to make way for an hour long episode of rural soap ''Emmerdale'' at 7.00 p.m.. The move immediately provoked an angry response from ITV insiders, who argued that the BBC's last-minute move - only revealed at 3.30 p.m. on the day - |
omic liberalisation in the years following the coup created a boom in the garment industry and a steady growth rate despite growing uncertainity of land tenure in the sugar industry. The expiration of leases for sugar cane farmers ( along with reduced farm and factory efficiency) has led to a decline in sugar production despite a subsidised price. Subsidies for sugar have been provided by the EU and Fiji has been the second largest beneficiary after [[Mauritius]].
Urbanization and expansion in the service sector have contributed to recent GDP growth. [[Sugar]] exports and a rapidly growing [[tourism|tourist]] industry&mdash;with 430,800 tourists in 2003 and increasing in the subsequent years &mdash;are the major sources of foreign exchange. Sugar processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. Long-term problems include low investment and uncertain property rights. The political turmoil in Fiji has had a severe impact on the economy, which shrank by 2.8% in [[2000]] and grew by only 1% in [[2001]]. The tourism sector recovered quickly, however, with visitor arrivals reaching pre-coup levels again during [[2002]], which has since resulted in a modest economic recovery. This recovery continued into 2004 but grew by 1.7% in 2005 and is projected to grow by 2.0% in 2006. Although inflation is low, the policy indicator rate of the Reserve Bank of Fiji was raised by 1% to 3.25% in February 2006 due to fears of excessive consumption finance by debt. Lower interest rates have so far not produced greater investment for exports. However, there has been a housing boom from declining commercial mortgage rates.
The tallest building in Fiji is the 14-story [[Reserve Bank of Fiji Building]] in [[Suva]].
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Fiji]]''
=== Ethnic Groups ===
The population of Fiji is mostly made up of native [[Fijian people|Fijians]], a people of mixed [[Polynesia|Polynesian]] and [[Melanesia]]n ancestory (54.3%), and [[Indo-Fijians]] (38.1%), descendants of [[India|Indian]] contract labourers brought to the islands by the British in the [[19th century]]. The percentage of the population of Indian descent has declined significantly over the last two decades because of emigration. About 1.2 % are [[Rotuman]]&mdash;natives of [[Rotuma|Rotuma Island]], whose culture has more in common with countries such as [[Tonga]] or [[Samoa]] than with the rest of Fiji. There are also small, but economically significant, groups of Europeans, Chinese, and other minorities. Relationships between ethnic Fijians and Indo-Fijians have often been strained, and the tension between the two communities has dominated politics in the islands for the past generation. The level of tension varies between different regions of the country.
=== Language ===
Three official languages are prescribed by the constitution: [[English language|English]], which was introduced by the former [[United Kingdom|British]] [[British Empire|colonial]] rulers, [[Fijian language|Bau Fijian]], spoken by ethnic Fijians, and [[Hindustani]], the main language spoken by [[Indo-Fijians]]. Citizens of Fiji have the constitutional right to communicate with any government agency in any of the official languages, with an interpreter to be supplied on request.
The use of English is one of the most enduring legacies of almost a century of British rule. Widely spoken by both ethnic Fijians and Indo-Fijians, English is the main medium of communication between the two communities, as well as with the outside world. It is the language in which the government conducts most of its business, and is the main language of education, commerce, and the courts.
Fijian belongs to the [[Austronesian]] family of languages. Fijian proper is closely related to the [[Polynesian languages]], such as [[Tongan language|Tongan]]. There are many dialects, but the official standard is the speech of [[Bau, Fiji|Bau]], the most politically and militarily powerful of the many indigenous kingdoms of the 19th Century.
"Hindustani" is considered an umbrella term in India for the standard languages ''[[Hindi language|Hindi]]'' (preferred by [[Hinduism|Hindus]]) and ''[[Urdu language|Urdu]]'' (preferred by [[Islam|Muslims]]), as well as many closely related tongues that are sometimes considered separate languages. [[Fijian Hindustani]] descends from one of the eastern forms of Hindustani, called [[Awadhi]]. It has developed some unique features that differentiate it from the Awadhi spoken on the [[Indian subcontinent]], although not to the extent of hindering mutual understanding. It is spoken by nearly the entire Indo-Fijian community regardless of ancestry, except for a few elders.
In addition to the three official languages, several other languages are spoken. On the island of [[Rotuma]], [[Rotuman language|Rotuman]] is used; this is more closely related to the [[Polynesian languages]] than to Fijian. Some Fijian dialects, especially in the west of the country, differ markedly from the official Bau standard, and would be considered separate languages if they had a codified grammar or a literary tradition. Among the Indo-Fijian community, there is a small [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]-speaking community, and a few older Indo-Fijians still speak [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]], with smaller numbers of [[Bihari language|Bihari]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], and others.
In the Fijian alphabet, some of the letters have unique values. For one, the "c" is a voiced "th" sound, {{IPA|[ð]}}. (For example, the name of Fiji-born New Zealand [[rugby union|rugby]] player [[Joe Rokocoko]] is often mis-pronounced. The correct pronunciation is {{IPA2|r&#594;k&#594;ˈ&#240;&#594;k&#594;}}.) Another difference is that the letters "b" and "d" are always pronounced with a [[nasal consonant|nasal]] before them, {{IPA|[mb, nd]}}, even at the beginning of a word. The "q" is pronounced like a "g" with a nasal "ng" before it, {{IPA|[ŋg]}} as in the word "finger", while the "g" is pronounced like the "ng" of the word "singer", {{IPA|[ŋ]}}.
=== Religion ===
[[Religion]] is one of the faultlines between [[Fijian people|indigenous Fijians]] and [[Indo-Fijian]]s, with the former overwhelmingly Christian (99.2 % at the [[1996]] [[census]]), and the latter mostly [[Hindu]] (76.7 %) or [[Muslim]] (15.9 %).
The largest Christian denomination is the [[Methodism|Methodist Church]]. With 36.2 % of the total population (including almost two-thirds of ethnic Fijians), its share of the population is higher in Fiji than in any other nation. [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] (8.9 %), the [[Assemblies of God]] (4 %), and [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]] (2.9 %) are also significant. These and others denominations also have small numbers of Indo-Fijian members; Christians of all kinds comprise 6.1 % of the Indo-Fijian population.
Hindus belong mostly to the [[Sanatan]] sect (74.3 % of all Hindus) or else are unspecified (22 %). The small [[Arya Samaj]] sect claims the membership of some 3.7 % of all Hindus in Fiji. Muslims are mostly [[Sunni]] (59.7 %) or unspecified (36.7 %), with an [[Ahmadiya]] minority (3.6 %) regarded as [[heresy|heretical]] by more orthodox Muslims.
The [[Sikh]] faith comprises 0.9 % of the Indo-Fijian population, or 0.4 % of the national population in Fiji. Their ancestors came from the [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] region of India.
== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Fiji]]''
See also: [[Music of Fiji]], [[Festivals in Fiji]]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
{{commons|Fiji}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [[List of Fiji-related topics]]
* [[List of Fijians]]
* [[Communications in Fiji]]
* [[Transportation in Fiji]]
* [[Military of Fiji]]
* [[Foreign relations of Fiji]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.bulafiji.com/ Bulafiji.com. Official Fiji Visitors Bureau website]
* [http://www.southpacific.org/text/finding_fiji.html Finding Fiji]
* [http://www.fiji.gov.fj/ Official Website of the Government of Fiji]
* [http://map.mrd.gov.fj/ Interactive maps of Fiji]
* [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/fiji/index.html Map of Fiji]
* [http://www.parliament.gov.fj/ Official Website of the Parliament of Fiji]
* [http://www.fijitimes.com The Fiji Times - Fiji News, Sport and Weather from Fiji's leading newspaper]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fj.html The CIA World Factbook: Fiji]
{{Oceania}}
[[Category:Fiji| ]]
[[Category:Oceanian countries]]
[[Category:Polynesia]]
[[Category:Melanesia]]
[[Category:Island nations]]
[[ar:فيجي]]
[[an:Fiyi]]
[[zh-min-nan:Fiji]]
[[ca:Fiji]]
[[cs:Fidži]]
[[cy:Fiji]]
[[da:Fiji]]
[[de:Fidschi]]
[[et:Fidži]]
[[es:Fiji]]
[[eo:Fiĝioj]]
[[eu:Fiji]]
[[fj:Viti]]
[[fr:Fidji]]
[[gl:Fidxi - Viti]]
[[ko:피지]]
[[ht:Fidji]]
[[hi:फ़िजी]]
[[hr:Fidži]]
[[id:Fiji]]
[[ia:Fiji]]
[[is:Fídjieyjar]]
[[it:Figi]]
[[he:פיג'י]]
[[ks:फिजी]]
[[lv:Fidži]]
[[lt:Fidžis]]
[[hu:Fidzsi-szigetek]]
[[mk:Фиџи]]
[[ms:Fiji]]
[[na:Fiji]]
[[nl:Fiji]]
[[nds:Fidschi]]
[[ja:フィジー]]
[[no:Fiji]]
[[nn:Fiji]]
[[pl:Fidżi]]
[[pt:Fiji]]
[[ro:Fiji]]
[[ru:Фиджи]]
[[sq:Ishujt e Fildisht]]
[[simple:Fiji]]
[[sk:Fidži]]
[[sl:Fidži]]
[[sr:Фиџи]]
[[fi:Fidži]]
[[sv:Fiji]]
[[tl:Fiji]]
[[tt:Fiji]]
[[th:ประเทศฟิจิ]]
[[to:Viti]]
[[tr:Fiji]]
[[uk:Фіджі]]
[[zh:斐濟]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finland/History</title>
<id>10708</id>
<revision>
<id>15908505</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Finland]]
:''See also :'' [[Finland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Finland</title>
<id>10709</id>
<revision>
<id>41588279< |
aly, the automobile company that bears his name was located in [[Molsheim]], in the then-German [[Alsace]] region (which went to France in [[1919]]). The company was known for its advanced engineering in its premium road cars and its success in early [[Grand Prix motor racing]], winning the first ever [[Monaco Grand Prix]]. The company's success culminated with driver [[Jean-Pierre Wimille]] winning the [[24 hours of Le Mans]] twice (in [[1937]] with [[Robert Benoist]] and [[1939]] with [[Pierre Veyron]]).
Bugatti's cars were as much works of art as they were mechanical creations, with hand-turned finishes on the engine blocks, lightening holes in every conceivable location, and safety wires threaded through almost every fastener in intricately laced patterns. He regarded his arch competitor, Bentley, as "the world's fastest trucks" for turning their attentions more towards durability. Bugatti's disdain for his customers is as legendary as his devotion to his creations; in one apocryphal incident, upon greeting an unhappy customer returning to the factory with "What, you again?", he replied to the subsequent tale of automotive mechanical woe with "Well, see that it does not happen again!" and strode away.
From the shapes of his engines, he is regarded a [[Cubism|Cubist]] and he once went to a meeting of Cubists.
===Models===
[[Image:RL 1938 Bugatti 57SC Atlantic 34 2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|1938 [[Bugatti Type 57|Type 57SC Atlantic]] from the [[Ralph Lauren]] collection]]
[[Image:1933 Bugatti Type 59 Grand Prix 34 rear.jpg|right|thumb|250px|1933 [[Bugatti Type 59|Type 59]] [[Grand Prix motor racing|Grand Prix]] racer from the [[Ralph Lauren]] collection]]
[[Image:JeanBugattiandRoyale2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Jean Bugatti]] and his 1932 "[[Bugatti Type 41|Royale]]"]]
Only a few models of each of Ettore Bugatti's vehicles were ever produced, the most famous being the [[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 Grand Prix]] cars, the huge "[[Bugatti Royale|Royale]]", the flowing [[Bugatti Type 57|Type 57 "Atlantic"]], and the [[Bugatti Type 55|Type 55]] sports car.
Throughout the production run of approximately 7,900 cars, each Bugatti model was designated with the prefix T for Type, which referred to the chassis and drive train.
====Contract designs====
** [[Prinetti & Stucchi]]
*** 1898 [[Bugatti Type 1#Type 1|Type 1]]
** [[Dietrich-Bugatti]]
*** 1902-1904 [[Dietrich-Bugatti#Type 3 and 4|Type 3/4]]
*** 1903 [[Dietrich-Bugatti#Type 5, 6, and 7|Type 5/Hermes/6/7]]
** [[Deutz Gasmotoren Fabrik]]
*** 1907 [[Bugatti Type 8#Type 8|Type 8]]/[[Bugatti Type 8#Type 9|9]]
** [[Peugeot]]
*** 1913-1916 [[Peugeot Bébé#Type 19|Type 19 "Bébé"]]
====Prototypes====
** 1900–1901 [[Bugatti Type 2#Type 2|Type 2]]
** 1903 [[Bugatti Type 5#Type 5|Type 5]]
** 1908 [[Bugatti Type 13#Type 10|Type 10]]
** 1925 [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 36|Type 36]]
** 1929–1930 [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 45|Type 45/47]]
** [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 56|Type 56]] ([[electric car]])
** 1939 [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 64|Type 64]] (coupe)
** 1943/1947 [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 73C|Type 73C]]
====Racing cars====
** 1910–1914 [[Bugatti Type 13#Type 13|Type 13]]/[[Bugatti Type 13#15|Type 15]]/[[Bugatti Type 13#Type 17|17]]/[[Bugatti Type 13#Type 22|22]]
** 1922–1926 [[Bugatti Type 30#Type 29|Type 29]]
** 1923 [[Bugatti Type 32|Type 32 "Tank"]]
** 1924-1930 [[Bugatti Type 35#Type 35|Type 35]]/[[Bugatti Type 35#Type 35A|35A]]/[[Bugatti Type 35#Type 35B|35B]]/[[Bugatti Type 35#Type 35T|35T]]/[[Bugatti Type 35#Type 35C|35C]]/[[Bugatti Type 35#Type 37|37]]/[[Bugatti Type 35#Type 39|39]]
** 1927-1930 [[Bugatti Type 52|Type 52]] ([[electric vehicle|electric racer]] for children)
** 1936–1939 [[Bugatti Type 57#Type 57G|Type 57G "Tank"]]
** 1937–1939 [[Bugatti Type 50#Type 50 B|Type 50B]]
** 1931–1936 [[Bugatti Type 53|Type 53]]
** 1931–1936 [[Bugatti Type 51#Type 51/51A|Type 51/51A]]/[[Bugatti Type 51#Type 54 GP|54GP]]/[[Bugatti Type 51#Type 59|59]]
** 1955–1956 [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 251|Type 251]]
====Road cars====
** 1912–1914 [[Bugatti Type 18#Type 18|Type 18 "Garros"]]
** 1913–1914 [[Bugatti Type 13#Type 23|Type 23]]/[[Bugatti Type 13#Type 23 Brescia Tourer|Brescia Tourer]] (roadster)
** 1922–1934 [[Bugatti Type 30#Type 30|Type 30]]/[[Bugatti Type 49#Type 38|38]]/[[Bugatti Type 49#Type 40|40]]/[[Bugatti Type 49#Type 43|43]]/[[Bugatti Type 49#Type 44|44]]/[[Bugatti Type 49#Type 49|49]] (touring car)
** 1927–1933 [[Bugatti Royale#Type 41|Type 41 "Royale"]] (limousine)
** 1929–1939 [[Bugatti Type 46#Type 46|Type 46]]/[[Bugatti Type 46#Type 50|50]]/[[Bugatti Type 46#Type 50T|50T]] (touring car)
** 1932–1935 [[Bugatti Type 55#Type 55|Type 55]] (roadster)
** 1934–1940 [[Bugatti Type 57#Type 57|Type 57]]/[[Bugatti Type 57#Type 57S|57S]]/[[Bugatti Type 57#Type 57SC|Type 57SC]] (touring car)
** After [[World War II]], a 375 cc supercharged car was canceled when Ettore died.
** 1951-1956 [[Bugatti Type 101|Type 101]] (coupe)
===Racing Success===
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:BugattiTank1923.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Bugatti Type 32|Type 32]] tank-bodied racers in 1923]] -->
Bugatti cars were extremely successful in racing, with many thousands of victories in just a few decades. The little [[Bugatti Type 10]] swept the top four positions at its first race. The 1924 [[Bugatti Type 35]] is probably the most successful racing car of all time with over 2,000 wins. The company swept the [[Targa Florio]] for five years straight from 1925 through 1929. [[Louis Chiron]] held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the 21st Century Bugatti company remembered him with a [[Bugatti Chiron|concept car]] named in his honor. But it was the final racing success at [[24 hours of Le Mans|Le Mans]] that is most remembered&mdash;[[Jean-Pierre Wimille]] and [[Pierre Veyron]] won the 1939 race with just one car and few resources.
<br clear=all>
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Race
!Driver
!Car
|-
|1921
|[[Voiturettes Grand Prix]]
|[[Ernest Friderich]]
|
|-
|1925
|[[Targa Florio]]
|[[Meo Constantini]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35]]
|-
|1926
|[[French Grand Prix]]
|[[Jules Goux]]
|Type 39 A
|-
|1926
|[[Italian Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Charavel]]
|
|-
|1926
|[[Spanish Grand Prix]]
|[[Meo Constantini]]
|
|-
|1926
|[[Targa Florio]]
|[[Meo Constantini]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 T]]
|-
|1927
|[[Targa Florio]]
|[[Emilio Materassi]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 C]]
|-
|1928
|[[French Grand Prix]]
|[[William Grover-Williams]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 C]]
|-
|1928
|[[Italian Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1928
|[[Spanish Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1928
|[[Targa Florio]]
|[[Albert Divo]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 B]]
|-
|1929
|[[French Grand Prix]]
|[[William Grover-Williams]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 B]]
|-
|1929
|[[German Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1929
|[[Spanish Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1929
|[[Monaco Grand Prix]]
|[[William Grover-Williams]]
|
|-
|1929
|[[Targa Florio]]
|[[Albert Divo]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 C]]
|-
|1930
|[[Belgian Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1930
|[[Czechoslovakian Grand Prix]]
|[[Heinrich-Joachim von Morgen]] and [[Hermann zu Leiningen]]
|
|-
|1930
|[[French Grand Prix]]
|[[Philippe Etancelin]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 C]]
|-
|1930
|[[Monaco Grand Prix]]
|[[René Dreyfus]]
|
|-
|1931
|[[Belgian Grand Prix]]
|[[William Grover-Williams]] and [[Caberto Conelli]]
|
|-
|1931
|[[Czechoslovakian Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1931
|[[French Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]] and [[Achille Varzi]]
|Type 51
|-
|1931
|[[Monaco Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1932
|[[Czechoslovakian Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1933
|[[Czechoslovakian Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1933
|[[Monaco Grand Prix]]
|[[Achille Varzi]]
|
|-
|1934
|[[Belgian Grand Prix]]
|[[René Dreyfus]]
|
|-
|1936
|[[French Grand Prix]]
|[[Jean-Pierre Wimille]] and [[Raymond Sommer]]
|[[Bugatti Type 57|Type 57 G]]
|-
|1937
|[[24 hours of Le Mans]]
|[[Jean-Pierre Wimille]] and [[Robert Benoist]]
|[[Bugatti Type 57|Type 57 G]]
|-
|1939
|[[24 hours of Le Mans]]
|[[Jean-Pierre Wimille]] and [[Pierre Veyron]]
|[[Bugatti Type 57|Type 57 C]]
|}
===The end===
Ettore Bugatti also designed a successful motorized railcar, the ''Autorail'', and an [[airplane]], but it never flew. His son, [[Jean Bugatti]], was killed on [[August 11]], [[1939]] at the age of 30, while testing a [[Bugatti Type 57#Type 57S Tank|Type 57 tank-bodied race car]] near the [[Molsheim]] factory. After that, the company's fortunes began to decline. World War II ruined the factory in Molsheim, and the company lost control of the property. During the war, Bugatti planned a new factory at Levallois in [[Paris]] and designed a series of new cars. Ettore Bugatti died on [[August 21]], [[1947]].
The company attempted a comeback under [[Roland Bugatti]] in the mid-[[1950s]] with the [[MR layout|mid-engined]] [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 251|Type 251]] race car. Designed with help from famed [[Alfa Romeo]], [[Ferrari]], and [[Maserati]] designer [[Gioacchino Colombo]], the car failed to perform up to expectations and the company's attempts at automobile production were halted.
In the [[1960s]], [[Virgil Exner]] designed a Bugatti as part of his "[[Stutz Motor Company#Exner's Revival Cars|Revival Cars]]" project. A show version of this car was actually built by [[Ghia]] using the last [[Bugatti Type 101]] chassis and was shown at the [[1965]] [[Turin Motor Show]]. Financing was not forthcoming, however, and Exner turned his attention to a revival of [[Stutz]].
Bugatti continued producing airplane parts and was sold to [[Hispano-Suiza]] (another auto maker turned aircraft supplier) in [[1963]]. [[Snecma]] took over in [[1968]], later acquiring Messier. The two were merged to form [[Messier-Bugatti]] in [[1977]].
==Bugatti Automobili SpA==
<!-- Unsourced image r |
lost earlier in the year due to El Nino. Major losses of [[sugarcane]], totaling 9% of the estimated 1998-99 production, were sustained primarily in the coastal regions. [[Livestock]] losses amounted to $1 million, including 2,992 head of [[cattle]]. In addition to these losses, El Salvador also had to face the threat of disease outbreak. The Ministry of Health recorded a total of 109,038 medical cases related to Hurricane Mitch between [[October 31]] and [[November 18]], [[1998]]; 23% of these cases were [[respiratory infection]]s, followed by skin ailments, [[diarrhea]], and [[conjunctivitis]].
Reconstruction from Mitch was still underway when, in early 2001, the country experienced a series of devastating [[earthquake]]s that left nearly 2,000 people dead or missing, 8,000 injured, and caused severe dislocations across all sectors of Salvadoran society. Nearly 25% of all private homes in the country were either destroyed or badly damaged, and 1.5 million persons were left without housing. Hundreds of public buildings were damaged or destroyed, and sanitation and water systems in many communities put out service. The total cost of the damage was estimated at between $1.5 billion and $2 billion, and the devastation thought to equal or surpass that of the 1986 quake that struck [[San Salvador, El Salvador|San Salvador]]. Given the magnitude of the disaster, reconstruction and economic recovery will remain the primary focus of the Salvadoran Government for some time to come.
The Hurricane Mitch disaster prompted a tremendous response from the international community governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and private citizens alike. Sixteen foreign governments--including the U.S., 19 international NGOs, 20 Salvadoran embassies and consulates, and 20 private firms and individuals provided El Salvador with in-kind assistance. The Government of El Salvador reports that 961 tons of goods and food were received. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs estimates that contribution in cash given directly to the Salvadoran Government totaled $4.3 million. The U.S. Government has provided $37.7 million in assistance through USAID and the U.S. Departments of Agriculture and Defense.
Following the 2001 earthquakes, the [[U.S. Embassy]] assumed a leading role in implementing U.S. sponsored assistance. The U.S. Government responded immediately to the emergency, with military helicopters active in initial rescue operations, delivering emergency supplies, rescue workers, and damage assessment teams to stricken communities all over the country. [[USAID]]s Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance had a team of experts working with Salvadoran relief authorities immediately after both quakes, and provided assistance totaling more than $14 million. In addition, the Department of Defense provided an initial response valued at more than $11 million. For long-term reconstruction, the international community offered a total aid package of $1.3 billion, over $110 million of it from the United States.
=='''Manufacturing'''==
El Salvador historically has been the most industrialized nation in Central America, though a decade of war eroded this position. In 1999, [[manufacturing]] accounted for 22% of GDP. The industrial sector has shifted since 1993 from a primarily domestic orientation to include free zone ([[maquiladora]]) manufacturing for export. Maquila exports have led the growth in the export sector and in the last 3 years have made an important contribution to the Salvadoran economy.
=='''Trade'''==
El Salvador's [[balance of payments]] continued to show a net surplus. Exports in 1999 grew 1.9% while imports grew 3%, narrowing El Salvador's trade deficit. As in the previous year, the large trade deficit was offset by foreign aid and [[family remittance]]s. Remittances are increasing at an annual rate of 6.5%, and an estimated $1.35 billion will enter the national economy during 1999. Private foreign capital continued to flow in, though mostly as short-term import financing and not at the levels of previous years. The Central American Common Market continued its dynamic reactivation process, now with most regional commerce duty-free. In September 1996, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras opened free trade talks with Mexico. Although tariff cuts that were expected in July 1996 were delayed until 1997, the Government of El Salvador is committed to a free and open economy. Total U.S. exports to El Salvador reached $2.1 billion in 1999, while El Salvador exported $1.6 billion to the United States. U.S. support for El Salvador's privatization of the [[electrical]] and [[telecommunications]] markets has markedly expanded opportunities for U.S. investment in the country. More than 300 U.S. companies have established either a permanent commercial presence in El Salvador or work through representative offices in the country. The Department of State maintains a Country Commercial Guide for U.S. businesses seeking detailed information on business opportunities in El Salvador.
=='''Agriculture and Land Reform'''==
Before 1980, a small economic elite owned most of the land in El Salvador and controlled a highly successful agricultural industry. About 70% of farmers were [[sharecropper]]s or [[laborer]]s on large [[plantation]]s. Many farm workers were under- or unemployed and [[impoverished]]. The civilian-military [[junta]], which came to power in 1979, instituted an ambitious land reform program to redress the inequities of the past, respond to the legitimate grievances of the rural poor, and promote more broadly based growth in the agricultural sector. The ultimate goal was to develop a rural middle class with a stake in a peaceful and prosperous future for El Salvador. At least 525,000 people--more than 12% of El Salvador's population at the time and perhaps 25% of the rural poor--benefited from agrarian reform, and more than 22% of El Salvador's total farmland was transferred to those who previously worked the land but did not own it. But when agrarian reform ended in 1990, about 150,000 landless families still had not benefited from the reform actions. The 1992 peace accords made provisions for land transfers to all qualified ex-combatants of both the [[FMLN]] and [[ESAF]], as well as to landless peasants living in former conflict areas. The United States undertook to provide $300 million for a national reconstruction plan. This included $60 million for land purchases and $17 million for agricultural credits. USAID remains actively involved in providing technical training, access to credit, and other financial services for many of the land beneficiaries.
==See also==
* [[El Salvador]]
* [[Economy of South America]]
* [[Economy of North America]]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|El Salvador]]
[[Category:Economy of El Salvador| ]]
[[pt:Economia de El Salvador]]
[[zh:萨尔瓦多]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in El Salvador</title>
<id>9362</id>
<revision>
<id>40363077</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - fixed lines in service:'''
929,100 (June 2005)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
1,946,800 (June 2005)
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''domestic:''
nationwide microwave radio relay system
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]); connected to [[Central American Microwave System]]
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 52, FM 144, shortwave 1 (2004)
'''Radios:'''
5.75 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
98 (2005)
'''Televisions:'''
5,900,881 (2005)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
11 (early 2005)
'''[[Country code]] (Top level domain):''' SV
:''See also :'' [[El Salvador]]
==External links==
*[http://www.siget.gob.sv General Telecomunications Office in El Salvador]
*[http://www.tipcom.net/listasal/celulares.htm Instructions on how to send SMS to El Salvador]
*[http://www.gsmworld.com/roaming/gsminfo/cou_sv.shtml GSM Cell Phone Networks in El Salvador]
{{ElSalvador-stub}}
[[Category:Communications in El Salvador| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in El Salvador</title>
<id>9363</id>
<revision>
<id>31239243</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-13T21:10:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CalJW</username>
<id>233571</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Transportation in El Salvador]] to [[Transport in El Salvador]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== [[Railway]]s ==
<br>''total:''
602 km (single track; note - some sections abandoned, unusable, or operating at reduced capacity)
<br>''narrow gauge:''
602 km 0.914-m gauge
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Guatemala|Guatemala]] - none in use [http://www.iexplore.com/dmap/El+Salvador/Do's+and+Don'ts]
* [[Transportation in Honduras|Honduras]] - no
== [[Highway]]s ==
<br>''total:'' [[Image:El-Salvador-Bus.jpg|thumb|Bus running between Santa Ana and San Salvador]]
10,029 km
<br>''paved:''
1,986 km (including 327 km of expressways)
<br>''unpaved:''
8,043 km (1997 est.)
== Waterways ==
[[Rio Lempa]] partially navigable
== Ports and [[harbor]]s ==
=== Pacific Ocean ===
[[Acajutla]], [[Puerto Cutuco]], [[La Libertad]], [[La Union, El Salvador|La Union]], [[Puerto El Triunfo]]
== [[Merchant marine]] ==
none (1999 est.)
== [[Airport]]s ==
85 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
4
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
2 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
81
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
17
<br& |
ware abstraction through [[Operating System]] calls. This saves programs which don't require time critical hardware access from having to touch the underlying machine and provides a level of machine portability for those programs.
==Software==
===Built-in BASIC and operating system===
Like most home computers at the time, the CPC had its [[operating system|OS]] and a [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]] built in as [[read-only memory|ROM]]. It used [[Locomotive BASIC]] - a variant specifically written for the CPC hardware which as a result was faster, more comfortable and more powerful than the generic but common [[Microsoft BASIC]] used by the Commodore 64 and [[MSX]] amongst others. It was particularly notable for providing easy access to the machine's video and audio resources in contrast to the arcane [[PEEK and POKE|POKE]] commands required on some Microsoft implementations (the MSX implementation of Microsoft Basic being an exception, which even allowed for hardware sprite manipulation and collision detection).
===Other languages===
Although it was possible to obtain compilers for Locomotive BASIC, [[C programming language|C]] and [[Pascal]] the majority of the CPC's software was written in native Z80a assembly language.
An interpreter for the educational language [[Logo programming language|LOGO]] was also available.
===Criticism of CPC software (games)===
The quality of CPC software has been sometimes criticized due to the existence of games that were simply a ZX Spectrum port, thus not measuring up to the equivalent ZX Spectrum or C64 implementations in terms of taking full advantage of the CPC capabilities.
Because the CPC shared the Z80a processor with the ZX Spectrum and could be made to produce a similar display from the same code, many games manufacturers developed games for the two systems in parallel or ported older Spectrum games yielding products that did not take advantage of hardware scrolling or the availability of 4 and 16 colour modes.
For those actually targeting the CPC the hardware lacked support for sprites and [[scrolling]] required some careful memory arrangement and was for a long time thought impossible to do smoothly in the vertical direction. This made the creation of smooth-running and colourful games harder. Titles from the late 80s onwards tended to be coded more carefully than their mid 80s counterparts, making better use of the machine's graphics capabilities, featuring smooth scrolling and better color usage.
Although the machine received more software support than most other Z80-based systems, the overall impression left is that the commercial success of the system could have been a bit better.
Games featuring poor scrolling, quasi-monochrome Spectrum-like graphics and sluggish controls - specially in the beginning of the CPC's commercial lifespan - were marketed alongside others including smooth scrolling, colourful graphics and crisp music and sound effects which almost rivalled those of the C64,
That said, it is important to remark that numerous software companies from that era, such as [[Ocean Software]], [[Elite]], [[Palace Software]], [[Incentive]], [[Hewson Consultants]], [[Loriciels]] or [[Dinamic Software]] among others released quality titles on a regular basis which kept CPC users more than happy with their ''Color Personal Computer''.
===Notable games, with screenshots===
[[Image:Cybernoid_2_cpc.PNG|''Cybernoid 2''|170px|thumb|left]]
[[Image:Turrican_cpc.PNG|''Turrican''|180px|thumb|left]]
[[Image:Switchblade_cpc.PNG|''Switchblade''|thumb|180px|left]]
[[Image:Crafton_cpc.PNG|''Crafton&amp;Xunk''|thumb|180px|left]]
<br style="clear: left"/>
==Magazines==
[[Computer magazine|Magazine]]s available for the system (at various times) included ''[[Amtix]]'', ''[[Computing With The Amstrad]]'', ''[[Amstrad Computer User]]'' (Amstrad official publication), ''[[Amstrad Action]]'', and ''[[CPC Attack]]''.
==The Amstrad CPC vs. its competitors==
Since the Amstrad CPC was specifically built to compete with the [[ZX Spectrum]] and [[C64]], and was a relatively late entrant into the [[1980s]] 8-bit [[home computer]] market, comparisons between those computer systems were very frequent on specialized magazines but also among players themselves. Also, the three machines were practically the most [[Computer software|software]]-wise supported 8-bit home computers in history, and had a virtually identical selection of games, although with major differences in quality, technical characteristics, and platform-dependant peculiarities.
In general, C64 users were prone to snub both other competing machines as "largely inferior", while a sort of hidden rivalry existed between ZX Spectrum and CPC users. The former considered the CPC to be just an overhyped clone of the their beloved Spectrum, while CPC users considered ZX Spectrum users as "poor, jealous cousins" who tainted their beloved machine with inferior game ports.
In fact, the C64 had in general better sound, graphics and scrolling than its competitors thanks to its dedicated hardware. It also had a wide selection of games designed to run from floppy disks, though C64 [[Commodore 64 peripherals|floppy drive]]s were notoriously slow. It also suffered from a poor built-in BASIC and was not ideal for users who wanted to learn to program in comparison to the other two machines.
The ZX Spectrum had the simplest hardware of all three, though this meant a lower price. As a result, it suffered from [[Attribute clash|colour clash]] and had very poor sound compared to the C64 and CPC (although later models of the ZX Spectrum used the same sound chip as the CPC). However, its many third-party peripherials and some aspects of its built-in BASIC made it more appealing for DIY enthusiasts and hobbyist programmers.
The Amstrad CPC had on paper better graphics capabilities than the ZX Spectrum, but a lot of its games were directly derived from their ZX Spectrum counterparts graphics-wise and sometimes sound-wise, which resulted in a long series of low quality titles which hurt the machine's reputation. Even when that was not the case, CPC titles rarely featured smooth scrolling or sprite handling due to programming complexities, although that was technically possible. Its sound chip was considered better than the simple beeper of early ZX Spectrum models, but not quite up to the par with the C64's [[MOS Technology SID|SID]] chip.
==Later Amstrad==
Ultimately, the company purchased [[Sinclair Research]], discontinuing the unsuccessful [[Sinclair QL]] 16-bit business machine and relaunching the 128KB Sinclair Spectrum in "+2" and "+3" variants with better keyboards and integral storage. The case and design of these recognisably drew from the CPC series.
==Hardware tricks on the CPC series==
Simple reprogramming of the Motorola 6845 CRTC could produce extended graphics modes up to 784×384 pixels through [[overscan]]. Careful timing of palette switches could theoretically allow all 27 hardware colours to be visible in any display mode but due to CPU burden, programs with unpredictable on screen motion (such as games) would typically only find time to change palette once or twice per frame. It was also possible to change mode (hence resolution) thus allowing for example the screen to be split into a colourful playing area and a high resolution score area. An example of a game doing this was Sorcery by Virgin Games [http://www.cpczone.net/reviews/index.php?title=699].
The CRTC could also be tricked into splitting the display along any horizontal line, allowing the video address to be arbitrarily changed at that point. This meant that it was possible to hardware scroll portions of the display while leaving others static.
The machine had an internal mechanical [[relay]] for controlling the tape recorder's motor which when switched would produce an audible click. Some software used this trick to produce "realistic" [[percussion instrument|percussion]] sounds, but usually such an abuse of the relay resulted in early failure.
Careful programming of the AY sound chip could cause it to produce a level wave. Adjustment of the output volume would cause related adjustments in the amplitude of the wave. Using this observation it was possible to output [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] digital audio at better than 5-bit quality, albeit at a very high CPU cost.
==See also==
* [[List of Amstrad CPC games]]
* [[Amstrad PCW]], CP/M wordprocessor/personal computer range
* [[CP/M]]
* [[Sinclair Research]]
* [[ZX Spectrum]]
==External links==
* [http://www.amstrad.com/ Amstrad official website]
* [http://www.cpczone.net/ CPC Zone]
* [http://andercheran.aiind.upv.es/~amstrad/ The Unofficial Amstrad WWW Resource]
* [http://www.cpc-imperium.de/ Amstrad CPC Imperium / Amsoft Headquarter]
* [http://tacgr.emuunlim.com/ The Amstrad CPC Games Resource]
* [http://www.amstrad-esp.com/ Amstrad ESP]
* [http://www.cpcgamereviews.com/ CPC Game Reviews]
* [http://computeremuzone.com/amstrad/ Amstrad Zone]
* [http://www.amstradcpc.info/ Amstrad CPC Info]
[[Category:Amstrad CPC|*Amstrad CPC]]
[[Category:Home computers]]
[[da:Amstrad]]
[[de:Amstrad CPC]]
[[fr:Amstrad CPC 464]]
[[it:Amstrad CPC]]
[[pl:Amstrad CPC]]
[[sv:Amstrad CPC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abdulaziz Alomari</title>
<id>2198</id>
<revision>
<id>41716683</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:44:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sherurcij</username>
<id>120909</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]] to [[Abdulaziz Alomari]]: As per talk page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abdulaziz al-Omari.png|right|frame|This photograph of Abdulaziz al-Omari was released by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in the days following the attack.]]
'''Abdulaz |
]
[[hu:IntegrálszámÃtás]]
[[nl:Integraalrekening]]
[[no:Integral (matematikk)]]
[[ja:&#31309;&#20998;]]
[[lt:Integralas]]
[[pl:Ca&#322;ka]]
[[pt:Integral]]
[[ro:Integral&#259;]]
[[sr:&#1048;&#1085;&#1090;&#1077;&#1075;&#1088;&#1072;&#1083;]]
[[sv:Integral]]
[[tr:İntegral]]
[[vi:Tích phân]]
[[zh:&#31215;&#20998;]]
[[Category:Integral calculus|*]]
[[Category:Integrals|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Zionist Terrorism</title>
<id>15533</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>32892268</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-27T17:32:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Zionist terrorism" +"Zionist political violence"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Zionist political violence]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of airports</title>
<id>15536</id>
<revision>
<id>42109716</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:05:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Header - references plural</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">* By [[International Air Transport Association|IATA]] code: [[List of airports by IATA code: A|A]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: B|B]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: C|C]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: D|D]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: E|E]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: F|F]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: G|G]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: H|H]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: I|I]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: J|J]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: K|K]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: L|L]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: M|M]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: N|N]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: O|O]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: P|P]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: Q|Q]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: R|R]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: S|S]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: T|T]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: U|U]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: V|V]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: W|W]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: X|X]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: Y|Y]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: Z|Z]]
* By [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]] code: [[List of airports by ICAO code: A|A]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: B|B]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: C|C]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: D|D]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: E|E]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: F|F]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: G|G]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: H|H]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: I|I]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: J|J]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: K|K]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: L|L]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: M|M]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: N|N]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: O|O]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: P|P]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: Q|Q]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: R|R]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: S|S]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: T|T]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: U|U]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: V|V]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: W|W]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: X|X]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: Y|Y]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: Z|Z]]
* [[List of airports in North America]]
* [[Lists of military bases]]
* By country: see [[:Category:Lists of airports]]
* By metropolitan area: see [[:Category:Local airport lists]]
''See also:'' [[Latitude and longitude of airports near U.S. cities]]
==References==
* The [http://www.brusselsairport.be/airports_web/en_allairports.cfm?order=code Brussels Airport] website has an alternative list which contains some airports not included in the lists above.
* [http://www.aircraft-charter-world.com/ Airport Charter World] is an air charter company that has a comprehensive list with a clickable map.
==External links==
* [http://www.airnav.com/airports/ AirNav.com] - complete list of U.S. airports, with detailed airport information
* [http://www.airportcitycodes.com/ AirportCityCodes] - Airport Code search, Distance Calculator
* [http://www.quickaid.com/ QuickAid Airport Directory] - Hotel and services for many US Airports plus links to major airport official websites
* [http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/airport_code.htm Airport Code List]
* [http://www.azworldairports.com/index.htm A-Z World Airports]
* [http://www.uk-airport-news.info UK Airport News]
* [http://www.africaspotter.at.tt AFRICASPOTTER.at.tt] - Airports in Southern Africa
* [http://www.world-airport-codes.com World Airport Codes] - Useful site showing all airports in the world
* [http://www.numlink.com/ Airport satellite images]
* [http://www.airfields-freeman.com/ List of abandoned and little-known airfields in the United States]
[[Category:Lists of airports| ]]
[[de:Liste der Verkehrsflughäfen]]
[[es:Lista de aeropuertos del mundo]]
[[fr:Liste des aéroports]]
[[it:Codice aeroportuale IATA]]
[[nl:Lijst van vliegvelden]]
[[pl:Porty lotnicze &#347;wiata]]
[[ro:List&#259; de aeroporturi din Rom&#226;nia]]
[[ru:&#1057;&#1087;&#1080;&#1089;&#1086;&#1082; &#1072;&#1101;&#1088;&#1086;&#1087;&#1086;&#1088;&#1090;&#1086;&#1074;]]
[[ja:&#19990;&#30028;&#12398;&#31354;&#28207;&#19968;&#35239;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inclusion body myositis</title>
<id>15538</id>
<revision>
<id>41942135</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:59:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Inclusion body myositis |
ICD10 = |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|728.89}} |
}}
'''Inclusion body myositis''' ('''IBM''') is an [[inflammation|inflammatory]] [[muscle]] [[disease]], characterized by slowly progressive wasting and weakness of the [[arm]]s and [[Human leg|legs]]. Two features characterize the sIBM muscle, profound [[inflammation]] and protein abnormalities within the muscle cells. The inflammation aspect is similar to [[polymyositis]] however, polymyositis does not display many of the abnormal [[Cell (biology)||cellular]] changes seen in sIBM. Additionally, in contrast with polymyositis(PM), sIBM affects men more than women and is resistant to treatment (PM often responds well). Symptoms usually begin after 50 years of age. There is no effective treatment for the disease.
Sporadic inclusion body myositis [MY-oh-sigh-tis] (sIBM) is a disease of the muscle cells. The muscle cells somehow become abnormal and the [[immune system]] kills them, weakening the muscles. Its name comes form the fact that the muscles in sIBM are characterized by "inclusion bodies" within the cells. sIBM is a rare disease, diagnosed in only about 5 people per million, although not much research exists on the number of cases and some doctors feel the numbers are much higher. It is more common in men (2 to 3 males to 1 female). sIBM is an age-related disease - as we get older it gets more and more common. It usually appears after the age of 50 and is the most common acquired muscle disorder seen in older people although about 20% of cases display symptoms before the age of 50. Weakness comes on slowly and progresses steadily and may lead to severe weakness and wasting of arm and leg muscles. Patients may become unable to perform daily living activities and be confined to [[wheelchair]]s. sIBM is not considered a [[fatal]] disorder - all things being equal, sIBM will not kill you (but the risk of serious injury due to falls is increased).
==Symptoms==
How sIBM affects individuals is quite variable as is the age of onset (which varies from the forties upwards). Because sIBM affects different people in different ways and at different rates, there is no textbook case.
Eventually, sIBM results in general, progressive muscle weakness. Usually, the muscles initially afflicted by sIBM are those in the arms and legs, resulting in difficulty performing various everyday tasks, such as getting out of chairs. Another common and distinct characteristic of sIBM is an early and severe weakening of the finger [[flexor muscle]]s, leading to difficulties in grasping and holding on to things..
During the course of the illness, the patient's mobility is progressively restricted as it becomes hard for them to bend down, reach for things, walk quickly and so on. Many patients say they have balance problems and fall easily, as the muscles cannot compensate for an off-balanced posture. Because sIBM makes the leg muscles weak and unstable, patients are very vulnerable to serious injury from tripping or falling down.
In up to 33 to 50 percent of cases, patients with sIBM develop weakness in the [[pharyngeal muscle]]s, used in swallowing.
Patients with sIBM eventually need to resort to a cane or a walker. In most cases, a wheelchair eventually becomes a necessity, usually within 5 to 10 years from initial diagnosis.
From a recent article: "The progressive course of s-IBM leads slowly to severe disability. Finger functions can become very impaired, such as for manipulating pens, keys, buttons, and zippers, pulling handles, and firmly grasping handshakes. Arising from a chair becomes difficult. Walking becomes more precarious. Sudden falls, sometimes resulting in major injury to the skull or other bones, can occur, even from walking on minimally-ir |
ng as another group that got Rational Behavior Therapy. Brandsma alleges that teaching people that they are alcoholics who are powerless over alcohol yields very bad results and that it becomes a self-fulfilling prediction -- they relapse and binge drink as if they really were powerless over alcohol.[2]
**And Dr. Walsh found that the so-called "free" A.A. program was actually very expensive -- it messed up patients so that they required longer periods of costly hospitalization later on.[3]
* While AA acknowledged in the foreword to the second edition of the Big Book that "we surely have no monopoly", one of the stories following the main text of the book still claims that AA is "the ''only'' remedy" to alcohol abuse (BB, pg. 259. Emphasis added.), despite some current research which shows that high percentages of alcohol abusers recover without medical treatment (''Treatment of Drug Abuse and Addiction -- Part III'', The Harvard Mental Health Letter, Volume 12, Number 4, October 1995, page 3.). Another study suggests that AA may be "no better than the natural history of the disease" in keeping people alive and sober (''The Natural History of Alcoholism: Causes, Patterns, and Paths to Recovery'', George E. Vaillant, pgs. 283-286.)
* The claim that people who refuse to work the program thoroughly, or do but are not helped by it, are "constitutionally incapable of being honest with themselves" (BB, pg. 58.), implies that, by definition, the AA program itself is incapable of failure, provided that the alcoholic is properly motivated. This seems to deny the existence of honest, motivated individuals for whom the program doesn't work. ("consitutionally incapable of being honest with themselves" has nothing to do with motivation and everything to do with being thorough through the steps and when the truth gets to be too much, backing down and not trudging through the rough spots.)
* A lack of official checks and balances designed to keep sponsors from abusing their position (though sponsors can be fired at any time)
* Claims that alcoholics are "doomed to an alcoholic death" unless they decide to "live on a spiritual basis" (each AA member being allowed to decide for himself what "spiritual basis" means) (BB, pg 44) and "Unless each A.A. member follows to the best of his ability our suggested Twelve Steps to recovery, he almost certainly signs his own death warrant." (12x12, pg. 174).
* In the discussion of self-centeredness, statements such as "Sometimes they [other people] hurt us, seemingly without provocation, but we ''invariably'' find that at some point in the past we have made decisions based on self which later placed us in a position to be hurt." (BB, pg. 62. Emphasis added.) may be generalized so as to leave no room for instances where the victim was blameless, such as [[child sexual abuse|childhood sexual abuse]] or another form of mistreatment of either children or innocent adults unable to protect themselves. Many AA members interpret this to mean that blameless victims are at fault for continuing to be hurt by a past event, and not at fault for the past event itself. Some critics assert that this interpretation is incompatible with the text, saying that it clearly refers to the actual acts of others, not the victims' attitudes towards those acts, and suggests the problems of victims are that they have made "decisions based on self", that, ''later'' place them in a position to be hurt, not that they have chosen to remain affected by earlier hurts. On the other hand, supporters assert that the "decisions based on self" could have been, and in the case of blameless victims, clearly were, made ''after'' the event itself that occurred. An unofficial slogan sometimes heard in AA is "There are no victims, only volunteers." This clearly indicates the belief that nobody is ever victimised in any way that they could not have avoided. (Some AA members believe that these types of statements are only intended to warn against a habitual victim mentality. Some AA members understand that people can experience either innocent bad luck or be seriously victimized through no fault of their own.) In any case, the interpretation suggests that whether one continues to be hurt by previous abuse is something one can have full choice over, whereas physical and mental trauma resulting from victimisation might be chronic and something the victim is ''truly'' powerless over.
* The claim that "If we were to live, we had to be free of anger." (BB, pg. 66) when psychologists say that while anger must be [[Anger management|managed]], it is not possible or healthy to do away with it entirely. (Some AA members interpret "free of anger" to mean that one should not be enslaved by their anger, be a "rageaholic," or engage in habitual toxic anger, not to mean that they should have no anger at all.)
* The "To Wives" chapter of the Big Book being written as advice from one wife of an alcoholic to another, when it was in fact written by Bill W. himself despite his wife Lois' desire to write it (''Getting Better: Inside Alcoholics Anonymous'', Nan Robertson, page 70-71; ''Pass It On'', a publication of AA, page 200.)
* Bill W.'s frequent use of first-person plural giving the implication that all alcohol abusers have similar defects of character ([[12 steps#The twelve steps|6th Step]]) and past experiences (examples: "...something had to be done about ''our'' vengeful resentments, self-pity, and unwarranted pride." 12x12, pg. 47. and "''We'' never thought of making honesty, tolerance, and true love of man and [[god]] the daily basis of living." 12x12, pg. 72. Emphasis added.)
* The contradiction between the BB's claim that "We will seldom be interested in liquor. "If tempted, we recoil from it as from a hot flame" We will see that our new attitude toward liquor has been given to us without any thought or effort on our part. It just comes! That is the [[miracle]] of it." (BB, pgs. 84-85) and Bill W.'s own statement that even co-founder Dr. Bob "was bothered very badly by the temptation to drink." "Unlike most of our crowd, I did not get over my craving for liquor much during the first two and one half years of abstinence." ["Dr. Bob's Nightmare"] (BB page 181) On the other hand, Dr. Bob's use of the word "craving" is consistent with the physical cravings described by Dr. Silkworth, not with the lack of the mental obsession to ''return'' to liquor that is described.
* AA's heavy reliance on [http://www.wtv-zone.com/Liandre/Liandres/400_AA_Slogans.html numerous slogans] [http://www.recoveryresources.org/aphorisms.html] [http://www.geocities.com/HotSprings/Spa/2973/index11.html], including ones used to defer criticisms brought up during meetings, such as "Take the cotton out of your ears and put it in your mouth!"
====Criticisms specific to religious themes====
Critics see the following points as evidence of religious themes in AA:
* Many of the steps being adapted and altered from tenets that "came straight from Dr. Bob's and (Bill W.'s) own earlier association with the [[Oxford Group]]s" (''The Language of the Heart'', William G. Wilson, pg. 298), a Christian spiritual movement with which friends of theirs had been involved and which places a large emphasis on taking individual responsibility for the harm one has done to others and confession to god and another person.
* Because "most alcoholics just wanted to find sobriety, nothing else", "The [[Oxford Group]]s' absolute concepts ... had to be fed with teaspoons rather than by buckets." (''Alcoholics Anonymous Comes Of Age'', William G. Wilson, pgs. 74-75.)
* The statement that "At the moment we are trying to put our lives in order. But this is not an end in itself. Our real purpose is to fit ourselves to be of maximum service to [[god]]" ("god" or "higher power" being defined by the AA member himself, including non-spiritual, agnostic, or atheist beliefs) (BB, pg. 77)
* "Being entirely ready to have god remove these defects of character" ([[12 steps#The twelve steps|sixth step]]), "or, if you wish, our [[sin]]s" (12x12, pg. 48), and "[[pray]]ing only for knowledge of His will for us and the power to carry that out" ([[12 steps#The twelve steps|eleventh step]])
====Criticism of religious themes from religious groups====
Several [[Traditionalist Catholics]] have expressed misgivings about what they term "the abominably liberal and indifferentist," nature of AA while at the same time acknowledging it should be cautiously tolerated to avoid the greater evil of alcoholism.[http://www.sspx.ca/Angelus/2002_September/Traditional_Catholic.htm] A small number of ultra-conservative Protestants have expressed discomfort about what they believe to be [[New Thought]], [[Society of Jesus|Jesuitic]], or even [[occult]] aspects to [[Bill W]]'s personal philosophy.
==Literature==
*''Alcoholics Anonymous Comes of Age. A Brief History of A.A.'', New York: Alcoholics Anonymous, 1990, ISBN 091685602X.
For more literature, see [[Bill W.#Literature|Bill W.]], Literature; [[Bob Smith (doctor)#Literature|Dr. Bob]], Literature; [[Twelve-step program#Literature|Twelve-step program]], Literature.
*[http://www.barefootsworld.net/aajalexpost1941.html "Alcoholics Anonymous" by Jack Alexander, Saturday Evening Post, March 1, 1941]
*[http://www.eskimo.com/%7Eburked/post1950/post1950.html The Drunkard's Best Friend by Jack Alexander, Saturday Evening Post, April 1, 1950]
==Dramatic Portrayals==
*''My Name is Bill W.''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0097939/] Story of the founders of AA
*''Days of Wine and Roses''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt005589 |
Camelot]].
*[[Elmet]], a substantial kingdom in the midlands near [[Leeds]] extinguished in 616.
*[[Rheged]], another substantial kingdom, divided into north and south, in the north west of modern England.
*[[Caer Gwendolau]], a kingdom near modern [[Selkirk]] in [[Scotland]].
*Caer Luitcoit, a small kingdom in modern [[Staffordshire]].
*[[Pengwern]], a significant kingdom in what is now modern [[Shropshire]].
'''Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England'''
*[[Northumbria]], formed out of the kingdoms of [[Bernicia]] and [[Deira]].
*[[Mercia]], which absorbed the smaller kingdoms of [[Lindsey]] and [[Hwicce]].
*[[East Anglia]].
*[[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]].
*[[Kingdom of Sussex|Sussex]], kingdom of the [[South Saxons]].
*[[Wessex]], kingdom of the [[West Saxons]].
*[[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]], kingdom of the [[East Saxons]].
*[[Haestingas]], a Saxon tribe in part of [[Sussex]].
*[[Magonsaete]], an Anglian tribe in the hills of [[Shropshire]].
*[[Hwicce]], an Anglian tribe in modern [[Gloucestershire]] & [[Worcestershire]].
*[[Middle Saxons]], a Saxon tribe in modern [[Middlesex]] and [[Hertfordshire]].
*[[Suther ge]], the [[Saxons]] of modern [[Surrey]].
*[[Hicca]], a small ''Middle Angle'' tribe in modern [[Cambridgeshire]].
*[[Wreoconsaete]], an Anglian tribe in the hills of [[Shropshire]].
*Gyre, a small ''Middle Angle'' tribe in modern [[Cambridgeshire]].
*[[Witware]], the [[Jutes]] of the [[Isle of Wight]].
'''Romano-British and Welsh kingdoms in Wales'''
[[Wales]] experienced a similar history during this time, although the Welsh population successfully resisted the influx of Anglo-Saxon settlers into the British Isles. The country was home to a number of princedoms until England's ultimate conquest of the region in the later medieval period.
*[[Venedotia]] a kingdom which later became known as the [[Kingdom of Gwynedd]]
*[[Kingdom of Gwynedd]] a kingdom that eventually became the core of the [[Principality of Wales]]
*[[Demetia]] a kingdom which later became known as [[Dyfed]]
*[[Dyfed]]
*[[Deheubarth]]
*[[Powys]]
*[[Brycheiniog]]
*[[Ceredigion]]
*[[Gwent]]
*[[Morganwg]]
*[[Gwerthyrnion]]
*[[Dyfed]]
*[[Meirionydd]]
*[[Seisyllwg]]
*[[Rhufoniog]]
*[[Rhos]]
*[[Dogfeiling]]
*Dunoting
*[[Principality of Wales]] a feudal confederation of Welsh principalities and a vasal of [[England]] between 1267-1282.
'''Romano-British and Welsh kingdoms in Scotland'''
*[[Valentia]], an entity between [[Hadrians Wall]] and the [[Antonine Wall]] during the period following the departure of the Romans until c.450.
*[[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Ystrad Clud]]
*[[Gododdin]]
*[[Manau Gododdin]]
*[[Caer Gwendolau]]
'''[[Pict]]ish kingdoms in Scotland'''
*Cait — situated in modern [[Caithness]] and [[Sutherland]]
*Ce — situated in modern [[Mar]] and [[Buchan]]
*Circinn — perhaps situated in modern [[Angus]] and the Mearns[37]
*Fib — the modern [[Fife]], known to this day as 'the Kingdom of Fife'
*Fidach — location unknown
*Fotla — modern [[Atholl]] (Ath-Fotla)[38]
*Fortriu — cognate with the Verturiones of the Romans; recently shown to be centered around [[Moray]]
'''Gaelic kingdoms in Scotland'''
*[[Dal Riada]], the proto state that became [[Scotland]].
<br>
'''Extinct kingdoms in Ireland'''
[[Ireland]] during the early medieval period, consisted of a number of small tribal kingdoms. These were nominally unified into a single state, the [[Lordship of Ireland]], between the [[twelth century|twelfth]] and [[sixteenth century|sixteenth]] centuries. This was followed by a [[Kingdom of Ireland]], which existed until Ireland's union with the rest of the British Isles in [[1800]]. The most prominent of the tribal kingdoms were:
*[[Aidhne]]
*Ailech
*[[Kingdom of Oriel|Airgialla]]
*Breifne ''For reference see'' [[Information on East Breifne]]
*Clandeboye
*[[Conmaicne Mara]]
*[[Delbhna Nuadat]]
*[[Delbhna Tir Dha Locha]]
*Dal Faitach
*[[Dalriada]]
*[[Desmond]]
*Dublin
*Fir Manach
*[[Hy-Many]]
*[[Meath]]
*[[Moylurg]]
*Muscraighe
*Osraige
*[[Thomond]]
*Tir Eogain
*Tir Connell
*Ui Cheinnsealaigh
*Ui Failghe
*[[Ui Fiachrach]]
*Uladh
====Elsewhere====
*[[Khazaria]]
*[[Magadhan Empire]]
*[[Byzantine Empire]] (395-1453)
**[[Empire of Nicaea]] (1204-1261)
**[[Empire of Trebizond]]
**[[Despotate of Epirus]]
**[[Morea|Despotate of Morea]]
*[[Srivijaya]]n kingdom (500s-1400)
*[[Franks|Frankish Kingdom]]/[[Carolingian Empire]] (~419-843)
**[[Western Franks|West Francia]]
***[[France|Kingdom of France]]
**[[Central Franks|Central Francia]]
***Kingdom of [[Lotharingia]] (855-869)
**[[East Francia]]
***[[Holy Roman Empire]] (843-1806)
****[[List of states in the Holy Roman Empire]]
*Great [[Bulgaria]] (632-660)
*[[Volga Bulgaria]] (660-1236)
*[[Novgorod Republic]]
*[[History of the First Bulgarian Empire|First Bulgarian Empire]] (681-1018)
**[[Bulgaria]]n [[Khanate]] (681-864)
*[[Golden Horde]] - in [[1430s]] into [[Kazan Khanate]], [[Crimean Khanate]], [[Astrakhan Khanate]], [[Siberian Khanate]], [[Big Horde]]; [[Russia]] finally became independent
*[[List of barbarian kings of Italy|Kingdom of Italy]]
*[[Khazaria|Khazar Empire]] (652-1016)
*[[Champa]] (192-1697)
*[[Khmer Empire]] (657-1462)
*[[Nanzhao]] (737-902)
*[[Kingdom of Dali]] (937-1253)
*[[Guge]] (ca. 900- ca. 1650)
*[[Kievan Rus]] (860 - 12th century)
*[[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]] (1080-1375)
*[[Medieval Croatian state]] (~800s-1102)
*[[Duchy of Lorraine]]
*Duchy of [[Burgundy]] ([[880]]-[[1482]])
*[[Spain|Spanish]] states
**Christian
***[[Crown of Aragon]] (-1479)
****[[Aragon]] (1035-1479)
*****[[Ribagorza]]
*****[[Sobrarbe]]
****[[Count of Barcelona|County of Barcelona]], a.k.a Principality of [[Catalonia]]
***** [[Urgell]] and other semi-independent counties
****[[Kingdom of Valencia]]
****[[Kingdom of the Majorcan]]
***[[Kingdom of Asturias]] (716-913) afterwards
***[[Kingdom of León]] (913-1037, 1195-1230)
***[[Castile]] (11th century - 1479)
***[[Kingdom of Navarre]]
**Moorish
***[[Caliph of Cordoba|Caliphate of Cordoba]]
***[[Taifa]] kingdoms
****[[Denia]]
****[[Granada]] (-1492 Castilian conquest)
*[[Republic of Venice]] (727-1797)
*[[Crusader State]]s (1098-1291)
**[[County of Edessa]]
**[[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
**[[Principality of Antioch]]
**[[County of Tripoli]]
**[[Kingdom of Cyprus]]
**[[Latin Empire|Latin Empire of Constantinople]]
**[[Kingdom of Thessalonica]]
**[[Principality of Achaea]]
**[[Duchy of Athens]]
**[[Duchy of the Archipelago]]
*[[Pomerania]] ruled by the [[Dukes of Pomerania]] (1121-1637)
*[[History of the Second Bulgarian Empire|Second Bulgarian Empire]] (1186-1396)
*[[Habsburg]] Empire (1282-1867)
*[[Mongols|Mongol Empire]] (1200-1266)
*[[Singhasari]] kingdom (1222-~1500)
*[[Majapahit Empire]] (~1293-1500)
*[[Sultanate of Malacca]] (1402 - 1511)
*[[Republic of Ragusa]]/Dubrovnik (1358-1808)
*[[Monarchs of Naples and Sicily|Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily]] (1043-1410, 1442-1500, 1735-1860)
*[[Papal States]] &mdash; partially annexed by the kingdom of Italy in 1860, completely annexed in 1870.
**[[Avignon]]
**[[Peñíscola]] under antipope [[Antipope Benedict XIII|Benedict XIII]]
*[[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] (-1795)
*[[Savoy|Duchy of Savoy]] (1416-1714)
*[[Duchy of Bar]]
*[[Fatimid]] (909-1171)
*[[Sultanate of Rüm]] ([[1077]]-[[1307]])
*[[Duchy of Brittany]] ([[841]] to [[1532]])
*[[Republic of St. Tropez]] ([[1470]]-[[1672]])
*[[Karantania]]
*[[Mongol Empire]]
*[[Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights]]
*[[Duchy of Normandy]]
*[[Timurid Empire]]
*[[Trubczewsk]]
*[[Brabant|Duchy of Brabant]]
==Modern states==
===States and territories grouped by geographical location===
====Europe====
*In and around what is now [[Bulgaria]]
**Third [[History of Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] Kingdom (1878-1944)
**[[Principality]] of [[History of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] (1878-1908)
*[[Commonwealth of England]] - (non-existent)
*In and around what is now [[Scandinavia]]
**[[Grand Duchy of Finland]]
**[[Kalmar Union]] - (dissolved)
**[[Denmark-Norway]] - (dissolved)
**[[Sweden-Norway]] - (dissolved)
* In and around what is now [[Germany]]
**[[Confederation of the Rhine]]
***[[German Confederation]]
****[[North German Confederation]]
**[[German Empire]] (1871-1918)
***[[Kingdom of Prussia]] (1701-1918)
***[[Ducal Prussia]]
**[[Brandenburg-Prussia]] (1660-1701)
* On the island of [[Ireland]]
** Confederation of Kilkenny/[[Confederate Ireland]] (1642-1649)
*[[Historical states of Italy]]
**[[Roman Republic (19th century)]]
**[[Tavolara Island]]
**[[Two Sicilies|Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]] (1815-1860)
* In and around what is now [[The Netherlands]]:
** [[Republic of the Seven United Netherlands]] ([[1581]] - [[1795]]) (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden/Provinciën) Independence from [[Spain]] after [[Eighty Years' War]] in [[1581]], conquered by [[Napoleon]] 1795.
** [[Batavian Republic]] ([[1795]] - [[1806]]) (Bataafse Republiek) [[France]]'s [[vassal state]].
** [[Kingdom of Holland]] ([[1806]] - [[1810]]) (Koninkrijk Holland/Royaume d'Hollande) Ruled by [[Louis Bonaparte]], [[Annexation|annexed]] by [[France]] 1810.
* In and around what is now [[Poland]]
**[[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]
**[[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] (1569-1795)
**[[Duchy of Warsaw]] (1807-1815)
**[[Free City of Danzig]] (1807-1815) (1920-1939)
**[[Free City of Kraków|Republic of Krakow]] (1815-1846)
**[[Duchy of Courland]] (1561-1795)
====Asia====
* In [[History of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]]
**[[Durrani Empire]] (1747-1823)
*[[List of Kings of Iraq|Kingdom of Iraq]]
*[[Ottoman Empire]] (c.1281-1923)
* In and around the [[Philippines]]
**[[Sultanate of Sulu]] (1789-1940)
====East Asia====
*[[Manchukuo]] (1932-1945)
====North America====
*[[Iroquois Confederacy]]
*[[Cherokee Empire]]
*[[Cherokee Republic]]
*[[First Vermont Republic June 1777-1791]]
*[[State of Franklin]]
*[[Conch Republic]]
*[[Republic of Texas]]
====Latin America====
*[[Brazilian Empire]] (1822-1889)
*[[Chan Santa Cruz]]
*[[Gran Colombia]]
*[[Mexican Empire]] (First Empire: 1821-1823; Second Empire: 1864-1867)
*[[United |
n of Alpha Centauri relative to [[Beta Centauri]].]]
==Alpha Centauri in fiction==
Because of its status as our star's nearest galactic neighbor, Alpha Centauri has frequently been referred to in science fiction stories involving interstellar travel.
In ''[[The Centauri Device]]'' (1975) by [[M. John Harrison]] the native Centaurians (humanoid aliens able to interbreed with humans) have been wiped out in a [[genocidal]] attack by expanding Earth colonisation of the galaxy. The novel's main character, whose mother was Centauran, is one of the few people in the cosmos able to operate the 'device' of the book's title; a weapon of enormous power.
Alpha Centauri is mentioned at the beginning of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' by [[Douglas Adams]]. Shortly before the [[Vogons]] demolish the Earth to make way for a hyperspace bypass, they inform the planet that "All the planning charts and demolition orders have been on display in your local planning department on Alpha Centauri for fifty of your Earth years, so you've had plenty of time to lodge any formal complaint and it's far too late to start making a fuss about it now." When someone objects to this, [[Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz|Protstetnic Vogon Jeltz]] replies, "What do you mean you've never been to Alpha Centauri? For heaven's sake mankind, it's only four light years away you know. I'm sorry, but if you can't be bothered to take an interest in local affairs that's your own lookout." This scene appears in every incarnation of the story except the [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (film)|movie]] version. The story also mentions that in the old days of the Universe, "men were ''real'' men, women were ''real'' women, and small furry creatures from Alpha Centauri were ''real'' small furry creatures from Alpha Centauri."
In the ''[[Lost In Space]]'' TV series, Alpha Centauri is the intended destination of the United States spacecraft ''Jupiter 2'' launched [[October 16]], [[1997]] and crewed by the Robinson family and Major Don West. Stowaway Dr. Zachary Smith sabotages the mission on behalf of a foreign government, sending the ship off course.
In the 1991 computer game [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]] and its sequals, one of the ways to achieve victory is to successfully launch an expidition to colonize Alpha Centauri. "[[Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri]]," a spiritual sequel, involves seven ideological factions competing to colonize the Earth-like planet Chiron that orbits Alpha Centauri.
In an episode of ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series]]'', [[Zefram Cochrane]], the inventor of the [[warp drive]] is said to be from Alpha Centauri, though there is considerable debate as to whether this was intended to identify his place of origin, or of residence. However, he cannot be from AC, as seen in [[Star Trek: First Contact]], the 8th film in the series, as he is found by the [[Enterprise-E]] crew on Earth in the late 21st century. The novel "Federation" by Garfield and Judith Reeves-Stephens (co-writers on Star Trek: Enterprise), though superceded by the movie First Contact, postulates that Cochrane grew up on Earth, developed warp drive with the backing of Micah Brack, then led the settlement at Alpha Centauri that safeguarded humanity just a few short years later when a terrible war devastated Earth; Cochrane subsequently lived most of his remaining pre-Companion life at Alpha Centauri, thus accounting for his being "of" Alpha Centauri.
In the [[DC Comics]] universe, the planet [[Rann]] originated in the Alpha Centauri system. Rannians are so close to normal Earth-based humans that [[Adam Strange]] was brought to the planet to act as a sort of breeding stud. This was before Rann was teleported out of the Alpha Centauri system, into a parallel [[pocket universe]], and then to the [[Polaris]] system.
In [[James P. Hogan]]'s 1982 [[space opera]] novel [[Voyage from Yesteryear]], a human colony is artificially created at Alpha Centauri by automatic probe.
==See also==
* [[List of nearest stars]]
* [[List of brightest stars]]
==External links==
* [http://www.glyphweb.com/esky/stars/alphacentauri.html Alpha Centauri]
* [http://homepage.sunrise.ch/homepage/schatzer/Alpha-Centauri.html Alpha Centauri: A Candidate for Terrestrial Planets And Intelligent Life]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-id.pl?protocol=html&Ident=alpha+centauri SIMBAD observational data]
* {{cite web
| title = Alpha Centauri 3
| work = SolStation
| url = http://www.solstation.com/stars/alp-cent3.htm
| accessdate = November 30
| accessyear = 2005 }}
* {{cite web
| title = A Family Portrait of the Alpha Centauri System
| work = SpaceRef.com
| url = http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid = 11016
| accessdate = March 21
| accessyear = 2003 }}
* {{memoryalpha}}
* [http://jumk.de/astronomie/near-stars/alpha-centauri.shtml Alpha Centauri System]
[[Category:Triple star systems]]
[[Category:Centaurus constellation]]
[[Category:Yellow dwarfs|Centauri, Alpha]]
[[Category:Orange dwarfs|Centauri, Alpha]]
[[Category:Bayer objects|Centauri, Alpha]]
[[Category:HD and HDE objects]]
[[bg:Алфа Кентавър]]
[[ca:Alfa Centauri]]
[[cs:Alfa Centauri]]
[[de:Rigil Kentaurus]]
[[es:Alfa Centauri]]
[[eo:Alpha Centauri]]
[[fr:Alpha Centauri]]
[[io:Alpha Centauri]]
[[it:Alpha Centauri]]
[[he:אלפא קנטאורי]]
[[la:Alpha Centauri]]
[[hu:Alfa Centauri]]
[[nl:Alpha Centauri]]
[[ja:ケンタウルス座アルファ星]]
[[no:Alfa Centauri]]
[[pl:Alfa Centauri]]
[[ro:Alfa Centauri]]
[[ru:Α Центавра]]
[[sk:Alfa Centauri]]
[[fi:Alfa Centauri]]
[[sv:Alfa Centauri]]
[[uk:Альфа Центавра]]
[[zh:南門二]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amiga</title>
<id>1980</id>
<revision>
<id>42056001</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:25:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>148.4.33.125</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Technical features */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the family of home computers. For other uses, see [[Amiga (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Amiga Logo.jpg|right|265px]]
[[Image:Amiga 1000.jpg|thumb|255px|The original Amiga (1985)]]
The '''Amiga''' is a family of [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]]s originally developed by [[Amiga Corporation]] as an advanced [[game console]]. Development on the Amiga began in [[1982]] with [[Jay Miner]] as the principal hardware designer. [[Commodore International]] introduced the machine to the market in [[1985]], after having bought Amiga Corp. The machine was ahead of its time, sporting a [[Original Amiga chipset|custom chipset]] with advanced graphics and sound capabilities, and a sophisticated multitasking [[operating system]], now known as [[AmigaOS]]. Based on the [[Motorola]] [[68k]] series of [[32-bit]] [[microprocessor]]s, the Amiga provided a significant upgrade from 8-bit computers such as the [[Commodore 64]], the Amiga quickly grew in popularity among computer enthusiasts, especially in Europe. It also found a prominent role in the video production business.
==History==
===Amiga Corporation===
The Amiga's chipset was designed by a small company called [[Amiga Corporation]] during the end of the first home video game boom. Wary of industrial espionage, the chipset was codenamed Lorraine during development. Amiga Corp. funded the development of the Lorraine by manufacturing [[joystick]]s while seeking investors. The chipset was to be used in a video game machine, but following the [[video game crash of 1983]], the Lorraine was repurposed to be a personal computer. Before Amiga Corp. could bring the machine to market, the company encountered financial difficulties and was purchased by Commodore in August 1984.
The Amiga was designed to be the ultimate video game machine. Since a video game console requires lots of processing power, memory, CPU bandwidth, audo and video hardware, it can be seen that the relatively small additions of a capable operating system and good keyboard will make a video game console into a highly capable personal computer.
===Commodore===
The first Amiga computer, simply called the Amiga (and conspicuously devoid of references to Commodore), was released in [[1985]] by [[Commodore International|Commodore]], who marketed it both as their intended successor to the [[Commodore 64]] and as their competitor against the [[Atari ST]]. It was later renamed the [[Amiga 1000]] (or A1000 for short). Revolutionary for its time, it could display 4,096 colors and produce 4 channels of 8-bit stereo digital audio. It is also notable for having the first [[Computer multitasking#Preemptive multitasking|preemptive multitasking]] operating system with a color [[GUI]], allowing users to perform multiple tasks at the same time.
[[Image:Amiga500 system1.jpg|thumb|350px|An Amiga 500, with 1084S RGB monitor and A1010 floppy disk drive. (1987)]]
In [[1987]], Commodore released two new Amiga models, the [[A500]] and the [[A2000]]. These were marketed as low-end and high-end machines, respectively. The former became the most popular Amiga computer of the decade and served primarily as a games machine, while the latter was marketed as a more serious workstation for graphic purposes, due to the presence of a [[SCSI]] controller option, a [[Genlock]] slot and a video I/O connector.
In [[1990]], the [[A3000]] was introduced as the successor to both the A1000 and A2000, with an [[Extended chip set|enhanced chipset]] (ECS) and the second release of its operating system, which would eventually be called [[AmigaOS]].
In the same year, Commodore released three new low-end machines: the [[CDTV]], aimed to move the platform to the living room; the [[A500plus|A500+]], with the same enhancements as the A3000; and the [[A600]], basically an A500+ in a smaller box with an [[IDE]] controller for hard disks. All of these were commercial failures, main |
with the exterior derivative.
==See also==
*[[Nabla symbol|Nabla]]
*[[Divergence]]
*[[Curl]]
*[[Sobel]]
*[[Ion gradient]]
*[[Gradient descent]]
*[[Level set]]
*[[Musical isomorphism]]
[[Category:Vector calculus]]
[[bg:Градиент]]
[[ca:Gradient]]
[[cs:Gradient]]
[[de:Gradient (Mathematik)]]
[[es:Gradiente]]
[[fr:Gradient]]
[[it:Gradiente]]
[[he:גרדיאנט]]
[[nl:Gradiënt (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:勾配]]
[[pl:Gradient]]
[[pt:Gradiente]]
[[ru:Градиент]]
[[sk:Gradient]]
[[sl:Gradient]]
[[sv:Gradient]]
[[zh:梯度]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gauss (unit)</title>
<id>12462</id>
<revision>
<id>39823827</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T02:48:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<comment>A stubby little hyphen used as a minus sign in a superscript is hard to see.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to the unit '''Gauss'''; for other meanings see [[Gauss (disambiguation)]].''
The '''gauss''', abbreviated as G, is the [[cgs]] [[unit]] of [[magnetic flux density]] or [[magnetic induction]] ('''B'''), named after the German mathematician and physicist [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]. One gauss is defined as one [[maxwell]] per square [[centimetre]].
For many years prior to [[1932]] the term gauss was used to designate that unit of [[magnetic field]] intensity which is now known as the [[oersted]]. This change in terminology was introduced to distinguish between magnetic induction and magnetic intensity as physical magnitudes.
The [[SI]] unit of [[magnetic flux density]] is the [[tesla (unit)|tesla]]. One gauss is equal to 10<sup>&minus;4</sup> tesla.
:1 T = 10 000 G
:1 G = 0.1 mT
[[Category:CGS units]]
[[Category:Units of magnetic flux density]]
[[de:Gauß (Einheit)]]
[[es:Gauss]]
[[fr:Gauss (unité)]]
[[ko:가우스 (단위)]]
[[lb:Gauß (Moosseenheet)]]
[[nl:Gauss]]
[[ja:ガウス]]
[[pl:Gaus]]
[[pt:Gauss]]
[[ru:Гаусс (единица измерения)]]
[[sl:Gauss (enota)]]
[[sv:Gauss]]
[[th:เกาส์]]
[[tr:Gauss (birim)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glacier</title>
<id>12463</id>
<revision>
<id>41748544</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:35:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marcoscramer</username>
<id>66957</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the geographical formation. For the professional wrestler, see [[Ray Lloyd]].}}
[[Image:Aletschgletscher Panorama.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Aletsch glacier, Switzerland]]
A '''glacier''' is a large, long-lasting [[river]] of [[ice]] that is formed on land and moves in response to [[gravity]]. A glacier is formed by multi-year ice [[Accretion (science)|accretion]] in [[slope|sloping]] [[topography|terrain]]. Glacier ice is the largest reservoir of [[freshwater]] on [[Earth]], and second only to [[ocean]]s as the largest reservoir of total water. Glaciers can be found on every [[continent]] except [[Australia]].
Geologic features associated with glaciers include end, lateral, ground and medial [[moraine]]s that form from glacially transported rocks and debris; [[glaciated valley|U-shaped valley]]s and [[corrie]]s ([[cirque (landform)|cirques]]) at their heads, and the ''glacier fringe'', which is the area where the glacier has recently melted into water.
==Types of glaciers==
[[Image:Glacier mouth.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Mouth of the glacier Schlatenkees near Innergschlöß, [[Austria]].]]
There are two main types of glaciers: '''alpine glaciers''', which are found in mountain terrains, and '''continental glaciers''', which are associated with [[ice age]]s and can cover large areas of [[continent]]s. Most of the concepts in this article apply equally to alpine glaciers and continental glaciers.
A '''temperate glacier''' is at the melting point throughout the year with internal and basal water. '''Polar glaciers''' are always below the freezing point with most mass loss due to sublimation. "Poly-thermal" or "sub-polar" glaciers have some internal drainage, but little to no basal melt. Thermal classifications vary so glacier zones are often used to identify melt conditions. The dry snow zone is a region where no melt occurs, even in the summer. The percolation zone is an area with some surface melt, often this zone is marked by refrozen ice lenses, glands, and layers. The wet snow zone is the region where all of the snow deposited since the end of the previous summer has been raised to 0 degrees. The superimposed ice zone is a zone of such high melt and refreeze that ice lenses have merged to a continous mass.
The smallest alpine glaciers form in [[mountain]] valleys and are referred to as '''valley glaciers'''. Larger ice layers can cover an entire mountain, mountain chain or even a [[volcano]]; this type is known as an [[ice cap]]. Ice caps feed '''outlet glaciers''', tongues of ice that extend into valleys below, far from the margins of those larger ice masses. Outlet glaciers are formed by the movement of ice from a [[polar ice cap]], or an ice cap from mountainous regions, to the sea.
The largest glaciers are [[ice sheet|continental ice sheet]]s, enormous masses of ice that are not affected by the landscape and extend over the entire surface, except on the margins, where they are thinnest. [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are the only places where continental ice sheets currently exist. These regions contain vast quantities of fresh water. The volume of ice is so large that if the Greenland ice sheet melted, it would cause sea levels to rise some six meters all around the world. If the Antarctic ice sheet melted, sea levels would rise up to 65 meters.
'''Plateau glaciers''' resemble ice sheets, but on a smaller scale. They cover some plateaus and high-altitude areas. This type of glacier appears in many places, especially in [[Iceland]] and some of the large islands in the [[Arctic Ocean]], and throughout the northern [[Pacific Cordillera]] from southern [[British Columbia]] to western [[Alaska]].
'''Tidewater glaciers''' are glaciers that flow into the sea. As the ice reaches the sea pieces break off, or ''calve'', forming [[iceberg]]s. Most tidewater glaciers calve above sea level, which often results in a tremendous splash as the iceberg strikes the water. If the water is deep, glaciers can calve underwater, causing the iceberg to suddenly explode up out of the water. The [[Hubbard Glacier]] is the longest tidewater glacier in [[Alaska]] and has a calving face over ten kilometers long. [[Yakutat Bay]] and [[Glacier Bay National Park|Glacier Bay]] are both popular with cruise ship passengers because of the huge glaciers descending to them.
'''Piedmont glaciers''' occupy broad lowlands at the base of steep mountains, and form when one or more alpine glaciers surge from the confining walls of mountain valleys. The size of piedmont glaciers varies greatly: among the largest is the [[Malaspina Glacier]], which extends along the length of the southern coast of [[Alaska]]. It covers more than 5,000 km&sup2; of the coastal plain at the foot of the [[Saint Elias Mountains|Saint Elias range]]. And it is only a part of the much bigger Kluane Icecap, which spans the [[Mount St. Elias]] and [[Chugach Mountains|Chugach]] groups of mountain ranges all the way from the [[Malaspina Glacier]] to the [[Copper River, Alaska|Copper River]] and well into the southwestern [[Yukon]], as well as southeast from the Malaspina towards the [[Iskut River]] in [[British Columbia]].
The highest alpine glacier in the world is the [[Siachen Glacier]], which is also a zone of political conflict between India and Pakistan.
==Formation of glaciers==
[[Image:Glacial ice formation LMB.png|thumb|right|175px|Formation of glacial ice]]
The snow which forms glaciers is subject to repeated freezing and thawing, which changes it into a form of granular ice called [[névé]]. Under the pressure of the layers of ice and snow above it, this granular ice fuses into denser [[firn]]. Over a period of years, layers of firn undergo further compaction and become glacial ice. Glacial ice contains minute air bubbles as a result, giving it a distinctive blue tint due to [[Rayleigh scattering]].
The lower layers of glacial ice flow and deform plastically under the pressure, allowing the glacier as a whole to move slowly like a viscous fluid. Glaciers do not need a slope to flow, being driven by the continuing accumulation of new snow at their source. The upper layers of glaciers are more brittle, and often form deep cracks known as [[crevasse]]s or [[Bergshrund]]s as they flex. These crevasses make unprotected travel over glaciers extremely hazardous. Glacial meltwaters flow throughout and underneath glaciers, carving channels in the ice similar to [[cave]]s in rock and also helping to lubricate the glacier's movement.
==Anatomy of a glacier==
[[Image:glacier.swiss.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The Upper Grindelwald Glacier and the Schreckhorn, showing accumulation and ablation zones]]
The upper part of a glacier that receives most of the snowfall is called the ''accumulation zone''. As a rule of thumb, the accumulation zone accounts for 60-70% of the glacier's surface area. The depth of ice in the accumulation zone exerts a downward force sufficient to cause deep [[erosion]] of the rock in this area. After the glacier is gone, this often leaves a bowl or amphitheater-shaped depression called a [[cirque (landform)|cirque]].
On the opposite end of the glacier, at its foot or terminal, is the ''deposition'' or ''ablation zone'', where more ice is lost through melting than gained from snowfall and [[sediment]] is deposited. The place where the glacier thins to nothing is called the [[ice front]].
The altitude where the two zones meet is called the ''equilibrium line''. At this altitude, the amount of new snow gained by accumulation is equal to the a |
scussions on baseball, the phrase "Hall of Fame" refers most often to the list of these honorees, rather than the physical museum. The Hall's motto is "Preserving History, Honoring Excellence, Connecting Generations".
*[[List of members of the Baseball Hall of Fame (alphabetical)|Members of the Hall of Fame (alphabetical listing)]]
*[[List of members of the Baseball Hall of Fame (chronological)|Members of the Hall of Fame (by year of election)]]
==History==
[[Image:Baseball_Hof.jpg|thumb|right|The Entrance to the Baseball Hall of Fame]]
The Hall of Fame was dedicated on [[June 12]], [[1939]] by the [[Clark Foundation]], a private organization based in Cooperstown that traces its money to the original [[Singer Corporation|Singer Sewing Machine Company]]. The Foundation sought to bring tourists to Cooperstown, which had been doubly damaged by the [[Great Depression]], which decimated the local tourist trade, and [[Prohibition]], which was devastating to the local [[hops]] industry. A legend that [[U.S. Civil War]] hero [[Abner Doubleday]] invented baseball in Cooperstown was instrumental in the early marketing of the Hall, though in fact the story is completely false.
The [[Major League Baseball|major leagues]], seeing the marketing opportunity, soon began cooperating with the Hall of Fame in marketing it and acquiring artifacts for display there.
Recent developments in the museum include an $8 million library and research facility that opened in 1994. More renovations were done in 2003 through spring 2005.
In 2002, ''Baseball As America'' was launched, a traveling exhibit that toured ten American museums over six years. The Hall of Fame has also sponsored educational programming on the Internet to bring the Hall of Fame to schoolchildren who might not see it. In January 2006, the Hall of Fame also announced a partnership with [[Citgo]] to launch a traveling exhibit about Latin America's contributions to baseball.
The town of Cooperstown also includes [[Doubleday Field]], where the "Hall of Fame Game" featuring two major league teams is held every year. In the past, the game was held during induction weekend, but in recent years it has been scheduled in May or June, when it is easier on a team's travel schedule. The [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] and [[Cincinnati Reds]] are slated for 2006.
==Inductees==
Among baseball fans, "Hall of Fame" means not only the museum and facility in Cooperstown, but more likely the pantheon of players, [[manager (baseball)|managers]], [[umpire (baseball)|umpires]] and builders who have been named to enshrinement there. The first five men elected were superstars [[Ty Cobb]], [[Babe Ruth]], [[Honus Wagner]], [[Christy Mathewson]] and [[Walter Johnson]], named in 1936. As of February 2006, 278 individuals had been elected or appointed to the Hall of Fame, including 225 players, 17 managers (many of whom also played), 8 umpires, and 28 builders, executives, and organizers. 30 men have also been awarded the [[Ford C. Frick Award]] for excellence in broadcasting, while 57 have received the [[J.G. Taylor Spink Award]] for excellence in baseball writing.
[[Image:Plaque first.jpg|thumb|left|Plaques of the First Class of Inductees]]
Players are currently inducted into the Hall of Fame through election by either the [[Baseball Writers Association of America]] (or BBWAA), or the [[Veterans Committee]], which is now composed of living Hall of Famers and recipients of the two major awards. Five years after retirement, any player with 10 years of major league experience, who passes a screening committee (which removes from consideration players of clearly lesser qualification) is eligible to be elected by BBWAA members with 10 years' membership or more. From a final ballot typically including 25-40 candidates, each writer may vote for up to 10 players; until the late 1950s, voters were advised to cast votes for the maximum 10 candidates. Any player named on 75% or more of all ballots cast is elected. A player who is named on fewer than 5% of ballots is dropped from future elections. In some instances, the screening committee had restored their names to later ballots, but in the mid-1990s, dropped players were made permanently ineligible for Hall of Fame consideration, even by the Veterans Committee. A 2001 change in the election procedures restored the eligibility of these dropped players; while their names will not appear on future BBWAA ballots, they may be considered by the Veterans Committee.
Under special circumstances, certain players may be deemed eligible for induction even though they have not met all requirements. This has resulted in only two inductions, when [[Lou Gehrig]] was specially elected shortly after his retirement in [[1939 in baseball|1939]], and when [[Addie Joss]] was elected in [[1978 in baseball|1978]] despite only playing in nine seasons. Additionally, if an otherwise eligible player dies before their fifth year of retirement, then that player may be placed on the ballot at the first election at least six months after their death. [[Roberto Clemente]], who died in a plane crash in [[1972]], is the only current Hall of Fame member for whom the 5-year minimum was waived.
If a player fails to be elected by the BBWAA within 20 years of their retirement from active play, he may be selected by the Veterans Committee, which now votes every two years. The Veterans Committee also votes every fourth year on candidates from among managers, umpires, executives or builders. [[Negro League baseball|Negro Leagues]] players have also been considered at various times, beginning in 1971. In 2005 the Hall completed a study on African American players between the late 19th century and the integration of the major leagues in 1947, and conducted a special election for such players in February 2006; seventeen figures from the Negro Leagues were chosen in that election, in addition to the eighteen previously selected.
Predictably, the selection process catalyzes endless debate among baseball fans over the merits of various candidates. Even players already elected remain for years the subjects of discussions as to whether their elections were deserved or in error.
==The Museum==
According to the Hall of Fame, approximately 350,000 visitors enter the museum each year, and the running total has surpassed 13 million. These visitors see only a fraction of its 35,000 artifacts, 2.6 million library items (such as newspaper clippings and photos) and 130,000 baseball cards. A quick rundown of what there is to see at the museum follows.
===First floor===
*'''Baseball at the Movies''' houses baseball movie memorabilia while a screen shows footage from those movies.
*The '''[[Bullpen]] Theater''' is the site of daily programming at the museum (trivia games, book discussions, etc.) and is decorated with pictures of famous [[relief pitchers]].
*'''Induction Row''' contains artifacts pertinent to the [[Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 2006|most recent inductees]] and photos of past Hall of Fame Weekends.
*The '''Perez-Steele Art Gallery''' features art of all media related to baseball.
*The '''Plaque Gallery''', the most recognizable site at the museum, contains induction plaques of all members.
* The '''Sandlot Kids Clubhouse''' has various interactive displays for young children.
*'''Scribes and Mikemen''' honors Spink and Frick winners with a headshot display and has artifacts related to baseball writing and broadcasting.
===Second floor===
*The '''Grandstand Theater''' features a brief video capturing the essence of baseball that runs on a loop. The theater, complete with replica stadium seats, is decorated to resemble [[Comiskey Park]].
*'''The Game''' is the major feature of the second floor. It is where the most artifacts are displayed. The Game is set up in a timeline format, starting with baseball's beginnings and culminating with the game we know today. There are several offshoots of this meandering timeline:
**The '''[[Babe Ruth]] Room'''
** The '''[[Hank Aaron]] Room''' (also details the [[500 home run club]].)
**'''Pride and Passion''' ([[Negro Leagues]] exhibit)
**'''Taking The Field''' (19th century baseball)
**'''Women in Baseball'''
*The '''Today's Game''' exhibit is built like a baseball clubhouse, with 30 glass-enclosed locker stalls, one for each Major League franchise. In each stall there is a jersey and other items from the designated big league team, along with a brief team history. A center display case holds objects donated to the Hall of Fame from the past year or two. Outside the exhibit are various display cases devoted to youth baseball, American presidents and baseball, baseball cards and a ball from every [[no-hitter]] since 1940.
===Third floor===
*'''Autumn Glory''' is devoted to post-season baseball and has replicas of [[World Series]] rings and press passes.
*An '''Education Gallery''' hosts school groups. In the gallery foyer is a tape of the popular [[Abbott and Costello]] routine "[[Who's on First?]]" and a display case with rotating exhibits.
*The '''Records Room''' has charts showing active and all-time leaders in various baseball statistical categories. Award winners are listed as well.
*'''Sacred Ground''' is the newest museum section, opened after the 2003-05 renovation. It is devoted entirely to ballparks and everything about them: the fan experience, the business of a ballpark, a computer tour of Boston's old [[South End Grounds]], and more.
==Controversies==
The most lasting controversy in Hall of Fame elections is the role and composition of the Veterans Committee. While few of the BBWAA selections have been particularly controversial, prior to its recent restructuring the Veterans Committee had, at times, seemed to pass over the most worthy players in order to enshrine contemporaries and teammates of the committee members. This tendency was most pronounced during the tenure of [[Frankie Frisch]] a |
'Amyntas'' - 1906
*''Le retour de l'enfant prodigue'' - 1907
*''Dostoïevsky d'après sa correspondance'' - 1908
*''La porte étroite'' - 1909
*''Oscar Wilde'' - 1910
*''Nouveaux prétextes'' - 1911
*''Charles-Louis-Philippe'' - 1911
*''C. R. D. N.'' - 1911
*''Isabelle'' - 1911
*''Bethsabé'' - 1912
*''Souvenirs de la Cour d'Assises'' - 1914
*''Les caves du Vatican'' - 1914
*''La symphonie pastorale'' - 1919
*''Corydon'' - 1920
*''Numquid et tu . . .?'' - 1922
*''Dostoïevsky'' - 1923
*''Incidences'' - 1924
*''Caractères'' - 1925
*''Les faux-monnayeurs'' - 1925
*''Si le grain ne meurt'' - 1926
*''Le journal des faux-monnayeurs'' - 1926
*''Dindiki'' - 1927
*''Voyage au Congo'' - 1927
*''Le retour de Tchad'' - 1928
*''L'école des femmes'' - 1929
*''Essai sur Montaigne'' - 1929
*''Un esprit non prévenu'' - 1929
*''Robert'' - 1930
*''La séquestrée de Poitiers'' - 1930
*''L'affaire Redureau'' - 1930
*''Œdipe'' - 1931
*''Perséphone'' - 1934
*''Les nouvelles nourritures'' - 1935
*''Geneviève'' - 1936
*''Retour de l'U. R. S. S.'' - 1936
*''Retouches â mon retour de l'U. R. S. S.'' - 1937
*''Notes sur Chopin'' - 1938
*''Journal 1889-1939'' - 1939
*''Découvrons Henri Michaux'' - 1941
*''Thésée'' - 1946
*''Le retour'' - 1946
*''Paul Valéry'' - 1947
*''Le procès'' - 1947
*''L'arbitraire'' - 1947
*''Eloges'' - 1948
*''Littérature engagée'' - 1950
The Catholic Church placed his works on the [[Index of Forbidden Books]] in [[1952]].
==See also==
[[Historical pederastic couples]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{gutenberg author| id=André+Gide | name=André Gide}}
*[http://www.andregide.org Center for Gidian Studies]
*[http://www.gidiana.net/ Amis d'André Gide] ''In French''
*[http://www.bobpayne.com/ Alphabet Soup]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Hermann Hesse]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1947 | after = [[Thomas Stearns Eliot]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1869 births|Gide, André]]
[[Category:1951 deaths|Gide, André]]
[[Category:Parisians|Gide, André]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Gide, André]]
[[Category:French novelists|Gide, André]]
[[Category:French essayists|Gide, André]]
[[Category:French travel writers|Gide, André]]
[[Category:Pederastic lovers|Gide, André]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Gide, André]]
[[Category:LGBT rights activists|Gide, André]]
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[[zh:纪德]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Applied statistics</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Applied statistics''' is the use of [[statistics]] and [[statistical theory]] in real-life situations.
Anyone committed to empirical observation as a means of knowing the universe about us can apply statistics as a research tool. This obviously includes [[science]] but includes [[history]] and the [[art]]s as well. For example, [[econometrics]] makes heavy use of applied statistics to study the [[economics|economy]].
In each of these areas, we need to observe, recognize the potential for error in our observations, and plan our research to control the [[observational error]].
== See also ==
* [[List of publications in statistics#Applied statistics| Important publications in applied statistics]]
== External links ==
* [http://mbhs.edu/~steind00/ Some applets about applied statistics]
{{statistics-stub}}
[[Category:Statistics]]
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<title>Algorithms for calculating variance</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Algorithm]]s for calculating [[variance]]''' play a minor role in [[statistics|statistical]] computing. A key problem in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares, which can lead to numerical instability as well as to [[arithmetic overflow]] when dealing with large values.
== Algorithm I ==
A [[formula]] for calculating the variance of a [[statistical population|population]] of size ''n'' is:
:<math>\sigma^2 = \frac {\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i^2 - (\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i)^2/n}{n}. \!</math>
A formula for calculating an [[bias (statistics)|unbiased]] estimate of the population variance from a finite [[statistical sample|sample]] of ''n'' observations is:
:<math>s^2 = \frac {\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i^2 - (\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i)^2/n}{n-1}. \!</math>
Therefore a naive algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following [[pseudocode]]:
long n = 0
double sum = 0
double sum_sqr = 0
foreach x in data:
n += 1
sum += x
sum_sqr += x * x
end for
double mean = sum / n
double variance = (sum_sqr - sum * mean) / (n - 1)
This algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population: simply divide by ''n'' instead of <math>n-1</math> on the last line.
== Algorithm II ==
The following formulas can be used to update the [[mean]] and (estimated) variance of the sequence, for an additional element <math>x_{\mathrm{new}}</math>. Here, ''m'' denotes the estimate of the population mean, ''s''<sup>2</sup> the estimate of the population variance, and ''n'' the number of elements in the sequence before the addition.
:<math>m_{\mathrm{new}} = \frac{n \; m_{\mathrm{old}} + x_{\mathrm{new}}}{n+1} = m_{\mathrm{old}} + \frac{x_{\mathrm{new}} - m_{\mathrm{old}}}{n+1} \!</math>
:<math>s^2_{\mathrm{new}} = \frac{(n-1) \; s^2_{\mathrm{old}} + (x_{\mathrm{new}} - m_{\mathrm{new}}) \, (x_{\mathrm{new}} - m_{\mathrm{old}})}{n} \!</math>
A numerically stable algorithm is given below. It also computes the mean.
This algorithm is due to Knuth<ref>[[Donald E. Knuth]] (1998). ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', 3rd edn., p. 232. Boston: Addison-Wesley.</ref>,
who cites Welford<ref>B. P. Welford (1962). "Note on a method for calculating corrected sums of squares and products". ''Technometrics'' 4(3):419–420.</ref>.
long n = 0
double mean = 0
double S = 0
foreach x in data:
n += 1
double delta = x - mean
mean += delta / n
S += delta * (x - mean) // This expression uses the new value of mean
end for
double variance = S / (n - 1)
== Example ==
Assume that all floating point operations use the standard [[IEEE 754#Double-precision 64 bit|IEEE 754 double-precision]] arithmetic. Consider the sample (4, 7, 13, 16) from an infinite population. Based on this sample, the estimated population mean is 10, and the estimated population variance is 30. Both algorithms compute these values correctly. Next consider the sample <math>(10^8+4, 10^8+7, 10^8+13, 10^8+16)</math>, which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample. Algorithm II computes this variance estimate correctly, but Algorithm I returns 29.333333333333332 instead of 30. While this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of Algorithm I, it is easy to find data that reveal a major flaw in the naive algorithm: Take the sample to be <math>(10^9+4, 10^9+7, 10^9+13, 10^9+16)</math>. Again the estimated population variance of 30 is computed correctly by Algorithm II, but the naive algorithm now computes it as &minus;170.66666666666666. This is a serious problem with Algorithm I, since the variance can, by definition, never be negative.
== References ==
<references/>
== External links ==
* {{MathWorld|title=Sample Variance Computation|urlname=SampleVarianceComputation}}
[[Category:Statistics]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Constantinople</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article details the history of Constantinople before the [[fall of Constantinople|Turkish Conquest of 1453]]. For details on the city since 1453, see [[İstanbul]].''
[[Image:Constantinople.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of Constantinople. More [http://www.unc.edu/awmc/downloads/connorConstLblMed.jpg detailed map].]]
'''Constantinople'''{{fn|1}} (Greek: ''Κωνσταντινούπολις'') was the name of the modern city of [[İstanbul]], [[Turkey]] over the centuries that it served as the capital of the [[Byzantine Empire]] (from the city's ancient [[Greek (language)|Greek]] name, [[Byzantium]]). Constantinople was located strategically between the [[Golden Horn]] and the [[Sea of Marmara]] at the point where [[Europe]] met [[Asia]], and was highly significant as the successor to ancient [[Rome]] and the largest and wealthiest city in Europe throughout the Middle Ages, known as the "Queen of Cities".
== Names ==
The name of Constantinople is an honorific [[eponym]] referencing its founder, the Roman emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]]. Constantine established the Greek city of Byzantium as the second capital of the [[Roman Empire]] on [[May 11]], AD [[330]], naming the city ''Nova Roma'' (New Rome). That particular name, however, enjoyed little common use, and it was as the 'City of Constantine' (Constantinopolis) that it lived through the subsequent centuries.
A historical [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] name for the city was [[Tsargrad]]. The word is an [[Old Church Slavonic language|Old Church Slavonic]] translation of the [[Greek language|Greek]], presumably of Βασιλέως Πόλις, "the city of the emperor [king]": combining the Slavonic words ''[[tsar]]'' for "[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]" and ''grad'' for "city", it stood for "the City of the Emperor [Caesar]". As fashions have changed the term has faded, and the word ''Tsargrad'' is now an archaic term in [[Russian language|Russian]], but is still used occasionally in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and as "Carigrad/Tsarigrad" in [[Serbian language|Serbian]] (Cyrillic: ''��������'').
The [[Ottoman Turks]] called the city Stamboul or [[İstanbul]], adopting a usage in Greek "eis tin Poli" (to or at the City). But they still used "Konstantiniyye" ("Constantine's City", or Constantinople) as the official name. When the Republic of [[Turkey]] was founded in [[1923]], the capital was moved to [[Ankara]]. Constantinople was officially renamed İstanbul by the Republic of Turkey on [[March 28]], [[1930]].
==Byzantium==
Constantine's foundation of New Rome on this site reflected its strategic and commercial importance from the earliest times, lying as it does astride both the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black or Euxine Sea to the Mediterranean, whilst also being possessed of an excellent and spacious harbour in the Golden Horn. No doubt for these reasons, a city was first founded on the site in the early days of Greek colonial expansion, when in [[667 BC]] the legendary [[Byzas]] established it with a group of citizens from the town of [[Megara]]. This city was named [[Byzantium]] (Greek: ''Βυζάντιον''), after its founder.
==Constantine's Foundation==
[[Image:Byzantinischer Mosaizist um 1000 002.jpg|thumb|250px|Emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire]] with a model of the city Constantinople ( the church [[Hagia Sophia]], ca. [[1000]])]]
Constantine had altogether more ambitious plans. Having restored the unity of the empire, now overseeing the progress of major governmental reforms and sponsoring the consolidation of the Christian church, Constantine was well aware that Rome had become an unsatisfactory capital for several reasons. Located in central [[Italy]], Rome lay too far from the eastern imperial frontiers, and hence also from the [[legion]]s and the Imperial courts. Moreover, Rome offered an undesirable playground for disaffected politicians; it also suffered regularly from flooding and from [[malaria]]. It seemed impossible to many that the capital could be moved. Nevertheless, Constantine identified the site of Byzantium as the correct place: a city where an emperor could sit, readily defended, with easy access to the [[Danube]] or the [[Euphrates]] frontiers, his court supplied from the rich gardens and sophisticated workshops of Roman Asia, his treasuries filled by the wealthiest provinces of the empire.
Constantine laid out the expanded city, dividing it into 14 regions, and ornamenting it with great public works worthy of a great imperial city. Yet initially Constantinople did not have all the dignities of Rome, possessing a [[proconsul]], rather than a [[prefect]] of the city. Furthermore, it had no [[praetors]], [[tribunes]] or [[quaestors]]. Although Constantinople did have senators, they held the title ''[[clarus]]'', not ''[[clarissimus]]'', like those of Rome. Nor did it have the panoply of other administrative offices regulating the food-supply, the police, the statues, the temples, the sewers, the aqueducts and other public works. The new program of building was carried out in great haste: columns, marbles, doors and tiles were taken wholesale from the temples of the empire and removed to the new city. By the same token, however, many of the greatest works of Greek and Roman art were soon to be seen in its squares and streets. The emperor stimulated private building by promising householders gifts of land from the imperial estates in [[Asiana]] and [[Pontica]], and on [[18 May]] [[332]] he announced that, as in Rome, free distributions of food would be made to citizens. At the time the amount is said to have been 80,000 rations a day, doled out from 117 distribution points around the city.
==Public buildings==
[[image:Constantinople_medieval.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Medieval Constantinople]]
Constantinople was a Christian city, lying in the most Christianised part of the Empire. Justinian made the temples of Byzantium into ruins, and erected the splendid Church of the Holy Wisdom, [[Sancta Sophia]] (also known as [[Hagia Sophia]] in Greek), as the centrepiece of his Christian capital. He oversaw also the building of the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]], and that of [[Hagia Irene]].
Constantine laid out anew the square at the centre of old Byzantium, naming it the [[Augusteum]] in honour of his mother, [[Helena]]. Sancta Sophia lay on the north side of the Augusteum. The new senate-house (or Curia) was housed in a basilica on the east side. On the south side of the great square was erected the [[Great Palace of Constantinople|Great Palace]] of the emperor with its imposing entrance, the Chalke, and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne. Located immediately nearby was the vast [[Hippodrome]] for chariot-races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the [[Baths of Zeuxippus]] (both originally built in the time of [[Severus]]). At the entrance at the western end of the Augusteum was the Milestone, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across the Eastern Empire.
From the Augusteum a great street, the Mese, led, lined with colonnades. As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed on the left the Praetorium or law-court. Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second senate-house, then on and through the Forum of Taurus and then the Forum of Bous, and finally up the Sixth Hill and through to the Golden Gate on the [[Propontis]]. The Mese would be seven Roman miles long to the Golden Gate of the [[Walls of Constantinople|Walls of Theodosius]].
Constantine erected a high column in the centre of the Forum, on the Second Hill, with a statue of himself at the top, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking towards the rising sun.
==Constantinople in the Divided Empire==
[[Image:theodosius.jpg|thumb|Emperor [[Theodosius I]] with a [[halo]], on a contemporary silver plate (Royal Academy of History, [[Madrid]])]]
The first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople was Honoratus, who took office on [[11 December]] [[359]] and held it until [[361]]. The emperor [[Valens]] built the Palace of [[Hebdomon]] on the shore of the Propontis near the Golden Gate, probably for use when reviewing troops. All the emperors, up to [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] and [[Basiliscus]], who were elevated at Constantinople, were crowned and acclaimed at the Hebdomon. [[Theodosius I]] founded the [[Studion|church of John the Baptist]] to house the skull of the saint, put up a memorial pillar to himself in the Forum of Taurus, and turned the ruined temple of [[Aphrodite]] into a coachhouse for the [[Praetorian Prefect]]; [[Arcadius]] built a new forum named after himself on the Mese, near the walls of Constantine.
Gradually the importance of the city increased. Following the shock of the [[Battle of Adrianople]] in [[376]], when the emperor [[Valens]] with the flower of the Roman armies was destroyed by the [[Goths]] within a few days' march of the city, Constantinople looked to its defences, and [[Theodosius II]] built in [[413]]-[[414]] the 60-foot tall walls which were never to be breached until the coming of gunpowder. Theodosius also founded a [[University of Constantinople|University at the Capitolium]] near the Forum of Taurus, on [[27 Februar |
rant titled [http://games.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=02/12/27/1748252&threshold=5&commentsort=3&mode=flat "EQ: What You Really Get From An Online Game"] appeared on [[Slashdot]] in [[2002]], and brought this issue of ''EverQuest'' addiction to the forefront of many message boards across the [[Internet]].
The sociological aspects of ''EverQuest'' (and other MMORPGs) are further explored in a series of online studies on a site known as "the HUB". [http://www.nickyee.com/hub/home.html] The studies make use of data gathered from player surveys and discuss topics like virtual relationships, player personalities, gender issues, and more. <!-- If anyone has the time, this section could be expanded to contain a lot more information, instead of relying on an external link -->
As it enters its seventh year, there is a perception among some longtime players that Everquest's best days are behind it, and indeed many have abandoned EQ in favor of some of the newer MMORPGs on the market, such as [[City of Heroes]] and [[World of Warcraft]]. Although it is true that some formerly-busy zones are now deserted, SOE continues to release expansion packs, and certain zones continue to be crowded during peak game-playing hours.
==Real world economics==
''EverQuest'' has many in-game items that are hard to produce and/or to find, and most can be traded among players via the game's currency (platinum pieces). Because these items are also sold on [[eBay]], an actual [[exchange rate]] between platinum pieces and real life dollars can be calculated. This led some [[economist]]s, among them [[Edward Castronova]], to study the economics of ''EverQuest'' and other MMORPGs. The researchers discovered, to their surprise, that EQ's money was in fact more valuable than the [[Yen]] (although this is no longer the case; there are now about 2900 platinum to a U.S. dollar which is worth about 113 Yen), and its [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita is higher than that of [[China]] and [[India]].
This led some gamers to start playing professionally, as after some hours of play they could earn income by selling off in-game items. [[Black Snow Interactive]] was founded as a company that created characters, [[powerlevel|leveled]] them to make them powerful, and then resold the characters. After some time, the firm moved to [[Mexico]], as the salaries for Mexican players are far less. Other firms, such as the [[Gaming Open Market]], specialized in exchanging money between games. A player could exchange a house in ''[[The Sims Online]]'' for ''EverQuest'' platinum pieces, depending solely on market laws of [[supply and demand]].
Sony officially discouraged the payment of real-world money for online goods until July 2005, when they launched Station Exchange. The program facilitates buying in-game items for real money from fellow players for a nominal fee. At this point this system only applies to select ''[[EverQuest II]]'' servers; none of the pre-''Station Exchange'' ''EverQuest II'' or ''EverQuest'' servers are affected. [http://eq2players.station.sony.com/news_archive.vm?id=466&section=News&month=current]
While Sony's official stance on ''EverQuest'' is still against real market transactions, any real enforcement of this faded years ago. It is now common to encounter an account on its second or third owner, especially in the higher end game.
Due to the difficulty in learning the role a specific class plays within a group, and of learning the best way to fulfil this role, individuals who purchase high level characters without prior playing experience with a similar character are considered sub-par to those who have developed characters normally. To a lesser extent this is also true of individuals who purchase equipment far stronger then they should reasonably have (known in-game as "twinks"), and pay for help from high level characters in order to raise a newly created character into high levels quickly with little risk (known as "power leveling" or simply "PL"). Referring to a character in EverQuest as an eBay character or to an individual as an eBayer are derogatory comments used to suggest both that an individual did not develop his own character and that he has not learned how to properly play it.
==EverQuest expansions==
There have been several expansions to the original game since release. Expansions are purchased separately and add significant content to the game (for example, new races, classes, continents, quests, and equipment). Additionally, the game is updated regularly through downloadable patches. The EQ expansions to date:
[[Image:EverQuest - East Commonlands tunnel.jpg|thumb|right|The East Commonlands tunnel was the most frequently used area for trading on most servers before the Bazaar was added in ''The Shadows of Luclin''.]]
# ''[[The Ruins of Kunark]]'' (March 2000)
# ''[[The Scars of Velious]]'' (December 2000)
# ''[[The Shadows of Luclin]]'' (December 2001)
# ''[[The Planes of Power]]'' (October 2002)
# ''[[The Legacy of Ykesha]]'' (March 2003)
# ''[[Lost Dungeons of Norrath]]'' (September 2003)
# ''[[Gates of Discord]]'' (February 2004)
# ''[[Omens of War]]'' (September 2004)
# ''[[Dragons of Norrath]]'' (February 2005)
# ''[[Depths of Darkhollow]]'' (September 2005)
# ''[[Prophecy of Ro]]'' (February 2006)
''See also: [[EverQuest timeline]]''
There are many spin-off products from ''EverQuest''. Several servers have been introduced with alternate rule-sets, including one which allows [[Player versus player|player killing]], another, ''Firiona Vie'', that has a set of rules more friendly to role-playing (although it also contained other rule changes that also made it attractive to non-role-players which some argue defeated the purpose), and a premium flagship server titled Stormhammer ''Legends'' server (which, for a higher fee provided a greater level of in-game customer service. Many players saw this as a way to charge players more money for a level of service which should have existed without the fee). After many months of the "Legends" community pleading for communication with Sony about its future, nothing was said until a sudden announcement in December '05 that Sony was closing the EQ flagship server. ''[[EverQuest Online Adventures]]'', released in February [[2003]], is an MMORPG for the [[PlayStation 2]] console. ''[[EverQuest II]]'', a sequel to ''EverQuest'', was launched in November 2004. ''[[Champions of Norrath]]'', the [[d20 System|d20]] [[tabletop role-playing game|tabletop RPG]] ''[[EverQuest Role-Playing Game]]'', several books, and player gatherings (''Fan Faires'') have also been spawned from ''EverQuest''.
Fans have created the [[open source]] server emulator [[EQEmu]], allowing users to run their own servers with custom rules. Running such an emulator is a violation of EQ's end user license agreement and could result in a player being banned from Sony's ''EverQuest'' servers if caught doing so. It has not gained the same popularity as server emulators for ''Ultima Online''. Although technically against the EULA, it is unlikely that you will be banned or otherwise punished for playing on an EMU, unless you admit to it, ingame, in front of Sony support staff.
==Gameplay jargon==
{{wikibookschapter|book=EverQuest|chapter=Glossary|name=Glossary of terms}}
''EverQuest'' carries an internal language and culture of its own, including a plethora of arcane abbreviations aiding communication between players. For example, SoW (which stands for [[Spirit of Wolf]], a popular spell which accelerates players' movement), and vernacular usages such as 'crack' or 'mind candy' which within the context of EQ refer to [[mana]] regeneration spells such as Clarity or [[Kei|KEI]] (an acronym for ''Koadic's Endless Intellect''). While mostly consistent, there are also some differences in jargon between servers, and between the Asian, European and American gaming communities. In-game chatting can practically be a foreign language to anyone who has not played it extensively.
Most ingloriously, and reflective of the sometimes poor testing done before release, players coined the term ''NERF'', which means "New Enhancement Reduces Fun." It's a reflection on the fact that Sony has had to fix poor or sloppy designs so often that the player base has a term for it.
A number of terms used in-game have been coined by players from a wide variety of other [[MMORPG]]s or players of ''EverQuest'' specifically. One is the habit of calling monsters ''MOBs'' or ''mobs'' which is a contraction of [[Mob (computer gaming)|Mobile Object]]s and stems from old text-based [[MUD]]'s use of the term. Some terms like these, while coined in ''EverQuest'', have migrated to other MMORPGs.
Some players use [[leet]], which is also referred to as "dewd" speak, and [[Internet slang]] is quite common among users of the game.
==Deities==
{{details|EverQuest Deities}}
There are several deities in ''EverQuest''. Like traditional deities, they each have a certain area of rule or responsibility.
==References==
*Parloff, Roger (Nov. 28, 2005). "From Megs to Riches". ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'', pp. 72&ndash;84.
==External links==
{{wikibookspar||EverQuest}}
*[http://eqlive.station.sony.com/ EverQuest Live] - Official EverQuest News
*[http://eq.crgaming.com/ EverQuest Casters Realm] - EverQuest news and information site
*[http://everquest.allakhazam.com/ AllaKhazam's Magical Realm] - Comprehensive spoiler site (quests, item database, bestiary, etc.); although all information is available for free, for a fee, there are much better searching tools available.
*[http://lucy.allakhazam.com/ Lucy] - Complete list of known spells and items, Lucy pulls information directly from the EverQuest client.
*[http://www.eqtraders.com/ EQTraders Corner] - Comprehensive spoiler site dedicated to tradeskills
*[http://eqvault.ign.com |
<br />'''create'''<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''make''<br />
'''feature'''<br />
''make'' '''is'''<br />
'''do'''<br />
''io.put_string'' ("''Hello, world!%N''")<br />
'''end'''<br />
'''end'''
== See Also ==
* [[Apple Media Tool]] which includes the Eiffel-based Apple Media Language
== External links ==
* [http://www.eiffel.com/ Eiffel Software] web site of the company that introduced Eiffel, was Interactive Software Engineering (ISE).
* Eiffel tutorial (100 pages) by [[Bertrand Meyer]] ([http://archive.eiffel.com/doc/online/eiffel50/intro/language/tutorial-00.html HTML], [http://www.eiffel.com/doc/online/eiffel50/intro/language/tutorial.pdf PDF])
* [http://smarteiffel.loria.fr/ SmartEiffel] fairly complete Eiffel compiler, released under GNU GPL license, was SmallEiffel, not ECMA standard compliant.
* [http://visual-eiffel.org Visual Eiffel] an [[open source]] implementation of Eiffel creating [[native code]] for X86 systems (Windows, Linux)
* [http://www.eiffel-nice.org/ NICE] Nonprofit International Consortium for Eiffel.
* [http://eiffelzone.com/ eiffelzone.com] Includes a comprehensive Eiffel Software Directory
* [http://www.cetus-links.org/oo_eiffel.html Cetus Eiffel Page]
== References ==
* ''Object Oriented Software Construction, Second Edition'', by [[Bertrand Meyer]], Prentice Hall, 1997, ISBN 0-13-629155-4; contains a very detailed treatment of the beliefs about object-orientation behind Eiffel.
* [http://archive.eiffel.com/nice/language/ <cite>Eiffel: the Language</cite>] subset
{{Major programming languages small}}
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[da:Eiffel (programmeringssprog)]]
[[de:Eiffel (Programmiersprache)]]
[[es:Lenguaje de programación Eiffel]]
[[eo:Eiffel (programlingvo)]]
[[fr:Eiffel (langage)]]
[[it:Eiffel (linguaggio)]]
[[nl:Eiffel (programmeertaal)]]
[[ja:Eiffel]]
[[pl:Eiffel (język programowania)]]
[[ru:Эйфель (язык программирования)]]
[[sk:Eiffel (programovací jazyk)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ezra</title>
<id>9839</id>
<revision>
<id>41958021</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:56:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>206.63.89.50</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Relation to the Book of Ruth */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">::''For other meanings, see [[Ezra (disambiguation)]].''
'''Ezra''' ('''&#1506;&#1462;&#1494;&#1456;&#1512;&#1464;&#1488;''', [[Standard Hebrew]] '''&#703;Ezra''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#703;Ezrâ''': short for '''&#1506;&#1463;&#1494;&#1456;&#1512;&#1460;&#1497;&#1488;&#1461;&#1500;''' "My help/court is [[Elohim|God]]", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''&#703;Azri&#702;el''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#703;Azrî&#702;&#275;l''') was the "scribe" who led the second body of exiled [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Israelites]] that returned from [[Babylon]] to [[Jerusalem]] in [[459 BCE]], and is probably the author of the ''[[Book of Ezra]]'' and the ''[[Book of 1 Chronicles]]'' in the [[Bible]].
He was the son, or perhaps grandson, of [[Seraiah]] (''[[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]'' 25:18-21), and a lineal descendant of [[Phinehas]], the son of [[Aaron]] (''Ezra'' 7:1-5). All we know of his personal history is contained in the last four chapters of his book, and in ''[[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]'' 8 and 12:26.
In the seventh year of the reign of [[Artaxerxes I|Artaxerxes Longimanus]] (see also [[Darius I of Persia]]), he obtained leave to go up to [[Jerusalem]] and to take with him a company of Israelites (''Ezra'' 8). Artaxerxes manifested great interest in Ezra's undertaking, granting him "all his request," and loading him with gifts for the house of God. Ezra assembled the band of exiles, probably about 5,000 in all, who were prepared to go up with him to Jerusalem, on the banks of the [[Ahava]], where they rested for three days, and were put into order for their march across the desert, which was completed in four months. His activities in Jerusalem following his arrival are recorded in his book.
For about fourteen years, (i.e., until [[445 BCE]]), we have no record of what went on in Jerusalem after Ezra had set in order the ecclesiastical and civil affairs of the nation. In that year another distinguished personage, [[Nehemiah]], appears on the scene. After the ruined [[Defensive wall|wall of the city]] had been built by Nehemiah, there was a great gathering of the people at Jerusalem preparatory to the dedication of the wall. On the appointed day the whole population assembled, and the [[Torah]] was read aloud to them by Ezra and his assistants (Neh. 8:3). The remarkable scene is described in detail. There was a great religious awakening. For successive days, beginning on [[Rosh Hashanah]] (the first day of the seventh month) they rejoiced in the holy days of the month of [[Tishri]]. Ezra read to them the entire scroll of the Torah and he and various scholars and [[Levite]]s explained and interpreted the deeper meanings and applications of the Torah to the assembled crowd. These festivities culminated in a very enthusiastic and joyous seven day celebration of the Festival of [[Sukkot]], concluding on the eighth day with the holiday of [[Shemini Atzeret]]. On the twenty-fourth day, immediately following the holidays they held a solemn assembly, fasting and confessing their sins and the iniquities of their fathers. Then, they renewed their national covenant to follow God's Torah, given through the hand of [[Moses]], and to observe and fulfill all of the Lord's commandments, laws and decrees. (Neh. 10:30). Abuses were rectified, and arrangements for the temple service completed, and now nothing remained but the dedication of the walls of the city (Neh. 12).
==Relation to the Book of Ruth==
According to many scholars, the ''[[Book of Ruth]]'' was originally a part of the ''[[Book of Judges]]'', but it was later separated from that book and made into a separate book. Its opening verse explicitly places it during the time period of the Judges, and its language and description seem to make the authorship contemporary with that period. On the other hand, the message of the book, which shows acceptance of marrying [[converts]] to [[Judaism]], has been used to suggest that the book was written during the early days of the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] period. At that time, Ezra condemned [[intermarriage]]s and, according to his eponymous book, forced the Israelites to abandon their non-Jewish wives who did not convert. According to this theory, the ''Book of Ruth'' was written in response to Ezra's reform and in defense of these marriages. More likely, the book was a response to critics of King [[David]], who contested his qualifications as a [[Jew]] due to his [[Moab]]ite ancestry. In that context, the book uses the precedent set by a Jewish court, lead by [[Boaz]], to demonstrate that a Moabitess could convert and be a member of the Children of Israel.
==Place in editing the Torah and Bible==
According to [[Rabbinic]] Jewish tradition, Ezra collected and arranged the [[Biblical canon | canon]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]]. Information on his activities in this regard are found in the [[Talmud]] and in the [[midrash]] literature.
In the view of many modern scholars, these sources provide one set of evidence in favor of the [[documentary hypothesis]]. In this view, some midrash compilations retain evidence of the [[redaction]]al period during which Ezra redacted and canonized the text of the [[Torah]] as we know it today. This idea is discussed by Rabbi [[David Weiss Halivni]] in his works ''Revelation Restored: Divine Writ and Critical Responses'' (Westview Press, 1997), and ''Peshat and Derash: Plain and Applied Meaning in Rabbinic Exegesis'' (Oxford University Press, 1998). Richard Elliot Friedman suggests that Ezra was the second editor who combined the priestly source into the Torah and that the J and E sources had been combined by an earlier editor. If so Ezra seems to have been careful to preserve almost all of the original sources in the final composite.[http://www.beliefnet.com/story/139/story_13986_1.html] Jewish sources do not mention about editing or redacting the [[Torah]]. Rather, the ''[[aggada]]'' suggests that Ezra and the Men of the Great Assembly edited such works as ''[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]'', ''[[Book of Esther|Esther]]'' and ''[[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]''. (''[[Bava Batra]]'' 14b).
==Ezra in the Qur'an==
'''Ezra''' is also mentioned in the [[Muslim]] Qur'an as '''Uzair''' "9:30: The Jews call 'UZAIR a son of [[Allah]], and the [[Christians]] call [[Jesus]] the son of Allah. That is a saying from their mouth; (in this) they but imitate what the unbelievers of old used to say. Allah's curse be on them: how they are deluded away from the Truth!" There is historical evidence that Jews did refer to Ezra as the son of Allah, the Encyclopaedia Judaica states: "H. Z. Hirschberg proposed another assumption, based on the words of Ibn Hazm, namely, that the 'righteous who live in Yemen believed that 'Uzayr was indeed the son of Allah.' According to other Muslim sources, there were some Yemenite Jews who had converted to Islam who believed that Ezra was the messiah. For Muhammad, Ezra, the apostle (!) of messiah, can be seen in the same light as the Christian saw Jesus, the messiah, the son of Allah." Encyclopaedia Judaica, Ibid., p. 1108.
He is also mentioned in the [[Hadith of seeing God as the clear as the sun]].
[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]
[[fr:Esdras]]
[[id:Ezra]]
[[he:עזרא הסופר]]
[[ja:エズラ]]
[[fi:Esra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elijah (prophet)</title>
<id>9840</id>
<revision>
<id>41632057</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:39:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<us |
ridiculed Timaeus for his invention of speeches. Historians, Polybius wrote, were "to instruct and convince for all time serious students by the truth of the facts and the speeches he narrates" (''Hist.'' 2.56.10&ndash;12). Another ancient historian, [[Thucydides]], admits to having taken some liberty while narrating speeches, but only when he did not have access to any sources. When he had sources, he used them. In his own words, Thucydides wrote speeches "of course adhering as closely as possible to the general sense of what was actually said" (''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]'', 1.22.1). Accordingly, as stated by C.W. Fornara, "[t]he principle was established that speeches were to be recorded accurately, though in the words of the historian, and always with the reservation that the historian could 'clarify'" (''The Nature of History in Ancient Greece and Rome'', p. 145).
On what end of the scale did the author of Acts fall? There is little doubt that the speeches of Acts are summaries or condensations largely in the style and vocabulary of its author. However, there are indications that the author of Acts relied on source material for his speeches, and did not treat them as mere vehicles for expressing his own theology. The author's apparent use of speech material in the [[Gospel of Luke]], obtained from the [[Gospel of Mark]] and the hypothetical [[Q document]] or the [[Gospel of Matthew]], suggests that he relied on other sources for his narrative and was relatively faithful in using them. Additionally, many scholars have viewed Acts' presentation of [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]]'s speech, Peter's speeches in Jerusalem and, most obviously, Paul's speech in [[Miletus]] as relying on source material or of expressing views not typical of Acts' author.[http://www.christiancadre.org/member_contrib/cp_acts.html] Additionally, there is no evidence that any speech in Acts is the free composition of its author, without either written or oral basis. Accordingly, in general, the author of Acts seems to be among the conscientious ancient historians, touching the essentials of historical accuracy, even as now understood.
=== Miracles ===
[[Skeptic]]s object to the trustworthiness of Acts on the ground of its reports of [[miracle|miracles]], while [[apologetics|apologists]] defend the work as containing earlier sources.
There are possibilities of mistakes intervening between the facts and the accounts reaching its author, at second- or even thirdhand. Some modern scholars argue that Acts shows several errors, and suggest its value as history is doubtful. However, the use of "we" at some points in the book suggests its author was an eyewitness to some of the events he describes.
''[[Quellenkritik]]'', a distinctive feature of recent research upon Acts, solves many difficulties in the way of treating it as an honest narrative by a companion of Paul. In addition, we may also count among recent gains a juster method of judging such a book. For among the results of the [[Tübingen]] criticism was what Dr. W. Sanday calls "an unreal and artificial standard, the standard of the 19th century rather than the [[1st century|1st]], of [[Germany]] rather than [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], of the lamp and the study rather than of active
life." This has a bearing, for instance, on the differences between the three accounts of Paul's conversion in Acts. In the recovery of a more real standard, we owe much to men like [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]], Ramsay, [[Friedrich Blass|Blass]] and Harnack, trained amid other methods and traditions than those which had brought the constructive study of Acts almost to a deadlock.
== Structure ==
<!-- shorten; edit for clarity -->
The structure of the book of [[Luke]] is closely tied with the structure of Acts. Both books are most easily tied to the geography of the book. [[Luke]] begins with a global perspective, dating the birth of [[Christ]] to the reign of the [[Roman emperors]] in Luke 2:1 and 3:1. From there we see Jesus' ministry move from [[Galilee]] (chapters 4&ndash;9), through [[Samaria]] and [[Judea]] (chs. 10&ndash;19), to [[Jerusalem]] where he is [[Crucifixion|crucified]], raised and ascended into [[heaven]] (chs. 19&ndash;24).
The book of Acts follows just the opposite motion, taking the scene from [[Jerusalem]] (chs. 1&ndash;5), to [[Judea]] and [[Samaria]] (chs. 6&ndash;9), then traveling through [[Syria]], [[Asia Minor]], and [[Europe]] towards [[Rome]] (chs. 9&ndash;28). This [[chiastic structure]] emphasizes the centrality of the [[resurrection]] and [[ascension]] to Luke's message, while emphasizing the universal nature of the gospel.
This geographic structure is foreshadowed in Acts 1:8, where Jesus says "You shall be My witnesses both in [[Jerusalem]] (chs. 1&ndash;5), and in all [[Judea]] and [[Samaria]] (chs. 6&ndash;9), and even to the remotest part of the earth (chs. 10&ndash;28)." The first two sections (chs. 1&ndash;9) represent the witness of the apostles to the [[Jew]]s, while the last section (chs. 10&ndash;28) represent the witness of the apostles to the [[Gentiles]].
The book of Acts can also be broken down by the major characters of the book. While the complete title of the book is the Acts of the Apostles, really the book focuses on only two of the apostles: [[Peter]] (chs. 1&ndash;12) and [[Paul]] (chs. 13&ndash;28).
Within this structure, the sub-points of the book are marked by a series of summary statements, or what one commentary calls a "progress report". Just before the geography of the scene shifts to a new location, Luke summarizes how the gospel has impacted that location. The standard for these progress reports is in 2:46&ndash;47, where Luke describes the impact of the gospel on the new church in Jerusalem. The remaining progress reports are located:
Acts 6:7 Impact of the gospel in Jerusalem.
9:31 Impact of the gospel in Judea and Samaria.
12:24 Impact of the gospel in Syria.
16:5 Impact of the gospel in Asia Minor.
19:20 Impact of the gospel in Europe.
28:31 Impact of the gospel on Rome
This structure can be also seen as a series of concentric circles, where the gospel begins in the center, Jerusalem, and is expanding ever outward to Judea & Samaria, Syria, Asia Minor, Europe, and eventually to Rome.
== Date ==
External evidence now points to the existence of Acts at least as early as the opening years of the 2nd century. As evidence for the Third Gospel holds equally for Acts, its existence in [[Marcion]]'s day (120&ndash;140) is now assured. Further, the traces of it in [[Polycarp]] 6 and [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] 7 when taken together are highly probable; and it is even widely admitted that the resemblance of Acts 13:22 and [[Epistles of Clement|First Clement]] 18:1, in features not found in [[Psalms]] 89:20 quoted by each, can hardly be accidental. That is, Acts was probably current in Antioch and [[Izmir|Smyrna]] not later than circa 115, and perhaps in Rome as early as circa 96.
With this view internal evidence agrees. In spite of some advocacy of a date prior to AD 70, the bulk of critical opinion is decidedly against it. The prologue to Luke's Gospel itself implies the dying out of the generation of eyewitnesses as a class. A strong consensus supports a date about AD 80; some prefer 75 to 80; while a date between 70 and 75 seems no less possible. Of the reasons for a date in one of the earlier decades of the 2nd century, as argued by the Tübingen school and its heirs, several are now untenable. Among these are the supposed traces of 2nd-century [[Gnosticism]] and "[[Hierarchy|hierarchical]]" ideas of organization; but especially the argument from the relation of the Roman state to the Christians, which Ramsay has reversed and turned into proof of an origin prior to [[Pliny the Younger|Pliny]]'s correspondence with [[Trajan]] on the subject. Another fact, now generally admitted, renders a 2nd-century date yet more incredible; and that is the failure of a writer devoted to Paul's memory to make palpable use of his Epistles. Instead of this he writes in a fashion that seems to traverse certain things recorded in them. If, indeed, it were proved that Acts uses the later works of [[Josephus]], we should have to place the book about AD 100. But this is far from being the case.
Three points of contact with Josephus in particular are cited. (1) The circumstances attending the death of [[Agrippa I]] in AD 44. Here Acts 12:21&ndash;23 is largely parallel to his ''[[Antiquities of the Jews|Antiquities]]'' 19.8.2; but the latter adds an omen of coming doom, while Acts alone gives a circumstantial account of the occasion of Herod's public appearance. Hence the parallel, when analyzed, tells against dependence on Josephus. So also with (2) the cause of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] pseudo-prophet in Acts 21:37f. and in Josephus (''[[Jewish War|J.W.]]'' 2.13.5; ''A.J.'' 20.8.6) for the numbers of his followers do not agree with either of Josephus's rather divergent accounts, while Acts alone calls them ''[[Sicarii]]''. With these instances in mind, it is natural to regard (3) the curious resemblance as to the (non-historical) order in which [[Theudas]] and [[Judas of Galilee]] are referred to in both (Acts 5:36f.; ''A.J.'' 20.5.1) as accidental.
It is worth noting, however, that no ancient source actually mentions Acts by name prior to AD 177. If it was composed prior to then, no one spoke of it by that name, or at least no one whose writings have survived down to the present day.
== Place ==
The place of composition is still an open question. For some time Rome and Antioch have been in favor, and [[Friedrich Blass|Blass]] combined both views in his theory of two editions. But internal evidence points strongly to the Roman province of [[Asia Province|As |
e Monday Garden.
[[Category:Sapindales]]
[[de:Götterbaum]]
[[eo:Ailanto]]
[[gl:Árbore do ceo]]
[[it:Ailanthus]]
[[nl:Hemelboom]]
[[ja:ニワウルシ]]
[[pt:Árvore-do-céu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aimoin</title>
<id>1565</id>
<revision>
<id>32484173</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-23T14:16:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Julianonions</username>
<id>69216</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added birth/death category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aimoin''' (c. [[960]]-c. [[1010]]), French chronicler, was born at Villefranche de Longchat about 960, and in early life entered the [[monastery]] of [[Fleury]], where he became a monk and
passed the greater part of his life.
His chief work is a ''Historia Francorum'', or ''Libri v. de Gestis Francorum'', which deals with the history of the [[Franks]] from the earliest times to 653, and was continued by other writers until the
middle of the [[12th century]]. It was much in vogue during the middle ages, but its historical value is now regarded as slight. It has been edited by G. Waitz and published in the ''[[Monumenta Germaniae Historica]]: Scriptores'', Band xxvi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892).
He also wrote a ''Vita Abbonis'', ''abbatis Floriacensis'', the last of a series of lives of the [[abbot]]s of Fleury, all of which, except the life of [[Abbo of Fleury|Abbo]], have been lost. This has been published by [[Jean Mabillon|J. Mabillon]] in the ''Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti'' (Paris, 1668-1701).
Aimoin's third work was the composition of books ii. and iii. of the ''Miracula sancti Benedicti'', the first book of which was written by another monk of Fleury named Adrevald. This also appears in the Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti.
Aimoin, who died about 1010, must be distinguished from Aimoin, a monk of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, who wrote ''De miraculis sancti Germani'', and a fragment ''De Normanorum gestis circa Parisiacam urbem et de divine in eos ultione tempore Caroli calvi''. Both of these are published in the ''Historiae Francorum Scriptores'', Tome ii. (Paris, 1639-1649).
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:960 births]]
[[Category:1010 deaths]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Akkad</title>
<id>1566</id>
<revision>
<id>41762573</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:46:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Daanschr</username>
<id>316840</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}}
'''Akkad''' (or '''Agade''') was a city and its region of northern [[Mesopotamia]],
situated on the left bank of the [[Euphrates]], between [[Sippar]] and [[Kish]] (located in present-day [[Iraq]], ca. 50 km south-west of the center of [[Baghdad]], {{coor d|33.1|N|44.1|E}}). It reached the height of its power between the [[22nd century BC|22nd]] and [[18th century BC|18th]] centuries BC, before the rise of [[Babylonia]].
Akkad gave its name to the [[Akkadian language]], reflecting use of ''akkadû'' ("in the language of Akkad") in the Old Babylonian period to denote the [[Semitic]] version of a [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] text. It was built in the 23rd century BC.
==History==
The earliest records in Akkadian date to the time of [[Sargon of Akkad]] ([[23rd century BC]]). While Sargon is traditionally cited as the first ruler of a combined empire of Akkad and Sumer, more recent work suggests that a Sumerian expansion began under a previous king, [[Lugal-Zage-Si]] of [[Uruk]]. However, Sargon took this process further, conquering many of the surrounding regions to create an empire that reached as far as the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and [[Anatolia]].
It is believed that Akkad was the largest city in the world from 2250 to 2075 BC.[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm]
In the later [[Babylonia|Babylonian]] literature the name ''Akkad'', together with ''Sumer'', appears as part of the royal title, as in the [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] ''lugal Kengi (ki) Uru (ki)'' or [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''&#154;ar m&#257;t &#138;umeri u Akkadi'', translating to "king of [[Sumer]] and Akkad", which appears to have meant simply "king of Babylonia".
The site of Akkad has not been identified, though texts from as late as the [[6th century BC]] mention it, and its ruined buildings.
==Origin of the Name==
The city of Akkad is mentioned once in the [[Old Testament]] ([[Genesis]] 10:10).
:''And the beginning of his ([[Nimrod (king)|Nimrod]]'s) kingdom was [[Babylon|Babel]], and [[Erech]], and Accad, and [[Calneh]], in the land of [[Shinar]].'' ([[KJV]])
The [[Greek language|Greek]] ([[LXX]]) spelling is ''Archad''.
The name Agade is probably from the [[Sumerian language]], appearing e.g. in the [[Sumerian king list]], the later Assyro-Babylonian Semitic form ''Akkadû'' ("of or belonging to Akkad") probably being derived from Agade.
It is possible that the name AGA.DE means "Crown of Fire"{{ref|crown}} in allusion to [[Ishtar]], "the brilliant goddess", whose cult was observed in very early times in Agade. This is suggested by the writings of [[Nabonidus]], whose record{{ref|nabonidus}} mentions that Ishtar worship of Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess [[Anunit]], whose shrine was at [[Sippar]]. It is significant in this connection that there were two cities named Sippar, one under the protection of [[Shamash]], the sun-god, and one under Anunit,suggesting proximity of Sippar and Agade. One
theory held (as of [[1911]]) was that Agade was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of the Euphrates, and was probably the oldest part of the city of Sippar.
===Notes===
# {{note|crown}} Prince, "Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon", pp. 23, 73, Journal of Biblical Literature, 1906.
# {{note|nabonidus}} I. Rawl. 69, col. ii. 48 and iii. 28.
===References===
*{{1911}}
*[[A. Leo Oppenheim]], ''Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization''
===See also===
*[[Akkadian Empire]]
*[[Sargon of Akkad]]
*[[Babylonia]]
== External links==
* [http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Akkad.html Akkad History]: from The History of the Ancient Near East
[[Category:Babylonia]]
[[Category:Assyria]]
[[Category:Babylonia]]
[[Category:Assyria]]
[[Category:Destroyed cities]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Iraq]]
[[bs:Akad]]
[[ca:Akkad]]
[[cs:Akkad]]
[[de:Akkad]]
[[et:Akad]]
[[es:Acad]]
[[eo:Akado]]
[[fr:Akkad (ville)]]
[[gl:Acadia (Mesopotamia)]]
[[he:אכד]]
[[nl:Akkad]]
[[ja:アッカド]]
[[no:Akkad]]
[[pl:Akad]]
[[pt:Acádia (Mesopotâmia)]]
[[ru:Аккад]]
[[fi:Akkad]]
[[sv:Akkad]]
[[zh:阿卡德]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ajax the Lesser</title>
<id>1567</id>
<revision>
<id>36899382</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T04:33:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.42.126.146</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ajax''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''&#913;&#7988;&#945;&#962;'''), a [[Greek mythology|Greek]] hero, son of [[Oileus|Oïleus]] the king of [[Locris]], called the "lesser" or Locrian Ajax, to distinguish him from [[Ajax the great|Ajax]], son of [[Telamon]]. He was the leader of the Locrian contingent during the [[Trojan War]]. He is a significant figure in the ''[[Iliad]]'' and is mentioned in the ''[[Odyssey]]''.
[[Homer]] gives a favorable description of him as a warrior. In spite of his small stature, he held his own amongst the other heroes before Troy; he was brave, next to [[Achilles]] in swiftness of foot and famous for throwing the spear. But he was boastful, arrogant and quarrelsome; like the Telamonian Ajax, he was the enemy of [[Odysseus]], and in the end the victim of the vengeance of [[Poseidon]], who wrecked his ship on his homeward voyage ''([[Odyssey]]'', iv. 499).
A later story gives a more definite account of the offense of which he was guilty. It is said that, after the fall of Troy, he dragged [[Cassandra]] away by force from the statue of the goddess at which she had taken refuge as a suppliant, and raped her ([[Lycophron]], 360, [[Quintus Smyrnaeus]] xiii. 422). For this, his ship was wrecked in a storm on the coast of [[Euboea]], and he himself was struck by lightning and impaled upon a rock. ([[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]'' I. 40-45).
He was said to have lived after his death in the island of [[Leuke]]. He was worshipped as a national hero by the Opuntian Locrians (on whose coins he appears), who always left a vacant place for him in the ranks of their army when drawn up in battle array. He was the subject of a lost tragedy by [[Sophocles]]. The rape of Cassandra by Ajax was frequently represented in [[ancient Greece|Greek]] works of art, for instance on the chest of [[Cypselus]] described by [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] (v. 17) and in extant works.
==References==
*{{1911}}
{{Commonscat|Ajax the Lesser}}
[[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]]
[[de:Ajax der Kleine]]
[[es:Ayax el Menor]]
[[fr:Ajax fils d'Oïlée]]
[[it:Aiace di Locride]]
[[lt:Ajaksas Mažasis]]
[[ja:小アイアス]]
[[ru:Аякс Малый]]
[[uk:Аякс Оїлід]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ajax the Great</title>
<id>1568</id>
<revision>
<id>41887514</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:51:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jess Cully</username>
<id>147333</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ajax the Great */ Now mentioned in Family section</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ajax''', or Aias (Greek: {{polytonic|'''Αἴᾱς'''}}), was a king of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]], and a legendary [[hero]] of ancient [[Greece]].
== Ajax the Great ==
To distinguish him from [[Ajax the lesser|Ajax, son of Oileus]] ("Ajax the Lesser"), he was called '''Ajax the Great''' or '''T |
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