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ss (2002). 198 pages. ISBN 0195146913
* Jack Santino (ed.), ''Halloween and Other Festivals of Death and Life'', University of Tennessee Press (1994). 280 pages. ISBN 0870498134
* David J. Skal, ''Death Makes A Holiday: A Cultural History of Halloween'', Bloomsbury USA (2003). 224 pages. ISBN 1582343055
==See also==
*[[Korochun]]
*[[Poisoned candy scare]]
*[[Ghost Festival]]
*[[Halloween costume]]s
*[[Trick-or-treating]]
*[[St. Martin's Day]]
*[[Samhain]]
*[[Haunted house]]
*[[Dark Attraction]]
*[[Halloween (film)]]
==External links==
[[Image:NIH-preschool-halloween.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Preschoolers in Halloween costumes]]
*[http://allrecipes.com/advice/coll/entertain/features/halloween.asp Halloween Recipes] Complete collection of Halloween recipes and party tips.
*[http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/halloween.html Halloween origins; Australian customs]
*[http://french.about.com/library/bl-halloweeninfrance.htm Halloween in France]
*[http://www.theopedia.com/Halloween Various Christian Views of Halloween from a conservative Calvinist perspective]
*[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/mayhem/needles.htm Snopes' Urban Legends reference page on the hysteria about pins and razor blades being found in Halloween candy]
*[http://paganwiccan.about.com/cs/aboutsamhain/a/halloween.htm Pagan / Wiccan statement on Halloween traditions]
*[http://www.nrf.com/content/default.asp?folder=press/release2005&file=costumes0905.htm&bhcp=1 National Retail Foundation statistics on Halloween]
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[[zh:萬聖節前夜]]</text>
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<title>Hapsburg</title>
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<timestamp>2006-01-21T17:24:31Z</timestamp>
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<comment>restore redirect until there is content, the misspelling is very commin</comment>
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<page>
<title>History of Astronomy</title>
<id>13857</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]]
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<page>
<title>Hayling Island</title>
<id>13859</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-10T16:51:23Z</timestamp>
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<username>Nlu</username>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.219.13.74|212.219.13.74]] ([[User talk:212.219.13.74|talk]]) to last version by 81.96.51.26</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Map of Hayling Island, England.png|thumb|220px|The coastline of Hayling Island. North is up.]]
{{GBthumb|127|225|SU722005}}
[[Image:HaylingIsland.jpg|thumb|280px|Beaches at Hayling Island.]]
'''Hayling Island''' is an [[island]] off the south coast of [[England]], in the county of [[Hampshire]]. It is twinned with [[Gorron]], [[Mayenne]], [[France]].
It is shaped like an inverted T, about 6.5 [[kilometer]]s (4 [[mile]]s) long and 6.5 kilometers wide. A single bridge connects its northern end to the mainland of [[Great Britain]]. A small passenger ferry connects it to the neighbouring island of [[Portsea]] where the city of [[Portsmouth]] is located. To the west is [[Langstone Harbour]] and to the east is [[Chichester Harbour]].
It is a well known holiday, [[windsurfing]] and [[sailing]] centre. In fact, Hayling Island is where [[windsurfing]] was invented. Originally it was thought to be an American invention, but after a court battle the title was given to Hayling Island. Sailing is massive on Hayling Island and is where many Olympic medal winners have raced.
In the past a small train connected the island to [[Langstone]], [[Havant]] and the main line (The [[Hayling Billy]] Line). [[Salt]] production was an [[industry]] on the island from the [[11th century]] (the [[Domesday Book]] recorded a [[saltpan]] on the island for this purpose) until the late [[19th century]].
At the northwest corner of the island lies the [[Hayling Oysterbeds]] [[Local Nature Reserve]].
== Population ==
{| border="1"
! Population || Date
|-
| ~300 || [[1086]] (Domesday Book)
|-
| 578 || [[1801]] ([[census]])
|-
| >1,600 || [[1901]]
|-
| >5,500 || [[1950]]
|-
| 16,887 || [[2001]] (census, usually resident population)
|}
== Facts ==
*[[Latitude]]: 050 47N
*[[Longitude]]: 000 58W
*Area: [[1 E7 m²|30]] [[square kilometre|km²]] (11.6 square miles)
== List of Settlements ==
*[[Mengham]]
*[[Northney]]
*[[Eastoke]]
*[[West Town]]
*[[Sinah]]
*[[Sandy Point, Hayling Island|Sandy Point]]
*[[Ferry Point, England|Ferry Point]]
*[[Mill Rythe]]
*[[Tournerbury]]
*[[Stoke, Hayling Island|Stoke]]
*[[Tye]]
== Places of Interest ==
*[[Hayling Island Sailing Club]], Sandy Point (AKA Black Point)
*[[Northney Marina]]
*[[Sparkes Yacht Harbour]]
*[[Hayling Billy Trail]]
*[[Station Theatre]]
*[[Ham Field]]
*[[Seacourt Tennis Club]]
*[[St Marys Church]], Gable Head
*[[St Peters Church]], Northney
*The [[Kench]], near Ferry Point
*The [[RNLI]] Lifeboat station at Sandy Point
==External links==
*[http://www.hayling.co.uk Hayling.co.uk (local community website)]
*[http://www.hayling.hants.sch.uk/ The Hayling College]
*[http://www.hayling.co.uk/surfcam Hayling Surf Cam)]
*[http://www.haylinglifeboats.org.uk Sandy point RNLI Lifeboat Station)]
*[http://www.bird-watching.co.uk Bird Watching Hayling Island)]
[[Category:Hampshire]]
[[Category:Islands of England]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Hahn-Banach theorem</title>
<id>13860</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:43:43Z</timestamp>
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<username>Aegis Maelstrom</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Hahn–Banach theorem''' is a central tool in [[functional analysis]]. It allows one to extend [[linear operator]]s defined on a subspace of some [[vector space]] to the whole space, and it also shows that there are "enough" [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] linear functionals defined on every [[normed vector space]] to make the study of the [[dual space]] interesting. It is named for [[Hans Hahn]] and [[Stefan Banach]] who proved this theorem independently in the 1920s.
The most general formulation of the theorem needs some preparations. If ''V'' is a [[vector space]] over the scalar [[field (mathematics)|field]] '''K''' (which is either the [[real number|real numbers]] '''R''' or the [[complex number|complex numbers]] '''C'''), we call a [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''N'' : ''V'' &rarr; '''R''' ''[[sublinear function|sublinear]]'' if
:''N''(''ax'' + ''by'') &le; |''a''| ''N''(''x'') + |b| ''N''(''y'')
for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''V'' and all scalars ''a'' and ''b'' in '''K'''. Every [[norm (mathematics)|norm]] on ''V'' is sublinear, but there are other examples.
The Hahn–Banach theorem states the following:
: Let ''N'' : ''V'' &rarr; '''R''' be sublinear, let ''U'' be a [[Linear Algebra/Subspace|subspace]] of ''V'' and let &phi; : ''U'' &rarr; '''K''' be a [[linear transformation|linear functional]] such that |&phi;(''x'')| &le; ''N''(''x'') for all ''x'' in ''U''. Then there exists a linear map &psi; : ''V'' &rarr; '''K''' which extends &phi; (meaning &psi;(''x'') = &phi;(''x'') for all ''x'' in ''U'') and which is dominated by ''N'' on all of ''V'' (meaning |&psi;(''x'')| &le; ''N''(''x'') for all ''x'' in ''V'').
The extension &psi; is in general not uniquely specified by &phi; and the proof gives no method as to how to find &psi;: in the case of an infinite dimensional space ''V'', it depends on [[Zorns lemma|Zorn's lemma]].
In fact, the sublinearity condition on ''N'' can be slightly relaxed: it suffices to assume that
:''N''(''ax'' + ''by'') &le; |''a''| ''N''(''x'') + |''b''| ''N''(''y'')
for all ''a'' and ''b'' in '''K''' with |''a''| + |''b''| = 1 (Reed and Simon, 1980).
Several important consequences of the theorem are also sometimes called "Hahn–Banach theorem":
* If ''V'' is a normed vector space with subspace ''U'' (not necessarily closed) and if &phi; : ''U'' &rarr; '''K''' is continuous and linear, then there exists an extension &psi; : ''V'' &rarr; '''K''' of &phi; which is also continuous and linear and which has the same norm as &phi; (see [[Banach space]] for a discussion of the norm of a linear map).
* If ''V'' is a normed vector space with subspace ''U'' (not necessarily closed) and if ''z'' is an element of ''V'' not in the [[closure (topology)|closure]] of ''U'', then there exists a continuous linear map &psi; : ''V'' &rarr; '''K''' with &psi;(''x'') = 0 for all ''x'' in ''U'', &psi;(''z'') = 1, and ||&psi;|| = ||''z''||<sup>&minus;1</sup>.
The [[Mizar system|Mizar project]] has completely formalized and automatically checked the proof of the Hahn–Banach theorem in the [http://mizar.uwb.edu.pl/JFM/Vol5/hahnban.html HAHNBAN file].
==References==
Lawrence Narici and Edward Beckenstein, 'The Hahn–Banach Theorem: |
Gabriel Fahrenheit''' (born [[May 24]], [[1686]], Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]); died [[September 16]], [[1736]], [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[physicist]] and [[engineer]], born into a [[German language|German]]-speaking family, who worked most of his life in the [[Netherlands]]. The '''°F''' [[Fahrenheit]] scale of [[temperature]] is named after him.
Fahrenheit was born in the [[Hanse]] city [[Danzig]] located in [[Royal Prussia]], where the Fahrenheits had moved in [[1650]]. He was the son of merchant Daniel Fahrenheit and Concordia Fahrenheit (widowed name, Runge), daughter of the well-known Danzig business family of Schumann. Daniel was the eldest of the five Fahrenheit children who survived childhood (two sons, three daughters). Daniel's grandfather Reinhold Fahrenheit vom [[Kneiphof]] had moved to Danzig from [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]] (Królewiec) and settled as a merchant. Research suggests that the Fahrenheit family originated in [[Hildesheim]], although they lived in [[Rostock]] before moving to Königsberg.<ref>Horst Kant, ''G.D. Fahrenheit / R.-A.F. de Réaumur / A. Celsius'', 1984.</ref>
Upon the accidental early death of his parents, caused by consumption of poisonous mushrooms, Gabriel had to take up business training. However, his interest in natural sciences caused him to take up studies and experimentation in that field. Fahrenheit's studies brought him to [[Amsterdam]], where he gave lectures in [[chemistry]]. In 1724 he became a member of the [[Royal Society]].
Fahrenheit developed precise [[thermometer]]s. The Fahrenheit scale was widely used in Europe until the switch to the [[Celsius]] scale. It is still used for everyday temperature measurements by the general population in the [[United States]] and [[Jamaica]].
When Fahrenheit first made his thermometers, he used [[ethanol|alcohol]]. Later he used [[mercury (element)|mercury]], which gave better results.
==References==
<references/>
[[Category:1686 births|Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel]]
[[Category:1736 deaths|Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel]]
[[Category:German physicists|Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel]]
[[Category:Polish physicists|Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel]]
[[Category:Natives of Gdańsk|Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Fahrenheit]]
[[bg:Габриел Фаренхайт]]
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[[uk:Даніель Габріель Фаренгейт]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Freescale DragonBall</title>
<id>8664</id>
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<id>37502934</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T11:22:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neier</username>
<id>430157</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about a computer chip. For the manga and TV series, see [[Dragonball]].''
[[Image:Motorola DragonBallEZ XC60EZ328PU16V top.jpg|thumb|Motorola DragonBall Microprocessor]][[Motorola]]/[[Freescale Semiconductor]]'s '''DragonBall''' is [[microprocessor]] design based on the famous [[Motorola 68k|68000]] core, but implemented as an all-in-one low-power solution for [[handheld computer]] use. It was designed by Motorola based in [[Hong Kong]].
The DragonBall's only major design win was in earlier versions of the [[Palm Computing]] platform; from Palm OS 5 on it has been superseded by [[ARM]]-based [[XScale]] processors from [[Intel]]. The processor is also used in the [[AlphaSmart]] line of portable [[word processor]]s. One such example is the Dana, and Dana Wireless.
The processor is capable of speeds of up to 16.67 MHz and can run up to 2.7 MIPS (million instructions per second), for the base and EZ model. It was extended to 37 MHz, 3.5 MIPS for the VZ model, and 66 MHz, 10.8 MIPS for Super VZ.
It is a 16-bit processor with 32-bit internal and external address bus (24-bit external address bus for EZ and VZ variants). It has many built-in functions, like a color and grayscale display controller, PC speaker sound, serial port with UART and IRDA support, UART bootstrap, real time clock, is able to directly access DRAM, Flash ROM, and mask ROM, and has built-in support for touch screens.
It is an all-in-one computer on a chip; before the dragonballEZ, Palm handhelds had twice as many ICs (integrated circuits).
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[[zh:摩托羅拉龍珠處理器]]</text>
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<page>
<title>D.W. Griffith</title>
<id>8665</id>
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<id>15906632</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-22T07:58:21Z</timestamp>
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<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[D. W. Griffith]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Decnet</title>
<id>8666</id>
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<id>15906633</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-18T22:56:14Z</timestamp>
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<username>Maury Markowitz</username>
<id>2175</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[DECnet]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Double-slit experiment</title>
<id>8667</id>
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<id>41584300</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T08:20:16Z</timestamp>
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<ip>202.59.16.74</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''double-slit experiment''' consists of letting [[light]] [[diffraction|diffract]] through two slits producing fringes on a screen. These fringes or [[interference]] patterns have light and dark regions corresponding to where the light waves have constructively and destructively interfered. The [[experiment]] can also be performed with a beam of [[electron]]s or [[atom]]s, showing similar interference patterns; this is taken as evidence of the "[[wave-particle duality]]" predicted by [[quantum physics]]. Note, however, that a double-slit experiment can also be performed with [[water]] [[wave]]s in a [[ripple tank]]; the explanation of the observed wave phenomena does not require [[quantum mechanics]] in any way. The phenomenon is quantum mechanical only when quantum particles - such as atoms, electrons, or [[photons]] - manifest as waves.
==Importance to physics==
Although the double-slit experiment is now often referred to in the context of quantum mechanics, it was originally performed by the English scientist [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]] some time around [[1805]] in an attempt to resolve the question of whether light was composed of particles (the [[corpuscular theory|"corpuscular" theory]]), or rather consisted of waves travelling through some aether, just as sound waves travel in air.
The interference patterns observed in the experiment seemed to discredit the corpuscular theory, and the wave theory of light remained well accepted until the early [[20th century]], when evidence began to accumulate which seemed instead to confirm the particle theory of light.
The double-slit experiment, and its variations, then became a classic ''[[thought experiment|Gedankenexperiment]]'' (thought experiment) for its clarity in expressing the central puzzles of quantum mechanics; although in this form the experiment was not actually performed with anything other than light until [[1961]], when [[Claus Jönsson]] of the [[University of Tübingen]] performed it with [[electron]]s. (C Jönsson, ''Zeitschrift für Physik'' '''161''', 454; C. Jönsson 1974 "Electron diffraction at multiple slits", ''American Journal of Physics'' '''42''' 4-11), and not until [[1974]] in the form of "one electron at a time", in a laboratory at the University of Milan, by researchers led by [[Pier Giorgio Merli]], of LAMEL-CNR Bologna.
The results of the [[1974]] experiment were published and even made into a short film, but did not receive wide attention. The experiment was repeated in [[1989]] by Tonomura et al at Hitachi in Japan. Their equipment was better, reflecting 15 years of advances in electronics and a dedicated development effort by the Hitachi team. Their methodology was more precise and elegant, and their results agreed with the results of Merli's team. Although Tonomura asserted that the Italian experiment had not detected electrons one at a time - a key to demonstrating the wave-particle paradox - single electron detection is clearly visible in the photos and film taken by Merli and his group.
In September [[2002]], the double-slit experiment of Claus Jönsson was voted "the most beautiful experiment" by readers of ''[[Physics World]].''
==Explanation of experiment==
[[image:youngsDoubleSlit.png]]
In Young's original experiment, sunlight passes first through a single slit, and then through two thin vertical slits in otherwise solid barriers, and is then viewed on a rear screen.
When either slit is covered, a single peak is observed on the screen from the light passing through the other slit.
But when both slits are open, instead of the sum of these two singular peaks that would be expected if light were made of particles, a pattern of light and dark fringes is observed.
[[Image:Fringespos.png|right]]
This pattern of fringes was best explained as the interference of the light waves as they recombined after passing through the slits, much as waves in water recombine to create peaks and swells. In the brighter s |
[[Tucumán Province|Tucumán]]
</ol>
|}
<sup>*</sup> The current official name for the [[federal district]] is "Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires".
Buenos Aires has been the capital of Argentina since its unification, but there have been projects to move the administrative centre elsewhere. During the presidency of Raúl Alfonsín a law was passed ordering the move of the federal capital to [[Viedma]], a city in the Patagonic province of Río Negro. Studies were underway when hyperinflation, in 1989, killed off the project. Though the law was never formally repealed, it has become a mere historical relic, and the project has been forgotten.
===Urbanization===
{{main|List of cities in Argentina}}
[[Image:Tucuman_govthouse.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Government house of Tucumán]]
About 2.7 million people live in the Autonomous City of [[Buenos Aires]], and roughly 11.5 million in [[Gran Buenos Aires|Greater Buenos Aires]] (2001), making it one of the largest urban conglomerates in the world. Together with their respective [[metropolitan area]]s, the second and third largest cities in Argentina, [[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]] and [[Rosario]], comprise about 1.3 and 1.1 million inhabitants, respectively.
Most European [[immigration in Argentina|immigrants to Argentina]] (coming in great waves especially around the World War I and II) settled in the cities, which offered jobs, education, and other opportunities that enabled newcomers to enter the [[middle class]]. Since the 1930s many rural workers have moved to the big cities.
The 1990s saw many rural towns become [[ghost town]]s when train services were abandoned and local products manufactured on a small scale were replaced by massive amounts of imported cheap goods, in part because of the monetary policy which kept the U.S. dollar exchange rate fixed and low. Many slums (''[[villa miseria|villas miseria]]'') sprouted in the outskirts of the largest cities, inhabited by empoverished low-class urban dwellers and migrants from smaller towns in the interior of the country. However, it is important to note that the majority of the people that live in these newly formed small shanty towns are people that came from neighboring countries during the time of convertibility and never left. This immigration of humble people from a low socioeconomic status represented an undesirable change because shanty towns and homeless people begging for money was something Argentines didn't know until the economic disaster of the 1990s. However, the government works actively to try to include these new inmigrants into Argentine society and considers their children born in Argentina to be Argentines. There are no plans to build any type of wall to keep these inmigrants out. Argentina adheres to a policy of allowing anybody who wants to come to Argentina to come freely without restrictive inmigration measures. In this respect Argentina is more progressive than many fully developed countries.
<!-- to be filled in with middle class home data -->
Argentina's urban areas have a European look, reflecting the influence of their European settlers. Many towns and cities are built like Spanish cities around a main square called a plaza. A cathedral and important government buildings often face the plaza. The general layout of the cities is called a ''damero'', that is, a checkerboard, since it is based on a pattern of square blocks, though modern developments sometimes depart from it (for example, the city of La Plata, built at the end of the 19th century, is organised as a checkerboard plus diagonal avenues at fixed intervals).
In descending order by number of inhabitants, the major cities in Argentina are [[Buenos Aires]], [[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]], [[Rosario]], [[Mendoza]], [[La Plata]], [[Tucumán]], [[Mar del Plata]], [[Salta]], [[Santa Fe, Argentina|Santa Fe]], and [[Bahía Blanca]].
==Geography==
[[Image:Ar-map.png|200px|thumb|Map of Argentina]]
{{main|Geography of Argentina}}
Argentina can roughly be divided into three parts: the fertile plains of the [[Pampa]]s in the central part of the country, the centre of Argentina's [[agriculture|agricultural]] wealth; the flat to rolling plateau of [[Patagonia]] in the southern half down to [[Tierra del Fuego]]; and the rugged [[Andes]] [[mountain range]] along the western border with [[Chile]], with the highest point being the [[Cerro Aconcagua]] at 6,960 metres (22,834 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]).
Major rivers include the [[Paraguay River|Paraguay]], [[Bermejo River|Bermejo]], [[Colorado River (Argentina)|Colorado]], [[Uruguay River|Uruguay]] and the largest river, the [[Paraná River|Paraná]]. The latter two flow together before meeting the [[Atlantic Ocean]], forming the estuary of the [[Río de la Plata]]. The Argentine [[climate]] is predominantly [[temperate climate|temperate]] with extremes ranging from [[subtropical climate|subtropical]] in the north to arid/sub-Antarctic in far south.
=== Enclaves and exclaves ===
There is one Argentine [[exclave]]: the island of [[Martín García]] (co-ordinates {{coor dm|34|11|S|58|15|W}}). It is situated near the confluence of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, a mere kilometre (0.62&nbsp;mi) inside [[Uruguay]]an waters, about 3.5 kilometres (2.1 mi) from the Uruguayan coastline, near the small city of [[Martín Chico]] (itself about halfway between [[Nueva Palmira]] and [[Colonia del Sacramento]]).
An agreement reached by Argentina and Uruguay in 1973 reaffirmed Argentine jurisdiction over the island, ending a century-old dispute between the two countries. According to the terms of the agreement, Martín García is to be devoted exclusively to a natural preserve. Its area is about 2 square kilometres (500&nbsp;[[acre]]s), and the population about 200 people.
==Economy==
[[Image:Buenos Aires Monserrat.jpg|thumb|250px|Subway station in Monserrat, Buenos Aires]]
{{main|Economy of Argentina}}
{{seealso|Tourism in Argentina}}
Argentina benefits from rich [[natural resource]]s, a highly [[literate]] population, an export-oriented [[agriculture|agricultural]] sector, and a diversified [[industry|industrial]] base. The country historically had a large middle class, compared to other Latin American countries, but this segment of the population was decimated by a succession of economic crises. Today, while a significant segment of the population is still financially well-off, they stay in sharp contrast with millions who live in poverty or on the brink of it.
Since the late 1970s the country piled up public debt and was plagued by bouts of high [[inflation]]. In 1991, the government [[fixed exchange rate|pegged]] the peso to the [[United States dollar|U. S. dollar]] and limited the growth in the [[monetary base]]. The government then embarked on a path of [[free trade|trade liberalisation]], [[deregulation]], and [[privatisation]]. Inflation dropped and [[gross domestic product|GDP]] grew, but external economic shocks and failures of the system diluted its benefits, causing it to crumble in slow motion, from 1995 and up to the [[Argentine economic crisis|collapse in 2001]].
By 2002 Argentina had [[default (finance)|default]]ed on its debt, its GDP had shrunk, [[unemployment]] was over 25%, the peso had [[devaluation|devalued]] 75% after being [[floating exchange rate|floated]], and inflation was hitting again. However, careful spending control and heavy [[tax]]es on now soaring exports gave the state the tools to regain resources and conduct [[monetary policy]].
In 2003, [[import substitution]] policies and soaring [[export]]s, coupled with a lower inflation and expansive economic measures, triggered a surge in the GDP, which was repeated in 2004, creating jobs and encouraging internal consumption. [[Capital flight]] decreased, and [[foreign investment]] slowly returned. The influx of foreign currency from exports created such a huge [[trade surplus]] that the Central Bank was forced to buy dollars from the market, which it continues to do at the time, to be accumulated as [[reserve currency|reserves]].
The situation in 2005 is much improved, but there are still large numbers of unemployed people that beg for some money or food, especially in the outskirts of [[Buenos Aires]]. Some of them are homeless, and there is at least one small non-profit humanitarian organisation which distributes free food to some of them most days of the week. However, the country is still the most developed country in Latin America. It boasts the highest GDP per capita, the highest levels of education measured by university attendance, and a reasonable infrastructure that in many aspects is equal in quality to that found in fully industrialized nations. In 2002 over 57% of the population was below the poverty line, at the end of 2005 it was 34%. In 2002 unemployement had reached over 25%, and now it is 10%. GDP per capita has surpassed the previous pre-recession peek of 1998. It is a very interesting time in Argentina because the experts agree that if the country makes the right decisions it could develop and reclaim its previosly held position in the first world. So far things are looking good; the economy grew 8.8% in 2003, 9.0% in 2004, and 9.1% in 2005. The floor is set so that the economy will grow between 6.0% and 7.5% in 2006 and the government is paying down the foreign debt; foreign debt now stands at 69% of GDP and is slowly decreasing. The Argentine economy has so much untapped potential that if the country manages to encourage the proper level of investment the country could experience growth rates of 9.0% for this year and years to come.
==Demographics==
[[Image:TeatroColon.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Night shot of the Colon Theatre in Buenos Aires, Argentina]]
{{main|Demographics of Argentina}}
Unlike most of its neighbouring countries, Argentina's population descends overwhelmingly from [[Europe|Europeans]]. The basic demographic stock (97% of the population) [http://www.cia.gov/ |
photographed from the south-west]]
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|ro}}
{{Link FA|sk}}
[[Category:Eurovision host cities]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe]]
[[Category:Frankfurt|!]]
[[Category:Cities in Hesse]]
[[af:Frankfurt am Main]]
[[ar:فرانكفورت]]
[[bg:Франкфурт]]
[[bs:Frankfurt]]
[[ca:Frankfurt del Main]]
[[cs:Frankfurt nad Mohanem]]
[[cy:Frankfurt]]
[[da:Frankfurt am Main]]
[[de:Frankfurt am Main]]
[[et:Frankfurt]]
[[el:Φρανκφούρτη]]
[[als:Frankfurt am Main]]
[[es:Fráncfort]]
[[eo:Frankfurto ĉe Majno]]
[[fa:فرانکفورت]]
[[fr:Francfort-sur-le-Main]]
[[ko:프랑크푸르트]]
[[id:Frankfurt]]
[[is:Frankfurt]]
[[it:Francoforte sul Meno]]
[[he:פרנקפורט]]
[[ka:ფრანკფურტ-ამ-მაინი]]
[[lv:Frankfurte pie Mainas]]
[[lt:Frankfurtas prie Maino]]
[[nl:Frankfurt am Main]]
[[nds:Frankfort an'n Main]]
[[ja:フランクフルト・アム・マイン]]
[[no:Frankfurt am Main]]
[[nn:Frankfurt am Main]]
[[pl:Frankfurt nad Menem]]
[[pt:Frankfurt am Main]]
[[ro:Frankfurt]]
[[ru:Франкфурт-на-Майне]]
[[simple:Frankfurt/Main]]
[[sk:Frankfurt nad Mohanom]]
[[sl:Frankfurt na Majni]]
[[fi:Frankfurt am Main]]
[[sv:Frankfurt am Main]]
[[th:แฟรงค์เฟิร์ต]]
[[vi:Frankfurt am Main]]
[[zh:法兰克福]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert, King of Saxony</title>
<id>10993</id>
<revision>
<id>35894845</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T01:54:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arniep</username>
<id>483481</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert, King of [[Saxony]]''' ([[Germany]]) ([[1828]] - [[1902]], reigned [[1873]] - [[1902]]), was born [[April 23]] [[1828]]. '''Friedrich August Albrecht''' was the eldest son of [[John I of Saxony|Prince John]], who succeeded his brother [[Frederick Augustus II]] on the throne as King John in [[1854]].
Prince Albert's education, as usual with German princes, concentrated to a great extent on [[military]] matters, but he attended lectures at the [[University of Bonn]]. His first experience of warfare came in [[1849]], when he served as a captain in the campaign of [[Schleswig-Holstein]] against the [[Denmark|Danes]].
When the [[Austro-Prussian War]] broke out in [[1866]], the [[Crown Prince]] took up the command of the Saxon forces opposing the [[Prussia]]n army of Prince [[Frederick Charles of Prussia | Frederick Charles]]. No attempt was made to defend Saxony; the Saxons fell back into [[Bohemia]] and effected a junction with the [[Austria]]ns. They took a prominent part in the battles by which the Prussians forced the line of the [[Jizera River|Jizera]] and in the [[Battle of Jičín]]. The Crown Prince, however, succeeded in effecting the retreat in good order, and in the decisive [[Battle of Königgratz]] ([[3 July]] [[1866]]) he held the extreme left of the Austrian position. The Saxons maintained their post with great tenacity, but were involved in the disastrous defeat of their allies.
During these operations the Crown Prince won the reputation of a thorough soldier; after peace was made and Saxony had entered the [[North German Confederation]], he gained the command of the Saxon army, which had now become the XII army corps of the North German army, and in this position carried out the necessary re-organisation. He proved a firm adherent of the Prussian alliance. On the outbreak of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in [[1870]] he again commanded the Saxons, who were included in the 2nd army under Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, his old opponent. At the [[Battle of Gravelotte]] they formed the extreme left of the German army, and with the Prussian Guard carried out the attack on [[St Privat]], the final and decisive action in the battle.
In the re-organisation of the army which accompanied the march towards [[Paris]] the Crown Prince gained a separate command over the 4th army (Army of the Meuse) consisting of the Saxons, the Prussian Guard corps and the IV (Prussian Saxony) corps. He was succeeded in command of the XII corps by his brother Prince George, who had served under him in Bohemia.
Frederick Augustus Albert took a leading part in the operations which preceded the battle of [[Sedan, France|Sedan]], the 4th army being the pivot on which the whole army wheeled round in pursuit of [[Patrice Mac-Mahon, duc de Magenta | Mac-Mahon]]; and the actions of Buzancy and Beaumont on [[29 August | 29]] and [[30 August]] [[1870]] were fought under his direction; in the [[Battle of Sedan]] itself ([[1 September]] [[1870]]), with the troops under his orders, he carried out the envelopment of the French on the east and north.
His conduct in these engagements won for him the complete confidence of the army, and during the [[siege of Paris]] his troops formed the north-east section of the investing force. After the conclusion of the [[armistice]] he was left in command of the German army of occupation, a position which he held till the fall of the [[Paris Commune]]. On the conclusion of peace he was made an inspector-general of the army and [[field-marshal]].
On the death of his father King John on [[29 October]] [[1873]] the Crown Prince succeeded to the [[throne]] as King Albert. His [[reign]] proved uneventful, and he took little public part in [[politics]], devoting himself to military affairs, in which his advice and experience were of the greatest value, not only to the Saxon corps but to the German army in general. In [[1897]] he was appointed arbitrator between the claimants for the [[principality]] of [[Lippe]].
Albert married in [[1853]] Carola, daughter of Prince Gustavus of Vasa, granddaughter of [[Gustavus IV of Sweden]], the last king of [[Sweden]] of the house of [[Holstein-Gottorp]].
He died childless on [[June 19]] [[1902]], and was succeeded by his brother, who became King [[George of Saxony|George]].
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before= [[John I of Saxony|John I]] |
title= [[Rulers of Saxony|King of Saxony]]|
years= 1873&ndash;1902 |
after= [[George of Saxony|George]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1828 births]]
[[Category:1902 deaths]]
[[Category:Field Marshals of Germany]]
[[Category:House of Wettin]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Kings of Saxony]]
[[de:Albert I. (Sachsen)]]
[[nl:Albert van Saksen]]
[[no:Albert I av Sachsen]]
[[ru:Альберт, король Саксонии]]
[[sv:Albert av Sachsen]]
[[zh:阿尔贝特 (萨克森)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francis Charles Augustus Albert</title>
<id>10994</id>
<revision>
<id>15908781</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-23T16:50:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John Kenney</username>
<id>10512</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Formal grammar</title>
<id>10995</id>
<revision>
<id>41338616</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T18:17:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Babajobu</username>
<id>125012</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rmv blank lines using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]] a '''formal grammar''' is an [[abstract structure]] that describes a [[formal language]] precisely, i.e., a set of rules that mathematically delineates a (usually [[Infinity|infinite]]) [[set]] of finite-length [[String (computer science)|strings]] over a (usually [[finite]]) [[alphabet]]. Formal grammars are so named by analogy to [[grammar]] in human languages.
Formal grammars fall into two main categories: ''generative'' and ''analytic''.
* A [[generative grammar]], the most well-known kind, is a set of rules by which all possible [[String (computer science)|strings]] in the language to be described can be ''generated'' by successively [[rewriting]] strings starting from a designated start symbol. A generative grammar in effect formalizes an [[algorithm]] that ''generates'' strings in the language.
* An '''analytic grammar''', in contrast, is a set of rules that assume an arbitrary string to be given as ''input'', and which successively ''reduce'' or ''analyze'' that input string yielding a final [[Boolean datatype|boolean]], "yes/no" result indicating whether or not the input string is a member of the language described by the grammar. An analytic grammar in effect formally describes a [[parser]] for a language.
In short, an analytic grammar describes how to ''read'' a language, whereas a generative grammar describes how to ''write'' it.
== Generative grammars ==
A generative grammar consists of a set of rules for transforming strings. To generate a string in the language, one begins with a string consisting of only a single "start" symbol, and then successively applies the rules (any number of times, in any order) to rewrite this string. The language consists of all the strings that can be generated in this manner. Any particular sequence of legal choices taken during this rewriting process yields one particular string in the language, and if there are multiple different ways of generating a single string, then the grammar is said to be [[ambiguous grammar|ambiguous]].
For example, assume the alphabet consists of '<math>a</math>' and '<math>b</math>', the start symbol is '<math>S</math>' and we have the following rules:
: 1. <math>S \longrightarrow aSb</math>
: 2. <math>S \longrightarrow ba</math>
then we start with "<math>S</math>", and can choose a rule to apply to it. If we choose rule 1, we replace '<math>S</math>' with '<math>aSb</math>' and obtain "<math>aSb</math>". If we choose rule 1 again, we replace '<math>S</math>' with '<math>aSb</math>' and obtain "<math>aaSbb</math>". This process is repeated until we only have symbols from |
the 4 IRC RFCs released after RFC 1459, which document this server protocol exclusively.
2.8.21+CS and 2.8/hybrid continue to be used on [[EFnet]], with ircd-ratbox (an offshoot of 2.8/hybrid) [[as of 2004]] being the most popular.
[[Undernet]]'s IRC server, ircu, is one of the few servers not descended from irc2.8 that are based on the original ircd; it was forked from the irc2.7 codebase.
Many modern IRC servers have been coded from scratch, such as csircd (also from Comstud), ConferenceRoom, Microsoft Exchange Chat Service, and IRCPlus/IRCXPro.
===Channels and modes===
The basic means of communication in an established IRC session is a ''channel''. You can see all the channels in a server using the command ''/list [#string] [-min #] [-max #]'' that lists all currently available channels, optionally [[filter]]ing for parameters (#string for the entire or part of the name, with [[Wildcard character#Computing|wildcard]]s, and #min / #max for number of users in the channel).
Users can ''join'' to channels (using the command ''/join #channelname'') and then send messages to it, which are then relayed to all other users in the same channel. Channels which are available across an entire IRC network are prepended with a '#', while those local to a server use '&'. Other (non-standard and less common) channel types include '+' channels&mdash;'modeless' channels without operators, and '!' channels, a form of [[#Timestamp vs. Nick.2FChannel Delay Protocol|timestamped]] channel on normally non-timestamped networks.
Both users and channels may have ''modes'', which are some kind of attributes or switches. Modes are abbreviated by single letters so you can string them together concisely. An example for an user mode is 'i', which stands for invisible. (You cannot tell whether or not an invisible user is on a channel unless you join that channel or use the whois command on its nick.) A simple channel-mode example is 'm' (''moderated''), specifying that only 'voiced' users and channel operators are allowed to speak on the channel. This, along with 'k' (''keyed'' - requires a password to join the channel) and 'i' (''invite-only'' - requires an invitation from a channel operator) modes can be used to keep abuse out of the channel.
There are five types of channelmodes, four of which will accept an argument, type A accepting an argument to add/remove values from a list (such as 'b'), type B accepting an argument that is used when turning the mode 'on' and 'off' (such as 'k'), type C accepting an argument only when the mode is turned 'on' (such as 'l'), type D which accepts no arguments and is simply a boolean flag (such as 'm', 'n', and 't'), and type E (usually called 'class' or 'prefix' modes) that give/take a privilege from a user on a channel (such as 'o').
Type E modes (channel classes) specify which users on a channel have privileges, and what level of those privileges they have. Originally only 'channel operator' (mode 'o') and 'voice' (mode 'v') existed. Channel operator (usually abbreviated chanop or simply 'op') privileges allow a user to kick users, set modes, and change the topic if the channel is '+t'. Voice privileges allow a user to speak on a channel if it is moderated (mode 'm'). Additions to these classes are 'channel owner' (mode 'q') created by Microsoft in its IRCX implementation (and later used by UnrealIrcd); 'half-operator' (mode 'h') which is similar to a chanop, except they cannot set certain modes and can only kick normal users; 'protected' (mode 'a'); 'administrator' (mode 'a' or 'u'); and many more.
Each channel class has an associated prefix that is shown beside a user's nickname whenever associated with that channel. The most common prefixes are '@' for channel operator, '+' for voice, '%' for half-op, '.' or '~' for channel owner, '&' for protected user, '!' or the lesser known '*' for administrator.
Unless the channel is moderated, the only effect of +v (voice) is the plus sign appearing beside the nick name. On many channels this is used to indicate seniority or regularity of use, or a kind of "trusted user" flag in case the channel does have to be moderated.
Most IRC networks feature a lot of extra modes not specified in any RFC document. This is a very simple feat for clients to adapt to since a list of all the valid user and channelmodes are sent to clients in the RPL_MYINFO reply upon logon. In addition, the list of channelmodes (and what type of arguments they accept), and the prefixes for class modes are specified in the protocol control reply (RPL_PROTOCTL or 005) sent from most IRC servers when a client connects. This message is used to tell clients what features the server supports, and what its limits are (for example, the maximum number of users you can have on your notify list, or the maximum length of your nickname).
There are also users whose privileges extend to whole servers or networks of servers; these are called [[IRC operator|IRC Operators]]. On some IRC implementations, IRC operators are also given channel operator status in every channel, although many people believe that administration of channels and administration of the network should be kept separate, and that IRC operator status does not confer the right to interfere with a particular channel's operation.
Because IRC connections are unencrypted and typically span long time periods, they are an attractive target for malicious hackers. Because of this, careful security policy is necessary to ensure that an IRC network is not susceptible to an attack such as an [[IRC takeover war]]. IRC networks also [[k-line]] or [[gline|g-line]] users or networks that tend to have a harming effect.
IRC served as an early laboratory for many kinds of Internet attacks, such as using fake [[ICMP]] unreachable messages to break [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]]-based IRC connections ("[[nuking]]") to annoy users or facilitate [[takeover]]s.
===Abuse prevention: timestamping vs. nick/channel delay protocol===
One of the most contentious technical issues surrounding IRC implementations, which survives to this day, is the merit of "Nick/Channel Delay" vs. "TimeStamp" protocols. Both methods exist to solve the problem of [[denial-of-service attack]]s, but take very different approaches.
The problem with the original IRC protocol as implemented was that when two servers split and rejoined, the two sides of the network would simply merge their channels. If a user could join on a "split" server, where a channel which existed on the other side of the network was empty, and gain operator status, they would become a channel operator of the "combined" channel after the netsplit ended; if a user took a nickname which existed on the other side of the network, the server would kill both users when rejoining.
This was often abused to "mass-kill" all users on a channel, thus creating "opless" channels: where no operators were present to deal with abuse. Apart from causing problems within IRC, this encouraged people to conduct denial of service attacks against IRC servers in order to cause netsplits, which they would then abuse.
====Nick/channel delay====
The nick/channel delay (abbreviated ND/CD) solution to this problem was very simple. After a user signed off and the nickname became available, or a channel ceased to exist because all its users left (as often happens during a netsplit), the server would not allow any user to use that nickname or join that channel, respectively, until a certain period of time (the ''delay'') had passed. The idea behind this was that even if a netsplit occurred, it was useless to an abuser because they could not take the nickname or gain operator status on a channel, and thus no collision of a nickname or 'merging' of a channel could occur. To some extent, this inconvenienced legitimate users, who might be forced to briefly use a different name (appending an underscore was popular) after rejoining.
====Timestamping====
The alternative, the timestamp or ''TS'' protocol, took a different approach. Every nickname and channel on the network was assigned a timestamp -- the date and time when it was created. When a netsplit occurred, two users on each side were free to use the same nickname or channel, but when the two sides were joined, only one could survive. In the case of nicknames, the newer user, according to their TS, was killed; when a channel collided, the members (users on the channel) were merged, but the channel operators on the "losing" side of the split were de-opped.
TS is a much more complicated protocol than ND/CD, both in design and implementation, and despite having gone through several revisions, some implementations still have problems with "desyncs" (where two servers on the same network disagree about the current state of the network), and allowing too much leniency in what was allowed by the 'losing' side. Under the original TS protocols, for example, there was no protection against users setting bans or other modes in the losing channel which would then be merged when the split rejoined, even though the users who had set those modes were no longer opped. Some modern TS-based IRC servers have also incorporated some form of ND and/or CD in addition to timestamping in an attempt to further curb abuse.
There is not, and likely never will be, a consensus on timestamping vs. delay; however most networks today use the timestamping approach. It was part of the issues and disagreements which caused several servers to split away from [[EFnet]] and form the newer [[IRCnet]] (EFnet after the split moving to a TS protocol, and IRCnet using ND/CD), and supporters on both sides were known for heated arguments regarding the merits of their solution.
==Networks and URLs==
{{IRC networks}}
Today there are several thousand running IRC networks in the world. T |
ork]] by Mayor [[Rudy Giuliani]] in the [[1990s]].
On [[June 1]], [[2004]] [[Japan]]ese [[elementary school]] student Satomi Mitarai was stabbed to death by "[[Nevada-tan]]," an unnamed classmate, using a segmented-type utility knife.
In [[Australia]], it is illegal to sell a cutting implement such as a utility knife to anyone under 16 years of age, and proof of age is often demanded of purchasers.
Recently in the [[United Kingdom]], there have been plans to raise the age limit for purchasing knives, including utility knives, from 16 to 18, in an effort to tackle "[[yob culture]]."
In Israel, these knives are known as Japanese knives.
==External links==
*[http://www.olfa.com/products.asp?C=2 Product catalog] showing lots of pictures of [[Olfa]] segmented blade cutters
*[http://www.stanleyworks.com/a_history.asp History of the Stanley Works]
*[http://stanleytools.com/default.asp?TYPE=STATICLEFT&PAGE=history.htm&LEFT=left_history.htm Another history of the Stanley Works]
[[Category:Knives]]
[[Category:Woodworking hand tools]]
[[de:Cutter (Messer)]]
[[eo:Skatol-tran&#265;anta tran&#265;ilo]]
[[ja:&#12459;&#12483;&#12479;&#12540;&#12490;&#12452;&#12501;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bronze</title>
<id>4169</id>
<revision>
<id>41885411</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:20:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Markkawika</username>
<id>204710</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Assorted bronze castings.JPG|thumb|Assorted ancient bronze castings found as part of a cache, probably intended for recycling.]]
'''Bronze''' is the usual English term for a broad range of [[copper alloys]], usually with [[tin]] as the main additive, but other [[chemical element|elements]] may be the main additive (e.g., [[phosphorus]], [[manganese]], [[aluminium|aluminum]], [[silicon]]). (See [[#Classification of Copper and Its Alloys|table below]])
== History ==
First used in the [[Bronze Age]], it made tools, weapons and armor harder or more durable than their stone and copper ("[[Chalcolithic]]") predecessors. In early use, the natural impurity [[arsenic]] created a superior natural alloy; this is termed [[arsenical bronze]], which [[Ötzi the Iceman|Ötzi's]] axe is made of.
While copper and tin can natually co-occur, the two [[ore]]s are rarely found together (an ancient site in Thailand does prove they can co-occur). Serious bronze has always involved trade. The archaeologists suspect a serious disruption of the tin-trade led to the development of the [[Iron Age]]. For Europe, the major site for [[tin]] was [[Great Britain]].
The earliest tin-alloy bronzes date to the late [[4th millennium BC]] in [[Susa]] (Iran) and some ancient sites in [[Luristan]] (Iran) and [[Mesopotamia]] (Iraq).
Bronze was stronger than the era's [[iron]]; quality [[steel]]s were not available until thousands of years later. But the Bronze Age gave way to the [[Iron Age]], perhaps because the shipping of tin around the [[Mediterranean]] (or maybe from Great Britain) became more limited during the major population migrations around [[12th century BC|1200]] &ndash; [[11th century BC|1100 BC]], which dramatically limited supplies and raised prices [http://www.claytoncramer.com/Iron2.pdf]. Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, but for many purposes the weaker iron was sufficiently strong. As ironworking improved, iron became both cheaper and stronger, eclipsing bronze in Europe by the early to mid-[[Middle Ages]].
== Properties ==
Excluding [[steel]] from the discussion, bronze is superior to iron in nearly every application. While it develops a [[patina]], it does not [[oxidize]] into anything. It is considerably less brittle than iron and has a lower casting temperature. Steel, of course, has wonderful properties that bronze cannot compete with.
Copper-based alloys have lower [[melting point]]s than steel and are more readily produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent heavier than steel, although alloys using [[aluminium]] or [[silicon]] may be slightly less dense. Bronzes are softer and weaker than steel, and more [[elastic]], though bronze [[spring (device)|springs]] are less stiff (and so storing less energy) for the same bulk. Bronzes resist [[corrosion]] (especially [[seawater corrosion]]) and [[metal fatigue]] better than steel. Bronzes also conduct heat and electricity better than most steels. The cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that of [[nickel]]-base alloys.
Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. Some common examples are the high [[electrical conductivity]] of pure copper, the excellent deep-drawing qualities of cartridge case brass, the low-friction properties of bearing bronze, the resonant qualities of bell bronze, and the resistance to corrosion by [[sea water]] by several bronze alloys.
In the twentieth century, [[silicon]] was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary. Aluminium is also used for the structural metal [[Aluminium bronze]].
Bronze is the most popular metal for top-quality [[bell (instrument) | bell]]s and [[cymbal]]s, and, more recently, [[saxophone]]s. Bronze is also widely used for cast metal [[sculpture]] (see [[bronze sculpture]]). Common bronze alloys often have the unusual and very desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling in the finest details of a [[moulding|mould]].
Bronze also has very little metal-on-metal [[friction]], which made it invaluable for the building of [[cannon]] where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel. Bronze is still widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings and similar roles, and is particularly common in the bearings on small electric motors. [[Phosphor bronze]] is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs.
Bronze is typically 60% [[copper]] and 40% [[tin]]. Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4-5% tin are used to make [[coin]]s, [[spring (device)|springs]], [[turbine]]s and [[blade]]s. Commercial bronze, despite its name, is 90% copper and 10% zinc. It contains no tin. It is somewhat stronger than copper and it has equivalent ductility. It is used for [[screw]]s and [[wire]]s.
== Classification of copper and its alloys ==
{|border="1" cellpadding="1"
|+Classification of Copper and Its Alloys{{ref|copper-alloy}}
|-
!Family!!Principal alloying element!!UNS numbers
|-
|Copper alloys, Brass||Zinc (zn)||C1xxxx&ndash;C4xxxx,C66400&ndash;C69800
|-
|Phosphor bronzes||Tin (Sn)||C5xxxx
|-
|Aluminium bronzes||Aluminium (Al)||C60600&ndash;C64200
|-
|Silicon bronzes||Silicon (Si)||C64700&ndash;C66100
|-
|Copper nickel, Nickel silvers||Nickel (Ni)||C7xxxx
|}
==See also==
*[[brass]], a subset of the copper alloys in which [[zinc]] is the principal additive
*[[gunmetal]]
*[[cupronickel]], an alloy used on ships
*[[Lost wax#Lost wax bronze-casting process|lost-wax casting]]
*[[aluminum bronze]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Bronze}}
*[http://www.jepsculpture.com/bronze.html Flash animation of lost-wax casting]
*[http://www.modernsculpture.com/bronze.htm Bronze Casting process explained - good pictures]
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/27.html National Pollutant Inventory - Copper and compounds fact sheet]
== References ==
{{note|copper-alloy}} Machinery's Handbook, Industrial Press Inc, New York, ISBN 0-8311-2492-X, Edition 24, page 501
[[Category:Copper alloys]]
[[Category:Art materials]]
[[ar:برونز]]
[[ca:Bronze]]
[[cs:Bronz]]
[[da:Bronze]]
[[de:Bronze]]
[[es:Bronce]]
[[eo:Bronzo]]
[[fr:Bronze]]
[[ko:청동]]
[[it:Bronzo]]
[[he:ארד]]
[[lt:Bronza]]
[[nl:Brons]]
[[ja:青銅]]
[[no:Bronse]]
[[nn:Bronse]]
[[pl:Brązy]]
[[pt:Bronze]]
[[ru:Бронза]]
[[sl:Bron]]
[[fi:Pronssi]]
[[sv:Brons]]
[[tr:Tunç]]
[[zh:青铜]]
[[uk:Бронза]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benelux</title>
<id>4170</id>
<revision>
<id>41802345</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:18:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.242.247.221</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Benelux satellite image.PNG|200px|right|thumb|Satellite image of the Benelux countries]]
[[Image:Heel_Nederland_English.PNG|thumb|200px|Benelux]]
[[Image:Benelux.png|thumb|200px|Benelux]]
'''[[Benelux]]''' is an economic union in [[Western Europe]] comprising three neighbouring [[monarchy|monarchies]], [[Belgium|'''Be'''lgium]], the [[Netherlands|'''Ne'''therlands]], and [[Luxembourg|'''Lux'''embourg]]. The name is formed from the beginning of each country's name, and was created for the Benelux Customs Union, but is now used in a more generic way.
The treaty establishing the '''Benelux Customs Union''' was signed in [[1944]] by the [[governments in exile]] of the three countries in London, and entered into force in [[1947]]. It ceased to exist in 1960, when it was replaced by the [[Benelux Economic Union]]. It was preceded by the (still extant) [[Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union]], established in [[1921]].
Its founding contributed to the founding of the [[European Union]] (EU), though the immediate precursors to the EU were founded later (the [[European Coal and Steel Community|ECSC]] in [[1951]] and the [[European Community|EEC]] in [[1957]]). The three countries were also founding members of these organizations, together with [[West Germany]], [[France]], and [[Italy]]. Art. 306 [[EC Treaty]] stipulates that ''The provisions of this Treaty shall not preclude the existence or completion of regional unions between Belgium and Luxembourg, or between Belgium, Luxembou |
Rich Jackson]], DE, 1967-72, inducted 1984
* [[Gerald Phipps]], team owner, 1961-81, inducted 1985
* 12 [[Charley Johnson]], QB, 1972-75, inducted 1986
* 18 [[Frank Tripucka]], QB, 1960-63, inducted 1986
* 70 [[Paul Smith]], DE, 1968-78, inducted 1986
* 36 [[Billy Thompson]], CB, 1969-81, inducted 1987
* 7 [[Craig Morton]], QB, 1977-82, inducted 1988
* 15 [[Jim Turner (football player)|Jim Turner]], K, 1971-79, inducted 1988
* 25 [[Haven Moses]], WR, 1972-81, inducted 1988
* 53 [[Randy Gradishar]], LB, 1976-83, inducted 1989
* 57 [[Tom Jackson]], LB, 1973-86, inducted 1992
* 20 [[Louis Wright]], S, 1975-86, inducted 1993
* 7 [[John Elway]], QB, 1983-98, inducted 1999
* 49 [[Dennis Smith (NFL player)|Dennis Smith]], S, 1981-94, inducted 2001
* 77 [[Karl Mecklenburg]], LB, 1983-94, inducted 2001
* 65 [[Gary Zimmerman]], OT, 1993-97, inducted 2003
* 27 [[Steve Atwater]], S, 1989-98, inducted 2005
===Colorado Sports Hall of Fame===
* 23 [[Goose Gonsoulin]], S, 1960-66
* 44 [[Floyd Little]], RB, 1967-75
* 87 [[Lionel Taylor]], WR, 1960-66
* 87 [[Rich Jackson (football player)|Rich Jackson]], DE, 1967-72
* [[Gerald Phipps]], team owner, 1961-81
* 18 [[Frank Tripucka]], QB, 1960-63
* 36 [[Billy Thompson]], CB, 1969-81
* 7 [[Craig Morton]], QB, 1977-82
* 25 [[Haven Moses]], WR, 1972-81
* 53 [[Randy Gradishar]], LB, 1976-83
* 57 [[Tom Jackson]], LB, 1973-86
* 80 [[Rick Upchurch]], WR, 1975-83
* 20 [[Louis Wright]], S, 1975-86
* [[Red Miller]], Head Coach, 1977-80
* [[Dan Reeves]], Head Coach, 1981-92
* 7 [[John Elway]], QB, 1983-98
* 77 [[Karl Mecklenburg]], LB, 1983-94
* 84 [[Shannon Sharpe]], TE, 1990-99, 2002-03
* 30 [[Terrell Davis]], RB, 1993-2001
===Not to be forgotten===
*[[Lyle Alzado]]
*[[Rod Bernstine]]
*[[Marlin Briscoe]]
*[[Dale Carter]]
*[[Mike Croel]]
*[[Terrell Davis]]
*[[Karl Dorrell]] (current [[head coach]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] Bruins football team)
*[[Tony Dorsett]]
*[[Reuben Droughns]]
*[[Archie Eversole]]
*[[Miller Farr]]
*[[Olandis Gary]]
*[[Cookie Gilchrist]] (born 1935)
*[[Abner Haynes]]
*[[Reggie Hayward]]
*[[Garrison Hearst]]
*[[Micah Knorr]]
*[[Ed McCaffrey]]
*[[Wahoo McDaniel]]
*[[Gene Mingo]] (first black field goal kicker in professional football, 1960)
*[[John Mobley]]
*[[Riley Odoms]]
*[[Clinton Portis]]
*[[Shannon Sharpe]]
*[[Dennis Smith (NFL player)|Dennis Smith]]
*[[Rick Upchurch]]
*[[Rich Karlis]]
*[[Steve Beuerlein]]
*[[David Treadwell]]
==Head Coaches==
*[[Frank Filchock]] (1960-1961)
*[[Jack Faulkner]] (1962-1964)
*[[Mac Speedie]] (1964-1966)
*[[Ray Malavasi]] (1966)
*[[Lou Saban]] (1967-1971)
*[[Jerry Smith]] (1971)
*[[John Ralston]] (1972-1976)
*[[Red Miller]] (1977-1980)
*[[Dan Reeves]] (1981-1992)
*[[Wade Phillips]] (1993-1994)
*[[Mike Shanahan]] (1995-present)
===Current Staff===
*Head Coach - [[Mike Shanahan]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Rick Dennison]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Larry Coyer]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Ronnie Bradford]]
*Assistant Head Coach - [[Mike Heimerdinger]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Pat McPherson]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Bobby Turner]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Steve Watson (football coach)|Steve Watson]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Tim Brewster]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[TBA]]
*Offensive Assistant - [[TBA]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Jacob Burney]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Kirk Doll]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Bob Slowik]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[Jim Ryan (football coach)|Jim Ryan]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Rich Tuten]]
==External links==
*[http://www.denverbroncos.com/ Denver Broncos official web site]
*[http://www.nflnewsrack.com/denver_broncos.html Denver Broncos news and opinion sources]
*[http://www.nfl.com/teams/stats/DEN/2005/regular 2005 Team Statistics at NFL.com]
*[http://www.broncosfreak.com/ Broncosfreak fan site]
*[http://www.orangemane.com/BB/ Orange Mane, Broncos fan community]
*[http://groups.myspace.com/DenverBroncos06 Denver Broncos Group on MYSPACE.com]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/denver/broncos.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]
{{NFL}}
[[Category:Denver Broncos| ]]
[[Category:Denver, Colorado]]
[[Category:1960 establishments]]
[[Category:American Football League]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[de:Denver_Broncos]]
[[fr:Broncos de Denver]]
[[it:Denver_Broncos]]
[[pt:Denver Broncos]]
[[sv:Denver_Broncos]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>D</title>
<id>8123</id>
<revision>
<id>42090778</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:41:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.162.171.216</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Meanings */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ|uc=D|lc=d}}
The letter '''D''' is the fourth letter of the Latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''dee''.
== History ==
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center;"
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
! Egyptian hieroglyph "door"
! Proto-Semitic D
! Phoenician D
! Etruscan D
! Greek Delta
|-----
|<hiero>O31</hiero>
|[[Image:Proto-semiticD-01.png]][[Image:Proto-semiticD-02.png]]
|[[Image:PhoenicianD-01.png]]
|[[Image:EtruscanD-01.png]]
|[[Image:GreekD-01.png]]
|}
The Semitic letter [[Daleth|Dâlet]] probably developed from the [[logogram]] for a fish or a door. There are various [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s that this might have inspired this. In Semitic, Ancient Greek and Latin, the letter was pronounced /d/; in the [[Etruscan alphabet]] the letter was superfluous, but still maintained (see letter [[B]]). Greek letter: [[Delta (letter)|&Delta;]] (capital) or &delta; (small) (Delta).
The [[minuscule]] (lower-case) form of D, consisting of a loop and a tall vertical stroke, developed by gradual variations on the majuscule (capital) form. In handwriting it was common to start the arc to the left of the vertical stroke, resulting in a [[serif]] at the top of the arc. This serif was extended while the rest of the letter was reduced, resulting in an angled stroke and loop. The angled stroke then developed into a vertical stroke.
==Usage==
The letter D generally takes the [[voiced alveolar plosive]] value, [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/d/}} in most languages that use the Roman alphabet, including [[English language|English]]. In [[Welsh language|Welsh]] d when doubled (dd) has the value {{IPA|/ð/}}, like English ''th'' in ''this''.
Digraphs of D are rare in English, although other languages use DH or DD for a [[voiced dental fricative]] (some [[Celtic languages]]) or an aspirated [[voiced dental plosive]] (some [[Indo-Aryan languages]]), or use [[affricate|affricates]] DZ, DV, or DZH.
In [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]], the sound {{IPA|/d/}} means ''a little bit'', from the ancient use of the character &#30340; (in the phrase "&#20800;&#30340;") in [[Chinese written language]]. Since &#30340; is no longer used in this way, [[Hong Kong|Hong Kong residents]] invented a new character &#21874; (which is not supported in many Chinese systems), or simply write '''D''' instead.
==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Delta
|Morse=–··
|B1=●
|B2=○
|B3=○
|B4=●
|B5=●
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] D is codepoint U+0044 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] d is U+0064.
The [[ASCII]] code for capital D is 68 and for lowercase d is 100; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000100 and 01100100, correspondingly.
The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital D is 196 and for lowercase d is 132.
The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are "<tt>&amp;#68;</tt>" and "<tt>&amp;#100;</tt>" for upper and lower case respectively.
==Meanings==
* In American [[politics]], D is often used as an abbreviation for a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]].
* In [[astronomy]],
** D stands for destroyed/disappeared comet, as in [[D/1993 F2]], Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9.
** D stands for a February 16 through 29 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[D/1993 F2]]) or asteroid (e.g. {{mpl|(3481) 1982 DS|6}}).
* In the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] of [[Earth]], the [[D region|D layer]] is part of the [[ionosphere]].
* In [[biochemistry]], D is the symbol for [[aspartic acid]].
* [[Brassiere cup size]] D
* In British currency, d is an abbreviation (from the Latin ''denarius'') for the pre-decimalization [[penny]], worth 1/240th of a pound.
* In [[calendar]]s, D is often an abbreviation for the [[month]] [[December]].
* In [[chemistry]], D is the symbol of [[deuterium]], an [[isotope]] of [[hydrogen]].
* In [[computing]],
** D is the name of [[D programming language (disambiguation)|various programming languages]], most notably the [[D programming language]] by [[Walter Bright]].
** D is a security division ("Minimal Protection") in the [[TCSEC]].
* In [[driving]] a [[motor vehicle]], D (drive) designates the forward cruising gears in an [[automatic transmission]].
* In [[economics]], D stands for [[demand]].
* In [[education]], D is a barely passing [[Grade (education)|grade]].
* In [[electronics]], D is a standard size dry cell [[battery (electricity)|battery]].
* In [[finance]], D is the [[New York Stock Exchange]] [[ticker symbol]] for the [[Richmond, Virginia]] company [[Dominion Resources|Dominion]].
* In [[geometry]], d is often a [[variable]] for the [[diameter]] of a [[circle]].
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], D stands for [[Germany]].
* In [[manga]], D is the middle initial of [[Monkey D. Luffy]], and his relatives.
* In [[mathematics]],
** d is the symbol for the total [[differential operator]] (partial differentials use ∂).
** D is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[thirteen]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 14 or greater.
* In [[metrology] |
;]]
* ''[[Bust of Costanza Bonarelli]]'' (c. 1635) <small>- Marble, height 70 cm, [[Museo Nazionale del Bargello]], [[Florence]]</small>
* ''[[Charity with Two Children (Bernini)|Charity with Two Children]]'' ([[1634]]) <small>- Terracotta, height 41.6 cm, [[Vatican Museums|Museo Sacro]], [[Vatican Palace|Musei Vaticani]], [[Vatican City]]</small>
* ''[[Saint Longinus (Bernini)|Saint Longinus]]'' (1631-1638) <small>- Marble, height 450 cm, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]</small>
* [[Bust of Scipione Borghese (Bernini)|Bust of Scipione Borghese]] ([[1632]]) <small>- Marble, height 78 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]</small>
* [[Bust of Scipione Borghese of St. Peter (Bernini)|Bust of Cardinal Scipione Borghese]] (1632) <small>- Marble, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]</small>
* [[Fontana del Tritone]] (1624-1643) <small>- Travertine, over life-size, [[Piazza Barberini]], [[Rome]]</small>
* [[Bust of Pope Urban VIII]] (1632-1633) <small>- Bronze, height 100 cm, [[Vatican Museum|Museo Sacro]], Musei Vaticani, [[Vatican City]]</small>
* [[Bust of Cardinal Armand de Richelieu (Bernini)|Bust of Cardinal Armand de Richelieu]] (1640-1641) <small>- Marble, [[Louvre|Musée du Louvre]], [[Paris]]</small>
* [[Santa Maria sopra Minerva|Memorial to Maria Raggi]] ([[1643]]) <small>- Gilt bronze and coloured marble, [[Santa Maria sopra Minerva]], [[Rome]]</small>
* ''[[Truth (Bernini)|Truth]]'' (1645-1652) <small>- Marble, height 280 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]</small>
* ''[[Ecstasy of St Theresa]]'' (1647-1652) <small>- Marble, Cappella Cornaro, [[Santa Maria della Vittoria]], [[Rome]]</small>
* [[Santa Maria della Vittoria|Loggia of the Founders]] (1647-1652) Marble, Cappella Cornaro, [[Santa Maria della Vittoria]], [[Rome]]</small>
* [[Bust of Urban VIII (Bernini)|Bust of Urban VIII]] <small>- Marble, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]</small>
* [[Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi]] (1648-1651) <small>- Travertine and marble, [[Piazza Navona]], [[Rome]]</small>
* ''[[Daniel and the Lion (Bernini)|Daniel and the Lion]]'' ([[1650]]) <small>- Marble, [[Santa Maria del Popolo]], [[Rome]]</small>
* ''[[Francesco I d'Este (Bernini)|Francesco I d'Este]]'' (1650-1651) <small>- Marble, height 107 cm, [[Galleria Estense]], [[Modena]]</small>
* [[Fountain of the Moor]] (1653-1654) <small>- Marble, [[Piazza Navona]], [[Rome]]</small>
* ''[[Constantine, Vatican (Bernini)|Constantine]]'' (1654-1670) <small>- Marble, [[Vatican Palace|Palazzi Pontifici]], [[Vatican City]]</small>
* ''[[Daniel and the Lion of Vatican (Bernini)|Daniel and the Lion]]'' ([[1655]]) <small>- Terracotta, height 41.6 cm, Museo Sacro, [[Vatican Museum|Musei Vaticani]], [[Vatican City]]</small>
* ''[[Habakkuk and the Angel (Bernini)|Habakkuk and the Angel]]'' ([[1655]]) <small>- Terracotta, height 52 cm, Museo Sacro, [[Vatican Museum|Musei Vaticani]], [[Vatican City]]</small>
* [[Altar Cross (Bernini)|Altar Cross]] (1657-1661) <small>- Gilt bronze corpus on bronze cross, height: corpus 43 cm, cross 185 cm, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Treasury of San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]</small>
* [[Throne of Saint Peter]] (1657-1666) <small>- Marble, bronze, white and golden stucco, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Rome]]</small>
* [[Statue of Saint Augustine (Bernini)|Statue of Saint Augustine]] (1657-1666) <small>- Bronze, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]</small>
* ''[[Constantine, Scala Regia (Bernini)|Constantine]]'' (1663-1670) <small>- Marble with painted stucco drapery, [[Scala Regia]], [[Vatican Palace]], [[Rome]]</small>
* ''[[Standing Angel with Scroll (Bernini)|Standing Angel with Scroll]]'' (1667-1668) <small>- Clay, terracotta, height: 29,2 cm, [[Fogg Art Museum]], [[Cambridge]]</small>
* ''[[Sant'Andrea delle Fratte|Angel with the Crown of Thorns]]'' (1667-1669) <small>- Marble, over life-size, [[Sant'Andrea della Fratte]], Rome</small>
* ''[[Sant'Andrea delle Fratte|Angel with the Superscription]]'' (1667-1669) <small>- Marble, over life-size, [[Sant'Andrea della Fratte]], Rome</small>
* ''[[Elephant of Minerva]]'' (1667-1669) <small>- Marble, [[Santa Maria sopra Minerva|Piazza di Santa Maria sopra Minerva]], [[Rome]]</small>
* ''[[Bust of Gabriele Fonseca]]'' (1668-1675) <small>- Marble, over life-size, [[San Lorenzo in Lucina]], [[Rome]]</small>
* [[Equestrian Statue of King Louis XIV (Bernini)|Equestrian Statue of King Louis XIV]] (1669-1670) <small>- Terracotta, height 76 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]</small>
* [[Bust of Louis XIV (Bernini)|Bust of Louis XIV]] ([[1665]]) <small>- Marble, height 80 cm, [[Musée National de Versailles]], [[Versailles]]</small>
* ''[[Herm of St. Stephen, King of Hungary]]'' <small>- Bronze, [[Cathedral of Zagreb|Cathedral Treasury]], [[Zagreb]]</small>
* ''[[Saint Jerome (Bernini)|Saint Jerome]]'' (1661-1663) <small>- Marble, height 180 cm, Cappella Chigi, [[Duomo di Siena|Duomo]], [[Siena]] </small>
* [[Tomb of Pope Alexander VII]] (1671-1678) <small>- Marble and gilded bronze, over life-size, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]</small>
* ''[[Blessed Ludovica Albertoni]]'' (1671-1674) <small>- Marble, Cappella Altieri-Albertoni, [[San Francesco a Ripa]], [[Rome]]</small>
===Paintings===
Bernini's activity as a [[painter]] was a sideline which he did mainly in his youth. Despite this his work reveals a sure and brilliant hand, free from any trace of pedantry. He studied in Rome under his father, [[Pietro Bernini|Pietro]], and soon proved a precocious infant prodigy. His work was immediately sought after by major collectors.
*''[[Saint Andrew and Saint Thomas (Bernini)|Saint Andrew and Saint Thomas]]'' (c. 1627) <small>- Oil on canvas, 59 x 76 cm, [[National Gallery, London|National Gallery]], [[London]]</small>
*''[[David with the Head of Goliath (Bernini)|David with the Head of Goliath]]'' ([[1625]]) <small>- Oil on canvas, 75 x 65,5 cm, [[Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica]], [[Rome]]</small>
*''[[Portrait of a Boy (Bernini)|Portrait of a Boy]]'' (c. 1638) <small>- Oil on canvas, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]</small>
*''[[Self-Portrait as a Young Man (Bernini)|Self-Portrait as a Young Man]]'' (c. 1623) <small>- Oil on canvas, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]</small>
*''[[Self-Portrait as a Mature Man (Bernini)|Self-Portrait as a Mature Man]]'' (1630-1635) <small>- Oil on canvas, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]</small>
==See also==
[[Image:Bernini 50000.jpg|thumb|300px|Bernini on an old Italian note]]
* [[List of painters]]
* [[List of Italian painters]]
* [[List of famous Italians]]
* [[Saint Peter's Square]]
==Trivia==
Bernini was portrayed on two different series of former Italian notes of 50,000 lire. The picture was based on one of the artist's self-portraits.
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Gianlorenzo Bernini}}
*[http://www.slowtrav.com/italy/rome/es_bernini.htm Checklist of Bernini's architecture and sculpture in Rome]
[[Category:1598 births|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[Category:1680 deaths|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[Category:Bernini]]
[[Category:Baroque artists|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[Category:Italian architects|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[Category:Italian painters|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[Category:Italian sculptors|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[Category:Natives of Naples|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[cs:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[de:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[es:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[fr:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[hr:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[it:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[he:ג'ובאני לורנצו ברניני]]
[[nl:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[ja:ジャン・ロレンツォ・ベルニーニ]]
[[no:Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[pl:Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[pt:Bernini]]
[[ru:Бернини, Джованни Лоренцо]]
[[fi:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[sv:Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[zh:济安·贝尼尼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>German literature</title>
<id>12636</id>
<revision>
<id>39038549</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T07:35:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''German literature''' comprises those [[literature|literary]] texts originating within [[Germany]] proper and written in the [[German language]]. The term may also denote any literature composed primarily in the German language, though in other countries; for example [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], the former [[Czechoslovakia]], etc.
Some of the major movements or time periods of German literature include:
* [[Medieval German literature]]
* [[German literature of the Baroque period|Baroque]]
* [[The Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]
* [[Sturm und Drang]]
* [[Classicism]]
* [[German Romanticism]]
* [[Young Germany]]
* [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]]
* [[Fin de siècle]]
* [[Expressionism]]
* [[Dada]]
For well-known [[author]]s who wrote or write [[literature]] in the [[German language]] see [[list of German-language authors]] and [[list of German language poets]].
[[Category:German literature|*]]
[[bg:Немска литература]]
[[cs:Německá literatura]]
[[de:Deutsche Literatur]]
[[et:Saksakeelne kirjandus]]
[[es:Literatura alemana]]
[[eo:Germanlingva Literaturo]]
[[fr:Littérature de langue allemande]]
[[ko:독일어 문학]]
[[it:Letteratura tedesca]]
[[he:ספרות גרמנית]]
[[hu:Német irodalom]]
[[nl:Duitse literatuur]]
[[ja:ドイツ文学]]
[[pl:Literatura niemiecka]]
[[sk:Nemecká literatúra]]</text>
|
's political elites (and, more broadly, the Japanese public) has shown a greater willingness to deal with security issues and support the Self Defense Forces. This is in part due to its success in disaster relief efforts at home and its participation in peacekeeping operations in [[Cambodia]] in the early 1990s as well as the greater assertiveness in the first Iraq War requested by the first Bush Administration out of Japan in line with its economic power. More importantly, however, Japan's renewed focus on national security rests on an increasing sense of insecurity in the international environment (owing to the rise of China and a belligerent North Korea). Nonetheless, there are still significant internal political and psychological constraints on, as well as intense [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] and [[Korea|Korean]] opposition to, strengthening Japan's defense/military capabilities.
While maintaining its primary relationship with the United States, Japan has diversified and expanded its ties with other nations. Good relations with its neighbors continue to be of vital interest. After Japan signed a peace and friendship treaty with the [[People's Republic of China]] in [[1978]], ties between the two countries developed rapidly. The Japanese extend significant economic assistance to the Chinese in various modernization projects. At the same time, Japan has maintained economic but not diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), where a strong bilateral trade relationship thrives.
One major diplomatic and cultural initiative is the [[JET Program]], originally presented by former Prime Minister [[Yasuhiro Nakasone]] to [[Ronald Reagan]] as a "gift." Some analysts suggest the relatively quick adoption of this program was a response to foreign claims that Japan was too insular and that it needed to bring up a new [[generation]] of youth comfortable with the [[English language]] and with foreigners.
==Relations by country and region==
===United States===
''Main article:'' [[Japan-United States relations]]
The United States is Japan's closest ally, and Japan relies on the U.S. for its [[National security of Japan|national security]] to a high degree. As the world's two top economic powers (in 2005), both countries also rely on close economic ties for their wealth, despite ongoing and occasionally acriminious trade frictions.
Although [[Constitution of Japan|its constitution]] and [[Government of Japan|government]] policy preclude an offensive military role for Japan in international affairs, Japanese cooperation with the United States through the [[1960]] [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|U.S.-Japan Security Treaty]] has been important to the peace and stability of East Asia. Currently, there are domestic discussions about possible reinterpretation of [[Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan|Article 9]] of the Japanese constitution. All postwar Japanese governments have relied on a close relationship with the United States as the foundation of their foreign policy and have depended on the mutual security treaty for strategic protection.
The relationship probably hit a post-war nadir around the early 1990s, when Japanese [[economic dominance]] was seen as a threat to American power. Japan was the primary financer of the [[First Iraq War]], yet received major criticism in some US circles for its refusal to commit actual military support. Following the collapse of the so-called [[Bubble economy]] and the 90s boom in the US, the Japanese economy was perceived as less of a threat to US interests. Some observers still feel that Japan's willingness to deploy troops in support of current US operations in Iraq, as spear-headed by [[Koizumi]] and the conservative [[LDP]] party, reflects a vow not to be excluded from the group of countries the US considers friends. This decision may reflect an [[realpolitik]] understanding of the threat Japan faces from a rapidly modernizing [[China]], which from its continued and indeed growing pattern of anti-Japanese [[demonstrations]] reveals the belief that old historical scores remain unsettled.
Japan's relationship with the United States is likely to remain strong throughout the forseeable future.
===North and South Korea===
''Main article:'' [[Japanese-Korean relations]]
Japanese ties with (Republic of Korea) [[South Korea]] have improved since an exchange of visits in the mid-1980s by their political leaders. [[South Korea]]n President [[Kim Dae-jung]] had a very successful visit to Japan in October [[1998]]. Japan has limited economic and commercial ties with the Democratic People's Republic of Korea ([[North Korea]]). Japanese normalization talks halted when North Korea refused to discuss a number of issues with Japan.
Japan strongly supports the U.S. in its efforts to encourage [[Pyongyang]] to abide by the [[nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] and its agreements with the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA). Despite the August 31, 1998 [[North Korea]]n missile test which overflew the Home Islands, Japan has maintained its support for the Korean Energy Development Organization (KEDO) and the Agreed Framework, which seek to freeze the North Korean nuclear program. The U.S., Japan, and South Korean closely coordinate and consult trilaterally on policy toward North Korea, at least on a government level.
===China===
''Main article:'' [[Sino-Japanese relations]]
===South-East Asia===
''Main articles:'' [[Philippine-Japanese relations]], [[Japanese-Vietnamese relations]]
By 1990 Japan's interaction with the vast majority of Asia-Pacific countries, especially its burgeoning economic exchanges, was multifaceted and increasingly important to the recipient countries. The developing countries of [[ASEAN]] regarded Japan as critical to their development. Japan's aid to the ASEAN countries totaled US$1.9 billion in Japanese fiscal year (FY) 1988 versus about US$333 million for the [[United States]] during U.S. FY 1988. Japan was the number one foreign investor in the ASEAN countries, with cumulative investment as of March 1989 of about US$14.5 billion, more than twice that of the United States. Japan's share of total foreign investment in ASEAN countries in the same period ranged from 70 to 80 percent in [[Thailand]] to 20 percent in [[Indonesia]].
In the early 1990s, the Japanese government was making a concerted effort to enhance its diplomatic stature, especially in Asia. [[Toshiki Kaifu]]'s much publicized spring 1991 tour of five Southeast Asian nations—[[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], [[Thailand]], [[Singapore]], and the [[Philippines]]—culminated in a May 3 major foreign policy address in Singapore, in which he called for a new partnership with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and pledged that Japan would go beyond the purely economic sphere to seek an "appropriate role in the political sphere as a nation of peace." As evidence of this new role, Japan took an active part in promoting negotiations to resolve the [[Cambodia]]n conflict.
In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and the People's Republic of China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the [[ASEAN Plus Three]] meetings. In 2005 the ASEAN plus Three countries together with [[India]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] held the inaugural [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS).
===South Asia===
In [[South Asia]], Japan's role is mainly that of an aid donor. Japan's aid to seven South Asian countries totaled US$1.1 billion in 1988 and 1989, dropping to just under US$900 million in 1990. Except for [[Pakistan]], which received heavy inputs of aid from the United States, all other South Asian countries receive most of their aid from Japan. Four South Asian nations—[[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Sri Lanka]]—are in the top ten list of Tokyo's aid recipients worldwide.
Prime Minister Toshiki Kaifu signaled a broadening of Japan's interest in South Asia with his swing through the region in April 1990. In an address to the [[Indian parliament]], Kaifu stressed the role of free markets and democracy in bringing about "a new international order," and he emphasized the need for a settlement of the [[Kashmir territorial dispute]] between India and Pakistan and for economic liberalization to attract foreign investment and promote dynamic growth. To India, which was very short of hard currency, Kaifu pledged a new concessional loan of ¥100 billion (about US$650 million) for the coming year.
===Russia===
''Main article:'' [[Japanese-Russian relations]]
Japan's relations with [[Russia]] are hampered by the two sides' inability to resolve their territorial dispute over the four islands that make up the [[Kuril Island conflict|Northern Territories]] ([[Kuril Islands|Kuriles]]), which the U.S.S.R. seized towards the end of [[World War II]]. The stalemate has prevented conclusion of a peace treaty formally ending the war. The United States supports Japan on the Northern Territories issue and recognizes Japanese sovereignty over the islands. Despite the lack of progress in resolving the Northern Territories dispute, Japan and Russia have made some progress in developing other aspects of the relationship. Even without a peace treaty, most Japanese do not feel that relationship with Russia is troubled. That said, remembrance of the almost last-minute Soviet declaration of war on the defeated Japan in World War II and subsequent exploitation of former Japanese soldiers in harsh Siberian prison [[labor camps]] remains.
===Western Europe===
''Main articles:'' [[Anglo-Japanese relations]]; [[Franco-Japanese relations]]; [[German-Japanese relations]]
Although cultural and noneconomic ties with [[Western Europe]] grew significantly during the 1980s, the economic nexus remained by far the most important element of Japanese-West European relations througho |
asting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM broadcasting|AM]] 3, [[FM]] 10, [[shortwave]] 0 ([[1998]])
'''Radios:'''
46,000 ([[1997]])
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
0 (however, there are two cable television companies, Marpin Telecoms and SAT Telecommunications) (2004)
'''Televisions:'''
6,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
Cable & Wireless Dominica Ltd
'''[[Country code]]:''' DM
:''See also :'' [[Dominica]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Dominica]]
[[Category:Communications in Dominica|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Dominica</title>
<id>8057</id>
<revision>
<id>35666439</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-18T12:05:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Morwen</username>
<id>17287</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{North America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Railways:'''
0 km
'''Highways:'''
<br>''total:''
780 km
<br>''paved:''
393 km
<br>''unpaved:''
387 km (1996 estimate.)
'''Ports and harbors:'''
Portsmouth, Roseau
'''Merchant marine:'''
none (1999 estimate.)
'''Airports:'''
2 (1999 estimate.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
2
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
2 (1999 estimate.)
:''See also :'' [[Dominica]]
{{North America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Dominica]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Dominica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Dominica</title>
<id>8058</id>
<revision>
<id>35482137</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T01:50:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobet</username>
<id>445629</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[military]] of [[Dominica]]''' consists of the [[Commonwealth of Dominica Police Force]] (includes Special Service Unit, Coast Guard).
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$NA
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
NA%
[[Category:Dominica]]
[[Category:Militaries|Dominica]]
{{Caribbean-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Dominica</title>
<id>8059</id>
<revision>
<id>36024316</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T00:04:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hu</username>
<id>133716</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Commonwealth of Nations]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Like its [[Eastern Caribbean]] neighbors, the main priority of [[Dominica]]'s foreign relations is economic development. The country maintains missions in Washington, New York, London, and Brussels and is represented jointly with other [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS) members in [[Canada]]. Dominica is also a member of the [[Caribbean Development Bank]] (CDB), and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. It became a member of the [[United Nations]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) in 1978 and of the [[World Bank]] and [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in 1979.
As a member of [[CARICOM]], in July 1994 Dominica strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement [[UN Security Council Resolution 940]], designed to facilitate the departure of [[Haiti]]'s de facto authorities from power. The country agreed to contribute personnel to the multinational force, which restored the democratically elected government of Haiti in October 1994.
In May 1997, Prime Minister James joined 14 other Caribbean leaders, and President Clinton, during the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in [[Bridgetown, Barbados]]. The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counternarcotics issues, finance and development, and trade.
Dominica previously maintained official relations with the [[Republic of China]] (commonly known as "Taiwan") instead of the [[People's Republic of China]], but on March 23 a joint communique was signed in Beijing, paving the way for diplomatic recognition of the People's Republic. Beijing responded to Domica's severing relations with the Republic of China by giving them a $112 million aid package, which includes $6 million in budget support for the year 2004 and $1 million annually for six years.
'''Illicit drugs:'''
transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; minor [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] producer; banking industry is vulnerable to money laundering
[[Category:Dominica]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Dominica, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dominican Republic</title>
<id>8060</id>
<revision>
<id>42110698</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:12:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Piotrus</username>
<id>59002</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Economy */ some ilinks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Dominican Republic infobox}}
[[Image:Dominican_republic_sm03.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of the Dominican Republic]]
The '''Dominican Republic''', ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República Dominicana'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'puβlika domini'kana]}}) is a country located on the eastern two-thirds of the [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] island of [[Hispaniola]], bordering [[Haiti]]. Hispaniola is the second-largest of the [[Greater Antilles]] islands, and lies west of [[Puerto Rico]] and east of [[Cuba]] and [[Jamaica]]. A legacy of unsettled, mostly non-representative rule lasted for much of the [[20th century]]; the move towards [[representative democracy]] has improved vastly since the death of military dictator [[Rafael Leónidas Trujillo]] in [[1961]]. Dominicans sometimes refer to their country as '''Quisqueya''', a name for Hispaniola used by [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Taíno]] people. The Dominican Republic is not to be confused with [[Dominica]], another Caribbean country.
==History==
:''Main article: [[History of the Dominican Republic]]''
The country has had a history of changing ownership, with occasional attempts at independence and self-rule. First a [[Spanish empire|Spanish colony]] and then a [[French colonial empires|French colony]], it was subsequently ruled by Haiti and then Spain again, and later the [[United States]] twice ruled Dominican territory.
In the beginning the island was primarily inhabited by the [[Taíno]], a branch of the [[Arawaks]]. ''Taíno'' means "the good" or "noble" in that native language. A system of [[Cacique|Cacicazgos]] ([[chiefdom]]s) was in place, and Marien, Maguana, Higuey, Magua and Xaragua (Also written as Jaragua) were their names. These chiefdoms were then subdivided into subchiefdoms. The Cacicazgos were based on a system of [[tribute]], consisting of the food grown by the Taino. Among the cultural signs that they left were cave paintings around the country, which have become touristic and nationalistic symbols of the Dominican Republic, and words from their language, including "hurricane" (hurrakan) and "tobacco" (tabakko).
===The arrival of the Guamikena (the covered ones)===
On December 5, [[1492]], the Europeans arrived. Believing that these beings from over the horizon were in someway supernatural, the Taínos welcomed the Europeans with all the honors available to them. This was a totally different society from the one the Europeans came from. One of the things that piqued the curiosity was the amount of clothing worn by the Europeans. Therefore they came to call them "guamikena" (the covered ones). [[Guacanagarix]], the chief who hosted [[Christopher Columbus]] and his men, treated them kindly and provided him with everything they desired. Yet the Taínos' allegedly "egalitarian" system clashed with the Europeans' feudalist system, with more rigid class structures. This led the Europeans to believe the Taínos to be either weak or misleading, and they began to treat the tribes with more violence. Columbus tried to temper this when he and his men departed from Quisqueya and they left on a good note. Columbus had cemented a firm alliance with Guacanagarix, who was a powerful chief on the island. After the shipwrecking of the Santa Maria, he decided to establish a small fort with a garrison of men that could help him lay claim to this possession. The fort was called La Navidad, since the events of the shipwrecking and the founding of the fort occurred on Christmas day. The garrison, in spite of all the wealth and beauty on the island, was wracked by divisions within and the men took sides, that evolved into conflict amongst these first Europeans. The more rapacious ones began to terrorize the Taíno, Ciguayo and Macorix tribesmen up to the point of trying to take their women.
Viewed as weak by the Spaniards and even some of his own people, Guacanagarix tried to come to an accommodation with the Spaniards, who saw his appeasement as the actions of someone who submitted, they treated him with contempt and even took some of his wives too. The powerful cacique of the maguana, Caonabo could brook no further affronts, attacked the Europeans and destroyed La Navidad. Guacanagarix, dismayed as he was by this turn of events did not try too hard to aid these guamikena, probably hoped that the troublesome outsiders would never return. However, they did return.
===The twentieth century===
The twentieth century was marked by repeated U.S. intervention in local affairs. The reason for this was the island's strategic location in the middle of the Caribbean Sea. During the World Wars the islands of the Caribbean were used as stop-off points for German [[U-boats]] from which to plan possible attacks against the North American continent. During the [[Cold War]], [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and capitalist ideologies clashed op |
to the [[year 2000 problem]].
===Week dates===
{|table class="infobox" style=" text-align: center; width: 15em"
| '''YYYY–Www–D'''
|}
Week dates are a form more popular in manufacturing. As represented above, '''YYYY''' indicates a ISO year. The "'''W'''" is a literal roman character followed by '''ww''' which represents the week number from 01 through 52 or 53. The "'''D'''" represents the ''day of the week'' from 1 through 7, beginning with Monday and ending with Sunday. For example, 1981-04-05 is the 7th day of the 14th week of 1981, and would be written '''1981-W14-7''', or in its most compact form '''81W147'''.
Week 01 is the week with the year's first Thursday in it. Or in other words, the first week with the majority (four or more) of its days in the new year. If 1 January is on a Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday, it is in week 01. If 1 January is on a Friday, Saturday or Sunday, it is in week 52 or 53 of the previous year. Weeks 01, 52 and 53 can thus include days from more than one year and, in most years, do so. For example, 2008-12-28 is written '''2009-W01-1''' and 2010-01-01 is written '''2009-W53-7'''. The year given by the Week format is often called the ISO year (opposed to the gregorian year used in Calendar dates).
===Ordinal dates===
{|table class="infobox" style="text-align: center; width: 15em"
| '''YYYY–DDD'''
|}
''Ordinal dates'' are a simple form for times when the arbitrary nature of week and month definitions are more of an impediment than an aid&mdash;for instance, when comparing dates from different calendars. As represented above, '''YYYY''' indicates a year. '''DDD''' is the day of that year, from 001 through 366 in leap years. For example, "1981-04-05" is also '''1981-095'''.
This format has particular use for simple hardware systems that have need of a date system, but where including full calendar calculation software may be a significant nuisance.
=== Further details about dates ===
<!-- This section is somewhat redundant ATM: 2006-01-07 11:43-0500 -->
The standard allows for expansion and truncation of the year, by agreement between sender and receiver.
Truncation means the year may be written with two digits (optionally preceded by a hyphen) to represent a year in an ''implied'' century. Unfortunately, common practice is to use two digits for either a year in an implied modern century or in the first century ('''89''' might be 89 or 1989).
Expansion means that the year may be written with more than four digits, which addresses the [[year 10,000 problem]], by allowing the standard to specify dates later than [[10th millennium|AD 10000]] or earlier than [[Younger Dryas|10001 BC]].
Note however that expansion and truncation introduce ambiguities if separators are not used. For instance '''200406''' could either mean the year 200406 or month 06 in year 2004. The ISO standard suggests that "provisions be made" to prevent such confusions.
For purposes of reference ISO 8601 assigns the number [[1875]] to the year in which the ''[[Convention du Mètre]]'' was signed in [[Paris]].
==Times==
{|table class="infobox" style="text-align: center; width: 15em"
| '''hh:mm:ss'''
|}
ISO 8601 uses the [[24-hour clock]] system that is used by much of the world. The ''basic format'' is '''hhmmss''' and the ''extended format'' is '''hh:mm:ss'''. '''hh''' refers to an [[hour]] between 00 and 24, where 24 is only used to notate the midnight at the end of a calendar date. '''mm''' refers to a [[minute]] between 00 and 59. '''ss''' refers to a [[second]] between 00 and 59 (or 60 in the exceptional case of an added [[leap second]]). So a time might appear as '''13:47:30''', or '''134730'''.
It is also acceptable to omit elements to reduce precision. '''hh:mm''', '''hhmm''', and '''hh''' are all used.
Fractions may also be used with all three of the time elements. These are indicated by using the [[decimal point]] (either a [[comma (punctuation)|comma]] or [[full stop|dot]]). A fraction may only refer to the most precise component of a time representation &mdash; that is, to denote "14 hours, 30 and one half minutes", do not include a seconds figure. Represent it as '''14:30.5''' or '''1430.5'''. The "." may be replaced with a "," depending on the local custom.
''[[Midnight]]'' is a special case and can be referred to as both '''00:00''' and '''24:00'''. The notation '''00:00''' is used at the beginning of the day, and is the most frequently used one. At the end of a day use '''24:00'''. Note that '''1981-04-05 24:00''' is the same instant as '''1981-04-06 00:00'''.
===Time zones===
{|table class="infobox" style="width: 15em"
| '''<time>Z'''<br />
'''<time>&plusmn;hh:mm:ss'''<br />
'''<time>&plusmn;hh:mm'''<br />
'''<time>&plusmn;hhmm'''<br />
'''<time>&plusmn;hh'''
|}
If no [[time zone]] information is given with a time, the time zone is assumed to be in some conventional local timezone. While it may be safe to assume a local zone when used between two people in the same area, it is ambiguous when used in communication between multiple timezones. It is usually preferable to indicate a time zone using the standard's notation.
====UTC====
If the time is in [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], it is very easy to show this. Simply add a '''Z''' directly after the time, without a space. "09:30 UTC" is therefore represented as '''09:30Z''' or '''0930Z'''. "14:45:15 UTC" would be '''14:45:15Z''' or '''144515Z'''.
====Other time zones====
Other time zones are specified by their ''offset'' from UTC, in the format '''±hh:mm''', '''±hhmm''', or '''±hh'''. So if the time being described is one hour ahead of UTC (such as the time in [[Berlin]] during the winter) the offset would be '''+01:00''', '''+0100''', or simply '''+01'''. This is appended to the time in the same way that "'''Z'''" was above. Note that the offset is the actual offset from UTC, and doesn't include any information on [[daylight saving time]]. Times expressed in local time for a user in [[Chicago, Illinois]] would be '''-06:00''' for the winter ([[Central Standard Time Zone|Central Standard Time]]) and '''-05:00''' for the summer ([[Central Daylight Time Zone|Central Daylight Time]]). The following times all refer to the same moment: '''18:30Z''', '''22:30+04''', '''1130-0700''', and '''15:00-03:30'''. (It could also be expressed using a fraction of the hour, as '''18.5Z'''.)
==Combined representations==
{|table class="infobox" style="width: 15em"
| '''<date><tt>&nbsp;</tt><time>'''<br />'''YYYY-MM-DD<tt>&nbsp;</tt>hh:mm:ss'''<br />'''<date>T<time>'''<br />'''YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss'''<br />'''YYYYMMDDThhmmss'''
|}
Combining ''date'' and ''time'' representations is quite simple. It is in the format of '''<date>T<time>'''. The ''<date>'' and ''<time>'' sections are any proper representation of the date and time created by following the standard. A common use could be '''YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss±hh:mm'''. '''1981-04-05T14:30:30-05:00''', for example.
The standard allows the replacement of T with a space if no misunderstanding arises. This is commonly done for human communications. A date/time with timezone like '''1981-04-05T14:30-05''' would then be written as '''1981-04-05&nbsp;14:30-05'''.
==Duration==
{|table class="infobox" style="text-align: center; width: 15em"
| '''PnYnMnDTnHnMnS'''
|}
Durations are represented by the format '''PnYnMnDTnHnMnS''' (nM may be replaced with nW to use the ''week format''.) In this representation replace '''n''' with the appropriate number for the element that follows it (leading zeros are optional but may clarify ambiguous durations) The capital letters ('''P''', '''Y''', '''M''', '''W''', '''D''', '''T''', '''H''', '''M''', and '''S''') are used as they are and not replaced. Thus '''P3Y6M4DT12H30M0S''' defines "a period of three years, six months, four days, twelve hours, thirty minutes, and zero seconds". Elements may be omitted if their value is zero.
Alternately, a format more similar to the ''combined representation'' may be used: '''PYYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss'''. To represent the same interval as above in this format, use '''P0003-06-04T12:30:00'''.
==Time interval==
{|table class="infobox" style="width: 15em"
| '''<begin>/<end>'''<br />'''<begin>/<duration>'''<br />'''<duration>/<end>'''<br />'''<duration>'''
|}
Time intervals specify an amount of time. They may be specified in four ways:
#Start and end, such as '''2002-03-01T13:00:00Z/2003-05-11T15:30:00Z'''
#Start and duration, such as '''2002-03-01T13:00:00Z/P1Y2M10DT2H30M'''
#Duration and end, such as '''P1Y2M10DT2H30M/2003-05-11T15:30:00Z'''
#Duration only, such as '''P1Y2M10DT2H30M'''
Of these, the first three require two separate values, separated by the ''interval designator'', which is usually a [[slash (punctuation)|forward slash]] "'''/'''". (The double [[hyphen]] (--) is permissible in some applications but is not preferred.) An example using the format from item #1 is '''1981-04-05T14:30:30-05:00/2004-07-14T15:30:30-05:00'''. If any elements are missing from the second value, they are assumed to be the same as the first value, including time zone elements.
===Repeating intervals===
Repeating intervals are formed by adding '''Rn/''' to the beginning of an interval expression, where '''R''' is used as the letter itself and '''n''' is replaced by the number of repetitions. Leaving out the value for '''n''' means an unbounded number of repetitions. So, to repeat the inte |
p://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7797346/]
More recently, Greenpeace was fined for damaging over 100 square meters of [[coral reef]] off the coast of [[Manila]]. The group accepted responsibility for the act, but pointed out that it could have been avoided had the maps provided to them by the Philippine government been more accurate. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4395572.stm]
==See also==
[[Whaling]]
==References==
* Rex Weyler (2004), ''Greenpeace: an insider's account'', Rodale
* Kieran Mulvaney and Mark Warford (1996):'' Witness: Twenty-Five Years on the Environmental Front Line,'' Andre Deutsch.
==External links==
{{Wikinews|Greenpeace activists clash with Japanese whaling fleet in Southern Ocean}}
===Greenpeace===
* [http://www.greenpeace.org/ Greenpeace official website]
* [http://www.greenpeace.org/international/rainbow-warrior-bombing/spy-story/ The Rainbow Warrior story, from the official Greenpeace website]
* [http://archive.greenpeace.org/30th/ Greenpeace 30th Anniversary]
* [http://archive.greenpeace.org/comms/vrml/rw/text/def/founders.html Greenpeace Founders]
* [http://www.kleercut.net/ www.kleercut.net] Website of Greenpeace's Anti-Kleenex campaign
* [http://www.utne.com/web_special/web_specials_archives/articles/2246-1.html Waves of Compassion: The Founding of Greenpeace] by Rex Weyler
* [http://www.rexweyler.com/ www.rexweyler.com] Rex Weyler, Greenpeace co-founder Official website
* [http://www.chinacsr.com/archives/2005/11/greenpeace_call.php Greenpeace Calls On Chinese Government To Protect Environment Around Harbin]
* [http://www.greenpeace.org.ph/ Greenpeace Philippines website]
===Other===
* [http://archives.cbc.ca/300c.asp?id=1-69-867 Greenpeace: Always Bearing Witness] CBC archives
* [http://www.greenyearbook.org/articles/96_07_pearce.pdf Greenpeace: Storm-Tossed on the High Seas] by Fred Pearce
* [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=2313082 " Whaling, a bloody war - Obduracy in the face of hypocrisy" The Economist Dec 30th 2003] The two sides of whaling.
[[Category:Greenpeace|Greenpeace]]
[[Category:Climate change organizations]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations]]
[[Category:Genetic engineering]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapon organizations]]
[[Category:1971 establishments]]
{{commons|Greenpeace}}
[[zh-min-nan:Le̍k-sek Hô-pêng]]
[[ca:Greenpeace]]
[[da:Greenpeace]]
[[de:Greenpeace]]
[[el:Greenpeace]]
[[es:Greenpeace]]
[[eo:Greenpeace]]
[[fr:Greenpeace]]
[[gl:Greenpeace]]
[[it:Greenpeace]]
[[he:גרינפיס]]
[[nl:Greenpeace]]
[[ja:グリーンピース (NGO)]]
[[pl:Greenpeace]]
[[pt:Greenpeace]]
[[ru:Гринпис]]
[[sk:Greenpeace]]
[[fi:Greenpeace]]
[[sv:Greenpeace]]
[[th:กรีนพีซ]]
[[tr:Greenpeace]]
[[zh:绿色和平]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Whipple</title>
<id>12234</id>
<revision>
<id>37737058</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T21:56:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sayeth</username>
<id>65782</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>wiki and sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''George Hoyt Whipple''' ([[August 28]], [[1878]] &ndash; [[February 1]], [[1976]]) was an American physician, biomedical researcher, and medical school educator and administrator. Whipple shared the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1934 with [[George Richards Minot]] and [[William Parry Murphy]] "for their discoveries concerning [[liver]] therapy in cases of [[anemia]]."
Whipple was born to Ashley Cooper Whipple and Frances Anna Hoyt in [[Ashland, New Hampshire]]. He was the son and grandson of physicians. Whipple attended [[Andover Academy]] and then [[Yale University]] from which he graduated with a B.A. degree in 1900. He attended medical school at the [[Johns Hopkins University]] from which he received the M.D. degree in 1905.
After graduation Whipple worked in the pathology department at Hopkins until he went to [[Panama]] as pathologist to the Ancon Hospital in 1907-08. Whipple returned to Baltimore and there served successively as Assistant, Instructor, Associate and Associate Professor in Pathology at Johns Hopkins until 1914.
In 1914 Whipple was appointed Professor of Research Medicine and Director of the Hooper Foundation for Medical Research at the [[University of California]] Medical School. He was Dean of that medical school in 1920 and 1921.
At the urging of [[Abraham Flexner]], who had done pioneering studies of medical education, and [[University of Rochester]] President Rush Rhees, Whipple agreed in 1921 to become Dean of the newly funded and yet-to-be-built medical school in Rochester, New York. Whipple thus became Professor and Chairman of Pathology and the founding Dean of the new School of Medicine and Dentistry at the University of Rochester. Whipple served the School as the Dean until 1954 and remained at Rochester for the rest of his life. He was a superb teacher.
Whipple's main research was concerned with anemia and the physiology and pathology of the liver. He was the first to describe [[Whipple's disease]] ([[eponym|named]] after him) and gave clues as to its cause ([[bacterium|bacteria]]), in [[1907]].
==External links==
*[http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/gwhipple.html National Academy of Sciences biography]
*[http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1934/whipple-bio.html Nobel biography]
*[http://www.whipple.org/blaine/georgehoyt.html Other biography]
{{Med-bio-stub}}
[[Category:1878 births|Whipple, George]]
[[Category:1976 deaths|Whipple, George]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners|Whipple, George]]
[[de:George Hoyt Whipple]]
[[es:George Hoyt Whipple]]
[[pt:George Hoyt Whipple]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gokturks</title>
<id>12235</id>
<revision>
<id>41903352</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:24:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Briangotts</username>
<id>169027</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.158.191.252|209.158.191.252]] ([[User talk:209.158.191.252|talk]]) to last version by Lorenzarius</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
The '''Göktürks''' or '''Kök-Türks''' known as ''Tujue'' (突厥 tu2 jue2) in medieval [[China|Chinese]] sources, established the first known [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] state around [[552]], after the [[Huns]], under the leadership of [[Bumin Khan|Bumin/Tuman Khan/Khaghan]] (d. 552) and his sons, and expanded rapidly to rule wide territories in [[Central Asia]]. The Gokturks, who originated from the [[Ashina]] tribe, an Altaic people who lived in the northwestern corner of the area presently called the [[Xinjiang]] [[Uygur]] Autonomus Region of China. They were the first Turkic tribe to use the name "Türk" as a political name.
The state's most famous personalities other than its founder Bumin are princes [[Kul Tigin]] and [[Bilge Khan|Bilge]] and the vizier [[Tonyukuk]], whose life stories were carved on the famous [[Orkhon inscriptions]].
== Etymology ==
''Kök-Turks'' is said to mean "Celestial Turks" but this is contested. Alternate meanings are Blue Turks, and Numerous Turks.
== Origins ==
With the collapse of [[Hun]]nish power in [[Asia]], leadership of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] was taken over by the Gokturks after their ancestors the [[Huns]], who inherited their traditions and administrative experience. From [[552]] to [[745]], Gokturkish leadership bound together the [[nomad]]ic Turkish tribes into an empire, which finally fell to internal conflicts and to defeats by China. The kingdom received missionaries from the [[Buddhist]]s, [[Manichean]]s, and [[Nestorian Christian]]s, but remained primarily [[Shamanism|shamanistic]].
The great difference between the Gokturkish empire and its Hunnish predecessor was that the Gokturks' temporary ''[[Khan]]s'' (lords) were ''subordinate'' to a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] authority that was left in the hands of a [[dynasty]] of tribal chiefs.
The Gokturks wrote [[Old Turkic|their language]] in a [[runic alphabet|runic]] script. ''See [[Orkhon script]].''
[[Image:Gokturkut.jpg|right|thumb|410px|Map of the Western (purple) and Eastern (blue) Gokturk [[khagan]]ates at their height, ca. [[600]] CE. Lighter areas show direct rule; darker areas show spheres of influence.]]
== First Unified Empire ==
In [[552]], Tuman defeated the last [[Rouran]] Khan, [[A-na-kuei]]. Tuman's brother [[Istämi]] (d. [[576]]) collaborated with the [[Iran|Persia]]n [[Sassanid]]s to defeat and destroy the [[White Hun]]s, which drove the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] into [[Europe]]. Both rival states in north China paid large tributes to the Gokturks from [[581]].
This first Gokturkish empire split in two after the death of the last of Tuman's sons (ca. [[584]]). These were successfully played off against each other by [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang Dynasty]] China. The Eastern Khanate became formally subordinate to the Chinese Emperor; the Western Khan of that time was Istämi's son [[Tardu]], who almost succeeded in reuniting the Gokturkish empire around [[600]]. However, Chinese diplomacy incited a revolt of his [[vassal]]s, and Tardu's reign was cut short in [[603]].
== Dual Empires ==
New attacks on China by the Turks of the Eastern Khanate failed, and its Khan [[Hsien]] was brought down by a revolt of his vassals ([[626]]-[[630]]), instigated by [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]], who took him prisoner. The Western Khan [[Tung Sche-hu]] was murdered in [[630]] despite strong support by the [[Byzantine Empire]] against the Persians. By [[659]] the Tang Emperor of China could claim to rule the entire [[Silk Road]] as far as Po-sse (Persia). The Turks now carried Chinese titles and fought by their side in their wars.
== Inter-Imperial Era ==
630-682 AD
== Second Empire ==
Nonetheless, [[Ilteris Sad|Ilteriş Şad]] (Idat) and his brother [[Qapagan Khan|Bäkçor Qapağan Khan] |
subject matter of courses called ''intermediate algebra'' and ''college algebra'');
* '''[[abstract algebra]]''', sometimes also called ''modern algebra'', in which [[algebraic structure]]s such as [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] and [[field (mathematics)|field]]s are [[axiomatization|axiomatically]] defined and investigated;
* '''[[linear algebra]]''', in which the specific properties of [[vector space]]s are studied (including [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]]);
* '''[[universal algebra]]''', in which properties common to all algebraic structures are studied.
In advanced studies, axiomatic algebraic systems like groups, rings, fields, and algebras over a field are investigated in the presence of a natural [[geometry|geometric]] structure (a [[topology]]) which is compatible with the algebraic structure. The list includes:
* [[Normed linear space]]s
* [[Banach space]]s
* [[Hilbert space]]s
* [[Banach algebra]]s
* [[Normed algebra]]s
* [[Topological algebra]]s
* [[Topological group]]s
==Elementary algebra==
'''Elementary algebra''' is the most basic form of [[algebra]] taught to students who are presumed to have no knowledge of [[mathematics]] beyond the basic principles of [[arithmetic]]. While in arithmetic only [[number]]s and their arithmetical operations (such as +, &minus;, &times;, ÷) occur, in algebra one also uses symbols (such as ''a'', ''x'', ''y'') to denote numbers. This is useful because:
* It allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws (such as <math>a + b = b + a</math> for all ''a'' and ''b''), and thus is the first step to a systematic exploration of the properties of the [[real number|real number system]].
* It allows the reference to "unknown" numbers, the formulation of [[equation]]s and the study of how to solve these (for instance "find a number ''x'' such that <math>3x + 1 = 10</math>).
* It allows the formulation of [[function (mathematics)|function]]al relationships (such as "if you sell ''x'' tickets, then your profit will be <math>3x - 10</math> dollars").
==Abstract algebra==
:''Main article: [[Abstract algebra]]; see also [[algebraic structures]]''.
'''Abstract algebra''' extends the familiar concepts found in elementary algebra and [[arithmetic]] of [[numbers]] to more general concepts.
'''[[Set]]s''': Rather than just considering the different types of [[number]]s, abstract algebra deals with the more general concept of ''sets'': a collection of objects called [[elements]]. All the familiar types of numbers are sets. Other examples of sets include the set of all two by two [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrices]], the set of all second degree [[polynomials]] (''ax''<sup>2</sup>+''bx''+''c''), the set of all two dimensional [[vectors]] in the plane, and the various [[finite groups]] such as the [[cyclic group]]s which are the group of integers modulo ''n''. [[Set theory]] is a branch of [[logic]] and not technically a branch of algebra.
'''[[Binary operation]]s''': The notion of [[addition]] (+) is abstracted to give a ''binary operation'', * say. For two elements ''a'' and ''b'' in a set ''S'' ''a''*''b'' gives another element in the set, (technically this condition is called [[Closure (mathematics)|closure]]). [[Addition]] (+), [[subtraction]] (-), [[multiplication]] (&times;), and [[division]] (&divide;) are all binary operations as in addition and multiplication of matrices, vectors, and polynomials.
'''[[Identity element]]s''': Zero and one are abstracted to give the notion of an ''identity element''. Zero is the identity element for addition and one is the identity element for multiplication. For a general binary operator * the identity element ''e'' must satisfy ''a''*''e''=''a'' and ''e''*''a''=''a''. This holds for addition as ''a''+0=''a'', and 0+''a''=''a'' and multiplication ''a''&times;''1''=''a'', 1&times;''a''=''a''. However, if we take the positive natural numbers and addition, there is no identity element.
'''[[Inverse elements]]''': The negative numbers gives rise to the concept of an ''inverse elements''. For addition the inverse of ''a'' is ''-a'', and for multiplication the inverse is <sup>1</sup>/<sub>''a''</sub>. A general inverse element ''a''<sup>-1</sup> must satisfy the property that ''a''*''a''<sup>-1</sup>=''e'' and ''a''<sup>-1</sup>*''a''=''e''.
'''[[Associativity]]''': The integers with addition have a property called associativity: (2+3)+4=2+(3+4). In general this becomes (''a''+''b'')+''c''=''a''+(''b''+''c''). This property is shared by most binary operations, but not subtraction or division.
'''[[Commutative operation|Commutativity]]''': The integers with addition also have a property called commutativity: 2+3=3+2. In general this becomes ''a''+''b''=''b''+''a''. Only some binary operations have this property, it holds for the integers with addition and multiplication, but it does not hold for [[matrix multiplication]].
===Groups===
:''Main article: [[group (mathematics)|group]]; see also [[group theory]], [[examples of groups]]''
Combining the above concepts gives one of the most important structures in mathematics: a '''[[group (mathematics)|group]]'''. A group consists of:
*a set ''S'' of elements,
*a(closed) binary operation (*)
*an identity element exists,
*every element has an inverse,
*the operation is associative.
If commutativity is included as well then we obtain an [[Abelian group]].
For example, the set of integers under the operation of addition is a group. In this group, the identity element is 0 and the inverse of any element ''a'' is its negation, -''a''. The associativity requirement is met since for any integers ''a'', ''b'' and ''c'', <math>(a+b)+c = a+(b+c)</math>.
The non-zero [[rational number]]s form a group under multiplication. Here, the identity element is 1, since <math>1 \cdot a = a \cdot 1 = a</math> for any any rational number ''a''. The inverse of ''a'' is <math>\frac{1}{a}</math>, since <math>a \cdot {1 \over a}=1</math>.
The integers under the multiplication operation, however, do not form a group. This is because, in general, the multiplicative inverse of an integer is not an integer. For example, 4 is an integer, but its multiplicative inverse is <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>, which is not an integer.
The theory of groups is studied in [[group theory]]. A major result in this theory is the [[Classification of finite simple groups]] a vast body of work which classified all the is a vast body of work, mostly published between around [[1955]] and [[1983]], which is thought to classify all of the [[finite set|finite]] [[simple group]]s.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|colspan=11|Examples of groups
|-
!Set:
|colspan=2|[[Natural numbers]] <math>\mathbb{N}</math>
|colspan=2|[[Integers]] <math>\mathbb{Z}</math>
|colspan=4|[[Rational numbers]] <math>\mathbb{Q}</math> (also [[Real numbers|real]] <math>\mathbb{R}</math> and [[Complex numbers|complex]] <math>\mathbb{C}</math> numbers)
|Integers mod 3: {0,1,2}
|-
!operation
| + (including zero)
| &times; (excluding zero)
| +
| &times; (excluding zero)
| +
| &minus;
| &times; (excluding zero)
| &divide; (excluding zero)
| +
|-
!Closed
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|-
|identity
|0
|1
|0
|1
|0
|NA
|1
|NA
|0
|-
|inverse
|NA
|NA
| -1
|NA
| -1
|NA
|<sup>1</sup>/<sub>''a''</sub>
|NA
|0,2,1 receptively
|-
|Associative
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|No
|Yes
|No
|Yes
|-
|Commutative
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|No
|Yes
|No
|Yes
|-
|Structure
|[[Magma (algebra)|semigroup]]
|[[quasigroup]]
|Abelian group
|[[Monoid]]
|Abelian group
|[[quasigroup]]
|Abelian group
|[[quasigroup]]
|Abelian group
|}
Many other types of algebraic structures exist. Among the most common are [[Ring_(mathematics)|rings]], [[Field_(mathematics)|fields]], and [[Monoid|monoids]]. These different structures can be used to model different types of mathematical objects. Different algebraic structures are often related. For example, a group is a specific kind of monoid, and rings and fields are similar to groups, but with more operations.
== Algebras ==
The word '''''algebra''''' is also used for various [[algebraic structures]]:
* [[algebra over a field]]
* [[algebra over a set]]
* [[Boolean algebra]]
* [[sigma-algebra]]
* [[F-algebra]] and [[F-coalgebra]] in [[category theory]]
==History==
[[Image:Euklid2.jpg|thumb|175px|Hellenistic mathematician [[Euclid]] details [[geometric]]al algebra in ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]''.]]
The origins of algebra can be traced to the ancient [[Egyptian mathematics|Egyptians]] and [[Babylonian mathematics|Babylonians]], who used an early type of algebra to solve [[linear equation|linear]], [[quadratic equation|quadratic]], and [[indeterminate (variable)|indeterminate]] equations more than 3,000 years ago. By contrast, most [[Indian mathematics|Indian]] and [[Greek mathematics|Greek]] mathematicians in the [[1st millennium BC]] usually solved such equations by [[geometry|geometric]] methods.
*Circa [[100 BC]]: [[Algebraic equations]] are treated in the [[Chinese mathematics]] book ''[[Jiuzhang suanshu]]'' (''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]'').
*Circa [[100 BC]]: The ''[[Indian mathematics#Bakhshali Manuscript .28200_BC - 400 CE.29|Bakhshali Manuscript]]'' in [[ancient India]] contains algebraic solutions of [[linear equations]] with upto five unknowns, the general algebraic formula for the quadratic equation, quadratic indeterminate equations, and [[simultaneous equations]].
*Circa [[150|150 AD]]: [[Hellenized]] [[Egyptian]] mathematician [[Hero of Alexandria]], treats algebraic equations in three volumes of mathematics.
*Circa [[200]]: Hellenized [[Babylonian]] mat |
;small>273</small>'''
|'''<small>9136</small>'''
|'''<small>13222</small>'''
|&nbsp;
|-
|}
==League leadership rankings==
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|-
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|'''1955 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||153
|-
||'''AT BATS'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||602
|-
||'''RUNS'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||105
|-
||'''HITS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||189
|-
||'''SINGLES'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||116
|-
||'''DOUBLES'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||37
|-
||'''TRIPLES'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||9
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||27
|-
||'''RBI'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||106
|-
||'''AVERAGE'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||.314
|-
||'''SLG'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||.540
|-
||'''OPS'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||.906
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||113
|-
||'''RCAA'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||39
|-
||'''RCAP'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||37
|-
||'''OWP'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||.679
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||325
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||73
|-
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||.226
|-
||'''BPA'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||.546
|-
||'''GIDP'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||20
|-
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||665
|-
||'''OUTS'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||445
|-
|}
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|'''1956 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||153
|-
||'''AT BATS'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||609
|-
||'''RUNS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||106
|-
||'''HITS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||200
|-
||'''SINGLES'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||126
|-
||'''DOUBLES'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||34
|-
||'''TRIPLES'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||14
|-
||'''RBI'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||92
|-
||'''AVERAGE'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||.328
|-
||'''SLG'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.558
|-
||'''OPS'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||.923
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||115
|-
||'''RCAA'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||39
|-
||'''RCAP'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||34
|-
||'''OWP'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||.679
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||6.96
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||340
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||74
|-
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||.869
|-
||'''BPA'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||.544
|-
||'''GIDP'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||21
|-
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||7
|-
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||660
|-
||'''OUTS'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||446
|-
|}
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|'''1957 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||151
|-
||'''AT BATS'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||615
|-
||'''RUNS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||118
|-
||'''HITS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||198
|-
||'''SINGLES'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||121
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||44
|-
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||10.14
|-
||'''HR/100 PA'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||6.52
|-
||'''HR/100 AB'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||7.15
|-
||'''RBI'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||132
|-
||'''AVERAGE'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||.322
|-
||'''SLG'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.600
|-
||'''OBA'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||.378
|-
||'''OPS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.978
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||135
|-
||'''RCAA'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||66
|-
||'''RCAP'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||64
|-
||'''OWP'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.772
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||8.40
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||369
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||77
|-
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||.278
|-
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||.371
|-
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.988
|-
||'''BPA'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.612
|-
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||15
|-
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||675
|-
||'''OUTS'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||434
|-
|}
|-
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|'''1958 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||2ND||153
|-
||'''AT BATS'''||5TH||601
|-
||'''RUNS'''||3RD||109
|-
||'''HITS'''||3RD||196
|-
||'''SINGLES'''||4TH||128
|-
||'''DOUBLES'''||4TH||4
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||5TH||30
|-
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||6TH||6.98
|-
||'''HR/100 PA'''||5TH||4.52
|-
||'''HR/100 AB'''||6TH||4.99
|-
||'''RBI'''||6TH||95
|-
||'''AVERAGE'''||4TH||.326
|-
||'''SLG'''||3RD||.546
|-
||'''OBA'''||6TH||.386
|-
||'''OPS'''||4TH||.931
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||4TH||120
|-
||'''RCAA'''||2ND||54
|-
||'''RCAP'''||3RD||49
|-
||'''OWP'''||2ND||.745
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||5TH||7.53
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||3RD||328
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||3RD||68
|-
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||7TH||.220
|-
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||9TH||.323
|-
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||5TH||.916
|-
||'''BPA'''||3RD||.557
|-
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||3RD||16
|-
||'''GIDP'''||2ND||21
|-
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||4TH||664
|-
||'''OUTS'''||10TH||430
|-
|}
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|'''1959 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||154
|-
||'''AT BATS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||629
|-
||'''RUNS'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||116
|-
||'''HITS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||223
|-
||'''SINGLES'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||131
|-
||'''DOUBLES'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||46
|-
||'''TRIPLES'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||7
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||39
|-
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||8.99
|-
||'''HR/100 PA'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||5.63
|-
||'''HR/100 AB'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||6.20
|-
||'''RBI'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||123
|-
||'''AVERAGE'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||.355
|-
||'''SLG'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||.636
|-
||'''OBA'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.401
|-
||'''OPS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||1.037
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||156
|-
||'''RCAA'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||82
|-
||'''RCAP'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||71
|-
||'''OWP'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||.794
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||9.71
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||400
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||92
|-
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.281
|-
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||.375
|-
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||1.089
|-
||'''BPA'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||.641
|-
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||17
|-
||'''GIDP'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||19
|-
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||9
|-
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||693
|-
|}
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|'''1960 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||153
|-
||'''AT BATS'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||590
|-
||'''RUNS'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||102
|-
||'''HITS'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||172
|-
||'''TRIPLES'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||11
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||40
|-
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||8.99
|-
||'''HR/100 PA'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||6.02
|-
||'''HR/100 AB'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||6.78
|-
||'''RBI'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||126
|-
||'''WALKS'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||60
|-
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||16
|-
||'''CAUGHT STEALING'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||7
|-
||'''SLG'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.566
|-
||'''OPS'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||.919
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||119
|-
||'''RCAA'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||51
|-
||'''RCAP'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||49
|-
||'''OWP'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||.732
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||7.22
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||334
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||71
|-
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.275
|-
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||.392
|-
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||.935
|-
||'''BPA'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.598
|-
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||13
|-
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||12
|-
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||664
|-
||'''OUTS'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||445
|-
|
appointment in the U.S.
Throughout [[1984]] and [[1985]], the band toured relentlessly in the [[UK]], [[Europe]], and, to a lesser extent, the [[U.S.]], both as headliners themselves and in support of such artists as [[Queen (band)|Queen]] and [[Roger Daltry]]. They also recorded prolifically, and provided the [[musical score]] to a Scottish [[independent film]], ''Restless Natives'' (1985), which would not be released on CD until years later on the band's ''Restless Natives and Rarities'' (1998) collection.
1986's ''[[The Seer]]'', the band's third album, was another big success in the UK, peaking at Number 2, and producing three additional Top 30 UK singles. These included "Look Away" which reached Number 7 (the band's highest charting UK single). [[Kate Bush]] provided [[backing vocals]] on the title cut, and, as was the norm for the band at the time, the album received good reviews from the music press. Despite managing modestly better sales stateside than ''Steeltown'' had, it was still considered a commercial failure there.
In an apparent attempt to regain their dwindling U.S. following, Big Country hooked up with then-hot producer [[Peter Wolf]] for their next album, ''[[Peace in Our Time]]'' (1988), which was recorded in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]]. The result was bland generic [[stadium rock]] that stripped away the band's unique sound and disappointed fans and critics alike. It sold poorly.
In [[1991]], the band was dropped by [[Phonogram]], the label that had released all of their material for ten years. After that, Big Country became a minor act, popping up in the lower echelons of the charts in the UK and Europe every now and then, while churning out mild-selling album after album. Only one of these albums, 1993's ''[[The Buffalo Skinners]]'', would receive a [[major label]] release (via [[Chrysalis Records]]); it seemed a return to form of sorts for the band, and obtained a surprisingly enthusiastic critical response. But its sales were meagre and, in retrospect, it can be seen as Big Country's lost, last chance to regain a mass audience. Regardless, the band's cult following remained intensely devoted to them, as evidenced by their deceptively huge post-1990 [[discography]], which consists mostly of [[live concert]] recordings and singles/rarities collections.
Throughout the 90's, Big Country became a popular 'opening act', supporting such bands as [[Rolling Stones]] and [[The Who]]; Roger Daltrey reportedly uttered on numerous occasions that he'd 'love to steal their rhythm section!'. (In fact, Big Country had backed Daltrey on his 1985 solo album 'Under The Raging Moon', and Tony Butler played bass and backing vocals on [[Pete Townshend]]'s 1980 hit single 'Let My Love Open The Door.')
Of growing concern, however, was the mental and emotional health of lead singer Adamson, who reportedly had struggled with alcoholism for several years. He had moved to [[Nashville]] in the mid-90s, where he took up residence and remarried. While in Nashville, he met noted artist Marcus Hummon and released an acclaimed studio album with him, under the moniker 'The Raphaels'.
1999 saw the release of Big Country's 8th and final studio album, ''Driving to Damascus'' (titled in its slightly different, augmented U.S. release ''John Wayne's Dream''). Adamson said publicly that he was disappointed that the album did not fare better on the charts, which led to depression. In 1999 he disappeared for a while before resurfacing, stating that he had just needed some time off. In November 2001 however, he disappeared once again. He was found dead in a room at the Best Western Plaza Hotel in Honolulu, [[Hawaii]] on [[December 16]], [[2001]]. The official [[autopsy]] revealed that he had hanged himself.[http://starbulletin.com/2001/12/18/news/story4.html ]
[http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=50&id=1700742001 ]
[http://www.nme.com/news/100545.htm ]
== Discography ==
=== Albums ===
*''[[The Crossing (album)|The Crossing]]'' (1983)
*''[[Steeltown]]'' (1984)
*''Wonderland'' (EP) (1984)
*''[[The Seer]]'' (1986)
*''[[Peace in Our Time]]'' (1988)
*''[[No Place Like Home]]'' (1991)
*''[[The Buffalo Skinners]]'' (1993)
*''[[Without the Aid of a Safety Net]]'' (live) (1994)
*''[[Radio 1 Sessions]]'' (live) (1994)
*''[[Why the Long Face?]]'' (1995)
*''[[BBC Live in Concert]]'' (1995)
*''Eclectic'' (live) (1996)
*''King Biscuit Flower Hour'' (live) (1997)
*''Brighton Rock'' (live) (1997)
*''Restless Natives & Rarities'' (1998)
*''Bon Apetit (EP)'' (1999)
*''In The Scud (EP)'' (1999)
*''Driving To Damascus'' (1999)
*''Come Up Screaming'' (live) (2000)
*''Big Country: The Nashville Album'' (2000)
*''Das Fest - Live In Germany '95'' (live) (2001)
*''Undercover'' (covers album) (2001)
*''Rarities II'' (2001)
*''One In A Million'' (acoustic) (2001)
*''Greatest 12" Hits'' (80's remixes) (2001)
*''Live in Cologne'' (2002)
*''John Wayne's Dream (US Remaster of 'Driving To Damascus')'' (2002)
*''Rarities III'' (2002)''
*''Rarities IV (The Crossing Sessions)'' (2003)
*''Rarities V (No Place Like Home Sessions)'' (2003)
*''Rarities VI'' (2003)
*''Rarities VII (The Damascus Sessions)'' (2004)
*''The Buffalo Skinners - The US Remaster'' (2005)
*''Without the Aid of a Safety Net - The Complete Concert''(live) (2005)
*''Rarities VIII''(2005)
=== Singles ===
{| class="wikitable"
|rowspan="2"|'''Year'''
|rowspan="2"| '''Title'''
|colspan="4"| '''Chart positions'''
|rowspan="2"| '''Album'''
|-
|U.S. [[Billboard Hot 100|Hot 100]]
|U.S. [[Modern Rock Tracks chart|Modern Rock]]
|U.S. [[Mainstream Rock Tracks chart|Mainstream Rock]]
|[[UK_Singles_Chart|UK Singles Chart]]
|-
| 1983
| "Fields Of Fire"
| #52 (1984)
| -
| -
| #10
| ''The Crossing''
|-
| 1983
| "In A Big Country"
| #17
| -
| #3
| #17
| ''The Crossing''
|-
| 1983
| "Chance"
| -
| -
| -
| #9
| ''The Crossing''
|-
| 1984
| "Wonderland"
| #86
| -
| -
| #8
| ''The Crossing''
|-
| 1984
| "East Of Eden"
| -
| -
| -
| #17
| ''Steeltown''
|-
| 1984
| "Where The Rose Is Sown"
| -
| -
| -
| #29
| ''Steeltown''
|-
| 1985
| "Just A Shadow"
| -
| -
| -
| #26
| ''Steeltown''
|-
| 1986
| "Look Away"
| -
| -
| -
| #7
| ''The Seer''
|-
| 1986
| "The Teacher"
| -
| -
| -
| #28
| ''The Seer''
|-
| 1986
| "One Great Thing"
| -
| -
| -
| #19
| ''The Seer''
|-
| 1988
| "King of Emotion"
| -
| #11
| #20
| #16
| ''Peace in Our Time''
|-
| 1989
| "Peace In Our Time"
| -
| -
| -
| #39
| ''Peace In Our Time''
|-
| 1993
| "The One I Love"
| -
| #17
| #34
| -
| ''The Buffalo Skinners''
|}
==Band Personnel Details==
*[[Stuart Adamson]] was born William Stuart Adamson in [[Manchester]], [[England]], on [[April 11]], [[1958]]. Adamson had previously been guitarist for seminal Scottish punk band [[The Skids]]. He committed suicide on [[December 16]], [[2001]].
*[[Mark Brzezicki]] was born Mark Michael Brzezicki in [[Slough]], [[Berkshire]], on [[June 21]], [[1957]], the son of a [[Polish Air Force]] pilot who'd flown with the [[Royal Air Force]] in World War II. Brzezicki had had a long career as a [[studio musician]] before joining Big Country, having played on albums by [[Pete Townsend]] and [[Simon Townsend]], [[Ultravox]], [[Procol Harum]], [[Roger Daltrey]] and many others. Brzezicki continues to work as a session drummer today.
*[[Tony Butler (bass player)|Tony Butler]] was born Anthony Earle Peter Butler in [[Shepherd's Bush]], [[ London]], on [[February 13]], [[1957]]. Butler was also a highly-experienced session musician, having played with [[Pete Townsend]], [[The Pretenders]] and many other artists.
*Bruce Watson was born Bruce William Watson in [[Timmins]], [[Ontario]], on [[March 11]], [[1961]].
The odd detail that emerges that, as one of [[Scotland]]'s finest ever rock bands, none of its number were actually born in that country.
==External links==
* [http://www.bigcountry.co.uk/home.php Official Site]
* [http://www.trouserpress.com/entry.php?a=big_country Trouser Press: Big Country entry]
* [http://jefitoblog.com/blog/?p=484 The Complete Idiot's Guide to Big Country]
[[Category:New Wave groups|Big Country]]
[[Category:Scottish musical groups|Big Country]]
[[Category:Rock music groups|Big Country]]
[[de:Big Country]]
[[nl:Big Country]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Big O</title>
<id>4073</id>
<revision>
<id>39556219</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T06:57:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bubbagreen10</username>
<id>930785</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Big O''' can refer to any of:
* A concept in [[mathematics]] and [[computational complexity theory]]. See [[Big O notation]].
* A Japanese [[anime]] series. See ''[[The Big O]]''.
* A [[euphemism]] for [[orgasm]].
* The [[1976 Summer Olympics|1976 Summer Olympic]] [[Olympic Stadium (Montreal)|Stadium]] in [[Montreal]].
* [[Oscar Robertson]], a [[basketball]] player.
* [[Big O Tires]], a tire company in the [[United States]].
* ''[[The Big O (album)|The Big O]]'', a [[Roy Orbison]] album, or Roy Orbison himself.
* ''[[The Missing Piece Meets the Big O]]'', a children's book by [[Shel Silverstein]]
* A marketing slogan of [[Overstock.com]]
* The St. Olaf men's cross country team.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barrel (disambiguation)</title>
<id>4074</id>
<revision>
<id>41889483</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:24:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.67.86.5</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>- fr:Baril; that French page is no disambiguation page and is equivalent/linked to Barrel (unit)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Barrel''' can refer to:
* [[barrel (storage)|Barrels for storage]]; especially [[aging barrel|Barrels for aging alcoh |
ony]]. Traditionally, it has also been regarded as the element with the heaviest stable [[isotope]], but this is now known to be untrue (see below). No other metal is more naturally [[diamagnetic]] (as opposed to [[superdiamagnetism|superdiamagnetic]]) than bismuth. It occurs in its native form, and has a high [[electrical resistance]]. Of any metal, it has the second lowest [[thermal conductivity]] and the highest [[Hall effect]]. When combusted with [[oxygen]], bismuth burns with a [[blue]] flame and its [[bismuth oxide|oxide]] forms [[yellow]] fumes.
Bismuth has long been thought to be unstable on theoretical grounds, but not until [[2003]] was this demonstrated when researchers at the [[Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale]] in [[Orsay]], [[France]] measured the [[alpha emission]] [[half-life]] of Bi-209 to be [[1 E19 s and more|1.9&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;10<sup>19</sup> years]], meaning that bismuth is very slightly radioactive, with a half-life over a billion times longer than the current estimated [[age of the universe]]. Due to this phenomenal half-life, bismuth can be treated as if it is stable and non-radioactive. Ordinary food containing typical amounts of [[Carbon-14]] is many thousands of times more radioactive than bismuth, as are our own bodies. However, the radioactivity is of academic interest because bismuth is one of few elements whose radioactivity was suspected, and indeed theoretically predicted, before being detected in the lab.
== Applications ==
[[Bismuth oxychloride]] is extensively used in [[cosmetics]] and [[bismuth subnitrate]] and [[bismuth subcarbonate|subcarbonate]] are used in medicine. [[Bismuth subsalicylate]] (Pepto-Bismol®) is used as an [[diarrhea|antidiarrheal]].
Some other current uses are:
*Strong permanent [[magnet]]s can be made from the alloy [[bismanol]] ([[manganese|Mn]]Bi).
*Many bismuth [[alloy]]s have low [[melting point]]s and are widely used for fire detection and suppression system safety devices.
*Bismuth is used in producing malleable irons.
*Bismuth is finding use as a catalyst for making acrylic fibers.
*Also used as a [[thermocouple]] material (bismuth has the highest negativity known).
*A carrier for [[uranium|U]]-235 or U-233 fuel in [[nuclear reactor]]s.
*Bismuth has also been used in [[solder]]s. The fact that bismuth and many of its [[alloy]]s expand slightly when they solidify make them ideal for this purpose.
*Bismuth subnitrate is a component of [[glaze]]s that produces an [[iridescent]] luster finish.
*Bismuth is sometimes used in the production of [[shotgun|shot]] and [[shotgun slug]]s. Its advantage over [[lead]] in this respect is that is non-toxic so is therefore legal in the [[UK]] for the shooting of wetland birds.
In the early [[1990s]], research began to evaluate bismuth as a nontoxic replacement for lead in various applications:
*As noted above, bismuth has been used in solders; its low toxicity will be especially important for solders to be used in food processing equipment.
*As an ingredient of [[ceramic]] [[glaze]]s
*As an ingredient in free-machining [[brass]]es for [[plumbing]] applications
*As an ingredient in free-cutting steels for precision machining properties
*As a catalyst for making acrylic fibres
*As a carrier for uranium fuel in nuclear reactors
*In low-melting alloys used in fire detection and extinguishing systems
*As an ingredient in [[lubrication|lubricating]] [[grease (lubricant)|grease]]s
*As a dense material for [[fishing]] sinkers.
== Crystals ==
[[Image:Bismuth_crystal_macro.jpg|thumb|300px|Synthetic Bismuth crystal]]
Though virtually unseen in nature, high-purity bismuth can form into distinctive [[hopper crystal]]s. These colorful laboratory creations are typically sold to hobbyists.
== History ==
Bismuth ([[New Latin]] ''bisemutum'' from [[German language|German]] ''Wismuth'', perhaps from ''weiße Masse'', "white mass") was confused in early times with [[tin]] and [[lead]] due to its resemblance to those elements. [[Claude Geoffroy|Claude Geoffroy le Jeune]] (Claude Geoffroy the younger) showed in [[1753]] that this metal is distinct from lead.
== Occurrence ==
The most important [[ore]]s of bismuth are [[bismuthinite]] and [[bismite]]. [[Canada]], [[Bolivia]], [[Japan]], [[Mexico]], and [[Peru]] are major producers. Bismuth produced in the [[United States]] is obtained as a by-product of [[copper]], [[gold]], [[silver]], [[tin]] and especially [[lead]] ore processing. The average price for bismuth in 2000 was [[United States dollar|US$]]7.70 per kilogram.
; see also [[:Category:Bismuth minerals]]
== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/83.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Bismuth]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Bismuth}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Bi/index.html WebElements.com - Bismuth]
*[http://physicsweb.org/article/news/7/4/16 Bismuth breaks half-life record for alpha decay]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Pnictogens]]
[[Category:Poor metals]]
[[ca:Bismut]]
[[cs:Bismut]]
[[da:Bismuth]]
[[de:Bismut]]
[[et:Vismut]]
[[es:Bismuto]]
[[eo:Bismuto]]
[[fr:Bismuth]]
[[ko:비스무트]]
[[io:Bismuto]]
[[is:Bismút]]
[[it:Bismuto]]
[[he:ביסמוט]]
[[ku:Bîzmût]]
[[la:Bisemutum]]
[[lv:Bismuts]]
[[lt:Bismutas]]
[[hu:Bizmut]]
[[nl:Bismut]]
[[ja:ビスマス]]
[[no:Vismut]]
[[nn:Vismut]]
[[oc:Bismut]]
[[pl:Bizmut]]
[[pt:Bismuto]]
[[ru:Висмут]]
[[sr:Бизмут]]
[[fi:Vismutti]]
[[sv:Vismut]]
[[th:บิสมัท]]
[[vi:Bitmut]]
[[uk:Вісмут]]
[[zh:铋]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bauxite</title>
<id>3760</id>
<revision>
<id>41779915</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:20:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pixel8</username>
<id>84632</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BauxiteUSGOV.jpg|thumb|Bauxite with penny]]
[[Image:Mineraly.sk - bauxit.jpg|thumb|Bauxite (pebbly)]]
'''Bauxite''' is a naturally occurring, [[heterogeneous]] material composed primarily of one or more [[aluminium]] [[hydroxide]] [[mineral]]s, plus various mixtures of [[silica]], [[iron]] oxide, [[titanium dioxide|titania]], aluminium silicates, and other impurities in minor or trace amounts. Bauxite is a [[sedimentary rock]] produced by ''in situ'' chemical [[weathering]] typically under tropical to subtropical climate conditions.
The principal [[aluminium hydroxide]] minerals found in varying proportions with bauxites are [[gibbsite]] and the polymorphs [[boehmite]] and [[diaspore]]. Bauxites are typically classified according to their intended commercial application: abrasive, cement, chemical, metallurgical, refractory, etc.
The bulk of world bauxite production (approximately 85%) is processed into [[Aluminium oxide|aluminium oxide]] (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, also known as [[alumina]]) via a wet chemical, caustic leach method (the [[Bayer process]]). The resulting Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> is then [[Redox|reduced]] to aluminium metal (Al) using an [[electrolysis|electrolytic]] process, the [[Hall-Heroult process]].
Bauxite is the raw material most widely used in the production of aluminium on a commercial scale. Other raw materials, such as [[anorthosite]], [[alunite]], [[coal]] wastes, and [[oil shale]]s, offer additional potential Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> sources. Although it would require new facilities and technology, Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> from these nonbauxitic materials could satisfy the demand for primary metal, refractories, aluminium chemicals, and abrasives. Synthetic [[mullite]], produced from [[kyanite]] and
[[sillimanite]], substitutes for bauxite-based refractories. Although more costly, [[silicon carbide]] and [[alumina-zirconia]]
substitute for bauxite-based abrasives.
==History==
''Bauxite'' was named after the village [[Les Baux de Provence]] in southern [[France]], where it was first discovered in [[1821]] by the [[geologist]] [[Pierre Berthier]].
Due to the exhaustion of its bauxite mines, France has almost completely ceased the exploitation of bauxite since [[1991]]. French mines were located in the [[Var]], [[Bouches-du-Rhône]] and [[Herault]] ''[[département in France|département]]s''.
== World Bauxite Mine Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base ==
(x1000 [[tonne]])
Mine production Reserves Reserve base
2000 2001
-------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Australia]] 53,800 53,500 3,800,000 7,400,000
[[Brazil]] 14,000 14,000 3,900,000 4,900,000
[[China]] 9,000 9,200 720,000 2,000,000
[[Guinea]] 15,000 15,000 7,400,000 8,600,000
[[Guyana]] 2,400 2,000 700,000 900,000
[[India]] 7,370 8,000 770,000 1,400,000
[[Jamaica]] 11,100 13,000 2,000,000 2,500,000
[[Russia]] 4,200 4,000 200,000 250,000
[[Suriname]] 3,610 4,000 580,000 600,000
[[United States]] NA NA 20,000 40,000
[[Venezuela]] 4,200 4,400 320,000 350,000
Other countries 10,800 10,200 4,100,000 4,700,000
-------------------------------------------------------------------
World total (rounded) 135,000 137,000 24,000,000 34,000,000
(Numbers for 2001 estimated)
==External links==
* [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/ USGS Minerals Information: Bauxite]
*[http://www.mii.org/Minerals/photoal.html Mineral Information Institute]
[[Category:Sedimentary rocks]]
[[ca:Bauxita]]
[[de:Bauxit]]
[[et:Boksiit]]
[[es:Bauxita]]
[[fr:Bauxite]]
[[ko:보크사이트]]
[[it:Bauxite]]
[[he:בוקסיט]]
[[lt:Boksitas]]
[[nl:Bauxiet]]
[[ja:ボーキサイト]]
[[no:Bauksi |
completeness theorem. We immediately restate it in a form more convenient for our purposes:
==Theorem 2. Every formula &phi; is either refutable, or satisfiable in some structure.==
"&phi; is refutable" means ''by definition'' "¬&phi; is provable".
To see the equivalence, note first that if '''Theorem 1''' holds, and &phi; is not satisfiable in any structure, then ¬&phi; is valid in all structures and therefore provable, thus &phi; is refutable and '''Theorem 2''' holds. If on the other hand '''Theorem 2''' holds and &phi; is valid in all structures, then ¬&phi; is not satisfiable in any structure and therefore refutable; then ¬¬&phi; is provable and then so is &phi;, thus '''Theorem 1''' holds.
We approach the proof of '''Theorem 2''' by successively restricting the class of all formulas &phi; for which we need to prove "&phi; is either refutable or satisfiable". At the beginning we need to prove this for all possible formulas &phi; in our language. However, suppose that for every formula &phi; there is some formula &psi; taken from a more restricted class of formulas '''C''', such that "&psi; is either refutable or falsifiable" &rarr; "&phi; is either refutable or falsifiable". Then, once this claim (expressed in the previous sentence) is proved, it will suffice to prove "&phi; is either refutable or falisifiable" only for &phi;'s belonging to the class '''C'''. Note also that if &phi; is provably equivalent to &psi; (''i.e.'', (&phi;&equiv;&psi;) is provable), then it is indeed the case that "&psi; is either refutable or satisfiable" &rarr; "&phi; is either refutable or satisfiable" (the [[soundness theorem]] is needed to show this).
We start restricting the class of formulas &phi; to prove our theorem for by eliminating function and constant symbols.
('''to be rewritten...''')
According to the considerations in the previous paragraph, we see now that we need only to prove '''Theorem 2''' for &phi;'s which do not use function or constant symbols.
''Note: the reduction of the preceding paragraph is absent from Gödel's paper because he uses a version of first-order predicate calculus which has no function or constant symbols to begin with.''
Next we consider a generic formula &phi; (which no longer uses function or constant symbols) and apply the [[normal form theorem]] to find a formula &psi; in ''normal form'' such that &phi;&equiv;&psi; (&psi; being in ''normal form'' means that all the quantifiers in &psi;, if there are any, are found at the very beginning of &psi;). The [[normal form theorem]] proves that such a &psi; exists for every &phi;, and the construction of &psi; from &phi; adds no new function or constant symbols. It follows now that we need only prove '''Theorem 2''' for formulas &phi; in normal form without function or constant symbols.
Next, we eliminate all free variables from &phi; by quantifying them existentially: if, say, '''x<sub>1</sub>...x<sub>n</sub>''' are free in &phi;, we form <math>\psi=\exists x_1 ... \exists x_n \phi</math>. If &psi; is satisfiable in a structure M, then certainly so is &phi; and if &psi; is refutable, then <math>\neg \psi = \forall x_1 ... \forall x_n \neg \phi</math> is provable, and then so is ¬&phi;, thus &phi; is refutable. We see that we can restrict &phi; to be a ''sentence'', that is, a formula with no free variables.
Finally, we would like, for reasons of technical convenience, that the ''prefix'' of &phi; (that is, the string of quantifiers at the beginning of &phi;, which is in normal form) begin with a universal quantifier and end with an existential quantifier. To achieve this for a generic &phi; (subject to restrictions we have already proved), we take some one-place relation symbol '''F''' unused in &phi;, and two new variables '''y''' and '''z'''.. If &phi; = '''(P)&Phi;''', where (P) stands for the prefix of &phi; and &Phi; for the ''matrix'' (the remaining, quantifier-free part of &phi;) we form <math>\psi = \forall y (P) \exists z ( \Phi \vee [ F(y) \vee \neg F(z) ] )</math>. Since <math>\forall y \exists z ( F(y) \vee \neg F(z) )</math> is clearly provable, it is easy to see that <math>\phi=\psi</math> is provable.
'''Reducing the theorem to formulas of degree 1'''
Our generic formula &phi; now is a sentence, in normal form, and its prefix starts with a universal quantifier and ends with an existential quantifier. Let us call the class of all such formulas '''R'''. We are faced with proving that every formula in '''R''' is either refutable or satisfiable. Given our formula &phi;, we group strings of quantifiers of one kind together in blocks:
:<math>\phi = (\forall x_1 ... \forall x_{k_1})(\exists x_{k_1+1} ... \exists x_{k_2}).......(\forall x_{k_{n-2}+1} ... \forall x_{k_{n-1}})(\exists x_{k_{n-1}+1} ... \exists x_{k_n}) (\Phi)</math>
We define the '''degree''' of <math>\phi</math> to be the number of universal quantifier blocks, separated by existential quantifier blocks as shown above, in the matrix of <math>\phi</math>. The following lemma lets us sharply reduce the complexity of the generic formula <math>\phi</math> for which we need to prove the theorem:
'''Lemma'''. Let '''k'''>=1. If every formula in '''R''' of degree '''k''' is either refutable or satisfiable, then so is every formula in '''R''' of degree '''k+1'''.
'''Proof.''' Let &phi; be a formula of degree '''k+1'''; then we can write it as
:<math>\phi = (\forall x)(\exists y)(\forall u)(\exist v) (P) \psi</math>
where '''(P)''' is the remainder of the prefix of <math>\phi</math> (it is thus of degree '''k-1''') and <math>\psi</math> is the quantifier-free matrix of <math>\phi</math>. '''x''', '''y''', '''u''' and '''v''' denote here ''tuples'' of variables rather than single variables; ''e.g.'' <math>(\forall x)</math> really stands for <math>\forall x_1 \forall x_2 ... \forall x_n</math> where <math>x_1 ... x_n</math> are some distinct variables.
Let now '''x'''' and '''y'''' be tuples of previously unused variables of the same length as '''x''' and '''y''' respectively, and let '''Q''' be a previously unused relation symbol which takes as many arguments as the sum of lengths of '''x''' and '''y'''; we consider the formula
:<math>\Phi = (\forall x')(\exists y') Q(x',y') \wedge (\forall x)(\forall y)( Q(x,y) \rightarrow (\forall u)(\exist v)(P)\psi )</math>
Clearly, <math>\Phi \rightarrow \phi</math> is provable.
Now since the string of quantifiers <math>(\forall u)(\exists v)(P)</math> does not contain variables from '''x''' or '''y''', the following equivalence is easily provable with the help of whatever formalism we're using:
:<math>( Q(x,y) \rightarrow (\forall u )(\exists v)(P) \psi) \equiv (\forall u)(\exists v)(P) ( Q(x,y) \rightarrow \psi )</math>
And since these two formulas are equivalent, if we replace the first with the second inside &Phi;, we obtain the formula &Phi;' such that &Phi;&equiv;&Phi;':
:<math>\Phi' = (\forall x')(\exist y') Q(x',y') \wedge (\forall x)(\forall y) (\forall u)(\exists v)(P) ( Q(x,y) \rightarrow \psi )</math>
Now &Phi;' has the form <math>(S)\rho \wedge (S')\rho'</math>, where '''(S)''' and '''(S')''' are some quantifier strings, &rho; and &rho;' are quantifier-free, and, '''furthermore''', no variable of '''(S)''' occurs in &rho;' and no variable of '''(S')''' occurs in &rho;. Under such conditions every formula of the form <math>(T)(\rho \wedge \rho')</math>, where '''(T)''' is a string of quantifiers containing all quantifiers in (S) and (S') interleaved among themselves in any fashion, but maintaining the relative order inside (S) and (S'), will be equivalent to the original formula &Phi;'(this is yet another basic result in first-order predicate calculus that we rely on). To wit, we form &Psi; as follows:
:<math>\Psi = (\forall x')(\forall x)(\forall y) (\forall u)(\exists y')(\exists v)(P)Q(x',y') \wedge (Q(x,y) \rightarrow \psi )</math>
and we have <math>\Phi' \equiv \Psi</math>.
Now <math>\Psi</math> is a formula of degree '''k''' and therefore by assumption either refutable or satisfiable.
If <math>\Psi</math> is satisfiable in a structure '''M''', then, considering <math>\Psi \equiv \Phi' \equiv \Phi \wedge \Phi \rightarrow \phi</math>, we see that <math>\phi</math> is satisfiable as well.
If <math>\Psi</math> is refutable, then so is <math>\Phi</math> which is equivalent to it; thus <math>\neg \Phi</math> is provable.
Now we can replace all occurrences of Q inside the provable formula <math>\neg \Phi</math> by some other formula dependent on the same variables, and we will still get a provable formula.
(''This is yet another basic result of first-order predicate calculus. Depending on the particular formalism adopted for the calculus, it may be seen as a simple application of a "functional substitution" rule of inference, as in Gödel's paper, or it may be proved by considering the formal proof of <math>\neg \Phi</math>, replacing in it all occurrences of Q by some other formula with the same free variables, and noting that all logical axioms in the formal proof remain logical axioms after the substitution, and all rules of inference still apply in the same way.'')
In this particular |
ival of an expedition by land under the command of Coronado.
He sailed into the [[Gulf of California]], which had been explored the previous summer by [[Francisco de Ulloa]]. He made a careful survey of the coast, and on [[26 September]] ascended the Colorado (then called the Rio del Tizon or Rio de Buena Guia) for 85 Spanish miles, being the first European to do so. The meeting with Coronado was not effected, however, although Alarcón reached the appointed place and left letters, which were soon afterwards found by [[Melchior Diaz]], another explorer.
Alarcón was the first to determine with certainty that Baja California was a peninsula and not an island, as had been supposed. Upon his return to New Spain in [[1541]] he constructed a more accurate [[Cartography|map]] of California depicting it correctly as a peninsula. Nevertheless, since the new cartographic information went unpublished, the notion of the [[Island of California]] persisted on many European maps well into the [[18th century]].
[[Category:Explorers of North America|Alarcón, Hernando de]]
[[Category:Spanish explorers and conquistadores|Alarcón, Hernando de]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hakka cuisine</title>
<id>13679</id>
<revision>
<id>37977878</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T09:20:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Olivier</username>
<id>3808</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rmv redundant cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}}
'''Hakka cuisine''' is the cooking style of the [[Hakka]], and originally came from southeastern China ([[Guangdong]] and [[Fujian]]).
[[Hakka]] people are migratory tribes of ethnic [[Han people]] originated from central [[China]]. Their ancestors exiled themselves from foreign rulers such as the [[Mongol]]s during the [[Yuan Dynasty]]. Due to their late migration to the southern areas of China, they found that all of the best land had been settled long before. The Hakkas then were forced to settle in the sparsely settled hill country.
As a result, fresh produce was at a premium, forcing the Hakkas to heavily utilize dried and preserved ingredients, such as various kinds of fermented [[beancurd]] and much use of [[onion]]. Due to the hill country being far inland seafood is a rarity. [[Pork]] is by far the most favored meat of the Hakkas, with belly bacon being the preferred cut as it has alternating layers of fat and lean meat, providing an excellent texture.
Famous dishes in Hakka restaurants in [[Hong Kong]] include:
* Salt baked chicken (&#26481;&#27743;&#40573;&#28951;&#38622;) - supposed to be baked inside a heap of hot salt, but many restaurants simply cook in brine nowadays.
* Duck stuffed with rice (&#31983;&#31859;&#40232;) - a whole duck is de-boned while maintaining the shape of the bird, the cavities are filled with seasoned [[sticky rice]].
* [[Tofu soup in pot]] (&#26481;&#27743;&#37312;&#35910;&#33104;&#29042;) - the stuffed tofu cubes.
* Beef ball soup - very simple clear broth with lettuce and beef balls.
Other traditional Hakka dishes include:
* Fried pork with fermented beancurd: this is a popular [[Chinese New Year]] offering which involves two stages of cooking. As previously mentioned, fresh food was at a premium in Hakka areas, so the marinated pork was deep fried to remove the moisture in order to preserve it. When a meal of pork was desired, the fried pork was then stewed with water and wood's ear fungus. Think of it as a Hakka equivalent to canned soup.
* [[Yong tao foo|''Ngiong Tew Foo'']] (&#37312;&#35910;&#33104;, stuffed [[tofu]] cube): one of the more popular foods that originated from deep hakka roots, it consists of beancurd cuboids heaped with minced meat(mostly pork) and herbs, then fried till golden brown. Variations include usage of various oddments including [[eggplant]]s, mushrooms(shitake) and bitter melon stuffed with the same meat paste. Traditionally the Yong tao foo is served in a clear yellow bean stew along with the bittergourd and shitake variants. Modern variations that are more commonly seen sold in foodstalls are made by stuffing the beancurd with solely [[surimi|fish paste]]. Usage of oddments to replace the beancurd are more noticeable in this version, ranging from fried fish maw slices and lady's fingers to chillis.
Note: This fish paste variation is not a real hakka dish.
* ''Kiu nyuk'' (&#25187;&#32905;, sliced [[pork]] with preserved [[mustard greens]]): Alternate pieces of pork and preserved mustards are cooked and served in a dark sauce made up of [[soy sauce]] and [[sugar]]. A variation of the recipe on [[Wikibooks:Cookbook|Wikibooks Cookbook]] is available [[Wikibooks:Cookbook:Steamed Pork With Mustard Greens|here]].
* ''Lui Cha'' or Pounded Tea (&#25794;&#33590;): A consortment of tea leaves (usually [[green tea]]), [[peanut]]s, [[mint]] leaves, [[sesame seed]]s, [[mung bean]]s and other herbs, which are pounded or ground into a fine powder which is mixed as a drink, or as a dietary brew to be taken with rice and other vegetarian side dishes such as greens, [[beancurd]]s and pickled [[radish]].
Hakka food also includes takes on other traditional Chinese dishes, just as other Chinese dialects do.
See also: [[cuisine]], [[Chinese cuisine]], [[cooking]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Hakka cuisine| ]]
[[category:Hakka culture|Cuisine]]
[[zh:&#23458;&#23478;&#33756;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hunan cuisine</title>
<id>13680</id>
<revision>
<id>33098624</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-29T07:45:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv; there is no simplified form</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}}
'''Hunan Cuisine''', sometimes called '''Xiang Cuisine''' ({{zh-cp|c=&#28248;&#33756;|p=xi&#257;ng c&agrave;i}}), consists of the cuisines of the [[Xiangjiang]] region, [[Dongting Lake]] and western [[Hunan]] Province, in [[China]].
While similar to [[Szechuan cuisine]], Hunan Cuisine is often spicier and contains a larger variety of ingredients. Hunan is known for its liberal use of [[chilli pepper]]s, [[shallot]]s and [[garlic]]. Many Hunan dishes are characterized by a strongly flavored brown [[sauce]]. Some rely on sweetness from ingredients such as [[honey]]; sweet and sour sauces are also characteristic of the style.
Hunan cuisine is difficult to precisely characterize, as it has absorbed stylistic elements from all over China. For this reason, the region is sometimes regarded as China's culinary center. Common cooking techniques include stewing, frying, pot-roasting, braising, and smoking. Due to the high agricultural output of the region, ingredients for Hunan dishes are many and varied.
Some representative Hunan dishes include:
* [[Sweet and Sour Chicken]]
* [[Orange Beef]]
* [[Crispy Duck]]
* [[Dongan Chicken]]
* [[Peppery and Hot Chicken (Hot and Spicy Chicken)]]
* [[Lotus Seeds in Sugar Candy]]
== See also ==
* [[Cuisine]]
* [[Chinese Cuisine]]
* [[Szechuan cuisine]]
* [[Cooking]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[zh:&#28248;&#33756;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hyperinflation</title>
<id>13681</id>
<revision>
<id>41305766</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T12:13:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Smallbones</username>
<id>612302</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ relevance? what is Wikicities? see discussion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Certain figures in this article use [[scientific notation]] for readability.''
In [[economics]], '''hyperinflation''' is [[Inflation (economics)|inflation]] which is "out of control", a condition in which prices increase rapidly as a [[currency]] loses its value. No precise definition of hyperinflation is universally accepted. One simple definition requires an monthly inflation rate of 50% or more. The definition used by most economists is "an inflationary cycle without any tendency toward equilibrium." A [[Virtuous circle and vicious circle|vicious circle]] is created in which more and more inflation is created with each iteration of the cycle. Although there is a great deal of debate about the root causes of hyperinflation, it becomes visible when there is an unchecked increase in the money supply or drastic debasement of coinage.
==Characteristics==
[[Image:Inflation-1923.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Inflation 1923-24: A woman in Germany feeds her tiled stove with money. The money is worth less than firewood.]]
In 1956, [[Phillip Cagan]] wrote "Monetary Dynamics of Hyperinflation", generally regarded as the first serious study of hyperinflation and its effects. In it he defined hyperinflation as a monthly inflation rate of at least 50% (prices doubling every 51 days).
International Accounting Standard 29 describes four signs that an economy may be in hyperinflation:
#the general population prefers to keep its wealth in non-monetary assets or in a relatively stable foreign currency. Amounts of local currency held are immediately invested to maintain purchasing power;
#the general population regards monetary amounts not in terms of the local currency but in terms of a relatively stable foreign currency. Prices may be quoted in that currency;
#sales and purchases on credit take place at prices that compensate for the expected loss of purchasing power during the credit period, even if the period is short;
#interest rates, wages and prices are linked to a price index; and the cumulative inflation rate over three years approaches, or exceeds, 100%.
Rates of inflation of several hundred percent per month are often seen. Extreme examples include [[ |
s in the "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" engraving on the main building façade with a banner so that it read "That Other Institute of Technology". A group of MIT hackers retaliated by altering the banner so that the inscription read "The Only Institute of Technology".
====Honor Code====
Life in the Caltech community is governed by the [[honor code|Honor Code]], which states simply: "No member of the Caltech community shall take unfair advantage of any other member of the Caltech community." This is enforced by a Board of Control, which consists of undergraduate students[http://donut.caltech.edu/about/boc/ug_handbook.php], and by a similar body at the graduate level, called the Graduate Review Board [http://www.its.caltech.edu/~grb/]. The Honor Code, and the atmosphere of respect and trust that it promotes, allows Caltech students to enjoy privileges that make for a more relaxed atmosphere. For example, the Honor Code allows the professors to trust students sufficiently to give them take-home tests. Almost all Caltech tests are take-home, allowing students to take them on their own schedule and in their preferred environment.
The only exception to the Honor Code, implemented in 1990s in response to changes in federal regulations, concerns Sexual Harrassment Policy.
==Presidents of Caltech==
Since Throop College of Technology became Caltech in 1920, it has been led by the following individuals:
* [[Robert A. Millikan]], [[1921]]&ndash;[[1945]], experimental physicist, Nobel laureate in physics for 1923 (his official title was "Chairman of the Executive Council")
* [[Lee A. DuBridge]], [[1946]]&ndash;[[1969]], experimental physicist (first to officially hold the title of President)
* [[Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)|Harold Brown]], [[1969]]&ndash;[[1977]], physicist and public servant (left Caltech to serve as [[United States Secretary of Defense]] in the administration of [[Jimmy Carter]])
* [[Robert F. Christy]], [[1977]]&ndash;[[1978]], astrophysicist (acting President)
* [[Marvin L. Goldberger]], [[1978]]&ndash;[[1987]], theoretical physicist
* [[Thomas E. Everhart]], [[1987]]&ndash;[[1997]], experimental physicist
* [[David Baltimore]], [[1997]]&ndash; , biologist, Nobel laureate in physiology or medicine for 1975 (has announced his upcoming departure)
==See also==
*[[List of California Institute of Technology people]]
==External links==
*[http://www.caltech.edu/ Official site]
*[http://today.caltech.edu Caltech's online news site]
*[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/articles/goodstein/ History of Caltech] (at the official Nobel Prize website)
*[http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu Undergraduate Computer Science Laboratory]
*[http://pr.caltech.edu/events/caltech_nobel/ Caltech Nobel Laureate Biographies]
*[http://www.cripplingdepression.com/ ''Crippling Depression''] &mdash; a satirical comic strip serialized in ''California Tech'', the Caltech student newspaper
*[http://www.museumofhoaxes.com/pranks/rosebowl.html The Great Rose Bowl Hoax]
*[http://donut.caltech.edu/about/boc/ug_handbook.php Honor Code]
*Ditch Days: [http://pr.caltech.edu/events/ditchday/2000/ 2000], [http://pr.caltech.edu/events/ditchday/2001/ 2001], [http://pr.caltech.edu/events/ditchday/2002/ 2002], [http://pr.caltech.edu/events/ditchday/2003/ 2003], [http://pr.caltech.edu/events/ditchday/2004/ 2004], [http://pr.caltech.edu/events/ditchday/2005/ 2005]
{{Mapit-US-buildingscale|34.138577|-118.125494}}
*[http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~erich/real_genius_refs.html List of references to Caltech in the film '''Real Genius''']
{{template:SCIAC}}
{{Association of Independent Technological Universities}}
[[Category:Los Angeles area colleges and universities]]
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[[Category:1891 establishments]]
[[Category:California Institute of Technology|*]]
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[[ar:معهد كاليفورنيا للتكنولوجيا]]
[[de:California Institute of Technology]]
[[eo:Kalifornia Instituto de Teknologio]]
[[es:Instituto Tecnológico de California]]
[[fr:California Institute of Technology]]
[[ko:캘리포니아 공과대학교]]
[[id:Institut Teknologi California]]
[[hu:California Institute of Technology]]
[[nl:Caltech]]
[[ja:カリフォルニア工科大学]]
[[ru:Калифорнийский технологический институт]]
[[sv:California Institute of Technology]]
[[zh:加州理工学院]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event</title>
<id>5787</id>
<revision>
<id>42011176</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:08:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.13.73.140|64.13.73.140]] ([[User talk:64.13.73.140|talk]]) to last version by Phr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:KT boundary 054.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Badlands near [[Drumheller, Alberta]] where erosion has exposed the KT boundary.]]
The '''Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event''' was a period of massive [[extinction event|extinction of species]], about 65.5 [[geologic timescale|million years ago]]. It corresponds to the end of the [[Cretaceous]] [[Geologic period|Period]] and the beginning of the [[Tertiary]] Period.
The duration of this extinction event (like others) is unknown. Many forms of life perished (embracing approximately 50% of all [[genus|genera]]), the most often mentioned among them being the non-[[avian]] [[dinosaur]]s. Many explanations for this event have been proposed, the most widely-accepted being the results of an [[impact event|impact on the Earth]] of an object from space.
It is also known as the '''K-T''' (or '''KT''') '''extinction event''' or as the '''KT boundary''': K is the traditional abbreviation for the Cretaceous period. Cretaceous comes from the Latin for chalk, ''creta''. The K comes from the German word for chalk ''kreide'', or possibly Greek ''kreta''. The K is used so as to avoid confusion with the [[Carboniferous]] period which uses the letter C.
==Casualties of the extinction==
[[Image:Extinction Intensity.png|thumb|right|300px|The KT extinction event, labeled here as "End K", is shown in comparison to the impact of other events on the extinction intensity for marine fossilerferous [[genus|genera]].]]
A wide range of [[organism]]s became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period. The most conspicuous, of course, were the dinosaurs. While there is evidence that dinosaur [[Biodiversity|diversity]] declined in the Late Cretaceous of [[North America]], many species are known from the [[Hell Creek]] and [[Lance Formation]]s of the Late Cretaceous. These include six or seven [[Family (biology)|families]] of [[theropoda|theropods]] and a similar number of [[ornithischia|ornithischians]]. Among the Dinosauria, the only survivors were the [[bird]]s, but birds suffered heavy losses. A number of diverse groups became extinct, including the [[Enantiornithes]] and [[Hesperornithiformes]]; the last of the pterosaurs also went extinct. A number of mammal groups also became extinct. In the sea, many species of [[phytoplankton]] were wiped out. The great sea [[reptile]]s of the Cretaceous, the [[mosasaur|mosasaurs]] and [[plesiosaur|plesiosaurs]], also fell victim to extinction. Among [[mollusk]]s, the [[ammonite]]s, a diverse group of coiled [[cephalopod]]s, were exterminated, as were
the specialized [[rudist]] and [[inoceramid]] [[clam]]s. Freshwater [[mussel]]s and [[snail]]s also suffered heavy losses in North America. Much less is known about how the K-T event affected the rest of the world. It should be emphasized that the survival of a group does not mean that the group was unaffected: a species may be 99% annihilated by an [[asteroid]] strike, yet still manage to survive.
Darkness from an impact-generated dust cloud (Alvarez et al. 1980) may have been supplemented by associated gases.
Darkness resulted in loss of [[photosynthesis]] both on land and in the oceans. On land preferential survival may be closely tied to animals that were not in [[food chain]]s directly dependent on plants. Dinosaurs (both [[herbivores]] and [[carnivores]]) were in plant-eating food chains.
Mammals of the Late Cretaceous were not herbivores. Many mammals fed on [[insect]]s, [[larva]]e, [[worm]]s, snails etc., which in turn fed on dead plant matter. During the crisis when green plants disappeared, mammals may have survived, because they lived in “[[Detritus (biology)|detritus]]-based” food chains. Soon after the K/T extinction the mammals radiated into plant-eating lifestyles, and were soon followed by other mammals that became carnivores.
In [[stream]] [[Biocoenosis|communities]] few groups of animals became extinct. Stream communities tend to be less reliant on food from living plants and are more dependent on detritus that washes in from land. The stream communities may also have been buffered from extinction by their reliance on detritus-based food chains. (See Sheehan and Fastovsky, Geology, v. 20, p. 556-560.) Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. For example, animals living in the [[water column]] are almost entirely dependent on [[primary production]] from living phytoplankton. Many animals living on or in the [[ocean floor]] feed on detritus, or at least can switch to detritus feeding. Extinction was more severe among those animals living in the water column than among animals living on or in the sea floor.
==Theories==
===Alvarez hypothesis===
In 1980, a team of researchers led by Nobel-prize-winning physicist [[Luis Alvarez]], his son, geologist [[Walter Alvarez]], and a group of colleagues discovered that fossilized sedimentary layers found all over the world at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, 65.5 million years ago contain a [[concentration]] of [[iridium]] hundreds of times grea |
was met by protestors, including many from the University. Meanwhile, a number of U.C. students became active in support of the [[Civil Rights Movement]]. Finally, the University in [[1964]] provoked a massive student protest by banning the distribution of political literature on campus. This protest became known as the [[Free Speech Movement]]. As the [[Vietnam War]] rapidly escalated in the ensuing years, so did student activism
at the University.
Perhaps the crowning event of the Berkeley Sixties scene was the conflict over a parcel of University property south of the contiguous campus site which came to be called "[[People's Park]]".
[[image:People's-Park.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|People's Park with high-rise student housing in the background]]
The battle over the disposition of People's Park resulted in a month-long occupation of Berkeley by the [[National Guard]] on orders of then-Governor [[Ronald Reagan]]. In the end, the park remained undeveloped, and remains so today. A spin-off "People's Park Annex" was established at the same time by activist citizens of Berkeley on a strip of land above the [[Bay Area Rapid Transit]] subway construction along Hearst Avenue northwest of the U.C. campus. The land had also been intended for development, but was peacefully turned over to the City and is now [[Ohlone Park]].
The era of large public protest in Berkeley waned considerably with the end of the Vietnam War in 1974. But activist politics continued. One person who rose in prominence during the late sixties and into the seventies was [[Ron Dellums]], nephew of [[C.L. Dellums]], an African American labor leader. He first served on the Berkeley City Council, and later became a Congressman for the district which includes Berkeley.
The seventies saw a decline in the population of Berkeley. People left for various reasons, some moving to the suburbs, some because of the rising cost of living throughout the Bay Area, and others because of the decline and disappearance of many industries in West Berkeley.
The period from the 1980's right up to the present has been marked by a continuation of rising costs, particularly with respect to housing, especially since the mid-1990's. In 2005-2006, sales of homes appear to finally be slowing, but the price of an average home is still among the highest in the nation.
Population by decade:
*[[1890]] - 5,101
*[[1900]] - 13,214
*[[1910]] - 40,434
*[[1920]] - 56,036
*[[1930]] - 82,109
*[[1940]] - 85,547
*[[1950]] - 113,805
*[[1960]] - 111,268
*[[1970]] - 116,716
*[[1980]] - 103,328
*[[1990]] - 102,724
*[[2000]] - 102,743
== Geography ==
[[Image:CAMap-doton-Berkeley.png|right|Location of Berkeley, California]]Berkeley is located at 37°52'18" North, 122°16'29" West (37.871775, -122.274603){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 45.9 [[square kilometre|km²]] (17.7 [[square mile|mi²]]). 27.1 km² (10.5 mi²) of it is land and 18.8 km² (7.2 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 40.94% water.
Berkeley borders the cities of Albany, Oakland, and Emeryville and unincorporated Contra Costa County including Kensington as well as San Francisco Bay.
==Geology==
Most of Berkeley lies on a rolling sedimentary plain, rising gently from sea level to the base of the [[Berkeley Hills]]. From there, the land rises dramatically. The highest peak along the ridgeline above Berkeley is [[Grizzly Peak (Berkeley Hills)|Grizzly Peak]], elevation 1,754 feet (535 m). A number of small creeks run from the hills to the Bay through Berkeley: Codornices, Schoolhouse, Marin and [[Strawberry Creek| Strawberry]] are the principal streams. Most of these are largely culverted below the hills.
The Berkeley Hills are part of the [[Pacific Coast Ranges]], and run in a northwest-southeast alignment. In Berkeley, the hills consist mainly of a soft rock with outcroppings of harder material of old (and extinct) volcanic origin. Some of these rhyolite formations can be seen in several city parks and in the yards of a number of private residences. One such park is [[Indian Rock Park]] in the northeastern part of Berkeley near the Arlington/Marin Circle.
Berkeley is traversed by the [[Hayward Fault]], a major branch of the [[San Andreas Fault]] to the west. No large earthquake has occurred on the Hayward Fault near Berkeley in historic times, but seismologists warn about the geologic record of large temblors several times in the deeper past, and their current assessment is that a quake of 6.5 or greater is imminent, sometime in the next 30 years.
In 1868, a large earthquake did occur on the southern segment of the Hayward Fault in the vicinity of today's city of [[Hayward, California|Hayward]] (hence, how the fault got its name). This quake destroyed the county seat of Alameda County, which was then moved to Oakland. It was strongly felt in San Francisco, causing major damage, and waking up one Samuel Clemens a.k.a. [[Mark Twain]]. It was regarded as the "Great San Francisco Quake" prior to 1906. The quake produced a furrow in the ground along the faultline in Berkeley, across the grounds of the new School for the Blind which was noted by one early University of California professor.
Today, the Hayward Fault can be seen "creeping" at various locations in Berkeley, although since it cuts across the base of the hills, this creep is typically concealed by and confused with slide activity. Some of this slide activity however is itself the result of the Hayward Fault's slow movement. Springs and sharp perpendicular jogs of streams are another sign of the fault's location and movement.
One notorious segment of the Hayward Fault runs right down the middle of Memorial Stadium at the mouth of Strawberry Canyon on the campus of the University of California.
==Climate==
Berkeley shares the cool type of [[Mediterranean climate]] with the rest of the Bay Area. This means dry summers and wet winters as in the Mediterranean region, but with a cool modification in summer thanks to [[upwelling]] ocean currents along the California coast.
Night and morning fog (actually, ocean [[stratus]]-it rarely actually touches the ground, except in the hills) with sunny afternoons are the characteristic summertime weather.
Winter is punctuated with storms of varying ferocity and duration, but also produces stretches of bright sunny days and clear cold nights. Snowfall is extremely rare in most locations, but the hilltops get an occasional dusting. One favored spot when it does snow is along Grizzly Peak Boulevard adjacent to the Miniature Train Ride.
Spring and fall are transitional and intermediate, with some rainfall and variable temperature.
The warmest weather in Berkeley occurs in spring and fall. Strong offshore winds of sinking air typically develop, bringing heat and dryness to the area. In spring, this is usually not a hazard since vegetation is still moist from winter rains, but in the fall, the danger of fire is excessive. In September [[1923]] a major fire swept through the [[Northside]] of Berkeley, stopping just short of downtown. On October 21, 1991, gusty hot winds fanned a conflagration along the Berkeley-Oakland border, killing 25 people and injuring 150, as well as destroying 2,449 single-family dwellings and 437 apartment and condominium units. (See "[[East Bay Hills Firestorm]]").
== Demographics ==
[[Image:Telegraph-Ave-Berkeley.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Street fair on Telegraph Avenue]]
The city's population is culturally diverse, with a significant portion in transient residence attending UC Berkeley. As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 102,743 people, 44,955 households, and 18,656 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 3,792.5/km² (9,823.3/mi²), one of the highest in California. There are 46,875 housing units at an average density of 1,730.3/km² (4,481.8/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 59.17% [[Race (U.S. census)|White]], 13.63% [[Race (U.S. census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. census)|African American]], 0.45% [[Race (U.S. census)|Native American]], 16.39% [[Race (U.S. census)|Asian]], 0.14% [[Race (U.S. census)|Pacific Islander]], 4.64% from [[race (U.S. census)|other races]], and 5.57% from two or more races. 9.73% of the population are [[Race (U.S. census)|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 44,955 households out of which 17.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 9.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 58.5% are non-families. 38.1% of all households are made up of individuals and 7.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.16 and the average family size is 2.84.
In the city the population is spread out with 14.1% under the age of 18, 21.6% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 22.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.2% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 32 years. For every 100 females there are 96.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 95.1 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $44,485, and the median income for a family is $70,434. Males have a median income of $50,789 versus $40,623 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $30,477. 20.0% of the population and 8.3% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 13.4% of those under the age of 18 and 7.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
==Transportation==
Berkeley is served by [[Amtrak]], [[AC Transit]], [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]] ([[Downtown Berkeley Station]], [[North Berkeley (BART)|North Berkeley]], and [[Ashby Station]]) and bus shuttles operated by major employers including [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] and [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]. The on |
ed immensely from it.
Ottoman power continued to grow, and in [[1453]], the Byzantine Empire was extinguished with the fall of [[Constantinople]]. The Ottomans already controlled Greece and much of the Balkans, and soon also began to spread through North Africa. North Africa had grown wealthy from the trade across the [[Sahara Desert]], but the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who along with other Christian powers, had been engaged in a long campaign to evict the Muslims from Iberia, had found a method to circumvent this trade by trading directly with [[West Africa]]. This was enabled by a new type of ships, the [[caravel]], that made trade in the rough Atlantic waters profitable for the first time. The reduction in the Saharan trade weakened North Africa, and made them an easy target for the Ottomans.
==Modern==
The growing naval prowess of the European powers confronted further rapid Ottoman expansion in the region when the [[Battle of Lepanto]] checked the power to the Ottoman navy. However, as [[Braudel]] argued forcefully, this only slowed the Ottoman expansion instead of ending it. The prized island of [[Cyprus]] became Ottoman in 1571. The last resistance in [[Tunisia]] ended in 1574 and almost a generation long siege in [[Crete]] pushed Venetians out of this strategic island in 1669. A balance of power was then established between [[Spain]] and [[Ottoman Empire]] until 18th century, each dominating their respective half of Mediterranean, reducing Italian navies as naval powers became increasingly more irrelevant.
The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean, however. While once, all trade from the east had passed through the region, the circumnavigation of Africa allowed gold, spices, and dyes to be imported directly to the Atlantic ports of western Europe. The Americas were also a source of extreme wealth to the western powers, of which, some of the Mediterranean states were largely cut off from. The base of European power thus shifted northward and once wealthy Italy became a peripheral area dominated by foreigners. The Ottoman Empire also began a slow decline that saw its North African possessions gain de facto independence and its European holdings gradually reduced by the increasing power of Austria and Russia.
By the nineteenth century the Northern European states were vastly more powerful, and began to colonize North Africa. France spread its power south by taking [[Algeria]] in [[1830]]. Britain gained control of [[Egypt]] in [[1882]]. The Ottoman Empire finally collapsed in the [[World War I|First World War]] and its holdings were carved up among France and Britain, but the Turkish regions quickly regained their independence becoming the independent state of [[Turkey]].
==Further reading==
*[[Fernand Braudel]], ''The Mediterranean in the Age of Philip II''
==References==
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{{Book reference | Author=Lincoln, Abraham; Grant, U. S.; & Davis, Jefferson | Title=Resolving Family Differences Peacefully | Publisher=Gettysburg: Printing Press | Year=1861 | Editor=Stephen A. Douglas | ID=ISBN 0-12-345678-9}}
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<page>
<title>Hugo de Garis</title>
<id>13585</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:44:28Z</timestamp>
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<username>Bhouston</username>
<id>319269</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ added [[Technological singularity]] link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hugo de Garis''' (born [[1947]], [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]) is an associate professor of [[computer science]] at [[Utah State University]]. He is one of the more notable researchers in the sub-field of [[artificial intelligence]] known as [[evolvable hardware]] which involves evolving [[neural net]] circuits directly in hardware to build artificial brains.
He is more recently notorious for his view of eventual AI dominance over humans which has sparked debate and criticism, particularly among the more media-friendly members of the AI research community.
De Garis's early studies were on [[theoretical physics]], but he abandoned this field of research in favour of AI and [[artificial life]].
==Evolvable Hardware==
This technique, involving development and use of neurons using a 3D [[cellular automaton]], seems to have been used with success to build simple functionalities like the [[exclusive or|xor]] function, but, up to now, failed to evolve anything that could be considered as a brain, or even a serious robot control system. His current project is to assemble thousands of these 'brains' into a larger artificial intelligence architecture to make a functioning AI.
Critics find that de Garis tends towards "quantity not quality" in asserting that the degree of complexity displayed within his evolved hardware is a breakthrough in itself, without acknowledging that the harder problem is to create systems whose complexity is actually functional and fit for its purpose, or indeed, any purpose.
==Cosmists and Terrans==
De Garis predicts that one day intelligent machines (or 'artilects', as he calls them) will be far more intelligent than humans and threaten to dominate the world, resulting in a conflict between 'cosmists', or supporters of the artilects, and 'terrans', those who oppose the artilects (both of these are terms of his invention). He describes this conflict as the 'gigadeath war'. This scenario is very similar to common science fiction themes, such as found in the hit 1984 movie "Terminator". He has recently authored a book describing his views on this topic titled ''The Artilect War''.
Cosmism, according to de Garis, is a moral philosophy that favors building or growing [[artificial intelligence]] and ultimately leaving the [[planet]] [[Earth]] to the [[Terran]]s, e.g. [[Kevin Warwick]] and [[Bill Joy]], who oppose this path for [[human]]ity. In his [[essay]] "The Artilect War", De Garis predicts that the [[faction]]s will [[war]] to the death.
De Garis relates that "just out of curiosity, I asked Kevin whether he was a Terran or a Cosmist. He said he was against the idea of artilects being built (i.e., he is Terran). I was surprised, and felt a shiver go up my spine. That moment reminded me of a biography of [[Lenin]] that I had read in my 20s in which the [[Bolshevik]]s and the [[Menshevik]]s first started debating the future government of [[Russia]]. What began as an intellectual difference ended up as a Russian [[civil war]] after [[1917]] between the white and the red Russians."
Accordingly, the war might be said to have begun at a [[debate]] in [[Zurich]] on [[March 22]], [[2000]]. Some [[technologist]]s, such as [[Bill Joy]], [[Ray Kurzweil]], and [[Hans Moravec]]; a few [[physicist]]s; and [[mathematician]]s, such as [[Roger Penrose]], have taken positions in this "war".
==Quotes==
* ''Humans should not stand in the way of a higher form of evolution. These machines are godlike. It is human destiny to create them.''
{{right|&mdash; as quoted in ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'' of [[August 1]], [[1999]], speaking of the 'artilects' of the future.}}
==See also==
* [[Cosmism (Russian)|Cosmism]] - early 20th century, similar expansiveness.
* [[Technological singularity]]
* [[Friendly artificial intelligence]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cs.usu.edu/~degaris/ The professor's American mirror web site]
*[http://www.cs.usu.edu/~degaris/news/zurich.html First Shot in Artilect War Fired]
[[Category:1947 births|Garis, Hugo de]]
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[[Category:Artificial intelligence researchers|Garis, Hugo de]]
[[Category:Transhumanists|Garis, Hugo de]]
[[Category:Cosmists|Garis, Hugo de]]
[[Category:Artilect war|Garis, Hugo de]]
[[Category:Ethics|Garis, Hugo de]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Https: URI scheme</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-22T22:32:31Z</timestamp>
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<ip>202.175.135.142</ip>
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<comment>/* How it works */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=https: URI scheme}}
The '''https: URI scheme''' is a [[URI scheme]] which is equivalent and syntactically identical to the <tt>http:</tt> scheme normally used for accessing resources using [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP]]. Using an <tt>https:</tt> [[Uniform Resource Locator|URL]] indicates that HTTP is to be used, but with additional security measures applied to the transactions. This system was invented by [[Netscape Communications Corporation]] to provide [[authentication]] and [[encryption|encrypted]] communication and is widely used on the [[World Wide Web|Web]] for security-sensitive communication, such as payment transactions.
==How it works==
HTTPS is not, strictly, a separate protocol, as the data is still transferred using HTTP; however, instead of using [[plain text]] socket communication, the [[session management|session]] data is [[encryption|encrypted]] using a version of the [[Secure Socket Layer]] (SSL) or [[Transport Layer Security]] (TLS) protocols, thus ensuring reasonable protection from eavesdroppers and [[man in the middle attack]]s. The default [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] [[List of well-known ports (computing)|port]] of an <tt>https:</tt> URI is 443 (for unsecured HTTP, the default is 80).
To prepare a web-serve |
& \cdots & 1 \end{bmatrix}
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<page>
<title>Enola Gay</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:20:28Z</timestamp>
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<username>Lucidish</username>
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<comment>Changed intro so that it reads more naturally; included a qualification that the NASM closure had to do with the exhibit's script, not just the bombings themselves</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:enolagay.jpg|thumbnail|300px|right|Colonel [[Paul Tibbets]] waving from ''Enola Gay'''s cockpit after the bombing of Hiroshima.]]
'''''Enola Gay''''' was a [[B-29 Superfortress]] [[bomber]] of the [[United States Army Air Forces]] (USAAF) that dropped the first [[Nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]] ever used in [[warfare]] ("[[Little Boy]]") on [[Hiroshima, Hiroshima|Hiroshima]], [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] on [[August 6]], [[1945]], just before the end of [[World War II]]. Because of its role in the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombings of Japan]], its name has been synonymous with the controversy over the bombings themselves. The plane gained additional national attention in 1994 after plans to place portions of it in a museum exhibit at the [[National Air and Space Museum]] of the [[Smithsonian Institution]] were scrapped due to a controversy over the exhibit's historical script. In [[2003]], ''Enola Gay'' became again viewable to the public at NASM's new [[Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center]] annex near [[Washington Dulles International Airport|Dulles International Airport]] in Virginia.
==Bombing of Hiroshima==
''Enola Gay'' was assigned to the USAAF's 509th Composite Group and flew the [[August 6]] mission out of [[Tinian]], a large [[island]] with several USAAF bases in the [[Marianas Islands]] chain. The plane, which bears serial number 44-86292, was one of only 15 B-29s modified to deliver nuclear bombs. The ''Enola Gay'' was modified at [[Offutt Air Force Base]] to hold the atomic bomb. Its crew had undergone training at Wendover Army Air Field in [[Wendover, Utah|Wendover]], [[Utah]], as part of [[Project Alberta]] during the [[Manhattan Project]].
[[Image:Enola Gay cockpit.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The cockpit of ''Enola Gay''.]]
Colonel [[Paul Tibbets|Paul W. Tibbets, Jr.]], of Florida, commander of the composite group, elected to fly the atomic mission himself. Thus, he selected a plane from his group and renamed the plane after his mother, Enola Gay Tibbets (1893&ndash;1983, who in turn had been named after the heroine of a novel). According to Gordon Thomas and Max Morgan Witts (''Enola Gay'', Stein & Day Pub, 1977), erstwhile lead pilot Robert Lewis was quite unhappy to be displaced by Tibbets for the important mission, and furious when he arrived at the aircraft on the morning of [[6 August]] to see it festooned with the now-famous nose art. Tibbets himself, interviewed on Tinian later that day by war correspondents, confessed that he was a bit embarrassed at having attached his mother's name to such a fateful mission.
The Hiroshima mission has been described as tactically flawless, and ''Enola Gay'' returned safely to its base on Tinian to a great fanfare on the base. The first atomic bombing was followed only three days later by another B-29 (''[[Bockscar|Bocks Car]]'') (piloted by Major [[Charles W. Sweeney]]) which dropped a second nuclear weapon, "[[Fat Man]]", on [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]]. The Nagasaki mission has been described as one of the most tactically botched missions in the history of aviation, barely meeting its objectives and with barely enough fuel to return to its base. Many later participants in the mission later said that part of the problem was the pressure Sweeney felt to conduct a "perfect" mission, as Tibbets had done earlier.
The two bombs dropped on Japan have so far been the only nuclear weapons used deliberately against populated targets. All further [[nuclear testing|nuclear detonations]] have been on deserted test sites or underground, with the exception of a very few detonations underwater or in outer space.
==Recent developments==
''Enola Gay'' became the center of a controversy at the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in 1994, when the museum attempted to put its fuselage on display as part of an exhibit commemorating the 50th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. The exhibit, "The Crossroads: The End of World War II, the Atomic Bomb and the Cold War" was drafted by the Smithsonian's [[National Air and Space Museum]] and arranged around a restored version of ''Enola Gay''. Critics, especially the [[American Legion]] and the [[Air Force Association]], charged that the exhibit focused too much on the casualties wrought by the bomb rather than on the motivations for the bombing or discussion of its role in ending the war. The exhibit brought to national attention many long-standing academic and political issues related to retrospective views of the bombings (see ''[[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]''), and in the end, after attempts to revise the exhibit to meet the satisfaction of the many interested groups, it was cancelled on [[January 30]], [[1995]].
The entire plane has since been restored for static display and is currently a major permanent exhibit at the National Air and Space Museum's [[Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center]] near Dulles International Airport outside Washington, D.C. As a result of the earlier controversy, the signage around the plane provides only the same succinct technical data as other aircraft in the museum, without any discussion of controversial issues. The aircraft is shielded by various means to prevent a repetition of vandalism attempted against when it first went on display.
The four lightweight aluminum variable pitch propellers that were used on the bombing mission to save weight ended up at Texas A&M University. One of them, trimmed to 12.5 feet, provides the thrust for the Oran W. Nicks Low Speed Wind Tunnel. A 1250 KVA electric motor provides constant revolutions (900 RPM) and the propeller's pitch/yaw is changed to control the windspeed (up to 200 MPH) in the tunnel
[[Image:enola gay 20040710_170220_1.4.jpg|thumb|300px|''Enola Gay'' today at the [[National Air and Space Museum]].]]
==Mission details==
''Enola Gay'''s crew on [[August 6]] [[1945]] consisted of twelve men:
*[[Colonel]] [[Paul Tibbets|Paul W. Tibbets, Jr.]] &ndash; [[Aviator|pilot]]
*[[Captain]] [[Captain Robert Lewis|Robert Lewis]] &ndash; copilot
*[[Major]] [[Thomas Ferebee]] &ndash; [[bombardier (air force)|bombardier]]
*Captain [[Theodore Van Kirk]] &ndash; [[navigator]]
*[[Lieutenant]] [[Jacob Beser]] &ndash; radar countermeasures (also the only man to fly on both nuclear bombing missions)
*U.S. Navy Captain [[William Sterling Parsons|William Sterling "Deak" Parsons]] &ndash; weaponeer
*[[Second Lieutenant]] [[Morris R. Jeppson]] &ndash; assistant weaponeer
*[[Sergeant]] [[Joe Stiborik]] &ndash; [[radar]]
*[[Staff Sergeant]] [[George Caron]] &ndash; tail gunner
*Sergeant [[Robert Shumard]] &ndash; assistant flight engineer
*[[Private First Class]] [[Richard Nelson]] &ndash; [[radio]]
*Technical Sergeant [[Wayne Duzenberry]] &ndash; [[flight engineer]]
==Enola Gay in popular culture==
* "Enola Gay" was the title of a song by [[Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark]] from its 1980 album ''Organisation''.
* Enola Gay is also the namesake of a song by American musician [[Utah Phillips]].
* Enola Gay is the name given to Nicola Six's imaginary friend in the [[Martin Amis]] book ''London Fields''.
* On [[The Simpsons]] television program, Krusty's plane is named "The I'm-on-a-Rolla Gay".
==External links==
{{commonscat|Enola Gay}}
*[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/0,9263,7601050801,00.html Eyewitnesses to Hiroshima] Time magazine, [[August 1]] [[2005]]
*[http://www.warbirdforum.com/hirodead.htm How many died at Hiroshima?], analysis of the conflicting estimates
*[http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal103/gal103_former.html The Smithsonian's site on ''Enola Gay'' includes links to crew lists and other details]
*[http://www.theenolagay.com Paul Tibbets' web site dedicated to the plane]
*[http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/peacesite/English/Stage1/S1-1E.html The reality of A-bomb Disasters]
*[http://www.lehigh.edu/%7Eineng/enola/ The Enola Gay Smithsonian Controversy]
*{{imdb title|id=0080689|title=Enola Gay: The Men, the Mission, the Atomic Bomb (1980) (TV)}}
*{{imdb title|id=0185048|title=Enola Gay and the Atomic Bombing of Japan (1995)}}
*[http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=warfare/Enola+Gay Annotated bibliography for the Enola Gay from the Alsos Digital Library]
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[[zh:艾諾拉·蓋號轟炸機]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Electronvolt</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-19T15:15:21Z</timestamp>
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<username>ArnoldReinhold</username>
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<comment>/* Electronvolts and temperature */ rm excess precision</comment>
<text |
t;, meaning "Devil". There was also a historic figure known as Prince Vlad Dracula ([[Vlad the Impaler]]), but whether or not Stoker based his character on him remains debatable (see "Historical connections" below).
''Dracula'' is an [[epistolary novel]], written as collection of diary entries, telegrams, and letters from the characters, as well as fictional clippings from the Whitby and London newspapers. This literary style, made most famous by one of the most popular novels of the 19th century, ''[[The Woman in White]]'' (1860), was considered rather old-fashioned by the time of the publication of ''Dracula'', but it adds a sense of realism and provides the reader with the perspective of most of the major characters.
''Dracula'' has been the basis for countless [[film]]s and plays. Three of the most famous are ''[[Nosferatu]]'' (1922), ''Dracula'' (1931), and ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' (1992). ''Nosferatu'' was produced while Stoker's widow was still alive, and the filmmakers were forced to change the setting and the names of the characters for copyright reasons. The vampire in ''Nosferatu'' is called Count Orlok rather than Count Dracula. ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'', while closer to the novel's plot than most movies produced earlier (or since), reimagines the Count as a tragic figure instead of a monster. It adds an opening sequence that focuses on the Count's Romanian background, and inserts a new romantic subplot into the story.
Stoker wrote several other novels dealing with horror and supernatural themes, but none achieved the lasting fame or success of ''Dracula''. His other novels include ''[[The Snake's Pass]]'' ([[1890]]), ''[[The Jewel of Seven Stars]]'' ([[1903]]), and ''[[The Lair of the White Worm]]'' (1911).
==Historical connections==
Although ''Dracula'' is a work of fiction, it does contain some historical references. The historical connections with the novel and how much Stoker really knew about the history is a matter of conjecture and debate.
Following the publication of ''In Search of Dracula'' by [[Radu Florescu]] and [[Raymond McNally]] in [[1972]], the supposed connections between the historical [[Vlad III Dracula]] and Bram Stoker's fictional Dracula attracted popular attention. During the six-year reign of Vlad III ([[1456]]&ndash;[[1462]]), "Vlad the Impaler" is said to have killed from 20,000 to 40,000 European civilians (political rivals, criminals, and anyone else he considered "useless to humanity"), mainly by using his favourite method of impaling them on a sharp pole. (It should be noted, however, that the main source of Romanian history from this time is records by [[Germany|German]] settlers in neighboring [[Hungary]], who had frequent clashes with Vlad for political and economical reasons, and may be somewhat biased.) Vlad is revered as a folk hero by [[Romania|Romanians]] for driving off invading Turks with his brutal tactics; his impaled victims are said to have included as many as 100,000 [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] [[Islam|Muslims]].
Historically, the name "Dracula" is derived from a secret fraternal order of knights called the [[Order of the Dragon]], founded by [[Sigismund of Luxembourg|King Sigismund of Hungary]] (who became the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in [[1410]]) to uphold [[Christianity]] and defend the Empire against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]]. [[Vlad II Dracul]], father of Vlad III, was admitted to the Order around [[1431]] because of his bravery in fighting the Turks. From 1431 onward Vlad II wore the emblem of the order and later, as ruler of Wallachia, his [[coinage]] bore the dragon symbol. The word "Dracula" translates as both "dragon" and "devil" in the Romanian language. In Romanian the ending ''ulea'' meant "the son of". Vlad III thus became Vlad ''Draculea'', "The Son of the Dragon".
Certainly Stoker did find the name Dracula in his reading on [[Romanian history]]. This became a replacement for the name ''Count Wampyr'', which he had intended to use for his villain. Recently, however, many Dracula scholars led by Elizabeth Miller have questioned the connection's depth. It now seems likely that Stoker knew little of Vlad himself, other than the name Dracula by which he called himself. Certainly the sections of the novel in which Dracula recounts his history are garbled rephrasings of the one work Stoker's notes show he did consult on Romanian history (which gives few details on Vlad's reign, and does not mention his use of impalement). Most importantly, given Stoker's meticulous use of historical background to make it more horrific, it seems unlikely he would have failed to mention that his villain Dracula had impaled thousands of people if he had actually known much of Vlad's background. Nor is Dracula ever called "Vlad" in the novel. Furthermore in the novel Dracula claims to be a [[Székely|Szekler]] (''Székely'' in Hungarian) - "We Szekelys have a right to be proud..." - whereas Vlad is clearly an ethnic [[Vlachs|Vlach]]. Finally, no one compared Vlad to a vampire in his lifetime (Being a descendant of the [[Dacian]] "Wolf People" who was sometimes called a "Great [[Berserker]]" by the Germans, it is possible that some associated him with [[lycanthropy]]).
In writing ''Dracula'', Stoker may also have drawn upon stories about the [[sídhe]] &mdash; some of which feature blood-drinking women &mdash; and the Dracula legend as he created it and as it has been portrayed in films and television shows ever since may be a compound of various influences; many of Stoker's biographers and literary critics have found strong similarities to an earlier Irish writer, [[Sheridan le Fanu]]'s, classic of the vampire genre, ''[[Carmilla]]''.
Some have claimed the castle of Count Dracula was inspired by [[Slains Castle]], at which Bram Stoker was a guest of the 19th [[Earl of Erroll]]. However, as Stoker visited the castle in [[1895]], five years after work on Dracula had started there is unlikely to be much connection. Many of the scenes in [[Whitby]] and [[London]] are based on real places which Stoker frequently visited himself, although in some cases he misrepresents the geography for the sake of the plot.
It has been suggested that Stoker received much historical information from [[Arminus Vambery]], a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] professor he met at least twice. Miller argues that "there is nothing to indicate that the conversation included Vlad, [[vampire]]s, or even [[Transylvania]]" and that "Furthermore, there is no record of any other correspondence between Stoker and Vambery, nor is Vambery mentioned in Stoker's notes for Dracula." [http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~emiller/kalo.htm]
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
The story begins when Jonathan Harker, an English [[solicitor]], is invited to the [[Count]]'s crumbling, remote [[castle]] (situated in the [[Carpathian Mountains]], on the border of [[Transylvania]] and [[Moldavia]]), to provide legal support for a [[real estate]] transaction on behalf of Harker's employer in London; at first seduced by the Counts gracious manner, he soon discovers he has become a ''de facto'' prisoner and begins to see disquieting facets of the Count's daily life. Searching for a way out of the castle one night, he falls under the spell of three wanton female vampires, but is saved at the last minute by the Count who wants to retain Harker as a friend to teach him about London, where the Count plans to travel among the "teeming millions". Harker eventually barely escapes with his life from the castle.
[[Image:Dracula1st.jpeg|thumb|'''Dracula''' by [[Bram Stoker]], 1st edition cover, [[Archibald Constable and Company]], ''1897'']]
Not long afterward, a [[Russia]]n ship runs aground during a fierce [[tempest]], on the shores of [[Whitby]], a coastal town in [[England]]. All passengers and crew are dead. A huge [[dog]] or [[wolf]] is seen running from the ship, which contains nothing but boxes of dirt from Transylvania: Count Dracula, in his animal form, has arrived in England.
Soon the Count is menacing Harker's devoted fiancée, [[Mina Harker|Wilhelmina "Mina" Murray]], and her vivacious friend, [[Lucy Westenra]]. Lucy receives three [[marriage]] proposals in one day, from Arthur Holmwood (Lord Godalming); an [[United States|American]] cowboy named Quincey Morris who always carries a [[bowie knife]]; and an [[lunatic asylum|asylum]] [[psychiatrist]], Dr. John Seward. There is a notable encounter between Dracula and Seward's patient [[Renfield]], an insane man who means to consume [[insect]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[bird]]s, and other creatures &mdash; in ascending order of size &mdash; in order to absorb their "life force". Renfield acts as a kind of motion sensor, detecting the proximity of Dracula and releasing clues accordingly.
Lucy begins to waste away suspiciously. All of her suitors fret; Seward calls in his old teacher, Professor [[Abraham Van Helsing]] from [[Amsterdam]]. Van Helsing immediately determines the cause of Lucy's condition, but refuses to disclose it, knowing that Seward's faith in him will be shaken if he starts spouting off about vampires. Van Helsing tries multiple [[blood transfusion]]s, but they are clearly losing ground. On a night when Van Helsing must return to Amsterdam (and his message to Seward asking him to watch the Westenra household is accidentally sent to the wrong address), Lucy and her mother are attacked in the night by a [[wolf]]. Mrs Westenra, who has a heart condition, dies of fright, and Lucy herself apparently dies soon after.
<!-- The wolf is a real wolf, which Dracula breaks out of London Zoo for backup; the narrative includes a press clipping about the wolf's mysterious escape and subsequent return. Is this worth mentioning in the plot summary? - See Talk: page -->
Lucy |
9] is a partial list of various judgments awarded to the ACLU and its state chapters over the years, which cover a wide variety of cases including judgments involving creationism, internet pornography, church-state and free speech cases, and total approximately $2.9 million. Usually, judgements are made against states, although [[Operation Rescue]] was required to pay the Union $111,000 in fees in a [[San Diego]] case.
When taking on highly contentious cases the ACLU leaves itself liable to potentially damaging judgements against it if it were found to be filing a "frivolous" suit, regardless of whether the government may be liable. [http://volokh.com/archives/archive_2005_07_31-2005_08_06.shtml#1123261056]
==Controversial stances==
The organization believes that free speech rights must be available to all citizens and residents of the United States. Therefore, it has taken on unpopular cases to defend the free speech rights of clients such as [[Ku Klux Klan]] members, [[neo-Nazi]] groups, and [[North American Man-Boy Love Association|NAMBLA]], a group which supports legalization of [[pederasty]]. A number of controversial cases in which the ACLU has been involved are discussed in the sections below.
The ACLU has defended [[Frank Snepp]] formerly of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (from an attempt of this government agency to gag him) and Lieutenant Colonel [[Oliver North]] (convicted on the basis of coerced testimony&mdash;a violation of his [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|fifth amendment rights]]).
The ACLU's stance on [[Spam (electronic)|spam]] is considered controversial by a broad cross-section of political points-of-view. The ACLU has opposed many anti-spam laws, and in 2000 Marvin Johnson, a legislative counsel for the ACLU, claimed that anti-spam laws are a bad idea because "it's relatively simple to click and delete," [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/06/09/amend.spam.idg/] advice which is rejected by many spam fighters. [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/spam/chapter/ch01.html] The debate found the ACLU joining with the [[Direct Marketing Association]] and the [[Center for Technology and Democracy]] in criticizing a bipartisan bill in the [[House of Representatives]] in 2000; already by 1997 the ACLU had taken a strong position that nearly all spam legislation was improper [http://www.anu.edu.au/mail-archives/link/link9709/0306.html], although it has supported "[[opt-out]]" requirements in some cases. Most recently the ACLU opposed the 2003 [[CAN-SPAM_Act_of_2003|CAN-SPAM]] act [http://www.aclu.org/freespeech/commercial/10953leg20030730.html] suggesting the possibility of a [[chilling effect]].
In many cases, whether or not a stance is considered controversial depends on other political views the critic may hold. These are discussed in greater detail in sections below.
==Critics of the ACLU==
The ACLU's involvement in hundreds of legal cases over the years have led to a great deal of criticism from numerous points of view. In many situations, the criticism may be focused on the ACLU's stance in a particular case or group of cases; in others, the criticism focuses on the general principles that guide the ACLU's choices of which cases to take.
It may be taken for granted that many groups oppose some or all of the ACLU's "positions" listed above; here we discuss only the most general themes the criticism has taken.
===Conservative critics===
The ACLU's most vocal critics are generally those who consider themselves, or are commonly regarded as, [[conservative]]s. Many of these conservatives allege that the ACLU has not dedicated itself to the defense of constitutional rights, but that it seeks to advance a [[liberal]] agenda. Some critics point to its opposition to the [[death penalty]], which has been declared constitutional by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] since 1976, although it had been declared unconstitutional in practice from 1972 to 1976. The ACLU continues to argue that the death penalty violates the [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighth Amendment]] restriction against "cruel and unusual punishment," the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] guarantee of equal protection, and that it is contrary to [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights|international human rights]] norms.
The 1980 ''[[Polovchak v. Meese]]'' case is also sometimes considered evidence of liberal sympathies on the part of the ACLU. [[Walter Polovchak]] was from [[Ukraine]], at that time part of the [[Soviet Union]], and when his parents were returning to Ukraine, tried to stay in the US and claim [[refugee|political asylum]]. The ACLU attempted to block him from doing so. In 1999 the Florida chapter of the ACLU referred to the ACLU's role in the Polovchak case in their brief for the [[Elián González]] case.
Critics also argue that the ACLU has not been consistent in defending all civil liberties, pointing out that it is not active in protecting [[Gun politics in the US|gun rights]]. Critics claim gun rights enjoy similar constitutional protection to other civil rights and should be treated equally by the ACLU if it is not motivated by a partisan agenda. The organization declares itself officially "neutral" on the issue of gun control, pointing to previous Supreme Court decisions such as ''[[United States v. Miller]]'' to argue that the [[Second Amendment]] applies to the preservation or efficiency of a well-regulated militia, and the unlimited possession of weapons by individuals is not constitutionally protected. [http://www.aclu.org/PolicePractices/PolicePractices.cfm?ID=9621&c=25]
Some critics argue that this position is inconsistent with their stated philosophy, and have suggested that the ACLU may only adopt this stance to appease liberal-leaning supporters of the group who happen to also support gun control. Critics also point out that the ACLU does not take up cases that involve possible abuses by the [[BATFE]] that go beyond the debate over the private ownership of firearms. [http://www.civilrightsunion.org/acluwatch/socalledgun.htm] The ACLU has been involved in a few gun rights cases; most recently the ACLU of Texas joined with the [[National Rifle Association|NRA]] in favor of a proposed Texas law, HB 823, in 2006, and claiming that current legislation allowed for the harassment of gun owners [http://gritsforbreakfast.blogspot.com/2005/03/pack-your-pistola-and-hit-road.html].
In 1982, the ACLU became involved in a case involving the distribution of [[child pornography]] (''New York v. Ferber, 458 U.S. 747'' [http://www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/case/279/].) In a controversial amicus brief, the ACLU argued that the [[New York State]] law in question "has criminalized the dissemination, sale or display of constitutionally protected non-obscene materials which portray juveniles in sexually related roles", while arguing that child pornography deemed [[obscene]] under the [[Miller test]] deserved no constitutional protection and could be banned [http://campus.westlaw.com/Find/Default.wl?SerialNum=1982191934&FindType=Y&AP=0-2&ReturnTo=CLID_RT4918149&POP=False&IT=BRIEF&TF=15&TC=1&mt=CampusLegal&fn=_top&sv=Split&vr=2.0&sp=princeton-2000&rs=WLW5.09]. The ACLU's stance on this case has drawn great criticism from conservatives [http://euphoria.jarkolicious.com/journal/2005/06/16/516/]. In a 2002 letter, the ACLU stated that it "opposes child pornography that uses real children in its depictions" [http://www.aclu.org/Privacy/Privacy.cfm?ID=10364&c=252].
The group has also come under fire, again mostly from conservative critics, for fighting against [[Megan's Law|Megan’s Law]], a law ostensibly enacted to protect children from sex offenders. Though the ACLU has fought Megan’s Law(s) in many states, it has been unable to attain significant victories in these cases.
[[Bill O'Reilly (journalist)|Bill O'Reilly]] has referred to the ACLU as "the most dangerous organization in America", and as an "anti-American" and "[[fascist]] organization" on his various broadcasts, and frequently [[Bill O'Reilly (journalist)#American Civil Liberties Union|criticizes the group]] [http://mediamatters.org/items/200406080005].
[[Michael Medved]] has referred to the ACLU sarcastically as the "American Criminal Lawyer Union", due to its frequent stances at end with conservatives. The construction of alternative [[backronyms]] is something of a sport; others invented by critics include "American Communist Lawyers Union" [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=41751]. The group "Stop the ACLU" ran a backronym contest [http://www.stoptheaclu.org/wst_page9.html]. The thirty entries variously implied that the ACLU was atheist, Communist, lesbian, aligned with [[Lucifer]], or overly [[litigation|litigious]]. The most frequent assertion, made in a plurality of eleven entries, was that the union was anti-Christian.
===Conservative Christian critics===
At the grassroots level, the ACLU often involves itself in cases involving the [[separation of church and state]]. Therefore, some [[Christians]], including many who may be considered [[conservative Christian]], often take issue with its positions. Many in this community contend that the ACLU is part of an effort to remove all references to religion from American government.
In 2004, for example, the ACLU of Southern California (ACLU/SC) threatened to sue the city of [[Redlands, California]] if it did not remove a picture of a cross from the city's seal. The ACLU/SC argued that having a cross on the seal amounted to a government-sponsored endorsement of Christianity and violated separation of church and state. The city complied with the ACLU/SC and removed the cross |
een pointed out that the [[universe]] may be considered an isolated system, so that its total disorder should be constantly increasing. We will discuss the implications of this idea in the section on [[#Entropy and cosmology|Entropy and cosmology]].
Once again, it is important to distinguish the meaning of "disorder" in the context of entropy and the colloquial definition, which is a vague term associated with "chaos". The "disorder" to which we refer in this article is a specific, well-defined quantity.
=== Counting of microstates ===
In [[classical mechanics|classical]] statistical mechanics, the number of microstates is actually [[Uncountable set|uncountably infinite]], since the properties of classical systems are continuous. For example, a microstate of a classical ideal gas is specified by the positions and momenta of all the atoms, which range continuously over the [[real number]]s. If we want to define ''&Omega;'', we have to come up with a method of grouping the microstates together to obtain a countable set. This procedure is known as [[coarse graining]]. In the case of the ideal gas, we count two states of an atom as the "same" state if their positions and momenta are within ''&delta;x'' and ''&delta;p'' of each other. Since the values of ''&delta;x'' and ''&delta;p'' can be chosen arbitrarily, the entropy is not uniquely defined. It is defined only up to an additive constant. (As we will see, the [[#Thermodynamic definition of entropy|thermodynamic definition of entropy]] is also defined only up to a constant.)
This ambiguity can be resolved with [[quantum mechanics]]. The [[quantum state]] of a system can be expressed as a superposition of "basis" states, which can be chosen to be energy [[eigenstate]]s (i.e. eigenstates of the quantum [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]].) Usually, the quantum states are discrete, even though there may be an infinite number of them. In quantum statistical mechanics, we can take &Omega; to be the number of energy eigenstates consistent with the thermodynamic properties of the system.
An important result, known as [[Nernst's theorem]] or the [[third law of thermodynamics]], states that the entropy of a system at [[absolute zero|zero absolute temperature]] is a well-defined constant. This is due to the fact that a system at zero temperature exists in its lowest-energy state, or [[ground state]], so that its entropy is determined by the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|degeneracy]] of the ground state. Many systems, such as [[crystal|crystal lattices]], have a unique ground state, and (since ln(1) = 0) this means that they have zero entropy at absolute zero. Other systems have more than one state with the same, lowest energy, and have a non-vanishing "zero-point entropy". For instance, ordinary [[ice]] has a zero-point entropy of 3.41 J/(mol&middot;K), due to the fact that its underlying [[crystal structure]] possesses multiple configurations with the same energy (a phenomenon known as [[geometrical frustration]]).
The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero or 0K is zero. This means that in a perfect crystal, at 0K, nearly all molecular motion should cease in order to achieve ΔS=0. A perfect crystal is one in which the internal lattice structure is the same at all times; in other words, it is fixed and non-moving, and does not have rotational or vibrational energy. This means that there is only one way in which this order can be attained: when every particle of the structure is in its proper place.
However, the equation for predicting quantized vibrational levels shows that even when the vibrational quantum number is 0, the molecule still has vibrational energy. This means that no matter how cold the temperature gets, the molecule will always have vibration. This is in keeping with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which states that both the position and the momentum of a particle cannot be known precisely, at a given time:
:''Ev'' = ''h''(''v''0)[''v''+(1/2)],
where ''h''=Planck's constant, v0=characteristic frequency of the vibration, and v=the vibrational quantum number. Note that even when ''v''=0 (the zero-point energy), ''Ev'' does not equal 0.
Since all molecules will have some vibrational energy at all times, the entropy of such a molecule will not be 0. However, the third law of thermodynamics requires the entropy of a perfect crystal to be 0, at absolute zero. Therefore, it can be inferred that absolute zero is not attainable, since a perfect crystal configuration cannot be achieved.
== The arrow of time ==
Entropy is the only quantity in the physical sciences that "picks" a particular direction for time, sometimes called an [[arrow of time]]. As we go "forward" in time, the Second Law of Thermodynamics tells us that the entropy of an isolated system can only increase or remain the same; it cannot decrease. In contrast, all physical processes occurring at the microscopic level, such as mechanics, do not pick out an arrow of time. Going forward in time, we might see an atom moving to the left, whereas going backward in time, we would see the same atom moving to the right; the behavior of the atom is not ''qualitatively'' different in either case. In contrast, we would be shocked if a gas that originally filled a container evenly, spontaneously shrinks to occupy only half the container.
The reader may have noticed that the Second Law allows for the entropy ''remaining the same''. If the entropy is constant in either direction of time, there would be no preferred direction. However, the entropy can only be a constant if the system is in the highest possible state of disorder, such as a gas that always was, and always will be, uniformly spread out in its container. The existence of a thermodynamic arrow of time implies that the system is highly ordered in one time direction, which would by definition be the "past".
Unlike most other laws of physics, the Second Law of Thermodynamics is statistical in nature, and its reliability arises from the huge number of particles present in macroscopic systems. It is not impossible, in principle, for all 10<sup>23</sup> atoms in a gas to spontaneously migrate to one half of container; it is only ''fantastically'' unlikely -- so unlikely that no macroscopic violation of the Second Law has ever been observed.
In [[1867]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]] introduced a now-famous [[thought experiment]] that highlighted the contrast between the statistical nature of entropy and the deterministic nature of the underlying physical processes. This experiment, known as [[Maxwell's demon]], consists of a hypothetical "demon" that guards a trapdoor between two containers filled with gases at equal temperatures. By allowing fast molecules through the trapdoor in only one direction and only slow molecules in the other direction, the demon raises the temperature of one gas and lowers the temperature of the other, apparently violating the Second Law. Maxwell's thought experiment was only resolved in the [[20th century]] by [[Leó Szilárd]], [[Charles H. Bennett]], and others. The key idea is that the demon itself necessarily possesses a non-negligible amount of entropy that increases even as the gases lose entropy, so that the entropy of the system as a whole increases. This is because the demon has to contain many internal "parts" if it is to perform its job reliably, and therefore has to be considered a ''macroscopic'' system with non-vanishing entropy. An equivalent way of saying this is that the [[information theory|information]] possessed by the demon on which atoms are considered "fast" or "slow", can be considered a form of entropy known as [[information entropy]].
{{unsolved|physics|[[Arrow of time]]: Why did the universe have such low entropy in the past, resulting in the distinction between [[past]] and [[future]] and the [[second law of thermodynamics]]?}}
Many physicists believe that all phenomena that behave differently in one time direction can ultimately be linked to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. This includes the fact that ice cubes melt in hot coffee rather than assembling themselves out of the coffee, that a block sliding on a rough surface slows down rather than speeding up, and that we can remember the past rather than the future. (This last phenomenon, called the "psychological arrow of time", has deep connections with Maxwell's demon and the physics of information.) If the thermodynamic arrow of time is indeed the only arrow of time, then the ultimate reason for a preferred time direction is that the [[universe]] as a whole was in a highly ordered state at the [[Big Bang]]. The question of why this highly ordered state existed, and how to describe it, remains an area of research.
== Entropy and cosmology ==
We have previously mentioned that the universe may be considered an isolated system. As such, it may be subject to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, so that its total entropy is constantly increasing. If the entropy of the universe keeps on increasing then this violates some of our physical laws because at the time of the big crunch the matter ends comes together and they come in a highly orderly form so the entropy decreases so the second law contradicts the law of gravitation
It has been speculated that the universe is fated to a [[heat death]] in which all the energy ends up as a homogeneous distribution of thermal energy, so that no more work can be extracted from any source.
If the universe can be considered to have increasing entropy, then, as [[Roger Penrose]] has pointed out, an important role in the disordering process is played by [[gravity]], which causes dispersed matter to accumulate into stars, which collapse eventually into [[black holes]]. [[J |
(2,510 km), with external fuel tanks
* '''Service ceiling:''' 41,500 ft (12,649 m)
* '''Rate of climb:''' 3,100 ft/min (945 m/min)
* '''Wing loading:''' lb/ft&sup2; ( kg/m&sup2;)
* '''Power/Mass:''' hp/lb ( kW/kg)
===Armament===
* 6x .50 cal [[Browning M2]] machine guns (F4U-4) ''or''
* 4x 20mm [[Hispano-Suiza HS-404|Hispano]] cannon (F4U-4B or C)
* 8x 5 in (127 mm) rockets ''or''
* 2x 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs
==Operators==
* Argentina, El Salvador, France, Honduras, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States (Navy, Marine Corps),
==External links==
*[http://www.warbirdalley.com/f4u.htm http://www.warbirdalley.com/f4u.htm ''Warbird alley'' general information]
*[http://frenchnavy.free.fr/aircraft/corsair/corsair.htm Corsairs in french service]
*[http://www.thecorsairexperience.com http://www.thecorsairexperience.com Interviews with Corsair pilots]
*[http://www.F4Ucorsair.com http://www.F4Ucorsair.com Information on the remaining Corsair projects, museum Corsairs, and blueprints]
*[http://www.acepilots.com/misc_baa_baa.html ''Baa Baa Black Sheep'' the television series]
*[http://history.navy.mil/branches/hist-ac/fighter.htm http://history.navy.mil/branches/hist-ac/fighter.htm US Navy performance charts for F4U-4]
*[http://www.geocities.com/slakergmb/id3.htm http://www.geocities.com/slakergmb/id3.htm Comprehensive colection of historical flight data charts and reference material]
==Related content==
{{aircontent|
<!-- yes or no. are there links? is the aircraft part of a designation/model sequence? -->
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|sequence=
* Navy ''F'' sequence: [[Vought FU|FU]] - [[Vought F2U|F2U]] - [[Vought F3U|F3U]] - '''F4U''' - [[Vought XF5U|XF5U]] - [[F6U Pirate|F6U]] - [[F7U Cutlass|F7U]]
* Navy ''A'' sequence: [[AJ Savage|A2J]] - [[A-5 Vigilante|A3J]] - [[AM Mauler|AM]] - '''AU''' - [[F7U Cutlass|A2U]]
|related=
|similar aircraft=
*[[F8F Bearcat]]
*[[Hawker Sea Fury]]
*[[Nakajima Ki-84]]
|lists=
|see also=
*[[Rex Beisel]]
}}
[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1940-1949|FU4]]
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<page>
<title>Freddy Heineken</title>
<id>11723</id>
<revision>
<id>38523716</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T22:29:50Z</timestamp>
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<ip>80.126.141.29</ip>
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'''Alfred H. (Freddy) Heineken''' ([[November 4]], [[1923]] - [[January 3]] [[2002]]) was a major stock holder and president of [[Heineken]], the [[beer]] brewery bought in [[1864]] by his grandfather [[Gerard Adriaan Heineken]] in [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]. Heineken was born in [[Amsterdam]].
He entered the service of the company (which by then was no longer owned by the family) on [[June 1|1 June]] [[1941]] and bought back stock several years later, to ensure the family controlled the company again.
By the time of his resignation as chairman of the board in [[1989]] he had turned Heineken from a [[brand]] that was famous in the Netherlands to a brand that was famous [[world]] wide.
==Kidnapping==
Freddy Heineken and his chauffeur Ab Doderer were [[kidnap]]ped in [[1983]] and released on a ransom of 35 million guilders (about 16 million [[Euro]]s). The kidnappers [[Cor van Hout]], [[Willem Holleeder]], [[Jan Boelaard]], [[Martin Erkamps]] and [[Frans Meijer]] were eventually caught. The first four served their [[prison]] term in the Netherlands, but Meijer escaped and lived in [[Paraguay]] for years, until he was discovered and imprisoned there.
Freddy Heineken married Lucille Cummins, an [[United States|American]] from a [[Kentucky]] family of [[bourbon whiskey]] distillers. They had one child, [[Charlene Heineken]] who inherited his fortune on his passing in 2002.
[[Category:1923 births|Heineken, Freddy]]
[[Category:2002 deaths|Heineken, Freddy]]
[[Category:Dutch businesspeople|Heineken, Freddy]]
[[Category:Brewing magnates|Heineken, Freddy]]
[[Category:Kidnappings|Heineken, Freddy]]
[[de:Alfred Heineken]]
[[nl:Freddy Heineken]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Formula 3000</title>
<id>11724</id>
<revision>
<id>41740557</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T12:01:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alphax</username>
<id>108048</id>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.63.62.188|193.63.62.188]] to last version by DabMachine</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:F3000.gif|right|122]]'''Formula 3000''' is a type of [[formula racing]].
In [[1985]], the [[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]] (FIA) created the Formula 3000 championship to become the final preparatory step for drivers hoping to enter the [[Formula One]] championship. [[Formula Two]] had become too expensive, and was dominated by works-run cars with factory engines; the hope was that Formula 3000 would offer quicker, cheaper, more open racing.
=== Engines ===
Formula 3000 replaced [[Formula Two]], and was so named because the engines used initially were 3.0&nbsp;L (3000 cc) [[Cosworth]] DFV engines made obsolete by the change of Formula One from the 3.0&nbsp;L normally aspirated engines around this time. The rules permitted any 90-degree V8 engine. As well as the Cosworth, a Honda engine based on an Indy V8 by [[Judd (engine)|John Judd]] also appeared; a rumoured [[Lamborghini]] V8 never raced. In later years, a [[Mugen Motorsports|Mugen]]-[[Honda]] V8 became the thing to have, eclipsing the [[Cosworth]] DFV; [[Cosworth]] later responded with the brand new AC engine. Costs, not unlike the senior series, were getting out of control.
=== Chassis ===
The first chassis from [[March Engineering|March]] and [[Ralt]] were largely based upon existing [[Formula Two]] designs, although [[Lola]]'s entry was based on and looked very much like an [[Indycar]]. A few smaller teams tried obsolete three-litre [[Formula One]] cars (from [[Tyrrell Racing|Tyrrell]], [[Williams Grand Prix Engineering|Williams]], [[Minardi]] and RAM), with little success. The first few years of the championship saw March drivers establishing a superiority over Ralt. The form book was rewritten in 1988 with the entry of the ambitious [[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]] marque with a brand new chassis; Reynard had won their first race in every formula they'd entered. This would continue in F3000. The next couple of years saw Lola improve slightly and March slip, but both were crushed by Reynard teams and by the mid-90s, F3000 was a virtual Reynard [[spec series]], although [[Lola]] did return with a promising car and the Japanese [[Footwork]] and [[Dome Engineering|Dome]] chassis were seen in Europe. [[Dallara]] briefly tried the series before moving up to [[Formula One]], and [[AGS]] dabbled in the series for the first few years. At least one unraced F3000 chassis existed - the Wagner fitted with a straight-six short-stroke BMW. This was converted into a sports car, however.
=== Politics ===
The series was not without controversy. In 1989 the eligibility of the [[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]] chassis was challenged - it was raced with a different (but safer) nose to the one that had been crash tested. This season also saw problems with driver changes - the cost of F3000 was escalating to the point that teams were finding it difficult to run drivers for a whole season. A "two driver changes per car per season" rule meant that some cars had to sit idle while drivers with budgets couldn't race them. In 1991 the performance of some Italian teams attracted attention - they had started using "jungle juice" [[Formula One]] fuel, worth an estimated 15&nbsp;bhp -- giving their drivers a significant advantage. In the early years of the formula there was much concern about safety, with a high number of accidents resulting in injuries to drivers. Fortunately, only one driver was killed in the European championship - [[Marco Campos]] in the very last round of the 1995 series.
=== Races ===
Formula 3000 races during the "open chassis" era tended to be of about 100-120 miles in distance, held at major circuits, either headlining meetings or paired with other international meetings. The "jewel in the crown" of the F3000 season was traditionally the [[Pau Grand Prix]] street race, rivalled for a few years by the [[Birmingham]] round. Most major circuits in [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]], [[Germany]] and the [[United Kingdom]] saw the series visit at least once.
=== Other F3000 series ===
A small British Formula 3000 series ran for several years in the late 1980s and early 1990s, usually using year-old cars. An Italian series has now evolved into a second-level European one, running the previous generation of spec Lolas. The [[American Racing Series]], a predecessor of [[Indy Lights]], ran with March F3000 chassis (called [[Wildcat (car)|Wildcat]]s) and [[Buick]] V6 engines, before turning to Lolas some years later.
Japan persisted with [[Formula Two]] rules for a couple of years after the demise of F2 in Europe, but then adopted basically F3000 rules as [[Formula Nippon]]. The [[Formula Nippon]] series, unlike European F3000, featured a lot of competition between tyre companies, and tended to feature highly-paid drivers (both local and European) in cars that tended to be more developed and tested than those in the European series. The Mugen engine dominated this series, and was also extremely competitive in European F3000.
The European series remained unchanged for about a decade, but increasing costs meant the popularity of the series was waning by the mid [[1990s]].
=== The spec-chassis years ===
In [[1996]], new rules were in |
'''Gumby''' is a green [[clay]] humanoid figure who was the subject of a series of [[television]] shows totaling 223 episodes over a three-and-a-half decade period, animated using [[stop motion]] photography, known as [[claymation]]. The shows also featured [[Pokey (Gumby character)|Pokey]], an orange clay horse, and Gumby's nemeses, the [[Block-heads (Gumby)|Block-heads]].
==The beginning years==
Created by [[Art Clokey]], Gumby had its genesis in a 1955 theatrical short called "Gumbasia", which featured similar claymation characters. Gumby himself first appeared on the [[Howdy Doody]] show in [[1956]] and was given his own [[NBC]] series in [[1957]]. Female voice actors originally supplied the voice of the title character during the initial episodes. Newly produced episodes were added in [[1962]] (by which time [[Dallas McKinnon]] became the voice of Gumby), and [[1966]]-[[1967|67]]. Besides Pokey (voiced by creator Clokey) and his dog Nopey, Gumby's pals included Prickle (a yellow dinosaur), and Goo (a blue thumb-type mermaid blob who could fly).
The opening of The Gumby Show featured a song with the following lyrics:
<blockquote>
''Gumby! <br>
''He was once a little green slab of clay. Gumby!<br>
''You should see what Gumby can do today. Gumby! <br>
''He can walk into any book, with his pony pal Pokey, too. <br>
''If you've got a heart then Gumby's a part of you.
</blockquote>
The series went dormant for years, but during all of this time Gumby had developed an audience interested in classic television animation. Soon, the marketing of Gumby had exploded, as it became the most popular flexible toy on the market, and later appearing in many forms, from cups to ice cream bars.
==The Lorimar years==
By the 1980s, the original Gumby shorts had enjoyed a revival, both on television and home video. This led to a new incarnation of the series for television syndication by [[Lorimar]]/[[Telepictures]] in [[1988]]. Actor Charles Farrington assumed the voice of Gumby in new adventures that would take Gumby and his pals beyond their toyland-type setting and establish themselves as a rock band.
The modern Gumby adventures featured new characters such as Gumby's sister, [[Minga (Gumby character)|Minga]], and [[Denali (Gumby character)|Denali]] the [[mastodon]].
In addition to the new episodes, the classic 1950s and 1960s shorts were rerun as part of the series, but with newly recorded soundtracks (including new voices and musical scores).
Art Clokey is famed for giving many movie industry talent their first break in the business. A number of the clay animators who worked on the new series went on to work for Pixar, Disney and other studios.
==The movie and beyond==
[[Image:Gumbygame.jpg|frame|right|Image from '''Gumby vs. the Astrobots''']]
In 1995, Clokey's production company produced an independently released theatrical film, '''''Gumby I''''' (aka '''Gumby: The Movie'''), marking the clay character's first feature-length adventure. In it, the villainous Blockheads attempt to replace the entire community of Clokeytown, Gumbasia with lookalike robots. The movie featured in-joke homages to such sci-fi classics as ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope|Star Wars]]'', ''[[The Terminator]]'', and ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]''. In 1995, [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] aired reruns of Gumby episodes.
By the end of the decade, Gumby and Pokey had appeared in commercials for [[Cheerios]] cereal.
The Gumby images and toys are registered trademarks of [[Prema Toy company]]. The [[Library of Congress]] had Gumby as a spokescharacter from [[1994]] to [[1995]], due to a common sequence in his shows where Gumby walks into a book, and then experiences the world inside the book as a tangible place.
Although no new Gumby material is planned for the foreseeable future, all episodes of the two series are available on home video and [[DVD]].
In [[August]] [[2005]] the first [[Computer and video games|video game]] featuring Gumby, '''Gumby vs. the Astrobots''', was released by [[Namco]] for the [[Game Boy Advance]]. In it, Gumby must rescue Pokey, Prickle and Goo after they are captured by the Blockheads and their cohorts, the Astrobots.
In San Francisco, Studio Z held Gumby's 50th Birthday Party with Gumby's Creator, Art Clokey. The band Smash Mouth played at the party, hosted by comedian Kevin Meaney. The party/comedy tribute was written by Sponge Bob Square Pants writer Martin Olsen and Gumby's Creative Director Fred Thompson. It was produced by Missing Link Media Ventures and Clokey Productions, celebrating 50 years of Gumby.
==Parodies==
[[Image:Murphy_gumby2.jpg|frame|right|'''[[Eddie Murphy]] as Gumby and [[Joe Piscopo]] as Pokey''']]
[[Eddie Murphy]] played a [[parody]] of Gumby in occasional [[sketch comedy|sketches]] on [[Saturday Night Live]]. The first appearance of Murphy's Gumby aired during the show's eighth season on December 11, 1982 in a sketch titled "Merry Christmas, Dammit!" Wearing a foam costume, Murphy's Gumby was played as an older [[borscht belt]] comedian who smoked a [[cigar]] and depicted an arrogant celebrity indignant at his waning fame. As a sign of his frustration, Murphy's character was frequently heard to exclaim "''I'm Gumby, dammit!''" when he felt disrespected by show business people.
There is a version of the character in Pakistan referred to as Mohammed Al-Gumby, meant to make light of cultural tension but also seen as controversial.
Gumby is also a frequent target of satire on [[Madtv|Mad TV]].
A Gumby sketch ("Robot Rumpus") was featured on an episode of ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' (''The Screaming Skull''), and was parodied in one of that episode's host segments, with [[Crow T. Robot]] and [[Tom Servo]] creating their own version of Gumby, decrying Gumby and Pokey's "mistreatment" (in their eyes) of the robots in the sketch.
In 2005 a [[Simpsons couch gag]] was made featuring the Simpson family made out of clay and appearing on the couch next to Gumby, in the Season 17 episodes ''[[The Girl Who Slept Too Little]]'' and ''[[My Fair Laddy]]''.
==Other Media==
Gumby has also been featured in other media, including a ''Gumby’s Summer Fun Special'' & a ''Gumby’s Winter Fun Special'' published by [[Comico]] in 1987 and 1988. The Summer Fun Special by [[Bob Burden]] and [[Art Adams]] won the [[Eisner Award]] for Best Single Issue/Single Story for 1988.
==Random Information==
In the 1990s employees of The Met (the government run public transport corporation in [[Melbourne]]) were referred to as Gumbies due to the colour of their uniforms and the Gumby television show being in the public's mind due to Australian reruns.
==External links==
*[http://www.gumbyworld.com/ Gumbyworld.com]
*[http://www.premavision.com Premavision/Clokey Productions]
[[Category:1960s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:1980s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Australian Broadcasting Corporation shows]]
[[Category:Children's television series]]
[[Category:Disney Channel shows]]
[[Category:Stop motion characters]]
[[de:gumby]]
[[jbo:gymbis]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gioacchino Rossini</title>
<id>12406</id>
<revision>
<id>41757437</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:01:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tangotango</username>
<id>210997</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert to revision 41674864 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rossini-portrait-0.jpg|thumb|Portrait]]
'''Gioacchino Antonio Rossini''' ([[February 29]], [[1792]] &ndash; [[November 13]], [[1868]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] musical composer who wrote more than 30 [[opera]]s as well as sacred music and chamber music. His best known works include ''Il barbiere di Siviglia'' (''[[The Barber of Seville]]''), and "Guillaume Tell" ''[[William Tell (opera)|William Tell]]'' (the end of the [[overture]] is popularly known for being the theme song for ''[[The Lone Ranger]]'').
== Biography ==
Rossini was born into a family of musicians in [[Pesaro]], a small town on the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] coast of [[Italy]]. His father Giuseppe was a horn player and inspector of slaughterhouses, his mother Anna a singer and baker's daughter. Rossini's parents began his musical training early, and by the age of six he was playing the triangle in his father's band.
Rossini's father was sympathetic to the French, and welcomed [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s troops when they arrived in Northern Italy. This became a problem when in [[1796]], the [[Austria]]ns restored the old regime. Rossini's father was sent to prison, and his wife took Gioacchino to [[Bologna]], earning her living as lead singer at various theatres of the [[Romagna]] region, where she was ultimately joined by her husband. During this time, Gioacchino was frequently left in the care of his aging grandmother, who was unable to effectively control the boy.
Gioacchino remained at Bologna in the care of a pork butcher, while his father played the horn in the bands of the theatres at which his mother sang. The boy had three years instruction in the harpsichord from Prinetti of [[Novara]], but Prinetti played the scale with two fingers only, combined his profession of a musician with the business of selling liquor, and fell asleep while he stood, so that he was a fit subject for ridicule by his critical pupil.
Gioacchino was taken from Prinetti and apprenticed to a smith. In Angelo Tesei he found a congenial master, and learned to sight-read, to play accompaniments on the [[pianoforte]], and to sing well enough to take solo parts in the church when he was ten years of age. At thirteen he appeared at the theatre of the Commune in Paër’s ''Camilla'' & |
any|state level]] and the vote for the [[European parliament]], the party first won seats in the [[Bundestag]], the lower house of the German [[parliament]], in [[German federal election, 1983|the 1983 election]]. Among the important political issues at the time was the deployment of [[MGM-31 Pershing|Pershing II]] [[IRBM]]s and nuclear-tipped [[cruise missiles]] by the U.S. and [[NATO]] on West German soil, generating strong opposition in the general population that found an outlet in mass demonstrations. The newly formed party was able to draw on this popular movement to recruit support. Partly due to the impact of the [[Chernobyl accident|Chernobyl disaster]] in 1986, and to growing awareness of the threat of air pollution and [[acid rain]] to German forests ("Waldsterben"), the Greens increased their share of the vote to 8.3% in the [[German federal election, 1987|January 1987 West German national election]]. Around this time, [[Joschka Fischer]], although never holding any important party office, emerged as ''de facto'' leader of the party, which he remained until resigning all leadership posts following the [[German federal election, 2005]].
===1990s: German reunification, fall out of parliament===
In the [[German federal election, 1990|December 1990 elections]], taking place in newly-reunified Germany, the Greens in the West did not pass the 5% limit required to win seats in the Bundestag. It was only due to a temporary modification of German election law, applying the five-percent "hurdle" separately in East and West Germany, that the Greens acquired any parliamentary seats at all. This happened because in the territory of the former [[GDR]], the Greens, in a joint effort with '''[[Alliance 90]]'''
(a loose grouping of [[civil rights]] [[activism|activists]] with diverse political views), were able to gain more than 5% of the vote. Some people attribute this poor performance to the reluctance of the campaign to cater to the prevalent mood of [[nationalism]] and [[patriotism]], instead focusing on subjects such as [[climate]] change (a campaign poster at the time proudly stated: "Everyone is talking about Germany; we're talking about the weather!", paraphrasing a popular slogan of [[Deutsche Bahn|Deutsche Bundesbahn]], the West German national railway. In [[German federal election, 1994|the 1994 election]], however, the western branch of the party returned to the Bundestag when the Greens got 7.3% of the vote nationwide and 49 seats.
===1998&ndash;2002: Greens as governing party, first term===
In [[German federal election, 1998|1998]], despite a slight fall in their percentage of the vote (6.7%), the Greens retained 47 seats and joined the federal government for the first time in [[coalition]] with the [[SPD|Social Democrats]]. [[Joschka Fischer]] became vice chancellor and foreign minister in the new government, which had two other Green ministers ([[Andrea Fischer]], later [[Renate Künast]], and [[Jürgen Trittin]]).
Almost immediately, the party was plunged into a crisis by the question of German participation in the NATO actions in [[Kosovo]]. Numerous anti-war party members resigned their party membership when the first deployment of German troops in a military conflict abroad occurred under a Green government, and the party began to experience a long string of defeats in local and [[States of Germany|regional]] elections. Disappointment with the Green participation in government increased when anti-nuclear-power activists realized that shutting down the country's nuclear plants would not happen overnight, and numerous business-friendly SPD members of the federal cabinet opposed the environmentalist agenda of the Greens, necessitating far-reaching compromises.
In 2001, the party experienced a further crisis as some Green Members of Parliament refused to back the government's plan of sending soldiers to help with the [[2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan]]. Chancellor [[Gerhard Schröder]] called a vote of confidence, tying it to his strategy on the war. Four Green MPs and one Social Democrat voted against the government, but Schröder was still able to command a majority.
===2002&ndash;2005: Greens as governing party, second term===
Despite the crises of the preceding electoral period, in [[German federal election, 2002|2002]], the Greens increased their total to 55 seats (in a smaller parliament) and 8.6%. This was partly due to the perception that the internal debate over the war in Afghanistan had been more honest and open than in other parties, and one of the MPs who had voted against the Afghanistan deployment, [[Hans-Christian Ströbele]], was directly elected to the Bundestag as a district representative for the Kreuzberg-Friedrichshain constituency in Berlin, becoming the first Green to ever gain a first-past-the-post seat in Germany. Certain lobby groups which had benefited from Green-initiated legislation in the 1998-2002 term, such as the environmental lobby (Renewable Energies Act) or gays and lesbians ([[Registered Partnership]] Law), also rewarded the party with their votes. Perhaps most importantly for determining the success of both the Greens and the SPD was the increasing threat of war in Iraq, which was highly unpopular with the German public, and helped gather votes for the parties which had taken a stand against participation in this war. Despite losses for the SPD, the coalition government with the Social Democrats commanded a very slight majority in the [[Bundestag]] and was renewed, with [[Joschka Fischer]] as foreign minister, [[Renate Künast]] as minister for consumer protection, nutrition and agriculture, and [[Jürgen Trittin]] as minister for the environment.
One internal issue in 2002 was the failed attempt to settle a long-standing discussion about the question of whether members of parliament should be allowed to become members of the party executive. Two party conventions declined to change the party statute. The necessary majority of two thirds wasn't reached by a very small margin. As a result, former party chairpersons [[Fritz Kuhn]] and [[Claudia Roth]] (who had been elected into parliament that year) were no longer able to continue in their executive function and were replaced by former party secretary general [[Reinhard Bütikofer]] and former [[Bundestag]] member [[Angelika Beer]]. The party then held a member referendum on this question in the spring of 2003 which did change the party statute. Now members of parliament may be elected for two of the six seats of the party executive, as long as they are not ministers or caucus leaders. 57 % of all party members voted in the member referendum, with 67 % voting in favor of the change. The referendum was only the second in the history of Bündnis 90/Die Grünen, the first having been held about the merger of the Greens and Bündnis 90. In 2004, after Angelika Beer was elected to the [[European parliament]], Claudia Roth was elected to replace her as party chair.
The only party convention in 2003 was planned for November 2003, but about 20% of the local organisations forced the federal party to hold a special party convention in Cottbus early to discuss the party position in regard to the ''[[Agenda 2010]]'', a major reform of the German social security systems planned by chancellor Schröder.
The November 2003 party convention was held in Dresden and decided about the election platform for the 2004 [[European Parliament]] elections. The German Green list for these elections was headed by [[Rebecca Harms]] (then leader of the Green parliament party in Lower Saxony) and [[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]], previously Member of the European Parliament for [[Les Verts]], the French Green Party. The November 2003 convention is also noted because it was the first convention of a German political party ever using an [[electronic voting]] system.
The Greens gained a record 13 of Germany's 99 seats in these elections, particularly on the back of the perceived competence of Green ministers in the federal government and the unpopularity of the [[SPD]].
In early 2005, the Greens were the target of the [[German Visa Affair 2005]], instigated in the media by the [[CDU]]. At the end of April, 2005, they celebrated the decommissioning of the Obrigheim nuclear power plant. They are also continuing to support a bill for an Anti-Discrimination Law in the [[Bundestag]].
In May 2005, the only remaining red-green coalition at the provincial (Länder) level of government in [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] lost the vote, leaving only the federal government with participation of the greens (apart from local governments). In the 2005 early [[German federal election, 2005|federal election]] the party incurred very small losses and achieved 8.1% of the vote and 51 seats. However, due to larger losses of the SPD, the previous coalition has no majority in the ''Bundestag''.
==See also==
{{Greens}}
* [[Green Party faction (Bundestag)]]
* [[Politics of Germany]]
* [[List of political parties in Germany]]
* [[Federal Assembly of Germany]] ''(Bundestag)''
* [[Worldwide Green Parties]]
*Important greens
** [[Angelika Beer]]
** [[Reinhard Bütikofer]]
** [[Joschka Fischer]]
** [[Petra Kelly]]
** [[Fritz Kuhn]]
** [[Renate Künast]]
** [[Claudia Roth]]
** [[Jürgen Trittin]]
** [[Hans-Christian Ströbele]]
** [[Volker Beck]]
** [[Marieluise Beck]]
== Literature about the German Green Party ==
* Frankland, E. Gene / Schoonmaker, Donald (1992): ''Between Protest & Power: The Green Party in Germany.'' Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford: Westview Press.
* Raschke, Joachim (1993): ''Die Grünen: Wie sie wurden, was sie sind.'' Köln: Bund-Verlag.
* Raschke, Joachim (2001): ''Die Zukunft der Grünen.'' Frankfurt am Main / New York: Campus.
* Veen, Hans-Joachim / Hoffmann, Jürgen (1992): ''Die Grünen zu Beginn der neunziger Jahre. Profil und Defizite einer fast etablierten Partei.'' Bonn / Berlin: Bouvier.
* Wiesenthal, Helm |
].
* '''Gram''', from Latin ''granum'' (seed), is sometimes used to refer to [[chickpea]]s and similar plants with edible seeds.
**'''Green gram''' = [[Mung bean]]
**'''Bengal gram''' = [[Chickpea]]
**'''Red gram''' = [[Pigeon pea]]
**'''Black gram''' = [[Urd bean]]
**'''[[Horse gram]]'''
* [[Gram (Middle-earth)]] &mdash; A King of [[Rohan]] from [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s fiction.
* [[grandmother]]
* [[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]] was a Danish mathematician and actuary.
* [[Hans Christian Gram]] was the Danish scientist who invented Gram staining (above).
* [[Zénobe Gramme]] was a Belgian electrical engineer.
{{disambig}}
[[da:Gram]]
[[de:Gram]]
[[nl:Gram (doorverwijspagina)]]
[[pl:Gram (ujednoznacznienie)]]
[[pt:Gram]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Garnet Bailey</title>
<id>12556</id>
<revision>
<id>38740285</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T08:24:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Canuck85</username>
<id>511814</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:GarnetBailey.jpg|thumb|Garnet "Ace" Bailey]] -->
'''Garnet "Ace" Bailey''' (b. [[June 13]], [[1948]] in [[Lloydminster, Saskatchewan|Lloydminster]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Canada]]; d. [[September 11]], [[2001]], in [[New York, New York]]), was a professional [[ice hockey|hockey]] player. He died at age 53 in the crash of [[United Airlines Flight 175]], at the [[World Trade Center]] in New York, New York, during the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]].
Born '''Garnet Edward Bailey''', he was a member of the [[Boston Bruins]] [[Stanley Cup]] championship teams in 1969-70 and 1971-72. He also played for the [[Detroit Red Wings]], [[St. Louis Blues (hockey)|St. Louis Blues]] and the [[Washington Capitals]] before finishing his playing career in 1978-79 with the [[Edmonton Oilers]] of the [[World Hockey Association]] where he took rookie [[Wayne Gretzky]] under his wing.
In an [[National Hockey League|NHL]] career spanning 11 years and 568 games, Bailey scored 107 goals and 171 assists with 633 penalty minutes. In his sole [[WHA]] season, he scored 5 goals and 4 assists with 22 penalty minutes in 38 games.
At the time of his death, Bailey was living in [[Lynnfield, Massachusetts]] and was working as the director of pro scouting for the [[Los Angeles Kings]] hockey team.
==See also==
*[[List of retired NHL players]]
[[Category:1948 births|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Canadian ice hockey players|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Boston Bruins players|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Detroit Red Wings players|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:People from Saskatchewan|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:St. Louis Blues players|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Washington Capitals players|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Plane crash victims|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Stanley Cup Champions|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Saskatchewan sportspeople|Bailey, Garnet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gilles Deleuze</title>
<id>12557</id>
<revision>
<id>42146366</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:07:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Canderson7</username>
<id>202193</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv to Lapaz, I don't think that's a word</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Deleuze.jpg|frame|right|Gilles Deleuze]] -->
'''Gilles Deleuze''' ([[January 18]], [[1925]] - [[November 4]], [[1995]] (pron. <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|{{IPA|ˈʒil dəˈløz}}]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>), [[France|French]] [[philosopher]] of the late [[20th century]]. From the early 1960s until his death, Deleuze wrote many influential works on [[philosophy]], [[literature]], [[film]], and [[fine art]]. His most popular books were the two volumes of ''[[Capitalism and Schizophrenia]]'': ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1972) and ''[[A Thousand Plateaus]]'' (1980), both co-written with [[Félix Guattari]]. His books ''[[Difference and Repetition]]'' (1968) and ''The Logic of Sense'' (1969) led [[Michel Foucault]] to declare that "one day, perhaps, this century will be called Deleuzian." (Deleuze, for his part, said Foucault's comment was "just a crack intended to make those people who love us laugh and to make the others rage.")
==Life and work==
Deleuze was born in Paris and lived there for most his life. His initial schooling was undertaken during World War II, during which time he attended the Lycée Carnot. He also spent a year in [[khâgne]] at the prestigious Henry IV school. In 1944 Deleuze went to study at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]]. His teachers there included several noted specialists in the history of philosophy, such as [[Georges Canguilhem]], [[Jean Hyppolite]], [[Ferdinand Alquié]], and [[Maurice de Gandillac]], and Deleuze's lifelong interest in the canonical figures of modern philosophy owed much to these teachers. Nonetheless, Deleuze also found the work of non-academic thinkers such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] strongly attractive. He [[agregation|aggregated]] in philosophy in 1948.
Deleuze taught at various lycées until 1957, when he took up a position at the Sorbonne. In 1953, he published his first monograph, ''Empiricism and Subjectivity'', on [[Hume]]. He married Denise Paul "Fanny" Grandjouan in [[1956]]. From 1960 to 1964 he held a position at the Centre National de Recherche Scientifique. During this time he published ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'' (1962) and befriended Michel Foucault. From 1964 to 1969 he was a professor at the [[University of Lyon]]. In 1968 he published his two dissertations, ''Difference and Repetition'' and ''Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza''.
In 1969 he was appointed to the University of Paris VIII at Vincennes/St. Denis, an experimental school organized to implement educational reform which drew a number of talented scholars, including [[Foucault]] (who suggested Deleuze be hired), and the psychoanalyst [[Félix Guattari]]. Deleuze taught at Vincennes until his retirement in 1987.
Deleuze suffered a severe respiratory ailment in the last decade of his life, and in [[1995]], he committed suicide, throwing himself from the window of his apartment.
==Philosophy==
Deleuze's work falls into two groups: on one hand, monographs interpreting modern philosophers ([[Spinoza]], [[Leibniz]], [[Hume]], [[Kant]], [[Nietzsche]], [[Bergson]]) and artists ([[Proust]], [[Kafka]], [[Francis Bacon %28painter%29|Francis Bacon]]); on the other, eclectic philosophical tomes organized by concept (e.g., difference, sense, events, schizophrenia, cinema, philosophy). Regardless of topic, however, Deleuze consistently develops variations on similar ideas.
===Deleuze's Interpretations===
Deleuze's studies of individual philosophers and artists are purposely heterodox. In ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'', for example, Deleuze claims that Nietzsche's ''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]'' is a systematic response to Kant's ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'', a claim that would strike almost anyone who has read both works as curious at best, as Nietzsche nowhere mentions the First Critique in the ''Genealogy'', and Nietzsche's moral concerns in the ''Genealogy'' are far removed from the epistemological focus of Kant's book. Likewise, Deleuze takes Bergson, a philosopher who champions the undivided flow of experience, and reimagines his philosophy as one organized by difference and [[differentiation]]. Deleuze once famously described his method of interpreting philosophers as "buggery", as sneaking behind an author and producing an offspring which is recognizably his, yet also monstrous and different.{{ref|Negotiations}} The various monographs are best taken not as attempts to faithfully represent "what Nietzsche (or whoever) meant" but as articulations of Deleuze's philosophical views. This practice -- Deleuze ventriloquizing through other thinkers -- is not willful misinterpretation so much as it is an example of the creativity that Deleuze believes philosophy should enact. A parallel in painting might be Bacon's [http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc/projects/comm544/library/images/762.html ''Study after Velasquez''] -- it is quite beside the point to say that Bacon "gets Velasquez wrong". (Similar considerations apply to Deleuze's uses of mathematical and scientific terms, ''pace'' [[Alan Sokal]].)
===Metaphysics===
Deleuze's main philosophical project in his early works (i.e., those prior to his collaborations with Guattari) can be baldly summarized as a systematic inversion of the traditional relationship between [[Identity (philosophy)|identity]] and [[Difference (philosophy)|difference]]. Traditionally, difference is seen as derivative from identity: e.g., to say that "X is different from Y" assumes some X and Y with at least relatively stable identities. To the contrary, Deleuze claims that all identities are effects of difference, and that difference ontologically comes first. Apparent identities such as X are composed of endless series of differences, where X = the difference between x and x', where x = ... . Difference goes all the way down. To say that two things are "the same" obscures the difference presupposed by there being two things in the first place. To confront reality honestly, Deleuze claims, we must grasp beings exactly as they are, and concepts of identity (forms, categories, resemblances, unities of apperception, etc.) fail to attain difference in itself.
Like Kant and Bergson, Deleuze considers traditional notions of space and time as categories imposed by the [[subject (philosophy)|observer]]. Therefore he concludes that pure difference is non-spatio-temporal; it is an ideal, what he calls " |
t in "The Origin of Man," a statement that became controversial during evolution trials during the early 20th century amid the [[Scopes Trial]].
*[[Polygamy]] has arguably sparked the most controversy. Some people still practice it today and consider themselves [[Mormons]], but they have been [[excommunicated]] from The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ever since it forbade the practice with the [[1890 Manifesto]].
*The Church's belief structure involves topics that are now of a political nature, such as [[Prohibition]], [[Communism]], [[euthanasia]], and [[same-sex marriage]], and the Church will occassionally release an official statement pertaining to such topics. However, individual members are free to agree or disagree with these positions, provided they do not claim to represent the Church in the process.
*Previous withholding of the priesthood from black members. Though baptism was always open to people of all races and worship took place in unsegregated congregations, men of African descent were not ordained to the priesthood, and no one of African descent was allowed to participate in temple marriage (those previously excluded can now receive a temple marriage). On June 9, 1978, a new revelation was announced, permitting any "worthy" male to receive the Priesthood. (See ''[[Blacks and Mormonism]]'' for more complete discussion of this issue.)*Cultural preservation and educational programs including the [[Polynesian Cultural Center]] and the [[Indian Placement Program]].
*[[The Family: A Proclamation to the World]] is an official statement from [[1995]] that some people find controversial. The proclamation calls for the preservation of the traditional family, sometimes referred to as the [[Nuclear family]], consisting of a father and a mother who assume the traditional roles of provider and nurturer, respectively. It has been labeled as a homophobic statement by some [[Gay rights|gay activists]]. Others believe this statement to be openly against [[feminism]] (see [[Women and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]).
==See also==
*[[Criticism of Mormonism]]
*[[List of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
*[[Mormonism and Freemasonry]]
*[[Exmormon]]
*[[Mormon]]
*[[Mormon (disambiguation)]]
*[[Mormon apologetics]]
*[[Mormonism]]
*[[Mountain Meadows Massacre]]
*[[Temple (Mormonism)]]
== External links ==
<!-- PLEASE read the discussion page before adding to these or editing these. -->
===Official websites of the Church===
<!-- PLEASE read the discussion page before adding to these or editing these. -->
====Primary websites====
* [http://lds.org LDS.org] - the official website of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints &mdash; with links to Gospel Library, Church History, Family Home Evening programs, and more
* [http://mormon.org Mormon.org] - information on basic beliefs, a meetinghouse locator, and a place to email questions
* [http://www.familysearch.org FamilySearch.org] - A church sponsered geneological research site where anyone can search for ancestors
* [http://www.josephsmith.net JosephSmith.net] - the official web site on Joseph Smith by the Church
* [http://providentliving.org ProvidentLiving.org] - spiritual and temporal welfare provided by the Church
===Additional websites===
* {{gutenberg author| id=Church+of+Jesus+Christ+of+Latter-day+Saints | name=Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints}}
* '''Church-friendly websites, unaffiliated with the Church:'''
<!-- PLEASE read the discussion page before adding to these or editing these. -->
** [http://www.ldstoday.com/ LDS Today] - news related to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
** [http://www.meridianmagazine.com Meridian Magazine] - webzine for Latter-day Saints; updated every weekday
** [http://www.mormonwiki.com Mormon wiki] - wiki for and supported by Latter-day Saints
** [http://www.nauvoo.com Nauvoo.com] - a gathering place for Latter-day Saints, including discussion forums, owned by LDS author Orson Scott Card
** [http://ldsfaq.byu.edu/ LDSFAQ at byu.edu] - a comprehensive index answering many common questions. Uses large portions of The Encyclopedia of Mormonism
** [http://www.desertsaintsmagazine.com/ Desert Saints Magazine] A magazine for friends and members of the Church
<!-- The website www.stay-lds.com cannot be considered pro-LDS or even objective. It is full of sarcasm and ad hominem. Please do not post it here again. -->
<!-- PLEASE read the discussion page before adding to these or editing these. -->
* '''Scholarly Forums'''
** [http://www.farmsresearch.com/ FARMS] - Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (BYU)
**[http://www.dialoguejournal.com Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought] Read 40 years of the best Mormon studies by top LDS Scholars, Researchers, and Writers on all topics that relate to the Mormon experience.
**[http://www.genesoc.com/mssa/ Mormon Social Science Association]
**[http://www.aml-online.org The Association for Mormon Letters]
**[http://www.mhahome.org/ The Mormon History Association]
**[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/ Essays on Mormonism]
**[http://www.sunstoneonline.com SunstoneOnline.com] - for open, frank approaches to contemporary Mormon experience, scholarship, issue, and art
== Footnotes ==
* {{fnb|1}} [http://ldsfaq.byu.edu/view.asp?q=426 Brigham Young University's LDS FAQ]
[[Category:Mormonism]]
[[Category:Christian denominations]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint denominations]]
[[Category:Churches in the United States]]
[[zh-min-nan:Iâ-so• Ki-tok Āu-kî Sèng-tô· Kàu-hōe]]
[[ca:Església de Jesucrist dels Sants dels Últims Dies]]
[[cs:Církev Ježíše Krista Svatých posledních dnů]]
[[cy:Eglwys Iesu Grist a Saint y Dyddiau Diweddaf]]
[[da:Jesu Kristi Kirke af Sidste Dages Hellige]]
[[de:Kirche Jesu Christi der Heiligen der Letzten Tage]]
[[es:Iglesia de Jesucristo de los Santos de los Últimos Días]]
[[fr:Église de Jésus-Christ des Saints des Derniers Jours]]
[[he:הכנסייה המורמונית]]
[[ia:Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies]]
[[id:Gereja Mormon]]
[[ja:末日聖徒イエス・キリスト教会]]
[[no:Jesu Kristi Kirke av Siste Dagers Hellige]]
[[pl:Kościół Jezusa Chrystusa Świętych w Dniach Ostatnich]]
[[pt:Igreja de Jesus Cristo dos Santos dos Últimos Dias]]
[[ru:Мормоны]]
[[scn:Chiesa di Gesù Cristu dî Santi di l'Ùrtimi Jorna]]
[[sv:Jesu Kristi kyrka av sista dagars heliga]]
[[vi:Giáo hội Các Thánh hữu Ngày sau của Chúa Giêsu Kitô]]
[[zh:耶穌基督後期聖徒教會]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chemical thermodynamics</title>
<id>5936</id>
<revision>
<id>15904107</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Thermochemistry]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Standard Works</title>
<id>5938</id>
<revision>
<id>41679099</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T00:37:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Blainster</username>
<id>31831</id>
</contributor>
<comment>link gazeteer; note single binding available; clarify status of Apocrypha</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Standard Works''' of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) consists of several books that constitute its [[continuous revelation|open]] [[sacred text|scriptural]] [[biblical canon|canon]], and include the following:
*The [[Bible|Holy Bible (King James version)]]*
*The [[Book of Mormon|Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ]]
*The [[Doctrine and Covenants]]
*The [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]]
:<small><nowiki>*</nowiki>The LDS Church uses the current edition of the [[King James Version]] (KJV) in English-speaking countries, although other versions may be used.</small>
The Standard Works are available as a single binding. Current editions of the standard works include a Bible dictionary, photographs, maps and [[gazeteer]], topical guide, index, footnotes, cross references, excerpts from the [[Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible]] (JST) and other study aids.
The Church does not currently use the [[Apocrypha]] as part of its canon, although the Apocrypha was part of the 1611 edition of the KJV. Joseph Smith taught that the contemporary edition of the Apocrypha had been corrupted as he believed the KJV to be [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/91], but it was not included in his retranslation of the Bible ''(see [[Joseph Smith Translation]])'' and not relied on for doctrine.
==External links==
* The complete text of the LDS editions of these books are available online at http://scriptures.lds.org
[[Category:Latter Day Saint texts]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Temples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</title>
<id>5940</id>
<revision>
<id>15904111</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-09T21:01:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John Hamer</username>
<id>163947</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Moved content to Temple (Mormonism)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Temple (Mormonism)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</title>
<id>5942</id>
<revision>
<id>41530228</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:44:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DevLaVaca</username>
<id>1002430</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Brigham Young's early theocratic leadership */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:LDS}}
The early '''history of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]''' is shared by the larger [[Latter Day Saint movement]], which originated in upstate New York under the leadership of [ |
few months later, Dost Mohammad died. [[Sher Ali]], his third son, and proclaimed successor, failed to recapture Kabul from his older brother, [[Mohammad Afzal]] (whose troops were led by his son, [[Abdur Rahman Khan|Abdur Rahman]]) until 1868, after which Abdur Rahman retreated across the [[Amu Darya]] and bided his time.
In the years immediately following the First Anglo-Afghan War, and especially after the 1857 uprising against the British (known as the [[Sepoy Rebellion]]) in [[India]], [[The Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] governments in [[London]] took a political view of Afghanistan as a [[buffer state]]. By the time [[Shere Ali|Sher Ali]] had established control in Kabul in 1868, he found the British ready to support his regime with arms and funds, but nothing more. From then on, relations between the Afghan ruler and Britain deteriorated steadily over the next ten years. The Afghan ruler was worried about the southward encroachment of [[Russia]], which by 1873 had taken over the lands of the khan, or ruler, of [[Khiva]]. Sher Ali sent an envoy seeking British advice and support. The previous year, however, the British had signed an agreement with the Russians in which the latter agreed to respect the northern boundaries of Afghanistan and to view the territories of the Afghan amir as outside their sphere of influence. The British, however, refused to give any assurances to the disappointed Sher Ali.
After tension between Russia and Britain in [[Europe]] ended with the June 1878 [[Congress of Berlin]], Russia turned its attention to [[Central Asia]]. That same summer, Russia sent an uninvited diplomatic mission to Kabul. Sher Ali tried, but failed, to keep them out. Russian envoys arrived in Kabul on July 22, 1878 and on August 14, the British demanded that Sher Ali accept a British mission too.
The amir not only refused to receive a British mission but threatened to stop it if it were dispatched. Lord [[Lytton]], the viceroy, called Sher Ali's bluff and ordered a diplomatic mission to set out for Kabul in September [[1878]]. The mission was turned back as it approached the eastern entrance of the [[Khyber Pass]], thus triggering the Second Anglo-Afghan War. A British force of about 40,000 fighting men was distributed into military columns which penetrated Afghanistan at three different points. An alarmed Sher Ali attempted to appeal in person to the tsar for assistance, but unable to do so, he returned to [[Mazar-e Sharif]], where he died the following February.
With British forces occupying much of the country, Sher Ali's son and successor, [[Yakub Khan|Yaqub Khan]], signed the [[Treaty of Gandamak]] in May [[1879]] to prevent a British invasion of the rest of the country. According to this agreement and in return for an annual subsidy and vague assurances of assistance in case of foreign aggression, Yaqub relinquished control of Afghan foreign affairs to the British. British representatives were installed in Kabul and other locations, British control was extended to the Khyber and [[Michni Pass|Michni]] passes, and Afghanistan ceded various frontier areas to Britain. An Afghan uprising opposed to the Treaty of Gandamak was foiled in October ([[Charasia]]) and December ([[Kabul]]) 1879. A noted historian, W. Kerr Fraser-Tytler, suggests that Yaqub abdicated because he did not wish to suffer the same fate that befell [[Shah Shuja]] following the first war.
In a replay of 1841 the British managed to have their Kabul garrison annihilated. By 1881 the British had had enough, and despite a deciding victory at the [[Battle of Kandahar]] in September [[1880]] they left. The British gained some territory and retained a little influence but in a clever stroke they placed [[Abdur Rahman Khan]] on the throne. A man of such supple loyalties that he was acceptable to the British, the Russians and the Afghan people.
See: [[Battles of the Second Anglo-Afghan War]]
== The Iron Amir, [[1880]]&ndash;[[1901]] ==
As far as [[British Empire|British]] interests were concerned, Abdur Rahman answered their prayers: a forceful, intelligent leader capable of welding his divided people into a state; and he was willing to accept limitations to his power imposed by British control of his country's foreign affairs and the British buffer state policy. His twenty-one-year reign was marked by efforts to modernize and establish control of the kingdom, whose boundaries were delineated by the two empires bordering it. Abdur Rahman turned his considerable energies to what evolved into the creation of the modern state of Afghanistan.
He achieved this consolidation of Afghanistan in three ways. He suppressed various rebellions and followed up his victories with harsh punishment, execution, and deportation. He broke the stronghold of [[Pashtun]] tribes by forcibly transplanting them. He transplanted his most powerful Pashtun enemies, the [[Ghilzai]], and other tribes from southern and south-central Afghanistan to areas north of the [[Hindu Kush]] with predominantly non-Pashtun populations. The Hindus of [[Kafiristan]] north of Kabul were forcefully conversed to islam. Finally, he created a system of provincial governorates different from old tribal boundaries. Provincial governors had a great deal of power in local matters, and an army was placed at their disposal to enforce tax collection and suppress dissent. Abdur Rahman kept a close eye on these governors, however, by creating an effective intelligence system. During his reign, tribal organization began to erode as provincial government officials allowed land to change hands outside the traditional clan and tribal limits.
In addition to forging a nation from the splintered regions comprising Afghanistan, Abdur Rahman tried to modernize his kingdom by forging a regular army and the first institutionalized [[bureaucracy]]. Despite his distinctly authoritarian personality, Abdur Rahman called for a [[loya jirga]], an assemblage of royal princes, important notables, and religious leaders. According to his autobiography, Abdur Rahman had three goals: subjugating the tribes, extending government control through a strong, visible army, and reinforcing the power of the ruler and the royal family.
Abdur Rahman also paid attention to technological advancement. He brought foreign physicians, engineers (especially for mining), geologists, and printers to Afghanistan. He imported [[Europe|European]] machinery and encouraged the establishment of small factories to manufacture soap, candles, and leather goods. He sought European technical advice on communications, transport, and irrigation. Local Afgan tribes strongly resisted this modernization. Workmen making roads had to be protected by the army against local wariors. Nonetheless, despite these sweeping internal policies, Abdur Rahman's foreign policy was completely in foreign hands.
The first important frontier dispute was the [[Panjdeh]] crisis of 1885, precipitated by [[Russian Empire|Russian]] encroachment into [[Central Asia]]. Having seized the [[Merv]] (now Mary) Oasis by 1884, Russian forces were directly adjacent to Afghanistan. Claims to the [[Panjdeh Oasis]] were in debate, with the Russians keen to take over all the region's [[Turkoman]] domains. After battling Afghan forces in the spring of 1885, the Russians seized the oasis. Russian and British troops were quickly alerted, but the two powers reached a compromise; Russia was in possession of the oasis, and Britain believed it could keep the Russians from advancing any farther. Without an Afghan say in the matter, the Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission agreed the Russians would relinquish the farthest territory captured in their advance but retain Panjdeh. This agreement on these border sections delineated for Afghanistan a permanent northern frontier at the [[Amu Darya]] but also the loss of much territory, especially around Panjdeh.
The second section of Afghan border demarcated during Abdur Rahman's reign was in the [[Wakhan Corridor]]. The British insisted Abdur Rahman accept sovereignty over this remote region where unruly [[Kirghiz]] held sway, he had no choice but to accept Britain's compromise. In 1895 and 1896 another Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission agreed on the frontier boundary to the far northeast of Afghanistan, which bordered [[China|Chinese]] territory (although the Chinese did not formally accept this as a boundary between the two countries until 1964.)
For Abdur Rahman, delineating the boundary with [[India]] (through the Pashtun area) was far more significant, and it was during his reign that the [[Durand Line]] was drawn. Under pressure, Abdur Rahman agreed in 1893 to accept a mission headed by the British Indian foreign secretary, Sir [[Mortimer Durand]], to define the limits of British and Afghan control in the Pashtun territories. Boundary limits were agreed on by Durand and Abdur Rahman before the end of 1893, but there is some question about the degree to which Abdur Rahman willingly ceded certain regions. There were indications that he regarded the Durand Line as a delimitation of separate areas of political responsibility, not a permanent international frontier, and that he did not explicitly cede control over certain parts (such as [[Kurram]] and [[Chitral]]) that were already in British control under the [[Treaty of Gandamak]].
The Durand Line cut through both tribes and villages and bore little relation to the realities of [[topography]], [[demography]], or even military strategy. The line laid the foundation, not for peace between the border regions, but for heated disagreement between the governments of Afghanistan and British India, and later, Afghanistan and [[Pakistan]] over what came to be known as the issue of [[Pashtunistan]] or 'Land of the Pashtuns'.
The clearest manifestation that Abdur Rahman's had established control in Afghanistan was the peaceful succession of his eldest son, [[Habibullah Khan]], to the |
ns [[NCAA Division I-AA National Football Championship]] over [[University of Northern Iowa]].
==Births==
*[[1485]] - [[Catherine of Aragon]], Queen of England (d. [[1536]])
*[[1584]] - [[John Selden]], English jurist and oriental scholar (d. [[1654]])
*[[1614]] - [[Eberhard III, Duke of Württemberg]] (d. [[1674]])
*[[1714]] - [[George Whitefield]], British-born Methodist leader (d. [[1770]])
*[[1716]] - [[Louis-Jules Mancini-Mazarini, Duc de Nivernais]], French diplomat and writer (d. [[1798]])
*[[1717]] - [[Elizabeth Carter]], British writer (d. [[1806]])
*[[1742]] - [[Gebhard Furst Blucher von Wahlstatt|Gebhard Fürst Blücher von Wahlstatt]], German Field Marshal (d. [[1819]])
*[[1770]] - [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], German composer (d. [[1827]])
*[[1775]] - [[Jane Austen]], British writer (d. [[1817]])
* 1775 - [[François-Adrien Boieldieu]], French composer (d. [[1834]])
*[[1776]] - [[Johann Wilhelm Ritter]], German physicist (d. [[1810]])
*[[1790]] - King [[Léopold I of Belgium]] (d. [[1865]])
*[[1834]] - [[Léon Walras]], French economist (d. [[1910]])
*[[1861]] - [[Antonio de La Gandara]], French painter (d. [[1917]])
*[[1863]] - [[George Santayana]], Spanish philosopher and writer (d. [[1952]])
*[[1865]] - [[Olavo Bilac]], Brazilian poet (d. [[1918]])
*[[1866]] ([[Gregorian calendar|N.S.]]) - [[Wassily Kandinsky]], Russian-born French abstract painter (d. [[1944]])
*[[1869]] - [[ Hristo Tatarchev]] - [[Bulgarian]] revolutionary and leader of the revolutionary movement in [[Macedonia]] and [[Eastern Thrace]]
*[[1882]] - [[Zoltán Kodály]], Hungarian composer (d. [[1967]])
* 1882 - [[Walther Meissner]], German physicist (d. [[1974]])
* 1882 - Sir [[Jack Hobbs]], [[England cricket team|English]] test cricketer (d. [[1963]])
*[[1888]] - King [[Alexander of Yugoslavia]] (d. [[1934]])
*[[1899]] - Sir [[Noel Coward]], British playwright, actor and composer (d. [[1973]])
*[[1901]] - [[Margaret Mead]], American anthropologist (d. [[1978]])
*[[1905]] - [[Piet Hein (Denmark)|Piet Hein]], Danish mathematician and inventor (d. [[1996]])
*[[1917]] - Sir [[Arthur C. Clarke]], British writer
*[[1926]] - [[James McCracken]], American tenor (d. [[1988]])
*[[1927]] - [[Randall Garrett]], American writer
*[[1928]] - [[Philip K. Dick]], American writer (d. [[1982]])
*[[1929]] - [[Nicholas Courtney]], British actor
*[[1932]] - [[Rodion Shchedrin]], Soviet-born Russian composer
*[[1934]] - [[Elgin Baylor]], American basketball player
*[[1938]] - [[Liv Ullmann]], Norwegian actress
*[[1941]] - [[Lesley Stahl]], American journalist
*[[1943]] - [[Steven Bochco]], American television producer and writer
*[[1946]] - [[Benny Andersson]], Swedish musician, singer and songwriter ([[ABBA]])
* 1946 - [[Trevor Pinnock]], British conductor and harpsichordist
*[[1947]] - [[Vincent Matthews]], American sprinter and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1949]] - [[Billy Gibbons]], American guitarist ([[ZZ Top]])
*[[1951]] - [[Robben Ford]], American guitarist
*[[1952]] - [[Joel Garner]], [[West Indies cricket team|West Indian]] test cricketer
*[[1961]] - [[Bill Hicks]], American comedian (d. [[1994]])
*[[1962]] - [[William Perry (football player)|William Perry]], American Football player
*[[1963]] - [[Benjamin Bratt]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Heike Drechsler]], East German-born German athlete, IAAF World Champion and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1967]] - [[Donovan Bailey]], Jamaican-born Canadian sprinter, IAAF World Champion and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1970]] - [[Nancy Valen]], American actress
*[[1975]] - [[Benjamin Kowalewicz]], Canadian singer ([[Billy Talent]])
*[[1977]] - [[Sylvain Distin]], French footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Gunter Van Handenhoven]], Belgian footballer
*[[1987]] - [[Hallee Hirsh]], American Actress
*[[1988]] - [[Anna Popplewell]], British Actress
*[[1989]] - [[Chen Yaoye]], professional [[Go (board game)|Go]] player
==Deaths==
*[[705]] - [[Empress Wu of Zhou]] (China; b. 625)
*[[714]] - [[Pippin of Herstal]], Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia
*[[999]] - Saint [[Adelaide of Italy]] (b. [[931]])
*[[1325]] - [[Charles of Valois]], son of [[Philip III of France]] (b. [[1270]])
*[[1379]] - [[John Fitzalan]], Marshal of England (drowned)
*[[1470]] - [[John II, Duke of Lorraine]] (b. [[1425]])
*[[1515]] - [[Alfonso d'Albuquerque|Afonso de Albuquerque]] Portuguese naval general (b. [[1453]])
*[[1669]] - [[Nathaniel Fiennes]], English politician
*[[1687]] - [[William Petty]], English scientist and philosopher (b. [[1623]])
*[[1751]] - [[Leopold II of Anhalt-Dessau]], Prussian general (b. [[1700]])
*[[1774]] - [[François Quesnay]], French economist (b. [[1694]])
*[[1783]] - [[Johann A. Hasse]], German composer (b. [[1699]])
* 1783 - Sir [[William James (naval commander)|William James]] British naval commander (b. [[1720]])
*[[1809]] - [[Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy]], French chemist (b. [[1755]])
*[[1859]] - [[Wilhelm Grimm]], German writer and folklorist (b. [[1786]])
*[[1898]] - [[Pavel Tretyakov]], Russian businessman and art collector (b. [[1832]])
*[[1914]] - [[Ivan Zajc]], Austro-Hungarian composer (b. [[1832]])
*[[1916]] - [[Grigori Rasputin]], Russian monk (b. [[1869]])
*[[1921]] - [[Camille Saint-Saëns]], French composer (b. [[1835]])
*[[1922]] - [[Gabriel Narutowicz]], first [[President of Poland]] (b. [[1865]])
*[[1928]] - [[Elinor Wylie]], American poet and writer (b. [[1885]])
*[[1945]] - [[Giovanni Agnelli]], Italian automobile manufacturer (b. [[1866]])
* 1945 - [[Fumimaro Konoye]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (b. [[1891]])
*[[1949]] - [[Sidney Olcott]], Canadian film director (b. [[1873]])
*[[1956]] - [[Nina Hamnett]], British artist (b. [[1890]])
*[[1965]] - [[W. Somerset Maugham]], British writer (b. [[1874]])
*[[1977]] - [[Risto Jarva]], Finnish filmmaker (b. [[1934]])
*[[1980]] - [[Colonel Sanders|Colonel Harland Sanders]], American fast food entrepreneur (b. [[1890]])
* 1980 - [[Hellmuth Walter]], German engineer and inventor (b. [[1900]])
*[[1982]] - [[Colin Chapman]], British engineer and automobile manufacturer, founder of [[Lotus Cars]] (b. [[1928]])
*[[1985]] - [[Paul Castellano]], American mafioso (b. [[1915]])
* 1985 - [[Thomas Bilotti]], American mafioso (b. [[1940]])
*[[1989]] - [[Lee Van Cleef]], American actor (b. [[1925]])
* 1989 - [[Aileen Pringle]], American actress (b. [[1895]])
*[[1990]] - [[Douglas Campbell (aviator)|Douglas Campbell]], American pilot (b. [[1896]])
*[[1993]] - [[Moses Gunn]], American actor (b. [[1929]])
* 1993 - [[Tanaka Kakuei]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (b. [[1918]])
*[[1995]] - [[Mariele Ventre]], Italian choir director (b. [[1939]])
*[[1996]] - [[Quentin Bell]], British art historian (b. [[1910]])
*[[2001]] - [[Stuart Adamson]], British musician (suicide) (b. [[1958]])
*[[2003]] - [[Robert Stanfield]], Premier of Nova Scotia (b. [[1914]])
* 2003 - [[Gary Stewart (singer)|Gary Stewart]], American musician, singer and songwriter (suicide) (b. [[1945]])
*[[2004]] - [[Ted Abernathy]], American baseball player (b. [[1933]])
*[[2005]] - [[Kenneth Bulmer]], British author (b.[[1921]])
* 2005 - [[John Spencer (actor)|John Spencer]], American actor (b. [[1946]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - ''O Sapientia'' ; [[Adelaide of Italy]]
* [[Bahrain]] - [[National Day]]
* [[Bangladesh]] - [[Victory Day]]
* [[Kazakhstan]] - [[Independence Day]]
* [[Nepal]] - [[Constitution Day]] (To be confirmed)
* [[South Africa]] - [[Day of Reconciliation]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/16 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[December 15]] - [[December 17]] - [[November 16]] - [[January 16]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:16 Desember]]
[[an:16 d'abiento]]
[[ar:16 ديسمبر]]
[[ast:16 d'avientu]]
[[be:16 сьнежня]]
[[bg:16 декември]]
[[bs:16. decembar]]
[[ca:16 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 16]]
[[co:16 di decembre]]
[[cs:16. prosinec]]
[[csb:16 gòdnika]]
[[cv:Раштав, 16]]
[[cy:16 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:16. december]]
[[de:16. Dezember]]
[[el:16 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[eo:16-a de decembro]]
[[es:16 de diciembre]]
[[et:16. detsember]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 16]]
[[fi:16. joulukuuta]]
[[fo:16. desember]]
[[fr:16 décembre]]
[[fy:16 desimber]]
[[ga:16 Nollaig]]
[[gl:16 de decembro]]
[[he:16 בדצמבר]]
[[hr:16. prosinca]]
[[hu:December 16]]
[[ia:16 de decembre]]
[[id:16 Desember]]
[[io:16 di decembro]]
[[is:16. desember]]
[[it:16 dicembre]]
[[ja:12月16日]]
[[jv:16 Desember]]
[[ka:16 დეკემბერი]]
[[ko:12월 16일]]
[[ku:16'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:16 Decembris]]
[[lb:16. Dezember]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 16]]
[[mk:16 декември]]
[[ms:16 Disember]]
[[nap:16 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:16 december]]
[[nn:16. desember]]
[[no:16. desember]]
[[oc:16 de decembre]]
[[pam:Disiembri 16]]
[[pl:16 grudnia]]
[[pt:16 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:16 decembrie]]
[[ru:16 декабря]]
[[scn:16 di dicèmmiru]]
[[sco:16 December]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 16.]]
[[simple:December 16]]
[[sk:16. december]]
[[sl:16. december]]
[[sq:16 Dhjetor]]
[[sr:16. децембар]]
[[sv:16 december]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 16]]
[[th:16 ธันวาคม]]
[[tl:Disyembre 16]]
[[tr:16 Aralık]]
[[tt:16. Dekäber]]
[[uk:16 грудня]]
[[vi:16 tháng 12]]
[[wa:16 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 16]]
[[zh:12月16日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Doctrine and Covenants</title>
<id>8220</id>
<revision>
<id>41378604</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:16:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antley</username>
<id>349332</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Doctrine&Covenants.jpg|thumb|right|Doctrine and Covenants]]
''The '''Doctrine and Covenants''''' (sometimes referred to as the '''''D&C''''') is a part of the [[continuous revelation|open]] [[scripture|scriptural]] [[biblical canon|canon]] of [[Mormonism]]. The book exists in numerous forms published by different [[Latter Day Saint]] denominations. Generally, modern versions of the book primarily include [[revelation]]s concerning |
y]] [[425]].
In the [[5th century]], when the [[barbarian]]s overran the Western Empire, its emperors retreated to [[Ravenna]] before it collapsed altogether. Thereafter, Constantinople became in truth the largest city of the Empire and of the world. Emperors were no longer peripatetic between various court capitals and palaces. They remained in their palace in the Great City, and sent generals to command their armies. The wealth of the Eastern Mediterranean and Western Asia flowed into Constantinople.
==The City under Justinian==
The emperor [[Justinian I|Justinian]] ([[527]]-[[565]]) was known for his successes in war, for his legal reforms and for his public works. It was from Constantinople that his expedition for the reconquest of [[Africa]] set sail on or about [[21 June]] [[533]]. Before their departure the ship of the commander, [[Belisarius]], anchored in front of the Imperial palace, and the Patriarch offered prayers for the success of the enterprise.
Chariot-racing had been important in Rome for centuries. In Constantinople, the hippodrome became over time increasingly a place of political significance. It was where (as a shadow of the popular elections of old Rome) the people by acclamation showed their approval of a new emperor; and also where they openly criticised the government, or clamoured for the removal of unpopular ministers. In the time of Justinian, public order in Constantinople became a critical political issue. The entire late Roman and early Byzantine period was one where Christianity was resolving fundamental questions of identity, and the dispute between the [[orthodox]] and the [[monophysites]] became the cause of serious disorder, expressed through allegiance to the horse-racing parties of the Blues and the Greens, and in the form of a major rebellion in the capital of [[532]] AD, known as the [[Nika riots|"Nika" riots]] (from the battle-cry of "Victory!" of those involved).
Fires started by the Nika rioters consumed the basilica of St Sophia, the city's principal church. Justinian commissioned [[Anthemius of Tralles]] and [[Isidore of Miletus]] to replace it with the incomparable [[Hagia Sophia|St Sophia]], the great cathedral of the Orthodox Church, whose dome was said to be held aloft by God alone, and which was directly connected to the palace so that the imperial family could attend services without passing through the streets (St Sophia was converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest of the city, and is now a museum). The dedication took place on Christmas Day of [[537]] AD in the presence of the Emperor, who exclaimed, "O [[Solomon]], I have outdone thee!"{{fn|2}}
Justinian also had Anthemius and Isidore demolish and replace the original Church of the Holy Apostles, built by Constantine, with a new church under the same dedication. This was designed in the form of an equally-armed cross with five domes, and ornamented with beautiful mosaics. This church was to remain the burial place of the emperors from Constantine himself until the eleventh century. When the city fell to the Turks in [[1453]], the church was demolished to make room for the tomb of [[Mehmet II|Mehmet II the Conqueror]].
==The City after Justinian==
Justinian was succeeded in turn by [[Justin II]], [[Tiberius II Constantine|Tiberius II]] and [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]], able emperors who had to deal with a deteriorating military situation, especially on the eastern frontier. Subsequently there was a period of near-anarchy, which was exploited by the enemies of the Empire. After the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] came to threaten Constantinople from the west and simultaneously the [[Persians]] from the East, [[Heraclius]], the [[exarch]] of [[Africa]], set sail for the city and assumed the purple. He found the situation so dire that at first he contemplated moving the imperial capital to [[Carthage]], but with military genius he succeeded in expelling the invaders. No sooner had he carried war into their own territories, however, and achieved an advantageous peace with Persia, than he was faced with the Arab expansion. Constantinople was besieged twice by the [[Arabs]], once in a long blockade between [[674]] and [[678]], and [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople|once again]] in [[717]].
==Importance of the City in its prime==
Constantinople was historically important for a number of reasons.
[[image:Byzantine_eagle2.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Eagle and Snake, 6th century AD Mosaic Flooring Costantinople, [[Great Palace of Constantinople|Grand Imperial Palace]]]]
Constantinople was one of the larger and richer urban centers in the Eastern Mediterranean during the late Roman Empire, mostly due to its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean and the Black Sea. During the Fourth Century AD the Emperor Constantine relocated his eastern capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople (Constantine's City), in an attempt to reinvigorate the Empire. It would remain the capital of the eastern, Greek speaking empire, short several interregnums, for over a thousand years. As the capital of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] (now commonly known as the ''Byzantine Empire''), the Greeks called Constantinople simply "the City", while throughout Europe it was known as the "Queen of Cities." In its heyday, roughly corresponding to what is now known as the Middle Ages, it was the richest and largest European city, exerting a powerful cultural pull and dominating economic life in the Mediterranean. Visitors and merchants were especially struck by the beautiful monasteries and churches of the city, particularly the Hagia Sophia, or the Church of Holy Wisdom. A Russian 14th-century traveller, Stephen of Novgorod, wrote, "As for St Sofia, the human mind can neither tell it nor make description of it". The influence of Byzantine architecture and art can be seen in its extensive copying throughout Europe, particular examples include St. Mark's in Venice, the basilica of Ravenna and many churches throughout the Slavic East. Also, alone in Europe until the 13th century Italian [[florin]], the Empire continued to produce sound gold coinage, the [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]] of [[Diocletian]] becoming the [[bezant]] prized throughout the Middle Ages. Its city walls (the Theodosian Walls) and urban infrastructure was moreover a marvel throughout the Middle Ages, keeping a memory alive of the skill and technical expertise of the Roman Empire. The city, also provided a defence for the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire against the invasions of the 5th century, for Europe against the Arabs, and for European Christendom against Islam. Constantine assured the position of the Bishop or [[Patriarch of Constantinople]] as pre-eminent in the Eastern Empire. This action placed Constantinople at the religious heart of Orthodoxy. The Patriarch of Constantinople is still considered first among equals in the Orthodox Church along with the Patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, and the later Slavic Patriarchs. This position is largely ceremonial but still carries emotional weight.
==The Isaurians==
In the eighth and ninth centuries the [[iconoclast]] movement caused serious political unrest throughout the Empire. The emperor [[Leo III]] issued a decree in [[726]] against images, and ordered the destruction of a statue of Christ over one of the doors of the Chalke, an act which was fiercely resisted by the citizens. [[Constantine V]] convoked a church council in [[754]] which condemned the worship of images, after which many treasures were broken, burned, or painted over. Following the death of his son [[Leo IV]] in [[780]], the empress [[Irene]] restored the veneration of images through the agency of the [[Second Council of Nicaea]] in [[787]].
==The Comneni and Palaeologi==
[[Image:DelacroixConstantinople.JPG|thumb|300px|''The Entry of the [[Crusade]]rs into Constantinople'', by [[Eugène Delacroix]], [[1840]].]]
Following the catastrophic defeat in [[1071]] of the emperor [[Romanus IV]] Diogenes by the [[Seljuk Turks]] at [[Manzikert]] in [[Armenia]], his successor [[Michael VII]] pleaded for assistance from the West. In due course this was to lead to the [[First Crusade]], which assembled at Constantinople in [[1096]] in the reign of [[Alexius I Comnenus]], and moved on towards [[Jerusalem]]. Much of this is documented by the writer and historian [[Anna Comnena]] in her work [[The Alexiad]]. The Crusades were, however, to lead in time to the disastrous capture and sack of Constantinople by soldiers of the [[Fourth Crusade]] on [[April 12]] [[1204]]. For the subsequent half-century or more, Constantinople remained the centre of the [[Roman Catholic]] [[crusader state]], set up after the city's capture under [[Baldwin IX]], and which became known as the [[Latin Empire]]. During this time, the Byzantine emperors made their capital at nearby [[Nicaea]], which acted as the capital of the temporary, short-lived [[Empire of Nicaea]] and a refuge for refugees from the sacked city of Constantinople. From this base, Constantinople was eventually recaptured from its last Latin ruler, [[Baldwin II of Constantinople|Baldwin II]], by [[Nicaean Empire|Byzantine]] forces under [[Michael VIII Palaeologus]] in [[1261]]. After the reconquest by the Palaeologi, the imperial palace of [[Blachernae]] in the north-west of the city became the main imperial residence, the old Great Palace upon the shores of the Bosporus going into decline.
==The Ottomans==
[[Image:Siege of Constantinople.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[1453]] [[Siege of Constantinople]] (painted [[1499]])]]
Constantinople and the Empire finally fell to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] on Tuesday [[May 29]], [[1453]], during the reign of [[Constantine XI]] Paleologus (''see [[Fall of Constantinople]]''). Although the Turks overthrew the Byzantines, [[Fatih Sultan Me |
nt|voiceless]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|[d̤]}}
| [[breathy voice]], also called ''murmured''
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|[d̥]}}
| [[slack voice]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|[d]}}
| [[Voiced consonant|modal voice]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|[d̬]}}
| [[stiff voice]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|[d̰]}}
| [[creaky voice]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|[ʔ͡t]}}
| glottal closure
|}
===Extended IPA diacritics===
[[Media:ExtIPA.png|The letters and diacritics of the ExtIPA]]
The ExtIPA has widened the use of some of the regular IPA symbols, such as {{IPA|ʰp}} for pre-aspiration, {{IPA|tʶ}} for uvularization, or {{IPA|s̼}} for a linguolabial sibilant, as well as adding some new ones. Some of the ExtIPA diacritics are occasionally used for non-disordered speech, for example for the unusual airstream mechanisms of [[Damin]].
One modification is the use of subscript parentheses around the [[phonation]] diacritics to indicate partial phonation; a single parenthesis at the left or right of the voicing indicates that it is partially phonated at the beginning or end of the segment. For example, {{IPA|₍s̬₎}} is a partially voiced [s], {{IPA|₍s̬}} shows partial initial voicing, and {{IPA|s̬₎}} partial final voicing; also {{IPA|₍z̥₎}} is a partially devoiced [z], {{IPA|₍z̥}} shows partial initial devoicing, and {{IPA|z̥₎}}
partial final devoicing. These conventions may be convenient for representing various [[voice onset time]]s.
Phonation diacritics may also be prefixed or suffixed rather than placed directly under the segment to represent relative timing. For instance, {{IPA|&nbsp;̬z}} is a [[Pre-voicing (phonetics)|pre-voiced]] [z], {{IPA|z&nbsp;̬}}
a post-voiced [z], and {{IPA|a&nbsp;̰}} is an [a] with a [[creaky voice|creaky]] offglide.
Other ExtIPA diacritics are,
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=4|Airstream mechanism
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|p↓}}
| [[Initiation (phonetics)|Ingressive airflow]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|!↑}}
| [[Initiation (phonetics)|Egressive airflow]]
|-
!colspan=4|Phonation
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|p⁼}}
| [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Unaspirated]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ạ}}
| [[Whispering|Whispery]] phonation
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | a<sup><small>Ħ</small></sup>
|[[Faucalized voice]] (stretched pharynx,<br>as in a yawn)
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | a!
|[[Harsh voice]], ('pressed voice'; involves the<br>false vocal cords, as when lifting a load)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ʰp}}
| Pre-aspiration
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | a‼
| Ventricular vibration
|-
!colspan=4|Nasalization
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|n͋&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;v͋}}
| [[nasalization|Nasal fricative]] or frication
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;" | {{IPA|m͊}}
| [[Denasal]] (as with a headcold)
|-
! colspan=4|Articulatory strength
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;" | {{IPA|f͈}}
| [[Fortis (phonetics)#Tenseness|Strong articulation]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|v͉}}
| [[Fortis (phonetics)#Tenseness|Weak articulation]]
|-
! colspan=4|Articulation
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|v͆}}
| [[dentolabial consonant|Dentolabial]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|n̪͆&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;h̪͆}}
| [[Interdental]] or [[bidental consonant|bidental]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|s͇&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;f͇}}
| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar(ized)]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|s͎}}
| [[Whistling|Whistled]] articulation
|-
! colspan=4|Secondary articulation
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;" | {{IPA|s͍}}
| Labial spreading (see [[rounded vowel]])
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;" | {{IPA|ʒ}}<sup><small>{{IPA|œ}}</small></sup>
|Open-rounded labialization
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;" | k<sup><small>{{IPA|ʋ}}</small></sup>
|Labiodentalized
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|s͌}}
| [[Velopharyngeal]] friction
|-
! colspan=4|Timing
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|s͢θ}}
| Slurred/sliding articulation
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|p\p\p}}
| [[Stutter]] (reiterated articulation)
|}
In addition to these symbols, a subscript < or > indicates that an articulation is laterally offset to the left or right.
====Prosodic notation====
The ExtIPA also makes use of Italian musical notation for the [[tempo]] and [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]] of connected speech. These are subscripted on the insides of a {brace} notation that indicates that they are comments on the [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]].
Pauses are indicated with periods or numbers inside parentheses.
{| class="wikitable"
|(.)||Short pause||(..)||Medium pause||(...)||Long pause||(1.2)||1.2-second pause
|-
|''f''||Loud speech<br>('forte')||colspan=2|[{<sub>''f''</sub> {{IPA|lɑʊd}}<sub>''f''</sub>}]||''ff''||Louder speech<br>('fortissimo')||colspan=2|[{<sub>''ff''</sub> {{IPA|lɑʊdɚ}} <sub>''ff''</sub>}]
|-
|''p''||Quiet speech<br>('piano')||colspan=2|[{<sub>''p''</sub> {{IPA|kwaɪət}} <sub>''p''</sub>}]||''pp''||Quieter speech<br>('pianissimo')||colspan=2|[{<sub>''pp''</sub> {{IPA|kwaɪətɚ}} <sub>''pp''</sub>}]
|-
|''allegro''||Fast speech||colspan=2|[{<sub>''allegro''</sub> {{IPA|fɑːst}} <sub>''allegro''</sub>}]||''lento''||Slow speech||colspan=2|[{<sub>''lento''</sub> {{IPA|sloʊ}} <sub>''lento''</sub>}]
|-
|colspan=8|''crescendo, rallentando,'' and other musical terms may also be used.
|}
==Obsolete symbols, nonstandard symbols, and capital variants==
The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is {{IPA|ɷ}} for standard {{IPA|ʊ}}. Several symbols indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: {{IPA|ƍ}} for {{IPA|zʷ}} is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series {{IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ}} has been dropped.
There are also unsupported symbols from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as {{IPA|ƛ}}.
While the IPA does not itself have a set of capital letters (the ones that look like capitals are actually small capitals), many languages have adopted symbols from the IPA as part of their orthographies, and in such cases they have invented capital variants of these. This is especially common in Africa. An example is [[Kabye language|Kabye]] of northern [[Togo]], which has {{unicode|Ɔ Ɛ Ŋ Ɣ Ʃ}} (capital {{IPA|ʃ}}). Other pseudo-IPA capitals supported by unicode are {{unicode|Ɓ/Ƃ Ƈ Ɗ/Ƌ Ə/Ǝ Ɠ Ħ Ɯ Ɲ Ɵ Ʈ Ʊ Ʋ Ʒ}}.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ɩ}} || Iota, rejected 1989 in favor of {{IPA|[ɪ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ɷ}} || Closed omega, rejected 1989 in favor of {{IPA|[ʊ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ʚ}} || Closed epsilon, a mistake for {{IPA|[ɞ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ɼ}} || Long-leg R, voiced strident apico-alveolar trill (Czech ''ř''), withdrawn 1989, = {{IPA|[r̝]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ɿ}} || Reversed fishhook R / turned iota, apical dental unrounded vowel used by Sinologists, = {{IPA|[z̩]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ʅ}} || Squat reversed esh (actually {{IPA|ɿ}} with retroflex tail), apical retroflex unrounded vowel used by Sinologists, = {{IPA|[ʐ̩]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ʮ}} || turned h with fishhook, apical dental rounded vowel used by Sinologists, = {{IPA|[z̩ʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ʯ}} || turned h with fishhook and tail, apical retroflex rounded vowel used by Sinologists, = {{IPA|[ʐ̩ʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ȶ}} || t with curl, voiceless palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) plosive, used by Sinologists
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ȡ}} || d with curl, voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) plosive, used by Sinologists
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ȵ}} || n with curl, voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) nasal, used by Sinologists
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | <small>A</small> || small capital A, open central vowel used by Sinologists, between {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[ɑ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | <small>E&l |
(1966)
<big>'''[[Subspace]]'''</big>
# ''Subspace Explorers'' (1965)
# ''Subspace Encounter'' (1983)
<big>'''[[Family d'Alembert]]'''</big> (with [[Stephen Goldin]])
# ''Imperial Stars'' (1976)
# ''Stranglers' Moon'' (1976)
# ''The Clockwork Traitor'' (1976)
# ''Getaway World'' (1977)
# ''Appointment at Bloodstar'' aka The Bloodstar Conspiracy (1978)
# ''The Purity Plot'' (1978)
# ''Planet of Treachery'' (1981)
# ''Eclipsing Binaries'' (1983)
# ''The Omicron Invasion'' (1984)
# ''Revolt of the Galaxy'' (1985)
<big>'''[[Lord Tedric]]'''</big> (with [[Gordon Eklund]])
# ''Lord Tedric'' (1978)
# ''The Space Pirates'' (1979)
# ''Black Knight of the Iron Sphere'' (1979)
# ''Alien Realms'' (1980)
===Novels===
* ''Spacehounds of IPC'' (1947)
* ''The Galaxy Primes'' (1965)
* ''Masters of Space'' (1976) (with E Everett Evans)
== References ==
&sup1; Campbell, J.W. Letter to E.E. Smith. As quoted by Verna Smith Trestrail on [[29 September]] [[1979]] in her keynote speech at Moscon 1. Letter date given as "long after World War II."
[[Category:1890 births|Smith, E. E.]]
[[Category:1965 deaths|Smith, E. E.]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Smith, E.E.]]
[[Category:Space opera]]
[[bg:&#1045;&#1076;&#1091;&#1072;&#1088;&#1076; &#1057;&#1084;&#1080;&#1090;]]
[[de:Edward Elmer Smith]]
[[it:E. E. Smith]]
[[ja:E&#12539;E&#12539;&#12473;&#12511;&#12473;]]
[[no:Edward Elmer Smith]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Évariste Galois</title>
<id>9815</id>
<revision>
<id>40967339</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T04:16:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mayumashu</username>
<id>203494</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Galois.jpeg|268px|thumb|right|Galois at the age of fifteen from the pencil of a classmate. He was young-looking for his age and had black hair.]]
'''Évariste Galois''' ([[October 25]], [[1811]] &ndash; [[May 31]], [[1832]]) was a [[France|French]] [[mathematician]] born in [[Bourg-la-Reine]]. While still in his teens, he was able to determine a necessary and sufficient condition for a [[polynomial]] to be solvable by [[radicals]], thereby solving a long-standing problem. His work laid the fundamental foundations for [[Galois theory]], a major branch of [[abstract algebra]], and the subfield of [[Galois connection]]s. He was the first to use the word "[[group (mathematics)|group]]" ([[French language|French]]: ''groupe'') as a technical term in mathematics to represent a ''group of permutations''. He died in a [[duel]] at the age of twenty.
In [[1828]] he attempted the entrance exam to [[École Polytechnique]], without the usual preparation in mathematics, and failed. He failed yet again on the second, final attempt the next year. It is undisputed that Galois was more than qualified; however, accounts differ on why he failed. The legend holds that he thought the exercise proposed to him by the examiner to be of no interest, and, in exasperation, he threw the rag used to clean up chalk marks on the blackboard at the examiner's head. More plausible accounts state that Galois refused to justify his statements and answer the examiner's questions. Galois's behavior was perhaps influenced by the recent suicide of his father.
His memoir on equation theory would be submitted several times but was never published in his lifetime, due to various events. Initially he sent it to [[Cauchy]], who told him his work overlapped with recent work of [[Niels Henrik Abel|Abel]]. Galois revised his memoir and sent it to [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier|Fourier]] in early 1830, upon the advice of Cauchy, to be considered for the Grand Prix of the Academy. Unfortunately, Fourier died soon after, and the memoir was lost. The prize would be awarded that year to Abel posthumously and also to [[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi|Jacobi]].
Despite the lost memoir, Galois published three papers that year, which laid the foundations for the [[Galois theory]].
In January 1831, Galois returned to mathematics after a brief hiatus. [[Simeon Poisson]] asked him to submit his work on solutions of equations. Later that year, Galois would receive a letter of rejection from Poisson while in prison for his revolutionary activities. Poisson stated (to others): ''His argument is neither sufficiently clear nor sufficiently developed to allow us to judge its rigor.''
It was resubmitted again in shorter form. The importance of the work was not generally recognized during his lifetime, although some mathematicians such as Cauchy understood its implications.
Galois was a staunch [[Republicanism|Republican]], famous for having toasted [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis-Philippe]] with a dagger above his cup, which leads some to believe that his death in a duel was set up by the secret police. He was jailed for attending a [[Bastille Day]] protest in 1831, and was released only 2 days before his death.
The night before the duel, supposedly fought in order to defend the honor of a woman (there are other theories concerning the motive of the duel), he was so convinced of his impending death that he stayed up all night writing letters to his Republican friends and composing what would become his mathematical testament. [[Hermann Weyl]], one of the greatest mathematicians of the 20th century, said of this testament, "This letter, if judged by the novelty and profundity of ideas it contains, is perhaps the most substantial piece of writing in the whole literature of mankind." However, the legend of Galois pouring his mathematical thoughts onto paper the night before he died seems to have been exaggerated. In his final papers he outlined the rough edges of some work he had been doing in analysis and annotated a copy of the manuscript submitted to the academy and other papers. On the 30th of May 1832, early in the morning, he was shot in the abdomen and died the following day at ten in the Cochin hospital (probably of [[peritonitis]]) after refusing the offices of a priest. He was 20 years old.
His last words to his brother Alfred were:
<blockquote>
''Ne pleure pas, Alfred! J'ai besoin de tout mon courage pour mourir à vingt ans!'' (Don't cry, Alfred! I need all my courage to die at twenty.)
</blockquote>
Much of the drama surrounding the legend of his death has been attributed more to one source than any other - [[Eric Temple Bell]]'s ''[[Men of Mathematics]]''.
Galois' mathematical contributions were finally fully published in [[1843]] when [[Joseph Liouville|Liouville]] reviewed his manuscript and declared that he had indeed solved the problem first proposed and also solved by [[Niels Henrik Abel|Abel]].
The manuscript was finally published in the October-November [[1846]] issue of the ''Journal des mathématiques pures et appliquées''.
==Reference==
*Laura Toti Rigatelli, ''Evariste Galois'', Birkhauser, 1996, ISBN:3764354100. This biography challenges the common myth concerning Galois' duel and death.
==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Galois}}
*[http://www.galois-group.net The Galois Archive] (biography, letters and texts in various languages)
*[http://godel.ph.utexas.edu/~tonyr/galois.html Genius and Biographers: The Fictionalization of Evariste Galois] by Tony Rothman
*[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/frederic.gales/Laviedegalois.htm Biography in French]
*[http://www.galois-group.net/dupuy/index.php La vie d'Évariste Galois by Paul Dupuy] The first and still one of the most extensive biographies, referred to by every other serious biographer of Galois
[[Category:1811 births|Galois, Évariste]]
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<title>Essayists</title>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Essayist]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Essayist]]</text>
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<title>Electronic music/Art music</title>
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<comment>moved to "Electronic_art_music"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronic_art_music]]
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<page>
<title>Ennius</title>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Quintus Ennius''' ([[239 BC|239]] - [[169 BC]]) was a writer during the period of the [[Roman Republic]], and is oft |
ox|title=Host of ''[[Late Night]]''|before=''(none)''|after=[[Conan O'Brien]]|years=1982–1993}}
{{incumbent succession box|title=Host of ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman|The Late Show]]''|before=''(none)''| start=1993| }}
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[[Category:1947 births|Letterman, David]]
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<page>
<title>Delroy Lindo</title>
<id>8341</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-24T20:48:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.102.180.235</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Selected filmography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:lindo.jpg|thumb|Delroy Lindo]]
'''Delroy Lindo''' (born [[November 18]], [[1952]], Eltham, [[London]], [[England]], [[UK]]) is a British born, American actor.
The son of [[Jamaica]]n immigrant parents, Lindo was born and raised in Lewisham, England, where at age 5 on the strength of the [[nativity]] plays he appeared in became a stage actor. As a teenager he and his mother moved to [[Toronto]], [[Canada]] and by the [[1970s]] they had moved to the U.S. where Lindo would graduate from the American Conservatory Theater in [[San Francisco]]. His movie debut came in [[1976]] with the British comedy ''Find the Lady'', followed by two other roles in films such as that of an Army sergeant in ''More American Graffiti'' ([[1979]]) when he quit acting for 10 years to concentrate on theatre production. In [[1982]], he debuted on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in ''Master Harold and the Boys'' directed by the play's author [[Athol Fugard]] and by [[1988]], Lindo earned a [[Tony Award|Tony]] nomination for his portrayal of Harald Loomis in Joe Turner's ''Come and Gone''.
It was director [[Spike Lee]] who provided the boost Lindo's career needed, even though he had turned down a role in ''[[Do the Right Thing]]'' to act alongside [[Rutger Hauer]] and [[Joan Chen]] in the cult sci-fi movie ''[[The Blood of Heroes|Salute of the Jugger]]'' ([[1990]]), and cast him as Woody Carmichael in the comedy ''Crooklyn'' ([[1994]]). Among the films he has starred in have been [[Barry Sonnenfeld]]'s ''[[Get Shorty]]'', ''Clockers'', ''Feeling Minnesota'', and as the baseball player [[Satchel Paige]] in ''Soul of the Game'' ([[1996]]). Much of the character actor's work alternates between playing treacherous bad guys or trustworthy professionals. He continues to work on screen, most recently in ''[[Wondrous Oblivion]]'' ([[2003]]).
==Selected filmography==
* ''Find the Lady'' (1976)
* ''More American Graffiti'' (1979)
* ''Salute of the Jugger'' (1990)
* ''[[Malcolm X (film)|Malcolm X]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Bound by Honor]] (Blood in Blood Out)'' (1993)
* ''[[Crooklyn]]'' (1994)
* ''[[Congo]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Get Shorty]]'' (1996)
* ''Soul of the Game'' (1996)
* ''A Life Less Ordinary'' (1997)
* ''[[The Cider House Rules (film)]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Gone in Sixty Seconds (2000 film)|Gone in Sixty Seconds]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Romeo Must Die]]'' (2000)
* ''[[The One (film)|The One]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Heist]]'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[The Core]]'' (2003)
* ''Wondrous Oblivion'' (2003)
* ''[[Domino]]'' (2005)
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0005148|name=Delroy Lindo}}
[[Category:1952 births|Lindo, Delroy]]
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<page>
<title>David Janssen</title>
<id>8343</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Correction of place of death. Source: Internet Movie Database</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:David-janssen-1.jpg|thumb|David Janssen, 1960]]
'''David Harold Meyer''' ([[March 27]], [[1931]] – [[February 13]], [[1980]]), better known as '''David Janssen''', was an [[United States|American]] [[film]] and [[television]] [[actor]] who is best-known for his role as Dr. [[Richard Kimble]] in the television series ''[[The Fugitive (TV series)|The Fugitive]]'' (ABC,1963-1967). He also starred in the TV series ''[[Richard Diamond, Private Detective]]'', ''[[O'Hara, U.S. Treasury]]'', and ''[[Harry-O]]'' and in a number of films including [[John Wayne]]'s ''[[The Green Berets (film)|The Green Berets]]''. A smoker and a heavy drinker, plus a constant worker, Janssen died of a sudden [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of 48 in [[Malibu, California.]] (See [[Lifestyle diseases]].) He was interred in the [[Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Culver City, California]].
==External links==
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1672 David Janssen on Find-A-Grave]
==Selected films and television programs==
*''[[The Fugitive (TV series)|The Fugitive]]'' (1963-1967)
*''[[Warning Shot]]'' (1967)
*''[[The Green Berets (film)|The Green Berets]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]])
*''[[Marooned (film)|Marrooned]]'' ([[1969 in film|1969]])
*''Moon of the Wolf'' (1973)
*''The Prisoner in the Middle'' (1976)
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<page>
<title>Docetism</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Christianity]], '''Docetism''' is the belief, regarded by most theologians as [[heresy|heretical]], that [[Jesus]] did not have a physical body; rather, that his body was an illusion, as was his [[crucifixion]].
This belief is most commonly attributed to the [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]], who believed that matter was evil, and hence that [[God]] would not take on a material body. This sort of statement, however, is rooted in the idea that a divine spark is imprisoned within the material body and that the material body is in itself an obstacle, deliberately created by an evil lesser god (the [[demiurge]]) for this purpose, that prevents man from seeing his divine origin. Humanity is, in essence, asleep.
Docetism could be further explained as the view that, because the human body is temporary and the spirit is eternal, the body of Jesus therefore must have been an illusion and his crucifixion as well. It could be compared to how a [[Buddhist]] speaks about illusion: illusion is everything that is temporary, not everything that is not real. Even so, saying that the human body is temporary has a tendency to undercut the importance of the belief in resurrection of the dead and the goodness of created matter, and is in opposition to this orthodox view.
Docetism was rejected by the [[ecumenical council]]s and mainstream Christianity, and largely died out during the [[1000s|first millennium]] A.D. [[Catharism]], and other surviving gnostic movements, incorporated docetism into their beliefs, but the movement was destroyed by the [[Genocides in history|genocide]] of the [[Albigensian Crusade]].
[[Islam]] also teaches that Jesus's [[Isa#Isa neither crucified nor killed|crucifixion was an illusion]] ("… They did not kill him and they did not crucify him, but it was made to seem so to them..." (Qur'an, 4:157)).
== See also ==
*[[Christology]]
*[[Avatar]]
[[Category:Christian mysticism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Gnosticism]]
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<page>
<title>Greek drachma</title>
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<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Drachma''', pl. ''Drachmas'' or ''Drachmae'' (&#948;&#961;&#945;&#967;&#956;&#942;, pl. &#948;&#961;&#945;&#967;&#956;&#941;&#962;) is the name of both:
#An ancient currency unit found in many Greek city states and [[successor state]]s, and in many [[middle east|middle-eastern]] kingdoms of the [[Hellenistic]] era.
#A modern Greek [[currency]], introduced in [[1832]], and replaced by the [[euro]] in [[2001]] (at the rate of 340.750 drachma to the euro). Euro currency did not begin circulating until [[2002]], but the exchange rate was fixed in 2001.
== Ancient Drachma ==
The name Drachma is derived from the verb "&#948;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#964;&#969;" (dratto, to grasp). Initially a drachma was a fistful (a "grasp") of 6 [[obolus|oboloi]], sticks of metal used as currency as early as 1100BC.
[[Image:Tetradrachma från Aten (omkr 490 fKr, ur Nordisk familjebok).png|thumb|Tetradra |
ristian art. After that, he moved to a tomb, where he resided and closed the door on himself, depending on some local villagers who brought him food. When the devil perceived his ascetic life and his intense worship, he was envious and beat him mercilessly, leaving him unconscious. When his friends from the local village came to visit him and found him in this condition, they carried him to a church.
After he recovered, he made a second effort and went back to the desert, further out, to a mountain by the Nile, called Pispir, now [[Der el Memun]], opposite [[Arsinoe, Egypt|Arsinoë in the Fayyum]]. Here he lived strictly enclosed in an old abandoned Roman fort for some twenty years. According to Athanasius, the devil again resumed his war against Saint Anthony, only this time the phantoms were in the form of wild beasts, wolves, lions, snakes and scorpions. They appeared as if they were about to attack him or cut him into pieces. But the Saint would laugh at them scornfully and say, "If any of you have any authority over me, only one would have been sufficient to fight me." At his saying this, they disappeared as though in smoke, and God gave him the victory over the devils. While in the fort he only communicated with the outside world by a crevice through which food would be passed and he would say a few words. Saint Anthony would prepare a quantity of bread that would sustain him for six months. He did not allow anyone to enter his cell: whoever came to him, stood outside and listened to his advice.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Anthonytheabbot.jpg|frame|left|Anthony the Abbot]] -->
The one day he emerged from the fort with the help of villagers to break down the door. By this time most had expected him to have wasted away, or gone insane in his solitary confinement, but he emerged healthy, serene, and enlightened. Everyone was amazed he had been through these trials and emerged spiritually rejuvenated. He was hailed as a hero and from this time forth the legend of Anthony began to spread and grow.
The backstory of one of the surviving epistles, directed to [[Constantine the Great]] recounts how the fame of Saint Anthony spread abroad and reached Emperor Constantine. The Emperor wrote to him, offering him praise and asked him to pray for him. The brethren were pleased with the Emperor's letter, but Anthony did not pay any attention to it, and he said to them, "The books of God, the King of Kings and the Lord of Lords, commands us everyday, but we do not heed what they tell us, and we turn our backs on them." Under the persistence of the brethren who told him, "[[Emperor Constantine]] loves the church," he accepted to write him a letter blessing him, and praying for the peace and safety of the empire and the church.
Then he went to the [[Al Fayyum|Fayyum]] and confirmed the brethren there in the [[Christianity|Christian]] faith, then returned to his old Roman fort. Anthony wished to become a [[martyr]] and went to [[Alexandria]]. He visited those who were imprisoned for the sake of [[Christ]] and comforted them. When the Governor saw that he was confessing his [[Christianity]] publicly, not caring what might happen to him, he ordered him not to show up in the city. However, the Saint did not heed his threats. He faced him and argued with him in order that he might arouse his anger so that he might be tortured and [[martyr|martyred]], but it did not happen.
Then he went back to the old Roman fort and many came to visit him and to hear his teachings. He saw that these visits kept him away from his worship. As a result, he went further into the [[Eastern Desert]] of Egypt. He travelled to the inner wilderness for three days, until he found a spring of water and some palm trees, and then he chose to settle there. On this spot now stands the monastery of Saint Anthony the Great (see below). On occasions, he would go to the monastery on the outskirts of the desert by the [[Nile]] to visit the brethren, then return to his inner [[monastery]].
According to Athanasius, Saint Anthony heard a voice telling him, "Go out and see." He went out and saw an angel who wore a girdle with a cross, one resembling the holy Eskiem ([[Tonsure]] or [[Schema]]), and on his head was a head cover (Kolansowa). He was sitting while braiding palm leaves, then he stood up to pray, and again he sat to weave. A voice came to him saying, "Anthony, do this and you will rest." Henceforth, he started to wear this tunic that he saw, and began to weave palm leaves, and never got bored again. Saint Anthony prophesied about the persecution that was about to happen to the church and the control of the heretics over it, the church victory and its return to its formal glory, and the end of the age. When [[Saint Macarius]] visited Saint Anthony, Saint Anthony clothed him with the monk's garb, and foretold him what would be of him. When the day drew near of the departure of Saint [[Paul the First Hermit]] in the desert, Saint Anthony went to him and buried him, after clothing him in a tunic which was a present from [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St Athanasius the Apostolic]], the 20th [[List of Patriarchs of Alexandria|Pope of Alexandria]].
When Saint Anthony felt that the day of his departure had approached, he commanded his disciples to give his staff to Saint Macarius, and to give one sheepskin cloak to [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Saint Athanasius]] and the other sheepskin cloak to [[Saint Serapion]], his disciple. He further instructed his disciples to bury his body in an unmarked, secret [[grave]], lest his body become an object of [[veneration]]. He stretched himself on the ground and gave up his spirit. Saint Anthony the Great lived for 105 years and departed on the year 356. Probably he spoke only his native language, [[Coptic language|Coptic]], but his sayings were spread in a [[Greek language|Greek]] translation. He himself left no writings. His biography was written by [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Saint Athanasius the Apostolic]] and titled ''Life of Saint Anthony the Great''. Many stories are also told about him in various collections of sayings of the [[Desert Fathers]].
Some of the stories included in Saint Anthony's biography are perpetuated now mostly in paintings, where they give an opportunity for artists to depict their more lurid or bizarre fantasies. Many pictorial artists, from [[Hieronymus Bosch]] to [[Salvador Dalí]], have depicted these incidents from the life of Anthony; in prose, the tale was retold and embellished by [[Gustave Flaubert]].
==Founder of monasticism==
Saint Anthony along with Paul the Hermit are seen as the founders of [[Christian monasticism]]. Paul is lauded by Anthony as the first monk and the monastery of Paul exists to this day in Egypt. Anthony himself provided the example that others would follow (see [[Saint Pachomius]]). Anthony did not himself organize or create a monastary, but they grew up around him based on his example of living an ascetic and isolated life that others wished to follow, and who needed the community and company of others to survive the harsh conditions.
==Monastery of St. Anthony the Great==
The fortress-like [[Coptic language|Coptic]] Monastery of St Anthony the Great, at Deir El-Kedees El-Anba Antonios stands at an oasis spring in the Red Sea Mountains, 155 km (100 miles) south west of Cairo. It was founded in the mid-4th century, perhaps in 356, on Anthony's burial site. The Coptic Orthodox monastery, presided over by an [[abbot]], is one of the oldest Christian monasteries in the world.
The first true monastery was founded by [[Pachomius]] in about 320&ndash;325 at Tabennisi, Egypt. Historical texts mention the site, but until 2005 no archeological evidence had previously been found there, earlier than the sixth century. Then an earlier collection of monks' rooms with private living areas was uncovered, and a central communal room, where the archeological team found cooking implements [http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/08/09/egypt.monastery.reut/index.html].
==References==
*The Greek ''Vita'' of Athanasius.
*The almost contemporary Latin translation: in Heribert Rosweyd, ''Vitae Patrum'' ([[Migne]], ''Patrologia Latina''. lxxiii.)
*An English translation: in Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, editors ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Series II, vol. IV [ [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/vita-antony.html Full text on-line], with criticisms pro and con of the attribution of this ''vita'' to Athanasius.
*Accounts of St Anthony are given by [[Cardinal Newman]] ("Church of the Fathers" in ''Historical Sketches'') and [[Alban Butler]], ''Lives of the Saints'' (under Jan. 17).
* [http://www.copticchurch.net/classes/synex.php?sa=1&month=5&day=22&btn=View A Hagiographic Account of the life of St. Anthony from the Coptic Church]
===Historical and critical===
*E. C. Butler, (1898, 1904). ''Lausiac History of Palladius'', Part I. pp. 197, 215-228; Part II. pp. ix.-xii. (See [[Palladius]]).
*S. Rubenson, 1995. ''The Letters of St. Antony : monasticism and the making of a saint'' (Minneapolis) An analysis of the letters, including authenticity and theological content.
* {{1911}}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01553d.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' 1908:] "St. Anthony the Great"
*[http://stanthony.i8.com/ Coptic Monastery of St Anthony the Great website]
===Texts attributed to St Anthony===
* [http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Antonyofthedesert_discourseondemons.html "Discourse on Demons"], translated by Rev. H. Ellershaw (on-line)
[[Category:251 births]]
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[[Category:Abbots|Ant |
by's similarly unmasked though non-superpowered DC Comics quartet the [[Challengers of the Unknown]].
The team of adventurers have used their fantastic abilities to protect humanity, the Earth and the universe from a number of threats. Propelled mainly by Richards' innate scientific curiosity, the team have explored space, the [[Negative Zone]], the [[Microverse]], other dimensions and nearly every hidden valley, nation and lost civilization on the planet.
They have had a number of headquarters, most notably the [[Baxter Building]] in New York City. The Baxter Building was replaced by Four Freedoms Plaza, built at the same location, after the Baxter Building's destruction at the hands of Kristoff Vernard, adopted son of the Fantastic Four's seminal villain (and rumored half-brother of Mr. Fantastic) [[Doctor Doom]]. Pier 4, a warehouse on the New York waterfront, served as a temporary headquarters for the group after Four Freedoms Plaza was condemned, due to the actions of another superhero team, the [[Thunderbolts (comics)|Thunderbolts]]. In the mid-2000s, an orbiting satellite version of the Baxter Building has been used.
[[Image:FF247.jpg|thumb|200px|left|''FF'' #247 (Oct. 1982): [[Doctor Doom]], by penciler-inker Byrne.]]
The comic has typically emphasized that the Fantastic Four, unlike most superhero teams, are truly a family. Three of the four members are directly related, with The Thing being the exception. Although not strictly related, The Thing's role is that of the beloved [[Dutch uncle]], and his relationship with Mister Fantastic and the Human Torch is nonetheless quite sibling-like. The children of Mister Fantastic and the Invisible Woman, [[Franklin Richards]] and [[Valeria Richards]], are also regulars in the series.
Unlike most superheroes, the Fantastic Four's identities are not secret and they maintain a high public profile, enjoying celebrity status for their scientific and heroic contributions to society. Recent issues have revealed that this is a deliberate move by Reed Richards, who works to keep the team highly visible and well-regarded out of [[guilt]] for causing their [[mutations]].
* [[List of Fantastic Four members]]
==Solo features==
===The Human Torch===
Johnny Storm starred in a early Silver Age solo series beginning in ''[[Strange Tales]]'' #101 (Oct. 1962), in 12- to 14-page stories plotted by Lee and initially scripted by his brother, [[Larry Lieber]], and drawn by penciler Kirby and inker [[Dick Ayers]].
[[Image:Marvel2-in-1n.20.jpg|thumb|200px|''Marvel Two-In-One'' #20 (Oct. 1976), cover art by Kirby & [[Frank Giacoia]], with [[John Romita Sr.]] corrections. [[Golden Age of comic books|Golden Age]] heroes the [[Whizzer]], [[Miss America (Marvel Comics)|Miss America]], the [[Jeffrey Mace|Patriot]] and the [[Blue Diamond]] look on.]]
Here Johnny was seen living with his elder sister, Susan, in fictional [[Glenview]], [[Long Island]], [[New York]], where he continued to attend [[high school]] and, with youthful naivete, attempted to maintain his "secret identity". (Decades later, a [[retcon]] revealed that his friends and neighbors knew of his dual identity all along, from Fantastic Four news reports, but had humored him). Supporting characters included Johnny's girlfriend, Doris Evans, usually seen only in consternation as Johnny cheerfully flew off to battle bad guys. (She was seen again in a 1970s issue of ''Fantastic Four'', having become a heavyset but cheerful wife and mother.) Ayers took over the penciling after 10 issues, later followed by original [[Human Torch (Golden Age)|Golden Age Human Torch]] creator [[Carl Burgos]] and others. The FF made occasional cameo appearances, and the Thing became a co-star with #123 (Aug. 1964).
"The Human Torch" shared the "split book" ''Strange Tales'' with fellow feature "[[Doctor Strange]]" for the majority of its run, before finally flaming off with issue #134 (July 1965), replaced the following month by "[[Nick Fury|Nick Fury, Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D.]]".
===The Thing===
The "ever-lovin', blue-eyed Thing", as Ben Grimm sometimes refers to himself, appeared in the team-up title ''[[Marvel Two-in-One]]'', co-starring with Marvel heroes not only in the present day but occassionally in other time periods (fighting alongside the [[Liberty Legion]] in #20 and [[Doc Savage]] in #21, for example) and in [[Parallel universe|alternate realities]]. The series ran 100 issues (Jan. 1974 - June 1983), with seven summer annuals (1976–1982), and was immediately followed by the solo title ''The Thing'' #1-36 (July 1983 &ndash; June 1986).
Another ongoing solo series, also titled ''The Thing'', debuted with a premiere issue cover-dated January 2006. For a list including one-shots, miniseries, [[graphic novels]], and [[trade paperback]] collections, see [[Thing (comics)#Bibliography|Thing Bibliography]].
==Characters==
===Heroes===
* [[Mister Fantastic]] - Reed Richards
* [[Thing (comics)|The Thing]] - Benjamin Jacob "Ben" Grimm
* [[Invisible Woman]] (previously [[Invisible Woman|Invisible Girl]]) - Susan Richards (née Storm)
* [[Human Torch|The Human Torch]] - Jonathan Lowell Spencer "Johnny" Storm
===Temporary Replacement Members===
* [[H.E.R.B.I.E.]] - Humanoid Experimental Robot; replaced Human Torch in 1978 TV series
* [[Medusa (comics)|Medusa]] - An Inhuman; filled-in when the Invisible Girl separated from Mr. Fantastic due to marital problems
* [[Crystal (comics)|Crystal]] - An Inhuman and Johnny Storm's girlfriend at the time; left due to pollution allergies
* [[Luke Cage]] - Power Man - Replacement during the Thing's brief absence
* [[Nova (comics)|Nova]] - Mutant Frankie Raye; later became herald to Galactus
* [[She-Hulk]] - Jennifer Walters, first cousin of Bruce Banner, the [[Hulk (comics)|Hulk]]; replacement for the Thing
* [[She-Thing|Ms. Marvel]] - Former pro. wrestler Sharon Ventura; gained powers and appearance similar to the Thing's
* [[Lyja]] - An undercover Skrull whom Johnny Storm married, believing her to be Alicia Masters
* [[Ant-Man (Scott Lang)|Ant Man II]] - Scott Lang, reformed thief utilizing [[Henry Pym]]'s shrinking particles; briefly hired when Reed Richards/Mr. Fantastic was missing and presumed dead
* Kristoff - [[Doctor Doom]]'s protege, mind-conditioned to behave as Doom. Attracted to Ant Man's daughter, joined team in last issues of series I
* [[Hulk (comics)#Grey Hulk .28.22Joe Fixit.22.29|The Hulk]], [[Spider-Man]], [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]] and [[Ghost Rider#Daniel Ketch|Ghost Rider]] have together served as a complete replacement-Fantastic Four on occasion. In the main Marvel Universe, they stepped in to temporarily replace the team when the Four had been kidnapped by an enemy, while in the Ages of Apocalypse timeline, they remained in the roles more permanently.
===Allies/Supporting Characters===
[[Franklin Richards]](son)
[[Valeria Richards]] (daughter)
* [[Alicia Masters]]
* The [[Inhumans]]
** [[Black Bolt]]
** [[Crystal (comics)|Crystal]] (former FF member)
** [[Medusa (comics)|Medusa]] (former FF member)
** Gorgon
** [[Karnak (comics)|Karnak]]
** Triton
** [[Lockjaw (comics)|Lockjaw]]
* [[Namor the Sub-Mariner]]
* [[Silver Surfer]]
* [[Uatu|The Watcher]]
* Postal worker [[Willie Lumpkin]]
* [[Wyatt Wingfoot]]
===Antagonists===
* [[Air-Walker]]
* [[Annihilus]]
* [[Blastaar]]
* Devos (The Destroyer)
* [[Diablo (comics)|Diablo]]
* [[Doctor Doom]]
* [[Dragon Man]]
* [[Frightful Four]]
* [[Galactus]]
* [[Hydro-Man]]
* [[Impossible Man]]
* [[Kang the Conqueror]]/[[Rama-Tut]]/[[Immortus]]
* [[Klaw]]
* [[Mad Thinker]]
* [[Mephisto (comics)|Mephisto]]
* [[Mole Man]]
* [[Molecule Man]]
* [[Overmind]]
* [[Puppet Master (comics)|Puppet Master]]
* [[Ronan the Accuser]]
* [[Red Ghost]]
* [[Skrulls]]
* [[Super-Skrull]]
* [[Thanos]]
* [[Terrax]]
* [[The Sandman (Marvel Comics)|The Sandman]]
* [[Thundra]]
* [[Trapster]]
* [[Wizard (Marvel Comics)|Wizard]]
==Comic book within a comic book==
[[Image:FF10.jpg|thumb|''Fantastic Four'' #10 (Jan. 1963). Check out Stan and Jack. Cover art by Kirby & Ayers]]
Issue #10 (Jan. 1963) established the conceit that the Fantastic Four (and by extension the rest of the Marvel universe) existed in the same world as Marvel Comics; the team-members, it was explained, had licensed their names and likenesses to the company, and the rights to adapt their "real-life" adventures. In this issue, Doctor Doom himself came to Marvel's [[Madison Avenue]] offices. Sharp-eyed fans would later note that this "real-world" Marvel was even more fictional than it seemed: Not only was penciler Jack Kirby working at a drawing table there, rather than at home per his wont, but the office door was labeled "Lee and Kirby" — suggesting the kind of comradely partnership fans wanted and expected.
The following issue reinforced this notion of "real-world superheroes" by having the Fantastic Four, in civilian clothes, stroll to a newstand hoping to pick up the latest comic book. This was in "A Visit with the Fantastic Four", the first of two stories in issue #11 (Feb. 1963).
The second story marked the introduction of the impish [[Impossible Man]], who starred in writer [[Roy Thomas]]' self-referential update in ''Fantastic Four'' #176 (Nov. 1976), "Improbable As It May Seem — The Impossible Man Is Back In Town!" Here he invaded the Marvel offices demanding to have his own comic. Lee, Kirby, writer Thomas, issue artists [[George Perez]] and [[Joe Sinnott]], and Marvel staffers [[Gerry Conway]], [[Archie Goodwin]], [[Marie Severin]], [[Marv Wolfman]], and [[John Verpoorten]] all made cameo appearances.
This conceit was again used in #262 (Jan. 1984), which depicted writer-artist [[John Byrne]] being asked by editor [[Michael Higgins]] for the latest issue, since it was almost late. Byrne explained he had been unable to contact the |
dzki (Atlantyk)]]
[[ru:Бермудский треугольник]]
[[fi:Bermudan kolmio]]
[[sv:Bermudatriangeln]]
[[uk:Бермудський трикутник]]
[[zh:百慕大三角]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Basso continuo</title>
<id>4855</id>
<revision>
<id>19008744</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-17T09:59:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kooky</username>
<id>334318</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>point to basso continuo subsection of [[figured bass]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Figured bass#Basso_continuo]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Borough</title>
<id>4856</id>
<revision>
<id>41828808</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:34:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dale Arnett</username>
<id>25667</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Alaska */ Link fixes.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''borough''' is a [[local government]] [[subnational entity|administrative subdivision]] used in the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province]] of [[Quebec]], in some [[U.S. state|states]] of the [[United States]], and formerly in [[New Zealand]]. In the [[United Kingdom]], boroughs are also to be found in [[England]] and [[Northern Ireland]].
As a suffix, -'''borough''' (or -'''brough''') appears in the name of a number of [[towns]] and [[city|cities]] in [[England]]; in the [[South of England]] it is usually found in the form -'''bury'''. The suffix -'''bury''' is also to be found in the [[New England]] region of the United States, whilst -'''burg''' (or -''[[burgh]]'') is more common in [[Scotland]] and the [[American South]] and [[American West|West]].
==Pronunciation==
In many parts of England, "borough" is pronounced as {{IPA2|b&#652;&#633;&#601;}} {{Audio2|en-borough.ogg}} as an independent word, and as {{IPA|/b&#633;&#601;/}} when forming a suffixal part of a place-name. As a suffix, "-brough" is usually pronounced {{IPA|/br&#601;/}}.
In the United States, "borough" is pronounced as {{IPA|/&#712;b&#605;o&#650;/}} (or as {{IPA|/&#712;b&#652;&#635;o&#650;/}} in some areas, notably [[New York City]]). When appearing as the suffix "-burg(h)" in place-names, it's pronounced as {{IPA|[b&#605;g]}}.
==Present-day boroughs==
===Canada===
In [[Quebec]], the term '''borough''' is used as the formal translation into [[English language|English]] of the [[French language|French]] '''''[[arrondissement]]''''', an administrative subdivision of a major city.
===United Kingdom===
In the [[United Kingdom]], the name "borough" is applied to various different types of local government district. There are 32 [[London borough]]s, which together with the [[City of London]] make up the [[Greater London]] area. One of the boroughs is formally known as the [[City of Westminster]].
Elsewhere in [[England]], as well as in [[Northern Ireland]], a number of [[districts of England|district]] and [[unitary authority]] councils have borough status. This status, which originally denoted towns with a certain type of local government (a [[municipal corporation]]), is nowadays just a formal style which the area is entitled to use, and entitles it to a [[mayors in the United Kingdom|mayor]]. Districts may apply to the [[British Monarchy|The Crown]] for the grant of borough status upon advice of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]]. [[City status in the United Kingdom|City status]] is seen as the next step, although it has never conferred any greater power.
The [[metropolitan county]] areas of England are divided into [[metropolitan borough]]s (or metropolitan districts), all of which have borough or city status. Several unitary authorities in [[Wales]] are considered to be [[county borough]]s, although this also does not indicate any special or differing powers.
For [[Scotland|Scottish]] usage of a cognate term, see [[burgh]].
===The United States===
In some [[U.S state|states]] of the U.S., such as [[Pennsylvania]] and [[New Jersey]], a self-governing city or town is called a '''borough'''. In [[Connecticut]] a borough is separately incorporated portion of a [[Town#The_United_States|town]] with limited self-government, similar to a [[Village#Incorporated_villages|village]] in [[Michigan]] or [[Wisconsin]]. In some states, boroughs may be grouped together under a governing [[civil township|town or township]]. In yet other places "borough" is simply the designation of the municipality, comparable to "town" or "village."
The [[New York City|City of New York]] is made up of [[five boroughs]], each of which is coterminous with a [[county]] of the [[New York|State of New York]]. The boroughs are:
*[[The Bronx]] (Bronx County)
*[[Brooklyn]] (Kings County)
*[[Manhattan]] (New York County)
*[[Queens]] (Queens County)
*[[Staten Island]] (Richmond County)
These boroughs are almost identical in structure and government to the '''Bezirke/Boroughs''' found in [[Berlin]], Germany.
====Alaska====
{|
|''See:''||''[[List of Alaska boroughs and census areas]]''
|}
Boroughs are the [[Alaska|Alaskan]] counterpart to counties in other states; they have varying degrees of autonomy and devolved power. Each borough has a [[borough seat]], which serves a purpose similar to a [[county seat]] in other states. The [[Anchorage, Alaska|Municipality of Anchorage]] is a consolidated city-borough, despite not having the word "borough" in its name. [[Sitka City and Borough, Alaska|Sitka]], [[Juneau City and Borough, Alaska|Juneau]], [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]] and [[Yakutat City and Borough, Alaska|Yakutat]] are also consolidated city-boroughs.
However, unlike the other states, most of the land area of the state is not under any local government. This vast area, larger than [[France]] and [[Germany]] combined, is referred to by the state as the ''[[Unorganized Borough]]''. Starting with the [[1970]] [[census]], the [[United States Census Bureau]] divided the Unorganized Borough into [[census area|census areas]] for statistical purposes. Upon statehood in 1959, Alaska consisted of one vast unorganized borough and over the ensuing years the existing boroughs were carved out of it. The framers of Alaska's constitution adopted its borough model to avoid perceived problems with local government in the [[Lower 48]] and envisioned several unorganized boroughs as mechanisms for the state to regionalize services in the [[Alaskan Bush]], but this never materialized; some parts of the Bush are now included in boroughs but most of it is still unorganized.
==Historical boroughs==
In its original Anglo-Saxon connection with its modern meaning, a borough was a number of households or an extended household, surrounded by a defensive wall. This might have been a stockade or a walled town. In place-names therefore, it can refer to the walled enclosure of a lord's hall or to a walled town. When the [[Five Burghs]] of the [[Danelaw]] were given that name, this was people's view of them. By the late medieval period, a charter from the king and a civic organization became more significant in defining a borough than the wall was.
===England===
====Municipal boroughs====
In England, boroughs developed as a method of providing a corporate identity for a town, particularly in relation to rights obtained from local barons or from the English Crown. The formal status of borough came to be conferred by [[Royal Charter]].
These boroughs were generally governed by a self-selecting corporation (i.e., when a member died or resigned his replacement would be by [[co-option]]). Sometimes boroughs were governed by [[bailiffs]] or headboroughs.
Debates on the Reform Bill (eventually the Reform Act 1832) had highlighted the variations in systems of governance of towns, and a [[Royal Commission]] was set up to investigate the issue. This resulted, in a regularisation of municipal government [[Municipal Corporations Act 1835| in 1835]], with all municipal corporations to be elected according to a standard franchise, based on property ownership. At the same time, a procedure was established whereby a town could [[petition]] Parliament to be given borough status. The 178 reformed boroughs, and those that followed them, became known as [[municipal boroughs]]. A number of [[Unreformed boroughs in England and Wales 1835 - 1886 | unreformed boroughs]] remained after 1835, these being finally abolished in [[1886]].
The reform of county government [[Local Government Act 1888|in 1888]] established the '''[[county borough]]''', a city or town that had a corporation as any other borough, but with additional powers equivalent to those of a [[county council]].
As part of a large-scale reform of local government in England [[Local Government Act 1972|in 1974]], both county boroughs and municipal boroughs were abolished. However, the civic traditions of many boroughs were continued by the grant of a [[Royal Charter | charter]] to their successor district councils. In smaller boroughs, a [[Parish council | town council]] was formed for the area of the abolished borough, while [[Charter trustees | charter trustees]] were formed in other former boroughs. In each case, the new body was allowed to use the regalia of the old corporation, and appoint ceremonial office holders such as sword and mace bearers as provided in their original charters. The council or trustees may apply for an [[Order in Council]] or [[Royal Licence]] to use the former borough [[coat of arms]].
====Parliamentary boroughs====
From [[1265]], two burgesses from each borough were summoned to the [[Parliament of England]], alongside two [[knights]] from each [[county]]. Representation in the [[House of Commons]] was decided by the House itself, which resulted in many cases of a borou |
gt;
<td style="text-align:right;">2.95</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">285</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Near ultraviolet</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">300</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">10.0</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">3.33</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">4.15</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">400</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Far ultraviolet</td>
<td style="text-align:right;"><200</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">>15.0</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">>5.00</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">>6.20</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">>598</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<!--no empty line here-->
[[Electromagnetic radiation]] is characterized by its [[wavelength]] (or [[frequency]]) and the intensity or number of [[photons]] at each different wavelength. When this radiation has a wavelength inside the human visibility range (approximately from 380 [[nanometre|nm]] to 740 nm), it is known as "visible light" or ''light within the (human) [[visible spectrum]]''. A ''spectrum'' is a plot that records the intensity at each wavelength. The full spectrum (or distribution of color intensities) of the incoming radiation from an object determines the visual appearance of that object, including its perceived color. As we will see, there are many more possible spectral combinations than color sensations; in fact one may formally define a color to be the whole class of spectra which give rise to the same color sensation, although any such definition would vary widely among different species and also somewhat among individuals intraspecifically.
When light is incident on a surface it can either reflect, absorb or scatter. Smooth surfaces reflect and rough surfaces cause diffuse [[scattering]]. A surface that diffusely [[Reflection (physics)|reflects]] all wavelengths equally is perceived as [[white]], while a surface that absorbs all wavelengths equally is perceived as [[black]]. Reflection can be diffuse or specular (like a [[mirror]]) and a proper mirror also reflects all wavelengths equally, but is not perceived as white because it is smooth. Similarly, a black object can reflect (be shiny) because of a smooth finish.
The familiar colors of the [[rainbow]] in the [[Optical spectrum|spectrum]]&mdash;named from the [[Latin]] word for ''appearance'' or ''apparition'' by [[Isaac Newton]] in [[1671]]&mdash;contains all those colors that consist of visible light of a single wavelength only, the ''pure spectral'' or ''monochromatic'' colors.
The frequencies are approximations and given in [[hertz|terahertz]] (THz). The wavelengths, valid in [[vacuum]], are given in [[nanometre|nanometers]] (nm). A list of [[1 E-7 m|other objects of similar size]] is available.
===Important note===
The color table should not be interpreted as a definite list &ndash; the pure spectral colors form a continuous spectrum, and how it is divided into distinct colors is a matter of taste and culture.
Similarly, the ''intensity'' of a spectral color may alter its perception considerably; for example, a low-intensity orange-yellow is [[brown]], and a low-intensity yellow-green is olive-green.
=== Spectral versus non-spectral colors ===
Most light sources are not pure spectral sources; rather they are created from mixtures of various wavelengths and intensities of light. To the human eye, however, there is a wide class of mixed-spectrum light that is perceived the same as a pure spectral color. In the table above, for instance, when your [[computer]] screen is displaying the "orange" patch, it is ''not'' emitting pure light at a fixed wavelength of around 600 nm (which is something most computer screens are unable to do). Rather, it is emitting a mixture of about two parts red to one part green light. Were you to print this page on a color printer, the orange patch on the paper, when lit with white light, would reflect yet another, more continuous spectrum. We cannot see those differences (although many animals can), and the reason has to do with the pigments that make up our color vision cells (see below).
A useful quantification of this property is the [[dominant wavelength]], which matches a wavelength of spectral light to a non-spectral source that evokes the same color perception. Dominant wavelength is the formal background for the popular concept of [[hue]].
In addition to the many light sources that can appear to be pure spectral colors but are actually mixtures, there are many color perceptions that by definition cannot be pure spectral colors due to desaturation or because they are purples (which are a mixture of red and violet light, from either end of the spectrum). Some examples of necessarily non-spectral colors are the achromatic colors (black, gray and white) and other colors such as [[pink]], tan and [[magenta]].
See [[metamerism (color)]] for a basic introduction as to why color matching challenges exist.
=== Physical basis of color ===
A light wave can be [[Fourier transform|analyzed]] as a superposition of sine waves, each of which has a specific frequency and wavelength. The eye gives limited information about the relative intensities of these sine waves (but not their phases — the eye is even more blind to phase than the ear, which can detect phase relationships of sounds only in certain very specific contexts). To understand which particular color perception will arise from a particular physical spectrum requires knowledge of the physiology of the retina. The human eye is also insensitive to [[polarization]] in most cases (though see [[Haidinger's brush]]), whereas some fish and [[mollusks]] can perceive it.
== Color vision ==
{{main|Color vision}}
Though the exact status of color is certainly a matter of current philosophical dispute, color is arguably a [[psychophysical]] phenomenon that exists only in our minds. (See [[Qualia]], for some of that dispute.) A "red" apple does not give off "red light", and it is misleading to think of things that we see, or of light itself, as objectively colored at all. Rather, the apple simply absorbs light of various wavelengths shining on it to different degrees, in such a way that the unabsorbed light which it reflects is perceived as red. An apple is ''perceived'' to be red only because normal human [[color vision]] perceives light with different mixes of wavelengths differently&mdash;and we have [[language]] to describe that difference. [[Image:psychophysical.png|left|thumb]] In 1931, an international group of experts called the Commission Internationale d'Eclairage ([[International Commission on Illumination|CIE]]) developed a mathematical color model. The premise used by the CIE is that color is the combination of three things: a light source, an object, and an observer. The CIE tightly controlled each of these variables in an experiment that produced the measurements for the system.
Although [[Aristotle]] and other ancient scientists speculated on the nature of [[light]] and [[color vision]], it was not until [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] that light was correctly identified as the source of the color sensation. [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] studied the theory of colors, and in 1801 [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]] proposed his trichromatic theory which was later refined by [[Hermann von Helmholtz]]. That theory was confirmed in the 1960s and will be described below.
[[Image:Cone-response.png|thumb|300px|right|Normalized typical human cone responses (and the rod response) to monochromatic spectral stimuli]]
The [[retina]] of the human eye contains three different types of color receptor cells, or [[cone cell|cones]]. One type, relatively distinct from the other two, is most responsive to light that we perceive as violet, with wavelengths around 420 [[nm]] (cones of this type are sometimes called ''short-wavelength cones'', ''S cones'', or, most commonly but quite misleadingly, ''blue cones'').
The other two types are closely related genetically, chemically and in response. Each type is most responsive to light that we perceive as green or greenish. One of these types (sometimes called ''long-wavelength cones'', ''L cones'', or, misleadingly, ''red cones'') is most sensitive to light we perceive as yellowish-green, with wavelengths around 564 nm; the other type (sometimes called ''middle-wavelength cones'', ''M cones'', or misleadingly ''green cones'') is most sensitive to light perceived as green, with wavelengths around 534 nm. The term "red cones" for the long-wavelength cones is deprecated as this type is actually maximally responsive to light we perceive as greenish, albeit longer wavelength light than that which maximally excites the mid-wavelength/"green" cones.
The sensitivity curves of the cones are roughly bell-shaped, and overlap considerably. The incoming signal spectrum is thus reduced by the eye to three values, sometimes called ''tristimulus values'', representing the intensity of the response of each of the cone types.
Because of the overlap between the sensitivity ranges, some combinations of responses in the three types of cone are impossible no matter what light stimulation is used. For example, it is not possible to stimulate ''only'' the mid-wavelength/"green" cones: the other cones must be stimulated to some degree at the same time, even if light of some single wavelength is used (including that to which the target cones are maximally sensitive). The set of all possible tristimulus values determines the human ''color space''. It has been estimated that humans can distinguish roughly 10 million different col |
ising ==
[[Image:MacIntroBrochurePage1.jpg|thumb|250px|Page 1 of the 1984 "Macintosh Introduction" brochure published in ''[[Newsweek]]'' magazine.]]Ever since the introduction of the Macintosh in 1984 with the [[1984 (television commercial)|1984 commercial]], Apple has been recognized for its efforts towards effective advertising and marketing for the Macintosh. A "Macintosh Introduction" 20-page brochure was included with various magazines in December 1983, often remembered because Bill Gates was featured on page 15.<ref>[http://www.digibarn.com/collections/ads/apple-mac/index.htm DigiBarn Ads: Original Apple Macintosh 18 Page Brochure (Dec 1983)], retrieved [[November 26]], [[2005]]</ref> For a special post-election edition of ''[[Newsweek]]'' in November 1984, Apple spent more than US $2.5 million to buy all of the advertising pages in the issue (a total of 39).<ref>[http://www.guidebookgallery.org/ads/magazines/macos/macos10-newsweek GUIdebook: Macintosh ads], retrieved [[November 26]], [[2005]] and http://www.macmothership.com/gallery/gallerytextindex.html, retrieved [[December 9]] [[2005]]</ref> Apple also ran a "Test Drive a Macintosh" promotion that year, in which potential buyers with a credit card could trial a Macintosh for 24 hours and return it to a dealer afterwards. It began to look like a success with 200,000 participants, and ''Advertising Age'' magazine named this one of the 10 best promotions of 1984. However, dealers disliked the promotion and supply of computers was insufficient for demand, and many computers were returned in such a bad shape that they could no longer be sold.
In 1985 the "Lemmings" commercial aired at the [[Super Bowl]]; Apple went as far as to create a newspaper advertisement stating "If you go to the bathroom during the fourth quarter, you'll be sorry." It was a large failure and did not capture nearly as much attention as the 1984 commercial did. Many more brochures for new models like the Macintosh Plus and the Performa followed. In the 1990s Apple started the "What's on your PowerBook?" campaign, with print ads and television commercials featuring persons describing how the PowerBook helps them in their businesses and everyday lives. These included [[Frances Lear]], [[Tama Janowitz]], [[Michael O'Brien]], [[Todd Rundgren]], [[Art Monk]], [[Martina Navrátilová]], [[Brian Durkin]], and [[Henry Rollins]]. In 1995 Apple responded to the introduction of Windows 95 with both several print ads and a television commercial demonstrating its disadvantages and lack of innovation. In 1997 the [[Think Different]] campaign introduced Apple's new slogan, and in 2002 the [[Apple Switch ad campaign|Switch campaign]] followed.
Today, Apple focuses much of its advertising efforts around heavily hyped "special events," and [[Stevenote|keynotes]] at conferences like the [[Apple Expo]] and the [[Macworld Conference & Expo|MacWorld Expo]]. The events typically draw a large gathering of media representatives and spectators. In the past, special events have been used to unveil the [[Power Mac G5]], the redesigned iMac, and many other Macintosh products.
== Effects on the technology industry ==
Apple has introduced a number of innovations in direct relation to the [[Macintosh 128K]] that were later adopted by the rest of industry as a standard for the design of computers. Possibly Apple's number-one effect on the industry was the first large-scale use of a graphical user interface in operating system software. Today, almost every mainstream operating system relies on a graphical user interface, and many operating systems still echo the design of the original Macintosh graphical user interface, such as the use of the "double click," "drag and drop," and the mouse used for them. The Macintosh 128K also introduced software which allowed [[WYSIWYG]] (what you see is what you get) text and graphics editing, alongside significant technical improvements such as long file names permitting [[Whitespace (computer science)|whitespace]] and not requiring a [[file extension]], [[floppy disk|3.5" floppy disk drives]] as a standard component, 8-bit mono [[Sound|audio]] including built-in speakers, and an output jack as a standard feature.
The Macintosh platform has introduced many innovations and ideas that had significant effects on the computer industry, especially in the area of communications standards. One of the first was the Macintosh Plus, which successfully introduced the SCSI interface in 1986. The Macintosh IIsi and the Macintosh LC introduced standard audio in and out ports in 1990&mdash;today these ports are standard on the large majority of computers. Beginning with the iMac in 1998, Apple made the Universal Serial Bus standard and introduced FireWire, a high-speed data transfer bus now popular in media-editing computers and almost all digital video cameras. Apple also innovated in the area of networking, with heavy marketing and early implementation of the existing wireless networking standard [[IEEE 802.11]]b ([[AirPort]]) in the Macintosh portable lines in 1999. Additionally, the Macintosh platform introduced many of the storage devices that are now standard: In 1992, the [[Macintosh IIvx]] was the first computer to feature the [[CD-ROM]] drive as a standard feature. The iMac, debuting in 1998, was one of the first computers to have no floppy disk drive; today, almost no new computers come with one. Finally, the [[Power Macintosh G4]] with its ''SuperDrive'' introduced the first relatively affordable [[DVD-R]] drive in 2001.
Apple has also contributed heavily to the field of mobile computing, and many features of their mobile computers have become the norm. The PowerBook 100, 140, and 170 set the ergonomic standard for the placement of the keyboard in 1991 by moving the keyboard behind a palm rest, rather than right at the bottom of the laptop. In 1991 the PowerBook 100 series featured the first built-in pointing device on a laptop: a trackball. The [[PowerBook Duo]] also introduced the idea of a dock/port replicator in 1992. One of the most important features ever added to the Macintosh PowerBook lineup was the first true [[touchpad]] as a pointing device on the PowerBook 500 in 1994; today, most laptops rely on it as their pointing device. More recently, the [[PowerBook G4]] became the first full-size laptop computer to feature a widescreen display, in 2003 it became the first laptop computer with a 17-inch display, and in 2004 it became the first laptop computer to provide dual-link DVI.
There is much speculation as to why so many Macintosh features have been adopted by competitors. And although they have a history of including some of the best technology available to the consumer market, Macs- and their components- are often much more expensive than Windows PCs; as such, one could argue that Macintoshes brought what was to become standard earlier at a higher cost, and it is certainly true that it costs far more to develop something than to copy it &mdash; both in terms of actual resources, and "man-hours." Another view is that competitors were forced to copy the Macintosh for reasons of competition and business, and whether such innovations were superior is irrelevant. Mac advocates argue that their products are simply better.
== Market share and demographics ==
Since the introduction of the Macintosh 128K in 1984, Apple has struggled to gain a significant share of the personal computer market. At first, the Macintosh lacked software, resulting in disappointing sales in 1985, when consumers realized that more software was available for the IBM PC. By 1985, only 500,000 Macs had been sold. Jobs had originally predicted that five million units would be sold within two years; sales eventually crossed the two million mark in 1988, and three years later, the installed base finally reached five million. By 1997, there were more than 20 million Mac users.<ref>[http://developer.apple.com/adcnews/pastissues/devnews121997.html#stats Apple Developer News December 19, 1997, No. 87]</ref> By late 2003, Apple had 2.06% of the desktop share in the United States, which had increased to 2.88% by Q4 2004.<ref>[[Jim Dalrymple]], [[Macworld]] ([[March 20]], 2005): [http://www.macworld.com/news/2005/03/20/marketshare/index.php ''Apple desktop market share on the rise; will the Mac mini, iPod help?'']</ref>
The actual [[installed base]] of Macintosh computers is extremely hard to determine, with numbers ranging from a conservative 3%<ref>[http://www.pegasus3d.com/osshare.html pegasus3d.com: Analysis of Google's zeitgeist reports]</ref> to an optimistic 16%.<ref>[[Slashdot]] (June 2005): [http://apple.slashdot.org/apple/05/06/05/0548225.shtml?tid=3 ''Mac Install-Base Shown to Be 16%'']</ref>
Market research indicates that Apple draws its customer base from an unusually artistic, creative, and well-educated population, which may explain the platform's visibility within certain youthful, avant-garde subcultures.<ref>http://news.com.com/2100-1040-943519.html</ref> Furthermore, [[conventional wisdom]] holds that the platform appeals especially to the politically [[liberal]]-minded; even Steve Jobs speculates that "maybe a little less" than half of Apple's customers are [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]s, "maybe more Dell than ours." This particular stereotype is reinforced, surely, by the company's pattern of political donations, by [[Al Gore]]’s membership on its board, and not least by Jobs’ personal history. Nevertheless, well-known Mac users include the likes of conservative talk radio host [[Rush Limbaugh]], an outspoken [[Apple evangelist]], and even current U.S. President [[George W. Bush]].
== Advantages, disadvantages and criticisms ==
The Macintosh differs i |
ompulsory.
James Becket, an American attorney sent to Greece by [[Amnesty International]], wrote in December 1969 that "a conservative estimate would place at not less than two thousand" the number of people tortured, usually in the most gruesome of ways, often with equipment supplied by the United States.
Becket reported the following:
''Hundreds of prisoners have listened to the little speech given by Inspector Basil Lambrou, who sits behind his desk which displays the red, white, and blue clasped-hand symbol of American aid. He tries to show the prisoner the absolute futility of resistance: "You make yourself ridiculous by thinking you can do anything. The world is divided in two. There are the communists on that side and on this side the free world. The Russians and the Americans, no one else. What are we? Americans. Behind me there is the government, behind the government is NATO, behind NATO is the U.S. You can't fight us, we are Americans."
''
The [[2003 invasion of Iraq|occupation of Iraq]] and the [[2004]] recognition of the [[Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]] with its constitutional name by the United States has only expanded the view of the United States as belligerent in the eyes of many Greeks living in Greece.
===See also===
* [[Greek-American Relations]]
== The Middle East ==
Greece has a special interest in the Middle East because of its geographic position and its economic and historic ties to the area. Greece cooperated with allied forces during the [[1990]]-[[1991]] [[Persian Gulf War]]. Since [[1994]], Greece has signed defense cooperation agreements with Israel and Egypt. In recent years, Greek leaders have made numerous trips to the region in order to strengthen bilateral ties and encourage the Middle East Peace Process. In July [[1997]], December [[1997]], and July [[1998]] Greece hosted meetings of Israeli and Palestinian politicians to contribute to the peace process. Also, Greece recognizes the [[State of Palestine|State of Palestine’s]] sovereignty.
==Terms==
Some terms have or used to have significant importance to Greek foreign policy:
=== Eastern Thrace ===
A name for the [[Europe]]an part of [[Turkey]], west of [[Istanbul]]. This name is usually used by the [[Greeks]], mostly by Greek families that were forced out of that region between [[1912]] - [[1923]].
=== Northern Epirus ===
'''Northern Epirus''' is the historical region of what has become southern [[Albania]] where there is a [[Greeks|Greek]] minority of around 100,000. The government of Greece claims that this territory is inhabited mostly by Greeks, whereas the government of Albania maintains that it is Albanian territory with Greek minorities. There are villages in the south of Albania where Greek is the predominant language. There have been many small incidents between the Greek minorities and Albanian authorities over issues such as alleged interference in local southern Albanian politics by the [[Politics of Greece|government of Greece]], the raising of the Greek flag on Albanian territory, the language taught in school, etc.; however, the issues have for the most part been non-violent.
The religion of the Greek minority is [[Greek Orthodox]] whereas a large number of the Albanian population follows the rites of the [[Albanian Orthodox Church]].
The parents of former CIA director [[George J. Tenet]] were Greeks from Northern Epirus.
=== Smyrna ===
[[Smyrna]] (most correctly ''Smyrni'', ''Σμύρνη'') is the Greek/Latin name for the city of [[Izmir]], [[Turkey]].
=== Enosis ===
The word '''''Ένωσις''''' ('''''enosis''''') is [[Greek language|Greek]] for ''union''. It is primarily used to refer to the unification of Cyprus and Greece, and became a political issue, and a goal of Greek foreign policy, during the years of [[United Kingdom|British]] colonial rule in Cyprus (1878-1960). In 1864 the British had previously ceded the [[Ionian islands]], which they had administered for fifty years, to the new Kingdom of Greece, and this was taken by supporters of enosis as a precedent for the cession of Hellenic territories to Greece after a period of British administration.
The movement for enosis gained ground in the 1940s and 1950s. In 1954, at the instigation of Greek Cypriot communal leader Archbishop [[Makarios]] III, Greece raised the issue of [[self-determination]] for Cyprus at the [[United Nations]], with a view to a Cypriot plebiscite on the island's future which, it was widely supposed, would result in a vote for enosis. In 1955, the controversial guerrilla movement [[EOKA]] was formed in Cyprus in support of enosis. However, sensitive negotiations between Greece, Turkey and the United Kingdom resulted in a fragile independence for Cyprus in 1960 and the new Cypriot [[President]] Makarios, formerly a keen advocate of enosis, now preferred to follow a more neutral foreign policy and enosis seemed politically faded. During the presidential campaign for the 1968 elections, Makarios said that enosis was "wishable" whereas independence was "possible". This differentiated him from the hardline pro-enosis elements which formed [[EOKA#EOKA-B|EOKA-B]] and participated in a coup against him in [[1974]]. The coup was sponsored by the military government of Greece and was a short-lived failure, triggering an invasion of Cyprus by [[Turkey]] which contributed to the collapse of the Athens regime.
===Great Greece===
''Megali Ellas'' or ''Megali Ellada'' (''Μεγάλη Ελλάς'' or ''Μεγάλη Ελλάδα'') -- literally "Great Greece" -- refers to Southern [[Italy]] and was used by Ancient Greeks. The Romans used the term ''"[[Magna Graecia]]"''. This is a historical term, referring mostly to the era of the ancient Greek colonization of the area, and does not apply to modern diplomacy.
=== Constantinople ===
The Greeks refer to [[Istanbul]] with its older name of [[Constantinople]] (''Κωνσταντινούπολη''), although they also use "I Poli" (''The City'') colloquially. Greek "εις την Πόλη" (read ''"iss tin poli"'') means "to the City" and is the phrase "Istanbul" derives from.
=== Black Sea ===
[[Black Sea]] (''Μαύρη Θάλασσα''), or Euxine Sea (''Εύξεινος Πόντος''), is the Greek name of [[Pontus]]. (Turkish ''Karadeniz)''
===Megali Idea===
See [[Megali Idea]] for a concept that was related to Greek foreign relations in the 20th century.
==International organization participation==
[[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Customs Cooperation Council|CCC]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]] (associate), [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[ECLAC]], [[European Investment Bank|EIB]], [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]], [[European Union|EU]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[International Energy Agency|IEA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[NATO]], [[OECD]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[WEU]],[[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.mfa.gr/english/foreign_policy/ Greece's foreign policy], via the Greek Ministry of Foreign affairs
* [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/al.html#People Ethnic groups in Albania], via CIA - The World Factbook
*[http://www.ethesis.net/greece/greece_contence.htm Greece's Shifting Position on Turkish Accession to the EU Before and After Helsinki (1999)]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Greece|Foreign relations of Greece]]
[[de:Enosis]]
[[es:Ministro de Relación Exterior de Grecia]]
[[fr:Politique étrangère de la Grèce]]
[[nl:Enosis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greenland</title>
<id>12118</id>
<revision>
<id>42035826</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:17:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>204.218.240.62</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Miscellaneous topics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big>'''Kalaallit Nunaat''' <small>([[Kalaallisut language|Greenlandic]])</small> <br>'''Grønland''' <small>([[Danish language|Danish]])</small></big>
| align="center" colspan="2"|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style="background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;"
| width="130px"| [[Image:Flag of Greenland.svg|125px|Flag of Greenland]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:Greenland coat of arms.png|80px|Greenland Coat of Arms]]
|-
| width="130px"| ([[Flag of Greenland]]) || align=center width=130px| ([[Coat of Arms of Greenland|Coat of Arms]])
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style="background:#f9f9f9;" | [[Image:LocationGreenland.png|Location of Greenland]]
|-
|'''[[Official language]]s''' || [[Kalaallisut language|Greenlandic]], [[Danish language|Danish]]
|-
|'''[[Capital]]''' || [[Nuuk]] (Godthåb)
|-
|'''[[List of Danish monarchs|Monarch]]''' || [[Margrethe II of Denmark|Margrethe II]]
|-
|'''[[List of Prime Ministers of Greenland|Prime Minister]]''' || [[Hans Enoksen]]
|-
|'''[[Area]]''' <br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- % water
|[[List of countries by area|Ranked 13th]] <br>[[1 E12 m²|2,166,086 km²]] <br>81.1%
|-
|'''[[Population]]''' <br>& |
solutions were developed, with drives at 2-inch, 2½-inch, 3-inch and 3½-inch (50, 60, 75 and 90 mm) all being offered by various companies. They all shared a number of advantages over the older format, including a small [[form factor]] and a rigid case with a slideable [[Write protection|write protect]] catch. The almost-universal use of the 5¼-inch format made it very difficult for any of these new formats to gain any significant market share.
Standard 3-inch and 3½-inch disks used the same spin speed and basic hardware interface as standard 5¼-inch drives, allowing them to be used with existing controllers and formats, although new formats were later developed that relied on the higher quality hardware in the new drive types (the IBM PC in particular never officially shared a format between the two drive types, though it was possible to misidentify the drive to the OS if desired).
====The 3-inch compact floppy disk====
[[Image:Compact Floppy.jpg|right|thumbnail|150px|The CF has a harder casing than a 3½″ floppy; the metal door is opened by a sliding plastic tab on the right side.]]
[[Amdek]] released the AmDisk Micro-Floppy-disk cartridge system in 1982. Originally designed for use with the [[Apple II]] Disk II interface card, it has also been connected to other computers successfully.
The drive itself was originally designed by [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]], [[Matsushita]] and [[Maxell]]. Only [[Teac]] outside this "network" is known to have produced drives. Similarly, only three manufacturers of media ([[Maxell]], [[Matsushita]] and [[Tatung Company|Tatung]]) are known (sometimes also branded [[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]], [[Amsoft]], [[Panasonic]], [[Tandy]], Godexco and [[Dixons]]), but "no-name" disks with questionable quality have been seen in the wild.
[[Amstrad]] incorporated a 3″ single-sided drive into their [[Amstrad CPC|CPC]] and [[Amstrad PCW|PCW]] lines, and this format and the drive mechanism was later "inherited" by the [[ZX Spectrum|ZX Spectrum +3]] computer after Amstrad bought [[Sinclair Research Ltd|Sinclair]]. Later models of the PCW featured double-sided, double density drives.
While all 3″ media were double-sided in nature, single-sided drive owners were able to flip the disk over to use the other side. The sides were termed "A" and "B" and were completely independent, but single-sided drive units could only access the upper side at one time.<!-- did the double sided drives have reversible motors?-->
The disk format itself had no more capacity than the more popular (and cheap) 5¼″ floppies. Each side held 180 KiB for a total of 360 KiB per disk, and later 720 KiB for the PCW range. Unlike 5¼″ or 3½″ disks, the 3″ disks were designed to be reversible and sported two independent write-protect switches. It was also more reliable thanks to its hard casing (some reviews at the time reported driving over them with no problems).
3″ drives were also used on a number of exotic and obscure CP/M systems such as the [[Tatung Einstein]] and occasionally on [[MSX]] systems in some regions. Other computers to have used this format are the more unknown [[Gavilan]] Mobile Computer and Matsushita's National Mybrain 3000. The [[Yamaha MDR-1]] also used 3″ drives.
Not a bad format in its own right, but the main problems were the high prices, due to the quite elaborate and complex case mechanisms, and low nominal capacities. However, the tip on the weight was when [[Sony]] in 1984 convinced Apple Computer to use the 3½″ drives in the [[Macintosh 128K]] model, effectively making it a [[de-facto]] standard.
==== Mitsumi's "Quick Disk" 3-inch floppies ====
<!--insanely long image caption, needs refactoring into the body text-->
[[Image:Smith_corona_2.8_inch_3_inch_diskette.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|A [[Smith Corona]] DataDisk 2.8″ actually measures about 3 1/32″ square. This disk is one of the few different Mitsumi Quick Disk packages, which vary in storage capacity and casing size. The Quick Disk uses a 2.8″ magnetic media, break-off write-protection tabs (one for each side), and contains a see-through hole near center spindle (probably used for indexing or to ensure spindle clamping). Note the label "A" to indicate disk side. The backside has a "B" label.]]
Another 3″ format was [[Mitsumi]]'s Quick Disk format. The [[Quick Disk]] format is referred to in various size references: 2.8″, 3″x3″ and 3″x4″. Confusing when trying to categorize the disk but perhaps not when understood that Mitsumi offered this as OEM equipment[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer], expecting their VAR customers to customize the packaging for their own particular use. Nintendo packaged the 2.8″ magnetic media in a 3″x4″ housing, while others packaged the same media in a 3″x3″ housing. This explains the different numbering labels, while here we generically call the Mitsumi Quick Disk a 3-inch format.
The Quick Disk's most sucessful use was in Nintendo's [[Famicom Disk System]]. The FDS package of Mitumi's Quick Disk used a 3″x4″ plastic housing called the "Disk System Card". Most FDS disks did not have cover protection to prevent media contamination, but a later special series of five games did include a protective shutter. [http://www.atarihq.com/tsr/fds/disk.html]
Mitsumi's "3-inch" Quick Disk media was also used in a 3″x3″ housing for many Smith Corona word processors[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Smith_corona_2.8_inch_3_inch_diskette.jpg]. The Smith Corona disks are confusingly labeled "DataDisk 2.8 inch", presumably referring to the size of the media inside the hard plastic case.
The Quick Disk was also used in several MIDI keyboards and MIDI samplers of the mid 1980s. A non-inclusive list includes: the Roland S-10[http://www.vintagesynth.com/roland/s10.shtml][[MIDI]] keyboard, Korg SQD8 MIDI sampler[http://www.keyboardmuseum.org/ar/k/korg/s/sqd8.html], Akai's 1985 model MD280 drive for the S-612 MIDI Sampler[http://www.vintagesynth.com/akai/s612.shtml][http://www.autofunk.dk/sale/pics/akai_s612/434-3403_IMG.JPG][http://www.autofunk.dk/sale/gearsale.htm], Akai's X7000[http://www.vintagesynth.com/akai/x7000.shtml] and X3700[http://www.vintagesynth.com/akai/x3700.shtml], the Roland S-220[http://www.vintagesynth.com/roland/s220.shtml][http://www.youngmonkey.ca/background/museum/music_equipment/commercial/Roland-S220.html], and a Yamaha MDF1 for their DX7/21/100/TX7, the RX11/21/21L Drum Machine, the QX1, QX21 and QX5 digital musical devices.[http://www.synthony.com/vintage/MDF1.html]
As the cost in the 1980s to add 5.25″ drives was still quite high, the Mitsumi Quick Disk was competing as a lower cost alernative packaged in several now obscure 8-bit computer systems. Another non-inclusive list of Quick Disk versions: QDM-01[http://www.hardwarelist.msxnet.org/product_pictures.php?s=1nfr&h=aaagak&agb=N&agc=N&agd=D&aga=B&manufid=75&aka=A&akb=A&akc=N&akd=N&ake=A&productid=316], in the Casio QD-7 drive[http://www.faq.msxnet.org/hardware.html#Casio], in a peripheral for the Sharp MZ-700 & MZ-800 system[http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/9723/other.html], in the DPQ-280 Quickdisk for the Daewoo/Dynadata MSX1 DPC-200[http://members.chello.nl/mlampers/Homecomputers.htm][http://msx.gnu-linux.net/hardware.html], in a Dragon machine[http://www.fortunecity.com/skyscraper/disk/162/draghist.html], in the Crescent Quick Disk 128, 128i and 256 peripherals for the ZX Spectrum and ZX Spectrum[http://www.worldofspectrum.org/faq/reference/diskreference.htm], and in the Triton Quick Disk peripherial also for the ZX Spectrum and ZX Spectrum[http://www.worldofspectrum.org/hardware/feat20.html][http://www.worldofspectrum.org/faq/reference/diskreference.htm].)
The [http://www.worldofspectrum.org/WoSFAQ.html World of Spectrum FAQ] reveals that the drives did come in different sizes: 128 to 256K in Cresent's incarnation, and in the Triton system, with a density of 4410 BPI, data transmission rate of 101.6Kb/s, a 2.8″ double sided disk type and a capacity of up to 20 sectors per side at 2.5K per sector, up to 100K per disk. Elsewhere it has been reported that a Quick Disk holds 64K of data per side, requiring a manual turn-over to access the second side.
It is significant to note that the Quick Disk utilizes "a continuous linear tracking of the head and thus creates a single spiral track along the disk similar to a record groove."[http://www.worldofspectrum.org/hardware/feat20.html] This has led some to compare it more to a "tape-stream" unit than typically what is thought of as a random-access disk drive.[http://www.faq.msxnet.org/msx1.html]
===The 3½-inch microfloppy diskette===
[[Image:Floppy disk 90mm.JPG|right|thumbnail|200px|The non-[[ferromagnetic]] metal sliding door protects the 3½-inch floppy disk's recording medium.]]
[[Image:3,5 DD floppy (720 KB) front.jpeg|thumb|3½-inch DD (720 KB) floppy disk (front) [[:Image:3,5 DD floppy (720 KB) back.jpeg|(back)]]]]
[[Image:Floppy disk internal diagram.svg|200px|right|thumb|The basic internal components of a 3½-inch floppy disk: 1. Write-protect tab, 2. Hub, 3. Shutter, 4. Plastic housing, 5. Paper ring, 6. Magnetic disk, 7. Disk sector.]]
[[Sony]] also introduced their own small-format 90.0 × 94.0 mm disk, similar to the others but somewhat simpler in construction than the AmDisk. The first computer to use this format was the [[HP-150]] of 1983, and Sony also used them fairly widely on their line of [[MSX]] computers. Other than this the format suffered from a similar fate as the other new formats; the 5¼-inch format simply had too much market share.
Things changed dramatically in 1984 when Apple Computer selected the format for their new [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] computers, thereby forcing it to become the standard in the United States. (This is y |
documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Islamic translations. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 46|c}}
The Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. [[Plato]]nic and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated. Islamic alchemists such as [[Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi|al-Razi]] (Latin Rasis or Rhazes) contributed key chemical discoveries of their own, such as the technique of [[distillation]] (the words ''[[alembic]]'' and ''[[alcohol]]'' are of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] origin), the [[hydrochloric acid|muriatic]], [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]], and [[nitric acid|nitric]] acids, [[sodium carbonate|soda]], [[potash]], and more. (From the Arabic names of the last two substances, ''al-natrun'' and ''al-qalīy'', Latinized into ''Natrium'' and ''Kalium'', come the modern symbols for [[sodium]] and [[potassium]].) The discovery that [[aqua regia]], a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, could dissolve the noblest metal; gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium.
Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism.
The most influential author in this regard was arguably [[Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan|Jabir Ibn Hayyan]] (Arabic &#1580;&#1575;&#1576;&#1585; &#1573;&#1576;&#1606; &#1581;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;, Latin Geberus; usually rendered in English as Geber). Jabir's ultimate goal was [[takwin]], the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to and including human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of ''hotness'', ''coldness'', ''dryness'', and ''moistness''. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burkhardt, p. 29|d}} According to Geber, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 29|e}} By this reasoning, the search for the [[philosopher's stone]] was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate [[numerology]] whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.
It is now commonly accepted that Chinese alchemy influenced Arabic alchemists {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 33-59|a}}{{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 10-22|f}}, although the extent of that influence is still a matter of debate. Likewise, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] learning was assimilated into Islamic alchemy, but again the extent and effects of this are not well known.
===Alchemy in Medieval Europe===
[[Image:JosephWright-Alchemist-1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''The Alchemist in Search of the Philosophers Stone''. By [[Joseph Wright of Derby]], [[1771]].]]
Because of its strong connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was rather easily accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval European alchemists extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge. [[Gerbert of Aurillac]], who was later to become [[Pope Silvester II]], (d. 1003) was among the first to bring Islamic science to Europe from [[Spain]]. Later men such as [[Adelard of Bath]], who lived in the 12th century, brought additional learning. But until the 13th century the moves were mainly assimilative. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 124, 294|a}}
In this period there appeared some deviations from the [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustinian]] principles of earlier Christian thinkers. [[Anselm of Canterbury|Saint Anselm]] (1033–1109) was a Benedictine who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. His views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. [[Peter Abelard]] followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the West. His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's [[consciousness]]. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical contradictions. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister, p. 287-8|b}}
[[Robert Grosseteste]] (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the scientific theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took
Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations, experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations. Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister pp. 294-5|c}}
[[Albertus Magnus]] (1193–1280) and [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225–1274) were both [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a great deal of work in developing the [[scientific method]]. He even went as far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through [[logical reasoning]], and, since [[reason]] could not run in opposition to God, reason must be compatible with [[theology]]. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 290-4, 355|d}}. This ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that universals were found through [[divine illumination]] alone. Magnus and Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except that these two did little in the way of [[experimentation]].
The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was [[Roger Bacon]]. His work did as much for alchemy as [[Robert Boyle]]'s was to do for [[chemistry]] and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]'s for [[astronomy]] and [[physics]]. Bacon (1214–1294) was an Oxford [[Franciscan]] who explored [[optics]] and [[linguistics|languages]] in addition to alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more important than reasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that they acquire [[knowledge]] of things: authority, [[reason|reasoning]], and [[experience]]; only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect." (Bacon p. 367) "[[Experimental Science]] controls the conclusions of all other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from [[law (principle)|general principles]] would never have discovered." {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 294-5|e}} Roger Bacon has also been attributed with originating the search for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: "That medicine which will remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many centuries." The idea of [[immortality]] was replaced with the notion of [[longevity|long life]]; after all, man's time on Earth was simply to wait and prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on Earth did not mesh with Christian theology. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 37-8|b}}
Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to learn about rationalism. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 24-7|c}}
So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (e.g., if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the [[soul|human soul]].) They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded [[jargon]] set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made [[observation]]s and [[theory|theories]] about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 149|g}}
In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change. [[William of Ockham]], an [[Oxford]] Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the [[Thomist]] view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view, widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 335|f}} [[Pope John XXII]] in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy, which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the Art. {{ref_harvard|Edward |
firmed that Christians should not target Jews for conversion. The document stated: "Jews already dwell in a saving covenant with God" and "Jews are also called by God to prepare the world for God's Kingdom." However, some [[United States|U.S.]]-led [[Baptist]] and other [[Christian fundamentalist|fundamentalist]] denominations still believe it is their duty to engage in what they refer to as outreach to "unbelieving" Jews (see [[Jews for Jesus]]).
=== Eastern Orthodox views ===
Eastern Orthodox Christianity emphasizes a continuing life of repentance or ''metanoia'', which includes an increasing improvement in thought, belief and action. Regarding the salvation of Jews, [[Muslims]], and other non-Christians, the Orthodox have traditionally taught the same as the Catholic Church: that there is no salvation outside the church. People of all genders, races, economic and social positions, and so forth are welcome in the church. People of any religion are welcome to convert. Orthodoxy recognizes that other religions may contain truth, to the extent that they are in agreement with Christianity. (Some of the early church fathers pointed to [[Socrates]]' belief in one God; a few more modern Orthodox Christian theologians have found traces of trinitarianism in the writings of [[Laozi]].)
Many Orthodox theologians believe that all people will have an opportunity to embrace union with God, including Jesus, after their death, and so become part of the Church at that time. God is thought to be good, just, and merciful; it would not seem just to condemn someone because they never heard the Gospel message, or were taught a distorted version of the [[Gospel]] by [[heretics]]. Therefore, the reasoning goes, they must at some point have an opportunity to make a genuine informed decision. Ultimately, those who persist in rejecting God condemn themselves, by cutting themselves off from the ultimate source of all Life, and from the God who is Love embodied. Jews, Muslims, and members of other faiths, then, are expected to convert to Christianity in the afterlife. [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] also holds this belief, and holds baptismal services in which righteous people are baptized in behalf of their ancestors who, it is believed, are given the opportunity to accept the ordinance.
=== Jewish views ===
Judaism holds that whatever salvation may exist is found only through good works and heartfelt [[prayer]]. The majority of Jewish works on this subject hold that one's faith or beliefs alone play a minimal role. However, for a contrary Jewish position see [[Maimonides]]'s [[Guide for the Perplexed]], which limits the afterlife only to people who attain a relatively high level of intellectual perfection, thereby allowing the active intellect to be made eternal through God.
Judaism teaches that all gentiles can receive a share in [[Jewish eschatology|"the world to come"]]. This is codified in the Mishna Avot 4:29, the Babylonian [[Talmud]] in tractates Avodah Zarah 10b, and Ketubot 111b, and in [[Maimonides]]'s 12th century law code, the ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'', in ''Hilkhot Melachim'' (Laws of Kings) 8.11.
Judaism has no strong tradition of offenses being punished by eternal damnation (the Hebrew Bible itself has very few references to any afterlife, and the word [[Sheol]] that is often translated as "Hell" is as often as not simply translated as "the grave"). Some violations (e.g. suicide) would be punished by separation from the community (e.g. not being buried in a Jewish cemetery).
Judaism's view is summed up by a biblical observation about the [[Torah]]: in the beginning God clothes the naked (Adam), and at the end God buries the dead (Moses). The Children of Israel mourned for 40 days - then got on with their lives. No reference is made in the Torah to anything beyond, and this is true even for Moses of whom it is said "nobody has arisen like him, who knew God face to face".
The Biblical conception of God is that his covenant is with the Jewish people, not individual Jews. In the context of this covenant, the death of individual Jews is inconsequential and various older Biblical passages suggest that individual death is final. It is the continued existence of the Jewish nation that is emphasized and the way that a human life should be led. With the rise of [[Hellenistic]] (Greco-Roman) thinking, and later the rise of Christianity, Jews became more concerned with the problem of individual death and an afterlife. The Pharisees, and then the Rabbis, made it an essential element of their faith that upon the arrival of the messiah the dead shall be resurrected. This is still a central belief in Orthodox Judaism and to a lesser extent in other branches of Judaism. Some Christian thinkers have opined that a crucial difference between Jewish and Christian beliefs is that Jews believe it is the body that is resurrected. The "soul" or "spirit" has no life or meaning independent of a living body. However, Jewish scholars and theologians point to the many aspects of Judaism that affect the "eternal soul" and "the world to come," indicating that the notion of an afterlife and the concept of post-death award and punishment is indeed deeply ingrained within the Jewish religion.
==Evangelism==
Judaism is not an evangelistic religion. Orthodox Judaism in fact deliberately makes it very difficult to convert and become a Jew, and requires a significant and full-time effort in living, study, righteousness, and conduct over several years. The final decision is by no means a foregone conclusion. A person cannot become Jewish by marrying a Jew, or by joining a synagogue, nor by any degree of involvement in the community or religion, but only by explicitly undertaking (under supervision) a formal and intense work over years aimed towards that goal. Some less strict versions of Judaism have made this process somewhat easier but it is still far from common.
In the distant past Judaism was more evangelistic, but this was still more akin just to "greater openness to converts" (c.f. [[Ruth]]) rather than active soliciting of conversions. Since Jews believe that one need not be a Jew to approach God, there is no religious pressure to convert non-Jews to their faith. See also [[proselyte]].
By contrast, Christianity is an explicitly [[evangelism|evangelical]] religion. Christians are commanded by Jesus to [[Great Commission|"go forth and Baptize all nations"]]. At some times and in certain places joyful evangelism has veered into high-pressure coercion, resulting in at best significant ill-will and at worst human rights abuse.
This is broadly in line with the distinction made elsewhere that Jewish conversion is more like adoption into a tribe, nation or people, Christian conversion more like a declaration of personal faith.
==Miscellaneous==
* Jews believe that the number [[Number of the Beast (numerology)|666]] is holy and mystical, rather than evil.
* Jews do not believe that deceased [[Saints]] have any power or that they do anything (like miracles) in this world. Nor do they pray to them. At most Jews may go to a [[Tzadik|Tzadik's]] grave to ask one to interceed in heaven on their behalf, but any result is always from God, and the request is not a prayer.
==Mutual views==
In addition to each having varied views on the other as a religion, there has also been a long and often painful [[Christianity and anti-Semitism|history]] of conflict, persecution and at times, reconciliation, between the two religions, which have influenced their mutual views of their relationship over time.
[[Persecution]], [[genocide]] and forcible [[conversion]] of Jews (ie [[hate crime]]) were common for many centuries, with occasional gestures to reconciliation from time to time. [[Pogroms]] were common throughout Christian Europe, including organized violence, restrictive land ownership and professional lives, forcible relocation and [[ghetto]]ization, mandatory dress codes, and at times humiliating actions and [[torture]]. All had major effects on Jewish cultures.
More recently, even within the last century alone, some Jews remember the [[Holocaust]] and the current wave of [[evangelism]] as yet more reasons to doubt goodwill, while others look to the many peaceful gestures towards harmony since that time, likewise some Christians are at peace and others suspicious of Jews.
What is clear is that formally, there is mostly peaceful living side by side, with strong inter-dialogue at many levels to [[Christian-Jewish reconciliation|reconcile]] past differences between the two groups, and many Christians emphasize common historical heritage and religious continuity with the ancient spiritual lineage of the Jews. What is also likely is that for a long time to come, some within each will continue to consider the other with varying degrees of suspicion and hostility.
===Common Jewish views of Christianity===
:''Main article: [[Jewish view of Jesus]]''
Jesus plays no role whatsoever in Judaism. Jews are familiar with Jesus only due to their being immersed in a Christian-oriented society. Most Jews believe that Jesus was a real person. Many view him as just one in a long list of failed Jewish claimants to be the messiah, none of whom fulfilled the [[Jewish view of Jesus#Prophets|tests]] of a prophet specified in the Five Books of Moses. Others see Jesus as a teacher who worked with the gentiles and ascribe the messianic claims they find objectionable to his later followers. Because much physical and spiritual violence was done to Jews in the name of Jesus and his followers, and because evangelism is still an active aspect of many church's activities, many religious Jews are uncomfortable with discussing Jesus and treat him as a [[non-person]]. Finally, to stil |
lt;/TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">31</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Southern and Eastern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,285,513</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,748,547</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,090,991</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,907,020</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Southern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,054,141</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,336,805</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,363,195</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,541,441</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">33</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Greece</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">177,398</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">210,998</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">177,275</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">159,167</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">34</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Italy</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">580,592</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">831,922</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,008,533</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,256,999</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Portugal</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">210,122</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">209,968</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">119,899</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">80,276</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Azores</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">29,656</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32,531</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">28,865</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22,586</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">37</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Portugal</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">180,466</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">177,437</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">91,034</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57,690</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">38</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Spain</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">76,415</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">73,735</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57,488</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">44,999</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right"&gt;
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">39</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other Southern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,614</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,182</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">40</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Eastern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,231,372</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,411,742</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,727,796</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,365,579</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Albania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,627</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,381</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,180</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,618</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Bulgaria</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,579</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,463</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,609</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,223</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">43</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Czechoslovakia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">87,020</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">112,707</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">160,899</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">227,618</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">44</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Estonia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,210</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,169</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,163</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,991</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">45</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hungary</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">110,337</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">144,368</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">183,236</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">245,252</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">46</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Latvia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">26,17 |
his book filed in its history collection rather than as fiction.
* ''[[The Domination]]'' by [[S. M. Stirling]] - after the [[United States]] conquers [[Canada]] in the [[War of 1812]], the Loyalists move to [[South Africa]], where they join with the [[Boers]] to set up a [[slavery]]-based empire called the Domination of the [[Draka]]. The story tells of the struggle between the Domination and the [[free world]]. As the Draka come to dominate the world, they create a superhuman race.
* ''Conquistador'' by S.M. Stirling - an interdimensional gateway is discovered in California, which gives access to an alternate Earth in which the empire of [[Alexander the Great]] flourished, and where Europeans never discovered America.
* ''[[Wild Cards]]'' edited by [[George R. R. Martin]] - A series of collaborations based on the premise that an [[alien race]] released a virus just after the WWII that gave some people [[superpower]]s and others terrible deformities.
* ''[http://www.baen.com/library/0671319728/0671319728.htm 1632]'' by [[Eric Flint]] - (found online at the [[Baen Free Library|Baen Books free library]] in various ebook formats.) Its sequels, starting with ''[http://www.webscription.net/10.1125/Baen/0743435427/0743435427.htm 1633]'' are available for sale. A series based on the premise that an entire modern [[West Virginia]] town is transported in time and space to Germany during the [[Thirty Years War]].
*''Rivers of War'' by [[Eric Flint]] is an alternate history of the American frontier. It posits that [[Sam Houston]] was not injured at the beginning of the War of 1812, and substantially revises the history of the [[Trail of Tears]].
* ''1945'' by [[Newt Gingrich]] and [[William R. Forstchen]] assumes that the Germans perfected long-range [[jet aircraft]] by the end of [[World War II]] and conducted successful raids in North America against the US nuclear program.
* ''The Probability Broach'' by [[L. Neil Smith]] One single word in the [[Declaration of Independence]] differs and the US becomes the North American Confederation, a [[libertarian]] society. In the present some scientist will invent the Probability Broach and make contact with other universes.
**''The Venus Belt''
**''Their Majesties' Bucketeers''
**''The Nagasaki Vector''
**''Tom Paine Maru''
**''The Gallatin Divergence''
*''The Indians Won'' (ISBN 0843910127) by [[Martin Cruz Smith]] imagines that the [[Native Americans (U.S.)|Native Americans]] had won the [[Indian Wars|Indian wars]] and kept their land.
* ''The Coming of the Demons'' by [[Gwenyth Hood]] imagines if the execution of [[Conradin|Conradin Hohenstaufen]] in Naples on [[October 29]], [[1268]] was averted by the arrival of the Pelezitereans, exiled alien wanderers from another galaxy, seeking an uninhabited planet on which to reestablish their advanced culture.
* ''[[1901]]'' by [[Robert Conroy]] depicts a hypothetical war between Germany and the United States at the start of [[William McKinley]]'s second term as President.
*[[Mamoru Oshii]]'s [[manga]] ''Kerebos'', a.k.a ''Hellhounds Panzer Cops'' in the United States, and the [[film]] [[Jin-Roh: The Wolf Brigade]], both of which take place in a 1960's Japan that was defeated and occupied by the Germans.
* [[Kim Stanley Robinson]]'s ''[[The Years of Rice and Salt]]'' imagines a world in which [[the Black Death]] of the 14th century kills 99% of the people in Europe. Over the next seven centuries, [[China]] and the [[Islamic world]] come to dominate the planet as they colonize a North America whose native peoples have all united in the Hodenosaunee League under the [[Iroquois]], clash in India (a place of many scientific innovations), and the Muslims resettle a depopulated Europe.
* [[Robert Silverberg]]'s ''[[Roma Eterna]]'' is set in a world where the [[Red Sea]] did not part before [[Moses]]. As a result, the [[Roman Empire]] grew and prospered without the influence of [[Christianity]]. The novel is a series of short stories set in the same alternate history, up to [[2000|2753]] [[ab urbe condita|AUC]].
* [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Strata (novel)|Strata]]'' is set in a world where [[Remus]] won the right to name the city and not [[Romulus]]. As a result, the [[Roman Empire]] is known as the ''Remen empire''. Other changes result from this.
* [[John M. Ford]]'s ''[[The Dragon Waiting]]'' is set in a Europe where the Emperor Julian lived long enough to re-establish paganism in the Roman Empire.
* ''[[The Shadow of the Lion]]'' and ''[[This Rough Magic]]'', a collaboration between [[Mercedes Lackey]], [[Eric Flint]] and [[Dave Freer]], is set in a renaissance Europe where the [[Library of Alexandria]] was not destroyed by a Christian mob and the now sainted [[Hypatia of Alexandria]] and [[John Chrysostom]] shaped religious thought, significantly altering how the Church developed. The novels center around the [[Republic of Venice]].
* The [[Belisarius series]] of novels by [[David Drake]] and [[Eric Flint]] take place when opposing factions from the future influence early times through intermediaries for their own purposes: the 'good' side operating through the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] general [[Belisarius]] and the 'evil' side operating through the Indian state of [[Malwa]].
* [[Michael Moorcock]]'s ''[[The Nomad of the Time-Streams]]'' trilogy (aka ''The Nomad of Time''), a series of novels featuring a grown-up version of [[E. Nesbit]]'s [[Oswald Bastable]] (from [[The Treasure Seekers]] and other books) who experiences a variety of alternate realities that have diverged from his own time-line.
**''The War Lord of the Air''
**''The Land Leviathan''
**''The Steel Tsar''
== Online alternate histories ==
''[[soc.history.what-if]]'' is a [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]] devoted to discussing alternate histories. This newsgroup has spawned a number of interesting alternate timelines, including an online [[role playing game]] which has run continuously since [[2000]] called SHWI-ISOT with a [[POD]] in [[1800]] and in which the characters are based on the players being sent from the 21st century back to an alternate early 19th Century, where they have started altering history. The concept was inspired by [[S.M. Stirling]]'s "Island on the Sea of Time" books.
In online alternate history, the timeline is usually referred to by the abbreviation ''ATL'' (Alternate Time Line), as contrasted with ''OTL'' (Our Time Line) which refers to real history.
* ''[http://www.butteredcat.com/ 1933]'' an alternative view of the 20th century post-1933 in which [[Adolf Hitler]] succeeds in creating an alliance between Nazi Germany and the British Empire resulting in the invasion and conquests of France and the Soviet Union, and the resulting long and prolonged cold war between the Anglo-German alliance and the United States.
* ''[http://www.alternatehistory.com/foralltime/ For All Time]'' ("President Chester A. Arthur" or Mike Davis) is a [[dystopia]]n post-WWII scenario resulting from the death of Roosevelt shortly after the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], featuring horrific three-way [[race riot]]s in the [[United States]] between white, black and Jewish gangs, and frequent usage of [[nuclear weapon]]s around the world.
* ''[http://www.shatteredworld.net Shattered World]'' (Bobby Hardenbrook) is a devastating alternate [[World War II]], resulting from a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]] in [[1937]]. The timeline currently continues up to the autumn of [[1948]]. Some terminology is clearly inspired by [[The Domination]], as there is an "Alliance for Democracy" (which however does not include the United States) and a "Eurasian War", which is an Axis-Soviet war which precedes the main World War II.
* ''[http://www.geocities.com/wmlives/ALB1.html A Loose Bandage]'' (Beck Reilly) is an alternate 20th century following the failed assassination of [[William McKinley]].
* ''[http://www.geocities.com/drammos/sealion1.html Sealion Fails]'' (Steven Rogers) is an alternate World War II in which Germany invades England, but the invasion is defeated.
* ''[http://www.quarryhouse.free-online.co.uk/ed/ASHATW.htm A Shot Heard Around the World]'' (Ed Thomas) follows from the [[assassin]]ation of the [[Prince of Wales]] in [[1900]] (who in OTL became King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]]), preventing the [[Entente Cordiale]]. Without Britain as an ally France and Russia are easily defeated by the [[Central Powers]]. After the war [[Charles de Gaulle]] seizes power in France, and plans a war of vengeance against the Germans.
* ''[http://www.angelfire.com/gundam/japanese_empire/ Dai Nippon Teikoku: An Alternate History]'' is a history of a Japan which loses its territories on the Asian mainland in a war with the [[Soviet Union]]. As a result, Japan never goes to war with the [[United States]], and thus retains [[Karafuto]] and [[Micronesia]].
* ''[http://www.alternatehistory.com/decadesofdarkness/ Decades of Darkness]'' ("Kaiser Wilhelm III") suggests the early death of President [[Thomas Jefferson]] leading to the secession of [[New England]], resulting in a [[United States|United States of America]] dominated by [[slavery|slave owners]].
* ''[http://www.kebe.com/for-all-nails/ For All Nails]'' is an ongoing, collaborative online continuation of ''For Want of a Nail'', which ended in [[1971]], the year the book had been written. The authors believed the world depicted at the end of ''For Want of a Nail'' was an unpleasant one &#8212; hence the name inspired by Chet's ''For All Time''.
* ''[http://www.clockworksky.net/puritan_world/ah_pw_top.html Puritan World]'' (Tony Jones). A different [[English Civil War]] results in a much earlier and much nastier [[American Revolution]]. Britain never becomes a world power. By 1996, the New Commonwealth, a [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] [[Puritan]] [[theocracy]] controlling all of North America, Britain, A |
ate that at the resurrection, people will be like the angels with regard to marriage and immortality (Luke 20:35-36), and teaches such a transformation for instance at 1Cor 15:51; it states that the saints will judge angels (1 Cor 6:3). Flavius Josephus (Discourse to the Greeks concerning Hades, VI) teaches of ressurected men and woman, i.e. male and female. (Zechariah 5,9) could be interpreted, that there are also female angels. The statement of 1Cor 11:10 could be interpreted, as if male angels could be vulnerable to the female attractiveness by raping woman-- which would produce a giant (Gen. 6) or bring about the end of the world by conceiving the Antichrist. Official doctrines of most Christian churches teach that the virtuous are resurrected in the [[End times|end of times]], having a physical body again, unlike angels (see [[Swedenborgianism]] for a church that does officially and systematically teach that people enter heaven immediately after death).
==Islamic views==
:''Main article: [[Angels in Islam]]''
The belief in angels is central to the religion of [[Islam]], beginning with the belief that the [[Qur'an]] was dictated to the Prophet [[Muhammad]] by the chief of all angels, the archangel [[Jibril]] (Gabriel). Angels are thus the ministers of God, as well as the agents of revelation in Islam.
In Islam, angels are benevolent beings created from light and do not possess free will. They are completely devoted to the worship of God ([[Allah]]) and carry out certain functions on His command, such as recording every human being's actions, placing a soul in a newborn child, maintaining certain environmental conditions of the planet (such as nurturing vegetation and distributing the rain) and taking the soul at the time of death. Angels are described as being excessively beautiful and have different numbers of wings (for example, Gabriel is attributed as having six-hundred wings in his natural form). They can take on human form, but only in appearance. As such, angels do not eat, procreate or commit sin as humans do.
According to the majority of [[Ulema|Islamic scholars]], angels are incapable of commiting sin, and therefore cannot fall from grace, excluding [[Iblis]] who chose to do evil because he had free-will and is not considered as a fallen angel, but a separate entity made of fire called [[jinn]]. Scholars cite the following Quranic [[ayat]] (verse), "And when We said to the Angels; "Prostrate yourselves unto Adam." So they prostrated themselves except Iblis. He was one of the jinn..." ([[Sura]]t [[Al-Kahf]], 18:50). Angels, unlike the fiery nature of jinn, are beings of goodness and cannot choose to disobey God, nor do they possess the ability to do evil.
The archangel Jibril is attributed with sending the message of Allah to all the [[Prophets of Islam|Prophet]]s (including the [[Psalms]], [[Torah]], [[Bible]] and [[Qur'an]]. Other angels include Michael (Mikaeel) who discharges control of vegetation and rain, Sarafiel (Israfil) who will blow the trumpet on [[Qiyamah|Yaum al Qiyamah]] (the day of resurrection), and Azrael (Izra'il), the angel of death. The angels [[Nakir and Munkar]] are assigned to interrogate the dead before judgement day; and there are nineteen angels over-seeing the punishments of hell unflinchingly (Surat [[Al-Muddaththir]], 74:30). There are eight massive angels that support the Throne of God (Surat [[Al-Haaqqa]], 69:17). Every human being is assigned two angels to scribe a record of all actions done by the individual throughout their life, which will be used in evidence for or against the person by Allah on the day of judgement.
Humans do not turn into angels upon death, rather they are physically ressurected in body and soul and judged by God on judgement day (and that should they end up in [[Jannah]] (heaven), they are given perfect bodies).
==Latter-Day Saint views==
[[Image:Engel Moroni Bern Tempel.JPG|thumb|150px|right|Bern Switzerland Temple Statue of Angel Moroni]]
[[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], founder of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]] ([[Mormonism]]), and several of his associates, claimed that they were visited by angels on multiple occasions and for a variety of purposes in conjunction with the restoration of the gospel of Jesus.
According to the official doctrine of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]], (Bible Dictionary entry on "Angels"):
<small>
:: ''"These are the messengers of the Lord, and are spoken of in the epistle to the Hebrews as 'ministering spirits'. We learn from latter-day revelation that there are two classes of heavenly beings who minister for the Lord: those who are spirits and those who have bodies of flesh and bone. Spirits are those beings who either have not yet obtained a body of flesh and bone (unembodied), or who have once had a mortal body and have died, and are awaiting the resurrection (disembodied). Ordinarily the word 'angel' means those ministering persons who have a body of flesh and bone, being either resurrected from the dead (reembodied), or else translated, as were Enoch, Elijah, etc. (D&C 129).''"
</small>
[[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] described his first angelic encounter thus (Joseph Smith History 1:31-33):
<small>
:: ''"While I was thus in the act of calling upon God, I discovered a light appearing in my room, which continued to increase until the room was lighter than at noonday, when immediately a personage appeared at my bedside, standing in the air, for his feet did not touch the floor.''
:: ''"He had on a loose robe of most exquisite whiteness. It was a whiteness beyond anything earthly I had ever seen; nor do I believe that any earthly thing could be made to appear so exceedingly white and brilliant. His hands were naked, and his arms also, a little above the wrist; so, also, were his feet naked, as were his legs, a little above the ankles. His head and neck were also bare. I could discover that he had no other clothing on but this robe, as it was open, so that I could see into his bosom.''
:: ''"Not only was his robe exceedingly white, but his whole person was glorious beyond description, and his countenance truly like lightning. The room was exceedingly light, but not so very bright as immediately around his person. When I first looked upon him, I was afraid; but the fear soon left me."''
</small>
People who claimed to have received a visit by an angel include [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], [[Oliver Cowdery]], [[David Whitmer]], [[Martin Harris]]. Although Cowdery, Whitmer, and Harris all eventually became disaffected with Smith and left the church, none of them retracted their statement that they had seen and conversed with an angel of the Lord, and indeed, even defended their claim of angelic visitation to their deaths.
Names of some known angels who appeared are [[Moroni (Mormonism)|Moroni]], [[Nephi]], Peter, [[Saint James|James]], [[John the Apostle|John]], [[John the Baptist]].
Michael the archangel was [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] (the first man) when he was mortal, and Gabriel lived on the earth as [[Noah]] (the one who built the ark).
== Other religions ==
Angels are also a part of [[New Age]] beliefs. In [[Zoroastrianism]], the [[Amesha Spentas]] have often been regarded as angels, but this is not strictly correct since they don´t convey messages, but are rather emanations of [[Ahura Mazda]] ("Wise Lord", God); they appear in an abstract fashion in the religious thought of [[Zarathustra]] and then later (during the [[Achaemenid]] period of Zoroastrianism) became personalized, associated with an aspect of the divine creation (fire, plants, water...).
Also, angel-like beings called [[Tennin]] and [[Tenshi]] appear in [[Japanese mythology]]
===Hinduism===
In English, the Sanskrit word [[Deva (deity)|Deva]] is exclusively translated as "god", which certainly gives a polytheistic appearance to Hinduism. Many Hindus now say that this is a poor practice, because the best word for God in Sanskrit is [[Ishvara]] (the Supreme Lord). The Devas may be better translated as angels or demigods. They are celestial beings with supernatural powers, but also weaknesses. They grant material benefits to humans upon praying and sacrificing to them, though they don't carry the message of Ishvara to the humans as in Abrahamic religions (a category of such beings also exist, called "devaduta" or "duta"). Buddhism and Jainism also believe in the existance of such devas. Examples of such devas are [[Indra]], [[Mitra]], [[Ashvins]], [[Varuna]], etc. Note that if a particular deva has a widespread cult, like [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]], he is believed not to be an ordinary deva but equated to Ishvara by his followers.
===Thelema===
[[Aleister Crowley]] tried to teach people to attain what he called "the Knowledge and Conversation of the [[Holy Guardian Angel]]". Within the system of [[Thelema]], the Holy Guardian Angel is representative of one’s truest divine nature. Citing Crowley, people have linked the term with the Genius of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]], the [[Augoeides]] of [[Iamblichus (philosopher)|Iamblichus]], the [[Atman]] of [[Hinduism]], and the [[Daemon (mythology)|Daemon]] of the [[gnostic]]s.
According to most Thelemites, the single most important goal is to consciously connect with one’s HGA, a process termed "Knowledge and Conversation." By doing so, the magician becomes fully aware of his own [[True Will]]. For Crowley, this event was the single most important goal of any adept:
<blockquote>It should never be forgotten for a single moment that the central and essential work of the Magician is the attainment of the Knowledge and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel. Once he has achieved this he must of course be left entirely in the hands of that Angel, who can be invariably and inevitably [be] relied upon to lead him to the furt |
ean Lion]].
#The [[Lernaean Hydra]].
#The [[Ceryneian Hind]].
#The [[Erymanthian Boar]].
#The [[Augeas|Augean stables]].
#The [[Stymphalian Birds]].
#The [[Cretan Bull]].
#The [[Mares of Diomedes]].
#The [[Hippolyte|Girdle of Hippolyte]].
#The [[Geryon|Cattle of Geryon]].
#The [[Hesperides| Apples of the Hesperides]].
#The Capture of [[Cerberus]].
According to [[Saint Jerome|Jerome]]'s [[Chronicon]] Herakles completed his Twelve labours in 1246 BC.
=== Omphale ===
[[Omphale]] was a queen or princess of [[Lydia]]. As penalty for a murder, Heracles was her slave. He was forced to do women's work and wear women's clothes, while she wore the skin of the [[Nemean Lion]] and carried his olive-wood club. After some time, Omphale freed Heracles and married him. Some sources mention a son born to them who is variously named. For further details see [[Omphale]].
It was at that time that the [[cercopes]], mischievous wood spirits, stole Heracles' weapons. He punished them by tying them to a stick with their faces pointing downward.
=== Hylas ===
While walking through the wilderness, Heracles was set upon by the [[Dryopians]]. He killed their king, [[Theiodamas]], and the others gave up and offered him Prince [[Hylas]]. He took the youth on as his weapons bearer and beloved. Years later, Heracles and Hylas joined the crew of the [[Argo]]. As [[Argonauts]] they only participated in part of the journey. In [[Mysia]], Hylas was kidnapped by a nymph. Heracles, heartbroken, searched for a long time but Hylas had fallen in love with the nymphs and never showed up again. The ship set sail without them. [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/Hercules/Hylas/Hylas.htm Story of Heracles and Hylas]
=== Iole ===
King [[Eurytus]] of [[Oechalia]] promised his daughter, [[Iole]], to whoever could beat his sons in an archery contest. Heracles won but Eurytus abandoned his promise. Heracles killed him and his sons and abducted Iole.
=== Killing various giants ===
Heracles killed the giants [[Cycnus]], [[Porphyrion]] and [[Mimas]].
=== Laomedon/Tros ===
Before the [[Trojan War]], [[Poseidon]] sent a sea monster to attack [[Troy]].
[[Laomedon]] planned on sacrificing his daughter [[Hesione]] to Poseidon in the hope of appeasing him. Heracles happened to arrive (along with [[Telamon]] and [[Oicles]]) and agreed to kill the monster if Laomedon would give him the horses received from Zeus as compensation for Zeus' kidnapping [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]]. Laomedon agreed.
Heracles killed the monster, but Laomedon went back on his word.
Accordingly in a later expedition Heracles and his followers attacked Troy and sacked it and slew all Laomedon's sons present there save [[Podarces]], who saved his own life by giving Heracles a golden veil Hesione had made. Telamon took Hesione as a war prize; they were married and had a son, [[Teucer]].
=== Other adventures ===
* Heracles defeated the [[Bebryces]] (ruled by King [[Mygdon]]) and gave their land to Prince [[Lycus]] of [[Mysia]], son of [[Dascylus]].
* He killed the robber [[Termerus]].
* Heracles visited [[Evander]] with [[Antor]], who then stayed in Italy.
* Heracles killed King [[Amyntor]] of the [[Dolopes]] for not allowing him into his kingdom. He also killed King [[Emathion]] of [[Arabia]].
* Heracles killed [[Lityerses]] after beating him in a contest of harvesting.
* Heracles killed [[Poriclymenus]] at [[Pylos]].
* Heracles founded the city [[Tarentum]] (modern: [[Taranto]]) in Italy.
* Heracles learned music from [[Linus]] (and [[Eumolpus]]), but killed him after Linus corrected his mistakes. He learned how to wrestle from [[Autolycus]]. He killed the famous boxer [[Eryx]] of [[Sicily]] in a match.
* Heracles was an [[Argonauts|Argonaut]]. He killed [[Alastor]] and his brothers.
* When [[Hippocoon]] overthrew his brother, [[Tyndareus]], as King of [[Sparta]], Heracles reinstated the rightful ruler and killed Hippocoon and his sons.
== Marriage, affairs and death ==
Heracles had countless affairs with women. He naturally had a great many children from various women, collectively referred to as the [[Heracleidae]] (most notable: [[Macaria]]). One event that stands out was his stay at the palace of King Thespios, who liked his build and encouraged Heracles to make love to his daughters, all fifty of them, in one night. They all got pregnant and all bore sons. Many of the kings of ancient Greece traced their lines to one or another of these, notably the kings of [[Sparta]] and [[Macedon]].
During the course of his life, Heracles married three times. His first marriage was to [[Megara (mythology)|Megara]], whose three children he murdered in a fit of madness and whom he later gave in marriage to his companion [[Iolaus]], because the sight of her was too painful. His second wife was [[Omphale]], the [[Lydia|Lydian]] queen or princess to whom he was sold as a slave. His last marriage was to [[Deianira]], for whom he had to fight the river god [[Achelous]]. (Upon Achelous' death, Heracles removed one of his horns and gave it to some nymphs who turned it into the [[cornucopia]].) Soon after they wed, Heracles and Deianira had to cross a river, and a [[centaur]] named [[Nessus (mythology)|Nessus]] offered to help Deianeira across but then attempted to rape her. Enraged, Heracles shot the centaur from the opposite shore with a poisoned arrow (from the Lernean Hydra) and killed him. As he lay dying, Nessus told Deianira that if she ever wanted to make sure of Heracles' love, she should gather up the centaur's blood and spilled semen and save them. Later, when Deianira suspected that Heracles was preferring the company of Iole, she soaked a shirt of his in the mixture. Heracles' servant, [[Lichas]], brought him the shirt and he put it on. Instantly he was in agony, as the shirt burned into his flesh and ripped it from his bones, for it had mixed with poison. Heracles died a voluntary death, asking that a pyre be built for him to end his suffering. After his death on the pyre the gods transformed Heracles into an immortal, or alternatively, the fire burned away the mortal part of the demi-god, so that only the god remained. He then married [[Hebe (mythology)|Hebe]].
No one but Heracles' friend [[Philoctetes]] (in some versions: [[Iolaus]] or [[Poeas]]) would light his funeral pyre. For this action, Philoctetes (or Poeas) received Heracles' bow and arrows, which were later needed by the Greeks to defeat Troy in the Trojan War.
According to [[Eusebius]] in book 10(XII) of his "Preparation of the Gospel", [[Saint Clement|Clement]] states that "from the reign of Hercules in [[Argos]] to the [[deification]] of Hercules himself and of [[Asclepius]] there are comprised thirty-eight years, according to [[Apollodorus of Athens|Apollodorus]] the chronicler: and from that point to the deification of [[Castor]] and [[Pollux]] fifty-three years: and somewhere about this time was the capture of [[Troy]]." Since Heracles ruled over [[Tiryns]] in Argos at the same time that [[Eurystheus]] ruled over [[Mycenae]], and since at about this time [[Linus]] was Heracles' teacher, we can conclude based on the date for Linus' notoriety in teaching Heracles in [[1260s BC|1264 BC]] (given by Jerome in his [[Chronicon]],) Heracles' death and deification occurred 38 years later in approximately [[1220s BC|1226 BC]]. The ancient Greeks celebrated the festival of the ''Herakleia'', which commemorated the death of Heracles, on the 2nd day of the month of Metageitnion (which would fall in late [[July]] or early [[August]]).
===Heracles' children===
[[Telephus]] is the son of Heracles and [[Auge]].
[[Hyllus]] is the son of Heracles and [[Deianeira]].
The sons of Heracles and [[Hebe]] are Alexiares and Anicetus.
=== Heracles' male lovers ===
[[Plutarch]], in his ''Eroticos,'' maintains that Heracles' male lovers were so numerous they were beyond counting. Here is a partial list:
*[[Abderus]] (entrusted with &ndash; and slain by &ndash; the carnivorous mares of Thracian [[Mares of Diomedes|Diomedes]]. Hercules founded the city of Abderus in [[Thrace]] in his memory, where he was honored with games.)
*[[Admetus]] (assisted in the hunt for the [[Calydonian Boar]]; claimed so by Plutarch ''(Erotikos,'' 761e)
*[[Adonis]]
*[[Corythus]]
*[[Elacatas]] ([[Sparta|Spartan]] [[eromenos]], honored there with a sanctuary and yearly games, according to Sosibius)
*[[Euphemus]]
*[[Hylas]][http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/Hercules/Hylas/Hylas.htm]
*[[Iolaus]] (Theban, Heracles' nephew, helped him in many labors. Plutarch reports that down to his own time male couples would go down to his tomb in Thebes to swear an oath of loyalty to him and to each other.)
*[[Iphitus]]
*[[Jason]] (late mention, may be literary conceit)
*[[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]] (loved him for his wisdom)
*[[Nireus]]
*[[Philoctetes]] (according to Martial. He is also heir to the hero's bow and is the one who lights his pyre. Later he is the initiator of [[Neoptolemus]], son of [[Achilles]].)
*[[Phrixus]]
(Collected by Bernard Sergent in ''Homosexuality in Greek Myth,'' Beacon Press, 1986.)
== Modern and ancient interpretations ==
Via the [[Greco-Buddhist]] culture, Heraclean symbolism was transmitted to the far east. An example remains to this day in the [[Nio]] guardian deities in front of [[Japan]]ese Buddhist temples.
<br clear=all>
Heracles and his Roman alter-ego have blended since the Renaissance. Interpretations of Heracles/Hercules may be found under [[Hercules]].
The storyteller [[Odds Bodkin]] has created spoken and musical retelling of the story of Heracles/Hercules, entitled "The Rage of Hercules," which tells, from Heracles' point of view, many tales, including those of his labors, his service to [[Omphale]], and his rescue of Alcestis.
== Spoken-word myths &ndash; audio files ==
{| border=&qu |
land is a coralline limestone plateau while the south contains volcanic peaks. A coral reef surrounds most of the island. Guam is the southernmost island in the Mariana Island chain and is the largest island in Micronesia. Guam lies along the [[Marianas Trench]], a deep subduction zone at the edge of the Pacific plate. The [[Challenger Deep]], the deepest point on [[earth]], is southwest of Guam at 35,797 ft (10,911 meters) deep. The island experiences occasional earthquakes. In recent years, quakes with epicenters near Guam have had magnitudes ranging from 7.0 to 8.2. Guam is divided into 19 municipalities (often called [[Villages of Guam| villages]]).
== Weather ==
The climate is characterized as tropical marine. The weather is generally warm and humid with little seasonal temperature variation. The average mean temperature is 86 degrees Fahrenheit (30 degrees Celsius) with an average annual rainfall of 86 inches (2,180 millimeters).
The dry season runs from December through June. The remaining months constitute the rainy season. The highest risk of typhoons is during October and November.
An average of three tropical storms and one typhoon pass within 180 nautical miles <!--nautical or statute? erring on the side of caution and guessing nautical--> (330 km) of Guam each year. The most intense typhoon to pass over Guam recently was Typhoon Pongsona which struck Guam in December 2002.
==Ecological Issues==
[[Image:snake_browntree.jpg|thumb|right|Brown Tree Snake]]
The island is also known as a prominent example for the disastrous effects of [[Invasive species|bioinvasion]]: A [[stowaway]] on U.S. military transport at the end of World War II, the slightly venomous, but rather harmless, [[brown tree snake]] (''Boiga irregularis'') came north to Guam and killed almost the entire native bird population on the previously snake-free island. This snake has no natural predators on the island; nowadays, Guam is one of the areas with the highest snake density in the world (an estimated 2,000 snakes/km²). Even so, residents rarely see these snakes. They curl up and hide during the day, and move about on trees and fences at night. As prodigious tree climbers, the snakes allegedly caused frequent blackouts in neighborhoods across the Island. Now many power poles have a slick metal sheath that prevents the snakes from climbing.
The disappearance of Guam’s birds and fruit bats (hunted and eaten as a delicacy) could impact plants which require them to spread seeds. The loss of insectivorous birds and lizards has also led in an increased threat from insect pests. This has caused decreased crop yields and defoliation of forests.
Other introduced species include toads imported in 1937, the giant African Snail, an agricultural pest, introduced during WWII, and more recently, frog species which could threaten crops in addition to providing additional food for the brown tree snake population. Fears that their loud croaking will harm tourism also exist.
==Guam in Entertainment==
* In the 1996 [[Matilda (film)|film version]] of [[Roald Dahl]]'s ''[[Matilda (novel)|Matilda]]'', Matilda's family decide to move to Guam to avoid the arrest of Harry Wormwood, Matilda's father. Matilda protests and is quickly adopted by her teacher Miss Honey.
* Another noteworthy mention of Guam is made by author [[Gordon Korman]] in his ''Island'' trilogy series. Guam is the setting in the first book, ''Shipwreck'', where six "naughty" kids are put on a ship and become shipwrecked, but learn skills of survival, trust, and friendship along the way.
* In the episode of [[Disney Channel]]'s ''[[The Suite Life of Zack & Cody]]'' where Zack helps Maddie to achieve the prom of her dreams, Zack is led to believe that he is Maddie's dream date, despite the fact that Maddie is three years older. Zack reasons with his mom that when he's 17 and Maddie is 20, they could "get married in 48 states" and '''Guam'''.
* In the episode of NBC's ''[[Friends]]'' where Rachel turns 30 she is bummed out about turning thirty years old and she says "You know, I'm still 29 in Guam." This, however, would be an incorrect statement as Guam lies west of the [[International Date Line]].
* In ''[[Hedwig and the Angry Inch]]'', one character wants to leave to perform in the musical ''[[Rent]]'' as it tours Guam.
* [[Mariah Carey]] heard that the island had no birds due to the brown snake and she offered to release birds there. A Guamanian politician met with her to let her know it is not exactly true.
* In the 2004 comedy "Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story" starring [[Vince Vaughn]] and [[Ben Stiller]], the lead female character Kate mentions Guam when her friend unexpectedly shows up to watch the championship dodgeball match.
* In "Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (1999)" A small clip of Guam is shown in the beginning of the movie.
* In a Season Two episode of ''[[Magnum P.I.]]'' ("The Jororo Kill"), the fictional Jororo islands are located 1200 miles southeast of Guam. It's interesting that Jororo's "President Santos" has a slight Filipino accent and, near the end of the episode, attends a private Roman Catholic Mass, both apparently references to the Philippine Islands (1500 miles west of Guam).
==See also==
*[[Dive Sites of Guam]]
*[[Schools of Guam]]
*[[Aloha Council#Scouting in Guam|Scouting in Guam]]
*[[Villages of Guam]]
''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000:''
* [[Demographics of Guam]]
* [[Economy of Guam]]
* [[Geography of Guam]]
* [[List of radio stations in Guam]]
==External links==
* [http://ns.gov.gu/ Official Guam Webpage]
* [http://www.guampedia.com/ Guampedia]
* [http://www.guamhumanitiescouncil.org/ Guam Humanities Council]
* [http://www.guampdn.com/apps/pbcs.dll/frontpage ''Pacific Daily News'', Guam's Primary Newspaper]
* [http://kuam.com/ ''KUAM'', Guam's Primary News Channel]
* [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/micronesia/index.html Map of Micronesia]
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/guam.html Maps - Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection]
* [http://www.mymicronesia.com/guam/ myMicronesia/Guam section]
*[http://www.mesc.usgs.gov/resources/education/bts/bts_home.asp The Brown Tree Snake on Guam] How the arrival of one invasive species damaged the ecology, commerce, electrical systems, and human health on Guam: A comprehensive information source.
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/guam/guam.html U.S. Library of Congress - Portals to the World]
* [http://www.guampowerauthority.com/servingyoubetter/SWAC.htm Guam Power Authority Sea Water Air Conditioning Project]
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<username>Susvolans</username>
<id>94325</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[George W. Bush]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Game Boy line</title>
<id>11979</id>
<revision>
<id>42133307</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:11:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nintendude</username>
<id>584148</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = ''Game Boy''
|logo =
|image = [[Image:Gameboy.jpg|250px|CENTER]]
|manufacturer = [[Nintendo]]
|type = [[Handheld game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (8-bit era)|Third generation era]]
|lifespan = [[April 21]], [[1989]]
|media = Game Boy cartridges
|onlineservice =
|topgame = ''[[Tetris]]''
}}
The '''Game Boy''' line ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ゲームボーイ ''Gēmu Bōi'') is a line of [[Battery (electricity)|battery]]-powered [[handheld game console]]s sold by [[Nintendo]]. It is one of the best-selling game system lines selling over 120 million units world wide [[As of 2005|to date]], and has spawned many successful spin-offs. The original Game Boy's design set the standard for handheld gaming consoles.
==History==
[[Nintendo]]'s Game Boy handheld was first released in 1989. The gaming device was the brainchild of long-time Nintendo employee [[Gunpei Yokoi]], who was the person behind the ''[[Ultra Hand]]'', an expanding arm toy created and produced by Nintendo in 1970, long before N |
an sometimes automatically choose the layout for an array so that sequentially accessed elements are stored sequentially in memory; in our example, it might choose row-major order for '''A''', and column-major order for '''B'''. Even more exotic orderings can be used, for example if we iterate over the [[main diagonal]] of a matrix.
==Array system cross-reference list==
{| style="font-size: 80%; border: 1px solid black;" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|+
! [[Programming language]]
! [[Array#Indices_into_arrays|Base index]]
! Bound Check
! [[Array#Multi-dimensional_arrays|Dimensions]]
! [[Dynamic_array|Dynamic]]
|-
| [[Ada programming language|Ada]]
| style="background:honeydew;" | n
| style="background:honeydew;" | checked
| style="background:honeydew;" | n
| style="background:azure;" | init<sup>1</sub>
|-
| [[assembly language]]
| style="background:azure;" | 0
| style="background:seashell;" | unchecked
| style="background:azure;" | 1
| style="background:seashell;" | no
|-
| [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]]
| style="background:AliceBlue;" | 1
| style="background:seashell;" | unchecked
| style="background:azure;" | 1
| style="background:azure;" | init<sup>1</sub>
|-
| [[C programming language|C]]
| style="background:azure;" | 0
| style="background:seashell;" | unchecked
| style="background:azure;" | 1<sup>2</sub>
| style="background:AliceBlue;" | heap<sup>3,4</sub>
|-
| [[C++]]<sup>5</sub>
| style="background:azure;" | 0
| style="background:seashell;" | unchecked
| style="background:azure;" | 1<sup>2</sub>
| style="background:AliceBlue;" | heap<sup>3</sub>
|-
| [[C Sharp|C#]]
| style="background:azure;" | 0
| style="background:honeydew;" | checked
|
|
|-
| [[D programming language|D]]
| style="background:azure;" | 0
| style="background:honeydew;" | checked
| style="background:honeydew;" | n
| style="background:honeydew;" | yes
|-
| [[Java programming language|Java]]
| style="background:azure;" | 0
| style="background:honeydew;" | checked
|
| style="background:AliceBlue;" | heap<sup>3</sub>
|-
| [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]
| style="background:honeydew;" | n
| style="background:honeydew;" | checked
|
| style="background:seashell;" | no
|-
| [[PL/I|PL/1]]
| style="background:honeydew;" | n
| style="background:honeydew;" | checked
|
|
|-
| [[Visual BASIC]]
| style="background:honeydew;" | n
| style="background:honeydew;" | checked
|
|
|}
<div style="font-size: 80%;">
# Size can be chosen on initialization/declaration after which it is fixed.
# Allows arrays of arrays which can be used to emulate multi-dimensional arrays.
# Size can only be chosen when memory is allocated on the heap.
# C99 allows for variable size arrays - however there is almost no compiler available to support the this new feature.
# This list is strictly comparing language features. In every language (even assembler) it is possible to provide improved array handling via add on libraries. This language has improved array handing as part of its standard library.
</div>
==See also==
*[[Array programming]]
*[[Array slicing]]
*[[Collection]]
*[[Monge array]]
*[[Parallel array]]
*[[Set (computer science)]]
*[[Sparse array]]
*[[wikibooks:Computer Science:Data Structures:Arrays]]
*[[wikibooks:Ada Programming/Types/array]]
==External link==
*[http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/array.html NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: Array]
[[Category:Arrays|*]]
[[cs:Pole (informatika)]]
[[de:Array]]
[[es:Vector (programación)]]
[[fr:Tableau (informatique)]]
[[it:Array]]
[[he:מערך (מבנה נתונים)]]
[[nl:Array]]
[[ja:配列]]
[[pl:Tablica]]
[[pt:Array]]
[[sk:Pole (údajová štruktúra)]]
[[sl:Tabela (računalništvo)]]
[[sr:Вектор]]
[[sv:Array]]
[[uk:Масив]]
[[zh:数组]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Advance Australia Fair</title>
<id>2053</id>
<revision>
<id>42041166</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:34:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nick Moss</username>
<id>128271</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Advance Australia Fair''' is the official [[national anthem]] of [[Australia]]. It was composed by [[Peter Dodds McCormick]] in the late [[19th century]], and first performed by [[Andrew Fairfax]] at a [[Highland Society]] function in [[Sydney]] on St Andrew's Day, ([[30 November]], [[1878]]). The song quickly gained popularity and an amended version was sung by a choir of 10,000 at the inauguration of the [[Commonwealth of Australia]] in 1901. In 1907, the Australian Government awarded McCormick £100 for its composition.
It emerged as the most popular choice for the national anthem after an opinion poll in 1974 (the Australian Bureau of Statistics polled 60,000 nationally). It was also the subject of a National Song Poll in 1977, where it garnered 43.6% of the vote, as against ''[[Waltzing Matilda]]'' (28.5%), the ''[[Song Of Australia]]'' (9.7%), and the then-current national anthem ''[[God Save the Queen]]'' (18.7%).
The anthem attracts occasional discussion in Australia, with allegations that both the tune and lyrics are mediocre, lacklustre or uninspiring. Another compaint is that it is not as popular or well known as other national songs, particularly ''Waltzing Matilda''. In particular the word "girt" (the [[English passive voice|passive form]] of the [[verb]] "to gird") meaning 'encircled' or 'surrounded' is criticised as obscure.
[[Image:National anthem booth - floriade.jpg|thumb|250px|The National Anthem booth at the 2005 Floriade, Canberra]]
==Historical notes==
Before its adoption as Australia's national anthem, ''Advance Australia Fair'' saw considerable use elsewhere. For instance, during [[World War II]], Australia's national broadcaster, the [[Australian Broadcasting Commission]], used it to announce its news bulletins. It was also frequently played at the start or end of official functions.
It was adopted as the national anthem by a 1984 decision of the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] government of [[Bob Hawke]], although it required a proclamation by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]] for the decision to become official.
==Alternatives==
Other tunes that have gained recognition in the popular mind as patriotic songs include the pop ballad ''[[I Still Call Australia Home]]'', by [[Peter Allen]] and the reggae-influenced rock song ''[[Down Under (song)|Down Under]]'' by band [[Men At Work]]. Also gaining popularity is ''[[I Am Australian]]'' by [[Bruce Woodley]] (better known as a member of [[The Seekers]]).
As part of [[New Year's Eve]] [[2004]] celebrations, [[Clover Moore]], [[Lord Mayor]] of the [[City of Sydney]], commissioned a dance [[remix]] of ''Advance Australia Fair'' with a verse of [[Waltzing Matilda]] in it, receiving mixed reactions. A previous remix of the song, released in 2003 by comedian [[Adam Hills]], set the song lyrics to the music of [[Jimmy Barnes]]'s ''[[Working Class Man]]''.
==Lyrics==
The lyrics of ''Advance Australia Fair'' express relatively uncontroversial Australian self-beliefs and aspirations.
For its adoption as the national anthem, the second, fourth, and fifth verses were dropped from the "official" version, as they emphasised the [[United Kingdom|British]] aspects of Australia's heritage, along with the virtues of Britain, and three lines were changed, in order to promote [[non-sexist language]] and to reflect the fact that Australia is no longer a 'youthful Commonwealth'. For example:
* the first line of the first verse: "Australia's sons let us rejoice" to "Australians all let us rejoice".
* verse 3 (verse 2 of official version), line 3 : "To make this youthful Commonwealth" to "To make this Commonwealth of ours".
* verse 3 (verse 2 of official version), line 5 : "For loyal sons beyond the seas" to "For those who've come across the seas".
There lies some ambiguity in the enduring popularity of '''''[[Waltzing Matilda]]''''', which is often regarded as a much finer tune and has been part of the Australian imagination almost since its composition 110 years ago. Many non-Australians simply assume the tune is Australia's anthem. However, Waltzing Matilda's lyrics, detailing the exploits of an itinerant who steals a sheep and then drowns himself in an effort to avoid capture by the police and the local [[squatter]] (land-owner), are regarded by some Australians as unsuitable as an expression of Australian values, and, indeed, as unsuitable topics for discussion in a national anthem. Nevertheless, its long-lasting popularity suggests that other Australians have a lingering sense of identification with the romantic figure of the [[swagman]], his precarious existence, his stubborn defiance of authority and his working-class status.
===''Advance Australia Fair'' - The official version===
:Australians all let us rejoice,
:For we are young and free;
:We've golden soil and wealth for toil,
:Our home is girt by sea;
:Our land abounds in Nature's gifts
:Of beauty rich and rare;
:In history's page, let every stage
:Advance Australia fair!
:In joyful strains then let us sing,
:"Advance Australia fair!"
:Beneath our radiant [[Crux|Southern Cross]],
:We'll toil with hearts and hands;
:To make this Commonwealth of ours
:Renowned of all t |
oat:right; width:312px; text-align:left;">[[Image:Poor little birdie teased by Richard Doyle.jpg|312px|Poor little birdie teased by Richard Doyle]]
{|style="border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; background-color: #F9F9F9"
|-
|<p style="font-size: 8.5pt;">''Poor little birdie teased'', by [[Victorian era]] illustrator [[Richard Doyle (illustrator)|Richard Doyle]] depicts the traditional view of an elf from later [[English folklore]] as a diminutive woodland humanoid.</p>
|}</div>
The word ''elf'' came into [[English language|English]] as the [[Old English language|Old English]] word ''ælf'' (pl. ''ælfe'', with regional and chronological variants such as ''ylfe'' and ''ælfen''), and so came to [[Great Britain|Britain]] originally with the [[Anglo-Saxons]].{{mn|Hall 2004|H-6}} Words for the [[nymphs]] of the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology|Roman mythos]] were translated by Anglo-Saxon scholars with ''ælf'' and variants on it.{{mn|Hall 2004|H-7}}
Although our early English evidence is slight, there are reasons to think that Anglo-Saxon elves (''ælfe'') were similar to early elves in Norse mythology: human-like, human-sized supernatural beings, capable of helping or harming the people who encountered them. In particular, the pairing of ''[[æsir]]'' and ''[[álfar]]'' found in the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'' is mirrored in the Old English charm ''[[Wið færstice]]'' and in the distinctive occurrence of the cognate words ''os'' and ''ælf'' in Anglo-Saxon personal names (e.g. Oswald, Ælfric{{mn|Hall 2004|H-8}}).
In relation to the beauty of the Norse elves, some further evidence is given by old English words such as ''ælfsciene'' ("elf-beautiful"), used of seductively beautiful Biblical women in the Old English poems ''[[Judith (poem)|Judith]]'' and ''Genesis A''.{{mn|Hall 2004|H-9}} Although elves could be considered to be beautiful and potentially helpful beings in some sections of English-speaking society throughout its history, Anglo-Saxon evidence also attests to alignments of elves with demons, as for example in line 112 of ''[[Beowulf]]''. On the other hand, ''oaf'' is simply a variant of the word ''elf'', presumably originally referring to a [[Changeling_(legend)|changeling]] or to someone stupefied by elvish [[enchant]]ment.
Little documentation exists on English rustic beliefs and terminology before the [[19th century]], but it seems that the term ''elf'' was used, at least on some occasions or in some places, for various kinds of uncanny [[wight]]s, either human-sized or smaller. But other terms were also used.
''Elf-shot'' (or ''elf-bolt'' or ''elf-arrow'') is a word found in Scotland and Northern England, first attested in a manuscript of about the last quarter of the [[16th century]]. Although first attested in the sense 'sharp pain caused by elves', it is later attested denoting [[Neolithic]] [[flint]] [[arrow]]-heads, which by the [[17th century]] seem to have been attributed in Scotland to elvish folk, and which were used in healing rituals, and alleged to be used by witches (and perhaps elves) to injure people and cattle.{{mn|Hall 2005|H-10}} So too a tangle in the hair was called an ''elf-lock'', as being caused by the mischief of the elves, and sudden paralysis was sometimes attributed to ''elf-stroke''. Compare with the following excerpt from an [[1750]] ode by [[William Collins (poet)|Willam Collins]]:
:''There every herd, by sad experience, knows''
:''How, winged with fate, their elf-shot arrows fly,''
:''When the sick ewe her summer food forgoes,''
:''Or, stretched on earth, the heart-smit heifers lie.''{{mn|Collins 1750|C-1}}
The elf makes many appearances in [[ballads]] of English and Scottish origin, as well as folk tales, many involving trips to [[Elphame]] or Elfland (the ''Álfheim'' of Norse mythology), a mystical realm which is sometimes an eerie and unpleasant place. The elf is often portrayed in a positive light, such as the Queen of Elphame in the ballad ''[[Thomas the Rhymer]]'', but examples exist of the elf has a sinister character, as in the ''Tale of [[Childe Rowland]]'', or the ballad ''[[Lady Isabel of the Elf-Knight]]'', in which the Elf-Knight bears away Isabel to murder her. In none of these cases is the elf a [[Sprite (creature)|spritely]] character with [[pixie]]-like qualities.
English [[folktale]]s of the [[early modern period]] typically portray elves as small, elusive people with mischievous personalities. They are not evil but might annoy humans or interfere in their affairs. They are sometimes said to be invisible. In this tradition, elves became more or less synonymous with the [[fairy|fairies]] that originated from [[Celtic mythology|native British mythology]], for example, the [[Wales|Welsh]] ''Ellyll'' (plural ''Ellyllon'') and ''Y Dynon Bach Têg''.
[[Image:Rackham elves.jpg|300px|thumb|left|''"To make my small elves coats; and some keep back."'' One of [[Arthur Rackham]]'s illustrations to [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]''. [http://classics.freehomepage.com/midsummer/midsummer.html] ]]
Successively, the word ''elf'', as well as literary term ''fairy'', evolved to a general denotation of various nature spirits like ''[[Puck (mythology)|pwcca]]'', ''[[Hobgoblin (fairy)|hobgoblin]]'', ''[[Robin Goodfellow]]'', the Scots ''[[brownie (elf)|brownie]]'', and so forth. These terms, like their relatives in other [[European languages]], are no longer clearly distinguished in popular [[folklore]].
Significant for the distancing of the concept of elves from its mythological origins was the influence from literature. In [[Elizabethan England]], [[William Shakespeare]] imagined elves as little people. He apparently considered elves and fairies to be the same race. In ''[[Henry IV, part 1]]'', act II, scene iv, he has [[Falstaff]] call [[Henry V of England|Prince Henry]], "you starveling, you elfskin!", and in his ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'', his elves are almost as small as [[insect]]s. On the other hand, [[Edmund Spenser]] applies ''elf'' to full-sized beings in ''[[The Faerie Queene]]''.
The influence of Shakespeare and [[Michael Drayton]] made the use of ''elf'' and ''[[fairy]]'' for very small beings the norm. In [[Victorian era|Victorian]] literature, elves usually appeared in illustrations as tiny men and women with pointed ears and stocking caps. An example is [[Andrew Lang]]'s fairy tale ''Princess Nobody'' ([[1884]]), illustrated by [[Richard Doyle]], where fairies are tiny people with [[butterfly]] wings, whereas elves are tiny people with red stocking caps. There were exceptions to this rule however, such as the full-sized elves who appear in [[Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron Dunsany|Lord Dunsany]]'s ''The King of Elfland's Daughter''.
==Modern elves==
===Elves at Christmas===
[[Image:Tony Cox as elf.jpg|framed|150px|right|[[Tony Cox]] as ''Marcus'' in the movie ''[[Bad Santa]]'', who is working as an elf assisting Santa Claus at a supermarket.]]
In [[United States|USA]], [[Canada]], and the [[United Kingdom]], the modern children's [[folklore]] of [[Santa Claus]] typically includes [[diminutive]], green-clad elves as Santa's assistants. They wrap [[Christmas]] gifts and make [[toy]]s in a workshop located in the [[Arctic]]. In this portrayal, elves slightly resemble nimble and delicate versions of the [[Norse dwarves|dwarves]] of Norse mythology.
The vision of the small but crafty Christmas elf has come to influence modern popular conception of elves, and sits side by side with the fantasy elves following Tolkien's work (see below). The American cookie company [[Keebler]] has long advertised that its cookies are made by elves in a hollow tree, and [[Kellogg's]], who happens to now be the owner of Keebler, uses the elves of Snap, Crackle, and Pop as mascots of [[Rice Krispies]] cereal, and the role of elves as Santa's helpers has continued to be popular, as evidenced by the success of the movie [[Elf (film)|''Elf'']].
===Elves in modern fantasy===
{{main|Elves in fantasy fiction and games}}
[[Image:elrond11.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Hugo Weaving]] portrays [[Elrond]] the [[half-elf]], lord of [[Rivendell]], in one film interpretation of ''[[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|The Lord of the Rings]]''.]]
Modern [[fantasy]] literature has revived the elves as a race of semi-divine beings of human stature. Fantasy elves are different from Norse elves, but are more akin to that older mythology than to folktale elves – they are unlikely to sneak in at night and help a cobbler mend his shoes. The grim Norse-style elves of human size introduced [[Poul Anderson]]'s fantasy novel ''[[The Broken Sword]]'' from [[1954]] are one of the first precursors to modern fantasy elves, although they are overshadowed by the Elves of the [[twentieth century|twentieth-century]] [[philology|philologist]] and [[fantasy]] writer [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]. Tolkien had little use for Shakespearean fairy portrayals or for Victorian diminutive fairy prettiness and whimsy, aligning his elves with the god-like and human-sized ''[[Light Elf|ljósálfar]]'' of [[Norse mythology]]. His Elves were conceived a race of beings similar to humans but fairer and wiser, with greater spiritual powers, keener senses, and a closer empathy with nature. They are great smiths and fierce warriors on the side of [[Goodness and value theory|good]]. Tolkien's [[Elves (Middle-earth)|Elves of Middle-earth]] may in one view be seen as a representation of what human beings might have become, had they not committed the [[original sin]], and they are very much human, though [[Fall of Man|Unfallen]] and [[Immortality|immortal]] in that they do not wither with age or fall foul of disease.
They can however be killed in the same manner as any man and also may pass from grief.
Tolkien's ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' ([[1954]]-[[1958]]) became astoundingly popular and was much imitated. In the [[1960s]] and afterwards, |
political issues, although political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings. In [[1993]], India and its SAARC partners signed an agreement gradually to lower tariffs within the region. Forward movement in SAARC has come to a standstill because of the tension between India and Pakistan, and the SAARC Summit originally scheduled for, but not held in, November 1999 has not been rescheduled.
In November 1988, at the behest of the Maldivian government, Indian paratroopers and naval forces crushed a coup attempt by mercenaries. India's action, viewed by some critics as an indication of Indian ambitions to be a regional hegemon, were regarded by the [[United States]], the [[Soviet Union]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Nepal]], and [[Bangladesh]] as legitimate assistance to a friendly government, and to be fully in keeping with India's strategic role in South Asia.
===People's Republic of China===
''Main article: [[Sino-Indian relations]]''
Despite lingering suspicions remaining from the [[1962]] [[Sino-Indian War]] and continuing territorial/boundary disputes in [[Kashmir]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]], Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since [[1988]]. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize relations.
A series of high-level visits between the two nations have helped improve relations. In December [[1996]], [[PRC President]] [[Jiang Zemin]] visited India on a tour of South Asia. While in [[New Delhi]], he signed, with the Indian Prime Minister, a series of confidence-building measures for the disputed borders. This included troop reductions and weapons limitations, which appear to have taken place.
Sino-Indian relations received a setback in May 1998 when the Indian Defence minister justified the country's nuclear tests by citing potential threats from the PRC. However, in June 1999, during the [[Kargil]] crisis, External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh visited [[Beijing]] and stated that India did not consider China a threat. Relations between India and the PRC are on the mend, and the two sides handled the move from [[Tibet]] to India of the 17th [[Karmapa]] in January 2000 with delicacy and tact. In 2003, India formally recognized Tibet as a part of China, and China recognized [[Sikkim]] as a formal part of India in [[2004]].
Both India and China are members of the [[East Asia Summit]].
===New Independent States of the Former Soviet Union===
The [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) had major repercussions for Indian foreign policy. Substantial trade with the former Soviet Union plummeted after the Soviet collapse and has yet to recover. Longstanding military supply relationships were similarly disrupted due to questions over financing, although Russia continues to be India's largest supplier of military systems and spare parts.
Russia and India have decided not to renew the 1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and Friendship Treaty and have sought to follow what both describe as a more pragmatic, less ideological relationship. Russian President Yeltsin's visit to India in January 1993 helped cement this new relationship. Ties have grown stronger with President Vladimir Putin's 2004 visit. The pace of high-level visits has since increased, as has discussion of major defense purchases.
===United States===
[[Image:Humayun tomb rice.jpg|thumb|250px|In recent years, relations between two of the world's largest [[democracies]] have improved considerably. Shown here is US Secretary of State [[Condoleezza Rice]] during her visit to New Delhi in March 2005.]]
Historically, relations between India and the [[United States]] were somewhat cool following Indian independence, as India took a leading position in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and attempted to pursue even-handed economic and military relations with the [[Soviet Union]]. For most of the [[Cold War]], the US tended to have warmer relations with [[Pakistan]], primarily as a way to contain Soviet-friendly India and to use Pakistan to back the Afghan [[Mujahideen]] against the [[Soviet occupation of Afghanistan]]. An Indo-Soviet twenty year friendship treaty, signed in [[1971]], also positioned India 'against' the US.
However, since the end of the Cold War, India-US relations have improved dramatically. This has largely been fostered by the fact that the US and India are both vibrant democracies and have a large and growing trade relationship.
The economic sanctions imposed by the [[United States]] in response to India's nuclear tests in May 1998 appeared, at least initially, to seriously damage [[Indo-American relations]]. [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]] imposed wide-ranging sanctions pursuant to the [[1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act]]. U.S. sanctions on Indian entities involved in the nuclear industry and opposition to international financial institution loans for non-humanitarian assistance projects in India. The United States encouraged India to sign the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] (CTBT) immediately and without condition. The U.S. also called for restraint in missile and nuclear testing and deployment by both India and Pakistan. The nonproliferation dialogue initiated after the 1998 nuclear tests has bridged many of the gaps in understanding between the countries.
However, India has yet to sign the CTBT, or the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty|NPT]], opposing the discriminatory nature of the treaty that allows the 5 declared nuclear countries of the world to keep their nuclear arsenal and develop it using computer simulation testing. Prior to its nuclear testing, India had pressed for a comprehensive destruction of nuclear weapons by all countries of the world in a time-bound frame. This was not acceptable to the US and other countries. Presently, India has declared its policy of "no-first use of nuclear weapons" and the maintenance of a "credible nuclear deterrence". The US, under president [[George W. Bush]] has also lifted most of its sanctions on India and has resumed military co-operation. Relations with US have considerably improved in the recent past, with the two countries even taking part in joint naval exercises off the coast of India and joint air exercises both in India as well as in the United States.
On 2 March 2006 India and US has signed a pact on co-operation in civilian nuclear field. This was signed during the four days state visit of US president George Bush in India. On it’s part, India would separate its civilian and military nuclear programs. And the civilian programs would be brought under the safeguards of [[IAEA]]. United States would sell India the reactor technologies and the nuclear fuel for setting up/ upgrading its civilian nuclear facility. The US congress needs to ratify this since it’s laws prohibit trading of nuclear technologies and materials outside the framework of the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]]
India's ties with the US have grown stronger since the 9/11 attacks on the US. The country has long dealt with terrorism in several forms. From [[Kashmir]], since 1947, to [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], in the period 1984-1992, and to the restive [[North East India|North East]], since the late 1970s.
===United Kingdom & Commonwealth===
Since 1947, India's relations with the United Kingdom have been through bilateral, as well as through the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] framework. Although the Sterling Area no longer exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the UK still have many enduring links. This is in part due to the significant number of people of Indian origin living in the UK. The large South Asian population in the UK results in steady travel and communication between the two countries. The British "Raj"(Rule) allowed for both cultures to imbibe tremendously from the other. The English language and cricket are perhaps the two most evident British exports, whilst in the UK Indian music and food are fixtures in daily life. It's also notable that there are many [[List of English words of Indian origin|words of Indian origin]] now common to the language.
Economically the relationship between Britain and India is also strong. Britain is the largest investor in India after the US. The millions of pounds invested annually sustain a wide range of industries, including the controversial "call centres". Money flowing back to India from Indian expatriates in Britain is also quite substantial. These expatriates also tend to invest in real estate in India.
In the sphere of politics relations are mostly through multilateral channels, namely the Commonwealth. India has remained staunchly sovereign and has rejected any type of British intervention in regional affairs. Despite the occasional spats, such as the 1997 row when the Foreign Secretary [[Robin Cook]] offered to mediate a dispute over Kashmir, relations between London and New Delhi are warm. The [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen's]] visits to India have been enormously successful along with those by other members of the Royal Family. Britain has also supported India's rise to prominence on the international stage, including advocating a permanent seat on the Security Council.
==Disputes - international==
*Boundary with China in dispute; (see also: [[Aksai Chin]])
*Status of Kashmir with Pakistan;
*Water-sharing problems with Pakistan over the Indus River (Wular Barrage);
*A portion of the boundary with Bangladesh is indefinite;
*Dispute with Bangladesh over New Moore/South Talpatty Island
{{Life in India}}
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|India]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of India|*]]
[[Category:Politics of India]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Religion in India</title>
<id>14605</id>
<revision>
<id>41704083</id>
|
r programming are often referred to as [[software engineering]]. However, there is a lot of [[Debates within software engineering|disagreement]] over what the term "software engineering" actually means, and whether it is the same thing as programming.
{{mergefrom|Bachelor of Computer Science#Typical Degree Requirements}}
== Careers ==
Graduates in Computer Science may pursue careers in (among others):
{|
| [[Computer programming]]
| writing the software that runs on a computer
|-
| [[Software engineering]]
| designing, managing, and writing large software systems
|-
| [[Systems analysis]]
| solving computer problems and applying computer technology to meet the individual needs of an organization
|-
| Computer science
| performing research, often in a specialized field of computer science
|-
| [[Database administration]]
| designing and managing computer [[database system]]s and managing the security of those systems, a job often also done by specialists in [[information technology]]
|-
| [[Web development]]
| design, development, and maintenance of World Wide Web sites, though web development is also frequently the domain of [[graphic designer]]s and [[information technology]] specialists.
|}
== See also ==
*[[Computing]]
*[[List of basic computer science topics]]
*[[List of computer science conferences]]
*[[List of open problems in computer science]]
*[[List of publications in computer science]]
*[[List of prominent pioneers in computer science]]
== Notes ==
#{{note|def}}
:*"''Computer science is the study of information''" [http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html Department of Computer and Information Science], Guttenberg Information Technologies
:*"''Computer science is the study of computation.''" [http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict], Saint John's University
:*"''Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects.''" [http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 Massey University]
== References ==
* [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html 1998 ACM Computing Clasification System]. 1998.
* [[IEEE Computer Society]] and the [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_ieeecs/ieeecs/education/cc2001/cc2001.pdf Computing Curricula 2001: Computer Science]. December 15, 2001.
* {{note_label|Denning2000|Denning 2000|_}} P.J. Denning (2000), [http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf "Computer science:the discipline"], ''Encyclopedia of Computer Science'', 2000
* {{note_label|Constable2000|Constable 2000|_}} R.L. Constable (2000) [http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf "Computer Science : Achievements and Challenges circa 2000"], March 2000.
* {{note_label|Parnas1998|Parnas 1998|_}} D.L. Parnas (1998), "Software Engineering Programmes are not Computer Science Programmes", ''Annals of Software Engineering'', vol. 6, 1998, pgs. 19-37
== External links ==
{{wikibooks}}
{{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Computer Science}}
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Computer_Science/ Open Directory Project: Computer Science]
*[http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/ Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies]
* [http://www.geocities.com/tablizer/science.htm Belief that title "science" in "computer science" is inappropriate]
[[Category:Computer science| ]]
[[af:Rekenaarwetenskap]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catalan</title>
<id>5324</id>
<revision>
<id>35584415</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T20:44:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.195.132.252</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>spelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Catalan''' can refer to:
* The [[Catalan people]]
* The [[Catalan language]]
* An inhabitant of [[Catalonia]]
* A Catalan speaker, whether or not from strict Catalonia (see [[Catalan Countries]]).
* [[Eugène Charles Catalan]], a mathematician
* [[Catalan solid]], a concept in mathematics
* [[Catalan number]], a concept in mathematics
* [[Catalan Opening]], a chess opening
* [[Catalan forge]], an early type of open-hearth furnace
* [[Catalan vault]], an architectural feature (also known as a '''Catalan arch''' or a '''Catalan turn''')
* The [[Catalan Company]] (or '''Catalan Grand Company'''), a mercenary free company in 14th century Europe
* The Catalan [[middle dot]], an orthographic symbol
* [[Catalan Communications]], a publisher of graphic novels during the 1980s
* The [[lunar crater]] [[Catalán (crater)|Catalán]].
* The Spanish spectroscopist [[Miguel Ángel Catalán]] (1894-1957), after whom the lunar crater is named.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caspian Sea</title>
<id>5325</id>
<revision>
<id>41853337</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:57:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.68.185.170</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cities near the Caspian Sea */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Caspian Sea from orbit.jpg|thumb|right|Caspian Sea viewed from orbit]]
The '''Caspian Sea''' is a [[landlocked]] [[endorheic]] [[sea]] between [[Asia]] and [[Europe]] ([[European Russia]]). It is the world's largest inland body of water. It has a surface area of [[1 E11 m²|371,000]] [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (143,000 sq. mi.), and a maximum depth of about 980m (3200 ft). Thus it has characteristics common to both seas and [[lake]]s. It is often listed as the world's largest lake, though it is not a [[freshwater]] one. It has a [[salinity]] of approximately 1.2%, about a third the salinity of [[sea water]].
==Geography==
The Caspian Sea is bordered by [[Russia]] ([[Dagestan]], [[Kalmykia]], [[Astrakhan Oblast]]), [[Azerbaidzhan|Republic of Azerbaijan]], [[Iran]]/Persia ([[Guilan]], [[Mazandaran]] and [[Golestan]] provinces), [[Turkmenistan]] ([[Balkan Province]]), and [[Kazakhstan]], with the [[central Asia]]n [[steppe]]s to the north and east. On its eastern Turkmen shore is a large embayment, the [[Garabogazköl]].
The sea is connected to the [[Sea of Azov]] by the [[Manych Canal]].
===Cities near the Caspian Sea===
Major cities by the Caspian Sea:
* [[Baku]], [[Azerbaycan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Astara]], [[Iran]]
* [[Astara]], [[Azerbaycan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Lenkeran]], [[Azerbaycan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Sumqayit]], [[Azerbaycan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Neft Daslari]], [[Azerbaycan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Xacmas]], [[Azerbaycan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Astrakhan]], [[Russia]]
* [[Derbent]], Russia
* [[Bandar Anzali]], [[Iran]]
* [[Rasht]], province of [[Gilan]], [[Iran]].
* [[Chalous]], province of Mazandaran, [[Iran]]
* [[Turkmenbashi, Turkmenistan|Turkmenbashi]], [[Turkmenistan]] (formerly Krasnovodsk)
* [[Atyrau]], [[Kazakhstan] |
er, but lose out for the playoffs by one game.
* 1974 - Falcons fall into last place in the NFC West with a 3-11 record. Van Brocklin is dismissed as Head Coach.
* 1975 - With the first pick in the NFL Draft, the club selects quarterback [[Steve Bartkowski]] of the [[University of California]]. The Falcons finish the year with a 4-10 record, but Dave Hampton finally breaks the 1,000 yard mark (1,002) in a 22-13 loss to the [[Green Bay Packers]].
* 1977 - Former NFL quarterback [[Eddie LeBaron]] is named General Manager, and [[Leeman Bennett]] becomes the fifth Head Coach in club history. The Falcons defense sets an NFL record for the fewest points allowed in a 14 game season, 129. Falcons finish with a 7-7 record.
* 1978 - On November 12, Falcons win over the [[New Orleans Saints]] in a game now known as "Big Ben Right". With 19 seconds left, Bartkowski threw 57 yards into a cluster where [[Alfred Jackson]] caught a pass deflected by [[Wallace Francis]]. The Falcons make the playoffs for the first time with a 9-7 record, and beat the visiting [[Philadelphia Eagles]] 14-13 on Christmas Eve. The next week they lose to the [[Dallas Cowboys]] in Dallas, 27-20.
* 1979 - The team finishes with a 6-10 record. Records were broken for the season by [[William Andrews]] with 1,023 yards, by [[Wallace Francis]] with 74 catches for 1,013 yards and by Steve Bartkowski with 2,502 yards (203-379).
* 1980 - Highly successful season for the Falcons, as they finish 12-4. Bartkowski throws for three touchdowns on December 14 as the Falcons defeat the [[San Francisco 49ers]], 35-10 to win their first-ever NFC West division title. In the Divisional Playoffs, the Falcons lose to the [[Dallas Cowboys]], 30-27, as Cowboys rally for 20 points in Atlanta before a then-record 60,022 fans.
* 1982 - The Falcons make the playoffs in this strike-shortened season with a record of 5-4, but they would end up losing to the [[Minnesota Vikings]] in Minnesota 30-24. Bennett is dismissed as Head Coach soon after, and is replaced by [[Dan Henning]].
* 1989 - First-round draft pick [[Deion Sanders]] ends his lengthy contract holdout and reports to camp. He takes a Friday practice and Saturday walk through and puts on the football pads for the first time in seven months in the season opener vs. the Rams. In the first quarter, "Prime Time" returns a punt 68 yards for a touchdown. After hitting a home run for the [[New York Yankees]] earlier that week, it makes him the only modern day athlete to hit a HR and score a TD in the same week.
* 1991 - The "2 Legit 2 Quit" Falcons make the playoffs as the sixth seed with a 10-6 record, snapping a streak of eight consecutive losing seasons. Notable personalities on this team are CB [[Deion Sanders]] and WR [[Andre Rison]]. Rapper [[MC Hammer]] is seen on the sideline at several games during the season, as is country star [[Travis Tritt]]. The Falcons made it to the second round of the playoffs by beating the [[New Orleans]] [[New Orleans Saints|Saints]] at the [[Superdome]] (27-20). The next week, they would end up losing to the eventual Super Bowl champion [[Washington Redskins]] 24-7. After the season, the Falcons make a fateful trade with the [[Green Bay Packers]]. The Packers give them a first round [[NFL Draft]] pick for a third-string quaterback named [[Brett Favre]].
* 1992 - The [[Georgia Dome]] becomes the new home for the Atlanta Falcons, as they move from Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium.
* 1995 - In the final game of the season, the Falcons come from behind to beat the [[San Francisco 49ers]] 28-27 to secure a playoff spot. They go on to lose to the [[Green Bay Packers]] at [[Lambeau Field]] 37-20.
* 1998 - Led by QB [[Chris Chandler]] and RB [[Jamal Anderson]], the "Dirty Bird" Falcons have their greatest season to date. On [[November 8]], they won 41-10 over the Patriots at New England, snapping a streak of 22 consecutive losses at cold-weather sites in November and December that had dated back to 1982. The team finishes with a 14-2 regular season record and win the NFC West. On January 18, 1999, the Falcons upset the top-seeded 15-1 Vikings at Minnesota in the NFC Championship Game, 30-27 in overtime. They would lose, 34-19, to the [[Denver Broncos]] in [[Super Bowl XXXIII]].
* 2001 - Trade the #5 pick along with Tim Dwight to the [[San Diego Chargers]] for the #1 pick in the draft. With that pick they selected [[Michael Vick]], who goes on to become the face of the franchise.
* 2002 - The Falcons make the playoffs with a 9-6-1 record, then shock the National Football League on January 4th, 2003 by becoming the first road team in NFL history to defeat the [[Green Bay Packers]] 27-7 in a playoff game at [[Lambeau Field]]. Their playoff run would end in Philadelphia as the Eagles won, 20-6.
* 2003 - After star QB Michael Vick breaks his leg in the preseason, the Falcons suffer through a 5-11 season. With 3 games left in the season, coach [[Dan Reeves]] resigns, handing the team to his defensive coordinator and former Bills coach [[Wade Phillips]]. The Falcons draft [[Virginia Tech]] CB [[DeAngelo Hall]] with the 8th pick in the 2004 [[NFL Draft]].
* 2004 - Buoyed by the return of QB [[Michael Vick]] and energized by new Head Coach [[Jim L. Mora]], the Falcons go 11-5 and easily win the [[NFC South]]. After having a first round bye and defeating the [[St. Louis Rams]] in the Divisional Round 47-17, the team advanced to the NFC Championship game where they lost to the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] 27-10.
* 2005 - After a 6-2 start the Falcons lost 6 of their remaining 8 games. Bright spots include the Falcons ending their Monday Night Football jinx by going 3-0, and on Thursday, November 24, the Falcons played on [[Thanksgiving Day]] for the first time in franchise history, beating the [[Detroit Lions]] 27-7. On the next-to-last game of the regular season, the Falcons got eliminated from playoff contention with a 27-24 overtime loss against the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]]. The Falcons finished 8-8 and once again failed to attain back-to-back winning seasons.
===Season-by-season records===
{{Start NFL SBS|#B20032|#FFFFFF}}
|-
|1966 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 7th East || --
|-
|1967 || 1 || 12 || 1 || 4th Coastal || --
|-
|1968 || 2 || 12 || 0 || 4th Coastal|| --
|-
|1969 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 3rd Coastal || --
|-
|1970 || 4 || 8 || 2 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1971 || 7 || 6 || 1 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1972 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || --
|-
|1973 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || --
|-
|1974 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1975 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1976 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1977 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || --
|-
|1978 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1978-79|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1979 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1980 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1980-81|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1981 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || --
|-
|1982 || 5 || 4 || 0 || 5th NFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|First Round]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|1983 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1984 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1985 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1986 || 7 || 8 || 1 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1987 || 3 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1988 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1989 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1990 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1991 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1991-92|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1992 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1993 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1994 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1995 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1995-96|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
|1996 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1997 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1998 || 14 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFC West || Lost [[Super Bowl XXXIII]] ([[Denver Broncos|Broncos]])
|-
|1999 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|2000 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th NFC West || --
|-
|2001 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|2002 || 9 || 6 || 1 || 2nd NFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2002-03|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|2003 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC South || --
|-
|2004 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st NFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2004-05|Conference Championship]] ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|2005 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC South || --
{{end box}}
^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Falcons All-Time Record is 251-365-6 (including playoffs).
==Players of note==
===Current roster===
{{Template:Atlanta Falcons roster}}
===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
[[Image:AtlantaFalconsOld.png|right|framed|Falcons logo (1966-2002)]]
None
===Retired numbers===
* 10 [[Steve Bartkowski]], QB, 1975-85
* 31 [[William Andrews (American football player)|William Andrews]], RB, 1979-83, 1986 (short-lived comeback after knee injury)
* 57 [[Jeff Van Note]], C, 1969-86
* 58 [[Jessie Tuggle]], LB, 1987-2000
* 60 [[Tommy Nobis]], LB, 1966-76
* 78 [[Mike Kenn]], T, 1978-94
===Georgia Sports Hall of Fame===
* 60 [[Tommy Nobis]], LB, 1966-76
* 87 [[Claude Humphrey]], DE, 1968-78
* 57 [[Jeff Van Note]], C, 1969-86
* [[Marion Campbell]], Head Coach, 1974-76, 1987-89 (also Georgia native and [[University of Georgia]] player)
* 85 [[Alfred Jenkins]], WR, 1975-83
* 31 [[William Andrews (American football player)|William Andrews]], RB, 1979-83, 1986
* [[Dan Reeves]], Head Coach, 1997-2003 (also Georgia native)
===Not to be forgotten===
*[[Morten Andersen]]
*[[Jamal Anderson]]
*[[Ray Buchanan]]
*[[Chris Chandler]]
*[[Bill Fralic]]
*[[Michael Haynes]]
*[[Billy Johnson (American football)|Billy "White Shoes" Johnson]]
*[[Terance Mathis]]
*[[Tony Martin]]
*[[Chris Miller]] |
examples.
Even though useful content and productive users are sometimes decried as trolls, the consensus is that pure "trolling" benefits only the troll and trollhunters, and has no place in any forum. Most forums reject the claim that pure and intentional trolling serves any useful purpose. Some trolls have been known to try to troll threads into deletion, serving as a form of negative reinforcement to "newbies", but also helping at the same time to reduce the clutter of [[Spam (electronic)|spam]] threads on a large message board. In many cases, trolling can lead a forum administrator or moderator into implementing features to the site to prevent trolling. Although this could be regarded as improving the [[website]] itself, it remains that the features would not have been needed, had the trolls not been there.
==Behavioral issues==
Precise definitions of "troll" have been difficult because such definitions rely on assumptions about internal [[motivation]], which have been difficult to conculsively prove. Some behaviors, such as "name-calling" are not candidates for a "troll" classification unless their intent is to provoke a reaction, as "name-calling" could be considered more anti-social, perhaps falling under the classification of "flamer" instead.
Some have suggested that instead of calling somebody a "troll", they should focus on specific behaviors that a group finds uncomfortable, and enforce behavioral rules to consistently and fairly prevent such behaviors. The idea is to focus on the undesirable behavior itself, rather than on the motivation for the behavior. If such behaviors cannot be identified, then perhaps the alleged troll should be tolerated out of fairness. Some call this, the "If you cannot identify it, then tolerate it" plan.
==Alternative views==
While trolls and trolling are, by and large, considered a negative and undesirable presence on a forum, some claim a belief that trolling is inherently bad can have damaging consequences. The use of the word "[[terrorism|terrorist]]" is often cited as an example of stepping over the line. However, anything that is labeled with the word "terrorist" rallies a feeling of an "us versus them" [[mindset|mentality]], which is helpful both in ostracizing trollish behavior, and in strengthening the 'need' for anti-troll tactics, thereby consolidating the [[webmaster]]'s support.
In most cases, the latter is an unexpected bonus in dealing with trolls. However, a pertinent question arises: "What if this is the only goal, and that the webmaster merely wishes to silence a variety of criticisms, ranging from poor moderation and too much [[Advertisement|advertising]], to restrictions on discussion topics?" Playing the 'troll' card may therefore be the webmaster's weapon of choice.
Many (perhaps most) people, labelled "trolls", are simply being called thus by someone else in the course of a religious, political or other ordinary type of dispute; in other words, they are labelled as one for acting as a [[dissident]] or [[heretic]]. To characterize systems administrators or moderators as "the troll who got there first" is not entirely inaccurate. Many debates between those with and without administrative or legal powers seem simply to resemble a heated personal argument. On the Internet in particular, the holding of technological powers (such as the power to ban users or block [[IP address]]es) is not necessarily a sign of any superior political or [[moral]] judgement. Similarly, one may be labeled a ''troll'' for simply disagreeing with someone(often the topic starter).
As with similar pejorative labels, a group of people who are assigned the label can turn it around to create group identity, and the power to collectively resist. Individual outsiders using the label on someone become targets for a collective response. Insiders, however, may use the label without consequence, usually in a joking or disarming way.
Mr Comaish goes as far as to moot that the use of the term is a throwback to the early days of the Internet, when access was largely an exclusive, ruling class phenomenon. Despite assurances that the word is an 'English fishing term' he feels that the more obvious connotation, that of mythical Nordic untermenschen, clearly drowns the latter out, along with its credibility, and that the use of the term is therefore unacceptable in an inclusive online community.
==See also==
===Specific trolling subcultures===
* [http://www.bottleguy.com TCPunk]
* [[Gay Nigger Association of America]] (GNAA)
* [[Slashdot trolling phenomena]] (''see also'': [[Slashdot subculture]])
* [[Yahoo! trolling phenomena]]
* [[Troll organization|Troll organizations]]
* [[Trolltalk]] Trollgnaws: [[Meow Wars|alt.fan.karl-malden.nose]]
* [[rec.sport.pro-wrestling]]
===Related trolling terminology===
* [[Baiting]]
* [[James Parry|Kibo]]
* [[Page widening]]
* [[Sokal Affair]] (an offline example)
* [[Gadfly (social)]]
* [[AOLamer]]
* [[Breaching experiment]]
* [[Devil's Advocate]]
* [[Virtual community]]
* [[Jack Thompson]]
===Related terms===
* [[Schadenfreude]]
{{selfref|For Wikipedia's official views on trolls, see [[Wikipedia:Troll]].}}
==External links==
*[http://www.trollwars.com Troll Wars]: The only true gathering of trolls that acts a unit of destruction.
*[http://www.tcpunk.com/forum TCPunk.com]: One of the largest troll boards going over five years strong.
*[http://www.annoy.com/ Annoy.com]: A professional troll who fights for freedom of speech.
*[http://adequacy.org/ Adequacy.org]: Archive of Adequacy.org, now only an archive version of a troll site.
*[http://www.slis.indiana.edu/CSI/WP/WP02-03B.html Searching for Safety Online: Managing "Trolling" in a Feminist Forum] <!-- scare quotes from original paper -->
*[http://www.searchlores.org/trolls.htm#info Trolling for information]: How to use trolling techniques in order to lure information (together with [[fravia]]'s "[http://www.searchlores.org/trolls.htm#troscho Trolls and Schopenhauer]" comparison).
*[http://trollhalloffame.com/ The Troll Hall of Fame]: Trolling history, Links, and information on types of trolls.
===Troll FAQs===
*[http://www.searchlores.org/trolls.htm General, specific and fundamental trolling lore]
*[http://www.urban75.com/Mag/troll.html urban75 Trolling FAQ: Comprehensive guide to the dark art of trolling]
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&as_umsgid=36a7593e.22750214@ruble.net&lr=&hl=en-us alt.troll FAQ] (how-to)
*[http://spiralx.dyndns.org/howto.html Spiralx Slashdot troll how-to]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/space/usenet/ How to Handle a Troll and Beat Them at Their Own Game]
*[http://www.cuyamaca.net/bruce.thompson/Fallacies/intro_fallacies.asp Bruce Thompson's page on logical fallacies]
*[http://www.cs.uu.nl/wais/html/na-dir/net-abuse-faq/troll-faq.html alt.syntax.tactical FAQ]
*[http://faqs.jmas.co.jp/FAQs/1999/Feb/990211.01 afk-mn FAQ]: Mostly old-style Usenet trolling.
*[http://thingy.apana.org.au/~fun/fsckhead.html What Makes A Fuckhead?] by David Kendrick.
*[http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?FalseRepentance False repentance]
*[http://www.emoderators.com/papers/flames.html The relationship between social context cues and uninhibited verbal behavior in computer-mediated communication]
*[http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol7/issue1/baker.html Moral panic and alternative identity construction in Usenet]
* [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/T/troll.html Troll] entry in the [[Jargon File]]
*[[Ursine:Plonk|Plonk]] in [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]]
* [http://www.jestsandjokes.com/show.php3?joke=185 Humorous definition of a troll]
* [http://members.aol.com/intwg/trolls.htm Internet Trolls]
* [http://redwing.hutman.net/~mreed/warriorshtm/troller.htm Flame Warriors: Troller]: Witty and well observed cartoon depictions of flame warriors, including trolls and related types.
[[Category:Customary categories of people|Troll]]
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<page>
<title>India/History</title>
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<title>Geography of India</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Country geography |
name =India |
map =India 78.40398E 20.74980N.jpg|
continent =[[Asia]] |
region =[[South Asia]]<br />[[Indian subcontinent]]|
coordinates =20°00'N 77°00' E |
area ranking =7th |
km area =3,287,590 |
miles area =1,269,345.60 |
percent land= 90.44 |
percent water =9.56 |
km coastline =7,516 |
miles coastline =4,670.23 |
borders =[[Land borders|Total land borders]]:<br />14,103&nbsp;km (8,763&nbsp;miles)<br />[[Bangladesh]]:<br />4,053& |
ngarfræði]]
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<title>Cumulative Distribution Function</title>
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<title>Continuous Random Variable</title>
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<title>Calculus</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the term calculus see [[calculus (disambiguation)]]''
{{Calculus}}
'''Integral and differential calculus''' is a central branch of [[mathematics]], developed from [[algebra]] and [[geometry]]. The word "calculus" stems from the nascent development of mathematics: the early Greeks used pebbles arranged in patterns to learn [[arithmetic]] and [[geometry]], and the Latin word for "pebble" is "calculus", a diminutive of ''calx'' (genitive ''calcis'') meaning "limestone".
Calculus is built on two major complementary ideas. The first is '''[[differential calculus]]''', which studies the rate of change in one quantity relative to the rate of change in another quantity. This can be illustrated by the [[slope]] of a line. The second is '''[[integral calculus]]''', which studies the accumulation of quantities, such as areas under a [[curve]], linear [[distance]] traveled, or [[volume]] displaced. These two processes act inversely to each other, in a sense made specific by the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]].
Examples of typical differential calculus problems include:
*finding the [[acceleration]] and speed of a free-falling body at a particular moment
*finding the optimal number of units a company should produce to maximize their profit.
Examples of integral calculus problems include:
*finding the amount of water pumped by a pump with a set power input but varying conditions of pumping losses and pressure
*finding the amount of parking lot plowed by a snowplow of given power with varying rates of snowfall.
Today, calculus is used in every branch of the [[physical science]]s, in [[computer science]], in [[statistics]], and in [[engineering]]; in [[economics]], [[business]], and [[medicine]]; and as a general method whenever the goal is an [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimum]] solution to a problem that can be given in mathematical form. From a mathematical standpoint, it is used in conjunction with [[limit]]s which, roughly speaking, allow the control or accurate description of an otherwise uncontrollable output.
==Differential calculus==
{{main|Derivative}}
The derivative measures the sensitivity of one variable to small changes in another variable. Consider the formula:
:<math>\mathrm{Speed} = \frac{\mathrm{Distance}}{\mathrm{Time}}</math>
for an object moving at constant speed. The speed of a car, as measured by the [[speedometer]], is the derivative of the car's distance traveled, as measured by the [[odometer]], as a function of time. Calculus is a mathematical tool for dealing with this complex but natural and familiar situation.
Differential calculus can be used to determine the instantaneous speed at any given instant, while the formula "speed = distance divided by time" only gives the average speed, and cannot be applied to an instant in time because it then gives an undefined quotient [[zero divided by zero]]. Calculus avoids division by zero using the [[Limit (mathematics)|limit]] which, roughly speaking, is a method of controlling an otherwise uncontrollable output, such as division by zero or multiplication by infinity. More formally, differential calculus defines the instantaneous rate of change (the '''derivative''') of a [[mathematical function]]'s [[Value (mathematics)|value]], with respect to changes of the [[variable]]. The derivative is defined as a limit of a [[difference quotient]].
The derivative of a function, if it exists, gives information about its graph. It is useful for finding optimum solutions to problems, called [[maxima and minima]] of a function. It is proved mathematically that these optimum solutions exist either where the graph is flat, so that the slope is zero; or where the graph has a sharp turn ([[cusp]]) where the derivative does not exist; or at the endpoints of the graph. Another application of differential calculus is [[Newton's method]], a powerful equation solving [[algorithm]]. Differential calculus has been applied to many questions that were first formulated in other areas, such as business or medicine.
The derivative lies at the heart of the [[physical science]]s. Newton's law of motion, Force&nbsp;=&nbsp;Mass&nbsp;×&nbsp;Acceleration, involves calculus because acceleration is the derivative of the velocity. (See [[Differential equation]].) Maxwell's theory of [[electromagnetism]] and [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] are also expressed in the language of differential calculus, as is the basic theory of [[electrical circuit]]s and much of [[engineering]]. It is also applied to problems in [[biology]], [[economics]], and many other areas.
The derivative of a function ''y = f(x)'' with respect to ''x'' is usually expressed as either ''y'' ′ (read "''y''-prime") or as ''f ' (x)'' or as
:<math>\frac{dy}{dx}</math>.
==Integral calculus==
{{main|Integral}}
There are two types of integral in calculus, the indefinite and the definite. The indefinite integral is simply the antiderivative. That is, F is an antiderivative of f when f is a derivative of F. (This use of capital letters and lower case letters is common in calculus. The lower case letter represents the derivative of the capital letter.)
The definite integral evaluates the cumulative effect of many small changes in a quantity. The simplest instance is the formula
:<math>\mathrm{Distance} = \mathrm{Speed} \cdot \mathrm{Time}</math>
for calculating the distance a car moves during a period of time when it is traveling at ''constant'' speed. The distance moved is the cumulative effect of the small distances moved in each instant. Calculus is also able to deal with the natural situation in which the car moves with changing speed.
Integral calculus determines the exact distance traveled during an interval of time by creating a series of better and better [[approximation]]s, called ''[[Riemann sum]]s'', that approach the exact distance as a limit. More formally, we say that the definite integral of a function on an interval is a [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of Riemann sum approximations.
Applications of integral calculus arise whenever the problem is to compute a number that is in principle (approximately) equal to the sum of a large number of small quantities. The classic geometric application is to area computations. In principle, the area of a region can be approximated by chopping it up into many pieces (typically [[rectangle]]s, or, in [[coordinates|polar coordinates]], [[circular sector]]s), and then adding the areas of those pieces. The length of an [[circle|arc]], the [[Area (geometry)|area of a surface]], and the volume of a solid can also be expressed as definite integrals. [[Probability]], the basis for [[statistics]], provides another important application of integral calculus.
The symbol of integration is '''∫''', a stretched ''s'' (which stands for "sum"). The precise meanings of expressions involving integrals can be found in the main article [[Integral]]. The definite integral, written as:
:<math>\int_a^b f(x)\, dx</math>
is read "the integral from a to b of f(x) dx".
==Foundations==
There is more than one [[rigorous]] approach to the foundation of calculus. One is via the concept of [[limit (mathematics)|limits]] defined on the [[continuum (mathematics)|continuum]] of [[real number]]s. An alternative is [[nonstandard analysis]], in which the real number system is augmented with [[infinitesimal]] and [[infinite]] numbers. The tools of calculus include techniques associated with [[elementary algebra]], and [[m |
ference between sexes varies and is greatest in the largest species. Large male [[polar bear]]s may weigh twice as much as females, while smaller male and female bears are much more similar in weight. A bear's life span seems to last about 25 to 40 years. Bears living in the wild tend to die younger than their zoo-counterparts.
==Habitats==
Bears live in a variety of habitats from the tropics to the [[Arctic]] and from [[forest]]s to snowfields. They are mainly [[omnivore|omnivorous]], although some have a more specialised diet, such as polar bears. They eat lichens, roots, nuts, and berries. They can also go to a [[river]] or other body of water to capture fish. Bears will commonly travel far for food. Hunting times are usually in the dusk or the dawn except when humans are nearby.
Some of the large species, such as the [[polar bear]] and the [[grizzly bear]], are dangerous to humans, especially in areas where they have become used to people. For the most part, bears are shy and are easily frightened of humans. They will, however, defend their cubs ferociously.
==Behavior==
Bears mostly live alone, except for mothers and their cubs, or males and females during mating season. Bears form temporary groups only when food is plentiful in a small area. [[Alaskan brown bear]]s group in the same area to feed on [[salmon]] during the annual salmon runs, when the fish swim upriver to reach their spawning grounds. [[Giant panda]]s may also form small social groups, based on recent evidence, perhaps because [[bamboo]] is more concentrated than the patchy food resources of other bear species. Other bears may live alone but exist in a social network. A male and female may live in an overlapping home range, each defending their range from other bears of the same sex. Male young usually leave their mothers to live in other areas, but females often live in an area that overlaps that of their mother.
Bears travel over large territories in search of food, remembering the details of the landscape they cover. They use their excellent memories to return to locations where food was plentiful in past years or seasons. Most bears are able to climb trees to chase prey or gain access to additional vegetation. The only exceptions are polar bears and large adult [[brown bear]]s, whose heavy weight makes it difficult to climb trees.
===Reproductive behavior===
The bear's courtship period is very brief. Bears reproduce seasonally, usually after a period of inactivity similar to hibernation. Cubs come out toothless, blind, and bald. The cubs, usually born in litters of 1–3, will stay with the mother for six months. They will be fed by milk at first and will start hunting with the mother in three months. Then, they are weaned. However, they will still remain nearby for three years. The cubs reach sexual maturity at seven years. Normally, bears are very solitary and will not remain close together for long periods of time.
==Other==
Many bears of northern regions are assumed to [[Hibernation|hibernate]] in the winter. While many bear species do go into a physiological state called hibernation or winter sleep, it is not true hibernation. In true hibernators, body temperatures drop to near ambient and heart rate slows drastically, but they periodically rouse themselves to urinate or defecate and eat from stored food. The body temperature of bears, on the other hand, drops only a few degrees from normal and heart rate slows slightly. They do not wake normally during 'hibernation' therefore do not eat, drink, urinate or defecate the entire period. Higher body heat and being easily roused may be adaptations because female bears bear cubs during this winter sleep.
Laws have been passed in many areas of the world to protect bears from hunters or [[habitat destruction]]. Bears in captivity used to be trained to dance, box, or [[unicycle]], but it is now controversial to use animals in this way.
The Brown Bear is [[Finland]]'s national animal.
[[Kodiak Bear]]s are the largest type of bear ([[Polar Bear]]s are the heaviest though), indeed one of the largest extant carnivores. [[Sun Bear]]s are the smallest, only a bit smaller than the average person.
==Classification==
* '''Family Ursidae'''
** '''Subfamily Ailuropodinae'''
*** [[Giant Panda]], ''Ailuropoda melanoleuca''
*** Dwarf Panda, ''Ailuropoda minor'' (extinct)
** '''Subfamily Tremarctinae'''
*** [[Spectacled Bear]], ''Tremarctos ornatus''
*** [[Florida Cave Bear]], ''Tremarctos floridanus'' (extinct)
*** [[Arctodus|Giant Short-Faced Bear]], ''Arctodus simus'' (extinct)
*** [[Arctodus|Short-Faced Bear]], ''Arctodus pristinus'' (extinct)
*** [[Brazilian Short-Faced Bear]], ''Arctotherium brasilense'' (extinct)
*** [[Argentine Short-Faced Bear]], ''Arctotherium latidens'' (extinct)
**'''Subfamily Ursinae'''
*** [[Brown Bear]], ''Ursus arctos''
****[[Subspecies]] [[Syrian (Brown) Bear]] (''Ursus arctos syriacus'')
****[[Subspecies]] [[Grizzly Bear]], (''Ursus arctos horribilis'')
****[[Subspecies]] [[Kodiak Bear]], (''Ursus arctos middendorffi'')
****[[Subspecies]] [[Himalayan Brown Bear]], (''Ursus arctos isabellinus'')
*** [[American Black Bear]], ''Ursus americanus''
*** [[Polar Bear]], ''Ursus maritimus''
*** [[Asiatic Black Bear]], ''Ursus thibetanus''
**** ''Ursus thibetanus formosanus''
**** ''Ursus thibetanus gedrosianus''
**** ''Ursus thibetanus japonica''
**** ''Ursus thibetanus laniger''
**** ''Ursus thibetanus mupinensis''
**** ''Ursus thibetanus thibetanus''
**** ''Ursus thibetanus ussuricu''
*** [[Auvergne Bear]], ''Ursus minimus'' (extinct)
*** [[Etruscan Bear]], ''Ursus etruscus'' (extinct)
*** [[Cave Bear|European Cave Bear]], ''Ursus spelaeus'' (extinct)
*** [[Atlas Bear]], ''Ursus crowtheri'' (extinct)
*** [[Sloth Bear]], ''Melursus (Ursus) ursinus''
****[[Subspecies]] [[Sri Lankan Sloth Bear]] (''Melursus (Ursus) ursinus inornatus'')
****[[Subspecies]] [[Indian Sloth Bear]] (''Melursus (Ursus) ursinus ursinus'')
*** [[Sun Bear]], ''Helarctos malayanus''
****[[Subspecies]] [[Borneo Sun Bear]] (''Helarctos (Ursus) malayanus euryspilus'')
The genera ''Melursus'' and ''Helarctos'' are included in the genus ''Ursus''. The Asiatic Black Bear and the Polar Bear used to be placed in their own genera, ''Selenarctos'' and ''Thalarctos''.
A number of hybrids have been bred between American Black, Brown and Polar Bears (see [[Ursinae hybrid]]s).
==Evolutionary relationships==
Bears are members of the order [[Carnivore|Carnivora]], suborder [[Caniformia]], and family [[Ursidae]]. Other members of the [[Caniformia]] include wolves and other dog-like mammals (family [[Canidae]]), weasels, skunks, and badgers (family [[Mustelidae]]), raccoons (family [[Procyonidae]]), and walruses (family [[Odobenidae]]), seals (family [[Phocidae]]), and sea lions (family [[Otariidae]]). Although bears are often described as having evolved from a dog-like ancestor, their closest living relatives are the [[pinnipeds]] (walruses, seals, and sea lions).
The origins of the bears can be traced back to the raccoon-sized, dog-like ''[[Cephalogale]]'' from the middle [[Oligocene]] and early [[Miocene]] (approximately 20-30 million years ago) of Europe. ''Cephalogale'' gave rise to a lineage of early bears, the genus ''[[Ursavus]]''. This genus radiated in Asia and ultimately gave rise to the first true bears (genus ''Ursus'') in Europe, 5 million years ago. Extinct bear genera include ''[[Arctodus]]'', ''[[Agriarctos]]'', ''[[Agriotherium]]'', ''[[Plionarctos]]'' and ''[[Indarctos]]''.
Although there has previously been much discussion as to whether the [[Giant Panda]] belongs to the bear family or the [[raccoon]] family, recent [[DNA]] analyses have shown that the Giant Panda is a member of the Family [[Ursidae]] and as such is more closely related to other bears. The status of the [[Red Panda]] remains uncertain, but many experts, including [[Don E. Wilson|Wilson]] and [[DeeAnn M. Reeder|Reeder]], classify it as a member of the bear family. Others place it with the racoons in [[Procyonidae]] or in its own family, the [[Ailuridae]]. The many similarities between the two pandas are thought to represent [[convergent evolution]] for feeding primarily on bamboo.
There is also evidence that, unlike their neighbors elsewhere, the [[Brown Bears]] of Alaska's [[ABC Islands]] are more closely related to [[Polar Bears]] than they are to other Brown Bears in the world. Researchers Gerald Shields and Sandra Talbot of the [[University of Alaska]] Fairbanks Institute of Arctic [[Biology]] studied the [[DNA]] of several samples of the species and found that their DNA is different from that of other Brown Bears. The researchers discovered that their DNA was unique compared to Brown Bears anywhere else in the world. The discovery has shown that while all other Brown Bears share a Brown Bear as their closest relative, those of Alaska's ABC Islands differ and share their closest relation with the Polar Bear.
==Bears in mythology==
[[Image:Coabxvi.png|thumb|The saddled "bear of St [[Corbinian]]" the emblem of [[Freising]], here incorporated in the arms of [[Pope Benedict XVI]]]]
There is some evidence for prehistoric bear [[worship]], see [[Arctic]], [[Arcturus]], [[Great Bear]], [[Berserker]], [[Kalevala]]. Anthropologists such as [[Joseph Campbell]] have regarded this as a common feature in most of the [[fishing]] and [[hunting]]-[[tribe]]s. The prehistoric Finns, along with most finno-ugric peoples, considered the bear as the spirit of one's forefathers. This is why the bear was a greatly respected animal, with several euphemistic names. There has been evidence about early bear worship in China and among the [[Ainu people|Ainu]] culture as well.
In addition, the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] word for bear, ''*hr̥ktos'' (ancestral to the Greek ''arktos'', Latin ''ursus'', Welsh ''arth'' (c.f. [[Arthur]]), Sanskrit ''*ṛkṣa'', Hittite ''hartagga'') seems to have been s |
al characters in the palm of Helen's hand. She also learned to read English, French, German, Greek, and Latin in [[Braille]].
===Education===
In 1888, Helen attended the [[Perkins School for the Blind]]. In 1894, Helen and Anne moved to [[New York City]] to attend the [[Wright-Humason School for the Deaf]].
In 1898 they returned to Massachusetts and Helen entered [[The Cambridge School of Weston|The Cambridge School for Young Ladies]] before gaining admittance, in 1900, to [[Radcliffe College]]. In 1904 at the age of 24, Helen graduated from Radcliffe ''[[cum laude]]'', becoming the first deaf and blind person to graduate from a college.
[[Image:HK-gradpic.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Helen Keller, graduation from Radcliffe College, c. 1904]]
===Political activities===
Helen went on to become a world-famous speaker and [[author]]. She is remembered as an advocate for the sensorially handicapped, but also supported progressive causes. She was a [[suffrage|suffragist]], a [[pacifism|pacifist]] and a birth control supporter. In 1915 she founded [[Helen Keller International]], a non-profit organization for preventing blindness. Helen and Anne Sullivan traveled all over the world to over 39 countries, and made several trips to Japan, becoming a favorite of the Japanese people. Helen Keller met every U.S. President from [[Grover Cleveland]] to [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and was friends with many famous figures including [[Alexander Graham Bell]], [[Charlie Chaplin]] and [[Mark Twain]].
Helen Keller was a member of the [[Socialist Party]] and actively campaigned and wrote in support of the [[working class]]es from 1909 to 1921. She supported [[Socialist Party]] candidate [[Eugene V. Debs]] in each of his campaigns for the presidency. Her political views were reinforced by visiting workers. In her words, "I have visited sweatshops, factories, crowded slums. If I could not see it, I could smell it."
Newspaper columnists who had praised her courage and intelligence before she came out as a socialist now called attention to her disabilities. The editor of the [[Brooklyn Eagle]] wrote that her "mistakes sprung out of the manifest limitations of her development." Keller responded to that editor, referring to having met him before he knew of her political views:
<blockquote>"At that time the compliments he paid me were so generous that I blush to remember them. But now that I have come out for socialism he reminds me and the public that I am blind and deaf and especially liable to error. I must have shrunk in intelligence during the years since I met him...Oh, ridiculous Brooklyn ''Eagle''! Socially blind and deaf, it defends an intolerable system, a system that is the cause of much of the physical blindness and deafness which we are trying to prevent."</blockquote>
Helen Keller also joined the famous labor union, the [[Industrial_Workers_of_the_World|Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)]], in 1912 after she felt that parliamentary socialism was "sinking in the political bog." Helen Keller wrote for the IWW between 1916 and 1918. In "[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/keller-helen/works/1910s/16_01_16.htm Why I Became an IWW]," Helen wrote that her motivation for activism came in part due to her concern about blindness and other disabilities:
<blockquote>"I was appointed on a commission to investigate the conditions of the blind. For the first time I, who had thought blindness a misfortune beyond human control, found that too much of it was traceable to wrong industrial conditions, often caused by the selfishness and greed of employers. And the social evil contributed its share. I found that [[poverty]] drove women to a life of shame that ended in blindness."</blockquote>
===Writings===
In 1960, her book ''[[Light in my Darkness]]'' was published in which she advocated the teachings of the Swedish scientist and philosopher [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. She also wrote a lengthy autobiography called ''The Story of My Life''. She wrote a total of eleven books, and authored numerous articles.
===Honors===
On [[September 14]], [[1964]], [[President]] [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] awarded her the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]], the United States' highest civilian honor.
The state of Alabama honored Keller &mdash; a native of the state &mdash; on its [[:Image:Alabama quarter, reverse side, 2003.jpg|state quarter]].
There was also the Helen Keller Hospital that was dedicated to her.
===Later life===
Keller devoted much of her later life to raise funds for the [[American Foundation for the Blind]].
==Death==
Helen Keller died on [[June 1]], [[1968]], at the age of 87 from natural causes at 3:35 P.M. in Arcan Ridge, [[Easton, Connecticut]], more than 30 years after the death of Anne Sullivan, and was [[cremated]] in [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]]. Some sources, including an obituary in The New York Times, mistakenly said she died in [[Westport, Connecticut]]. The confusion arose from her use of a Westport postal box for her Arcan Ridge estate. Easton, which did not have a post office at the time, has named a middle school after one of its most famous residents. Her memorial service was at [[Washington National Cathedral]], where she was buried. Her tomb is located in the rear of the St. Joseph's Chapel on the Crypt level of the Cathedral.
==Helen Keller in the arts and popular culture==
A [[silent film]], ''[[Deliverance (1919 movie)|Deliverance]]'' (not to be mistaken for the other, much later and more famous movie ''[[Deliverance]]'' which is irrelevant to Keller) first told Keller's story. ''[[The Miracle Worker]]'', a [[play]] about how Helen Keller learned to communicate, was made into a [[film|movie]] three times. The 1962 [[The Miracle Worker|version]] of the movie won [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy_Award_for_Best_Actress|Best Actress in a Leading Role]] for [[Anne Bancroft]] who played Sullivan and [[Academy_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actress|Best Actress in a Supporting Role]] for [[Patty Duke]] who played Keller.
Another recent [[film]] about Helen Keller's life is ''[[The Miracle Continues]]''. This semi-sequel to ''The Miracle Worker'' recounts her college years and her early adult life. None of the early movies hint at the social activism that would become the hallmark of Helen's later life, although the [[The Walt Disney Company]] version produced in 2000 states in the credits that Helen became an activist for social equality.
The [[Hindi]] [[Bollywood|movie]] ''[[Black (2005)|Black]]'' released in 2005 was largely based on Keller's story, from her childhood to her graduation.
A new [[documentary]] ''[[Shining Soul: Helen Keller's Spiritual Life and Legacy]]'' was produced and recently released by The Swedenborg Foundation (2005). The [[film]] focuses on the role played by Emanuel Swedenborg's spiritual theology in her life and how it inspired Keller's triumph over her triple disabilities of blindness, deafness and a severe speech impediment.
In the comedy cartoon series [[South Park]] Helen Keller's life was shown in a musical.
Her life and achievements are celebrated annually in [[Tuscumbia, Alabama]], her hometown, in the [http://www.wraygraphics.com/hkfest/ Helen Keller festival].
In the animated series [[Family Guy]], the final scene of '''The Miracle Worker''' was shown in one episode with the characters speaking in [[Binary numeral system|binary]]. In another episode, the character Stewie played [[Marco Polo (game)|Marco Polo]] with her, while she obviously could not respond to his calls.
[[Strangers With Candy]] featured an episode with a scene done to mimic the 'miracle' scene of "The Miracle Worker."
Helen Keller has been one of the favourite targets of [[joke|jokes]] (seen by some as in poor taste) referring to her handicaps, and many collections are available on the internet [http://www.jokechallenge.com/keller.html].
In the [["Weird Al" Yankovic]] song "[[It's All About The Pentiums]]", there is a lyric "You're about as useless as JPEGs to Helen Keller". JPEGs are computer picture files, which are of no use to a blind person.
Keller is the fifth most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person in the 20th century, according to [[Gallup]].
==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote|Helen Keller}}
*[http://www.afb.org/helenkeller.asp American Foundation for the Blind's Helen Keller collection]
**[http://www.afb.org/braillebug/hkmuseum.asp Helen Keller Kids Museum Online]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Helen+Keller | name=Helen Keller}}
**{{gutenberg|no=2397|name=The Story of my life ''by Helen Keller'}}
*[http://www.helenkellerbirthplace.org/ Official site of Ivy Green, Helen Keller's birthplace]
*[http://www.medaloffreedom.com/HelenKeller.htm Presidential Medal of Freedom, Helen Keller]
*[http://www.helenkeller.org/ The Helen Keller Services for the blind]
*[http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/50sq_program/states/index.cfm?flash=yes&state=AL A likeness of Helen Keller is featured on Alabama's quarter]
*[[Marxists Internet Archive]]: [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/keller-helen/index.htm Helen Keller Reference Archive].
**[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/keller-helen/works/1910s/12_11_03.htm How I Became A Socialist], by Helen Keller, 1912-11-03
* [http://www.iww.org Industrial Workers of the World]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0627.html#top New York Times Obituary]
[[Category:1880 births|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:1968 deaths|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:Deafblind people|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:Socialists|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:Socialist Party of America|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:People from Alabama|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:Swedenborgians|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:Phi Beta Kappa|Keller, Helen]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hel |
c]]: 15
* [[Denmark]]: 15 for full consent (in regard to age differences) to sexual relationships; no limits when ages are less than 1 year apart (Meaning, no criminal charges are brought) ; 18 for dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.) and professional sexual ([[Prostitution]] is decriminalized in Denmark, but one can consent only when 18 or older).
* [[Ecuador]]:
** 14;
** 18 if woman is "honest" (not a prostitute) and "seduction" or deceit is used.
* [[Egypt]]: 18, homosexual sex is not mentioned in the law but homosexuals are prosecuted under various moral statutes
* [[Estonia]]: 14
* [[Finland]]: 16; 18 in dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.)and prostitution.
* [[France]]: 15; however sex with a minor under 18 in a dependency relationship may be criminalized.
* [[Germany]]:
** 18 years in dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.)
** 16 years if the older partner is over 18 and coerces the younger partner into sex other than by physical means, or if the older partner pays the younger partner to have sex ([[prostitution]])
** 16 years if the older partner is over 21 and exploits "lack of sexual self-determination" of the younger partner (only prosecuted after complaints or &#8220;public interest", in practice rarely prosecuted with little or no punishment)
** 14 years for all other sexual relationships
* [[Greece]]: 15 (since [[1987]])
* [[Guyana]]: 13 (legislation to raise the age to 16 is [http://www.gina.gov.gy/archive/daily/b050601.html#8 under discussion])
* [[Hungary]]:
** Since the 2002 decision of the Constitutional Court 14 for both heterosexual and homosexual relationships
* [[Iceland]]: 14
* [[Indonesia]]: 17 (18 for homosexual men)
* [[Iran]]: extramarital sex is illegal (see: [[Marriageable age]]), note that homosexual sex may be punishable by death
* [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland, Republic of]]: 17, 15 for non-penetrative sexual contact.
** Different sections of law, and indeed different government departments disagree on whether the age of consent is 17 or 16 or even 15, or whether or not a disparity still exists between male and female ages. The majority of sex education literature in schools, as well as the most recent act referencing the age of consent state 16, however more recent [[Dáil]] debates have put this into doubt.
* [[Israel]]: 16, but if the female is under 16 and above 14, the age difference should not be greater than 3 years between her and her partner. 18 if dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.)
* [[Italy]]: 14
* [[Japan]]: 13 nationwide. Some prefectures have additional legislation concerning sex with children between 13 and 16 (or 18 if "insincere" relation or prostitution), making the actual age of consent vary between 13 and 16 if prostitution is excluded. Age of marriage for a female with parental approval is 16.
* [[Jersey]]: 16 (18 for homosexual intercourse)
* [[Kazakhstan]]: 18
* [[Latvia]]: 16
* [[Lithuania]]: 14
* [[Madagascar]]: quite possibly 21 (heterosexual and homosexual)
* [[Malaysia]]:
** 18, but [[Muslim]]s must also be married
** homosexual sex is illegal (maximum 20 years' jail)
** Anal penetration is illegal in Malaysia, regardless of age.
* [[Mexico]]: [http://www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaMexico.asp]
** 12 (Article 266 of the Penal Code)
** 16 for prostitution (Article 201)
** 18 if deceit is used (Article 262 of the Penal Code)
* [[Morocco]]: 15, homosexual sex is illegal
* [[Netherlands]]: 16 (18 if dependent relationship or prostitution)
* [[New Zealand]]: 16 [http://www.legislation.govt.nz/libraries/contents/om_isapi.dll?clientID=197507246&infobase=pal_statutes.nfo&jump=a1961-043%2fs.134&softpage=DOC&wordsaroundhits=6#JUMPDEST_a1961-043/s.134 §134] (18 if prostitution ([http://www.legislation.govt.nz/libraries/contents/om_isapi.dll?clientID=197507246&infobase=pal_statutes.nfo&jd=a2003-028%2fs.20&record={98799F16}&softpage=DOC&wordsaroundhits=6 §20–23]) or some types of dependent relationships)
**Although anti-pedophile laws in New Zealand (as with all other western countries) are currently severe, consensual relationship between adults and young teens are usually not prosecuted unless the parent or child complain about it.
**Before 2005, there was never a law in New Zealand prohibiting any form of sexual relationship between women and boys. Until the Crimes Amendment Act (No.2) came into force in May 2005, the age of consent was 16 for older men and young girls, as well as for homosexual males (since legalization in 1986), but there was no age of consent where a woman was the older partner with a boy, and for Lesbian sex the age of consent was 12 if both partners were under 21 (16 if otherwise). This law was only amended recently after being in force for over 100 years. The legal loophole was identified in 2003 when a 21-year-old man faced imprisonment for sex with a 14-year-old girl, while a 21-year-old woman at the same time made her relationship with a 13-year-old boy public with the media because she knew she couldn't be charged.
** New Zealand decriminalised prostitution in 2003 with a legal age of 18.
* [[Norway]]: 16 [http://www.lovdata.no/all/hl-19020522-010.html#196 §196]
* [[Pakistan]]: 18
* [[Panamá]]:
** 12 if female.
** 14 if male.
* [[Paraguay]]:
** 14;
** 16 if one of them is married to another person;
** 16 if homosexual
* [[Peru]]: 14
* [[Philippines]]: 12 (restrictions on partners under 18 such as prostitution)
* [[Poland]]: 15
* [[Portugal]]: heterosexual 14, homosexual 16
* [[Puerto Rico]]: 16
* [[Romania]]: 15; 18 in dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.)
* [[Russia]]: 16
** only a person over 18 can be charged;
** charges are relatively low (up to 4 years of prison); this includes sexual acts (hetero and homosexual) and "obscene actions" (with even less charges) – ''Articles 134 and 135 of [http://base.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=LAW;n=57568;div=LAW Penal Code (in Russian)]'';
** if the victim is proved not to understand the nature and consequences of the act (due to their age or mental abilities), it will be considered rape and charged much more severely (up to 10 years of prison, or up to 15 if victim under 14) – ''Articles 131 and 132 of [http://base.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=LAW;n=57568;div=LAW Penal Code (in Russian)]'';
* [[Saudi Arabia]]: heterosexual must be married, homosexual illegal
** heterosexual sex outside marriage is punishable by [[flogging]]
** male and female homosexual sex is illegal by virtue of being outside marriage and punishable by death
** See: [[Human rights in Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Serbia-Montenegro]]:
** [[Serbia]]: heterosexual and female homosexual 14, male homosexual 18
** [[Montenegro]]: 14 (for all three types)
* [[Singapore]]: 16
** engaging sexual intercourse with a female aged under 14 is considered [[Statutory Rape]]
** engaging sexual intercourse with a female aged under 16 is considered an offense of ''"carnal intercourse with an underage female"'' (less severe than rape but still a punishable offense)
** homosexual sex is illegal and punishable by imprisonment, possibly for 10 years or even life
* [[Slovakia]]: 15
* [[Slovenia]]: 15
* [[South Africa]]: homosexual 19, heterosexual 16
* [[South Korea]]: 13 (19 if prostitution)
* [[Spain]]: 13 (possible restrictions apply under 16)
* [[Swaziland]]: heterosexual 13, homosexual acts are illegal
* [[Sweden]]: 15; 18 in dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.)
* [[Switzerland]]: 16, under 16 legal if age difference is no more than 3 years
* [[Tanzania]]: 18, homosexual sex is illegal
* [[Thailand]]: 15
* [[Tunisia]]: 20, anal intercourse between men is illegal
* [[Turkey]]: 18
* [[Ukraine]]: 16
* [[Uruguay]]:
** 15, though can be 12 in certain special cases. (Articles 272 and 267, [http://www.parlamento.gub.uy/Codigos/CodigoPenal/l2t10.htm Uruguayan Penal Code])
** No "corruption" of minors (below 18). (Article 274, [http://www.parlamento.gub.uy/Codigos/CodigoPenal/l2t10.htm Uruguayan Penal Code])
* [[United Kingdom]]: The [[Sexual Offences Act 2003]] is the relevant law. Ages of consent are the same for heterosexuals and homosexuals, but legal treatment varies slightly between different areas of the UK.
**[[England]] and [[Wales]]: heterosexual and homosexual 16 for both sexes
**[[Scotland]]: heterosexual and male homosexual 16
**[[Northern Ireland]]: heterosexual and male homosexual 17
**18 years for any sexual act if there is a relationship of trust (e.g. teacher/pupil), unless they are a married couple.
**Until 2003, there was no specific law regarding the female homosexual, though in England and Wales this has now been set at 16 years old. Although no such legislation exists for Scotland and Northern Ireland, a female under 16 is deemed incapable of consenting to any type of sexual behaviour which could be classed as sexual assault and the courts have taken this to mean that the age of consent is the same as for male homosexual acts.
**Before 2001 the homosexual age of consent in England and Wales was 18, and before the early 1990s it was 21, the age it was set at when consensual [[buggery]] was decriminalised in the 1960s. The heterosexual age of consent was raised from 12 to 16 in the late 19th Century.
* [[United States]]: Varies from state to state, usually 16; some states formerly forbade homosexual acts entirely, however such laws have been declared unconstitutional in 2003 (''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]''). ''Lawrence'' also had the effect of invalidating the differences between heterosexual and homosexual age of consent laws; the general, albeit untested, consensus is that the youngest age of consent law on the books in any given state now applies regardless of sexuality.
**Federal law forbids crossing state lines or international borders |
ode in the electrolytic process. After the water (if pure) has been placed in the [[apparatus]], nothing happens, hence there are not enough [[ions]] to let the passage of electrons occur. To start the electrolysis an electrolyte should be placed in, usually [[sodium chloride]] or [[sulfuric acid]] (most used 0.1 [[Molar concentration|M]]).
Bubbles from the gases will be seen near both electrodes. The following half reactions describe the process mentioned above:
:<math>\mbox{Anode (oxidation): }2H_{2}O(l) \rightarrow O_{2}(g) + 4H^{+}(aq) + 4e^{-}\,</math>
:<math>\mbox{Cathode (reduction): }2H_{2}O(g) + 2e^{-} \rightarrow H_{2}(g) + 2OH^{-}(aq)\,</math>
:<math>\mbox{Overall reaction: }2H_{2}O(l) \rightarrow 2H_{2}(g) + O_{2}(g)\,</math>
Although strong acids may be used in the apparatus, the reaction will not net consume the acid.
===Electrolysis of aqueous solutions===
An aqueous solution electrolysis is a similar process as mentioned in electrolysis of water, however is considered to be a complex process due to contents in solution had to be studied in [[chemical reaction|half reactions]] whether reduced or oxidized.
====Electrolysis of a solution of Sodium chloride====
The presence of water in a solution of [[Sodium chloride]] has to be examined over how is reduced and oxidized in both electrodes. Usually water is electrolysed as mentioned in electrolysis of water yielding ''gaseous [[oxygen]] in the anode'' and gaseous [[hydrogen]] in the cathode. On the other hand, sodium chloride in water [[Dissociation (chemistry)|dissociates]] in Na<sup>+</sup> and Cl<sup>-</sup> ions, [[anion]] will be attracted to the cathode thus reducing [[Sodium]] ion, and the [[cation]] will be attracted to the anode oxidizing [[Chloride]] ion.
The following half reactions describes the process mentioned:
:<math>\mbox{1. Cathode: }Na^{+}(aq)+ 1e^{-} \rightarrow Na(s) \qquad E^{o}_{red}=-2.71 V\,</math>
:<math>\mbox{2. Anode: }2Cl^{-}(aq) \rightarrow Cl_{2}(g) + 2e^{-} \qquad E^{o}_{red}= +1.36 V\,</math>
:<math>\mbox{3. Cathode: }2H_{2}O(l) + 2e^{+} \rightarrow H_{2}(g) + 2OH^{-}(aq)\qquad E^{o}_{red}=-0.83 V\,</math>
:<math>\mbox{4. Anode: } 2H_{2}O(l) \rightarrow O_{2}(g) + 4H^{+}(aq) + 4e^{-}\qquad E^{o}_{red}=+1.23V\,</math>
Reaction 1 is discarded as it has the most [[Negative and non-negative numbers|negative]] value on standard reduction potential thus making it less thermodynamically favorable in the process.
When comparing the reduction potentials in reactions 2 & 4, the reduction of chloride ion is favored. Thus, if the Cl<sup>-</sup> ion is favored for [[reduction]], then the water reaction is favored for [[oxidation]] producing gaseous oxygen, however experiments shown gaseous chlorine is produced and not oxygen.
Although the initial analysis is correct, there is another effect that can happen, known as the [[overvoltage effect]]. Additional voltage is sometimes required, beyond the voltage predicted by the <math>E^{o}_{cell}\,</math>. This may be due to [[chemical kinetics|kinetic]] rather than [[Thermochemistry|thermodynamic]] considerations. In fact it has been proved the [[activation energy]] for chlorine ion is very low, hence favorable in [[chemical kinetics|kinetic terms]]. In other words, although the voltage applied is thermodynamically sufficient to drive electrolysis, the rate is so slow that to make the process proceed in a reasonable time frame, the [[voltage]] of the external source has to be increased (hence, overvoltage).
Finally reaction 3 is favorable due to describes the proliferation of [[Hydroxide|OH<sup>-</sup>]] ions thus letting a probable reduction of [[Proton|H<sup>+</sup>]] ions less favorable option.
The overall reaction for the process according to the analysis would be the following:
:<math>\mbox{Anode (Oxidation): } 2Cl^{-}(aq)\rightarrow Cl_{2}(g) + 2e^{-}\,</math>
:<math>\mbox{Cathode (Reduction): } 2H_{2}O(l) + 2e{-}\rightarrow H_{2}(g) + 2OH^{-}(aq)\,</math>
:<math>\mbox{Overall reaction: } 2H_{2}O + 2Cl^{-}(aq) \rightarrow H_{2}(g) + Cl_{2}(g) + 2OH^{-}(aq)\,</math>
The overall reaction indicates, the [[concentration]] of chloride ions is reduced in comparison to OH<sup>-</sup> ions which concentration increases, the reaction also shows the production of gaseous [[hydrogen]], [[chlorine]] and aqueous [[sodium hydroxide]].
===Quantitative electrolysis & Faraday Laws===
{{Main|Faraday's law of electrolysis}}
Quantitative aspects of electrolysis were originally developed by [[Michael Faraday]] in [[1834]]. Michael is also credited to coined the terms ''[[electrolyte]]'', electrolysis, among many others while he studied quantitative analysis of electrochemical reactions. Also he was an advocate of the [[law of conservation of energy]].
[[image:Nickel-electroplating.PNG|thumb|200px|right|To [[refining|refine]] metals a process named [[electroplating]] is used (diagram shows [[Nickel]] refining); the process has its bases on the first and the second law of electrolysis stated by Faraday in the [[19th century]].]]
====First law====
Faraday concluded after several experiments on [[electrical current]] in [[spontaneous process|non-spontaneous process]], the [[mass]] of the products yielded on the electrodes was proportional to the quantity of current supplied to the cell and the molar mass of the substance analyzed.
In other words, the amount of a substance deposited on each electrode of an electrolytic cell is directly proportional to the [[Current (electricity)|quantity of electricity]] passed through the cell.
Below a simplified equation of Faraday's first law:
:<math>m \ = \ { 1 \over 96,485 \ \mathrm{C} } \cdot { Q M \over n } </math>
Where,
:''m'' is the mass of the substance produced at the electrode (in [[grams]]),
:''Q'' is the total electric charge that passed through the solution (in [[coulomb]]s),
:''n'' is the valence number of the substance as an ion in solution (electrons per ion),
:''M'' is the molar mass of the substance (in grams per [[mole (unit) | mole]]).
====Second law====
{{Main|Electroplating}}
Faraday devised the laws of chemical electrodeposition of metals from solutions in [[1857]]. He formulated the second law of electrolysis stating ''"the amounts of bodies which are equivalent to each other in their ordinary chemical action have equal quantities of electricity naturally associated with them."'' In other terms, the quantities of different elements deposited by a given amount of electricity are in the [[ratio]] of their chemical [[equivalent weight|equivalent weights]].
An important aspect of the second law of electrolysis is [[electroplating]] which together with the first law of electrolysis, has a significant number of applications in the industry, as when used to protect [[metal|metals]] to avoid corrosion.
== See also ==
* [[Activity series of metals]]
* [[Table of standard electrode potentials]]
* [[Electrochemical potential]]
* [[Bioelectricity]]
* [[List of publications in chemistry#Electrochemistry|Important publications in Electrochemistry]]
* [[Redox titration]]
* [[Contact tension]] - a historical fore-runner to the theory of electrochemistry.
==References==
* {{cite web
| title = Electrochemistry
| work = General Chemistry II by Dr. Michael Blaber
| url = http://wine1.sb.fsu.edu/chm1046/notes/Electro/Electrol/Electrol.htm
| accessdate = January 30
| accessyear = 2006
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Electrochemistry
| work = Corrosion
| url = http://colossus.chem.umass.edu/chandler/ch112/corrosion.htm
| accessdate = January 28
| accessyear = 2006
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Michael Faraday
| work = Biography
| url = http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Faraday.html
| accessdate = January 30
| accessyear = 2006
}}
* {{cite web
| title = The Faraday law of electrochemistry
| work = Faraday laws of electrochemistry
| url = http://library.thinkquest.org/19662/low/eng/electrolysis.html
| accessdate = January 30
| accessyear = 2006
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Raymond
| last = Chang
| authorlink = Raymond Chang
| coauthors =
| year = 2002
| month =
| title = Chemistry
| chapter = Electrochemistry
| editor =
| others =
| edition = 7th Edition
| pages =
| publisher = Mc Graw Hill
| location =
| id = ISBN 0-07-365601-1
| url = http://www.mhhe.com/chang7
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Theodore
| last = L. Brown
| authorlink = Theodore L. Brown
| coauthors = H. Eugene LeMay, Jr., Bruce E. Bursten, Julia R. Burdge
| year = 2003
| month =
| title = Chemistry
| chapter = Electrochemistry
| editor =
| others =
| edition = 9th Edition
| pages =
| publisher = Pearson Education
| location = US
| id = ISBN 0-13-066997-0
| url = http://www.pearsoneducation.net/brown
}}
* {{cite book
| first = John
| last = William Hill
| authorlink = John William Hill
| coauthors = Ralph H. Petrucci, Terry McCreary, Scott S. Perry
| year = 2004
| month = March
| title = General Chemistry: An Integrated Approach
| chapter = Electrochemistry
| editor =
| others =
| edition = 7th Edition
| pages = 1200
| publisher = Pearson Education
| location =
| id = ISBN 0-13-140283-8
| url =
}}
* {{cite book
| first = John
| last = McMurry
| authorlink = John McMurry
| coauthors = Robert C. Fay
| year = 2004
| month = March
| title = Chemistry
| chapter = Electrochemistry
| editor =
| others =
| edition = 3rd Edition
| pages =
| publisher = Prentice Hall
| location =
| id = ISBN 0-13-056765-5
| url = http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/mcmurry2/
}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.ise-online.org International Society of Electrochemistry (ISE)]
* [http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/ Electrochemistry Encyclopedia at Case Western Reser |
velopment.
*[[Saturn I]] - unmanned suborbital and orbital hardware development.
*[[Saturn IB]] - unmanned and manned earth orbit development and operational missions.
*[[Saturn V]] - unmanned and manned earth orbit and lunar missions.
Something to note with Apollo flights is that Marshall Space Flight Center, which designed the Saturn rockets, referred to the flights as Saturn-Apollo (SA), while Kennedy Space Center referred to the flights as Apollo-Saturn (AS). This is why the unmanned Saturn 1 flights are referred to as SA and the unmanned Saturn 1B are referred to as AS.
Dates given below are dates of launch.
===Unmanned [[Saturn I]]===
*[[SA-1 (Apollo)|SA-1]] - [[October 27]], [[1961]]. Test of the S-1 Rocket
*[[SA-2 (Apollo)|SA-2]] - [[April 25]], [[1962]]. Test of the S-1 Rocket and carried 109 m³ of water into the upper atmosphere to investigate effects on radio transmission and changes in local weather conditions.
*[[SA-3 (Apollo)|SA-3]] - [[November 16]], [[1962]]. Same as SA-2
*[[SA-4 (Apollo)|SA-4]] - [[March 28]], [[1963]]. Test effects of premature engine shutdown
*[[SA-5 (Apollo)|SA-5]] - [[January 29]], [[1964]]. First flight of live second stage
*[[A-101]] - [[May 28]], [[1964]]. Tested the structural integrity of a boilerplate Apollo Command and Service Module
*[[A-102]] - [[September 18]], [[1964]]. Carried the first programmable computer on the Saturn I vehicle; last test flight
*[[A-103]] - [[February 16]], [[1965]]. Carried Pegasus A micrometeorite satellite
*[[A-104]] - [[May 25]], [[1965]]. Carried Pegasus B micrometeorite satellite
*[[A-105]] - [[July 30]], [[1965]]. Carried Pegasus C micrometeorite satellite
===Unmanned pad abort tests===
[[Image:Pad Abort Launch.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Pad Abort Test (NASA)]]
*[[Pad Abort Test-1 (Apollo)|Pad Abort Test-1]] - [[November 7]], [[1963]]. Launch Escape System (LES) abort test from launch pad.
*[[Pad Abort Test-2 (Apollo)|Pad Abort Test-2]] - [[June 29]], [[1965]]. LES pad abort test of near Block-I CM.
===Unmanned [[Little Joe II]]===
*[[QTV]] - [[August 28]], [[1963]]. Little Joe II qualification test.
*[[A-001]] - [[May 13]], [[1964]]. LES transonic abort test.
*[[A-002]] - [[December 8]], [[1964]]. LES maximum altitude, Max-Q abort test.
*[[A-003]] - [[May 19]], [[1965]]. LES canard maximum altitude abort test.
*[[A-004]] - [[January 20]], [[1966]]. LES test of maximum weight, tumbling Block-I CM.
===Unmanned [[Apollo spacecraft| Apollo]]-[[Saturn IB]] and [[Saturn V]]===
*[[AS-201]] - [[February 26]], [[1966]]. First test flight of [[Saturn IB]] rocket
*[[AS-203]] - [[July 5]], [[1966]]. Investigated effects of weightlessness on fuel tanks of [[S-IVB]]
*[[AS-202]] - [[August 25]], [[1966]]. Sub-orbital test flight of [[Apollo spacecraft| Command and Service Module]]
*''[[Apollo 4]]'' - [[November 9]], [[1967]]. First test of the Saturn V booster
*''[[Apollo 5]]'' - [[January 22]], [[1968]]. Test of the Saturn IB booster and [[Lunar Module]]
*''[[Apollo 6]]'' - [[April 4]], [[1968]]. Test of the Saturn V booster
===Manned===
*''[[Apollo 1]]'' - Crew died in spacecraft fire atop launch vehicle during pre-launch tests on [[January 27]], [[1967]].
*''[[Apollo 7]]'' - [[October 11]], [[1968]]. First manned Apollo flight, first manned flight of the Saturn IB.
*''[[Apollo 8]]'' - [[December 21]], [[1968]]. First manned flight around the Moon, first manned flight of the Saturn V.
*''[[Apollo 9]]'' - [[March 3]], [[1969]]. First manned flight of the Lunar Module.
*''[[Apollo 10]]'' - [[May 18]], [[1969]]. First manned flight of the Lunar Module around the Moon.
*''[[Apollo 11]]'' - [[July 16]], [[1969]]. First manned landing on the Moon, [[July 20]].
*''[[Apollo 12]]'' - [[November 14]], [[1969]]. First precise manned landing on the Moon.
*''[[Apollo 13]]'' - [[April 11]], [[1970]]. Oxygen tank explodes en route, landing is cancelled, first (and, as of [[2006]], only) manned non-orbital lunar flight.
*''[[Apollo 14]]'' - [[January 31]], [[1971]]. [[Alan Shepard]], the sole astronaut of the [[Freedom 7|Mercury MR-3 mission]], walks on the Moon.
*''[[Apollo 15]]'' - [[July 26]], [[1971]]. First mission with the [[Lunar Rover]] vehicle.
*''[[Apollo 16]]'' - [[April 16]], [[1972]]. First landing in the lunar highlands.
*''[[Apollo 17]]'' - [[December 7]], [[1972]]. Final Apollo lunar mission, first night launch, only mission with a professional geologist.
The original pre-lunar landing program was more conservative but, as the 'all-up' test flights for the Saturn V proved successful, some missions were deleted. The revised schedule published in October 1967 had the first manned Apollo CSM earth orbit mission (''Apollo 7'') followed by an Earth Orbit Rendezvous of the CSM and LM launched on two Saturn 1Bs (''Apollo 8'') followed by a Saturn V launched CSM on a Large Earth Orbit Mission (''Apollo 9'') followed by the Saturn V launched dress rehearsal in Lunar Orbit with ''Apollo 10''. By the summer of 1968 it became clear to program managers that a fully functional LM would not be available for the ''Apollo 8'' mission. Rather than perform a simple earth orbiting mission, they chose to send ''Apollo 8'' around the moon during Christmas. The original idea for this switch was the brainchild of George Low. Although it has often been claimed that this change was made as a direct response to Soviet attempts to fly a piloted [[Zond program|Zond]] spacecraft around the moon, there is no evidence that this was actually the case. NASA officials were aware of the Soviet Zond flights, but the timing of the Zond missions does not correspond well with the extensive written record from NASA about the ''Apollo 8'' decision. It is relatively certain that the ''Apollo 8'' decision was primarily based upon the LM schedule, rather than fear of the Soviets beating the Americans to the moon.
===Cancelled missions===
{{main|Cancelled Apollo missions}}
*''Apollo 18''
*''Apollo 19''
*''Apollo 20''
== Current locations of Apollo Command Modules ==
'''Apollo 6''' Command Module - [[Fernbank Science Center]], [[Atlanta, Georgia]]
'''Apollo 7''' Command Module - [[Frontiers of Flight Museum]], [[Dallas, Texas]]
'''Apollo 8''' Command Module - [[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)]], [[Chicago, Illinois]]
'''Apollo 9''' Command Module "Gumdrop" - [[San Diego Aerospace Museum]], [[San Diego, California]]
'''Apollo 9''' Lunar Module "Spider" - Burned up in Earth's atmosphere
'''Apollo 10''' Command Module "Charlie Brown" - [[Science Museum]], [[London, England]]
'''Apollo 10''' Lunar Module "Snoopy" - In [[heliocentric orbit]]
'''Apollo 11''' Command Module "Columbia" - [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[Washington, D.C.]]
'''Apollo 11''' Lunar Module "Eagle" - Jettisoned from Columbia on 7/21/69 at 23:41 UT Impact site unknown
'''Apollo 12''' Command Module "Yankee Clipper" - [[Virginia Air and Space Center]], [[Hampton, Virginia]]
'''Apollo 12''' Lunar Module "Intrepid" - Impacted Moon 11/20/69 at 22:17:17.7 UT 3.94 S, 21.20 W
'''Apollo 13''' Command Module "Odyssey" - [[Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center]], [[Hutchinson, Kansas]]
'''Apollo 13''' Lunar Module "Aquarius" - Burned up in Earth's atmosphere 4/17/70
'''Apollo 14''' Command Module "Kitty Hawk" - [[Astronaut Hall of Fame]], [[Titusville, Florida]]
'''Apollo 14''' Lunar Module "Antares" - Impacted Moon 2/7/71 at 00:45:25.7 UT 3.42 S, 19.67 W
'''Apollo 15''' Command Module "Endeavor" - [[USAF Museum]], [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]], [[Dayton, Ohio]]
'''Apollo 15''' Lunar Module "Falcon" - Impacted Moon 8/3/71 at 03:03:37.0 UT 26.36 N, 0.25 E
'''Apollo 16''' Command Module "Casper" - [[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]], [[Huntsville, Alabama]]
'''Apollo 16''' Lunar Module "Orion" - Released 4/24/72, loss of attitude control made targeted impact impossible, impact site unknown
'''Apollo 17''' Command Module "America" - [[NASA Johnson Space Center]], [[Houston, Texas]]
'''Apollo 17''' Lunar Module "Challenger" - Impacted Moon 12/15/72 at 06:50:20.8 UT 19.96 N, 30.50 E
'''Apollo-Soyuz''' Command Module - [[John F. Kennedy Space Center]], [[Cape Canaveral, Florida]]
'''Apollo-Soyuz''' Test Command Module - [[Museum of Flight]], [[Seattle, Washington]]
'''Skylab 2''' / Crew 1 Command Module - [[National Museum of Naval Aviation]], [[Pensacola, Florida]]
'''Skylab 3''' / Crew 2 Command Module - [[Glenn Research Center|NASA John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field]], [[Cleveland, Ohio]]
'''Skylab 4''' / Crew 3 Command Module - [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[Washington, D.C.]]
===Later missions using left over Apollo hardware===
*[[Skylab]] - [[May 14]], [[1973]].
**''[[Skylab 2]]'' - [[May 25]], [[1973]].
**''[[Skylab 3]]'' - [[July 28]], [[1973]].
**''[[Skylab 4]]'' - [[November 16]], [[1973]].
*[[Apollo-Soyuz]] - [[July 15]], [[1975]].
===Apollo Launch Complex utilization===
*'''Launch Complex 34''' - [[SA-1 (Apollo)|SA-1]], [[SA-2 (Apollo)|SA-2]], [[SA-3 (Apollo)|SA-3]], [[SA-4 (Apollo)|SA-4]], [[AS-201]], [[AS-202]], ''[[Apollo 1|AS-204 (Apollo 1)]]'', [[Apollo 7|AS-205 (Apollo 7)]]
*'''Launch Complex 37A''' - no launches
*'''Launch Complex 37B''' - [[SA-5 (Apollo)|SA-5]], [[A-101]], [[A-102]], [[A-103]], [[A-104]], [[A-105]], [[AS-203]], [[Apollo 5|AS-204 (''Apollo 5'')]]
*'''Launch Complex 39A''' - [[Apollo 4|AS-501 (''Apollo 4'')]], [[Apollo 6|AS-502 (''Apollo 6'')]], [[Apollo 8|AS-503 (''Apollo 8'')]], [[Apollo 9|AS-504 (''Apollo 9'')]], [[Apollo 11|AS-506 (''Apollo 11'')]], [[Apollo 12|AS-507 (''Apollo 12'')]], [[Apollo 13|AS-508 (''Apollo 13'')]], [[Apollo 14|AS-509 (''Apollo 14'')]], [[Apollo 15|AS-510 (''Apollo 15'')]], [[Apollo 16|AS-511 (''Apollo 16'')]], [[Apollo 17|AS-512 (''Apollo 17'')]], [[Skylab|AS-513 (Skylab 1)]]
*'''Launch Complex 39B''' - [[Apollo 10|AS |
[http://hamar.clickwalk.no/indexe.html Hamar Pictorial click-through]
* [http://www.hedmarksmuseet.no/ The Hedmark Museum]
* [http://www.norsk-jernbanemuseum.no/ The Norwegian national railway museum]
{{Hedmark}}
{{25 biggest cities of Norway}}
[[Category:Municipalities of Norway]]
[[Category:Cities in Norway]]
[[Category:Hedmark]]
{{Link FA|no}}
[[cs:Hamar]]
[[da:Hamar]]
[[de:Hamar]]
[[it:Hamar]]
[[nl:Hamar]]
[[no:Hamar]]
[[nn:Hamar]]
[[pl:Hamar]]
[[pt:Hamar]]
[[ro:Hamar]]
[[fi:Hamar]]
[[sv:Hamar]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Book of Helaman</title>
<id>14472</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Books of the Book of Mormon}}
'''''The Book of Helaman''''' is one of the books that make up the ''[[Book of Mormon]]''. The book continues the history of the [[Nephite]]s and the [[Lamanites]] "according to the records of [[Helaman, son of Helaman|Helaman]], who was the son of [[Helaman]], and also according to the records of his sons, even down to the coming of [[Christ]]" (''The Book of Helaman'', preface). According to footnotes, the book covers the time period between ''ca'' 52 BC and 1 BC.
==External links==
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/hel/contents Book of Helaman text] on the LDS Church web site
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/hel/summary Book of Helaman summary]
*[http://www.funtrivia.com/quizlistgold.cfm?cat=11579 Book of Helaman trivia]
{{LDS-stub}}
[[Category:Books of the Book of Mormon]]</text>
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<title>Hussites</title>
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<title>Harry Potter and the Sorcerers Stone</title>
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<revi |
ent, the diameter of the CD was increased to 12 cm to accommodate a playing time of approximately 74 minutes.
[http://www.research.philips.com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/beethoven.html]
==The Ninth Symphony in popular culture==
Because the Ninth Symphony is perhaps the best known of all works of [[european classical music|classical music]], it has frequently been adapted for use in works of [[popular culture]], particularly film scores, television, and popular music. The following is a partial list of such adaptations:
*The second and final movements are featured prominently in the novel ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'' by [[Anthony Burgess]], and [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s film adaptation. The finale of [[Herbert von Karajan]]'s [[1963]] [[Deutsche Grammophon]] recording is played over the final scene in the movie.
*The beginning of the second movement, the Scherzo, is used in the theme of Keith Olbermann's program Countdown on MSNBC.
*The final movement was adapted by [[Michael Kamen]] in his score for the [[1989]] thriller ''[[Die Hard]]''.
*A portion of the final movement was used in [[Alan J. Pakula]]'s movie [[Sophie's Choice]] from 1982.
*The opening measures of the second movement were used as the theme music for an American news broadcast in the 1960s, the ''[[Huntley-Brinkley Report]]''.
*[[Satoshi Kon]] used the fourth movement in his [[anime]] film [[Tokyo Godfathers]].
*The [[anime]] [[Neon Genesis Evangelion]] used the fourth movement as a thematic device in its 24th episode.
*The fourth movement is used as a "Death Symphony" in the [[Read or Die]] [[Original Video Animation|OVA]].
*The [[anime]] [[Gunslinger Girl]] used the fourth movement at the climax of the 13th and final episode as the main characters watch a meteor shower.
*The music of the symphony was also used in the [[Trans-Siberian Orchestra]]'s album ''[[Beethoven's Last Night]]'' (most specifically in the song "A Last Illusion").
*The Ninth Symphony is also heard in "Memory (Dead Winter Dead)", off [[Savatage]]'s ''[[Dead Winter Dead]]'' album.
*A portion of the 4th movement is used in the opening of the song "Will you be there" by ''[[Michael Jackson]]''.
*Portions of the first and second movements were used in [[Don Hertzfeldt]]'s animated short film ''[[Rejected]]''.
*A portion of the choral finale was used in the film [[Dead Poets Society]], during the scene on the lawn.
*The first movement is played in the film [[Equilibrium (2002 film)|Equilibrium]].
*The fourth movement is the primary opening theme of the U.S. [[game show]] ''[[Win Ben Stein's Money]]''.
*The ''[[Ode to Joy]]'' is sung in the [[Beatles]] film ''[[Help! (film)|Help!]]''.
*''Ode to Joy'' is also used at the end of the [[1986]] movie ''[[The Money Pit]]''.
*American telecasts of the [[Olympic Games]] often feature a portion of the Fourth Movement near the end of the telecast during the montage of video highlights from the Games.
*''Song of Joy'' by Miguel Rios is a pop song adaptation of Beethoven's 9th. It was released in 1970 in the Spanish speaking world and 1971 saw its English translation. ''Song of Joy'' was a global hit.
*While the song has a generally religious theme, it is not specific to any religion. In [[1907]], Reverend [[Henry van Dyke]] wrote a specifically [[Christian]] hymn to the main theme music. Its first verse reads: ''Joyful, joyful, we adore Thee / God of glory, Lord of love / Hearts unfold like flowers before Thee / Opening to the sun above / Melt the clouds of sin and sadness / Drive the dark of doubt away / Giver of immortal gladness / Fill us with the light of day.''
*Part of ''Ode to Joy'' was mixed in as a backbeat to ''End of the Century'', one of the songs produced by [[Naoki Maeda]] (under the [[pseudonym]] "No. 9") for ''[[Dance Dance Revolution 3rdMIX]].
*Both the fourth movement and a parody of Friedrich Schiller's title for it are used in the song 'Road to Joy' on [[Bright Eyes (band)|Bright Eyes]]' album [[I'm Wide Awake, It's Morning]].
==Media==
{{listen|filename=Ode to Joy.ogg|title=Ode to Joy|description=The 4th movement is a vocal setting of the ''Ode to Joy''.|format=[[Ogg]]}}
==References==
Richard Taruskin, "Resisting the Ninth", in his ''Text and Act: Essays on Music and Performance'' (Oxford University Press, 1995).
David Benjamin Levy, "Beethoven: the Ninth Symphony," revised edition (Yale University Press, 2003).
==External links==
* The William and Gayle Cook Music Library at the Indiana University School of Music's has posted a [http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/variations/scores/cab4188/index.html score] for the symphony.
* Alcove Music Publications' [http://alcove.www2.50megs.com/OdeToJoy.jpg simpler score].
* [http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/beethoven_sym9.html Sound samples and other info from the Classical Music Pages]
* [http://www.stanford.edu/~eboyden3/beet9.html Text/libretto, with translation, in English and German]
* [http://europa.eu.int/abc/symbols/anthem/index_en.htm EU official page about the anthem]
* Analysis of the [http://www.all-about-beethoven.com/symphony9.html Beethoven Symphony No. 9] on the [http://www.all-about-beethoven.com All About Ludwig van Beethoven] Page
* [http://www.wnyc.org/shows/soundcheck/episodes/12282004 A guided tour of Beethoven's 9th Symphony] by Robert Kapilow on [[WNYC]]'s ''Soundcheck''
{{Ludwig van Beethoven}}
[[Category:Anthems]]
[[Category:Ballet music]]
[[Category:Symphonies by Ludwig van Beethoven|Symphony 09]]
[[de:9. Sinfonie (Beethoven)]]
[[es:Novena Sinfonía de Beethoven]]
[[fr:9e symphonie de Beethoven]]
[[ko:교향곡 9번 (베토벤)]]
[[id:Simfoni No. 9 (Beethoven)]]
[[ja:交響曲第9番 (ベートーヴェン)]]
[[pt:Nona sinfonia de Beethoven]]
[[sl:Simfonija št. 9 (Beethoven)]]
[[vi:Giao hưởng số 9 (Beethoven)]]
[[zh:第九交响曲 (贝多芬)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Piano Trios Nos. 1 - 3, Opus 1 (Beethoven)</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Piano Trios, Opus 1'''
Ludwig van [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] - Opus 1
Three trios for [[piano]], [[violin]], and [[cello|violoncello]], first performed in 1793 in the house of prince Lichnowsky, to whom they are dedicated, and published in 1795.
Opus 1 no 1 - Piano Trio (''Klaviertrio'') No. 1 in E flat major
* [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]]
* [[Adagio (music)|Adagio]] cantabile
* [[Scherzo]]. [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] assai
* [[Finale]]. [[Presto (music)|Presto]]
Opus 1 no 2 - Piano Trio (''Klaviertrio'') No. 2 in G major
* [[Adagio (music)|Adagio]] - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] vivace
* [[Largo (music)|Largo]] con espressione
* [[Scherzo]]. [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]]
* [[Finale]]. [[Presto (music)|Presto]]
Opus 1 no 3 - Piano Trio (''Klaviertrio'') No. 3 in C minor
* [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] con brio
* [[Andante]] cantabile con [[variation (music)|Variazioni]]
* [[minuet|Minuetto]]. Quasi [[Allegro (music)|allegro]]
* [[Finale]]. [[Prestissimo]]
[[Category:Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven]]
[[Category:Piano trios|Beethoven 1]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Piano Trios Nos. 5 - 6, Opus 70 (Beethoven)</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'s [[opus number]] 70 is a set of two '''[[Piano Trios]]'''.
Written for [[piano]], [[violin]], and [[cello]], the works were published in [[1809]]. The first, in D major, known as the ''Ghost'', is one of his best known works in the genre (rivalled only by the ''[[Archduke Trio]]'').
These pieces are representative of Beethoven's "Middle" stylistic period, which went from roughly [[1802]] to [[1812]], and which included many of his most famous works. Beethoven wrote the two piano trios while spending the summer of [[1808]] in [[Heiligenstadt (Vienna)]], where he had completed his [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 5]] the previous summer. He wrote the two trios immediately after finishing his ''Sinfonia pastorale'', [[Symphony No. 6 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 6]]. This was a period of uncertainty in Beethoven's life, in particular because he had no dependable source of income at the time.
After finishing the trios, in the fall of 1808, he began sketching the [[Choral Fantasia (Beethoven)|Choral Fantasia]], the work considered to be the "first draft" of the famous [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 9]].
[[Piano Trio No. 5 (Beethoven)|Op. 70 no 1]] - Piano Trio (''Klaviertrio'') No. 5 in D major "Ghost"
* [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] vivace e con brio
* [[Largo (music)|Largo]] assai ed espressivo
* [[Presto (music)|Presto]]
[[Piano Trio No. 6 (Beethoven)|Op. 70 no 2]] - Piano Trio (''Klaviertrio'') No. 6 in E flat major
* Poco sostenuto - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]], ma non troppo
* [[Allegretto]]
* [[Allegretto]], ma non troppo
* [[Finale]]. [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]]
{{classical-composition-stub}}
[[Category:Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven]]
[[Category:Piano trios|Beethoven 5]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Archduke Trio</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Archduke Trio''' is a piece of [[music]] by [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], his [[opus number|Opus]] 97.
It is a [[piano trio]] for [[piano]], [[violin]], and [[cello|violoncello]], published in [[1811]]. It was dedicated to the amateur p |
n]] until [[1880]], when he relinquished the party leadership to [[Edward Blake]].
At the time, it was customary for the [[British monarch]] to [[knight]] all Canadian Prime Ministers. Alexander Mackenzie declined all offers of a British [[knighthood]].
He died in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], from a stroke that resulted from hitting his head during a fall. He is buried in the Lakeview Cemetery, [[Sarnia, Ontario]].
== Supreme Court Appointments ==
Mackenzie appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of Canada]]:
* Sir [[William Buell Richards]] ([[Chief Justice of Canada|Chief Justice]]) - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[January 10]], [[1879]])
* Sir [[William Johnstone Ritchie]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[September 25]], [[1892]])
* Sir [[Samuel Henry Strong]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[November 18]], [[1902]])
* [[Jean-Thomas Taschereau]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[October 6]], [[1878]])
* [[Telesphore Fournier]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[September 12]], [[1895]])
* [[William Alexander Henry]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[May 3]], [[1888]])
* Sir [[Henri Elzear Taschereau]] - ([[October 7]], [[1878]] - [[May 2]], [[1906]])
== Helen Neil Mackenzie ==
'''Helen Neil Mackenzie''' ([[October 21]], [[1826]]-[[January 4]], [[1852]]) was the first wife of Alexander Mackenzie. She had three children, and died after being married to Mackenzie for seven years. Helen and Alexander only had one child (two other children died in infancy), a girl, named Mary Mackenzie. It was because of Helen, who previously emigrated to Canada with her family, that Alexander himself came to Canada.
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=40374 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[George Brown (Canadian politician)|George Brown]]|
title=[[Liberal Party of Canada|Leader of the Liberal Party of Canada]]|
after=[[Edward Blake]]|
years=1873-1880
}}
{{succession box|
before=''vacant''|
title=[[Leader of the Opposition (Canada)|Leader of the Opposition]]|
after=[[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]]|
years=1873
}}
{{succession box|
before=[[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]]|
title=[[Prime Minister of Canada]]|
years=1873&ndash;1878|
after=[[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]]
}}
{{succession box|
before=[[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]]|
title=[[Leader of the Opposition (Canada)|Leader of the Opposition]]|
after=[[Edward Blake]]|
years=1878&ndash;1880
}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=None|
title=[[Lambton (electoral district)|MP for Lambton, ON]]|
after=Abolished|
years=1867&ndash;1882
}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Alfred Boultbee]]|
title=[[York East|MP for York East, ON]]|
after=[[William F. McLean]]|
years=1882&ndash;1892
}}
{{end box}}
{{canPM}}
{{Liberal Leaders}}
<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
{{Persondata
|NAME=Mackenzie, Alexander
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=2nd Prime Minister of Canada ([[1873]]-[[1878]])
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[January 28]], [[1822]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Logierait]], [[Perthshire]], [[Scotland]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[April 17]], [[1892]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Toronto]]
}}
[[Category:1822 births|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:1892 deaths|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Canadian businesspeople|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Canadian writers|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Leaders of the Liberal Party of Canada|Mackenzie]]
[[Category:Natives of Perth and Kinross|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Canada|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Sarnians|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Scottish Canadians|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Scottish business people|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Scottish writers|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Teetotalers|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Pre-Confederation Ontario people|Mackenzie, Alex]]
[[de:Alexander Mackenzie (Politiker)]]
[[fr:Alexander Mackenzie (politicien)]]
[[pl:Alexander Mackenzie (premier Kanady)]]
[[pt:Alexander Mackenzie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Annexation</title>
<id>1237</id>
<revision>
<id>41784233</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:56:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rmhermen</username>
<id>835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.213.67.178|24.213.67.178]] ([[User talk:24.213.67.178|talk]]) to last version by Arre</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Annexation''' ([[Latin]] ''ad'', to, and ''nexus'', joining) is the legal incorporation of some territory into another geo-political entity (either adjacent or non-contiguous). Usually, it is implied that the territory and population being ''annexed'' is the smaller, more peripheral or weaker of the two merging entities. It can also imply a certain measure of coercion, [[expansionism]] or [[unilateralism]] on the part of the stronger of the merging entities. Because of this, more positive words like [[political union]] or [[reunification]] are sometimes preferred.
== More detailed overview ==
Annexation may be the consequence of a voluntary cession from one state to another through purchase or other treaty, or of conversion from a protectorate or sphere of influence, or occupation through military conquest. A [[city]] might annex unincorporated areas or a [[country]] might annex other [[disputed territories]]. The assumption of a protectorate over another state, or of a [[sphere of influence]], is not strictly annexation, the latter implying the complete displacement in the annexed territory of the government or state by which it was previously ruled.
In [[international relations]] the term ''annexation'' is usually applied when the emphasis is placed on the fact that territorial possession is achieved by force and unilaterally rather than through [[treaty|treaties]] or negotiations. The cession of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] to [[Germany]] by [[France]], although brought about by the war of 1870, was for the purposes of international law a voluntary cession. Under the treaty of [[December 17]], [[1885]], between the French Republic and the queen of [[Madagascar]], a French protectorate was established over this island. In 1896 this protectorate was converted by France into an annexation, and Madagascar then became "French territory." The formal annexation of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] by [[Austria]] ([[October 5]], [[1908]]) was an unauthorized conversion of an "occupation" authorized by the [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878|Treaty of Berlin]] (1878), which had, however, for years operated as a ''de facto'' annexation. A case of conquest was that effected by the [[South African War]] (Second Boer War) of 1899–1902, in which the [[Transvaal Republic]] and the [[Orange Free State]] were extinguished, first ''de facto'' by occupation of the whole of their territory, and then ''[[de jure]]'' by terms of surrender entered into by the [[Boer]] generals acting as a government.
By annexation, as between civilized peoples, the annexing state takes over the whole succession with the rights and obligations attaching to the ceded territory, subject only to any modifying conditions contained in the treaty of cession. These, however, are binding only as between the parties to them. In the case of the annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic and Orange Free State, a rather complicated situation arose out of the facts, on the one hand, that the ceding states closed their own existence and left no recourse to third parties against the previous ruling authority, and, on the other, that, having no means owing to the ''de facto'' [[United Kingdom|British]] occupation, of raising money by taxation, the dispossessed governments raised money by selling certain securities, more especially a large holding of shares in the [[South African Railway Company]], to neutral purchasers. The [[British government]] repudiated these sales as having been made by a government which the British government had already displaced. The question of at what point, in a war of conquest, the state succession becomes operative is one of great delicacy. As early as [[January 6]], [[1900]], the high commissioner at [[Cape Town]] issued a proclamation giving notice that the British government would "not recognize as valid or effectual" any conveyance, transfer or transmission of any property made by the government of the Transvaal republic or Orange Free State subsequently to [[October 10]], [[1899]], the date of the commencement of the war. A proclamation forbidding transactions with a state which might still be capable of maintaining its independence could obviously bind only those subject to the authority of the state issuing it. Like paper [[blockade]]s and fictitious occupations of territory, such premature proclamations are viewed by international jurists as not being ''jure gentium''. The proclamation was succeeded, on [[March 9]], [[1900]], by another of the high commissioner at Cape Town, reiterating the notice, but confining it to "lands, railways, mines or mining rights." And on [[September 1]], [[1900]] Lord Roberts proclaimed at [[Pretoria]] the annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic to the British dominions. That the war continued for nearly two years after this proclamation shows how fictitious the claim of annexation was. The difficulty which arose out of the transfer of the South African Railway shares held by the Transvaal government was satisfactorily terminated by the purchase by the British government of the total capital of the company from the different groups of [[shareholder]]s (see on this case, Sir Thomas Barclay, ''[[Law Quarterly Review]]'', July 1905; and Professor Westlake, in the same ''Review'', October 1905).
In a judgment of the |
anada, [http://www.editors.ca/pubs/index.htm#editing ''Editing Canadian English: The Essential Canadian Guide''], 2nd ed. (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2000).
* Canadian federal government style guide: Public Works and Government Services Canada, ''The Canadian Style: A Guide to Writing and Editing'' (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998).
* Canadian newspaper and magazine style guides:
** J.A. McFarlane and Warren Clements, ''The Globe and Mail Style Book: A Guide to Language and Usage'', 9th ed. (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1998).
** The Canadian Press, [http://www.cp.org/asp/thirdLevel.asp?category=books&maintable=cp ''The Canadian Press Stylebook'', 13th ed.] and its quick-reference companion [http://www.cp.org/asp/thirdLevel.asp?category=books&maintable=caps ''CP Caps and Spelling'', 16th ed.] (both Toronto: Canadian Press, 2004).
* Canadian usage: Margery Fee and Janice McAlpine, ''Guide to Canadian English Usage'' (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2001).
[[Category:North American English]]
[[Category:Languages of Canada]]
[[Category:English language]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]
[[af:Kanadese Engels]]
[[de:Kanadisches Englisch]]
[[he:אנגלית קנדית]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Czech language</title>
<id>6343</id>
<revision>
<id>41839020</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:58:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.27.27.126</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Czech
|nativename=Čeština
|states=[[Czech Republic]] and as a minority language also in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Germany]] and [[Slovakia]]
|region=[[Central Europe]]
|speakers=12 million
|rank=73
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
|fam3=[[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]]
|fam4=[[Czech-Slovak]]
|nation=[[Czech Republic]], [[European Union]]
|agency=[[Czech Language Institute]]
|iso1=cs|iso2b=cze|iso2t=ces|iso3=ces}}
'''Czech''' (''Čeština'') is one of the West [[Slavic languages]], along with [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Pomeranian language|Pomeranian]] (extinct), and Lusatian [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]]. It is spoken by most people in the [[Czech Republic]] and by Czechs all over the world (about 12 million native speakers in total). Czech is very close to Slovak and, to a lesser degree, to Polish. Most adult Czechs and Slovaks are able to understand each other without difficulty as they were routinely exposed to both languages on the national TV and radio until the [[Velvet Divorce|splitting of Czechoslovakia]]. People born after circa 1985 may have difficulty grasping the few words that differ significantly, or understanding fast spoken language.
Because of its complexity, Czech is said to be a difficult [[language]] to learn. The complexity is due to extensive [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and highly free word order. As in all Slavic languages (except [[Bulgarian language|modern Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]), many words (especially nouns, verbs, and adjectives) have many forms ([[inflection]]s). In this regard, Czech and the Slavic languages are closer to their [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] origins than other languages in the same family that have lost much inflection. Moreover, in Czech the rules of morphology are extremely irregular and many forms have official, [[colloquial]] and sometimes semi-official variants. The word order serves similar function as emphasis and articles in English. Often all the [[permutation]]s of words in a [[clause]] are possible. While the permutations mostly share the same meaning, it is nevertheless different, because the permutations differ in the [[topic-focus articulation]]. As an example we can show: ''Češi udělali revoluci''
(The Czechs made a revolution), ''Revoluci udělali Češi'' (It was the Czechs who made the revolution), and ''Češi revoluci udělali'' (The Czechs did make a revolution).
The [[phonology]] of Czech may also be very difficult for speakers of other languages. For example, some words do not appear to have [[vowel]]s: ''zmrzl'' (froze to death), ''ztvrdl'' (hardened), ''scvrkl'' (shrunk), ''čtvrthrst'' (quarter-handful), ''blb'' (fool), ''vlk'' (wolf), and ''smrt'' (death). A popular example of this is the phrase "''strč prst skrz krk''" meaning "stick a finger through your throat". The [[consonant|consonants]] ''l'' and ''r'', however, function as [[sonorant]]s and thus fulfill the role of a vowel (a similar phenomenon also occurs in American English, for example ''bird'' is pronounced as [brd] with a syllabic r). It also features the consonant ''ř'', a [[phoneme]] that is said to be unique to Czech and quite difficult for foreigners to pronounce. To a foreign ear, it sounds very similar to ''zh'', though a better approximation could be rolled (trilled) ''r'' combined with ''zh'', which was incidentally sometimes used as an [[orthography]] for this sound (rž) for example in the royal charter of [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor]] from [[1609]].
==Morphology==
===Parts of speech===
<!-- give an English translation of each of these -->
*[[Noun]] (''podstatné jméno'')
*[[Adjective]] (''přídavné jméno'')
*[[Pronoun]] (''zájmeno'')
*[[Numeral]] (''číslovka'')
*[[Verb]] (''sloveso'')
*[[Adverb]] (''příslovce'')
*[[Preposition]] (''předložka'')
*[[Grammatical conjunction|Conjunction]] (''spojka'')
*[[Grammatical particle|Particle]] (''částice'')
*[[Interjection]] (''citoslovce'')
Nouns, adjectives, pronouns and numbers are declined (7 cases over a number of declension models) and verbs are conjugated; the other parts of speech are not inflected (with the exception of comparative formation in adverbs).
===Dialects===
In the Czech Republic three distinct [[koine]], or interdialects can be found, all corresponding more or less to geographic areas within the country. They differ from standard Czech, creating some form of [[diglossia]]. The first, and most widely used, is "Common Czech", spoken in [[Bohemia]]. It has some grammatical differences from "standard" Czech, along with some differences in pronunciation. The most common pronunciation changes include ''-ý'' becoming ''-ej'' in some circumstances, ''-é'' becoming ''-ý-'' in some circumstances (''-ej-'' in others), and the insertion of prothetic ''v-'' at the beginning of some words starting with ''o-''. Also, noun declension is changed, most notably the instrumental case. Instead of having various endings (depending on gender) in the instrumental, Bohemians will just put ''-ama'' or ''-ma'' at the end of all plural instrumental declensions. Also pronunciation changes slightly, as the Bohemians tend to have more open vowels than Moravians. This is said to be especially prevalent among people from Prague.
The second major interdialect is spoken in [[Moravia]]. This dialect has some totally different words from standard Czech. Unlike in Bohemia, Moravia tends to have more local dialects varying from town to town. For example in Brno, ''tramvaj'' (streetcar or tram) is ''šalina'' (originating from German "ElektriSCHELINIE"). Everyday spoken form in Moravia would be a mixture of given interdialect, remnants of old local dialect, some Standard Czech forms and sometimes also Common Czech. The use of Standard Czech in everyday situations is more frequent than in Bohemia and Moravians tend to say that they use "proper" language, unlike their Bohemian brothers.
The third major dialect - [[Teshen Silesian dialect|Teshen Silesian]] - is spoken in [[Silesia]], centered around the city [[Ostrava]]. This dialect, too, is grammatically sound and closer to Standard Czech, but in this dialect people speak very quickly, and the long vowels become the same as their short counterparts.
===Declension===
<!-- give the number of declensions and tables of all their affixes/mutations/whatever (or just some example ones if they are very numerous) or put the tables in a Czech grammar article if you want to start one or if one already has been started)-->
The noun cases are typically referred to by number, and learned by means of the question to which they are the answer. When learning a new word, children recite the cases using a set of example phrases, shown as follows:
# ''kdo/co?'' (who/what?) - [[Nominative]]
# ''bez koho/čeho?'' (without whom/what?) - [[Genitive]]
# ''komu/čemu?'' (to whom/what?) - [[Dative]]
# ''vidím koho/co?'' (I see whom/what?) - [[Accusative case|Accusative]]
# ''volám'' (I call) [[Vocative]]
# ''o kom/čem?'' (about whom/what?) - [[Locative]] (also known as Prepositional)
# ''s kým/čím?'' (with whom/what?) - [[Instrumental case|Instrumental]]
The case used depends on a number of variables, and for foreigners can be very confusing.
The simplest of the rules governing noun declension is the use of [[prepositions]] (''předložky''). Excepting expressions and common phrases, each preposition is matched with a certain noun declension case depending on use. The following are basic examples of common prepositions and their corresponding noun cases (note: these examples represent only one circumstance. Often each preposition can be used with two or more noun cases depending on the sentence).
Genitive: ''během'' (during), ''podle/dle'' (according to/along), ''vedle'' (beside), ''kolem'' (around), ''okolo'' (around), ''do'' (into), ''od'' (away from), ''z'' (out of), ''bez'' (without).
Dative: ''k'' (towards), ''proti'' (against), ''díky'' (thanks to), "naproti" (opposite).
Accusative: ''skrz'' (through), ''pro'' (for) "na" (to/for).
Locative/Prepositional: ''o'' (around, about), ''na'' (on), ''při'' (into, in, around), ''v'' (in), ''po'' (after, around).
Instrumental: ''za'' (behind), ''před'' (in front of), ''mezi'' (between), ''pod'' (below), ''s'' (with) &q |
ean root.
== Life ==
=== Childhood and studies ===
Born to a Russian Jewish father and German Protestant mother in [[Berlin]], he was a [[displaced person]] during much of his childhood due to the upheavals of [[World War II]]. Alexander lived with his father, Alexander Shapiro, and his mother, Hanka Grothendieck, both of whom were [[socialism|socialist]] [[revolutionary|revolutionaries]]. Until [[1933]] they lived together in [[Berlin]]. At the end of that year, Shapiro moved to [[Paris]], and Hanka followed him the next year. They left Alexander with a family in [[Hamburg]] where he went to school. During this time, his parents fought in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. In [[1939]] Alexander came to France and lived in various camps for displaced persons with his mother. His father was sent to [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] where he died in [[1942]]. After the war, young Grothendieck studied mathematics in [[France]], initially at [[Montpellier]]. He had decided to become a math teacher because he had been told that mathematical research had been completed early in the [[20th century]] and there were no more open problems. However, his talent was noticed, and he was encouraged to go to [[Paris]] in [[1948]]. Initially, Grothendieck attended Élie Cartan's Seminar at [[École Normale Superieure]] , but lacking the neccessary background to follow the high powered seminar, he moved to University of Nancy where he wrote his dissertation under [[Laurent Schwartz]] in functional analysis, from [[1950]]. At this time he was a leading expert in the theory of [[topological vector space]]s. However he set this subject aside by [[1957]] in order to work in algebraic geometry and [[homological algebra]].
=== Politics and retreat from scientific community ===
Grothendieck's radical left-wing and pacifist politics were doubtless born by his family history and his wartime experiences. He gave lectures on [[category theory]] in the forests surrounding [[Hanoi]] while the city was being bombed, to protest against the [[Vietnam war]]. He retired from scientific life around [[1970]], after having discovered the partly military funding of [[IHES]] (see pp. xii and xiii of SGA1, Springer Lecture Notes 224). He returned to academia a few years later as a professor at the University of [[Montpellier]], where he stayed until
his retirement in 1988. His criticisms of the scientific community are also contained in a [http://www.math.columbia.edu/~lipyan/CrafoordPrize.pdf letter] written in 1988, in which he states the reasons for his refusal of the [[Crafoord Prize]].
=== Manuscripts written in the 1980s ===
While not publishing mathematical research in conventional ways during the 1980s, he produced several influential manuscripts with limited distribution, with both mathematical and biographical content.
''[[La longue marche à travers la theorie de Galois]]'' (roughly ''The Long Walk Through Galois Theory'') is an approximately 1600-page handwritten manuscript produced by Grothendieck during the years 1980-1981 and contains many of the ideas leading to the ''[[Esquisse d'un Programme]]'' (see below) and in particular studies the Teichmüller theory.
In 1983 he wrote a huge extended manuscript (about 600 pages) titled ''[[Pursuing Stacks]]'', starting with a letter addressed to [[Daniel Quillen]]. This letter and successive parts were distributed from Bangor (see External Links below): in an informal manner, as a kind of diary, Grothendieck explained and developed his ideas on the relationship between [[algebraic homotopy theory]] and [[algebraic geometry]] and prospects for a noncommutative theory of [[Stack (category theory)|stacks]]. The manuscript, which is being edited for publication by G. Maltsiniotis, later led to another of his monumental works ''[[Les Dérivateurs]]''. Written in 1991 this latter opus of about 2000 pages further developed the homotopical ideas begun in ''[[Pursuing Stacks]]''. Much of this work anticipated the subsequent development of the motivic homotopy theory of [[F. Morel]] and [[V. Voevodsky]] in the mid 1990s.
His ''[[Esquisse d'un programme]]'' ([[1984]]) is a proposal for a position at the [[Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique]], which he held from 1984 to his retirement in 1988. Ideas from it have proved influential, and have been developed by others, in particular in a new field emerging as [[anabelian geometry]]. In ''[[La Clef des Songes]]'' he explains how the reality of [[dream]]s convinced him of [[God]]'s existence.
The 2000-page autobiographical manuscript ''[[Récoltes et Semailles]]'' (1986) is now partly available on the internet in the French original, and an English translation is underway (these parts of Récoltes et Semailles are already [http://imperium.lenin.ru/%7Everbit/Grothendieck/Grothendieck.html translated to Russian] and published in Moscow).
=== Disappearance ===
In 1991, he left his home and disappeared. He is said to now live in the South
of France and to entertain no visitors. Various false rumors have him living in [[Ardèche]], herding goats and entertaining radical ecological theories. Though he has been inactive in mathematics for many years, he remains one of the greatest and most influential mathematicians of modern times.
==See also==
*[[Grothendieck's Galois theory]]
*[[Grothendieck group ]]
*[[Grothendieck's relative point of view]]
*[[Grothendieck-Riemann-Roch theorem ]]
*[[Grothendieck's Séminaire de géométrie algébrique ]]
*[[Grothendieck topology ]]
*[[Grothendieck universe ]]
== External links ==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Grothendieck}}
* {{MathGenealogy|id=31245}}
*[http://www.math.jussieu.fr/~leila/grothendieckcircle/index.php Grothendieck Circle], collection of mathematical and biographical information, photos, links to his writings
**[http://gavrilov.akatov.com/Grothendieck Grothendieck Circle discussion Forum]
*[http://www.ihes.fr Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques]
* Grothendieck biography ([http://www.ams.org/notices/200409/fea-grothendieck-part1.pdf Part 1], [http://www.ams.org/notices/200410/fea-grothendieck-part2.pdf Part 2]) published in AMS Notices
*[http://www.bangor.ac.uk/r.brown/pstacks.htm The origins of `Pursuing Stacks'] This is an account of how `Pursuing Stacks' was written in response to a correspondence in English with Ronnie Brown and Tim Porter at Bangor, which continued until 1991.
{{Fields medalists}}
[[Category:1928 births|Grothendieck, Alexander]]
[[Category:Living people|Grothendieck, Alexander]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Grothendieck, Alexander]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Grothendieck, Alexander]]
[[Category:French mathematicians|Grothendieck, Alexander]]
[[Category:Bourbaki|Grothendieck]]
[[de:Alexander Grothendieck]]
[[es:Alexander Grothendieck]]
[[fr:Alexander Grothendieck]]
[[ko:알렉산더 그로텐디크]]
[[it:Alexander Grothendieck]]
[[nl:Alexander Grothendieck]]
[[ja:アレクサンドル・グロタンディーク]]
[[zh:亚历山大·格罗滕迪克]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hostility towards America</title>
<id>2043</id>
<revision>
<id>22297923</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-01T02:37:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dragons flight</username>
<id>16980</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-Americanism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antidisestablishmentarianism</title>
<id>2045</id>
<revision>
<id>41728027</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:19:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.58.241.94</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Longer words */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Antidisestablishmentarianism''' originated in the context of the [[nineteenth century]] [[Church of England]], where "antidisestablishmentarians" were opposed to proposals to remove the Church's status as the [[State religion|state church]] of [[England]]. The movement succeeded in England, but failed in [[Ireland]] and [[Wales]], with the [[Church of Ireland]] being disestablished in [[1871]] and the [[Church in Wales]] in [[1920]]. Antidisestablishmentarian members of the [[Free_Church_of_Scotland_%281843-1900%29#Unions_and_relationships_with_other_Presbyterians|Free Church of Scotland]] delayed merger with the [[United Presbyterian Church of Scotland]] in a dispute about the position of the [[Church of Scotland]]. The term has largely fallen into disuse, although the issue itself is still current (see [[Act of Settlement 1701]]).
The word ''antidisestablishmentarianism'', with 28 letters, is often quoted as being one of the [[Longest word in the English language|longest English words]] that has an actual meaning (as opposed to words that were made up for the purpose of being long). In fact, its claim is quite good, since ''antidisestablishmentarianism'' is used seriously in academic and ecclesiasticalist writing
about the Church of England when the concept arises, which it does occasionally (See
e.g. Hastings and "Some notes on the Church of England and Establishment", below). However, since [[1992]] it has lost this title to [[floccinaucinihilipilification]] in the [[Guinness Book of Records]]. It might still be the longest word not invented for the specific purpose of being a long word, however, because the word floccinaucinihilipilification was invented as a joke and is an amalgamation of four different Latin words. Presumably it was made, at least partly, to make fun of long words.
==In fiction==
In the ''[[Honeymooners]]'' episode, ''[[The $99,000 Answer]]'', Alice asks Ralph to spell this word. Ralph says he'll spell if she gives him $16,000 for spelling. She tells him she'll give him twice the amount if he can say it{{fact}}.
==Longer words==
*[[Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia]]
*[[Floccinaucinihilipilification]]
*[[Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious]]
*[[Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis]]
==See also==
*[[Christian an |
usiness cycle]] | [[Austrian School]] | [[New Keynesian economics]] | [[Gold standard]] | [[Supply side economics]] | [[Ricardan equivalence hypothesis]]
;Methodology
:[[Cycles]] | [[Econometrics]] | [[Game Theory]] | [[Mathematical economics]] | [[Evolutionary economics]] | [[Institutional economics]]
;Related fields
:[[History of Economic Thought|History of economic thought]] | [[Economic history]] | [[Praxeology]] | [[Political economy]] | [[Political science]] | [[Economic geography]] | [[Finance]] | [[Operations research]] | [[Economic anthropology]] | [[Public finance]] | [[Home economics]] | [[Neuroeconomics]] | [[Entrepreneurial Economics]]
;Criticism
:[[Post Autistic Economics]]
:[[Steve Keen]] | [[Paul Ormerod]]
;Selected topics
:[[Barter economy]] | [[Commercialism]] | [[Communism]] | [[Capitalism]] | [[Command economy]] | [[Coordinatorism]] | [[Deregulation]] | [[Economic indicator]] | [[Exploitation]] | [[Freiwirtschaft]] | [[Georgism]] | [[Gift economy]] | [[Inclusive Democracy]] \ [[Informal economy]] | [[Labour theory of value]] | [[Laissez-faire]] | [[Market economy]] | [[Marxism]] | [[Mutualism (economic theory)|Mutualism]] | [[Nationalization]] | [[Natural capitalism]] | [[Network effect]] | [[Participatory economics]] | [[Planned economy]] | [[Privatization]] | [[Real wage]] | [[Regulation]] | [[Socialism]] | [[Socialist economics]] | [[Stock market]] | [[Syndicalism]] | [[Synthetic economies]] | [[Taxation]] | [[Social welfare|Welfare]]
*[[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]]
*[[List of accounting topics]]
*[[List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics]]
*[[List of business law topics]]
*[[List of economic geography topics]]
*[[List of economic systems]]
*[[List of economics consultancies and think tanks]]
*[[List of economics topics]]
*[[List of economists]]
*[[List of finance topics]]
*[[List of human resource management topics]]
*[[List of information technology management topics]]
*[[List of international trade topics]]
*[[List of management topics]]
*[[List of marketing topics]]
*[[List of production topics]]
*[[List of publications in economics]]
*[[List of scholarly journals in economics]]
*[[List of university economics departments]]
==Further reading==
*''[http://www.bartleby.com/10/ An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]'' by [[Adam Smith]] (abridged version) (Originally published in 1776)
*''[http://web.mit.edu/krugman/www/islm.html There's Something About Macro]'' by [[Paul Krugman]] - a brief introduction to macroeconomics.
*''[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Lalor/llCy744.html Nature of Things]'' by [[Jean-Baptiste Say]] - an essay in which Say claims that economics isn't an ethical system that one can simply refute on the basis that one doesn't accept its ''values'': it is a collection of theories and models that explain inductively found principles.
==External links==
;General information
{{sisterlinks|Economics}}
{{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Economics}}
*[http://www.bloomberg.com/markets/ecalendar/ U.S. Economic Calendar]
*{{dmoz|Science/Social_Sciences/Economics/|Economics}}
*[[wikibooks:Economics|Economics textbooks]] on [[wikibooks:Main_Page|Wikibooks]]
*[http://www.economist.com/research/Economics/ The Economist's Economics A-Z]
;Institutions and organizations
*[http://www.bls.gov Bureau of Labor Statistics] - from the American Labor Department
*[http://www.cepr.net/ Center for Economic and Policy Research (USA)]
*[http://www.nber.org/ National Bureau of Economic Research (USA)] - Economics material from the organization that declares Recessions and Recoveries.
*[http://www.ncee.net/ National Council on Economic Education (USA)]
*[http://www.oecd.org/statistics/ Organization For Co-operation and Economic Development (OECD) Statistics]
*[http://unstats.un.org/unsd United Nations Statistics Division]
*[http://www.bea.doc.gov US Department of Commerce Economics Statistics]
*[http://www.worldbank.org/data/ World Bank Data]
*[http://www.wto.org World Trade Organization]
;Study resources
* [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Economics/index.htm MIT OpenCourseWare Economics course materials]
* [http://www.oswego.edu/~economic/newbooks.htm A guide to several online economics textbooks]
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-06 ''Dictionary of the history of Ideas''] - History of Economics
*[http://www.economyprofessor.com/ Economic Theories and Theorists at EconomyProfessor.com] - An index of all theories and theoreticians throughout the history of economic thought.
* [http://www.eco.nm.ru/ Introduction to Economics] - By Vladimir Boutiaga
*[http://www.capmag.com/article.asp?ID=4091 Economics For The Citizen] - By [[Walter E. Williams]]
*[http://homepage.newschool.edu/het/thought.htm Schools of Thought] &ndash; Compare various economic schools of thought on particular issues
*[http://www.tutor2u.net/ Tutor2u.net] - A comprehensive source of study notes, designed particularly for [[United Kingdom|UK]] students. Winner of the BETT Award for UK Online Learning Resource of the Year in 2003.
* [http://economics.about.com Economics at About.com] - A set of economics resources for students.
*[http://www.bized.ac.uk Bized] - A UK-based portal site for Economics and Business Studies designed mainly for [[United Kingdom|UK]] students.
* [http://www.introecon.com ''Introduction to Economic Analysis''] - A complete introductory economics textbook under [[Creative Commons]] license by R. [[Preston McAfee]].
;Economists
*[http://www.wws.princeton.edu/~pkrugman/ Paul Krugman website at Princeton.edu] - official website of well-known economist [[Paul Krugman]].
*[http://www.johnkay.com John Kay] - official website of the UK economist John Kay, author of ''Everlasting Light Bulbs'' and ''The Truth about Markets''
;Publications
*[http://www.aeaweb.org/ae American Economic Review]
*[http://www.yaleeconomicreview.com Yale Economic Review]
;Miscellaneous
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/economic.htm Recent Trends in Economic Education. ERIC Digest.]
*[http://english.historia.se Historicalstatistics.org] - Links to historical economic statistics for different countries and regions
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-4/economics.htm National Voluntary Content. ERIC Digests.]
*[http://www.stlouisfed.org/ St Louis Federal Reserve] Gateway to the [[Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis]], including working papers, links to lectures and other material.
*[http://xlab.berkeley.edu/ XLab] - UC Berkeley Experimental Social Science Laboratory: Human Subject Research in Economics
*[http://www.DKEI.com/ Daniel Knowles Economic Institute] - Advanced studies and theories.
<!-- If you have an interest in the Economics and Business section of Wikipedia, drop by at [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Business and Economics]]. -->
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[[zh:经济学]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eclectic Probability</title>
<id>9224</id>
<revision>
<id>15907127</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eclectic probability]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic paper</title>
<id>9225</id>
<revision>
<id>41492800</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T19:03:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shadow1</username>
<id>690159</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed link to disambiguation page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Electronic ink}}
'''Electronic paper''', or e-paper, is a [[technology]] that allows the text on a piece of [[paper]] to be re-written. The "paper" is actually made of [[organic electronics]] that use [[Conductor (material)|conductive]] [[plastics|plastic]] which contains tiny balls that respond to an electric charge, changing the page in much the same way that [[pixel]]s change on a [[Computer display|computer monitor]].
Electronic paper was developed in order to overcome some of the limitations of computer monitors. For example, the [[backlighting]] of [[Computer display|monitors]] is hard on the human eye, whereas electronic paper reflects light just like normal paper. It is easier to read at an angle than flat screen monitors. Because it is made of plastic, electronic paper has the potential to be flexible. It is light and potentially inexpensive.
Electronic paper was first developed in the [[1970s]] by [[Nick Sheridon]] at [[Xerox|Xerox's]] [[Palo Alto Research Center]]. The first electronic paper, called [[Gyricon]], consisted of tiny, statically charged [[ball]]s that were black on one side and white on the other. The "[[text]]" of the paper was altered by the presence of an [[electric field]], which turned the balls up or down.
|
- [[Ernie Watts]] for "''Chariots of Fire'' Theme (Dance Version)" - won
===Ranking on popular lists===
* [[BFI Top 100 British films]] (1999) - rank 19
* [[Hot 100 No. 1 Hits of 1982 (USA)]] ([[May 8]]) - Vangelis, ''Chariots of Fire'' theme
==Selected cast==
* [[Ben Cross]] - [[Harold Abrahams]]
* [[Ian Charleson]] - [[Eric Liddell]]
* [[Ian Holm]] - [[Sam Mussabini]], Abrahams's coach
* [[Alice Krige]] - Sybil Gordon, Abrahams's wife (her actual name was [[Sybil Evers]])
* [[Nicholas Farrell]] - [[Aubrey Montague]]
* [[Cheryl Campbell]] - [[Jennie Liddell]]
* [[John Gielgud]] - The Master of [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity]]
* [[Lindsay Anderson]] - The Master of [[Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge|Caius]]
* [[Nigel Havers]] - Lord Andrew Lindsay, loosely based on [[David Cecil, 6th Marquess of Exeter|Lord Burghley]], who did not consent to his name being used in the film
* [[Daniel Gerroll]] - [[Henry Stallard]]
* [[Nigel Davenport]] - [[F. E. Smith, 1st Earl of Birkenhead|Lord Birkenhead]]
* [[Dennis Christopher]] - American sprinter [[Charlie Paddock]]
* [[Brad Davis (actor)|Brad Davis]] - American sprinter [[Jackson Scholz]]
* [[Patrick Magee (actor)|Patrick Magee]] - [[Gerald Cadogan, 6th Earl Cadogan|Lord Cadogan]]
* [[Peter Egan]] - [[George Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, 5th Duke of Sutherland|The Duke of Sutherland]]
* [[Struan Rodger]] - [[Sandy McGrath]]
* [[David Yelland (actor)|David Yelland]] - [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|The Prince of Wales]]
* [[Yves Beneyton]] - [[George Andre]]
* [[Jeremy Sinden]] - President of the [[Gilbert & Sullivan Society]]
* [[Gordon Hammersley]] - President of the [[Cambridge Athletic Club]]
* [[Andrew Hawkins]] - Secretary of the Gilbert & Sullivan Society
* [[Richard Griffiths]] - Head Porter of Caius
* [[John Young]] - The Reverend J. D. Liddell
* [[Benny Young]] - Rob Liddell
* [[Yvonne Gilan]] - Mrs Liddell
* [[Jack Smethurst]] - Sleeping car attendant
* [[Gerry Slevin]] - [[John Keddie|Colonel John Keddie]]
* [[Peter Cellier]] - Head waiter at the [[Savoy Hotel|Savoy]]
* [[Stephen Mallatratt]] - Watson, based on [[Arthur Porritt, Baron Porritt|Arthur Porritt]]
==Other crew==
===Producers===
* [[James Crawford]] - [[associate producer]]
* [[Jake Eberts]] - [[executive producer]]
* [[Dodi Fayed]] - executive producer
* [[David Puttnam]] - [[Film producer|producer]]
==Filming locations==
* [[West Sands Beach]] at [[St Andrews]], [[Scotland]] (beach running scenes)
* [[Eton College]] (race around the quad)
* [[The Oval Sports Centre]], [[Bebington]], [[Merseyside]], [[England]] (presented as 1924 [[Colombes]] Olympic Stadium)
==See also==
* [[Sabbath breaking]]
* [[Philip Noel-Baker]]
==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0082158|title=Chariots of Fire}}
*[http://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/index.php?pageid=378 Great Court Run]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/reunion/reunion2.shtml BBC Radio 4 - The Reunion: Chariots of Fire] In August 2003, actors Ben Cross and Nigel Havers, director Hugh Hudson, writer Colin Welland, and producer David Puttnam discussed the movie in a 45-minute radio interview. Requires [http://www.real.com RealPlayer] to listen.
*''[http://artsandfaith.com/t100/2005/entry.php?film=14 Chariots of Fire]'' at the [http://www.artsandfaith.com/t100/ Arts & Faith Top100 Spiritually Significant Films] list
{{start box}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Academy Award for Best Picture]]
| years=1981
| before=''[[Ordinary People]]''
| after=''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]''
}}
{{end}}
{{Template:AcademyAwardBestPicture}}
[[Category:1981 films]]
[[Category:British films]]
[[Category:Sports films]]
[[Category:Films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee (film)]] <!-- Ian Holm -->
[[Category:Vangelis]]
[[Category:Warner Bros. films]]
[[Category:Period films]]
[[de:Die Stunde des Siegers]]
[[es:Carros de Fuego]]
[[fr:Les Chariots de feu (film)]]
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[[pt:Chariots of Fire]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Capitalist</title>
<id>5731</id>
<revision>
<id>15903928</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-01T02:13:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RJII</username>
<id>141644</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to [[capitalism]] article whose intro notes the usage of "capitalist"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[capitalism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Consequentialism</title>
<id>5734</id>
<revision>
<id>41565113</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T04:35:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ig0774</username>
<id>596872</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Varities of Consequentialism */ &mdash; is that too verbose?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Consequentialism''' is a broad term which refers to moral theories that hold that the consequences which result from a particular action or policy are the basis for any valid moral judgement about that action or policy. Thus, on a consequentialist account, moral action aims to produce good consequences.
==Defining consequentialism==
Consequentialism, as its name suggests, focuses on the outcomes of actions, emphasizing the results rather than the kinds of acts involved. The term "consequentialism" itself was coined by [[G.E.M. Anscombe]] in her essay "Modern Moral Philosophy" in 1958, but has since become common within the ethical discourse of [[analytic philosophy]]. As an ethical theory, it is generally traced back to [[utilitarianism]], but earlier ethical theorists often considered the consequences of actions relevant to ethical deliberation.
Apart from this basic outline, there is a great deal of debate among philosophers as to what precisely constitutes "consequentialism". However, there are some general themes that reappear in a number of consequentialist theories. Some points that most, if not all, consequentialist theories consider are:
* What determines the value of consequences? In other words, what counts as good?
* Who or what is the primary beneficiary of moral action?
* Who or what is the agent of a moral action?
* What is the relationship between the good and the right? How does right action follow from what counts as good?
===What kinds of consequences===
One way to divide various consequentialisms is by the types of consequences that are taken to matter most, that is, which consequences are truly taken to be productive of good states of affairs.
For example, according to hedonistic utilitarianism, a good action is one that results in net pleasure, and the best action is one that results in more net pleasure than any of the alternatives. Closely related is eudaimonic consequentialism, according to which afull, flourishing life (which may or may not be the same as enjoying a great deal of pleasure) is the ultimate aim. Similarly, one might adopt an aesthetic consequentialism, in which the ultimate aim is to produce beauty.
However, one might fix on non-psychological goods as the relevant consequences. Certain theories regard gains in [[Equality of outcome|material equality]] or [[Freedom (political)|political liberty]] as desirable in themselves, regardless of other consequences.
A theory might even adopt a package of several goods, all to be promoted equally. Since there would be no overarching consequence to aim for, conflicts between goods are to be adjudicated not by some ultimate consequentialist principle, but by the fine contextual discernment and intuition of the agent. However, even in a consequentialist system that focuses on a single type of good, such conflicts and tensions are to be expected.
===Consequences for whom===
Consequences always have an effect on certain people or things. Various kinds of consequentialism can be distinguished by the beneficiary of the action. That is, one might ask "Consequences for whom?"
====Agent-Centered or Agent Neutral====
A fundamental distinction along these lines might be between theories that demand that agents act for ends in which they have some [[personal interest]] and [[motivation]] (actually or counterfactually) and theories that demand that agents act for ends perhaps disconnected from their own interests and drives. These are termed agent-centered and agent-neutral theories.
Agent-neutral consequentialism ignores the specific value given to an action by particular agents. Thus, in an agent-neutral theory, my own personal aims do not count any more than anyone else's. Agent-centered consequentialism, on the other hand, focuses on the needs of particular people, most likely the agent involved. Thus, in an agent-centered account, such as Peter Railton's{{smref|Sch1}}, I might be concerned with the general welfare, but I am more concerned with the immediate welfare of myself and my friends and family.
Not all "agent-neutral" consequentialist theories totally ignore the beneficiary of the action. For example, it is probably a better thing (on at least some accounts) to feed someone who is starving than to feed someone who has more than enough to eat. The key to this distinction is that what counts is not the particular beneficiary, but as some characteristic of that beneficiary.
A conciliatory approach is to acknowledge the tension between an agent's interests as an individual and as a member of various groups, seeking to optimize among all of them. In other words, it can be meaningful to speak of an action as being good for someone as an individual but bad for them as a citizen of their town.
====Human-centered?====
Most consequentialist theories seem primarily concerned with human beings and their relationships with other human beings. However, some philosophers would say that we should not limit our consideration just to the interests of human beings.
No less a person th |
10]]
|}
==Economy==
[[Image:wiki_arkansas.jpg|thumb|300px|Greetings from Arkansas]]
The state's total gross state product for 2003 was $76 billion. Its Per Capita Personal Income for 2003 was $24,384, 50<sup>th</sup> in the nation. The state's agriculture outputs are poultry and eggs, soybeans, sorghum, cattle, cotton, rice, hogs, and milk. Its industrial outputs are food processing, electric equipment, fabricated metal products, machinery, paper products, bromine, and vanadium.
In recent years, [[automobile]] parts manufacturers have opened factories in eastern Arkansas to support auto plants in other states (though Arkansas does not yet have an auto plant itself, it is rumored to be a future site for a [[Toyota]] plant as well as for a truck plant to be built by Toyota's subsidiary [[Hino Motors]]).
Tourism is also very important to the Arkansas economy; the official state nickname "The Natural State" is prominently displayed in state tourism advertising.
The effect of [[Tyson Foods]], [[Wal-Mart]], [[J.B. Hunt]] and other multinational companies located in NW Arkansas cannot be understated. The area is currently in a long-running economic boom due to being the forefront of Global Trade. [[Wal-Mart]] alone accounts for $8.90 out of every $100 spent in U.S. retail stores.
==Demographics==
{{main|List of people from Arkansas}}
{| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations
|-
! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population
|-
| colspan=2|<hr>
|-
| align="center"| 1810 || align="right"| 1,062
|-
| align="center"| 1820 || align="right"| 14,273
|-
| align="center"| 1830 || align="right"| 30,388
|-
| align="center"| 1840 || align="right"| 97,574
|-
| align="center"| 1850 || align="right"| 209,897
|-
| align="center"| 1860 || align="right"| 435,450
|-
| align="center"| 1870 || align="right"| 484,471
|-
| align="center"| 1880 || align="right"| 802,525
|-
| align="center"| 1890 || align="right"| 1,128,211
|-
| align="center"| 1900 || align="right"| 1,311,564
|-
| align="center"| 1910 || align="right"| 1,574,449
|-
| align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 1,752,204
|-
| align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 1,854,482
|-
| align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 1,949,387
|-
| align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 1,909,511
|-
| align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 1,786,272
|-
| align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 1,923,295
|-
| align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 2,286,435
|-
| align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 2,350,725
|-
| align="center"| [[United States 2004 Census|2004]] || align="right"| 2,752,629
|}
As of 2005, Arkansas has an estimated population of 2,779,154, which is an increase of 29,154, or 1.1%, from the prior year and an increase of 105,756, or 4.0%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 52,214 people (that is 198,800 births minus 146,586 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 57,611 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 21,947 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 35,664 people.
48.8% is male, and 51.2% is female.
Racially, Arkansas is:
*78.6% [[Whites|White]] non-Hispanic
*15.7% [[African American|Black]]
*3.2% [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]]
*0.8% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*0.7% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*1.3% [[Mixed race]]
The five largest ancestry groups in the state are: [[United States|American]] (15.9%), [[African American]] (15.7%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (9.5%), [[German-American|German]] (9.3%), [[British American|English]] (7.9%).
People of American ancestry have a strong presence in the northwestern Ozarks and the central part of the state. Blacks live mainly in the fertile southern and eastern parts of the state, especially along the Mississippi river. Arkansans of British and German ancestry are mostly found in the far northwestern Ozarks near the Missouri border.
As of 2000, 95.0% of Arkansas residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 3.3% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[French language|French]] is the third most spoken language at 0.3%, followed by [[German language|German]] at 0.3% and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] at 0.1%.
===Religion===
Arkansas, like most other Southern states, is overwhelmingly Protestant. The religious affiliations of the people are as follows:
*[[Christianity|Christian]] &ndash; 86%
**[[Protestant]] &ndash; 78%
***[[Baptist]] &ndash; 39%
***[[Methodist]] &ndash; 9%
***[[Pentecostal]] &ndash; 6%
***[[Church of Christ]] &ndash; 6%
***[[Assemblies of God]] &ndash; 3%
***Other Protestant &ndash; 15%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &ndash; 7%
**Other Christian &ndash; 1%
*Other Religions &ndash; <1%
*Non-Religious &ndash; 14%
==Important cities and towns==
{|
|-
| valign=top |
*[[Arkadelphia, Arkansas|Arkadelphia]]
*[[Batesville, Arkansas|Batesville]]
*[[Bella Vista, Arkansas|Bella Vista]]
*[[Benton, Arkansas|Benton]]
*[[Bentonville, Arkansas|Bentonville]]
*[[Blytheville, Arkansas|Blytheville]]
*[[Bryant, Arkansas|Bryant]]
*[[Cabot, Arkansas|Cabot]]
*[[Camden, Arkansas|Camden]]
*[[Conway, Arkansas|Conway]]
*[[El Dorado, Arkansas|El Dorado]]
*[[Fayetteville, Arkansas|Fayetteville]]
*[[Forrest City, Arkansas|Forrest City]]
*[[Fort Smith, Arkansas|Fort Smith]]
*[[Harrison, Arkansas|Harrison]]
*[[Hope, Arkansas|Hope]]
*[[Hot Springs, Arkansas|Hot Springs]]
*[[Jacksonville, Arkansas|Jacksonville]]
*[[Jonesboro, Arkansas|Jonesboro]]
*[[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]]
*[[Lonoke, Arkansas|Lonoke]]
| valign=top |
*[[Magnolia, Arkansas|Magnolia]]
*[[Maumelle, Arkansas|Maumelle]]
*[[Monticello, Arkansas|Monticello]]
*[[Mountain Home, Arkansas|Mountain Home]]
*[[North Little Rock, Arkansas|North Little Rock]]
*[[Paragould, Arkansas|Paragould]]
*[[Pine Bluff, Arkansas|Pine Bluff]]
*[[Pocahontas, Arkansas|Pocahontas]]
*[[Pottsville, Arkansas|Pottsville]]
*[[Rector, Arkansas|Rector]]
*[[Rogers, Arkansas|Rogers]]
*[[Russellville, Arkansas|Russellville]]
*[[Searcy, Arkansas|Searcy]]
*[[Sherwood, Arkansas|Sherwood]]
*[[Smackover, Arkansas|Smackover]]
*[[Springdale, Arkansas|Springdale]]
*[[Siloam Springs, Arkansas|Siloam Springs]]
*[[Texarkana, Arkansas|Texarkana]]
*[[Van Buren, Arkansas|Van Buren]]
*[[West Helena, Arkansas|West Helena]]
*[[West Memphis, Arkansas|West Memphis]]
|}
==Education and research centers==
===Centers of research===
* [http://www.comanchelodge.com/chickamauga-cherokee.html Arkansas Cherokee Indian Research]
* [[Dale Bumpers National Rice Research Center]] [http://www.dbnrrc.ars.usda.gov/ website]
* [[National Center for Toxicological Research]] [http://www.fda.gov/nctr/ website]
===Colleges and universities===
[[Image:UAMS Cancer.JPG|thumb|right|[[University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences]], Little Rock.]]
*[[University of Arkansas System]]
**[[University of Arkansas]]
**[[University of Arkansas - Fort Smith]]
**[[University of Arkansas at Little Rock]]
**[[University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences]]
**[[University of Arkansas at Monticello]]
**[[University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff]]
<p>
*[[Arkansas Baptist College]]
*[[Arkansas Tech University]]
*[[Central Baptist College]]
*[[Harding University]]
*[[Henderson State University]]
*[[Hendrix College]]
*[[John Brown University]]
*[[Lyon College]]
*[[Ouachita Baptist University]]
*[[Philander Smith College]]
*[[Southern Arkansas University]]
*[[University of Central Arkansas]]
*[[University of the Ozarks]]
*[[Williams Baptist College]]
[[Image:Astate.jpg|thumb|right|[[Arkansas State University]], Jonesboro.]]
*[[Arkansas State University System]]
**[[Arkansas State University|Arkansas State University - Jonesboro]]
**[[Arkansas State University - Beebe]]
**[[Arkansas State University - Mountain Home]]
**[[Arkansas State University - Newport]]
**[[Arkansas State University - Marked Tree]]
**[[Arkansas State University - Heber Springs]]
**[[Arkansas State University - Searcy]]
==See also==
*[[Arkansas Literature]]
*[[Ivory-billed Woodpecker]], long thought extinct, was recently re-discovered in the Big Woods of Arkansas
*[[South Arkansas]]
*[[List of Arkansas native plants]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Arkansas}}
*[http://www.state.ar.us Official State website Homepage]
*[http://www.arcountydata.com Online access to Arkansas County Records]
*[http://www.arkansas.com/things-to-do/history-heritage/facts.asp Facts About Arkansas]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/05000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/arkansas Arkansas Newspapers]
*[http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/data/ar_code.asp Arkansas State Code (the state statutes of Arkansas)]
* [http://www.southernlitreview.com/states/arkansas Literature of Arkansas]
{{United_States}}
{{Arkansas}}
[[Category:Arkansas|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1836 establishments]]
[[ang:Arkansas]]
[[ar:أركنساس]]
[[ast:Arkansas]]
[[bg:Арканзас]]
[[zh-min-nan:Arkansas]]
[[bs:Arkansas]]
[[ca:Arkansas]]
[[cs:Arkansas]]
[[da:Arkansas]]
[[de:Arkansas]]
[[et:Arkansas]]
[[es:Arkansas]]
[[eo:Arkansaso]]
[[fr:Arkansas]]
[[ga:Arkansas]]
[[gd:Arkansas]]
[[gl:Arcansas]]
[[ko:아칸소 주]]
[[id:Arkansas]]
[[is:Arkansas]]
[[it:Arkansas]]
[[he:ארקנסו]]
[[ |
though Bayonne has had higher-than-average unemployment. [[Metallurgy]] also provides local jobs.
==Communications==
Bayonne is on the high-speed [[TGV]] line between Paris and [[Hendaye]] for connections with Spain. In practice, the line slows considerably beyond [[Bordeaux]] although there are plans to improve the service. There are regional rail services along the Basque coast, to Pau and through the [[Landes]] to [[Dax]] and Bordeaux. There is a line along the Nive valley through Labourd and [[Nafarroa Beherea]] to [[St-Jean-Pied-de-Port]], used principally by tourists and hikers.
There are extensive bus connections with Biarritz, Anglet and surrounding villages.
The city is near the intersection between the A63 [[Autoroute]] between Bordeaux and the Spanish border and the A64 from Bayonne to [[Toulouse]].
The BAB airport, [[Aérogare de Parme]], is 3 km away in Anglet, with flights to destinations across France as well as [[London]], [[Germany]] and [[Italy]]. It is normally marketed internationally as "Biarritz airport".
==Famous residents==
Bayonne was the birthplace of:
* [[Dominique Joseph Garat]] ([[1749]]-[[1833]]), [[writer]] and [[politician]]
* [[François Cabarrus]] ([[1752]]-[[1810]]), adventurer and [[Spain|Spanish]] financier, father of [[Madame Tallien]]
* [[Jacques Laffitte]] ([[1767]]-[[1844]]), banker and [[politician]]
* [[Frédéric Bastiat]] ([[1801]]-[[1850]]), [[classical liberalism|classical liberal]] [[author]] and [[political economy|political economist]]
* [[Léon Bonnat]] ([[1833]]-[[1922]]), painter
* [[René Cassin]] ([[1887]]-[[1976]]), [[lawyer|jurist]] and [[judge]], recipient of the [[1968]] [[Nobel Peace Prize]]
* [[Michel Camdessus]] (born [[1933]]), Managing Director of the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) from [[1997]] to [[2000]]
* [[Didier Deschamps]] (born [[1968]]), [[Football World Cup|World-Cup]]-winning footballer
* [[Imanol Harinordoquy]] (born [[1980]]), [[France national rugby union team|French international]] [[rugby union|rugby]] player
==Civic information==
The Mayor of Bayonne (1995-2007) is Jean Grenet of the centre-right [[Union for a Popular Movement|UMP]]. The 39-strong town council is also dominated by the UMP, who hold 31 of the seats. The centre-left group has five seats, the Basque nationalist ''Baiona Berria'' have two and the communist [[Revolutionary Communist League (France)|LCR]] one.
Bayonne's twin towns are:
* [[Pamplona]], [[Navarra]], [[Spain]]
* [[Daytona Beach, Florida]], [[United States]]
* [[Bayonne, New Jersey]], [[United States]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ville-bayonne.fr/ City council website] (in French)
* [http://france-for-visitors.com/pyrenees/pays-basque/bayonne-baiona.html Visiting Bayonne (tourist map, guide and photos)] In English
* [http://www.fortified-places.com/bayonne.html Webpage about the citadel and fortifications of the town]
* [http://www.euskomedia.org/euskomedia/SAunamendi?idi=en&op=7&voz=BAIONA BAIONA in the Bernardo Estornés Lasa - Auñamendi Encyclopedia (Euskomedia Fundazioa)] (in Spanish)
* [http://graphikdesigns.free.fr/fetes-de-bayonne-chansons.html Fiestas Songs] (in French)
{{Lapurdi}}
[[Category:Communes of Pyrénées-Atlantiques]]
[[Category:Lapurdi]]
<!--[[gl:Baiona]] about Galician Baiona -->
<!--[[nl:Baiona]] about Galician Baiona -->
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[[cs:Bayonne]]
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[[sr:Bayonne]]
[[sv:Bayonne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bubblegum Crisis</title>
<id>4742</id>
<revision>
<id>41728554</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:27:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haukurth</username>
<id>16226</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: Action</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox animanga/Header|
title_name=Bubblegum Crisis
|image=Bcriss.jpg
|caption=The heroines of ''Bubblegum Crisis''. (Priss, Linna, Nene and Sylia)
|ja_name=バブルガムクライシス
|ja_name_trans=Bubblegum Crisis
|genre=[[Cyberpunk]], [[Science Fiction]], [[Mecha]], [[Action movie|Action]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/OVA|
title=
|director=Katsuhito Akiyama
|studio=AIC
|num_episodes=8 |release_dates=[[25 February]] [[1987]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Footer}}
'''''Bubblegum Crisis''''' is an [[anime]] [[Original Video Animation|OVA]] series that takes at least part of its inspiration from [[Philip K. Dick]]'s and [[Ridley Scott]]'s ''[[Blade Runner]]''.
''Bubblegum Crisis'' is a [[mecha]] style anime that takes place in the future in a post-disaster [[Tokyo]], now known as Megatokyo. The series has a [[manga]] adaptation.
The original OVA series was eight episodes long. It was originally slated to run for thirteen episodes, but due to legal problems between the two studios who jointly held the rights to the series, '''Artmic''' and '''Youmex''', the series was discontinued. The problems may have been brought on by the series' lackluster sales in [[Japan]]. In [[North America]], however, the series did comparatively well, and has remained a fan favorite.
In Japan, a number of manga were produced that featured characters and storylines based in the BGC (a common abbreviation for the series name) universe. Some were very much thematically linked to the OVA series, others were "one shots" or comedy features. A number of artists participated in the creation of these comics, including [[Kenichi Sonoda]], who had produced the original Knight Saber character designs. A North American comic based in the Bubblegum Crisis Universe was published in [[English language|English]] by [[Dark Horse Comics]].
The series involves the adventures of the Knight Sabers, an all woman group of [[superheroes]]/[[mercenaries]], who don [[powered armor]] and fight various problems, most frequently rogue [[Boomer (anime term)|boomer]]s. Boomers are humanoid robots designed to perform a variety of tasks, from construction and firefighting to combat; a particular model of Boomer, the BU-33S "Sexaroid", is designed for sexual purposes.
One of the central themes of the series, showing its ''Blade Runner'' influence strongly, is the exploration of what "[[human]]" really means. As in ''Blade Runner'', this is often done by using the mechanical characters, especially focusing on BU-33S.
Bubblegum Crisis was notable also in that it was one of the few early anime series that were brought over from [[Japan]] unedited and subtitled with [[English language|English]] captions that still have a great deal of popularity today. While anime has become much more popular in the intervening years, in 1991 it was still mostly unknown as a storytelling medium in North America.
[[image:bubble.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Cover of Bubblegum Crisis OST]]
In 1997, a new series was created, titled ''[[Bubblegum Crisis 2040]]'', but was not a sequel to the original OVA series. Headed by [[Chiaki J. Konaka]], it was a standalone television series, and while it used similar themes to the original, it employed new designs for the characters and the mechanical devices. This series ran for twenty six episodes. Some discussion has taken place between the production companies for a second season, tentatively titled ''[[Bubblegum Crisis 2041]]'', although many people suspect that the franchise owners have lost interest in it (it is still listed among their assets, however).
Despite the age of the original series, a non-Japanese fandom still exists for it (further research is necessary to determine the size of a possible Japanese one), and throughout the years there have been many debates on parts of the series that were unclear or deliberately arranged as to provoke discussion. The community of fans have produced large quantities of "fan fiction" and "fan art" based on both the OVA and television series, though there is a preponderance of works and discussion based on the original series. This is partly due to the longer period of time that it has been out, but it is also partly due to a large portion of the fandom expressing a preference for the original series. It is unclear as to how the proportions of preference will change as further time passes.
Bubblegum Crisis has many features that have proven attractive to many viewers of anime. The mecha designs, cyberpunk characters, and post-apocalyptic city of Megatokyo are well-realized and leave a lasting impression. The storylines are varied and complex, and are (sometimes deliberately, sometimes not) filled with parts that have multiple possible interpretations. The series was also one of the earliest anime to have a strong [[Yuri (animation)|yuri]] fandom.
The music throughout the original OVA series is one of the most recognizable in anime fandom and generates a strong feeling of [[1980]]'s nostalgia. The opening song and sequence for the first OVA, as well as many of the other songs throughout the series, clearly draw inspiration from the 1984 movie [[Streets of Fire]]. Nearly all of the music is available, as there are 8 soundtrack releases (one per OVA).
A [[roleplaying game]] based on the series was published by [[R. Talsorian]] in 1997 under the [[Fuzion]] system.
A digitally-remastered compilation of the original series' episodes, featuring bi-lingual tracks and production extras, was released on DVD in 2004 by AnimEigo Inc.
==Sequels and Spin-Offs==
*''[[AD Police Files]]''
*''[[Bubblegum Crash]]''
*''[[Bubblegum Crisis Tokyo 2040]]''
*''[[AD Police: To Serve and Protect]]''
*''[[Parasite Dolls]]'' (a three-episode OVA about Branch, a secret division of the AD Police)
*''[[Holiday in Bali]]'' special (live action)
*''[[Hurricane Live]]'' 2032 and 2033
*Non-canonical American comic books ([[Bubblegum Crisis: Grand Mal]] produced by [[Adam Warren]] via [[Dark Horse Comics]]) and a [[role playing game]].
Some |
st Director Oscar|Schaffner, Franklin]]
[[Category:American film directors|Schaffner, Franklin]]
[[es:Franklin Schaffner]]
[[de:Franklin J. Schaffner]]
[[fr:Franklin J. Schaffner]]
[[ja:フランクリン・J・シャフナー]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fungimol</title>
<id>11706</id>
<revision>
<id>41553986</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T02:55:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.175.87.91</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>rm dead image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fungimol''' is Tim Freeman's
extensible system for designing [[atom]]ic-scale objects. The intent is to eventually extend it to be a useful system for
doing [[molecule|molecular]] [[nanotechnology]] design work. At the moment it is a PDB file viewer and [[buckminsterfullerene]] editor.
Fungimol (including this document) is distributed under the terms of the [[GNU General Public License|GNU Library General Public License]]. This license is
flexible enough to permit creating proprietary [[plugin]]s under certain circumstances. Binary versions of Fungimol link with other
software that has other licenses.
==External links==
*[http://www.fungible.com/fungimol/index.html Fungimol Documentation Contents]
[[Category:Nanotechnology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freeway</title>
<id>11707</id>
<revision>
<id>41632201</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:40:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hairy Dude</username>
<id>274535</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* United Kingdom */ substituted "median strip" with BrE "central reservation" (I have never, ever heard the former with reference to UK roads)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
[[Image:Los Angeles Freeway Interchange.jpg|thumb|right|400px|High-capacity [[freeway interchange]] in [[Los Angeles, California]].]]
A '''freeway''' (also ''superhighway'', ''[[expressway]]'' or ''[[motorway]]'' as further explained below) is a multi-[[lane]] [[highway]] ([[road]]) designed for high-speed travel by large numbers of [[vehicle]]s, and having no [[traffic light]]s, [[stop sign]]s, nor other regulations requiring vehicles to stop for cross-traffic.
==In general==
===Design features===
Freeways have high [[speed limit]]s (usually 65-80 mph (100-130 km/h) in rural areas and 50-65 mph (80-100 km/h) in urban areas) and multiple lanes for travel in each direction. The number of lanes may vary from four or six in rural areas to as high as sixteen or eighteen in certain [[Global city|global cities]].
A median (originally "medial strip"{{ref|bernstein}}) or [[central reservation]] separates the lanes travelling in opposite directions. Separation may be achieved through distance or through the use of high [[crash barrier]]s like cable barriers and [[Jersey barrier]]s{{ref|anonymous}}.
Crossroads are bypassed by grade (height) separation using [[underpass]]es and [[overpass]]es.
In addition to the [[sidewalk]]s attached to roads that go over or under a freeway, most countries also provide specialized pedestrian bridges and underground tunnels. Such structures enable pedestrians and cyclists to cross the freeway without having to make a long detour to the nearest road for which a grade separation has been provided.
Freeway entrances and exits are limited in number, and are designed with special onramps and offramps, so as to ensure that vehicles do not disrupt the main flow of traffic as they enter or leave the freeway. In some countries, the exits are numbered. Exit numbering may be by mile or kilometre, or in a simple sequential fashion.
Where freeways cross, engineers provide '''[[interchange (road)|interchange]]s''' with elaborate [[ramp]] systems that allow for smooth, uninterrupted transitions between all through routes (as funds permit).
Because the high speeds reduce decision time, freeways usually have more [[traffic sign]]s than the equivalent signs on most highways and roads; the signs are often also larger. In major cities, especially on freeways six lanes in width or wider, guide signs are mounted on overpasses or overhead gantries so that drivers can see where each lane goes.
Some countries prefer to use a special icon for freeways, while others simply post "Freeway Entrance" and "Begin Freeway" signs.
Another common problem with freeways is that it is nearly impossible to avoid wrong-way drivers, and the subsequent [[head-on collision]]s are often fatal. Therefore, special signage and lane markings are used to discourage drivers from going the wrong way.
Freeways do not usually have traffic lights, but expressways may, in places where this distinction is made.
====Gallery of design features====
=====Signage for entering the freeway=====
<gallery>
Image:Beginfreewaysign.jpg|American "begin freeway" sign
Image:Freewayentrancesign.jpg|California on-ramp sign
Image:Autorouteentrancesign.jpg|Swiss on-ramp and "begin freeway" sign
</gallery>
=====Signage for leaving the freeway=====
<gallery>
Image:Endfreewaysign.jpg|American "freeway ends" warning sign
Image:SR 429 north exit 33.jpg|American [[exit number|numbered exit]] off-ramp sign
Image:Autorouteexitsign.jpg|Swiss end of freeway/off-ramp sign
Image:Taiwan Freeway New Exit Sign.PNG|Taiwan exit off-ramp sign with distance based exit numbering and formal interchange name in Chinese [http://www.freeway.gov.tw/content/交流道編號對應表.htm] [http://www.freeway.gov.tw/en_07.asp] [http://www.freeway.gov.tw/content/NHW01_IC_Table.htm]
</gallery>
=====Signage for Navigation=====
<gallery>
Image:Americanguidesignage.jpg|American guide signs
Image:I-4 east exits 111A-B.jpg|American [[exit number|numbered exit]] guide sign
Image:Quebec exit number.jpg|[[Quebec]] guide signs
Image:PRC Expressway.jpg|Chinese guide signs
Image:Europeanguidesignage.jpg|Swiss guide signs
Image:AutopistaVespucioSurantesdeRuta5.JPG|Chilean guide signs
Image:On the Dhahran-Al Khobar Highway.jpg|Saudi Arabian guide signs
Image:Taiwan Freeway 1km Exit Sign.PNG|Taiwan guide sign [http://www.freeway.gov.tw/content/NHW01_IC_Table.htm] [http://www.freeway.gov.tw/en_07.asp] [http://www.freeway.gov.tw/content/交流道編號對應表.htm]
Image:Freeway_Argentina.jpg|Guide sign in Buenos Aires, Argentina
</gallery>
=====Grade separations=====
<gallery>
Image:Sandhillroadoverpass.jpg|American freeway overpass
Image:Highway13highway24underpass.jpg|American freeway underpass
</gallery>
=====Measures to prevent wrong way drivers=====
<gallery>
Image:Californiaofframpwrongwaysignage.jpg|Used by some U.S. states at freeway ends and off-ramps
</gallery>
===Access restrictions===
To minimize [[Car accident|accident]]s, access to freeways is usually limited to vehicles capable of consistently maintaining a high speed, like [[automobile]]s, [[truck]]s, [[motorcycle]]s, [[van]]s, and [[bus]]es. [[Pedestrian]]s, [[bicyclist]]s, slow-moving vehicles, [[horse]]s, horse-drawn vehicles, and anything else that might obstruct fast-moving vehicles are all prohibited; however some freeways allow non-motor vehicles (e.g., bicycles) (see [[non-motorized vehicle access on freeways]] for more info).
===Ancillary facilities===
In most parts of the world, there are public [[rest area]]s on freeways and expressways as well as other types of highways. In some U.S. states, public rest areas are located almost exclusively on freeways or expressways (since only those routes carry the high traffic necessary to justify the area's maintenance cost).
== Nomenclature ==
===Worldwide===
''Freeway'' is the term used in most of the [[United States]], parts of [[Canada]], and parts of [[Australia]], notably [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]]. The [[United Kingdom]], [[Republic of Ireland]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries prefer ''[[motorway]]'', most of [[Canada]] uses ''[[expressway]]'', while the provinces of [[Québec]] and [[New Brunswick]] use ''[[Autoroute (Quebec)|Autoroute]]''; ''[[Autoroute]]'' is also used in [[France]] and other francophone countries; [[Spain]], [[Mexico]] and other Spanish-speaking countries use the term ''[[Autopista]]''; the [[German language|German]]-speaking world uses ''[[Autobahn]]'', the [[Dutch language|Dutch]]-speaking world uses ''[[autosnelweg]]'', [[Italy]], [[Poland]] and [[Romania]] use ''[[autostrada]]''; and [[China]] and [[Japan]] use the term ''[[expressway]]'', although they once used ''freeway''. [[Slovenia]] uses ''[[avtocesta]]'', [[Croatia]] uses ''[[Autocesta]]'', [[Slovakia]] uses ''diaľnica'' and [[Czech republic]] uses ''dálnice''. Brazil uses the portuguese ''rodovia''. The Nordic countries use these terms: ''motorveg'' in Norway, ''motorvej'' in Denmark, and ''motorväg'' in Sweden, which are all apparently variations on the British ''motorway''.
Some [[RIRO expressway]]s may have at-grade intersections. Some commentators consider them to be freeways because they have design speeds of 65 mph or higher. However, others argue that RIRO expressways lack complete-controlled access since existing private businesses are allowed to retain their entrances and thus should not be classified as full/true freeways.
===United Kingdom===
In the UK the term "motorway" has specific legal meanings (simply, a "special status" road). Although the term "expressway" and "parkway" are sometimes used, they amount to little more than street names, with motorway the only term officially recognised. UK motorways are engineered to some of the highest standards in the world, with almost all motorways having a full-width hard shoulder (breakdown lane), full grade-seperated interchanges with long on/off ramps and a barriered central reservation (the term "median strip& |
the Son of the Wolf, 30, [[Bahá'í Faith]].
*~[[1870s|1870 CE]] "He should not wish for others what he does not wish for himself." - [[Bahá'u'lláh]], ''[[Epistle to the Son of the Wolf]]'' [[Bahá'í Faith]].
*[[1999|1999 CE]] "don't do things you wouldn't want to have done to you." - British Humanist society, [[Humanism]].
==Footnotes==
* {{note label|JFK|1|1}} {{note label|JFK|1b|1b}} {{note label|JFK|footnote|1c}} JFK's [[11 June]][[1963]] "Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights," [http://www.jfklibrary.org/j061163.htm transcript from the JFK library]. Partly described (and multiply quoted) in the text above. As described in [http://www.abbeville.com/civilrights/washington.asp graphic 1963 events], President Kennedy sent his civil rights [[bill (proposed law) | bill]] to [[Congress]] on [[19 June]][[1963]] leading to the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] via the Congressional give-and-take described there.
* {{note label|Gensler|2|2a}} {{note label|Gensler|footnote|2b}} Harry Gensler's essay,The Golden Rule, published in the Blackwell ''Dictionary of Business Ethics'' (Routledge 1997 ISBN 1557869421). For more background, and for more information about the golden rule, plus links and lists of books about it, see his website [http://www.jcu.edu/philosophy/gensler/goldrule.htm The Golden Rule]. His links include his teaching website, [http://www.jcu.edu/philosophy/gensler/ethics.htm#W Web Exercises].
== See also ==
* [[Ethics in religion]]
* [[Other]]
* [[Reciprocity (social psychology)]]
* [[Tit for tat]]
* [[Reciprocal altruism]]
* [[Karma]] may be compared with '''golden rule'''
==External links==
====Practical applications of the golden rule to our real world problems====
#Application to racism in the United States in [[1963]], [[1964]], partly described in the text and the above {{ref harvard|JFK|footnote|1c}}[1c].
#Application to [http://home.ix.netcom.com/%7Emmfamily/myths.html terrorism].
#UNESCO report on [http://kvc.minbuza.nl/uk/archive/report/chapter1_3.html global ethics].
#A sample of applications to [http://www.uslink.net/%7Egolden/philosop.html business]. The golden rule is also in business books, e.g., the Blackwell book in the above {{ref harvard|Gensler|footnote|2b}}[2b].
====The general application of the golden rule====
#Bill McGinnis's [http://patriot.net/%7Ebmcgin/golden.html Committee for the Golden Rule].
#How to conduct a [http://www.conexuspress.com/catalog/golden_rule_workshopweb.htm workshop on the golden rule].
#Application to [http://www.dountoothers.net/ moral education].
====Other external links====
* [http://19.org/index.php?id=73,67,0,0,1,0 The Rules of the Game]
* [http://www.unification.net/ws/theme015.htm The Golden Rule in Religion]
* [http://www.teachingvalues.com/goldenrule.html The Golden Rule in World Religions]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/reciproc.htm Shared belief in the Golden Rule]
* [http://the_mystic_light.tripod.com/the_golden_rule.htm Rosicrucians: The Golden Rule]
[[de:Goldene Regel]]
[[eo:Ora Regulo]]
[[id:Etika timbal balik]]
[[nl:Gulden regel (leefregel)]]
[[no:Den gyldne regel]]
[[ro:Regula de aur]]
[[sv:Den gyllene regeln]]
[[Category : Social philosophy]]
[[Category : Ethics]]
[[Category : Logic]]
[[Category:Religious philosophy and doctrine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Governor of New York</title>
<id>12861</id>
<revision>
<id>15910515</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-21T06:44:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TUF-KAT</username>
<id>8351</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of Governors of New York]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glasnevin</title>
<id>12862</id>
<revision>
<id>39823743</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T02:47:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Open2universe</username>
<id>367488</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Grounds */ Removed dead link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Glasnevin''' is a residential neighbourhood on the [[Northside (Dublin)|Northside]] of the city of [[Dublin]] and south of the [[Ballymun]] area. Glasnevin contains [[Glasnevin Cemetery]], the most historically notable cemetery in the country, the [[Irish National Botanic Gardens]], and [[Dublin City University]].
==Hart's Corner==
Approaching Glasnevin via [[Phibsboro]] is what is known as "Hart's Corner" (previously "[[Doyles Corner]]" and "Dunphy's Corner") [http://www.irishpubguide.ie/Irish%20Pub%20Guide/dublin/70.htm] but which about a 200 years ago was called [[Glasmanogue]], and was then a well-known stage on the way to [[Finglas]]. At an earlier date the name possessed a wider signification and was applied to a considerable portion of the adjoining district.
==Grounds==
Apart from the great cemetery by which the locality is best known, Glasnevin is interesting chiefly by reason of the distinguished people who in bygone days made it their [[residence]] or [[resort]]. Of these perhaps the best known and most identified with the place is the celebrated divine, Dr. Delany, who lived here in the [[18th century]], and who assembled around the table in his charming house, Delville, all the Dublin wits and celebrities of his time. Doubtless the chief attraction to many of the visitors was the talented hostess, Mrs.
Delany, to whose taste and refinement Delville owes much of its present interest. [[Jonathan Swift|Swift]] and Stella were both in the habit of visiting the hospitable proprietors of Delville, and Swift wrote a squib jocosely satirising the grounds which he considered too small for the size of the house.
The gardens are laid out to the best advantage, and retained in 1920, in their main features, the design of their originator. They contained a number of magnificent trees and shrubs, among which are arbutus, ilex and yew, many of them of venerable appearance. A pretty stream, spanned by rustic bridges, flowed through the grounds which are well enclosed, forming a delightful retreat, notwithstanding the rapid encroachment of the city in this direction.
A miniature temple, bearing the motto "Fastigia despicit urbis" (it looks down upon the pinnacles of the city), said to have been suggested by Swift, stands on a slight eminence in the grounds, and contains a medallion of Stella by Mrs. Delany.
==Village of Glasnevin==
The village of Glasnevin has, of course, been much altered since Dr. Delany's time, and is now included in the city, but a few of the older houses still remain, and are readily distinguished by their old-world gardens, with their wealth of flowering shrubs and climbing plants. It would seem to have been an undesirable place of residence in the beginning of the 18th century, if we are to believe the description given by Archbishop King in a letter, dated 1725, published in Mant's History of the Church of Ireland :- "Glasnevin was the receptacle for thieves and rogues. The first search when anything was stolen, was there, and when any couple had a mind to retire to be wicked there was their harbour. But since the church was built, and service regularly settled, all these evils are banished. Good houses are built in it, and the place civilised."
Adjoining Glasnevin are the [[Botanic Gardens]] where stood the residence of [[Tickell]], the [[poet]] and [[literary executor]] of [[Joseph Addison|Addison]] who came to Ireland as secretary to the [[Earl of Wharton]] in [[1709]]. Tickell, who was [[Clerk of the Privy Council]], died here in [[1740]], and from his [[representative]]s the place was purchased about 120 [[year]]s ago, for its present purposes, by the [[Royal Dublin Society]].
==Community==
Nowadays, Glasnevin is a vibrant community, largely comprising of a mix of young families and their more senior counterparts from the middle of the last century. As well as the amenities of the Botanic Gardens and local parks, the national meteorological office, [http://www.meteireann.ie/ Met &Eacute;ireann], the [http://www.cfb.ie/ Central Fisheries Board], and the national enterprise and trade board, [http://www.enterprise-ireland.com Enterprise Ireland], are all located in the area. The team sports of [[gaelic football]], [[hurling]], [[camogie]], [[basketball]] and [[football (soccer)|football]] all thrive through the local clubs [[Na Fianna]], Tolka Rovers and [http://www.dublincityfc.net/ Home Farm].
==References==
* Weston St. John Joyce, "''The Neighbourhood of Dublin''" (third and enlarged edition 1920). CHAPTER XXVI, "Glasnevin, [[Finglas]] and the adjacent district" (scanned in by Ken Finlay).
[[Category:Towns and suburbs in Dublin]]
==External links==
* Account of Glasnevin from [http://www.chapters.eiretek.org/books/Dalton/Glasnevin.htm D'Alton's '''History of the County Dublin''' (1838)]
* Account of Glasnevin from [http://www.chapters.eiretek.org/books/ball1-6/Ball6/ball6.7.htm F.E. Ball's '''History of the County Dublin''' (1920)]
* [http://www.blather.net/shitegeist/2005/11/waking_the_dead_4.htm The Battle of Glasnevin Graveyard]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Abbot (English writer)</title>
<id>12863</id>
<revision>
<id>33520440</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-01T22:30:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Choess</username>
<id>245519</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the man who was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1611 to 1633, see [[George Abbot (Archbishop of Canterbury)]]''
'''George Abbot''' (c. [[1603]]?&ndash;[[February 2]], [[1648]]) was an [[England|English]] writer. Known as "The Puritan", he has been oddly and persistently mistaken for others. He has been described as a clergyman, which he n |
roups: actual Slovenians and Windische, based on differences in language between Austrian Slovenians, who were taught Slovenian standard language in school and those Slovenians, who spoke their local Slovenian dialect but went to German schools. To the latter group the term "Windische" (originally the German word for Slovenians) was applied, claiming that they were a different ethnic group. This theory was never generally accepted and has been ultimately rejected several decades ago.
*[[List of cities in Austria]]
==Religion==
[[Image:Emperor_charles_v.png|thumb|right|250px|'''Charles V''' Austrian Habsburg ruler and one of the major figures within the [[Counter-Reformation]].]]
While northern and central Germany was the origin of the [[Reformation]], Austria (and Bavaria) were the heart of the [[Counter-Reformation]] in the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] century, when the absolute monarchy of [[Habsburg]] imposed a strict regime to maintain [[Catholicism]]'s power and influence among Austrians. Despite this establishment of Catholicism as the predominant [[Christian]] religion (Protestants have throughout Austria's history remained a relatively small group), Austria's history as a multinational state has made it necessary for Habsburg rulers to deal with a heterogeneous religious population. Religious freedom was declared a constitutional right as early as 1867 and [[Austria-Hungary]] was home of numerous religions beside [[Roman Catholicism]] such as Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian [[Orthodox Christians]], [[Jew]]s, [[Muslims]] (Austria neighboured the [[Ottoman empire]] for centuries), [[Mormons]] and both [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] and [[Lutheran]] [[Protestants]].
Still Austria remained largely influenced by Catholicism. After 1918 First Republic Catholic leaders such as [[Theodor Innitzer]] and [[Ignaz Seipel]] took leading positions within or close to the Austrian Government and increased their influence during the time of the [[Austrofascism]] – Catholicism was treated much like a [[state religion]] by dictators [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] and [[Kurt Schuschnigg]]. Although Catholic leaders welcomed the Germans in 1938 during the [[Anschluss]] of Austria into [[Germany]], Austrian Catholicism stopped its support of [[Nazism]] later on and many former religious public figures became involved with the resistance during the [[Third Reich]]. After 1945 a stricter secularism was imposed in Austria and religious influence on politics has nearly vanished.
As of the end of the 20th century about 73% of Austria's population are registered as Roman Catholic, while about 5% consider themselves [[Protestant]]s. Both these numbers have been on the decline for decades, especially Roman Catholicism, which has suffered an increasing number of seceders of the church. This is due partly to [[child sexual abuse]] scandals by priests as well as the alleged unwillingness of the Roman Catholic Church to implement reforms. In addition, Austrian Catholics are obliged to pay a mandatory tax (calculated by income – ca 1%) to the Austrian Roman Catholic Church, which acts as another incentive to leave the church.
About 12% of the population declare that they do not belong to any [[church]] or religious community. Of the remaining people, about 180,000 are members of the [[Eastern Orthodox|Eastern Orthodox Church]] and about 7,300 are [[Judaism|Jewish]]. It has to be noted that the Austrian Jewish Community of 1938 – Vienna alone counted more than 200,000, of which solely 4,000 to 5,000 remained after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. The influx of [[Eastern Europe|Eastern Europeans]], especially from the former Yugoslav nations, Albania and particularly from [[Turkey]] largely contributed to a substantial Muslim minority in Austria – around 300,000 are registered as members of various Muslim communities. The numbers of people adhering to the [[Islam]] has increased largely during the last years and is expected to grow in the future. [[Buddhism in Austria|Buddhism]], which was legally recognized as a religion in Austria in 1983, enjoys widespread acceptance and has a following of 20,000 (10,402 at the 2001 [[census]]).
A 2005 survey among 8,000 people in various [[Europe]]an countries showed that Austrians are still among the countries with the strongest belief in [[god (monotheism)|God]]. 84% of all Austrians do state they believe in God, with only [[Poland]] (97%), [[Portugal]] (90%) and [[Russia]] (87%) in front of the countries surveyed. This is a much larger figure than the European average of 71% or [[Germany]] with 67%. [http://www.readers-digest.de/service_fuer_journalisten/index.php?id=mrd&no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=251&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=15]
==Culture==
{{details|Culture of Austria}}
{{Austrians}}
[[image:Wittgenstein2.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Ludwig Wittgenstein]]
Although Austria is a small country, its history as a world power and its unique cultural environment in the heart of Europe have generated contributions to mankind in every possible field. One might argue that Austria is internationally best known for its musicians. It has been the birthplace of many [[Music of Austria|famous composers]] such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], [[Haydn|Joseph Haydn]], [[Franz Schubert]], [[Anton Bruckner]], [[Johann Strauss, Sr.]], [[Johann Strauss, Jr.]] or [[Gustav Mahler]] as well as members of the [[Second Viennese School]] such as [[Arnold Schoenberg]], [[Anton Webern]] or [[Alban Berg]].
Complementing its status as a land of artists, Austria has always been a country of great poets, writers and novelists. It was the home of novelists [[Arthur Schnitzler]], [[Stefan Zweig]], [[Thomas Bernhard]] or [[Robert Musil]], of poets [[Georg Trakl]], [[Franz Werfel]], [[Franz Grillparzer]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke]] or [[Adalbert Stifter]]. Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are [[Elfriede Jelinek]] and [[Peter Handke]]. Among Austrian artists and architects one can find painters [[Gustav Klimt]], [[Oskar Kokoschka]], [[Egon Schiele]] or [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]], photographer [[Inge Morath]] or architect [[Otto Wagner]].
Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists including physicists [[Ludwig Boltzmann]], [[Lise Meitner]], [[Erwin Schrödinger]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]], [[Richard von Mises]] and [[Christian Doppler]], philosophers [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] and [[Karl Popper]], biologists [[Gregor Mendel]] and [[Konrad Lorenz]] as well as mathematician [[Kurt Gödel]]. It was home to psychologists [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Alfred Adler]], [[Paul Watzlawick]] and [[Hans Asperger]], psychiatrist [[Viktor Frankl]], economists [[Joseph Schumpeter]], [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], and [[Friedrich Hayek]] ([[Austrian School]]) and [[Peter Drucker]], and engineers such as [[Ferdinand Porsche]] and [[Siegfried Marcus]].
Although Austrians can look back with pride on their cultural past, current Austria does not stand back in art and science. Austria hosts a tremendous amount of culture, with its classical music festivals in [[Vienna]], [[Salzburg]] and [[Bregenz]], its modern artists and writers, its theatres and opera houses.
* [[List of Austrians]]
* [[Music of Austria]]
==Miscellaneous topics==
* [[Austrian folk dancing]]
* [[Austrian German]]
* [[Communications in Austria]]
* [[Cuisine of Austria]]
* [[Education in Austria]]
* [[Foreign relations of Austria]]
* [[Media in Austria|Media in Austria]]
* [[Military of Austria]]
* [[Public holidays in Austria]]
* [[Spanish Riding School]]
* [[Stamps and postal history of Austria]]
* [[Tourism in Austria]]
* [[Transportation in Austria]]
==References==
* References and bibliography can be found in the more detailed articles linked to in this article
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Austria}}
* The ''[[aeiou Encyclopedia]]'' ([http://www.aeiou.at/;internal&action=_setlanguage.action?LANGUAGE=en Homepage] | [http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.a Table of Contents] | [http://www.aeiou.at/;internal&action=search.action Search])
* [http://www.oevsv.at Amateur Radio in Austria]
* [http://www.answers.com/austria Answers.com] Article on Austria
* [http://austria.europe-countries.com Austria in Pictures]
* [http://www.austria.info/ Austria.info] Official homepage of the Austrian National Tourist Office (German, English and other languages)
* [http://www.acfny.org Austrian Cultural Forum New York] Cultural meeting place in Manhattan
* [http://www.cookbookwiki.com/Category:Austrian Austrian Recipes on CookBookWiki.com]
* [http://www.austrosearch.at/ Austrosearch] Bilingual Austrian Search engine and Directory (German, English)
* [http://www.bundeskanzleramt.at/ Bundeskanzleramt Österreich/Federal Chancellor of Austria] Website of the Federal Chancellery of Austria (German, English)
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/au.html Cia.gov] CIA's Factbook on Austria
* [http://www.dwellan.com/documents/links_at_en.html Dwellan.com] Tourism in Austria
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/european/austria/au.html Library of Congress] Portals on the World - Austria
* [http://peter-diem.at/default_e.htm Peter Diem] The Symbols of Austria
* [http://www.photoglobe.info/ebooks/austria/ Photoglobe.info] Country Studies - Austria Info
* [http://radio.orf.at/ Radio-ORF] Austrian Radio stations - both classical and modern music (live feed)
* [http://www.tiscover.at/ Tiscover.at] Austria travel guide
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3165.htm US Department of State] Facts and Information (updated February 2005)
* [http://www.aua.com/ Austrian Airlines]
{{EU_countries}}
{{Europe}}
{{States of Austria}}
[[Category:Austria| ]]
[[Category:Erasmus Prize winners|Austria, People of]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[af:Oostenryk]]
[[als:Österreich]]
[[ang:Ēastrīce]]
[[ar:نمسا]]
[[an:Austria]]
[[ast:Austria]]
[[bg:Австрия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tang-kok]]
[[be:Аўстрыя]]
[[bn:অস্ট্রিয়া]]
[[ |
lumbus.
===Businesses===
Columbus is the headquarters for a number of nationally and internationally-known corporations. [[Nationwide Insurance]] makes its home downtown in a large, multi-building complex that dominates the northern end of the downtown area. [[Limited Brands]] (formerly known as The Limited, Inc.) is located on the east side of the city and is the parent company of the retail stores [[The Limited]], [[Express (company)|Express]], [[Victoria's Secret]], and [[Bath & Body Works]], among others. Worthington Steel is primarily located on the north side of the metro area in the city of Worthington. Two fast food chains have their home base in the Columbus metro area as well, [[Wendy's]] and [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle]], with Wendy's still operating their first store downtown as both a museum and a working restaurant. [[Bob Evans Restaurants]] is also based in Columbus. [[Cardinal Health]] has its headquarters in the northwest suburb of Dublin. [[Abercrombie & Fitch]] headquarters are located in the northeast suburb of New Albany. [[Huntington Bancshares]] also has its headquarters in the downtown area. [[Hexion Specialty Chemicals]] (formerly part of the Borden, Inc. corporation) is located downtown as well. The Ross Products Division of Abbott Laboratories, makers of Ensure nutritional drink and Similac infant formula, is also headquartered in Columbus, with over 7,000 employees.
Several other large corporations have a major presence in the Columbus area. [[Honda]] has two auto plants, in [[Marysville, Ohio|Marysville]] and [[East Liberty, Ohio|East Liberty]]. The facilites are located to the northwest of Columbus along [[US-33]]. The Marysville plant is Honda's first and largest North American auto plant. Together the plants produce Honda Accords, Civics, Elements, motorcycles and some of Acura's models for the North American market. [[Bank One]], which used to be headquartered in Columbus prior to the merger with First Chicago-NBD, still has a major presence in Columbus. [[J.P. Morgan Chase & Co.]], which announced a merger with Bank One in 2004, has a large mortgage servicing unit in the city. [[CompuServe]] still has its roots in Columbus, although it has been owned by [[AOL]] since 1998. [[Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)|Budweiser]] has a major brewery located on the north side of the city. [[McGraw-Hill]] Inc. has large offices within Columbus as well. In addition, [[Sterling Commerce]] a B2B software company has its headquarters in the Northwest suburb of Dublin. [[United Parcel Service|UPS]] has a large distribution center on the west side of the city. Columbus is also home to the [[Chemical Abstracts Service]], making it one of the world's leading centers for scientific information distribution.
Columbus is considered to be a typical American city, and is often used as a test market for new products by retail and restaurant chains.
==Infrastructure==
[[Image:Columbus-ohio-city-hall.jpg|thumb|right|250px|City Hall.]]
===Government===
''See also: [[List of Mayors of Columbus, Ohio]]''
The government is administered by a mayor and a unicameral council elected every two years, the mayor appointing the director of safety and the director of public service. The people elect the treasurer, auditor, and solicitor. A charter commission, elected in [[1913]], submitted, in May, [[1914]], a new charter offering a modified Federal form, with a number of progressive features, such as nonpartisan ballot, preferential voting, recall of elected officials, the referendum, and a small council elected at large. The charter was adopted, effective January 1, [[1916]].
{{section-stub}}
===Education===
Columbus is the home of The [[Ohio State University]], which is currently the largest single campus in the United States, with a total enrollment of 50,504 (as of Autumn, 2005). Other institutions located in Columbus and its metro area include [[Columbus State Community College]], [[Franklin University]], [[Ohio Dominican University]], the [[Columbus College of Art and Design]], [[Ohio Wesleyan University]] in Delaware, [[Capital University]] in Bexley, [[Denison University]] in Granville, [[Otterbein College]] in Westerville, and [[DeVry University]].
Columbus is noted for a couple of important "firsts" in American public education. The first [[kindergarten]] was established here by Louisa Frankenberg, a former student of [[Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel|Friedrich Fröbel]] who immigrated to the city in 1838. In addition, Indianola Junior High School became the nation's first [[middle school]] in 1909, helping to bridge the difficult transition from elementary to high school at a time when only forty-eight percent of students continued their education after the 9th grade.
Columbus Public Schools dominates the K-12 primary school landscape, and each of the suburbs operates a fairly large district as well, sometimes across overlapping municipal boundaries. CPS offers many alternative schools, such as Columbus Alternative High School, Fort Hayes Arts and Academic High School, and Ecole Kenwood. Notable private schools within Columbus include The Wellington School, the [[Columbus Academy]], Columbus School for Girls, and [[Saint Charles Preparatory School]], Bishop Watterson, and Learning Unlimited Village Academy.
===Transportation===
Columbus is bisected by two major [[Interstate]] highways, [[Interstate 70]] running east-west, and [[Interstate 71]] running north to roughly southwest. The two Interstates combine downtown for about 1.5 miles in an area locally known as "The Split", which is a major traffic congestion point within Columbus, especially during [[rush hour]]. [[U.S. Highway 40]], aka [[National Road]], runs east-west through Columbus, comprising Main Street to the east of downtown and Broad Street to the west. It is also widely recognized as the nation's first highway. [[U.S. Highway 23]] runs roughly north-south, while [[U.S. Highway 33]] runs northwest-to-southeast. The [[Interstate 270 (Ohio)|Interstate 270]] Outerbelt encircles the vast majority of Columbus and its suburbs, while the newly redesigned Innerbelt consists of the [[Interstate 670 (Ohio)|Interstate 670]] spur on the north side (which continues to the east past the airport and to the west where it merges with I-70), [[Ohio State Highway 315|State Route 315]] on the west side, the I-70/71 split on the south side, and I-71 on the east. Due to its central location within Ohio and abundance of outbound roadways, nearly all of the state's destinations are within a 2-hour drive of Columbus.
The I-270 Outerbelt was the subject of national media attention in late [[2003]] and early [[2004]] when a number of [[sniper]] shootings were reported along the southern portion of the interstate and other neighboring highways, resulting in the death of one person. [[Charles McCoy, Jr.]] is accused of the shootings and stood trial in [[2005]], however the jury was hung as to McCoy's mental state. McCoy later pled guilty to involantary manslaughter, attempted murder, assault and discharging a firearm near a school and was sentenced to 29 years in prison.
[[image:Columbus-ohio-high-street-night.jpg|thumb|280px|High Street downtown at night, looking north. I-670 crosses under this part of town.]]
The city's street plan—originating in the oldest parts of the city, that is downtown and the immediate vicinity—is a roughly gridiron model bisected by High Street (running north-south) and Broad Street (running east-west). Much of the city street numbering plan originates at their intersection in mid-downtown (the [[Ohio Statehouse]] building sits at the corner of Broad and High, incidentally), so house numbers increase with distance from downtown. This rigid street grid breaks down the further out one goes, particularly in the suburbs (mostly old towns with their own street plans still intact) and the newer subdivisions. Besides High Street and Broad Street, major thoroughfares in Columbus include Main Street, Morse Road, Dublin-Granville Road (aka SR-161), Cleveland Avenue/Westerville Road (aka [[Ohio State Highway 3|SR-3]]), Olentangy River Road, Riverside Drive, Sunbury Road, and Livingston Avenue.
Columbus does not have a [[metro]] or other passenger rail system. However, a light rail system is under consideration, but uncertain federal funding has made a completion date uncertain. Columbus does maintain a widespread municipal bus service called the Central Ohio Transit Authority (COTA). Columbus used to have a major train station downtown called [http://home.columbus.rr.com/unionstation Union Station], however it was razed in the late 1970s. Columbus is now the second largest city in the U.S. (after [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]]) without passenger rail service. Columbus is served by [[Port Columbus International Airport]], [[Rickenbacker International Airport]], [[Don Scott Airport]] (run by OSU), and [[Bolton Field Airport]].
==Sister Cities==
Columbus has seven [[town twinning|sister cities]], as designated by [http://www.sister-cities.org/ Sister Cities International]. Columbus established its first [[Sister City]] relationship in [[1955]] with [[Genoa]], [[Italy]]. To commemorate this relationship, Columbus received as a gift from the people of Genoa a large statue of [[Christopher Columbus]]. The statue overlooks Broad Street in front of the Columbus City Hall.
{|
| valign="top" |
*{{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Dresden]], [[Germany]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} - [[Genoa]], [[Italy]]
*{{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Hefei]], [[China]]
*{{flagicon|Israel}} - [[Herzliya]], [[Israel]]
| valign="top" |
*{{flagicon|Denmark}} - [[Odense]], [[Denmark]]
*{{flagicon|Spain}} - [[Seville]], [[Spain]]
*{{flagicon|Taiwan}} - [[Tainan City]], [[Taiwan]]
|}
==Quotations==
"In the early years of the ninetheenth century, Columbus won out, as state capital, by one v |
y. Much like the web diarist community that came before, there were [[clique]]s and protests over a supposed [[A-list]] of authors. Like online journals, "personal weblogs" are frequently maligned in the broader web log community as a form of "navel gazing."
Some weblog services are small and merely offer a way to publish one's writing, while others have become true communities offering opportunities for [[feedback]] and communication with fellow diarists. While many of the people using these online communities are presumed to be teenage girls and young people, (who perhaps see them as a way to keep their inner thoughts secret from their families while expressing and exploring their feelings and the experience of growing up), there is a fair amount of evidence that the [[stereotype]] is fading with the growing prevalence of journals and weblogs on the internet.
==Online services==
Some [[online diary]] [[website]] or [[blog]] hosts:
*'''A''': [http://www.aeonity.com Aeonity]
*'''B''': [http://www.bcz.com BCZ Blogs]; [[Blogger.com|Blogger]]; [http://www.blogspot.com Blog Spot]
*'''D''': [http://www.diarist.com Diarist]; [http://www.diaryis.com Diary IS]; [http://www.diaryland.com Diaryland]; [http://www.diary-x.com Diary-X]
*'''E''': [http://www.exteen.com Exteen]
*'''H''': [http://www.healthdiaries.com Health Diaries]; [http://www.hotdiary.com HotDiary]
*'''I''': [http://www.internetdiary.net Internetdiary]
*'''L''': [[LiveJournal]]
*'''M''': [http://www.monkeybard.com Monkeybard]
*'''O''': [http://www.opendiary.com Open Diary]
*'''S''': [http://www.storythai.com StoryThai]
*'''T''': [http://www.travel-diaries.com Travel-Diaries]
*'''X''': [[Xanga]]
==References==
*''The New Diary: How to Use a Journal for Self-Guidance and Expanded Creativity'' by Tristine Rainer, 1978.
==See also==
*[[List of writing techniques]]
*[[List of books on diaries and journals]]
*[[List of diarists]]
*[[Long Now Foundation]]
==External links==
*[http://groups.google.com/group/comp.infosystems.www.announce/browse_frm/thread/7a77561b5796150e/34c1097809c9529b#34c1097809c9529b First web announcement of an on-line journal (The Semi-Existence of Bryon)]
*[http://www.yomanim.com A Site dedicated to Hebrew Novels and Short Stories which are written in a style of a diary(The meaning of the word Yomanim in Hebrew is Diaries)]
[[Category:Books by type]]
[[Category:Blogs]]
[[da:Dagbog]]
[[de:Tagebuch]]
[[es:Diario]]
[[eo:Taglibro]]
[[fr:Journal intime]]
[[ko:일기]]
[[it:Diario]]
[[he:יומן]]
[[nl:Dagboek]]
[[ja:日記]]
[[pl:Dziennik (literatura)]]
[[sv:Dagbok]]
[[vo:Delabuk]]
[[zh:日记]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dan</title>
<id>8952</id>
<revision>
<id>41669055</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:25:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haukurth</username>
<id>16226</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Wiki man sam|Wiki man sam]] ([[User talk:Wiki man sam|talk]]) to last version by Gershwinrb</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dan''' may be:
* a short form of [[Daniel (name)]]
* acronym for [[Divers Alert Network]], a scuba diving association
* [[Dan (biblical figure)]], one of the sons of Jacob
* [[Tribe of Dan]], descendants of the biblical figure
* [[Fedor Dan]], Russian Marxist revolutionary
* [[Dan Bus Cooperative]], a bus company in Israel which operates in the Gush Dan area
* [[Gush Dan]], a large metropolitan block in Israel, from Rishon LeZion to Ramat Aviv (north Tel Aviv)
* [[Tel Dan]], a city in the ancient Kingdom of Israel
* [[Dan (king)|Dan (Danish)]], the name of one or more legendary Danish kings.
* [[dan rank]], a scale of grades in martial arts and Japanese cultural arts
* [[Dan (kibbutz)]], in northern Israel
* [[Dan (stream)]], one of the three large streams who form the Jordan River in Israel
* [[Dan Hibiki]], parody character in several Capcom games
* [[Dan (Chinese opera)]], the general name for female roles in Chinese Opera
* [[Dan (Hinduism)]], the Hindu philosophy conception of Charity.
* [[Dan (newspaper)]], daily newspaper published in Podgorica
{{disambig}}
[[da:Dan]]
[[de:Dan]]
[[he:דן]]
[[nl:Dan]]
[[sl:Dan (razločitev)]]
[[sv:Dan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dana Rohrabacher</title>
<id>8953</id>
<revision>
<id>41717329</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:52:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gandalfxviv</username>
<id>851818</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Education */ bypassed disambiguation MA</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dana Rohrabacher''' (born [[June 21]] [[1947]]) in [[Coronado, California]], is an [[United States|American]] politician, who has been a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] member of the [[United States House of Representatives]] since [[1989]], representing the 46th District of [[California]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ca46_109.gif map]).
==Education==
Rohrabacher graduated from Palos Verdes High School in [[Rancho Palos Verdes, California]], attended Harbor Junior College, and received his [[Bachelor of Arts|bachelor's degree]] in history from [[California State University, Long Beach]] in [[1969]]. He received his [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|master's degree]] in [[American Studies]] from the [[University of Southern California]].
==Tenure at the Reagan White House==
Prior to his election to Congress in [[1988]], Rohrabacher served as Special Assistant to [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]]. For seven years he was one of the President's senior speechwriters. During his tenure at the [[White House]], Rohrabacher played a leading role in the formulation of the [[Reagan Doctrine]]. He also helped formulate President Reagan's Economic Bill of Rights, a package of economic reforms that the President introduced in a speech before the [[Jefferson Memorial]].
==Congressional career==
[[Image:DanaRohrabacherChair.png|thumb|right|250px|Rohrabacher presides over a meeting of the Space and Aeronautics Subcommittee of the House Science Committee.]]
With Reagan soon leaving office, Rohrabacher left the Administration in [[1988]] to pursue the open House seat recently vacated by [[Dan Lungren]]. With the fundraising help of friend [[Oliver North]], Rohrabacher was able to win the Republican primary and capture the seat, centered around northern coastal [[Orange County, California|Orange County]]. A friend and fellow White House aide, [[Christopher Cox]], won a seat in the same election in southern Orange County. The pair remained close, though Cox — now chairman of the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission|Securities and Exchange Commission]] — rose in the party hierarchy while the more iconoclastic Rohrabacher charted his own course.
Rohrabacher was Chairman of the Space and Aeronautics Subcommittee of the [[U.S. House Committee on Science|House Science Committee]] from [[1997]] until [[January 2005]], having received a two-year waiver to serve beyond the six-year term limit.
As a senior member of the [[U.S. House Committee on International Relations|International Relations Committee]], Rohrabacher led the effort to deny [[Most Favored Nation]] trading status to the [[People's Republic of China]], citing that nation's dismal human rights record and opposition to democracy. His subcommittee assignments are East Asia and Pacific, and Middle East and South Asia.
==Political Views==
Rohrabacher is a staunch opponent of illegal immigration. He authored California's [[California Proposition 187 (1994)|Proposition 187]], which sought to deny immigrants without proper documentation any government services, including education for their children. In [[2004]] he proposed a bill to withhold emergency room services to people who cannot prove their immigration status. The proposed bill was overwhelmingly defeated [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d108:h.r.03722:].
Rohrabacher supports giving [[Washington, D.C.]] residents the right to vote for congressional representation as [[Maryland]] residents.
==Controversies==
===Involvement with Afganistan and the Taliban===
{{Unreferencedsect}}
Mr. Rohrabacher had a history of involvement in Afghanistan dating back to the [[Cold War]], when he openly supported the groups that would later coalesce into the Taliban regime for their active opposition to the [[Soviet Union]], including fighters under the command of [[Osama bin Laden]].{{fact}}
In late 1988, Rohrabacher went to Afganistan:
:After I left the White House and was elected to Congress, but before I was sworn into Congress, I knew I had that two months between November and January to do things that I could never do once I was elected to Congress. I chose to hike into Afghanistan as part of a small Mujahedin unit and to engage in a battle against the Russian and communist forces near and around the city of Jalalabad.[http://www.politicsol.com/guest-commentaries/2001-09-18.html]
In the November/December 1996 issue of ''Washington Report on Middle East Affairs'', Rohrabacher was reported as saying that the Taliban were not terrorists or revolutionaries, that they would develop a disciplined society that would leave no room for terrorists, and that the Taliban posed no threat to the United States.[http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/1196/9611008.htm]
However, in a September 11, 1998 editorial in the ''[[The Washington Post]]'', Rohrabacher strongly rebuked the Taliban for their obstinacy in providing refuge to Osama bin Laden, mass killings of Shi'ites and ethnic Uzbeks, Turks, and Tajiks, and restrictions on the rights of Afghan women and children:
:It has been no secret that bin Laden has been sheltered by the Taliban. The Clinton administration was mute while one of the most violent anti-Western Muslim sects spilled into Afghanistan fr |
emellus]] joint heirs. (Gemellus's life was shortened considerably by this bequest, since Caligula ordered him killed within a matter of months.) Suetonius writes that the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard [[Naevius Sutorius Macro]] smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula's accession. Backed by Macro, Caligula asserted his dominance. He had Tiberius’s will with regards to Tiberius Gemellus declared null and void on grounds of insanity, but otherwise carried out Tiberius' wishes. Caligula accepted the powers of the [[Principate]] as conferred by the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], and entered Rome on [[March 28]] amid scenes of wild rejoicing.
His first acts were generous in spirit: he gave cash bonuses to the [[Praetorian Guard]]s, destroyed Tiberius's treason papers, declared that [[treason]] trials were a thing of the past, recalled exiles, and helped those who had been harmed by the Imperial [[tax]] system. He was loved by many simply by being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus. Moreover, he was, unlike Tiberius, a direct blood descendant of Augustus, and therefore related to [[Julius Caesar]]. He was also a great-grandson of [[Mark Antony]].
On becoming Emperor, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt. He ordered a temporary [[Pontoon bridge|floating bridge]] to be built using ships as [[pontoon]]s, stretching for over two miles from the resort of [[Baiae]] to the neighboring port of [[Puteoli]]. He then proceeded to ride [[Incitatus]] across, wearing the breastplate of [[Alexander the Great]]. This act was in defiance of an [[astrologer]]'s prediction that he had "no more chance of becoming Emperor than of riding a horse across the Gulf of Baiae".
However, following this auspicious start to his reign, Caligula fell seriously ill in October of [[37]], and, as Scullard remarks, "emerged as a monster of lust and diabolical cruelty".
There is some debate as to the chronology here. Many authors, including Michael Grant (''The Twelve Caesars'', 1975) and Donna W. Hurley (''An Historical and Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius' "Life of C. Caligula"'', 1993), state that the real break between Caligula and the Senate, and thereafter his extravagant behaviour, did not occur until 39. Though the exact cause of the argument between the young Caesar and the Senate is unclear, what sources remain seem to indicate that the Emperor had demanded a triumph and had been refused by the Senate. What is clear is that in 39 Caligula removed and replaced the Consuls without consulting the Senate, and publicly humilated several Senators by forcing them to run alongside his chariot in their full robes. It is from this point on that there is a marked change in the biography of his life; the young man previously hailed as "our star" and "our baby" by the Roman people became a despotic tyrant.
==Caligula and the Empire==
Gaius's reign is too short, and the surviving ancient accounts too sensationalized, for any serious policies of his to be discerned. During his reign, [[Mauretania]] was annexed and reorganized into two provinces, [[Herod Agrippa]] was appointed to a kingdom in [[Judaea]], and severe riots took place in [[Alexandria]] between [[Jews]] and [[Greek people|Greek]]s. These events are largely overlooked in the sources, which instead tend to focus on sensational stories of the Emperor's madness.
Two other episodes, however, garner greater attention: Caligula's military activities on the northern frontier; and his vehement demand for divine honors. His military activities are portrayed as ludicrous, with [[Gaul]]s dressed up as Germans at his triumph and Roman troops ordered to collect sea-shells as "spoils of the sea". Modern scholars have attempted to make sense of these events in various ways. The most reasonable suggestion is that Caligula went north to earn military glory and discovered there a nascent conspiracy under the commander of the [[Germania Superior]] legions, Gnaeus Lentulus Gaetulicus. Once again, however, due to the lack of sources, what precisely occurred and why is a matter of debate even among the primary sources for Caligula's reign.
Caligula's religious policy was a firm departure from the policy of his predecessors. Under Augustus, the Cult of the Deified Emperor had been established and promoted, especially in the western empire, and was generally the first organization established in any new Roman colony. Augustus proclaimed on multiple occasions that he was not himself personally divine; instead the Cult centered around his ''numen'', his personal spirit, and ''gens'', the collective spirit of his family and ancestors. After Augustus, Tiberius seems to have had little interest in the Cult, and its promulgation and expansion seems to have been on a local level and driven by local magistrates, rather than from a central organizational structure. Caligula expanded this Cult on an unprecedented scale. The temple of Castor and Pollux on the Forum was linked directly to the Imperial residence on the Palatine and dedicated to Caligula himself; he would appear here on occasions, dressed and presenting himself as a god, and demanding that those in his presence adopt sycophantic methods of acknowledging him. The nature of the Cult of the Deified Emperor changed from honoring the spirits around the Emperor to direct worship of Caligula himself. Likewise, Caligula's policies affected religious practice in the whole of the Empire, not just those practices associated with the Cult. The heads of the statues of many of the gods throughout Rome and the empire were replaced with Caligula's head, including many of the female statues, and Caligula demanded that he be worshipped as an embodiment of these gods, similar to the Hellenistic ruler-cults. A plan to place a statue of himself as [[Zeus]] in the [[Holy of Holies]] in the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem was stopped only because of the delaying tactics of the [[Syria]]n [[Roman Governor|governor]], Publius Petronius, as well as the intervention of [[Herod Agrippa]]. Without their intervention, Rome would have faced riots and a potential uprising in Judea.
== Downward Spiral ==
The ancient sources are unanimous as to the cause of Caligula's downfall: he was insane. The writers differ as to how this condition came about, but all agree that after his good start Caligula began to behave in an openly autocratic manner, even a crazed one. Outlandish stories cluster about the raving emperor, illustrating his excessive cruelty, multiple and peculiar sexual escapades (both heterosexual and homosexual, at least as claimed by the near-contemporary Suetonius, [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html#36 Cal.&nbsp;36]), or disrespect toward tradition and the Senate.
The sources describe his [[incest]]uous relations with his sisters, his selling to the highest bidder of the wives of high ranking Senate members during sexual orgies, his laughable military campaigns in the north, the plan to make [[Incitatus]] a [[consul]], and his habit of roaming the halls of his palace at night ordering the sun to rise.
He comes across as aloof, arrogant, egotistical, and cuttingly witty, and is generally portrayed as insane. He is said to have cried "I wish the Roman people had but a single neck" when an arena crowd applauded a faction he opposed. [[Suetonius]] wrote that he often uttered "Let them hate, so long as they fear", and described this as a familiar line of the tragic poet ([[Accius]]); however, Suetonius also attributes the utterance of this line to [[Tiberius]] and [[Nero]] in sections describing their faults as rulers. Whatever else may be said about Caligula and his reign, it is known that his rule was short and tumultuous, and that after his death there were few who mourned his passing.
==Assassination==
Caligula was murdered following a [[conspiracy]] amongst officers of the [[Praetorian Guard]], who apparently acted for purely personal reasons. However, it appears that the officers had at least the support of some senators and an imperial freedman. As with conspiracies in general, the plot may have been more extensive than the sources indicate, and may even have enjoyed the support of the next emperor [[Claudius]], but there is little if any evidence to support such claims.
What is known is that on [[January 24]], [[41]], the praetorian tribune [[Cassius Chaerea]] and other guardsmen accosted Caligula while he was addressing an acting troupe of young men during a series of games held for the Divine Augustus. Chaerea had a distinguished record as one of Germanicus's best officers and had known Caligula since infancy. One possible motive provided by Suetonius is that Chaerea had experienced years of abuse by Caligula over his so-called effeminacy, possibly due to a wound to his genitalia; Suetonius records that Caligula commonly gave the watchwords "Priapus" (erection) or "Venus" (Roman slang for a eunuch) when Chaerea was on duty. Chaerea requested the watchword from the Emperor, and after Caligula's response struck the first blow. The co-conspirators quickly moved in and stabbed the Emperor to death, according to Josephus's account only a few feet away from his guard and entourage. By the time Caligula's German guard responded and attacked the co-conspirators, the Emperor was already dead. Chaerea and another aggrieved tribune, Cornelius Sabinus, also killed Caligula's wife [[Caesonia]] and their infant daughter, [[Julia Drusilla]], by smashing her head against a wall.
==Caligula’s Insanity==
Recent sources say that Caligula probably had [[encephalitis]]. Ancient sources, like Roman biographers [[Suetonius]] and [[Cassius Dio]], describe Caligula having a "brain fever." [[Philo of Alexandria]] reports it was nothing more than a nervous breakdown, as Caligula was not use |
, if salvation were close at hand and could be found without difficulty? But all excellent things are as difficult as they are rare." ''Ethics'', 224.
==Bibliography==
===By Spinoza===
*''Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well-Being''.
*1662. ''On the Improvement of the Understanding''. [http://gutenberg.net/etext/1016 Project Gutenberg]
*1663. ''Principles of Cartesian Philosophy''.
*1670. ''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'' (A Theologico-Political Treatise)
**[http://gutenberg.net/etext/989 Project Gutenberg: Part 1]
**[http://gutenberg.net/etext/990 Part 2]
**[http://gutenberg.net/etext/991 Part 3]
**[http://gutenberg.net/etext/992 Part 4]
*1677. ''Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata'' ([[Ethics (book)|The Ethics]]) [http://gutenberg.net/etext/3800 Project Gutenberg.] [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/f_spinoza.html Another translation, by Jonathan Bennett.]
*1677. ''Hebrew Grammar''.
===About Spinoza===
* [[Etienne Balibar]], 1985. ''Spinoza et la politique'' ("Spinoza and politics") Paris: [[PUF]].
* [[Gilles Deleuze]], 1968. ''Spinoza et le problème de l'expression''. Trans. "Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza".
* -----, 1970. ''Spinoza - Philosophie pratique''. Transl. "Spinoza: Practical Philosophy".
* Della Rocca, Michael. 1996. ''Representation and the Mind-Body Problem in Spinoza''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509562-6
*Garrett, Don, ed., 1995. ''The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
* Gatens, Moira, and Lloyd, Genevieve, 1999. ''Collective imaginings : Spinoza, past and present''. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16570-9, ISBN 0-415-16571-7
*Gullan-Whur, Margaret, 1998. ''Within Reason: A Life of Spinoza''. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-05046-X
*Lloyd, Genevieve, 1996. ''Spinoza and the Ethics''. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10781-4, ISBN 0-415-10782-2
*Kasher, Asa, and Shlomo Biderman. "[http://www.tau.ac.il/~kasher/pspin.htm Why Was Baruch de Spinoza Excommunicated?]"
*[[Arthur O. Lovejoy]], 1957 (1936). "Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza" in his ''The Great Chain of Being''. Harvard Uni. Press: 144-82. Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., ed., 1972. ''Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays''. Anchor Books.
*[[Pierre Macherey]], 1977. ''Hegel ou Spinoza'', Maspéro (2nd ed. La Découverte, 2004).
* ------, 1994-98. ''Introduction à l'Ethique de Spinoza''. Paris: PUF.
* Matheron, Alexandre, 1969. ''Individu et communauté chez Spinoza'', Paris: [[Les Éditions de Minuit|Minuit]].
*Nadler, Steven, 1999. ''Spinoza: A Life''. Cambridge Uni. Press. ISBN 0-521-55210-9
*[[Antonio Negri]], 1991. ''The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics''. [[Michael Hardt]], trans., University of Minnesota Press. Preface, in French, by Gilles Deleuze, available [http://multitudes.samizdat.net/article.php3?id_article=1355 here].
==See also==
*[[Affect (philosophy)|Affect]]
*[[Spinozism]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Voorburg]]
*[[Plane of immanence]]
*[[The Treatise of the Three Impostors]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisourcelang|nl|Baruch Spinoza|Baruch Spinoza}}
{{commons|Baruch de Spinoza}}
*[http://rwmeijer.ws/spinoza/ The Ethics] - Split-screen Latin/English or Latin/French
*[http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/ The Ethics]A READABLE version with all the content still there.
*[http://cf.uba.uva.nl/en/digilib/philosophy/spinheng.html Vereniging Het Spinozahuis]
*[http://www.spinoza.net The Spinoza Net]
*[http://bdsweb.tripod.com Spinoza and Spinozism] - BDSweb
*[http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=1600-1699&author=Spinoza&text=A%20Theologico-Political%20Treatise A Theologico-Political Treatise ] -English Translation
*[http://hyperspinoza.caute.lautre.net HyperSpinoza]
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/spinoza.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Spinoza]
*[http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Spinoza_e.htm Biography of Spinoza]
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/ Spinoza]
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza-psychological/ Spinoza's Psychological Theory]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Benedictus+de+Spinoza | name=Baruch Spinoza}}
[[Category:1632 births|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:1677 deaths|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Dutch philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Early modern philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
http://www.ah0.org/books/0199254567_Radical_Enlightenment.shtml
http://www.ebookmall.com/ebook/169306-ebook.htm
[[Category:Rationalists|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Spinoza, Baruch]]
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<title>Being</title>
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<comment>otheruses template disambiguates [[Supreme Being]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|[[Ontology|ontological]] being|theological Supreme Being|Supreme Being}}
{{wiktionary}}
In [[ontology]], a '''being''' is anything that can be said to ''be''. Being can be said [[transcendant]] or [[immanent]]. According to [[marxism]], the Being is the product of human activity (or [[labour (economics)|labour]]).
==Being and substance in Aristotle==
Among the first inquiries into what "being" encompassed was that undertaken by [[Aristotle]]. The term "substance" in Aristotle was a precise [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] term denoting an individual thing about which specific assertions may be made.
Since the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] view of [[matter]] is negative, the "substance" or "being" is a real thing that exists. Since matter renders things more obscure to our perception, it follows that the true essence of an object is independent of matter, its "being" is independent of the material world.
To [[Aristotle]], only spirits and Gods are independent of matter, and thus these entities are purely "substance" or "being." This is the origin of the phrase "One in substance with the Father" or modernly "One in being with the Father" in the [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] [[Nicene Creed]].
==Being in continental philosophy and existentialism==
Some philosophers deny that the concept of "being" has any meaning at all, since we only define an object's existence by its relation to other objects, and actions it undertakes. The term "I am" has no meaning by itself; it must have an action or relation appended to it. This in turn has led to the thought that "being" and [[nothing]]ness are closely related, developed in [[existential]] philosophy.
Existentialist philosophers such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], as well as [[continental philosophy|continental philosophers]] such as [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] and [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]] have also written extensively on the concept of being. Hegel distinguishes between the being of objects ([[being in itself]]) and the being of people (''[[Geist (philosophy)]]''. Hegel, however, did not think there was much hope for deliniating a "meaning" of being, because being stripped of all predicates is simply nothing. Heidegger, in his quest to pioneer the path by which we might learn how to meaningfully ask the question of the meaning of being, distinguishes between different modes of being, which are present-to-hand (or objective presence - the kind of being possessed by objects), readiness-to-hand, which is the kind of being possessed by tools, and Da-sein ("there-being"), which is the kind of being possessed by the beings which we ourselves are. Sartre, popularly understood as mis-reading Heidegger (a reading supported by Heidegger's essay "Letter on Humanism" which responds to Sartre's famous address, "Existentialism is a Humanism"), employs modes of being in an attempt to ground his concept of freedom ontologically by distinguishing between being-in-itself and being-for-itself.
==Being in Islamic philosophy==
The nature of being has also been debated and explored in [[Islamic philosophy]], notably by [[Ibn Sina]], [[Suhrawardi]], and [[Mulla Sadra]].[http://www.iranchamber.com/personalities/msadra/mulla_sadra.php]
==Being in Marxism==
According to [[Georg Lukacs]], a [[Marxist]] philosopher, "It is only when the core of being has shown itself as social becoming, that the being itself can appear as a product, so far unconscious, of human activity, and this activity, in turn, as the decisive element of the transformation of being." (§5 of "What is Orthodoxical Marxism?" in ''History and [[Class Consciousness]]'') Thus, the Being is identified by marxism as the historical product of human activity. [[Antonio Negri]] carries on the same analyse in ''The Savage Anomaly: The Power of [[Spinoza]]'s Metaphysics and Politics''.
{{philosophy-stub}}
==See also==
* [[Category of being]]
* [[Cogito ergo sum]]
* [[Existence]]
* [[Existentialism]]
* [[Objecthood]]
* [[Ontology]]
* [[Substance theo |
e might better be regarded as a member of the West-Coast group the [[San Francisco Renaissance]], which developed independently. Snyder himself has some reservations about the label "Beat," but does not appear to have any strong objection to being included in the group. He often talks about the Beats in the first person plural, referring to the group as "we" and "us".
A quotation from a 1974 interview at the University of North Dakota Writers Conference (published in ''The Beat Vision''):
:"... I never did know exactly what was meant by the term "The Beats," but let's say that the original meeting, association, comradeship of Allen [Ginsberg], myself, Michael [McClure], Lawrence [Ferlinghetti], Philip Whalen, who's not here, Lew Welch, who's dead, Gregory [Corso], for me, to a somewhat lesser extent (I never knew Gregory as well as the others) did embody a criticism and a vision which we shared in various ways, and then went our own ways for many years. ...
:"Where we began to come really close together again, in the late '60s, and gradually working toward this point, it seems to me, was when Allen began to take a deep interest in Oriental thought and then in Buddhism which added another dimension to our levels of agreement; and later through Allen's influence, Lawrence began to draw toward that; and from another angle, Michael and I after the lapse of some years of contact, found our heads very much in the same place, and it's very curious and interesting now; and Lawrence went off in a very political direction for awhile, which none of us had any objection with, except that wasn't my main focus. It's very interesting that we find ourselves so much on the same ground again, after having explored divergent paths; and find ourselves united on this position of powerful environmental concern, critique of the future of the individual state, and an essentially shared poetics, and only half-stated but in the background very powerfully there, a basic agreement on some Buddhist type psychological views of human nature and human possibilities."
==References==
{{Wikisource author}}
* ''Gary Snyder: Dimensions of a Life'', edited by Jon Halper, 1991
*Snyder, Gary. 1980. ''The Real Work: Interviews & Talks 1964-1979''. New Directions, New York. ISBN 0-8112-0761-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-8112-0760-9 (pbk)
* Autobiographical notes in ''Mountains and Rivers Without End'', by Gary Snyder, 1996
* “Chronology” (c.v. for Gary Snyder) in ''The Gary Snyder Reader'', 1999
* “The ''East-West'' Interview” by Peter Barry Chowka in ''The Real Work'', by Gary Snyder, 1980
*[http://wwwenglish.ucdavis.edu/faculty/snyder/snyder.htm Gary Snyder at the UC Davis English Department]
*[http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/s_z/snyder/snyder.htm Gary Snyder at Modern American Poetry]
*[http://www.heureka.clara.net/art/snyder.htm Essay about Gary Snyder and Deep Ecology]
*[http://www.nvbooks.nevada.edu/books.asp?ID=2222 Anthony Hunt, "Genesis, Structure, and Meaning in Gary Snyder's 'Mountains and Rivers Without End'." Detailed, book length commentary on Gary Snyder's "Mountains & Rivers Without End"]
*Aronowitz, Al "The Dharma Bum," Chapter 14, ''The Beat Papers of Al Aronowitz''
*Knight, Arthur Winfield. Ed. ''The Beat Vision'' (1987) Paragon House. ISBN 0-913729-40-X; ISBN 0-913729-41-8 (pbk) This includes an interview with Gary Snyder conducted by James McKenzie on March 19, 1974 at the University of North Dakota Writers Conference.
==External links==
*Lannan Foundation, Wendell Berry and Gary Snyder 2001 (see Wendell berry entry for link)
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/garysnyder/ 1991 audio interview with Gary Snyder by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
*[http://www.neonalley.org/snyder.html Blue Neon Alley - Selected Poems, Quotes and Directory]
*[http://www.shambhalasun.com/Archives/Features/1996/May96/Snyder.htm Shambala Sun article "The Wild Mind Of Gary Snyder" by Trevor Carolan]
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<comment>copied relevant changes to `GNU Guile' and made a redirect</comment>
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gonzo journalism</title>
<id>12712</id>
<revision>
<id>41048664</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T18:49:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alexander 007</username>
<id>493689</id>
</contributor>
<comment>avoid redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{journalism}}
'''Gonzo journalism''' is a [[journalist]]ic style, most famously used by [[Hunter S. Thompson]]. The term [[gonzo]] was first applied to Thompson's writing in 1970 by [[Bill Cardoso]], a ''[[Boston Globe]]'' reporter who claimed the word had originated with the [[Irish people|Irish]] in [[South Boston, Massachusetts|South Boston]] to describe the last man standing at the end of an all-night drinking marathon. Central to gonzo journalism is the notion that journalism can be more truthful without strict observance of [[Journalistic standards|traditional rules of factual reportage]]. The best work in the genre is characterized by a [[novel]]istic twist added to reportage, with usual standards of accuracy subordinated to catching the [[mood]] of a place or event. The reporter and the quest for information are central, with other considerations taking a back seat.
Gonzo journalism is an extension of the [[New Journalism]] championed by [[Tom Wolfe]], [[Lester Bangs]], and [[George Plimpton]]. "I don't get any satisfaction out of the old traditional journalist's view&mdash;'I just covered the story. I just gave it a balanced view,'" Thompson said in an interview for the online edition of ''[[The Atlantic]]''. "Objective journalism is one of the main reasons American [[politics]] has been allowed to be so corrupt for so long. You can't be objective about [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]]."
In Thompson's work, the author's viewpoint is frequently distorted by consumption of [[recreational drugs|drugs]] and [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] (often noted in the article), but gonzo journalism is not about using drugs and alcohol. It has been said that it can and may have been used to support drug and alcohol usage with the premise of writing about an experience.
In literary terms, "gonzo" has been described by [[Douglas Brinkley]] as requiring virtually no re-writing, frequently employing scribbled notes, transcribed interviews, and verbatim telephone conversations. Other writers who have worked in "gonzo" mode include [[P. J. O'Rourke]], [[James Corkern]] and [[Tucker Max]].
==See also==
* [[Gonzo]]
* [[Social Beat]]
* ''[[Transmetropolitan]]''
* "[[The Kentucky Derby is Decadent and Depraved]]", first incarnation of a gonzo article
* [[The eXile]]
==External links==
[[Category:Newswriting]]
[[Category:Journalism genres]]
[[Category:Journalism ethics]]
[[da:Gonzo-journalistik]]
[[de:Gonzo-Journalismus]]
[[fr:Journalisme gonzo]]
[[pt:Jornalismo gonzo]]
[[ru:Гонзо-журналистика]]
[[sv:Gonzojournalistik]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Giant Panda</title>
<id>12713</id>
<revision>
<id>41961371</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:21:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>208.191.162.29</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Pandas in zoos */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Giant Panda
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Panda.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Hua Mei, the baby panda born at<br />the [[San Diego Zoo]] in 1999.
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Ursidae]]
| genus = '''''Ailuropoda'''''
| genus_authority = [[Henri Milne-Edwards|Milne-Edwards]], 1870
| species = '''''A. melanoleuca'''''
| binomial = ''Ailuropoda melanoleuca''
| binomial_authority = ([[Armand David|David]], [[1869]])
}}
The '''Giant Panda''' ('''''Ailuropoda melanoleuca''''' "black-and-white cat-foot") is a [[mammal]] now usually classified in the [[bear]] family, [[Ursidae]], native to central and southern [[China]]. [http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/showspeciespnd.cfm?SID=24&LID=1&FH=E ]
The Panda's main food is [[bamboo]], but they may eat other foods such as [[honey]]. Easily recognizable through its large, distinctive black patches on the eyes, ears and on its rotund body, the Giant Panda is one of the most [[endangered]] animals in the world: an estimated 1,600 pandas live in the wild and some 160 live in captivity, according to a 2004 census. [http://www.panda.org/news_facts/newsroom/news.cfm?uNewsId=13641&uLangId=1]
==General information==
The Giant Panda lives in [[mountain]]ous regions, such as [[Sichuan]] and [[Tibet]]. The Giant Panda is the symbol of the [[World Wildlife Fund]] (WWF), a [[conservation biology|conservation]] organization. Since the latter half of the [[20th century]], the panda has become an informal [[national emblem]] for [[China]], and its image is foun |
s more than two centuries. The city features an eclectic mix of buildings and residences ranging from classical Victorian style to modern office buildings and architecture. Fredericton’s skyline is also distinguished by many historic churches.
===Arts===
The [[Beaverbrook Art Gallery]], a prestigious art gallery on the south bank of the Saint John River, is New Brunswick's provincial art gallery and maintains a collection of considerable quality. The gallery was established and built in 1958 by British press baron [[Lord Beaverbrook]] as a gift to his native province where he was born and grew up. [[Gallery 78]], located across the street, features works by local artists.
The [[Fredericton Playhouse]] hosts plays and musicals throughout the year, and acts as the home base of [[Theatre New Brunswick]] (TNB) – the province’s largest stage troupe. The Playhouse also hosts visiting comedians and musical performances by Canadian and international artists. Officer's Square serves as a venue for outdoor concerts during the summer, featuring a variety of local and national talent. During the winter, Officer's Square is transformed into an outdoor skating rink.
Every fall Fredericton hosts the [[Harvest Jazz and Blues Festival]] that transforms the mood of the city’s downtown by giving it a Jazz spark. The week-long Harvest Jazz and Blues Festival draws artists from all over North America.
===Sports and Recreation===
There are no professional sports teams in Fredericton, although both universities have extensive athletic programs. The UNB Varsity Reds and St. Thomas Tommies are rivals in most sports, and their hockey games are called the "Battle of the Hill". The [[American Hockey League]] was once represented in Fredericton, with the [[Fredericton Express]] playing between [[1981]] and [[1988]], and the [[Fredericton Canadiens]] between [[1991]] and [[1999]].
Fredericton has several parks, including [[Odell Park]] and [[Wilmot Park]]. [[Killarney Lake]] and nearby [[Mactaquac Provincial Park]] have small beaches which are popular in the summer. Skiing (and snowboarding in recent years) at nearby [[Crabbe Mountain]] is also a common winter activity among city residents. There are also several cross-country skiing trails that cross the city.
Fredericton is in the process of constructing two sports and leisure complexes which will have several hockey rinks as well as health club facilities and an indoor track.
==Government and Politics==
[[Image:NB_Legislature.jpg|thumb|right|300px|NB Legislative Building, seat of New Brunswick Government since 1882]]
===Administrative Structure===
Fredericton has a [[mayor-council]] and [[non-partisan]] form of government, with the mayor and council serving fixed four-year terms (three years until 2004), and elections held in May. The last election was in 2004. The current mayor is [[Brad Woodside]], who first served from 1986 until 1999 but was re-elected in 2004 in a close race with city councillor Joel Richardson.
The city is divided into twelve [[ward (politics)|wards]] (six on each side of the Saint John River), with each ward electing one councillor.
The [[Boyce Farmer's Market]], open on Saturday mornings, is a place where municipal, provincial and federal politicians frequently visit to mingle with their electorate - something which has evolved into a political tradition. Local MP Andy Scott is a familiar fixture at the market on most Saturdays.
===Municipal Politics in Fredericton===
The population of Fredericton largely consists of social conservatives - especially on issues regarding gay rights, same sex marriage, pornography/strip clubs/prostitution and abortion. However, there is a large and active gay community in the city as well as two universities that introduce liberal/radical elements into the city's politics. Political life in Fredericton is characterized by this cleavage between social conservatives and social liberals. Radical groups, based at the universities, sometimes hold demonstrations.
Woodside made a controversial decision in [[1997]] by refusing to proclaim [[Gay Pride Week]]. When ordered by the New Brunswick Human Rights Commission - upon complaint by gay rights activists led by Allison Brewer (now leader of the [[New Brunswick New Democratic Party]]) and Arlene Glencross - Woodside whispered the proclamation at a city council meeting. He was then ordered again to proclaim gay pride week audibily which he did. Woodside later quit as mayor to launch an unsuccessful bid as a [[Liberal Party of New Brunswick|Liberal]] candidate in [[Fredericton North]] in the [[New Brunswick general election, 1999|1999 provincial election]]. In [[New Brunswick municipal elections, 2004|2004]] he entered the mayoral race on the final day of nominations, and defeated incumbent Les Hull and councillor Joel Richardson.
Some notable councillors include long serving Tommy Jellinek of Ward 9 and former councillor Joel Richardson who narrowly missed winning the mayoral race in 2004.
===Fredericton and Provincial/Federal Politics===
Fredericton is divided into three provincial legislative districts:
* [[Fredericton North]] - represented by Liberal Justice Critic [[T.J. Burke]]
* [[Fredericton South]] - represented by Progressive Conservative [[Brad Green]]
* [[Fredericton-Fort Nashwaak]] - represented by Liberal [[Kelly Lamrock]]
Provincially, Fredericton elected progressive Conservatives from 1952 until electoral sweep of the Liberal Party in 1987 when they won every seat in New Brunswick under [[Frank McKenna]]. Since then there has been greater political alteration in the provincial electoral landscape in Fredericton.
In 1991, the anti-bilingual [[Confederation of Regions Party of New Brunswick|Confederation of Regions Party]] won the riding of Fredericton North (along with several other nearby ridings). In 1999 Progressive Conservatives swept all three Fredericton area seats; however, in 2003, Fredericton-North and Fredericton-Fort Nashwaak returned to the Liberals. [http://www.gnb.ca/elections/index-e.asp]
Federally, the city forms most of the riding of [[Fredericton (electoral district)|Fredericton]]. This riding was formerly known as Fredericton-York-Sunbury but was redistributed prior to the 1997 general election. From 1957 until 1993 Fredericton returned Progressive Conservatives. However, since 1993, the riding has been represented by Liberal [[Andy Scott]].
==Demographics==
{| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations
|-
! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population
|-
| colspan=2|<hr>
|-
| align="center"| 1871 || align="right"| 6,006
|-
| align="center"| 1881 || align="right"| 6,218
|-
| align="center"| 1891 || align="right"| 6,502
|-
| align="center"| 1901 || align="right"| 7,117
|-
| align="center"| 1911 || align="right"| 7,208
|-
| align="center"| 1921 || align="right"| 8,114
|-
| align="center"| 1931 || align="right"| 8,830
|-
| align="center"| 1941 || align="right"| 10,062*
|-
| align="center"| 1951 || align="right"| 16,018
|-
| align="center"| 1956 || align="right"| 18,303
|-
| align="center"| 1961 || align="right"| 19,683
|-
| align="center"| 1966 || align="right"| 22,460
|-
| align="center"| 1971 || align="right"| 24,254
|-
| align="center"| 1976 || align="right"| 45,248**
|-
| align="center"| 1981 || align="right"| 43,723
|-
| align="center"| 1991 || align="right"| 46,510
|-
| align="center"| 2001 || align="right"| 47,560
|-
| ||align="right"|* Boundary change
|-
| ||align="right"|** City amalgamated with surroundings in 1973
|}
The population of City of Fredericton is 47,560 (greater Fredericton 81,346, both per 2001 census), although unofficial reports more around 50,750 (greater Fredericton 84,523) due to the student population which is often not counted in official censuses. Along with [[Moncton]] and [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], Fredericton is one of three Maritime cities to register a population growth in recent years.
===Ethnicity===
Fredericton's population is predominately white/caucasian. However, a significant black minority has had a long presence in the city and live primarily in the Barker's Point borough. As well, Willie O'Ree - first black player in the NHL - was from Fredericton. The largest non-white ethnic group in Fredericton are Aboriginals who live primarily on the Saint Mary's Reserve located on the City's Northside.
The 1960s and 1970s began to see the influx of immigrants of Asian and Middle Eastern descent. However, their numbers still remain small. Since 2000, the city's universities - Saint Thomas University and the University of New Brunswick - have seen a growing number of students from overseas attending. However, this population is not permanent and generally not counted in the census.
The ethnic breakdown of Fredericton is as follows:
*[[White]]: 75,555 or 97.4%
*[[mixed race]]: 640 or 0.8%
*[[overseas Chinese|Chinese]]: 440 or 0.5%
*[[Asian]]: 430 or 0.5%
*[[Black]]: 370 or 0.4%
* (single responses only)
===Religion===
Fredericton is a predominately Christian city with Protestants forming the largest denomination. The city is notable for its many churches - a high number per capita in comparison to most other Canadian cities. The small [[pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] Northeastern Christian college is located on the city's Norths |
arge.
The biggest limiting factor in the production of antimatter is the availability of antiprotons. Recent data released by CERN states that when fully operational their facilities are capable of producing <math>10^7</math> antiprotons per second. Assuming an optimal conversion of antiprotons to antihydrogen (which is far from true) it would take two billion years (give or take a few thousand) to produce 1 gram of antihydrogen.
Another limiting factor to antimatter production is storage. As stated above there is no known way to effectively store antihydrogen. The ATHENA project has managed to keep antihydrogen atoms from annihilation for 10s of seconds - just enough time to briefly study their behaviour.
Antimatter/matter reactions have practical applications in medical imaging, such as [[positron emission tomography]] (PET). In some kinds of [[beta decay]], a nuclide loses surplus positive charge by emitting a positron (in the same event, a proton becomes a neutron, and [[neutrino]]s are also given off). Nuclides with surplus positive charge are easily made in a [[cyclotron]] and are widely generated for medical use.
===Naturally occurring production===
Antiparticles are created everywhere in the [[universe]] where high-energy particle collisions take place. High-energy [[cosmic ray]]s impacting Earth's atmosphere (or any other matter in the [[solar system]]) produce minute quantities of antimatter in the resulting [[particle jet]]s, which is immediately destroyed by contact with nearby matter. It may similarly be produced in regions like the center of the [[Milky Way Galaxy]], where very energetic celestial events occur. The presence of the resulting antimatter is detected by the gamma rays produced when it annihilates with nearby matter.
Antiparticles are also produced in any environment with a sufficiently high temperature (mean particle energy greater than the [[pair production]] threshold). The region of space near a [[black hole]]'s [[event horizon]] can be thought of as being such an environment, with the resulting matter and antimatter being a component of [[Hawking radiation]]. During the period of [[baryogenesis]], when the universe was extremely hot and dense, matter and antimatter were continually produced and annihilated. The presence of remaining matter, and absence of detection of remaining antimatter{{ref|BigBang}}, is attributed to [[CP-violation|violation]] of the [[CP-symmetry]] relating matter and antimatter. The exact mechanism of this violation during baryogenesis remains a mystery.
== Notation ==
Physicists need a notation to distinguish particles from antiparticles. One way is to denote an antiparticle by adding a bar (or [[macron]]) over the symbol for the particle. For example, the proton and antiproton are denoted as <math>\mathrm{p}\,</math> and <math>\bar{\mathrm{p}}</math>, respectively.
Another convention is to distinguish particles by their [[electric charge]]. Thus, the electron and positron are denoted simply as e<sup>&minus;</sup> and e<sup>+</sup>. Adding a bar over the e<sup>+</sup> symbol would be redundant and is not done.
== Antimatter as fuel ==
In antimatter-matter collisions, the entire rest [[mass]] of the particles is converted to [[energy]]. The [[Energies per unit mass|energy per unit mass]] is about 10 orders of magnitude greater than chemical energy, and about 2 orders of magnitude greater than nuclear energy that can be liberated today using chemical reactions or nuclear fission/fusion. The reaction of 1 [[kilogram|kg]] of antimatter with 1 kg of matter would produce 1.8&times;10<sup>17</sup> [[joule|J]] (180 petajoules) of energy (by the equation ''[[E=mc²]]''). In contrast, burning a kilogram of [[petrol|gasoline]] produces 4.2&times;10<sup>7</sup> J, and [[nuclear fusion]] of a kilogram of hydrogen would produce 2.6&times;10<sup>15</sup> J.
Not all of that energy can be utilized by any realistic technology, because as much as 50% of energy produced in reactions between nucleons and antinucleons is carried away by [[neutrinos]], so, for all intents and purposes, it can be considered lost.{{ref|Reactions}}
The scarcity of antimatter means that it is not readily available to be used as fuel, although it could be used in [[antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion]]. Generating a single antiproton is immensely difficult and requires particle accelerators and vast amounts of energy&mdash;millions of times more than is released after it is annihilated with ordinary matter, due to inefficiencies in the process. Known methods of producing antimatter from energy also produce an equal amount of normal matter, so the theoretical limit is that half of the input energy is converted to antimatter. Counterbalancing this, when antimatter annihilates with ordinary matter, energy equal to twice the mass of the antimatter is liberated&mdash;so energy storage in the form of antimatter could (in theory) be 100% efficient. Antimatter production is currently very limited, but has been growing at a nearly geometric rate since the discovery of the first antiproton in 1955.{{ref|History}} The current antimatter production rate is between 1 and 10 nanograms per year, and this is expected to increase dramatically with new facilities at [[CERN]] and [[Fermilab]]. With current technology, it is considered possible to attain antimatter for [[United States dollar|US$]]25 million per gram by optimizing the collision and collection parameters (given current electricity generation costs). Antimatter production costs, in mass production, are almost linearly tied in with electricity costs, so economical pure-antimatter thrust applications are unlikely to come online without the advent of such technologies as [[deuterium]]-tritium [[fusion power]]. However, it should be noted that in 2004, the annual production of antiprotons at CERN was several picograms at a cost of $20 million. This means to produce 1 gram of antimatter, CERN would need to spend 100 million trillion dollars and run the antimatter factory for 100 billion years.
Several [[NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts]]-funded studies are exploring whether the antimatter that occurs naturally in the [[Van Allen belt]]s of Earth, and ultimately, the belts of gas giants like [[Jupiter]], might be able to be collected with magnetic scoops, at hopefully a lower cost per gram.{{ref|VanAllenBelts}}
Since the energy density is vastly higher than these other forms, the thrust to weight equation used in [[antimatter rocket]]ry and [[spacecraft]] would be very different. In fact, the energy in a few grams of antimatter is enough to transport an unmanned spacecraft to [[Mars]] in about a month&mdash;the [[Mars Global Surveyor]] took eleven months to reach Mars. It is hoped that antimatter could be used as [[fuel]] for [[interplanetary travel]] or possibly [[interstellar travel]], but it is also feared that if humanity ever gets the capabilities to do so, there could be the construction of [[antimatter weapon]]s.
== The Antiuniverse ==
Dirac himself was the first to consider the existence of antimatter in an astronomical scale. But it was only after the confirmation of his theory, with the discovery of the positron, antiproton and antineutron that real speculation began on the possible existence of an antiuniverse. In the following years, motivated by basic [[symmetry]] principles, it was believed that the [[universe]] must consist of both matter and antimatter in equal amounts. If, however there were an isolated system of antimatter in the universe, free from interaction with ordinary matter, no earthbound observation could distinguish its true content, as photons (being their own antiparticle) are the same whether they are in a “universe” or an “antiuniverse”.
But assuming large zones of antimatter exist, there must be some boundary where antimatter atoms from the antimatter [[galaxies]] or [[stars]] will come into contact with normal atoms. In those regions a powerful flux of [[gamma rays]] would be produced. This has never been observed despite deployment of very sensitive instruments in space to detect them.
It is now thought that symmetry was broken in the early universe when [[charge]] and [[parity]] symmetry was violated ([[CP-violation]]). Standard [[Big Bang]] cosmology tells us that the universe initially contained equal amounts of matter and antimatter: however particles and [[antiparticle]]s evolved slightly differently. It was found that a particular heavy unstable particle, which is its own antiparticle, decays slightly more often to positrons (e<sup>+</sup>) than to electrons (e<sup>-</sup>). How this accounts for the preponderance of matter over antimatter has not been completely explained. The [[Standard Model]] of [[particle physics]] does have a way of accommodating a difference between the evolution of matter and antimatter, but it falls short of explaining the net excess of matter in the universe by about 10 orders of magnitude.
After Dirac, the sci-fi writers had a field day with visions of antiworlds,
antistars and antiuniverses, all made of antimatter, and it is still a common [[plot device]], however suppositions of the existence a coeval, antimatter duplicate of this universe are not taken seriously in modern [[cosmology]].
: ''See also: [http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/tip/special/cp.htm What is direct CP-violation?]''
== Antimatter in popular culture ==
The extremely large amount of energy released by matter/antimatter annihilation has inspired many appearances in fiction:
*A famous fictional example of antimatter in action is in the [[science fiction]] franchise ''[[Star Trek]]'', where it is a common energy source for [[starship]]s; large reactors generate power by mixing supercooled deuterium and antideuterium, with the annihila |
kes no sense, especially that we have this list included in a zillion other articles... -->
==Member of the international organizations==
Hungary is member of [[Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa|ABEDA]], [[Australia Group]], [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Conformité Européenne|CE]], [[CEI]], [[CERN]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|EBRD]], [[Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[European Union|EU]] (member, as by [[May 1]], [[2004]]), [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], G- 9, [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]], [[International Bank for Reconstruction And Development|IBRD]], [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions|ICFTU]], [[International Committee for Radionuclide Metrology|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[International Energy Agency|IEA]], [[IFC]], [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[International Marine/Maritime Satellite Organization|Inmarsat]], [[International Telecommunications Satellite Organization|Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]] (guest), [[NATO]], [[NEA]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]], [[OAS]] (observer), [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], [[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[Partnership for Peace|PFP]],[[Southeast European Cooperative Initiative|SECI]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], [[United Nations Forces In Cyprus|UNFICYP]], [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission|UNIKOM]], [[United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina|UNMIBH]], [[United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo|UNMIK]], [[United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia|UNOMIG]], [[United Nations University|UNU]], [[Universal Postal Union|UPU]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[Western European Union|WEU]] (associate), [[World Federation of Trade Unions|WFTU]], [[Visegrád group]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]], [[World Meteorological Organization|WMO]], [[World Tourism Organisation|WToO]], [[World Trade Organisation|WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee]]
==Ministries==
''Note: with restructruring and reorganization, this information may change even within a governmental period.''
* Prime Minister's Office ''(Miniszterelnöki Hivatal)''
* Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development ''(Földművelésügyi és Vidékfejlesztési Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Defence ''(Honvédelmi Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Economic Affairs and Transport ''(Gazdasági és Közlekedési Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Education ''(Oktatási Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Employment and Labour ''(Foglalkoztatáspolitikai és Munkaügyi Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Environmental Protection and Water ''(Környezetvédelmi és Vízügyi Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Finance ''(Pénzügyminisztérium)''
* Ministry of Foreign Affairs ''(Külügyminisztérium)''
* Ministry of Health ''(Egészségügyi Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Information Technology and Telecommunications ''(Informatikai és Hírközlési Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Interior ''(Belügyminisztérium)''
* Ministry of Justice ''(Igazságügyi Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of National Cultural Heritage ''(Nemzeti Kulturális Örökség Minisztériuma)''
* Ministry of Youth, Family, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities ''(Ifjúsági, Családügyi, Szociális és Esélyegyenlőségi Minisztérium)''
====Ministers without portfolio====
* Minister without portfolio responsible for/in charge of European affairs ''(Európai integrációs ügyek koordinációjáért felelős tárca nélküli miniszter)''
* Minister without portfolio for regional development and housing/convergence ''(Regionális fejlesztésért és felzárkóztatásért felelős tárca nélküli miniszter)''
(Sources differ on the English names.)
[[Category:Politics of Hungary| ]]
[[eo:Politiko de Hungario]]
[[fr:Politique de la Hongrie]]
[[pl:Ustrój polityczny Węgier]]
[[pt:Política da Hungria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Hungary</title>
<id>13428</id>
<revision>
<id>36708110</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T23:00:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.156.161.125|195.156.161.125]] ([[User talk:195.156.161.125|talk]]) to last version by Nagytibi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Hungary|Hungarian]] economy prior to [[WWII]] was primarily oriented toward agriculture and small-scale manufacturing. Hungary's strategic position in [[Europe]] and its relative high lack of natural resources also have dictated a traditional reliance on foreign trade. In the early 1950s, the communist government forced rapid industrialization after the standard [[Stalinist]] pattern in an effort to encourage a more self-sufficient economy. Most economic activity was conducted by state-owned enterprises or cooperatives and state farms. In 1968, Stalinist self-sufficiency was replaced by the "New Economic Mechanism," which reopened Hungary to foreign trade, gave limited freedom to the workings of the market, and allowed a limited number of small businesses to operate in the services sector.
Although [[Hungary]] enjoyed one of the most liberal and economically advanced economies of the former Eastern bloc, both agriculture and industry began to suffer from a lack of investment in the 1970s, and Hungary's net foreign debt rose significantly—from $1 billion in 1973 to $15 billion in 1993—due largely to consumer subsidies and unprofitable state enterprises. In the face of economic stagnation, Hungary opted to try further liberalization by passing a joint venture law, enstating an income tax, and joining the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[World Bank]]. By 1988, Hungary had developed a two-tier banking system and had enacted significant corporate legislation which paved the way for the ambitious market-oriented reforms of the post-communist years.
The [[József Antall|Antall]] government of 1990–94 began market reforms with price and trade liberation measures, a revamped tax system, and a nascent market-based banking system. By 1994, however, the costs of government overspending and hesitant privatization had become clearly visible. Cuts in consumer subsidies led to increases in the price of food, medicine, transportation services, and energy. Reduced exports to the former Soviet bloc and shrinking industrial output contributed to a sharp decline in GDP. Unemployment rose rapidly—to about 12% in 1993. The external debt burden, one of the highest in Europe, reached 250% of annual export earnings, while the budget and current account deficits approached 10% of GDP. In March 1995, the government of Prime Minister [[Gyula Horn]] implemented an austerity program, coupled with aggressive privatization of state-owned enterprises and an export-promoting exchange raw regime, to reduce indebtness, cut the current account deficit, and shrink public spending. By the end of 1997 the consolidated public sector deficit decreased to 4.6% of GDP—with public sector spending falling from 62% of GDP to below 50%—the current account deficit was reduced to 2% of GDP, and government debt was paid down to 94% of annual export earnings.
The Government of Hungary no longer requires IMF financial assistance and has repaid all of its debt to the fund. Consequently, Hungary enjoys favorable borrowing terms, and its sovereign foreign currency debt issuances carry investment-grade ratings with positive outlooks from all major credit-rating agencies. In 1995 Hungary's currency, the forint (HUF), became convertible for all current account transactions, and subsequent to [[OECD]] membership in 1996, for almost all capital account transactions as well. Since 1995, Hungary has pegged the forint against a basket of currencies (in which the U.S. dollar is 30%), and the central rate against the basket is devalued at a preannounced rate, currently set at 0.8% per month. The government privatization program will end on schedule in 1998: 80% of GDP is now produced by the private sector, and foreign owners control 70% of financial institutions, 66% of industry, 90% of telecommunications, and 50% of the trading sector.
After Hungary's GDP declined about 18% from 1990 to 1993 and grew only 1%–1.5% up to 1996, strong export performance has propelled GDP growth to 4.4% in 1997, with other macroeconomic indicators similarly improving. These successes allowed the government to concentrate in 1996 and 1997 on major structural reforms such as the implementation of a fully funded pension system, reform of higher education, and the creation of a national treasury. Remaining economic challenges include reducing fiscal deficits and inflation (expected to fall to 13% by the end of 1998), maintaining stable external balances, and completing structural reforms of the tax system, health care, and local government financing. Recently, the overriding goal of Hungarian economic policy has been to prepare the country for entry into the European Union, which it j |
Travels</cite>, viii. 374). In [[1600]] thirty would-be assassins were killed in their attempts. These men were called ''Amar-khan'', and it has been suggested that their action was "running amok" in the true Malay sense. Another proposed derivation for ''amouchi'' is [[Sanskrit]] ''amokshya'', "that cannot be loosed," suggesting that the murderer was bound by a vow, an explanation more than once advanced for the Malay amok; but ''amokshya'' in such a sense is unknown in Malayalim.
[[John Brunner (novelist)|John Brunner]]'s book [[Stand on Zanzibar]] describes a society that is so overcrowded that people running amok (there called ''muckers'') are so common everyone arms themselves (of course making the problem worse).
==See also==
* [[berserker]]
* [[Cúchulainn]]
*Amok: book written by [[Stefan Zweig]] in 1922
==External links==
[[Johannes Grenzfurthner]]'s article ''"Every Five Seconds an Inkjet Printer Dies Somewhere"'' theorizes about the cultural history of 'Amok'.
*[http://www.monochrom.at/amok/ "Every Five Seconds an Inkjet Printer Dies Somewhere"]
{{1911}}
[[Category:Culture-specific syndromes]]
[[da:Amok]]
[[de:Amok]]
[[fr:Amok]]
[[nl:Amok]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amuck</title>
<id>3254</id>
<revision>
<id>15901613</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Amok]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Apostles' Creed</title>
<id>3255</id>
<revision>
<id>41747120</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:19:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
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<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Apostles' Creed''' (in [[Ecclesiastical Latin|Latin]], ''Symbolum Apostolorum''), is an early statement of [[Christianity|Christian]] belief, possibly from the [[1st century|first]] or [[2nd century|second century]], but more likely post-[[Nicene Creed]] in the early 4th Century AD. The theological specifics of the creed appear to be a refutation of [[Gnosticism]], an early heresy. The Apostles' [[Creed]] is widely used by a number of [[Christian]] [[religious denomination|denomination]]s for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches of Western tradition, including [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman (Latin-rite) Catholic]] churches, [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] churches, member churches of the [[Anglican Communion]], and [[Western Orthodoxy|Western Orthodox]] denominations. It is also used by evangelical Protestant denominations such as Presbyterians, Methodists, Congregationalists and many Baptists. It is not used by Southern Baptists, who consider themselves to be a non-credal churches.
Although many Lutheran sources label the Apostles' Creed as "ecumenical", its use appears to be restricted to churches whose rituals are derived of the Latin rite. The Apostles' Creed holds a special place in Roman Catholic tradition as the "ancient Baptismal symbol of the Church of Rome".
==Text of the Creed ==
Source: {{cite web
| title=Symbolum Apostolicum
| work=Catechismum Catholicae Ecclesiae
| url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism_lt/p1s1c3a2_lt.htm#SYMBOLUM%20FIDEI
| accessdate = June 21 | accessyear = 2005
}}
:Credo in Deum, Patrem omnipotentem, Creatorem caeli et terrae,
:et in Iesum Christum, Filium Eius unicum, Dominum nostrum, qui conceptus est de Spiritu Sancto, natus ex Maria Virgine, passus sub Pontio Pilato, crucifixus, mortuus, et sepultus, descendit ad inferos, tertia die resurrexit a mortuis, ascendit ad caelos, sedet ad dexteram Patris omnipotentis, inde venturus est iudicare vivos et mortuos.
:Credo in Spiritum Sanctum, sanctam Ecclesiam catholicam, sanctorum communionem, remissionem peccatorum, carnis resurrectionem, vitam aeternam.
:Amen
==Ecumenical Translation into English (ICET/ELLC)==
The following translation is believed to be prevalent in those denominations which have adopted modern English liturgical translations. It was authored by a consultation of Catholic and Protestant ecclesiastical communities. See first source for details.
Sources: {{cite web
| title = Apostles' Creed
| work = ELLC Texts
| url =
http://www.renewingworship.org/resources/ELLC/texts/apostles_creed.html
| accessdate = June 21 | accessyear = 2005
}}; {{cite web
| title = Apostles' Creed
| work = Catechism of the Catholic Church
| url = http://www.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c3a2.htm#credo
| accessdate = June 21 | accessyear = 2005
}}
:I believe in [[God]], the [[God the Father|Father]] almighty,
:creator of heaven and earth.
:I believe in [[Jesus]] [[Christ]], God's only Son, our [[Lord]].
:He was conceived by the power of the [[Holy Spirit]]
:and born of the [[Mary the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]].
:He suffered under [[Pontius Pilate]],
:was [[crucifixion|crucified]], died, and was buried.
:He descended into [[hell]] / to the [[dead]].{{ref_label|inferos|1|1}}
:On the third day [[Resurrection of Jesus|he rose again]],
:He ascended into [[heaven]].
:He is seated at the right hand of the Father
:and He will come again to judge the living and the dead.
:I believe in the [[Holy Spirit]],
:the holy catholic Church,{{ref_label|catholic Church|2|2}}
:the [[communion of saints]],
:the forgiveness of sins,
:the [[resurrection]] of the body,
:and the life everlasting. Amen.
==Variations in Liturgical Use==
===Translation of ''inferos''===
: {{note_label|inferos|1|1}} The word ''inferos'' is translated in some denominational contexts as ''dead'', as in ''"He descended to the dead."'' See ''[[Harrowing of Hell|The Harrowing of Hell]]'' for a more detailed discussion of this part of the creed.
: {{note_label|catholic Church|2|2}} The word ''catholic'' here refers to the root meaning of the word, that is to say "universal". Some modern readers may differ in opinion about this phrase referring to the [[Roman Catholic Church]], most notably the only church in existance at the time of this creed's creation, and may substitute it with the word "Christian" and have no fear of incorrectly translating the text into English.
===[[Methodism]]===
The [[United Methodist Church|United Methodists]] commonly incorporate the Apostles' Creed into their worship services. Many favor this interpretation as [[Poetry|poetically]] elegant. The version used is #881 of the [[United Methodist Hymnal]], one of the most popular hymnals and one with a heritage to [[John Wesley]], founder of [[Methodism]].[http://catalystresources.org/issues/272yee.html][http://catalystresources.org/issues/312knight.html]
:I believe in God the Father Almighty,
:maker of heaven and earth;
:And in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord:
:who was conceived by the Holy Spirit,
:born of the Virgin Mary,
:suffered under Pontius Pilate,
:was crucified, dead, and buried;
:the third day he rose from the dead;
:he ascended into heaven,
:and sitteth at the right hand of God the Father Almighty;
:from thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead.
:I believe in the Holy Spirit,
:the holy catholic church,
:the communion of saints,
:the forgiveness of sins,
:the resurrection of the body,
:and the life everlasting. Amen.
==External links ==
*[http://www.roman-catholic-prayers.com/prayer/apostles_creed.htm The prayer on roman-catholic-prayers.com]
===Anglican===
The [[Book of Common Prayer]] of the [[Church of England]] has the following versions:
:I believe in God, the Father almighty,
:creator of heaven and earth.
:I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord,
:who was conceived by the Holy Spirit,
:born of the Virgin Mary,
:suffered under Pontius Pilate,
:was crucified, died, and was buried;
:he descended to the dead.
:On the third day he rose again;
:he ascended into heaven,
:he is seated at the right hand of the Father,
:and he will come to judge the living and the dead.
:I believe in the Holy Spirit,
:the holy catholic Church,
:the communion of saints,
:the forgiveness of sins,
:the resurrection of the body,
:and the life everlasting.
:Amen.
and
:I believe in God, the Father almighty,
:maker of heaven and earth;
:And in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord;
:who was conceived by the Holy Ghost,
:born of the Virgin Mary,
:suffered under Pontius Pilate,
:was crucified, dead, and buried.
:He descended into hell.
:The third day he rose again from the dead.
:He ascended into heaven,
:and sitteth on the right hand of God the Father almighty.
:From thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead.
:I believe in the Holy Ghost,
:the holy catholic Church,
:the communion of saints,
:the forgiveness of sins,
:the resurrection of the body,
:and the life everlasting.
:Amen.
==Rites of Baptism in Western Liturgical Christianity==
The liturgical communities in western Christianity which derive their rituals from the [[Roman Missal]], including those particular communities which use the Roman Missal itself (Roman Catholics), the [[Book of Common Prayer]] ([[Anglicans]] / [[Episcopal|Episcopalians]]), the Lutheran Book of Worship ([[Evangelical Lutherans]]), Lutheran Worship ([[LCMS|Missouri-Synod Lutherans]]), and many other derivatives of the Roman Missal in [[English language|English]] and many other languages, use the Apostles' Creed and interrogative variations of it within their similar rites of [[Baptism]], considered by all of these communities to be the first [[sacrament]] of initiation into the Church.
===Episcopal Church (USA)===
The Episcopal Church uses the Apostles' Creed as a Baptismal Covenant for those who are to receive the Rite of |
tism takes different paths. Some remain [[mute]] throughout their lives while being fully [[literacy|literate]] and able to communicate in other ways&mdash;images, [[sign language]], and [[typing]] are far more natural to them. Some infants who later show signs of autism coo and babble during the first few months of life, but stop soon afterwards. Others may be delayed, developing language as late as the [[adolescence|teenage]] years. Still, inability to speak does not mean that people with autism are unintelligent or unaware. Once given appropriate accommodations, many will happily converse for hours, and can often be found in online [[chat room]]s, discussion boards or [[website]]s and even using communication devices at autism-community social events such as [[Autreat]].
Those who do speak often use [[language]] in unusual ways, retaining features of earlier stages of language development for long periods or throughout their lives. Some speak only single words, while others repeat the same phrase over and over. Some repeat what they hear, a condition called [[echolalia]]. Sing-song repetitions in particular are a calming, joyous activity that many autistic adults engage in. Many people with autism have a strong [[tonality|tonal]] sense, and can often understand spoken language.
Some children may exhibit only slight delays in language, or even seem to have precocious language and unusually large [[vocabulary|vocabularies]], but have great difficulty in sustaining typical [[conversation]]s. The "give and take" of non-autistic conversation is hard for them, although they often carry on a [[monologue]] on a favorite subject, giving no one else an opportunity to comment. When given the chance to converse with other autistics, they comfortably do so in "parallel monologue"&mdash;taking turns expressing views and information. Just as "[[neurotypical]]s" (people without autism) have trouble understanding autistic [[body language]]s, vocal tones, or phraseology, people with autism similarly have trouble with such things in people without autism. In particular, autistic language abilities tend to be highly literal; people without autism often inappropriately attribute hidden meaning to what people with autism say or expect the person with autism to sense such unstated meaning in their own words.
The body language of people with autism can be difficult for other people to understand. Facial expressions, movements, and gestures may be easily understood by some other people with autism, but do not match those used by other people. Also, their tone of voice has a much more subtle inflection in reflecting their feelings, and the [[auditory system]] of a person without autism often cannot sense the fluctuations. What seems to non-autistic people like a high-pitched, sing-song, or flat, [[robot]]-like voice is common in autistic children. Some autistic children with relatively good language skills speak like little adults, rather than communicating at their current age level, which is one of the things that can lead to problems.
Since non-autistic people are often unfamiliar with the autistic [[body language]], and since autistic natural language may not tend towards speech, autistic people often struggle to let other people know what they need. As anybody might do in such a situation, they may scream in frustration or resort to grabbing what they want. While waiting for non-autistic people to learn to communicate with them, people with autism do whatever they can to get through to them. Communication difficulties may contribute to autistic people becoming socially anxious or depressed.
===Repetitive behaviors===
Although people with autism usually appear physically normal and have good muscle control, unusual repetitive motions, known as self-stimulation or "stimming," may set them apart. These behaviors might be extreme and highly apparent or more subtle. Some children and older individuals spend a lot of time repeatedly flapping their arms or wiggling their toes, others suddenly freeze in position. As [[child]]ren, they might spend hours lining up their cars and trains in a certain way, not using them for pretend play. If someone accidentally moves one of these toys, the child may be tremendously upset. Autistic children often need, and demand, absolute consistency in their environment. A slight change in any routine&mdash;in mealtimes, dressing, taking a bath, or going to school at a certain time and by the same route&mdash;can be extremely disturbing. People with autism sometimes have a persistent, intense preoccupation. For example, the child might be obsessed with learning all about [[vacuum cleaners]], [[train]] schedules or [[lighthouses]]. Often they show great interest in different languages, numbers, symbols or [[science]] topics. Repetitive behaviors can also extend into the spoken word as well. Perseveration of a single word or phrase, even for a specific number of times can also become a part of the child's daily routine.
===Effects in education===
Children with autism are affected with these symptoms every day. These unusual characteristics set them apart from the everyday normal student. Because they have trouble understanding people’s thoughts and feelings, they have trouble understanding what their teacher may be telling them. They do not understand that facial expressions and vocal variations hold meanings and may misinterpret what emotion their instructor is displaying. This inability to fully decipher the world around them makes education stressful. Teachers need to be aware of a student's disorder so that they are able to help the student get the best out of the lessons being taught.
Some students learn better with visual aids as they are better able to understand material presented this way. Because of this, many teachers create “visual schedules” for their autistic students. This allows the student to know what is going on throughout the day, so they know what to prepare for and what activity they will be doing next. Some autistic children have trouble going from one activity to the next, so this visual schedule can help to reduce stress.
Research has shown that working in pairs may be beneficial to autistic children. <!-- cite a source here, please! --> Autistic students have problems in schools not only with language and communication, but with socialization as well. They feel self-conscious about themselves and many feel that they will always be outcasts. By allowing them to work with peers they can make friends, which in turn can help them cope with the problems that arise. By doing so they can become more integrated into the mainstream environment of the classroom.
A teacher's aide can also be useful to the student. The aide is able to give more elaborate directions that the teacher may not have time to explain to the autistic child. The aide can also facilitate the autistic child in such a way as to allow them to stay at a similar level to the rest of the class. This allows a partially one-on-one lesson structure so that the child is still able to stay in a normal classroom but be given the extra help that they need.
There are many different techniques that teachers can use to assist their students. A teacher needs to become familiar with the child’s disorder to know what will work best with that particular child. Every child is going to be different and teachers have to be able to adjust with every one of them.
Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders typically have high levels of anxiety and stress, particularly in social environments like school. If a student exhibits aggressive or explosive behavior, it is important for educational teams to recognize the impact of stress and anxiety. Preparing students for new situations by writing Social Stories can lower anxiety. Teaching social and emotional concepts using systematic teaching approaches such as The Incredible 5-Point Scale or other Cognitive Behavioral strategies can increase a student's ability to control excessive behavioral reactions.
== DSM definition ==
Autism is defined in section 299.00 of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV) as:
#A total of six (or more) items from (1), (2) and (3), with at least two from (1), and one each from (2) and (3):
##qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following:
###marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate social interaction
###failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level
###a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other people (e.g., by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest)
###lack of social or emotional reciprocity
##qualitative impairments in communication as manifested by at least one of the following:
###delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken language (not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through alternative modes of communication such as gesture or mime)
###in individuals with adequate speech, marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others
###stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language
###lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level
##restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following:
###encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus
###apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals
###stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting, or com |
e of Northumbria''' (died [[651]]), was the founder and first [[bishop]] of the [[monastery]] on the island of [[Lindisfarne]] in [[England]]. A [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary]], he is credited with restoring Christianity to [[Northumbria]].
An [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]]man, possibly born in [[Connacht]], Aidan was a [[monk]] at the monastery on the island of [[Iona]] in [[Scotland]].
The [[Roman Empire]] had spread Christianity into England, but due to its decline, [[paganism]] was seeing a resurgence in Northern England. [[Oswald of Northumbria]] had been living at the Iona monastery as a king in exile since [[616]] AD. There he converted to Christianity and was [[baptize|baptised]]. In [[634]] he gained the crown of Northumbria, and was determined to bring Christianity to the mostly pagan people there.
Due to his past at Iona, he requested missionaries from that monastery instead of the Roman-backed monasteries in England. At first the monastery sent a new bishop named Corman, but he returned to Iona and reported that the Northumbrians were too stubborn to be converted. Aidan criticised Corman's methods and was soon sent as a replacement in [[635]].
Aidan chose the island of [[Lindisfarne]], close to the royal castle at [[Bamburgh]], as his [[diocese]]. King Oswald, who spoke Irish, often had to translate for Aidan and his monks, who did not speak English at first. When Oswald died in [[642]], Aidan received continued support from King [[Oswine of Deira]] and the two became close friends.
An inspired missionary, Aidan would walk from one village to another, politely conversing with the people he saw and slowly interesting them in Christianity. According to legend, the king gave Aidan a horse so that he wouldn't have to walk, but Aidan gave the horse to a beggar. By patiently talking to the people on their own level Aidan and his monks slowly restored Christianity to the Northumbrian communities. Aidan also took in twelve English boys to train at the monastery, to ensure that the area's future religious leadership would be English.
In [[651]] a pagan army attacked Bamburgh and attempted to set its walls ablaze. According to legend, Aidan prayed for the city, after which the winds turned and blew the smoke and fire toward the enemy, repulsing them.
Aidan was a member of the Irish branch of Christianity instead of the Roman branch, but his character and energy in missionary work won him the respect of [[Pope Honorius I]] and [[Felix of Dunwich]].
Aidan's friend Oswine of Deira was murdered in [[651]]. Twelve days later Aidan died, on [[August 31]], in the 17th year of his [[bishop|episcopate]]. He had become ill while at the Bamburgh castle and died leaning against the wall of the local church.
The monastery he founded grew and helped found churches and other monasteries throughout the area. It also became a center of learning and a storehouse of scholarly knowledge. [[Saint Bede the Venerable]] would later write Aidan's biography and describe the miracles attributed to him. Saint Aidan's feast day is on [[August 31]]st.
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before=--|
title=[[Bishop of Lindisfarne]]|
after=[[Finan of Lindisfarne|Saint Finan]]|
years=[[635]] - [[651]]|
}}
{{end box}}
==External links==
*[http://www.irelandseye.com/irish/people/saints/aidan.shtm Irelandseye.com biography of Saint Aidan]
*[http://www.lindisfarne.org.uk/general/aidan.htm Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne] by Reverend Canon Kate Tristram
*[http://www.britannia.com/bios/saints/aidan.html Britannia biography of Saint Aidan]
*[http://www.netacc.net/~mafg/book/v2c3s3.htm A History Of The Church] (around the time of Aidan) by Philip Hughes
[[Category:651 deaths]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic monks]]
[[Category:Bishops of Lindisfarne]]
[[Category:Irish saints]]
[[de:Aidan von Lindisfarne]]
[[uk:Святий Айден]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arthur Aikin</title>
<id>1563</id>
<revision>
<id>34277923</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-07T20:42:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YurikBot</username>
<id>271058</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Arthur Aikin''' ([[May 19]], [[1773]] - [[April 15]], [[1854]]), [[United Kingdom|English]] [[chemistry|chemist]], [[mineralogy|mineralogist]] and scientific writer, was born at [[Warrington, England|Warrington]] in [[Lancashire]].
He was the son of Dr. [[John Aikin]].
He studied chemistry under [[Joseph Priestley]] and gave attention to
the practical applications of the science.
From [[1803]] to [[1808]] he was editor of ''[[Annual Review]]''.
He was one of the founders of the [[Geological Society of London]] in [[1807]] and was its honorary secretary in [[1812]]-[[1817]]. He contributed papers on the [[Telford_and_Wrekin|Wrekin]] and the [[Shropshire]] coalfield, among others, to the transactions of that society.
Later he became secretary of the [[Royal Society of Arts]], and in [[1841]] treasurer of the [[Chemical Society]]. In early life he had been a [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] minister for a short time. He was highly esteemed as a man of sound judgment and wide knowledge. He died in [[London]].
Publications:
:''Journal of a Tour through North Wales and Part of Shropshire with Observations in Mineralogy and Other Branches of Natural History'' (London, 1797)
:''A Manual of Mineralogy'' (1814; ed. 2, 1815)
:''A Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy'' (with his brother C. R. Aikin), 2 vols. (London, 1807, 1814).
{{chemist-stub}}
{{geologist-stub}}
[[Category:1773 births|Aikin, Arthur]]
[[Category:1854 deaths|Aikin, Arthur]]
[[Category:English mineralogists|Aikin, Albert]]
[[Category:English chemists|Aikin, Albert]]
[[it:Arthur Aikin]]
[[sk:Arthur Aikin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ailanthus</title>
<id>1564</id>
<revision>
<id>37287199</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T00:52:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
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<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Ailanthus''
| image = Ailanthus altissima1.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''Ailanthus altissima'' leaf and seeds
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Sapindales]]
| familia = [[Simaroubaceae]]
| genus = '''''Ailanthus'''''
| genus_authority = [[René Louiche Desfontaines|Desf.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[Ailanthus altissima]]''<br/>
''Ailanthus excelsa''<br/>
''Ailanthus giraldii''<br/>
''Ailanthus malabarica''<br/>
''Ailanthus triphysa''<br/>
''Ailanthus vilmoriniana''
}}
'''''Ailanthus''''' (derived from ailanto, an [[Amboine]] word probably meaning "tree of the gods" or "tree of heaven") is a genus of 6-10 species of [[tree]]s belonging to the family [[Simaroubaceae]], in the order [[Sapindales]] (formerly [[Rutales]] or [[Geraniales]]). The genus is native from east [[Asia]] south to northern [[Australasia]].
The best known species, ''[[A. altissima|Ailanthus altissima]]'', English name '''[[Tree of heaven]]''', is a native of northern [[China]]. It is a quick-growing [[deciduous]] tree to 25-35 m tall, with spreading branches and large (40-80 cm) pinnate leaves with 15-35 long pointed leaflets, the terminal leaflet normally present, and the basal pairs of leaflets often lobed at their bases. The small greenish flowers are borne on branched panicles; and the male ones are characterized by having a disgusting odour. The fruits are free in clusters, and each is drawn out into a long wing with the seed in the middle. The wood is fine grained and satiny.
[[Image:Ailanthus altissima4.jpg|thumb|left|''Ailanthus altissima'' flowers]]
The tree was introduced into [[England]] in 1751 and is a favourite in parks and gardens. It has also been introduced into [[North America]]. This tree has the reputation as being among the most urban-tolerant of any temperate-zone trees in the world, growing in places where most [[weed]]s even refuse to grow. Where the climate is sufficiently similar to that of its homeland, as in much of the east and south of both the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], it has proved to be a serious problem [[invasive species]], causing major problems both in urban areas (where the roots of saplings that germinate close to buildings cause damage to foundations), and in rural areas (where it displaces native species from the environment). A consequent popular [[nickname]] for the species is '''Tree from hell'''.
''A. altissima'' is sometimes also known as ''A. glandulosa'' or ''A. glanduosa''. Under this name, an extract of the bark is sometimes touted as an herbal homeopathic remedy for various ailments. However, taken in large doses, the bark extract is highly toxic.
Other species of ''Ailanthus'' include ''A. triphysa'', an [[Australia]]n tree; ''A. vilmoriniana'' and ''A. giraldii'' in south and west China, ''A. malabarica'' in southeast [[Asia]], and ''A. excelsa'', common in [[India]].
A silk spinning moth, the Ailanthus moth (''Samia cynthia''), lives on its leaves, and yields a silk more durable and cheaper than mulberry silk, but inferior to it in fineness and gloss. This moth has been introduced to the eastern United States and is common near many towns; it is about 12 cm across, with angulated wings, and in colour olive brown, with white markings. Other [[Lepidoptera]] whose [[larva]]e feed on ''Ailanthus'' include ''[[Endoclita|Endoclita malabaricus]]''.
== External links ==
* [http://www.inmygarden.org/archives/2005/01/ailanthus_and_s_1.html Ailanthus and Staghorn Sumac], from Th |
se]] 2.5%, [[Bantenese]] 2.1%, [[Banjarese]] 1.7%, [[Balinese people|Balinese]] 1.5%, [[Sasak]] 1.3%, [[Makassarese]] 1.0%, [[Cirebon]] 0.9%, [[Indonesian_Chinese|Chinese]] 0.9%, Others 16.1%
The regions of Indonesia and some of their ''traditional'' ethnic groups are as follows. Note however that due to migration within Indonesia (as part of government [[transmigration program]]s or otherwise), there are significant populations of ethic groups who reside outside of their traditional regions.
* '''[[Java (island)|Java]]''': [[Javanese]], [[Sundanese]], [[Bantenese]], [[Betawi]], [[Tenggerese|Tengger]], [[Osing]], [[Badui]]
* '''[[Madura]]''': [[Madurese]]
* '''[[Sumatra]]''': [[Malay people|Malays]], [[Batak (Indonesia)|Batak]], [[Minangkabau]], [[Acehnese]], [[Lampung]], [[Kubu]]
* '''[[Kalimantan]]''': [[Dayak]], [[Malay people|Malays]], [[Banjar]]
* '''[[Sulawesi]]''': [[Makassarese]], [[Buginese]], [[Mandar]], [[Minahassan]], [[Gorontalo]], [[Toraja]], [[Bajau]]
* '''[[Lesser Sunda Islands]]''': [[Balinese people|Balinese]], [[Sasak]]
* '''The [[Moluccas]]''': [[Nuaulu]], [[Manusela]]
* '''[[Papua]]''': [[Dani (ethnic group)|Dani]], [[Bauzi]], [[Asmat]]
==Religions==
[[Islam|Muslim]] 88%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 5%, [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 2%, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] 3%, [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] 1%, other 1% (1998)
Constitutional guarantees of religious freedom apply to the five religions recognized by the state, namely [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]] (87%), [[Protestantism]] (5%), [[Catholicism]] (2%), [[Hinduism]] (3%) and [[Buddhism]] (2%), and In some remote areas, [[animism]] is still practiced.
==Languages==
[[Bahasa Indonesia]] (official, modified form of [[Malay language|Malay]]), [[English language|English]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], regional languages, the most widely spoken of which is [[Javanese language|Javanese]].
English is the most widely spoken foreign language. Some [[Min_Nan|Chinese dialect]] is also spoken. The public use of [[Mandarin language|Chinese]], especially Chinese characters, was discouraged between [[1966]] - [[1998]].
==Literacy==
''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:'' 87.9%
<br>''male:'' 92.5%
<br>''female:'' 83.4% (2005 est.)
Education is not free albeit it is compulsory for children through grade 9. Although about 92% of eligible children are enrolled in primary school, a much smaller percentage attend full time. About 44% of secondary school-age children attend junior high school, and some others of this age group attend vocational schools.
==See also==
* [[Hinduism in Indonesia]]
* [[Culture of Indonesia]]
* [[Transmigration program]]
==External links==
[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html CIA World Factbook article on Indonesia]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Indonesia]]
[[Category:Geography of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Indonesian society]]
[[es:Demografía de Indonesia]]
[[id:Demografi Indonesia]]
[[lt:Indonezijos demografija]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Indonesia</title>
<id>14646</id>
<revision>
<id>41803015</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:24:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Fast facts */ Elections</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Indonesia}}
'''[[Indonesia]] is a [[republic]]''' based on the [[1945]] [[constitution]] providing for a limited separation of [[executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] power. The governmental system has been described as "presidential with parliamentary characteristics." Following the [[Indonesian 1998 Revolution]] and the resignation of President [[Suharto]], several political reforms were set in motion.
==Reform process==
A constitutional reform process has been underway since [[1999]], and has already produced several important changes.
Among these are [[term limit]]s of up to two 5-year terms for the [[President]] and [[Vice President]], and measures to institute checks and balances. The highest state institution is the [[People's Consultative Assembly]] (MPR), whose functions included electing the president and vice president (since 2004 the president is elected directly by the people), establishing broad guidelines of state policy, and amending the constitution. The 695-member MPR includes all 550 members of the [[People's Representative Council]] (DPR) (the House of Representatives) plus 130 "regional representatives" elected by the 26 provincial parliaments and 65 appointed members from societal groups.
The DPR, which is the premier legislative institution, includes 462 members elected through a mixed proportional/district representational system and 38 appointed members of the armed forces (TNI) and police (POLRI). Under existing agreements, TNI/POLRI representation in the DPR will end at the time of the next general election in [[2004]] and will end in the MPR in [[2009]]. Societal group representation in the MPR is expected to be eliminated in 2004 through further constitutional change. Military domination of regional administration is gradually breaking down, with new regulations prohibiting active-duty officers from holding political office.
Having served as rubberstamp bodies in the past, the DPR and MPR have gained considerable power and are increasingly assertive in oversight of the executive branch. Under constitutional changes in [[2004]], the MPR will become a [[bicameral legislature]], with the creation of the Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (DPD) or Senate, in which each province will be represented by four members, although its legislative powers will be more limited than those of the DPR. In part, this reflects a desire to prevent the presidential excesses of the past and, in part, to restrain [[Wahid]], who is seen as at times dangerously unpredictable. Through his appointed [[cabinet]], the president retains the authority to conduct the administration of the government, but some observers believe the balance of power has shifted too far in the direction of the legislature.
A general election in June 1999 produced the first freely elected national, provincial, and regional parliaments in over 40 years. In October 1999 the MPR elected a compromise candidate, [[Abdurrahman Wahid]], as the country's fourth president, and [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] &mdash; a daughter of [[Sukarno]], the country's first president &mdash; as the vice president. Megawati's PDI-P party had won the largest share of the vote (34%) in the general election, while [[Golkar]], the dominant party during the Soeharto era, came in second (22%). Several other, mostly Islamic parties won shares large enough to be seated in the DPR.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Indonesia|Elections in Indonesia}}
{{main|Indonesian presidential election, 2004}}
{{Indonesian presidential election, 2004}}
{{main|Indonesian legislative election, 2004}}
{{Indonesian legislative election, 2004}}
==Fast facts==
; Constitution :
August 1945, abrogated by Federal Constitution of 1949 and Provisional Constitution of 1950, restored [[July 5]], [[1959]]
; Legal system :
Based on Roman-Dutch law, substantially modified by indigenous concepts and by new criminal procedures code; has not accepted compulsory [[International Court of Justice]] jurisdiction.
; Suffrage :
17 years of age; universal and married persons regardless of age
===Executive branch===
; chief of state : President [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] (since [[20 October]] [[2004]])
; head of government : President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, Vice President [[Jusuf Kalla]]
; cabinet : [[United Indonesia Cabinet]] (Kabinet Indonesia Bersatu)
; elections: The president and vice president are selected by vote of the citizens for five-year terms. Prior to 2004, they were chosen by People's Consultative Assembly. The last election was held [[20 September]] 2004.
; election results : Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono won the election with 61% of the vote. Incumbent [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] received 39% of the vote.
===Legislative branch===
; elections :
last held [[April 5|5 April]] 2004
===Judicial branch===
The "Supreme Court" (''Mahkamah Agung'') is the highest level of the judicial branch. Its judges are appointed by the president.
===Election Organisation and Oversight===
The General Election Committee ''(KPU - Komisi Pemilihan Umum)'' is the body responsible for running both parliamentary and presidential elections in Indonesia.
Prior to the General Election of 2004, the KPU was made up of members who were also members of political parties, however members of the KPU must now be non-partisan.
==Further reading==
* O'Rourke, Kevin. 2002. ''Reformasi: the struggle for power in post-Soeharto Indonesia''. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1865087548
* Schwarz, Adam. 2000. ''A nation in waiting: Indonesia's search for stability''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0813336503
==See also==
*[[Government Administration in Indonesia]]
*[[Foreign relations of Indonesia]]
*[[List of Presidents of Indonesia]]
*[[List of Vice Presidents of Indonesia]]
*[[Flag of Indonesia]]
*[[Government Administration in Indonesia]]
{{ASEAN}}
[[Category:Politics of Indonesia| ]]
[[lt:Indonezijos politinė sistema]]
[[nl:Politiek van Indonesië]]
[[pt:Política da Indonésia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Indonesia</title>
<id>14647</id>
<revision>
<id>42126032</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:10:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ScottDavis</username>
<id>161735</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguate Rio Tinto using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Indonesia table}}
[[Indonesia]] has a market-based economy |
guerre|Jacque Daguerre]]'s new [[photography|photographic]] process to the [[French Academy of Sciences]].
*[[1848]] - [[California Gold Rush]]: The ''[[New York Herald]]'' breaks the news to the East Coast of the [[United States]] of the [[gold rush]] in [[California]] (although the rush started in January).
*[[1862]] - [[Indian Wars]]: During an uprising in [[Minnesota]], [[Lakota]] warriors decide not to attack heavily-defended [[Fort Ridgely]] and instead turn to the settlement of [[New Ulm]], killing white settlers along the way.
*[[1895]] - [[American frontier]] murderer and outlaw, [[John Wesley Hardin]], is killed by an off-duty policeman in a [[bar (establishment)|saloon]] in [[El Paso, Texas]].
*[[1919]] - [[Afghanistan]] gains independence from the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1929]] - The [[radio]] [[comedy]] show ''[[Amos and Andy]]'' makes its [[NBC]] debut starring [[Freeman Gosden]] and [[Charles Correll]].
*[[1934]] - The first All-American [[Soap Box Derby]] is held in [[Dayton, Ohio]].
*1934 - The creation of the position [[Führer]] approved by the German electorate with 89.9% of the popular vote.
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Jubilee]] - The [[2nd Canadian Infantry Division]] leads an [[Allies of World War II|allied forces]] [[amphibious assault]] on [[Dieppe, France]].
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Liberation of Paris]] - [[Paris]] rises against [[Nazi Germany|German]] occupation with the help of [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] troops.
*[[1945]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Viet Minh]] led by [[Ho Chi Minh]] take power in [[Hanoi]], [[Vietnam]].
*[[1953]] - [[Cold War]]: The [[CIA]] helps to overthrow the government of [[Mohammed Mossadegh]] in [[Iran]] and reinstate the [[Shah]] [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]].
*[[1955]] - In the Northeast [[United States]], severe [[flooding]] caused by [[Hurricane Diane]], claims 200 lives.
*[[1960]] - [[Cold War]]: In [[Moscow]], downed American [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] pilot [[Francis Gary Powers]] is sentenced to ten years imprisonment by the [[Soviet Union]] for [[espionage]].
*1960 - [[Sputnik program]]: The [[Soviet Union]] launches [[Sputnik 5]] with the [[dog]]s [[Belka and Strelka]], 40 [[mice]], 2 [[rat]]s and a variety of [[plant]]s.
*[[1961]] - The Australian public-affairs show ''Four Corners'' starts on the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]].
*[[1965]] - [[Prime Minister of Japan|Japanese prime minister]] [[Eisaku Sato]] becomes the first post-[[World War II]] sitting prime minister to visit [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]].
*[[1975]] - The cricket test match between [[England]] and [[Australia]] is called off after the pitch is vandalised by supporters of [[George Davis (armed robber)|George Davis]].
*[[1980]] - [[Saudia Flight 163]], a [[Lockheed]] [[Lockheed L-1011|L-1011 TriStar]] burns after making an emergency landing at [[King Khalid International Airport]] in [[Riyadh]], [[Saudi Arabia]], killing 301 people.
*[[1981]] - [[Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)|Gulf of Sidra Incident]]: Two [[Libya]]n [[Sukhoi Su-22]] fighter jets intercept [[United States]] fighters over the [[Gulf of Sidra]] and are destroyed by them.
*[[1987]] - [[Hungerford Massacre]]: In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Michael Ryan (mass murderer)|Michael Ryan]] kills sixteen people with an [[assault rifle]] and then commits [[suicide]].
*[[1989]] - [[President of Poland|Polish president]] [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] nominates [[Solidarity]] activist [[Tadeusz Mazowiecki]] to be the first non-communist [[Prime Minister]] in 42 years.
*[[1990]] - [[Leonard Bernstein]] conducts his final concert, ending with [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'s [[Symphony No. 7 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 7]].
*[[1991]] - Soviet Union President [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] is overthrown by a coup. This leads to the fall of the [[Soviet Union]]
*[[1999]] - In [[Belgrade]], tens of thousands of [[Serbia]]ns rally to demand the resignation of [[President of Yugoslavia|Federal Republic of Yugoslavia President]] [[Slobodan Milošević]].
*[[2002]] - A [[Russia|Russian]] [[Mi-26]] [[helicopter]] carrying troops is hit by a [[Chechen]] [[missile]] outside of [[Grozny]], killing 118 soldiers.
*[[2003]] - A car-bomb attack on [[UN]] headquarters in [[Iraq]] kills the agency's top envoy [[Sergio Vieira de Mello]] and 21 other employers.
*[[2005]] - The first-ever joint military exercise between [[Russia]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]], called [[Peace Mission 2005]] begins.
==Births==
*[[1398]] - [[Iñigo López de Mendoza|Marqués de Santillana]], Spanish poet (d. [[1458]])
*[[1557]] - [[Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg]] (d. [[1608]])
*[[1590]] - [[Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland]], English soldier (d. [[1649]])
*[[1596]] - [[Elizabeth of Bohemia]] (d. [[1662]])
*[[1621]] - [[Gerbrand van den Eeckhout]], Dutch painter (d. [[1674]])
*[[1631]] - [[John Dryden]], English poet (d. [[1700]])
*[[1646]] - [[John Flamsteed]], English astronomer (d. [[1719]])
*[[1686]] - [[Eustace Budgell]], English writer (d. [[1737]])
*1686 - [[Nicola Porpora]], Italian composer (d. [[1768]])
*[[1689]] - [[Samuel Richardson]], English writer (d. [[1761]])
*[[1711]] - [[Edward Boscawen]], British admiral (d. [[1761]])
*[[1743]] - [[Madame du Barry]], French courtesan (d. [[1793]])
*[[1870]] - [[Bernard Baruch]], American financier (d. [[1965]])
*[[1871]] - [[Orville Wright]], American aviation pioneer (d. [[1948]])
*[[1875]] - [[Stjepan Seljan]], Croatian explorer (d. [[1936]])
*[[1878]] - [[Manuel Quezon]], President of the Philippines (d. [[1944]])
*[[1881]] - [[Georges Enescu]], Romanian composer (d. [[1955]])
*[[1883]] - [[Coco Chanel]], French clothing designer (d. [[1971]])
*1883 - [[Elsie Ferguson]], American film actress (d. [[1961]])
*[[1892]] - [[Alfred Lunt]], American actor (d. [[1977]])
*[[1896]] - [[Olga Baclanova]], Russian-born actress (d. [[1974]])
*[[1902]] - [[Ogden Nash]], American poet (d. [[1971]])
*[[1906]] - [[Philo T. Farnsworth]], American inventor and television pioneer (d. [[1971]])
*[[1907]] - [[Thurston Ballard Morton|Thurston B. Morton]], American politician (d. [[1982]])
*[[1913]] - [[Richard Simmons (actor)|Richard Simmons]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1914]] - [[Lajos Baróti]], Hungarian footballer and coach (d. [[2005]])
*[[1915]] - [[Ring Lardner, Jr.]], American actor and screenwriter (d. [[2000]])
*[[1919]] - [[Malcolm Forbes]], American publisher (d. [[1990]])
*[[1921]] - [[Gene Roddenberry]], American television producer (d. [[1991]])
*[[1925]] - [[Claude Gauvreau]], Canadian playwright, poet, and polemicist (d. [[1971]])
*[[1926]] - [[Arthur Rock]], American venture capitalist
*[[1930]] - [[Frank McCourt (author)|Frank McCourt]], Irish-born author
*[[1931]] - [[Willie Shoemaker]], American jockey (d. [[2003]])
*[[1935]] - [[Bobby Richardson]], baseball player
*[[1938]] - [[Diana Muldaur]], American actress, dog breeder, and dog judge
*[[1939]] - [[Ginger Baker]], English musician
*[[1940]] - [[Johnny Nash]], American singer
*1940 - [[Jill St. John]], American actress
*[[1942]] - [[Fred Dalton Thompson]], U.S. Senator from Tennessee and actor
*[[1944]] - [[Charles B. Wang]], Chinese-born philanthropist
*[[1945]] - [[Ian Gillan]], English singer
*[[1946]] - [[Bill Clinton]], 42nd [[President of the United States]]
*1946 - [[Beat Raaflaub]], Swiss conductor
*[[1947]] - [[Gerard Schwarz]], American conductor
*[[1948]] - [[Tipper Gore]], [[Second Lady of the United States]]
*[[1950]] - [[Jennie Bond]], British journalist
*[[1951]] - [[John Deacon]], English musician ([[Queen (band)|Queen]])
*[[1952]] - [[Jonathan Frakes]], American actor and director
*[[1955]] - [[Peter Gallagher]], American actor
*[[1956]] - [[Adam Arkin]], American actor
*[[1958]] - [[Anthony Muñoz]], American football player
*[[1960]] - [[Morten Andersen]], American football player
*[[1963]] - [[John Stamos]], American actor
*1963 - [[Joey Tempest]], Swedish singer ([[Europe (band)|Europe]])
*[[1964]] - [[Whitney Prescott]], American fetish model
*[[1965]] - [[Kyra Sedgwick]], American actress
*[[1966]] - [[Lee Ann Womack]], American musician
*[[1969]] - [[Matthew Perry (actor)|Matthew Perry]], American actor
*[[1973]] - Crown Princess [[Mette Marit]] of Norway
*1973 - [[Callum Blue]], British actor
*[[1979]] - [[David Douglas (musician)|David Douglas]] American drummer ([[Relient K]])
*[[1980]] - [[Darius Danesh]], Scottish singer
*[[1982]] - [[Erika Christensen]], American actress
*[[1983]] - [[Tammin Sursok]], Australian actress
==Deaths==
*[[14]] - [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[63 BC]])
*[[1186]] - [[Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1158]])
*[[1245]] - [[Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence]] (b. [[1195]])
*[[1284]] - [[Alphonso, Earl of Chester]], son of [[Edward I of England]] (b. [[1273]])
*[[1297]] - [[Saint Louis of Toulouse]], French Catholic bishop (b. [[1274]])
*[[1493]] - [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1415]])
*[[1580]] - [[Andrea Palladio]], Italian architect (b. [[1508]])
*[[1646]] - [[Alexander Henderson (theologian)|Alexander Henderson]], Scottish theologian
*[[1662]] - [[Blaise Pascal]], French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher (b. [[1623]])
*[[1753]] - [[Balthasar Neumann]], German architect (b. [[1687]])
*[[1819]] - [[James Watt]], Scottish inventor (b. [[1736]])
*[[1822]] - [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre]], French mathematician (b. [[1749]])
*[[1872]] - King [[Charles XV of Sweden|Charles XV]] / [[Charles XV of Sweden|Carl IV]] of Sweden and Norway (b. [[1826]])
*[[1889]] - [[Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam]], French writer (b. [[1838]])
*[[1895]] - [[John Wesley Hardin]], American gunfighter (b. [[1853]])
*[[1923]] - [[Vilfredo Pareto]], Italian sociologist and economist (b. [[1845]])
*[[1929]] - [[Sergei Diaghilev]], Russian ballet impresario (b. [[1872]])
*[[1936]] - [[Federico García Lorca]], Spanish author (b. [[1898]])
*[[1950]] - [[Giovanni Giorgi]], Italian physicist (b. [[1871]])
*[[1954]] - [[Alcide De Gasperi]], [[Prime Minister |
nk.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Donald Rumsfeld]]
As part of the Ford administration, Rumsfeld helped formulate the [[White House]] response to the death of [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] scientist [[Frank Olson]].
In 1976, a military recruit in New Jersey died from a flu that experts speculated might be the "[[swine flu]]". At Rumsfeld's urging, the Ford administration quickly produced and distributed large number of doses of the vaccine. However, some batches were contaminated and 52 people died while 600 fell ill. The program was stopped and nobody got swine flu.
In 1977, Rumsfeld was awarded the nation's highest civilian award, the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]].
=== Private career ===
From 1977 to [[1985]] Rumsfeld served as Chief Executive Officer, President, and then Chairman of [[Searle (company)|G.D. Searle & Company]], a worldwide pharmaceutical company whose products included, among others, the oral contraceptive pill Enovid. It was under Rumsfeld that Searle got [[FDA]] approval for the [[artificial sweetener debate|controversial]] [[artificial sweetener]], [[aspartame]], which it marketed as NutraSweet. Some believe that the approval of aspartame was influenced by conflict of interest and that persons involved in the aspartame approval process were rewarded with high paying jobs or consulting positions. During his tenure at Searle, Rumsfeld led a financial turnaround of the company that earned him awards as the Outstanding Chief Executive Officer in the Pharmaceutical Industry from the ''Wall Street Transcript'' (1980) and ''Financial World'' (1981). Rumsfeld is believed to have earned around US$12 million from the sale of Searle to [[Monsanto]].
From 1985 to 1990 he was in private business. During his business career, Rumsfeld continued public service in a variety of posts, including:
[[Image:Rumsfeld and Giuliani at Ground Zero.jpg|300px|thumb|Rumsfeld and [[New York City|New York]] [[Mayor]] [[Rudy Giuliani]] speak at the site of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|World Trade Center disaster]] in [[lower Manhattan]], on [[November 14]], [[2001]].]]
*Member of the President's General Advisory Committee on Arms Control - Reagan Administration (1982 - 1986);
*President Reagan's Special Envoy on the Law of the Sea Treaty (1982 - 1983);
*Senior Advisor to President Reagan's Panel on Strategic Systems (1983 - 1984);
*Member of the U.S. Joint Advisory Commission on U.S./Japan Relations - Reagan Administration (1983 - 1984);
*President Reagan's Special Envoy to the Middle East (1983 - 1984);
*Member of the National Commission on the Public Service (1987 - 1990);
*Member of the National Economic Commission (1988 - 1989);
*Member of the Board of Visitors of the National Defense University (1988 - 1992);
*Member of the Commission on U.S./[[Japan]] Relations (1989 - 1991);
*Member of the Board of Directors for ABB Ltd (1990 - 2001);
*[[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]]'s High Definition Television Advisory Committee (1992 - 1993);
*Chairman, Commission on the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States (1998 - 1999);
*Member of the U.S. Trade Deficit Review Commission (1999 - 2000);
*Member of the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) and
*Chairman of the U.S. Commission to Assess National Security Space Management and Organization (2000).
[[Image:Donald saddam.jpg|150px|frame|Rumsfeld, at the time [[Ronald Reagan]]'s special envoy to the [[Middle East]], meeting with Saddam Hussein during a visit to [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]] in [[1983]]. Video frame capture, see the [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/ complete video here] ]]
Rumsfeld served as Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of [[General Instrument Corporation]] from 1990 to 1993. A leader in broadband transmission, distribution, and access control technologies for cable, satellite and terrestrial broadcasting applications, the company pioneered the development of the first all-digital high definition television (HDTV) technology. After taking the company public and returning it to profitability, Rumsfeld returned to private business in late 1993. From January 1997 until being sworn in as the 21st Secretary of Defense in January 2001, Rumsfeld served as Chairman of [[Gilead Sciences]], Inc. He was also chair of the [[RAND|RAND Corporation]].
Rumsfeld sat on the board of [[Asea Brown Boveri|ABB]], a European engineering giant based in Zurich from 1990 to 2001, earning $190,000 a year. In 2000 this company sold two light water nuclear reactors to North Korea, a country he now regards as part of the "axis of evil" and which has been targeted for regime change by Washington because of its efforts to build nuclear weapons.
The sale of the nuclear technology was a high-profile contract. ABB's then chief executive, Goran Lindahl, visited North Korea in November 1999 to announce ABB's "wide-ranging, long-term cooperation agreement" with the communist government. Mr Rumsfeld's office said that the Secretary of Defense did not "recall it being brought before the board at any time". A spokesman for ABB told the Guardian that "board members were informed about the project which would deliver systems and equipment for light water reactors".
=== Reagan Administration ===
During his period as [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan's]] Special Envoy to the Middle East (11/83-5/84), Rumsfeld was the main conduit for crucial American military intelligence, hardware and strategic advice to Saddam Hussein, then fighting Iran in the [[Iran-Iraq war]]. During this period, US policy supported Iraq, believing it to be a useful buffer against Iran's new religious government, although the United States had originally been hesitant to work with a Soviet client state. When he visited on December 19-20, 1983, he and [[Saddam Hussein]] had a 90 minute discussion which covered [[Syria]]'s occupation of [[Lebanon]], preventing Syrian and Iranian expansion, preventing arms sales to Iran by foreign countries, increasing Iraqi oil production via a possible new oil pipeline across Jordan. Not mentioned was [[Iraq and weapons of mass destruction|Iraqi production and use of chemical weapons]]. The Iranian government had cited several Iraqi air and ground chemical weapons attacks in the preceding two months, and the Iranian news agency had reported the use of chemical weapons as early as 1981. The US State Department first condemned the use of chemical weapons in the war on [[March 5]], [[1984]], two days before the [[ICRC]] confirmed Iranian allegations.
During his bid for the Republican nomination in 1988, Rumsfeld stated that restoring full relations to Iraq was one of his best achievements.
Rumsfeld's civic activities included service as a member of the National Academy of Public Administration and a member of the boards of trustees of the Gerald R. Ford Foundation, the Eisenhower Exchange Fellowships, the [[Hoover Institution]] at [[Stanford University]], and the National Park Foundation. He was also a member of the U.S./Russia Business Forum and Chairman of the Congressional Leadership's National Security Advisory Group.
[[Image:RicePowellBushRumsfeld.jpg|thumb|300px|Rumsfeld, then-National Security Advisor [[Condoleezza Rice]], and then-Secretary of State [[Colin Powell]] listen to President [[George W. Bush]] speak.]]
Rumsfeld was a founder and active member of the [[Project for the New American Century]], whose goal is to "promote American global leadership" and which in September 2000 [[2003 invasion of Iraq|proposed to invade Iraq]]. He signed the 1998 [http://www.theindyvoice.com/index.blog?entry_id=417960 PNAC Letter] sent to President [[Bill Clinton]] advocating the use of force in Iraq to "protect our vital interests in the gulf".
=== George W. Bush Administration ===
Appointed defense secretary soon after President [[George W. Bush]] took office in 2001, Rumsfeld immediately announced a series of sweeping reviews intended to plot the transformation of the U.S. military into a lighter, more nimble force. These studies, led by Pentagon analyst [[Andrew Marshall (foreign policy strategist)|Andrew Marshall]], drew widespread resistance from the military services and members of Congress, who worried that Rumsfeld would cancel pet projects. (Eventually, he succeeded in killing the Army's [[XM2001 Crusader|Crusader]] howitzer and its [[RAH-66 Comanche|Comanche]] armed scout helicopter.) Media reports in the summer of 2001 ran under headlines like "Will Rumsfeld Be The First Of Bush's Cabinet To Go?"
[[Image:rumsfeld and cheney.jpg|thumb|300px|Donald Rumsfeld with [[Dick Cheney]]]]
Following the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, Rumsfeld led the military planning and execution of the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] and the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. Rumsfeld pushed hard to send as small a force as possible to both conflicts, a concept codified as the [[Rumsfeld doctrine]].
Rumsfeld's plan resulted in a lightning invasion that took Baghdad in well under a month with very few American casualties. There were almost no preparations for the occupation of Iraq that followed. Many government buildings, plus major museums, electrical generation infrastructure, and even oil equipment were looted and vandalized during the transition from the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime to the establishment of the [[Coalition Provisional Authority]]. Critics further complained that there was no plan to deal with the existing Iraqi armed forces. They were disbanded, leaving hundreds of thousands of armed and unemployed men in the country. A violent insurrection began shortly after the occupation started.
After the German and [[France|French]] governments voiced opposition to invading Iraq, Rumsfeld labeled these countries as part of "[[Old Europe]]", implying that countries which supported the war were part of a newer, modern Europe.
[[Image:Rumsfeld Isaias Afewerki.jpg|thumb|300px|Don |
ivisions, each of which offer several degree programs, as well as a number of interdisciplinary programs.
* '''Division of [[Biology]]'''
* '''Division of [[Chemistry]] and [[Chemical Engineering]]'''
** Chemistry
** Chemical Engineering
* '''Division of [[Engineering]] and Applied Science'''
** [[Aeronautics]] (GALCIT)
** [[Applied mathematics|Applied & Computational Mathematics]]
** Applied [[Mechanics]]
** [[Civil Engineering]]
** [[Computer Science]]
** [[Electrical Engineering]]
** [[Materials Science]]
** [[Mechanical Engineering]]
* '''Division of [[Geology|Geological]] and [[Planetary science|Planetary]] Sciences'''
** Geology
** Geobiology
** [[Geophysics]]
** [[Planetary science]]
* '''Division of [[Humanities]] and [[Social Sciences]]
** Humanities
*** [[History]]
*** [[English language]]
*** [[History of science|History]] and [[Philosophy of science|Philosophy of Science]]
** Social Sciences
*** [[Economics]]
*** Business Economics and [[Management]]
*** Social science
* '''Division of [[Physics]], [[Mathematics]], and [[Astronomy]]
** Physics
** Mathematics
** Astronomy
* [[Applied Physics]]
* [[Biochemistry]]
* [[Bioengineering]]
* [[Biophysics]]
* Computation & Neural Systems
* [[Control theory|Control]] & [[Dynamical system|Dynamical Systems]]
* [[Environmental Science]] & Engineering
* [[Geobiology]] & [[Astrobiology]]
* [[Geochemistry]]
* [[Planetary science]]
Not all of these are offered for both undergraduate and graduate students.
===Undergraduate program===
Caltech is on the [[academic term|quarter system]], meaning that students have one quarter before winter break and two quarters after. Thus, the college starts relatively late, in late September, and ends in early June rather than May like most colleges. Also, Caltech is unusual in that students normally take five classes every term rather than four as at most colleges. Instead of majors Caltech has "options" while offering only one minor in Control and Dynamical Systems (CDS). Approximately 10% of students double-major in two options. This is achievable since the humanities and social sciences majors have been designed to be done in conjunction with a science major. Although double-majoring in two options in the same division is technically discouraged, it is still possible although those who seek to do so usually need to be exceptionally bright. The double major of math and physics is generally thought to be so hard that it is comically referred to as the plan of naive freshmen who do not yet understand the difficulty of Caltech academics.
Caltech is known for a rigorous math and science [[core curriculum]]. Students are expected to take five quarters of core math, including [[differential equations]] and [[probability]] and [[statistics]], five quarters of core physics including [[quantum mechanics]], [[special relativity]], and [[statistical mechanics]], two quarters of chemistry, and a quarter of biology, as well as two quarters of laboratory classes.
Despite the high pressure of academics, few students fail classes or fail out of the school as a whole, although the option of transferring out is a running joke. This is due to several cushions that help students survive. First of all, the first two quarters during freshman year are on a pass/fail grading scheme, easing the transition to college. During the second quarter, "shadow grades" are given, but during the first, there are no grades at all. Second, there is little competition and collaboration on [[homework]] is encouraged (and often necessary for success) in almost every class. This allows even students who are not doing as well as others to learn the material and not get behind in their studies. In addition, students often request extensions on homework due dates and use many other strategies to help learn the material and handle the stress of Caltech life.
Caltech usually has the lowest four-year graduation rate among the leading US universities. This is despite the fact that entering students have consistently higher average test scores ([[SAT]] 1 and 2) than any other school in the major [[college and university rankings|college rankings]]. Reasons for this include the fact that Caltech does not believe in grade inflation and has a smaller percentage of students who graduate with honors than in the Ivy League. So, Caltech does not rush students through and try to inflate student egos in hopes of greater alumni donations down the road. And of course, its Core is required for all majors. Consequently, Caltech's graduation rates are comparatively low. Of greater note, in 2005, Princeton Review rated Caltech #1 for Worst Teaching. This statistic comes from polls of students in universities across the nation. While this rating was distressing to the administration, it was not particularly surprising to undergraduates who often feel abandoned in the classroom in favor of the professor's research. Caltech students do encounter good classes with wonderful professors. The required courses are often taught by distinguished researchers who are not necessarily good teachers. However, the situation has improved greatly over the last few decades and many more students now graduate (>85% yield) than in previous years (when a third of the entering freshmen either transferred or flunked out).
Undergraduates at Caltech are also encouraged to participate in [[research]]. Most students do research through the annual [http://surf.caltech.edu/ Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowships (SURF)] program at least once during their stay, and many continue it during the school year. Students write and submit SURF proposals for research projects in collaboration with professors, and about 70% of applicants are awarded SURFs. The program is open to both Caltech and non-Caltech undergraduate students. It serves as good preparation for graduate school and helps to explain why Caltech has the highest percentage of alumni who go on to receive a Phd of all the major universities.
==Student life==
===House system===
''See main article: [[House System at Caltech]]''
During the early [[20th century]], a Caltech committee visited several universities and decided to transform the [[undergraduate]] housing system from regular [[fraternities and sororities|fraternities]] to a [[House System]], similar to the [[residential college|residential college system]] of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]. Four south houses (or ''hovses'', so named for the inscription on the gates thereof) were built: Blacker House, Dabney House, Fleming House, and Ricketts House. In the [[1960s]], three north houses were built: Lloyd House, Page House, and Ruddock House. During the [[1990s]], an additional house, [[Avery House]], was built to accommodate those who feel the original seven houses were not suitable for them. Some students jocularly refer to the Undergraduate Computer Science Laboratory as another house, as a few spend most of their time there. The four south houses will be closed for renovation from [[2005]] to [[2007]].
=== Traditions===
[[Image:Beckman auditorium, Caltech.jpg|thumb|Beckman Auditorium]]
There are many annual [[tradition]]s at Caltech, demonstrating the weird and wonderful creativity of its inhabitants. Every [[Halloween]] Dabney House stages a [[pumpkin]] drop from the top of the Millikan Library, the highest point on campus. According to tradition, a claim was once made that the shattering of a pumpkin frozen in [[liquid nitrogen]] and dropped from a sufficient height would produce a spark. This yearly leads onlookers to try to spot the elusive spark.
There is also the annual Ditch Day, for which seniors ditch school, leaving behind elaborately designed tasks and traps at the doors of their rooms to prevent underclassmen from entering. This has evolved to the point where many seniors spend months designing mechanical, electrical, and software obstacles in order to confound the underclassmen. Each group of seniors designs a "stack" to be solved by handful of underclassmen. A series of clues, which leads to the solution of the puzzle, is left around campus to lead the students to their final reward, which lies within the sealed room. The faculty has been drawn into the event as well, and cancel all classes on Ditch Day so that the underclassmen can participate in what has become a highlight of the year.
Another tradition is the playing of the ''[[Ride of the Valkyries]]'' at 7 AM each morning during finals week with the largest, loudest speakers available. The playing of that piece is not allowed at any other time, and any offender is dragged into the showers to be drenched in cold water fully dressed. The playing of the ''Ride'' is such a strong tradition that when the music was used during [[Apollo 17]] to awaken Astronaut [[Harrison Schmitt]], the only astronaut-scientist to explore the moon, he became extremely stressed in the same manner as a student during finals week.
====Pranks====
[[Image:Caltech hollywood sign.jpg|thumb|right|Caltech Hollywood sign prank]]
Caltech students have been known for the many [[practical joke|prank]]s (also known as '''[[RF (practical joke)|RF]]'s''') they have pulled off in the area. The two most famous are the changing of the [[Hollywood]] sign to read Caltech, by judiciously covering up certain parts of the letters, and the changing of the [[Rose Bowl (stadium)|Rose Bowl]] scoreboard to an imaginary game where Caltech soundly trounced [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]. During the 1961 [[Rose Bowl Game#Trivia|Rose Bowl Game]], Caltech students altered the flip-cards that were raised by the stadium attendees to display "Caltech".
Recently, a group of Caltech students, during the admitted students program at MIT in 2005, pulled a [http://www.caltechvsmit.com/ string of pranks], including covering up the word Massachusett |
relation is difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions, and they remained mutually intelligible throughout the [[Migration period]], so that some individual dialects are difficult to classify.
The 6th century [[Lombardic language]], for instance, may constitute an originally either North or East Germanic dialect that became assimilated to West Germanic as the [[Lombards]] settled at the [[Elbe]]. The Western group would have formed in the late [[Pre-Roman Iron Age#Jastorf culture|Jastorf culture]], the Eastern group may be derived from the 1st century dialect of [[Gotland]] (see [[Old Gutnish]]), leaving southern [[Sweden]] as the original location of the Northern group . The earliest coherent Germanic text preserved is the 4th century [[Gothic language|Gothic]] translation of the [[New Testament]] by [[Ulfilas]]. Early testimonies of West Germanic are in [[Old High German]] and [[Old English language|Old English]] from about the 9th century. North Germanic is only attested in scattered runic inscriptions, as [[Proto-Norse]], until it evolves into [[Old Norse]] by about 800.
Longer runic inscriptions survive from the [[8th century|8th]] and [[9th century|9th]] centuries ([[Eggjum stone]], [[Rök stone]]), longer texts in the Latin alphabet survive from the 12th century ([[Íslendingabók]]), and some [[skaldic poetry]] held to date back to as early as the 9th century.
By about the 10th century, the dialects had diverged enough to make [[mutual intelligibility|intercomprehensibility]] difficult. The linguistic contact of the [[Viking]] settlers of the [[Danelaw]] with the [[Anglo-Saxon]]s left traces in the English language, and is suspected to have facilitated the collapse of Old English grammar that resulted in [[Middle English]] from the 12th century.
The East Germanic languages were marginalized from the end of the Migration period. The [[Burgundians]], [[Goths]] and [[Vandals]] became linguistically assimilated to their respective neighbors by about the 7th century, with only [[Crimean Gothic language|Crimean Gothic]] lingering on until the 18th century.
During the early Middle Ages, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of Middle English on one hand, and by the [[High German consonant shift]] on the continent on the other, resulting in [[Upper German]] and [[Low Germanic languages|Low German]], with graded intermediate [[Central German]] dialects. By Early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from [[Highest Alemannic German|Highest Alemannic]] in the South to [[Northern Low Saxon]] and [[Frisian language|Frisian]] in the North, and although both extremes are considered [[German language|German]], they are hardly mutually intelligible. The southern dialects have completed the second sound shift, but remained closer to the Middle German vowel system, while the northern dialects remained unaffected by the consonant shift, but simplified the vowel system.
The North Germanic languages, on the other hand, remained more unified, with the larger languages largely retaining mutual intelligibility into modern times.
==Classification==
Note that divisions between subfamilies of Germanic are rarely precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent [[dialect]]s being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not.
===Diachronic===
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
| rowspan=3 | [[Pre-Roman Iron Age|Iron Age]]<br><small>500 BC&ndash;AD 200</small>
| colspan=9 style="background: #ccc"| [[Proto-Germanic]]
|-
| colspan=2 | [[East Germanic]]
| colspan=6 | [[West Germanic]]
| rowspan=2 | [[North Germanic]]
|-
| colspan=6 | [[South Germanic]]
| colspan=2 | [[Anglo-Frisian]]
|-
|rowspan=2 | [[Migration period]]<br><small>AD 200&ndash;700</small>
| style="background: #aea; border-bottom: 1px solid #aea;" |[[Gothic language|Gothic]],
| colspan=2 style="background: #eeb"| [[Lombardic language|Lombardic]]
| style="background: #eca; border-bottom: 1px solid #eca;" | &nbsp;
|rowspan=2 style="background: #eba"| [[Old Frankish language|Old Frankish]]
|rowspan=3 style="background: #eba"| [[Old Saxon]]
|rowspan=4 style="background: #eab"| [[Old Frisian]]
|rowspan=3 style="background: #eab"| [[Old English]]
|rowspan=2 style="background: #aae"| [[Proto-Norse]]
|-
|colspan=2 style="background: #aea" | [[Vandalic language|Vandalic]], [[Burgundian|Burgundian]],
|colspan=2 rowspan=2 style="background: #eca"| [[Old High German]]
|-
| [[Early Middle Ages]]<br><small>700&ndash;1100</small>
| colspan=2 |
|style="background: #eba"| [[Old Low Franconian]]
|style="background: #99f"| [[Old Norse]]
|-
| [[Middle Ages]]<br><small>1100&ndash;1500</small>
|colspan=2 |
|colspan=2 style="background: #fc9"| [[Middle High German]]
|style="background: #fba"| [[Middle Dutch]]
|style="background: #fba"| [[Middle Low German]]
|style="background: #e9b" | [[Middle English]]
|style="background: #99f"| [[Old West Norse]], [[Old East Norse]]
|-
| [[Early Modern Age]]<br><small>1500&ndash;1700</small>
|colspan=2 style="background: #8f8" | [[Crimean Gothic]]
|colspan=2 style="background: #fb8" | [[Early Modern High German]]
|rowspan=2 style="background: #fb9"| [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian dialects]]
|rowspan=2 style="background: #fb9"| [[West Low German]], [[East Low German]]
|style="background: #fab"| [[Middle Frisian]]
|style="background: #e8b" | [[Early Modern English]]
|rowspan=2 style="background: #88f"| [[West Scandinavian]], [[East Scandinavian]]
|-
| [[Modern Age]]<br><small>1700 to present</small>
|colspan=2 | all extinct
|colspan=2 style="background: #fa7"| [[High Germanic languages|High Germanic dialects]]
| style="background: #faa"| [[Frisian language|Frisian dialects]]
|style="background: #f7b"| [[List of dialects of the English language|English dialects]], [[Scots language|Scots dialects]]
|}
'''Note¹:''' Although not clearly visible in the diachronic, [[Lombardic]] is also related to [[Old Saxon]].
''See the article on the [[Lombardic language]] for more information.''
'''Note²:''' [[Old Low Franconian]] is also (less strictly) known as [[Old Dutch]].
===Contemporary===
Mentioned here are only the principal or unusual contemporary dialects; individual articles linked to below contain larger family trees. For example, many Low German dialects are discussed on [[Low German]] besides just Northern Low Saxon and Plautdietsch.
* [[West Germanic languages]]
** [[High Germanic languages]]
*** [[German language|German]]
**** [[Central German]]
***** [[East Central German]]
***** [[Luxembourgish language|Luxembourgish]]
***** [[West Central German]]
****** [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] (spoken by the [[Amish]] and other groups in southeastern [[Pennsylvania]])
**** [[Upper German]]
***** [[Alemannic German]]
******[[Swabian German]], including [[Stuttgart]]
******[[Low Alemannic German]], including the area of [[Lake Constance]] and [[Basel German]]
******[[Alsatian language|Alsatian]]
******[[High Alemannic German]], including [[Zürich German]] and [[Bernese German]]
******[[Highest Alemannic German]], including the [[Bernese Oberland]] dialects and [[Walliser German]]
***** [[Austro-Bavarian German]]
******[[North Bavarian]] (including [[Nuremberg]])
******[[Middle Bavarian]] (including [[Munich]] and [[Viennese German|Vienna]])
******[[South Bavarian]] (including [[Innsbruck]], [[Klagenfurt]] and [[Bozen-Bolzano]], Italy)
****** [[Hutterite German]] (aka "Tirolean")
*** [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] (with a significant influx of vocabulary from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and other languages, and traditionally written in the [[Hebrew alphabet]])
*** [[Wymysojer]] (with a significant influence from [[Low German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Scots language|Scots]])
** [[Low German languages]]
*** [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]]
**** [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
**** [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
**** [[Limburgish language|Limburgish]] (considered to be highly developed dialect by most people, including native speakers.)
*** [[Low German]]
**** [[West Low German]]
***** [[Northern Low Saxon]]
****** [[East Frisian Low Saxon]]
***** [[Westphalian language]]
***** [[Eastphalian language]]
**** [[East Low German]]
***** [[Plautdietsch]] ([[Mennonite]] "Low German")
** [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
*** [[Frisian language|Frisian]]
**** [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]]
***** [[North Frisian language|Insular North Frisian]]
****** [[Sylt|Söl'ring]]
***** [[North Frisian language| Mainland North Frisian]]
**** [[East Frisian]]
***** [[Saterland|Saterland Frisian]]
**** [[West Frisian]]
***[[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
**** [[English language|English]]. Huge influx of [[Latin]]ate vocabulary, mostly via [[Norman language|Norman French]]. See [[List of dialects of the English language]].
**** [[Scots language|Scots]]
***** [[Insular Scots]]
***** [[Northern Scots]], including [[Doric dialect|Doric]]
***** [[Central Scots]]
***** [[Southern Scots]]
***** [[Ulster Scots language|Ulster Scots]]
***** [[Urban Scots]] (City dialects)
**** [[Yola language|Yola]]
* [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]]
** [[West Nordic]] (Insular)
*** [[Norwegian language|New Norwegian (''Nynorsk'')]] (disputed)
*** [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
*** [[Faroese language|Faroese]]
*** [[Norn language|Norn]] (Extinct)
** [[East Nordic]] (Continent |
service provider|ISP]] server, not material stored on an individual's own computer.
*[[2004]]: DirecTV v. Treworgy, 11th Circuit. EFF helped defend "smart card" technology owner Mike Treworgy after [[DirecTV]] sued him based on the fact that he purchased hardware that could be used to intercept the company's satellite TV signals. Treworgy prevailed in the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals, which found that [[DirecTV]] cannot sue individuals for "mere possession" of smart-card technology. In separate negotiations with [[DirecTV]], EFF succeeded in getting the company to drop its "guilt-by-purchase" litigation strategy altogether.
*[[April 19]], [[2004]]: Initiated the [[Patent Busting Project]] to challenge "illegitimate patents that suppress non-commercial and small business innovation or limit free expression online"
*May [[2004]] [[ACLU v. Ashcroft (2004)|Doe v. Ashcroft]]. Filed amicus supporting ACLU's challenge to the constitutionality of 18 U.S.C. § 2709, which authorizes the FBI to compel the production of subscriber and communications records in the possession of a broad range of ISPs, potentially covering billions of records from tens of thousands of entities. These demands, known as National Security Letters, were issued without judicial oversight of any kind, yet allowed the FBI to obtain a vast amount of constitutionally protected information. In September [[2004]], Judge Victor Marrero of the Southern District of New York issued a landmark decision striking down the NSL statute and the associated gag provision.
*August [[2004]]: [[Chamberlain v. Skylink]]. EFF helped defend Skylink in the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit|Federal Circuit]] that puts limits on the controversial "anti-circumvention" provision of the [[DMCA]]. Chamberlain, the manufacturer of garage doors, invoked the provision to stop Skylink from selling a "universal" remote control that works with Chamberlain garage doors. The court rejected Chamberlain's claims, noting that if it adopted the company's interpretation of the [[DMCA]], it would threaten many legitimate uses of software within electronic and computer products&mdash;something the law aims to protect.
*[[August 19]], [[2004]]: [http://www.eff.org/news/archives/2004_08.php#001833 defeat] in [http://www.eff.org/IP/P2P/MGM_v_Grokster/ MGM vs. Grokster]. [[Fred von Lohmann]] of EFF as lead counsel representing Streamcast Networks. EFF prevailed before the [[Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals]] with a decision affirming the "Betamax doctrine"&mdash;the rule following the Supreme Court's 1984 holding that a company that creates a technology cannot be held liable for copyright violations by users if the technology has substantial legal uses. The [[Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals]] ruled that neither were liable for infringements by people using their software to distribute copyrighted works. However, on [[June 27]], [[2005]] U.S. Supreme Court reversed, finding the defendants liable for copyright infringement, though the Court preserved the Betamax doctrine. Co-defendant Grokster eventually settled with MGM and disbanded the company.
*[[October 6]], [[2004]]: In cooperation with 8 other public interest organizations, submitted a [http://www.eff.org/news/archives/2004_10.php#001968 brief] challenging the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC's]] authority to impose the [[broadcast flag]] mandate, which was to go into effect during [[July 2005]].
*[[October 15]], [[2004]]: Successfully represented the nonprofit ISP Online Policy Group (OPG) and two Swarthmore College students who published major security flaws in [[Diebold Election Systems]] [[voting machine]]s. From the press release: "Diebold is the first company to be held liable for violating section 512(f) of the [[DMCA]]. which makes it unlawful to use [[DMCA]] takedown threats when the copyright holder knows that infringement has not actually occurred."
*[[2004]]: JibJab Media v. Ludlow Music, N.D. Cal. EFF successfully defended [[JibJab]], the creators of a parody flash animation piece using [[Woody Guthrie]]'s "[[This Land Is Your Land]]"&mdash;and uncovered evidence that the classic folk song is in fact already part of the [[public domain]].
*November [[2004]]: Filed brief opposing the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC's]] proposal to expand [[Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act|CALEA]] to broadband Internet access providers and [[VOIP]] systems.
*December [[2004]]: Started promoting and supporting [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]], a second generation Onion Routing network that allows people to communicate anonymously, through [http://tor.eff.org/ tor.eff.org]
*June [[2005]]: Issued a [http://www.eff.org/bloggers/lg/ Legal Guide for Bloggers], designed to be a basic roadmap to the legal issues one may confront as a blogger, to let bloggers know their rights.
*October [[2005]]: [http://www.eff.org/Privacy/printers/ investigated and documented] how the Xerox [[DocuColor]] printer's serial number, as well as the date and time of the printout, are encoded in a repeating 15×8 dot pattern in the yellow channel on printed pages. [[EFF]] is working to reverse engineer [http://www.eff.org/Privacy/printers/list.php additional printers].
* November [[2005]]: EFF, along with two leading national class action law firms, filed suit against [[Sony BMG Music Entertainment]], demanding that the company repair the damage done by the [[First4Internet]] [[XCP]] and [[SunnComm]] [[MediaMax]] software it included on over 24 million music CDs. See generally the [[2005 Sony CD copy protection controversy]].
==See also==
*[[Apple v. Does]]
*[[Electronic Frontier Canada]]
==Publications==
*[http://www.eff.org/effector/ EFFector]
*[http://www.eff.org/Net_culture/Net_info/EFF_Net_Guide/ EFF's Guide to the Internet]
*[http://www.eff.org/bloggers/lg/ Legal Guide for Bloggers]
==External links==
{{Wikinews|Interview: Danny O'Brien of the Electronic Frontier Foundation}}
*[http://www.eff.org Electronic Frontier Foundation official website]
*[http://www.eff.org/patent EFF Patent Busting project]
*[http://www.alternativefreedom.blogspot.com/ "Alternative Freedom" Documentary featuring EFF Attorney Jason Schultz]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Electronic+Frontier+Foundation | name=Electronic Frontier Foundation}}
*[http://www.weblogsky.com/technopolitics.htm "Technopolitics"], originally published in the Australian magazine [[21C]], tells the early history of EFF.
[[Category:Computer law]]
[[Category:Foundations]]
[[Category:Internet privacy]]
[[Category:Political advocacy groups in the United States]]
[[Category:Politics and technology]]
[[Category:Electronic advocacy]]
[[de:Electronic Frontier Foundation]]
[[fr:Electronic frontier foundation]]
[[ja:電子フロンティア財団]]
[[pl:Electronic Frontier Foundation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Explorer program</title>
<id>9917</id>
<revision>
<id>36769081</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T09:43:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Bringing "External links", "See also" and "Reference" sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the space exploration program. "Explorer program" may also refer to the [[file browser]] of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], called [[Windows Explorer]].''
The '''Explorer program''' was the [[United States]]'s first successful attempt to launch an [[satellite|artificial satellite]] . It began as a [[U.S. Army]] proposal to place a scientific satellite into [[orbit]] during the [[International Geophysical Year]]. That proposal was rejected in favor of the U.S. Navy's [[Project Vanguard]]. It was revived as a [[crash program]] to catch up with the [[Soviet Union]] after that nation's launch of [[Sputnik I]] on [[October 4]], [[1957]]. (''See:'' [[Sputnik crisis]]) [[Explorer 1]] was launched [[January 31]] [[1958]]. Besides being the first U.S. satellite, it is known for discovering the [[Van Allen radiation belt]].
==Explorer at NASA==
The Explorer program was taken over by [[NASA]], which continued to use the name for [[unmanned space missions]].
Over the years, [[NASA]] has launched a series of "Explorer" [[spacecraft]] carrying a wide variety of scientific investigations. The list below identifies the 79 successful missions as of December 2004. As of this writing, Explorers 50 (IMP-8), 68-71, 73-74 and 77, 79-83 (SAMPEX, RXTE, FAST, ACE, TRACE, SWAS, FUSE, WMAP, RHESSI, CHIPSat, GALEX and SWIFT) are still operating.
NASA's Explorer spacecraft series not only is the longest running series of spacecraft, it has produced highly-durable, well-engineered spacecraft as well. Of the 79 successful Explorer missions depicted, fully five of them had had missions which lasted 10 or more years, the longest of which (IMP-8) has been operational for over 26 years now and still produces valuable information about the solar wind. NASA's [[International Ultraviolet Explorer|IUE]] spacecraft operated for 19 years and produced copious amounts of data for the astronomical community. The ISEE 3/ICE spacecraft operated for 14 years. As of March of 2000, of the ten operational Explorer missions, SNOE and TRACE have operated for about two years, ACE two and a half years, FAST for about three and a half, RXTE for over four, EUVE and SAMPEX for nearly eight, and IMP 8 for more than 26. SWAS has been operational for slightly more than one year, having been launched in early December 1998.
==Mission History==
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"
|+ '''Explorer Missions'''
|-
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tle=Systemaattinen johdatus kasvatustieteeseen
| publisher=otava
| year=2002
| id=ISBN 951-1-18439-3
}}
== External links ==
{{Template:Sisterlinks|Education}}
*[http://www.edu-cyberpg.com Educational CyberPlayGround Portal] offers K12 education research, products, and services.
* [http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked WikEd] is a [[MediaWiki]] set up specificially for educators and education research.
* [http://www.my-education-data.info/education.html Education articles]
* [http://www.lifeofflorida.org/ Learning is For Everyone, Inc.]And Education Resource Organization Supporting Family Choice in Learning
* [http://www.thememoryhole.org/edu/school-mission.htm "The Educational System Was Designed to Keep Us Uneducated and Docile"] Evidence for the intentionally flawed design of the American educational system.
* [http://www.WestEd.org/ WestEd] - Education research, products, and services
* [http://www.publicforuminstitute.org/issues/education/index.htm Education Issues Page]
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-08 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Education
* [http://www.onlinedegreesguide.us Online Degrees Guide] - Online Degrees Guide for Bachelors and Associate and Diplomas from US and Canandian Universities.
* [http://www.alexander-tech.com/children.html How the Alexander Technique can help children during their education]
* [http://www.opencourse.info/ Open Course Info] — Freely-available course materials
* [http://www.infed.org/ The Encyclopedia of Informal Education]
* [http://ceh.kitoba.com/mechanism/education1.html The Failures of American Education]
* [http://gsociology.icaap.org/ The Global Social Change Research Project] has links to data about global education trends.
* [http://nakedking.org/education.php Education Interfering with Learning]
* [http://www.european-agency.org/index.html European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education]
* [http://www.indiansaga.info/history/golden_education.html Higher education - Ancient India]
* [http://www.educampus.com Education News]
* [http://tip.psychology.org/ The Theory Into Practice Database]
* [http://parent-involvement-in-schools.com/ Parent Involvement in Schools]
* [http://lists.repec.org/mailman/listinfo/nep-hrm New papers and articles on education and human Capital] a free Newsletter edited by the RePEc academic Project
* [http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=42809 Education in Judaism]
{{Education}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Encyclopedia</title>
<id>9253</id>
<revision>
<id>42015733</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:57:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stbalbach</username>
<id>87883</id>
</contributor>
<comment>americans use it to</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brockhaus Lexikon.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Brockhaus Konversations-Lexikon, 1902]]
An '''encyclopedia''' (alternatively '''encyclopaedia''') is a written [[compendium]] of [[knowledge]]. The term comes from the [[Ancient Greek|Classical Greek]] {{polytonic|ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία}} (''enkuklios paideia''), literally "a rounded education." Some encyclopedias are titled '''cyclopaedia''', a now somewhat archaic form of the word. For a list of notable encyclopedias in history, see ''[[list of encyclopedias]]''.
==General definition==
[[Image:Ad Encyclopaedia-Britannica 05-1913.jpg|thumb|300px|right|1913 advertisement for [[Encyclopædia Britannica]].]]
Four major elements define an encyclopedia: its subject matter, its scope, its method of organization, and its method of production.
*Encyclopedias can be general, containing articles on topics in many different fields (the [[English language|English-language]] ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' and [[German language|German]] ''[[Brockhaus encyclopedia|Brockhaus]]'' are well-known examples), or they can specialize in a particular field (such as an encyclopedia of [[medicine]], [[philosophy]], or [[law]]). There are also encyclopedias that cover a wide variety of topics from a particular cultural, ethnic, or national perspective, such as the ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'' or ''[[Encyclopaedia Judaica]]''.
*Works of encyclopedic scope aim to convey the important accumulated knowledge for their subject domain. Such works have been envisioned and attempted throughout much of human history, but the term ''encyclopedia'' was first used to refer to such works in the [[16th century]]. The first general encyclopedias that succeeded in being both authoritative as well as encyclopedic in scope appeared in the [[18th century]]. Every encyclopedic work is, of course, an abridged version of all knowledge, and works vary in the breadth of material and the depth of discussion. The target audience may influence the scope; a children's encyclopedia will be narrower than one for adults.
*Some systematic method of organization is essential to making an encyclopedia usable as a work of reference. There have historically been two main methods of organizing printed encyclopedias: the [[alphabetical order|alphabetical]] method (consisting of a number of separate articles, organised in alphabetical order), or organization by [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] categories. The former method is today the most common by far, especially for general works. The fluidity of electronic media, however, allows new possibilities for multiple methods of organization of the same content. Further, electronic media offer previously unimaginable capabilities for search, indexing and cross reference. The epigraph from [[Horace]] on the title page of the 18th-century ''Encyclopédie'' suggests the importance of the structure of an encyclopedia: "What grace may be added to commonplace matters by the power of order and connection."
*As modern multimedia and the information age has evolved, they have had an ever-increasing effect on the collection, verification, summation, and presention of information of all kinds. Projects such as [[h2g2]] and [[Wikipedia]] are examples of new forms of the encyclopedia as information retrieval becomes more simple.
The encyclopedia as we recognize it today developed from the [[dictionary]] in the 18th century. A dictionary is primarily focused on words and their definition, and typically provides limited information, analysis or background for the word defined. While it may offer a definition, it may leave the reader still lacking in understanding the meaning or import of a term, and how the term relates to a broader field of knowledge.
To address those needs, an encyclopedia seeks to discuss each subject in more depth and convey the most relevant accumulated knowledge on that subject, given the overall length of the particular work. An encyclopedia also often includes many maps and illustrations, as well as bibliography and statistics.
Some works titled "dictionaries" are actually more similar to encyclopedias, especially those concerned with a particular field (such as the ''[[Dictionary of the Middle Ages]]'', the ''[[Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships]]'', and ''[[Black's Law Dictionary]]''). The ''[[Macquarie Dictionary]]'', [[Australia]]'s national dictionary, became an [[encyclopedic dictionary]] after its first edition in recognition of the use of proper nouns in common communication, and the words derived from such proper nouns.
==Early encyclopedic works==
The idea of collecting all of the world's knowledge into a single work was an elusive vision for centuries. Many writers of antiquity (such as [[Aristotle]]) attempted to write comprehensively about all human knowledge. One of the most significant of these early encyclopedists was [[Pliny the Elder]] (first century CE), who wrote the [[Naturalis Historia]] (Natural History), a 37-volume account of the natural world that was extremely popular in western Europe for much of the Middle Ages.
The first Christian encyclopedia was [[Cassiodorus]]' ''Institutiones'' (560 CE) which inspired St. [[Isidore of Seville]]'s ''[[Etymologiae]]'' (636) which became the most influential encyclopedia of the [[Early Middle Ages]]. The ''[[Bibliotheca (Photius)|Bibliotheca]]'' by the [[Patriarch]] [[Photius]] (9th century) was the earliest [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] work that could be called an encyclopedia. [[Bartholomeus de Glanvilla]]'s ''De proprietatibus rerum'' (1240) was the most widely read and quoted encyclopedia in the [[High Middle Ages]] while [[Vincent of Beauvais]]'s ''Speculum Majus'' (1260) was the most ambitious encyclopedia in the late-medieval period at over 3 million words.
The [[Early Muslim philosophy|early Muslim compilations of knowledge]] in the middle ages included many comprehensive works, and much development of what we now call [[scientific method]], [[historical method]], and [[citation]]. Notable works include [[Razi|Abu Bakr al-Razi]]'s encyclopedia of science, the [[Mutazilite]] [[Al-Kindi]]'s prolific output of 270 books, a |
were transferred to Cusco when the Kingdom of [[Chimor]] was incorporated into the empire. Unlike the Chimú, the Inca do not seem to have regarded metals to be as precious as fine cloth. When the Spanish first encountered the Inca they were offered gifts of ''qunpi'' cloth.
=== Education ===
[[Image:Quipu.png|thumb|200px|Representation of an Incan quipu]]
''Main article: [[Inca education]]''
The Inca used [[quipu]], knotted cords, for accounting and census purposes. Most of the information on the quipus has been shown to be numeric data; some numbers seem to have been used as mnemonic labels, and the color, spacing, and structure of the quipu carried information as well. Since it isn't known how to interpret the coded or non-numeric data, some scholars still hope to find that the quipu recorded language.
Like the [[Aztec]], they also depended largely on oral transmission as a means of maintaining the preservation of their culture. Inca education was divided into two distinct categories: vocational education for common Inca and highly formalized training for the nobility.
=== Religion ===
''Main article: [[Inca religion]]''
''Other article: [[Inca mythology]]''
The [[Tahuantinsuyu, Religion|Incan religion]] was polytheistic (sun god, earth goddess, corn god, etc.). Subjects of the empire were allowed to worship their ancestral gods as long as they accepted the supremacy of [[Inti]], the sun god, which was the most important god worshipped by the Inca leadership. Consequently, [[ayllu]]s (extended families) and [[city-state]]s integrated into the empire were able to continue to worship their ancestral gods, though with reduced status.
Much of the contact between the upper and lower classes was religious in nature and consisted of intricate ceremonies that sometimes lasted from sunrise to sunset.
=== Medicine ===
The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful [[Trephinning in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica|skull surgery]], which involved cutting holes in the skull to release pressure from head wounds. [[Coca]] leaves were used to lessen hunger and pain, as they still are in the Andes. The [[Chasqui]] (messengers) chewed coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire. Recent research by Erasmus University and Medical Center workers Sewbalak and Van Der Wijk showed that, contrary to popular belief, the Inca people were not addicted to coca. Another remedy was to cover boiled bark from a pepper tree and place it over a wound while still warm. The Inca also used guinea pigs not only for food but for a so-called well-working medicine.
=== Burial practices ===
The Inca believed in [[reincarnation]]. Those who obeyed the Incan moral code &mdash; ''ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella'' (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) &mdash; went to live in the Sun's warmth. Others spent their eternal days in the cold earth.
The Inca also believed in [[mummy|mummifying]] prominent personages. The mummies would be provided with an assortment of objects which were to be taken into the [[pacarina]]. Upon reaching the pacarina, the mummies or [[mallqui]] would be able to converse with the area's other ancient ancestors, the [[huacas]]. The mallquis were also used in various rituals or celebrations. The deceased were generally buried in a sitting position. One such example was the 500-year-old mummy [[Mummy Juanita|"Juanita the Ice Maiden"]], a girl very well-preserved in ice that was discovered at 20,000 feet, near the summit of [[Mt. Ampato]] in Southern Peru. Her burial included many items left as offerings to the Inca gods.
=== Other practices ===
The Inca practiced '''cranial deformation'''. They achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their still-soft skulls. These deformations did not result in brain damage. Researchers from [http://www.fieldmuseum.org/machupicchu/ The Field Museum] believe that the practice was used to mark different ethnicities across the Inca Empire.[http://www.fieldmuseum.org/machupicchu/ongoing.html]
=== Food and farming ===
[[Image:Peruvian potatoes.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Around 200 varieties of Peruvian potatoes were all first cultivated by the Incas and their predecessors]]
It is estimated that the Inca cultivated around seventy crop species. The main crops were [[potato|potatoes]], [[sweet potato|sweet potatoes]], [[maize]], [[Chile pepper|chili peppers]], [[cotton]], [[tomato|tomatoes]], [[peanut|peanuts]], an edible root called [[oca]], and grains known as [[quinoa]] and [[amaranth]]. The many important crops developed by the Inca and preceding cultures makes South America one of the historic centers of crop diversity (along with the [[Middle East]], [[India]], [[Mesoamerica]], [[Ethiopia]], and the [[Far East]]). Many of these crops were widely distributed by the Spanish and are now important crops worldwide.
[[Image:Peruvian corn.jpg|thumb|200px|Many varieties of Peruvian maize (corn) were well-known to the Incas for centuries]]
The Inca cultivated food crops on dry Pacific coastlines, high on the slopes of the Andes, and in the lowland [[Amazon rainforest]]. In mountainous Andean environments, they made extensive use of [[Terrace (agriculture)|terraced]] fields which not only allowed them to put to use the mineral-rich mountain soil which other peoples left fallow, but also took advantage of micro-climates conducive to a variety of crops being cultivated throughout the year. Agricultural tools consisted mostly of simple [[digging stick]]s.
The Inca also raised [[llama]]s and [[alpaca]]s for their wool and meat and to use them as pack animals, and captured wild [[vicuña]]s for their fine hair.
The [[Inca road system]] was key to farming success as it allowed distribution of foodstuffs over long distances. The Inca also constructed vast storehouses, which allowed them to live through [[El Niño]] years in style while neighboring civilizations suffered.
Inca leaders kept records of what each ''ayllu'' in the empire produced, but did not tax them on their production. They instead used the ''mita'' for the support of the empire.
The Inca diet consisted primarily of fish and vegetables, supplemented less frequently with the meat of [[guinea pig|cuy]]es (guinea pigs) and camelids. In addition, they hunted various animals for meat, skins and feathers. Maize was used to make [[chicha]], a fermented [[beverage]].
<!--
=== Currency ===
Inca society was based on a [[barter]] system. Workers got labor credit, which was work paid for in goods or food. It was well used in their day. It was a very good system for their needs
W don't know this, we have yet to decipher their accounting system. But its very existence makes barter seem quaint; They may very well have had a credit based system. ...
[[User:Zenyu|Zenyu]] 18:42, Dec 7, 2004 (UTC) -->
== References in popular culture ==
* The Disney movie ''[[The Emperor's New Groove]]'' follows the adventures of a greedy emperor of a fictitious mountainous [[South American]] empire. While no direct reference is made to the Incas, the Emperor, Sun Symbols (signifying sun worship), architecture, [[fountain]]s, road/bridge system, and llamas as beast of burden are all indicative of the Incan Empire. Also, the Emperor's name is '''Kuzco''', an alternate spelling of Cuzco or Cusco, and the other main character, a wise farmer, is named '''Pacha''', which is Quechua for earth or land.
==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}} Before the official orthography, during the use of hispanic spellings, it was written as ''tahuantinsuyo''. See: [[Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift]]
*{{fnb|2}} '''Tawantin suyu''' derives from the Quechua "tawa" (''four'') , to which the sufix "-ntin" (''together'' or ''united'') is added, followed by "suyu" (''region'' or ''province''), which roughly renders as "''The land of the four parts together''".
== See also ==
* [[Cultural periods of Peru]]
* [[History of Peru]]
* [[Spanish conquest of Peru]]
* [[El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]]
* [[Guaman Poma | Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala]]
== References ==
* {{cite book
| title = Andean Worlds
| first = Kenneth | last = Andrien
| authorlink = Kenneth Andrien
| year = 2001
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Conquest of the Incas
| first = John | last = Hemming
| authorlink = John Hemming (explorer)
| year = 1970
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Art of the Andes, from Chavin to Inca
| first = Rebecca | last = Stone-Miller
| authorlink = Rebecca Stone-Miller
| year = 1995
}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.geocities.com/architecture_aztec_america/america_inca_1.htm Inca Architecture]
*[http://www.kb.dk/elib/mss/poma/ Nueva corónica y buen gobierno] by Guaman Poma (published 1615 CE)
*[http://www.kellscraft.com/IncaLand/incalandscontents.html Inca Land] by [[Hiram Bingham III|Hiram Bingham]] (published 1912-1922 CE)
*[http://www.jqjacobs.net/andes/tupac_amaru.html Tupac Amaru], the Life, Times, and Execution of the Last Inca.
*[http://www.destination360.com/peru/machu-picchu.php Inca Artifacts, Peru, and Machu Picchu] 360 degree movies of inca artifacts and peruvian landscapes.
*[http://www.lost-civilizations.net/ancient-civilizations.html Inca civilization] and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil.
*[http://www.davideandrea.com/personal/ideas/inca_stones/index.html Inca stone cutting techniques]: theory on how the Inca walls fit so perfectly.
*[http://www.projectshum.org/Ancient/inca.html Ancient Civilizations - Inca] Great research site for kids.
[[Category:Former countries in South America]]
[[Category:History of Peru]]
[[Category:History of South America]]
[[Category:Inca]]
[[Category:Pre-Columbian cultures]]
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people outside the UK, as does [[UK.TV]] in [[Australasia]]. BBC Worldwide also runs a 24-hour news channel, [[BBC World]]. In addition, BBC television news appears nightly on many [[Public Broadcasting Service]] stations in the [[United States]], as do reruns of BBC programmes from Lionheart TV.
BBC Worldwide also maintains the publishing arm of the BBC and it is the third-largest publisher of consumer magazines in the United Kingdom [http://www.bbcworldwide.com/aboutus/corpinfo/annualreps/review2001/Documents/Magazines.pdf]. BBC Magazines, formerly known as BBC Publications, publishes the ''[[Radio Times]]'' and a number of magazines that support BBC programming such as ''[[Top Gear|BBC Top Gear]]'', ''[[BBC Good Food]]'', and'' [[BBC Music]]''. In addition, BBC Worldwide acquired the independent magazine publisher Origin Publishing in 2004.
===Internet===
{{main|bbc.co.uk}}
The bbc.co.uk [http://www.bbc.co.uk/] [[website]], formerly BBCi and before that BBC Online, includes a comprehensive [[BBC News Online|news website]] and archive. It is the UK's most-visited digital destination with over 3 million web pages and that number is rising fast every day. According to [[Alexa Internet|Alexa]]'s TrafficRank system, in January 2006 bbc.co.uk was the 11th most popular [[English Language]] website in the world. (References: [http://www.alexa.com/site/ds/top_sites?ts_mode=global&lang=none Global Top 500 Sites] - [http://www.alexa.com/site/ds/top_sites?ts_mode=lang&lang=en Top English Language Sites])
The website allows the BBC to produce sections which complement the various programmes on television and radio, and it is common for viewers and listeners to be told [[Uniform Resource Locator|website addresses]] for the bbc.co.uk sections relating to that programme. The site also allows users to listen to most Radio output live and for seven days after broadcast using its [[RealPlayer]]-based "Radio Player"; some TV content is also distributed in [[RealVideo]] format. A new system known as [[Interactive Media Player|iMP]] is currently under development, which uses [[peer-to-peer]] and [[Digital rights management|DRM]] technology to deliver both radio and TV content for offline use for up to 7 days.
In recent years some major on-line companies and politicians have complained that the bbc.co.uk website receives too much funding from the television licence, meaning that other websites are unable to compete with the vast amount of advertising-free on-line content available on bbc.co.uk. Some have proposed that the amount of licence fee money spent on bbc.co.uk should be reduced &mdash; either being replaced with funding from advertisements or subscriptions, or a reduction in the amount of content available on the site. In response to this the BBC carried out an investigation, and has now set in motion a plan to change the way it provides its online services. bbc.co.uk will now attempt to fill in gaps in the market, but will guide users to other websites for currently existing market provision. (For example, instead of providing local events information and timetables, users will be guided to outside websites already providing that information.)
Part of this plan included the BBC closing some of its websites, and rediverting money to redevelop other parts.
===Interactive===
[[BBCi]] is the brand name for the BBC's [[Interactive television|interactive]] [[digital television]] services, which are available through [[Freeview]] (digital terrestrial), as well as [[Sky Digital]] (satellite) and (cable) [[NTL]] and [[Telewest]]. Unlike [[Ceefax]], BBCi is able to display full-colour graphics, photographs, and video, as well as eductional programs. Recent examples include the interactive sports coverage for [[football (soccer)|football]] and [[rugby football]] matches, [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0415069/ BBC Soundbites] which starred young actress [[Jennifer Lynn]] and an interactive national IQ test. All of the BBC's digital television stations, with the exception of [[BBC Parliament]] on [[digital television|digital satellite]], allow access to the BBCi service. However, the amount of content available on the digital television BBCi service does not currently match the amount available on Ceefax, which is still available on [[Analog television|analogue]] [[terrestrial television]].
BBCi provides viewers with over 120 interactive TV programmes every year, as well as the 24/7 service.
==Unencrypted satellite transmissions==
In March 2003 the BBC announced that from the end of May 2003 (subsequently deferred to [[14 July]]) it intended to transmit all eight of its domestic television channels (including the 15 regional variations of BBC 1) unencrypted from the [[Astra 2D]] satellite. This move was estimated to save the BBC £85 million over the next five years.
While the "footprint" of the Astra 2D satellite was smaller than that of Astra 2A, from which it was previously broadcast encrypted, it meant that viewers with appropriate equipment were able to receive BBC channels "free-to-air" over much of Western Europe. Consequently, some rights concerns have needed to be resolved with programme providers such as [[List of Hollywood movie studios|Hollywood studios]] and sporting organisations, which have expressed concern about the unencrypted signal leaking out. This led to some broadcasts being made unavailable on the [[Sky Digital]] platform, such as [[Scottish Premier League]] and [[Scottish Cup]] [[football (soccer)|football]], while on other platforms such broadcasts were not disrupted. Later, when rights contracts were renewed, this problem was resolved.
==References==
#Briggs, Asa. - '''''The BBC - The First Fifty Years''''' - Condensed version of the five-volume history by the same author. - Oxford University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-19-212971-6
#Coulton, Barbara. - '''''Louis MacNeice in the BBC''''' - Writer and producer from 1941 to 1961 in the Features Department of BBC radio. - Faber and Faber, 1980. ISBN 0-571-11537-3
#Gilder PhD., Eric. - '''''Mass Media Moments in the United Kingdom, the USSR and the USA'''''. - Historical background relating to the British Broadcasting Company, Ltd., its founding companies; their transatlantic connections; General Post Office licensing system; commercial competitors from Europe prior to World War II and offshore during the 1960s. - "Lucian Blaga" University of Sibiu Press, Romania. 2003. ISBN 973-651-596-6
#Milne, Alasdair. - '''''The memoirs of a British broadcaster''''' - History of the Zircon spy satellite affair, written by a former Director General of the BBC. A series of BBC radio programmes called "''The Secret Society''" led to a raid by police in both England and Scotland to seize documents as part of a government censorship campaign. - Coronet, 1989. - ISBN 0-34-049750-5
#Moran, Lord. - '''''Churchill at War 1940 to 1945 - The Memoirs of Churchill's Doctor''''', with an introduction by Lord Moran's son, John, the present Lord Moran. - This diary paints an intimate portrait of Churchill by Sir Charles Watson, his personal physician (Lord Moran), who spent the war years with the Prime Minister. In his diary, Moran recorded insights into Churchill's character, and moments when he let his guard down, including his views about the BBC being riddled with communists. - Carroll & Graf, 2002. Reissue ISBN 0-78-671041-1
#Parker, Derek. - David & Charles - '''''Radio: The Great Years''''' - History of BBC radio programmes from the beginning until the date of publication. 1977. ISBN 0-7153-7430-3
#Spangenberg, Jochen. - '''''The BBC in Transition. Reasons, Results and Consequences''''' - Encompassing account of the BBC and influencing external factors until 1996. - Deutscher Universitaetsverlag. 1997. ISBN 3-8244-4227-2
#Wilson, H.H. - '''''Pressure Group''''' - History of the political fight to introduce commercial television into the United Kingdom. - Rutgers University Press, 1961.
#West, W.J. - '''''Truth Betrayed''''' a critical assessment of the BBC, London, 1987, ISBN 0-7156-2182-3
==See also==
* [[List of BBC related topics]]
* [[BBC Asian Network]]
* [[BBC Birmingham]]
* [[BBC Research Department]]
* [[BBC Network]]
==External links==
===BBC web pages===
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/ bbc.co.uk: ''BBC Homepage'']
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/info/ bbc.co.uk: ''About the BBC'']
*[http://www.bbcnews.com/ News: ''BBC News World Edition'']
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/keyfacts/stories/broadcasting_house.shtml BBC Press Office - Broadcasting House]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/heritage/buildings/broadcasting_house.shtml History of the BBC - Broadcasting House]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguidelines/ BBC Editorial Guidelines]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/info/policies/charter/pdf/charter_text.shtml Copy of Royal Charter 1]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/features/blog/ Morris Telford's Blog &ndash; ''BBC Shropshire'']
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/testthenation/test2004/index.shtml BBC Test the Nation]
===Articles from news websites===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4375652.stm Evolution of bbc broadcasting languages]
*[http://www.sundayherald.com/33018 Sunday Herald: ''The BBC's war ... caught in crossfire'' (Mark Damazer, Deputy Director, BBC News)] &mdash; [[13 April]] [[2003]]
*[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,63857,00.html?tw=wn_tophead_4 Wired: ''BBC to Open Content Floodgates'' BBC's Creative Archive project] &mdash; [[16 June]] [[2004]]
*[http://media.guardian.co.uk/broadcast/story/0,7493,753213,00.html Media Guardian: ''BBC renews conflict of interest guide for staff''] &mdash; [[11 July]] [[2002]]
*[http://media.guardian.co.uk/site/story/0,14173,1426542,00.html Media Guardian: ''Tories go to war over 'leftie' BBC''] &mdash; [[27 February]] [[2005]]
*[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/politics/article313482.ece The Independent: Blair tells Murdoch: 'gloating' BBC |
, a boyscout home called "The Helix" and other recreational clubs for various sports and interests. Noise from nearby highway A13/E19 (Rotterdam - The Hague) can be heard especially when there are winds from the west and at night. Delftse Hout can be reached from Delft main station by foot in around 30 minutes (or 10 minutes by bike). The way between the city centre and Delftse Hout is well marked.
==Famous People==
Delft was the birthplace of several famous people:
* [[Hugo Grotius]] (1583-1645), the lawyer who laid the foundations for [[international law]]
*[[Martin van den Hove]] (1605-1639), astronomer and mathematician
*[[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] (1632-1723), scientist and inventor of the [[microscope]]
*[[Johannes Vermeer]] (1632-1675), painter
==External links==
* [http://www.delft.nl/ Municipal Website of Delft] (in Dutch and English)
* [http://www.gemeentedelft.info/ City Information for Inhabitants](in Dutch)
* [http://www.visitdelft.com/ Delft Tourist Website] (in English)
* [http://www.nieuwekerk-delft.nl/eng/ ''Nieuwe Kerk'' Website] (in English)
* [http://www.plattegronden.nl/delft/ Map of Delft]
* [http://www.htm.net/Images/lijnk19.gif Public Transport Map of Delft]
* [http://triton.tpd.tno.nl/gigazoom/Delft2.htm Panorama of Delft]
* [http://www.tudelft.nl/ Delft University of Technology (TU Delft)]
* [http://www.unesco-ihe.org/ UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education]
{{Province South Holland 2p|17|106}}
[[Category:South Holland]]
[[Category:Cities in the Netherlands]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Duesberg hypothesis</title>
<id>8309</id>
<revision>
<id>41658175</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T21:24:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>163.191.194.235</ip>
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<comment>/* Duesberg hypothesis claims immune collapse caused by legal and illegal drug use */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{POV}}
The '''Duesberg hypothesis''' is the claim that chemicals from recreational and pharmaceutical drug use, and not [[HIV]] (human immunodeficiency [[virus]]), is the primary cause of [[AIDS]]. In this approach, AIDS is taken to be a name for a group of unrelated diseases caused by abuse of recreational drugs such as [[heroin]] and [[cocaine]], malnutrition, and/or DNA chain terminator drugs such as [[AZT]] that are frequently prescribed to fight [[HIV infection]], whereas HIV is seen as an opportunistic [[passenger virus]], thereby bringing into question the issue of whether HIV infection ever actually occurs.
== Proponents of the Duesberg hypothesis ==
The most prominent defenders of this theory are molecular cell biologist [[Peter Duesberg]], biochemist [[David Rasnick]] and journalist [[Celia Farber]].
===Duesberg hypothesis claims immune collapse caused by legal and illegal drug use===
Duesberg believes that there is a statistical correlation between decreases in recreational drug use and decreases in AIDS cases. He points to a rapid increase of AIDS cases in the 1980s that correspond to an epidemic of recreational drug use in the United States and Europe. However, it must be remembered that HIV and AIDS were only discovered in the early to mid-eighties, so it is no surprise that the number of AIDS cases rose exponentially. Although the 1960s are notorious for drugs, drug usage (e.g. of [[Heroin]], [[Cocaine]], [[Amphetamine]]s, [[Poppers]]) has very much increased since then (with a temporary decline in the 1990s) and is still much higher than in the 1960s. Duesberg supposes that a major component of the present day 'drug craze' that wasn't present in the 60's is the use of 'poppers' aka amyl nitrite and butyl nitrite, inhaled by mostly gay men to enhance their sexual experiences. Both chemicals are highly cytotoxic and easily overused. The now more regular occurrence of the once rare Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) and [[Kaposi's sarcoma]] are theorized to occur in patients that regularly use such inhalants. However, no evidence has been proposed for this theory.
Moreover, Duesberg asserts that treating AIDS with high doses of drugs such as the antiviral [[AZT]], which became widely available about ten years after the beginning of the AIDS epidemic, has proven to be more fatal than the recreational use of drugs such as heroin and cocaine. This assertion finds some support in the early Physician's Desk Reference listings for AZT (listed as Retrovir), where the drug's manufacturer warns that the drug's side effects are "indistinguishable" from the symptoms of AIDS. AZT also induces miscarriages, generates birth defects, and causes cancer in animals born to AZT-treated mothers. Because of concerns with AZT's side effects, many AIDS patients are now treated with a cocktail of [[protease inhibitor (pharmacology)|protease inhibitor]] and [[reverse transcriptase inhibitor]] drugs. However, any given drug cocktail may fail to work in any specific case, and in 1997, 53% of San Francisco's gay men had a strain of HIV that was resistant to one or more of the 20 approved anti-HIV drugs, with the result that AZT is still used in some cases.
Duesberg explains the prevalence of AIDS among male homosexuals in Western countries such as the United States by pointing to the prevalence of recreational drug use among male homosexuals in such countries. As reported in medical literature, male homosexuals in such countries use a great deal of sexual stimulants, including "[[poppers]]" (nitrate inhalants), [[amfetamine|amphetamines]], [[ethyl chloride]], [[Cocaine]], and [[Heroin]]. Many of these drugs are known to inhibit the functioning of the body's [[immune system]], at least briefly. At the time of Duesberg's book, no one had done long term studies on the effects of the chemicals on the immune system.
[[Benzene]] derivatives in most [[sexual lubricant]]s and already lubricated condoms are also suspected to cause [[intoxication]]s, because they are absorbed well into the body if placed into the intestines. Benzene intoxication shows some of the symptoms, e.g. immune suppression, cancer and inverted CD4/CD8 ratio, observed in [[AIDS]] patients as well. The fact that a large number of heterosexual couples also used sexual lubricants and lubricated condoms with benzene derivatives without causing a corresponding AIDS epidemic within this community during the 1980s is not addressed by Duesberg.
===Duesberg claims current AIDS definitions skew data===
Although the first definitions of AIDS mentioned no cause, proponents of HIV as a cause of AIDS no longer define AIDS independently of the hypothesized cause. Duesberg also points to the fact that a significant number of AIDS victims have died without proof of HIV infection. These people aren't always classified as having AIDS, because there is no proof that they had HIV, yet they're otherwise like AIDS patients. Since AIDS is now defined as X diseases plus HIV, victims with X diseases and no HIV don't count as AIDS patients.
With such logic, claims Duesberg, it is impossible by definition to offer evidence that AIDS doesn't require HIV--even though public health officials compiled exactly that data in the early years of the AIDS epidemic, before HIV tests were available anywhere in the world.
===Duesberg claims AIDS in Africa is unrelated to AIDS anywhere else===
Reported AIDS cases in Africa and other parts of the developing world, where only limited attempts are made to test for HIV infection, include people who do not belong to Duesberg's preferred risk groups of drug addicts and male homosexuals, and it would be difficult to separate the collected data to exclude non-drug users and non-gays. In fact, Duesberg writes on his website that "There are no risk groups in Africa, like drug addicts and homosexuals."
According to Duesberg, the majority of African AIDS cases may be explained away as malnutrition, parasitic infection, and poor sanitation, even though African AIDS cases have increased in the last two decades as HIV's prevalence has increased and as malnutrition and poor sanitation have declined in Africa.
The diseases AIDS victims catch differ radically between African and Western populations. Of course, there are many differences between what diseases these victims are exposed to and thus have the opportunity to catch. The AIDS-associated disease [[Kaposi's sarcoma]], which requires uncontrolled infection with the sexually transmitted HHV-8 (since renamed KSHV for Kaposi's Sarcoma Herpes Virus), occurs in sexually promisuous gay males but rarely in any AIDS patients of any sexual orientation who do not have a history of sexual promiscuity. Outside of sexually promiscuous HIV+ patients, Kaposi's sarcoma occurs in very few people who do not have a specific genetic mutation, HLA-DR, which affects immune system function.
===Duesberg notes that HIV-positive people don't immediately develop AIDS===
There are many people who have HIV and have not yet developed AIDS and don't use the chemicals Duesberg hypothesizes cause AIDS. Mainstream scientists expect that nearly all of these people will develop AIDS within ten to fifteen years after infection, but in the meantime, they are relatively healthy. According to the Duesberg hypothesis, these people will remain as healthy as anyone else.
===The dissenter's offer to infect himself===
Duesberg's most radical challenge to the HIV-AIDS hypothesis is his offer to infect himself with HIV. However, he claims that it is not possible for him to do so without the approval of the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] and the university where he works. Moreover, there are already some one million HIV-positive people in the United States, as well as some 34 million people elsewhere in t |
peVerdeIslands.jpg|thumb|An aerial view of Cape Verde]]
[[Image:IMG0078.jpg|frame|right|Cidade Velha.]]
[[Image:Mindelo portogrande.jpg|thumb|Porto Grande - the harbour of Mindelo, Sao Vicente Island]]
[[Image:Praia aerialview.jpg|thumb|An aerial view of the capital Praia]]
[[Cape Verde]] is divided into 22 municipalities (municípios, singular - município):
*[[Santo Antão|Santo Antão island]]:
**[[Paúl, Cape Verde|Paúl]]
**[[Porto Novo, Cape Verde|Porto Novo]]
**[[Ribeira Grande, Cape Verde|Ribeira Grande]]
*São Vicente island:
**[[São Vicente, Cape Verde|São Vicente]]
*[[Santa Luzia, Cape Verde|Santa Luzia island]] (included in S. Vicente concelho)
*São Nicolau island:
**[[São Nicolau, Cape Verde|São Nicolau]]
*Sal island:
**[[Sal, Cape Verde|Sal]]
*Boa Vista island:
**[[Boa Vista, Cape Verde|Boa Vista]]
*Maio island:
**[[Maio, Cape Verde|Maio]]
*[[Santiago, Cape Verde|Santiago island]]:
**[[Praia, Cape Verde|Praia]]
**[[Santa Catarina, Cape Verde|Santa Catarina]]
**[[Santa Cruz, Cape Verde|Santa Cruz]]
**[[São Domingos, Cape Verde|São Domingos]]
**[[São Miguel, Cape Verde|São Miguel]]
**[[Tarrafal, Cape Verde|Tarrafal]]
*[[Fogo, Cape Verde|Fogo island]]:
**[[São Filipe, Cape Verde|São Filipe]]
**[[Mosteiros, Cape Verde|Mosteiros]]
*Brava island:
**[[Brava, Cape Verde|Brava]]
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Cape Verde]]''
[[Image:Pecheurs tarrafal.jpg|thumb|fishermen in Cape Verde]]
[[Image:Sea-salt-minemaio.jpg|thumb|sea salt mine in Cape Verde]]
[[Image:Santo Antao 01.jpg|thumb|Santo Antão, Cape Verde]]
[[Image:Sao Vicente.jpg|thumb|Sao Vicente, Cape Verde]]
[[Image:IMG0098x.jpg|frame|right|Assomada.S.Catarina.]]
Cape Verde is a small nation that lacks resources and has experienced severe droughts as well as water shortages. Agriculture is somewhat stymied by lack of rain, and is restricted to only four islands for most of the year. Most of the nation's GDP is from the services industry. Cape Verde's economy has largely grown since the late 1990s, and it is now considered a country of average human development. Cape Verde has significant cooperation with Portugal at every level of the economy, leading it to establish its currency, first as the Portuguese escudo, then as the [[euro]] since [[1999]].
Former Portuguese prime minister [[José Manuel Durão Barroso]], now (second semester [[2004]]) president of the European Commission, has promised to help integrate Cape Verde within the European Union sphere of influence via greater cooperation with Portugal. In March [[2005]], former Portuguese president [[Mário Soares]] launched a petition urging the [[European Union]] to start membership talks with Cape Verde.
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Cape Verde]]''
Most inhabitants of Cape Verde are descendants of the white Portuguese settlers and black African slaves. More Cape Verdeans live abroad than in Cape Verde, with significant emigrant Cape Verdean communities in the [[United States]] (264,900 Cape Verdians), [[Portugal]] (80,000) and [[Angola]] (45,000). There are also significant number of Cape Verdeans in [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Senegal]], [[France]], [[Brazil]] and the [[Netherlands]].
== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Cape Verde]]''
The culture of Cape Verde reflects its mixed Portuguese and African roots. It is well known for its diverse forms of music such as [[Morna]] (the Capeverdian [[Fado]]) and the urban Cape Verdian [[kizomba]], and a wide variety of dances: the soft dance Morna, the [[Funana]] - a sensual mixed Portuguese and African dance, the extreme sensuality of [[coladeira]] (literally "glued"), and the African [[Batuque]] dance. These are reflective of the diverse origins of Cape Verde's residents. Indigenously, the term "Cabo" is used to refer to residents as well as the culture of Cape Verde.
* ''See also'': [[List of African writers (by country)#Cape Verde|List of writers from Cape Verde]]
* ''See also'': [[List of painters from Cape Verde]]
==== Capeverdean Literature ====
Capeverdean literature is one of the richest of Lusitanian Africa.
* Poets: [http://www.unb.br/il/liv/public/frusoni.htm Frusoni Sergio], [http://www.eugeniotavares.org/ Tavares Eugénio], B.Léza, João Cleofas Martins, [[Luís Romano de Madeira Melo]], Ovídio Martins, Barbosa Jorge, Fortes Corsino António, [[Baltasar Lopes]] (Osvaldo Alcântara), João Vário, Oswaldo Osório, Arménio Vieira, Vadinho Velhinho, José Luís Tavares, etc.
* Authors: [http://www.caboindex.com/claridade/ Manuel Lopes - Movimento Claridade], Almeida Germano, [[Luís Romano de Madeira Melo]], Germano de Almeida, Orlanda Amarilis, Jorge Vera Cruz Barbosa, Pedro Cardoso, Mário José Domingues, Daniel Filipe, Mário Alberto Fonseca de Almeida, Corsino António Fortes, Arnaldo Carlos de Vasconcelos França, António Aurélio Gonçalves, Aguinaldo Brito Fonseca, Ovídio de Sousa Martins , Osvaldo Osório, Dulce Almada Duarte, Manuel Veiga
* Poems in Portuguese: [http://home.no.net/oaa/poesia.htm Capeverdean Poems], [http://geocities.yahoo.com.br/poesiaeterna/apepmd.htm Poesia]
* [http://home.no/tabanka/literature.htm Capeverdean Literature]
* [http://www.tanboru.org/mito/sopinha/index.htm Sopinha de Alfabeto]
* Famous tales: [http://www.minerva.uevora.pt/aprenderpt/jogoproj/tilobo.html Ti Lobo and Chibinho]
[[Image:Old postcard SaoVicente2.jpg|thumb|postcard from Sao Vicente]]
=== Music ===
* Compositor: [http://www.caboverdeonline.com/contents/Port/2003/G/04/mn041503.asp Manuel de Novas], [http://www.vasco-martins.com/english.htm Vasco Martins], Jorge Monteiro (Jotamonte), Frank Cavaquim (Francisco Vicente Gomes)
* Artist: Antoninho Travadinha, Bana, Bau, Gé Mendes, Bulimundo, Celina Pereira, Cesária Évora, Cordas do Sol, Fantcha, , Jorge Humberto, Ildo Lobo, Luís Morais, Lura, Maria-Alice, Orlando Pantera, Os Tubarões, Paulino Vieira, Simentera, Tchéka, Teofilo Chantre, Titina, Tito Paris,
== Language ==
{{main|Capeverdean Crioulo languages}}
Portuguese is Cape Verde's official language, and the language of instruction in official schools. However, the [[Capeverdean Crioulo languages]] are also widely spoken. These are a range of Portuguese-based [[creole language]]s, which vary considerably from island to island.
There is a substantial body of literature in these languages, especially in the [[Santiago Crioulo language|Crioulo of Santiago (''bádiu'')]] and the [[São Vicente Crioulo language|Crioulo of São Vicente (''criol di de Soncente'')]]. The Crioulo languages have been gaining prestige since the nation's independence from Portugal, and there is a movement to make the variant of Santiago the official language of the country.
However, the substantial differences between the languages spoken in different islands, each with its traditional spelling system, has been a major obstacle in the way of this move. Some people have advocated the development of two unformized official languages: a North (Barlavento) standard, centered on the Crioulo of San Vicente, and a South (Sotavento) standard, centered on that of Santiago.
== Newspapers ==
Newspapers:
[[Image:sem8a1.jpg||frame|right|A SEMANA Nº 495, 2001/03/02.]]
*A Semana (Praia,1991-)
*Expresso das Ilhas
*Jornal O Cidadao (São Vicente)
*Jornal Horizonte (Praia, 1988-)
*Terra Nova (S.Vicente, 1975-)
*Artiletra (S.Vicente, 1991-)
Newspapers Online:
*[http://www.vozdipovo-online.com/ VozDiPovo-Online :: A Voz + Jovem de Cabo Verde]
*[http://www.asemana.cv/ A Semana]
*[http://www.inforpress.cv/ Infopress]
*[http://www.hostultra.com/~caboverde/cidadao/index.htm O Cidadao]
*[http://www.paralelo14.com/p14/index.php Paralelo 14]
*[http://www.visaonews.com/ Visão News]
*[http://www.liberal-caboverde.com/ O Liberal]
*[http://www.expressodasilhas.cv/ Expresso da Ilhas]]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
[[Image:Old postcard SaoVicente3.jpg|thumb|An old postcard from São Vicente, Cape Verde]]
* [[Cape Verdean Immigration History in the United States]]
* [[Communications in Cape Verde]]
* [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]]
* [[Foreign relations of Cape Verde]]
* [[Military of Cape Verde]]
* [[Public holidays in Cape Verde]]
* [[Transportation in Cape Verde]]
== References ==
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.
*Dr Marcel Gomes Balla of Boston University has written a short history of these islands, Antonio's Island ISBN 1898030480, covering: The 'official' discovery of Cabo Verde, The Treaty of Tordesilhas- the complete text-in English, The Cape Verdean navigator who made an extraordinary impact on America, Africa, Europe and Asia, The involvement of the church with slavery, The historical ties between Cabo Verde and Columbus, Cabo Verde Vasco da Gama and Cabral, The creation of Brazil, The historical ties with Italy and other countries, The first non-Europeans to cross the Atlantic with a regular sailing schedule and a lot more useful information such as: Portraits of Cape Verdean navigators published for the first time for the public (Africans , mestizos, Europeans, but always Cape Verdeans). Still other famous Cape Verdeans in science, politics etc. Maps confirming the discovery of the islands and the importance of Cape Verdeans and Cabo Verde in world history.
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Cape Verde}}
===Government===
*[http://www.governo.cv/ República de Cabo Verde] official government site (in Portuguese)
*[http://www.parlamento.cv/ Assembleia Nacional de Cabo Verde] official parliamentary site
===News===
* [http://allafrica.com/capeverde/ allAfrica.com - ''Cape Verde''] news headline links
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1021202.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Cape Verde'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cv.html CIA World Factbook - ''Cape Verde'']
* [http://virtualcapeverde.net/news2/modules/Downloads/docs/cv_chronological_references. |
ontemporary haiku.]
*[http://www.haiku.insouthsea.co.uk/ In the moonlight a worm...]: Ideas for teaching haiku writing that go beyond the syllable rule.
*[http://mdn.mainichi.co.jp/haiku/index.html A list of haiku translated in English, on the English Mainichi Shimbun site]
*[http://raysweb.net/haiku/ A web site containing definitions and examples of haiku, haibun, and haiga]
===Haiku journals===
*[http://worldhaikureview.org World Haiku Review]
*[http://www.modernhaiku.org Modern Haiku magazine]
*[http://www.theheronsnest.com/ The Heron's Nest] - A well-regarded online journal of contemporary English-language haiku
*[http://simplyhaiku.com Simply Haiku:] - An online literary journal showcasing Japanese short form poetry
===Pseudo-haiku===
*[http://www.badhaiku.com/ BadHaiku.com] - A lightly-moderated haiku site that has accumulated more than 30,000 entries since [[1996]]
*[http://funnypoetry.com/haikuerror.htm Haiku Error Messages] at [http://www.funnypoetry.com/ FunnyPoetry.com]
*[http://www.haikucircus.com/ Haiku Circus] - Drawings and pseudo-haiku combined to form [[comic strip]]s
==See also==
*[[Culture of Japan]]
*[[Haibun]] - haiku plus artwork
*[[Kigo]] - season words
*[[Kimo]] - [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] haiku
*[[Renga]] - collaborative linked verse
*[[Scifaiku]] - science fiction haiku
*[[Senryu]] - humerous short verse similar to haiku
*[[Waka]] - Japanese poetry, especially tanka
==References==
*Blyth, R.H. ''A History of Haiku Volume One:From the Beginnings up to Issa''. [[Tokyo]]: Hokuseido Press, [[1963]]. ISBN 0893460664
[[Category:Poetic form]]
[[Category:Japanese poetry]]
[[Category:Japanese terms]]
[[ar:هايكو]]
[[cs:Haiku]]
[[da:Haiku]]
[[de:Haiku]]
[[es:Haiku]]
[[eo:Hajko]]
[[fa:هایکو]]
[[fi:Haiku]]
[[fr:Haïku]]
[[gl:Haiku]]
[[it:Haiku]]
[[he:הייקו]]
[[hu:Haiku]]
[[nl:Haiku]]
[[ja:俳句]]
[[no:Haiku]]
[[pl:Haiku]]
[[pt:Haikai]]
[[ro:Haiku]]
[[ru:Хайку]]
[[sk:Haiku]]
[[sl:Haiku]]
[[sv:Haiku]]
[[ta:ஹைக்கூ]]
[[th:ไฮกุ]]
[[zh:俳句]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Howard Hawkes</title>
<id>13218</id>
<revision>
<id>15910843</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-10T03:19:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rjstott</username>
<id>182</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Howard Hawks]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Howard Hawks</title>
<id>13219</id>
<revision>
<id>41960948</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:18:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kingboyk</username>
<id>411305</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Filmography ([[film director|director]]) */ dab</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name = Howard Hawks
| image = Howard Hawks.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = [[May 30]], [[1896]]
| birth_place = [[Goshen, Indiana|Indiana]], [[Indiana]]
| death_date = [[December 26]], [[1977]]
| death_place = [[Palm Springs, California|Palm Springs]], [[California]]
| occupation = [[film]] [[film director|director]], [[film producer|producer]], and [[screenwriter|writer]]
| spouse = [[Athole Shearer]], [[Nancy Gross]], [[Dee Hartford]]
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Howard Hawks''' ([[May 30]], [[1896]] &ndash; [[December 26]], [[1977]]) was an American [[film director]], [[Film producer|producer]] and [[writer]] of the [[Classical Hollywood cinema|classic Hollywood era]].
He was born '''Howard Winchester Hawks''' in [[Goshen, Indiana|Goshen]], [[Indiana]]. He died in [[Palm Springs, California|Palm Springs]], [[California]], from the aftermath of a fall.
Hawks was known for his versatility as a director, filming comedies, dramas, gangster films, sci-fi, pulp noir, and Westerns with equal ease and skill. Hawks' own functional definition of what constitutes a "good movie" is revealing of his no-nonsense style: "Three great scenes, no bad ones."
Critic [[Leonard Maltin]] has labelled Hawks "the greatest American director who is not a household name," noting that, while his work may not be as well known as [[John Ford|Ford]], [[Orson Welles|Welles]], or [[Alfred Hitchcock|Hitchcock]], he is no less a talented filmmaker.
For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Howard Hawks has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 1708 Vine Street.
Hawks was notorious for fabricating stories about the movie business, usually in a way which inflated his already considerable contributions to it. One such story has it that Hawks told [[Ernest Hemingway]] that he could make a good movie out of the worst thing that Hemingway had ever written, at which point Hemingway challenged him to make a movie out of ''[[To Have and Have Not]]''.
Hawks' unpretentious and straightforward directorial style and the use of natural, conversational dialogue in his films have subsequently been a major influence on many noted filmmakers, including [[John Carpenter]] and [[Quentin Tarantino]].
Although originally dismissed by the more intellectual critics in the English-speaking world (especially in the [[United Kingdom]], where his work was virtually ignored by ''[[Sight and Sound]]''), Hawks was idolised and taken very seriously indeed by the [[France|French]] critics associated with ''[[Cahiers du Cinéma]]'' in the [[1950s]], and this spread to the [[United Kingdom]] where Hawks became an icon for [[Ian Cameron]], [[Robin Wood (film critic)|Robin Wood]] and the other critics associated with ''[[Movie (magazine)|Movie]]''.
==Filmography ([[film director|director]])==
*''[[The Road to Glory]]'' ([[1926]])
*''[[Fig Leaves]]'' ([[1926]])
*''[[The Cradle Snatchers]]'' ([[1927]])
*''[[Paid to Love]]'' ([[1927]])
*''[[A Girl in Every Port]]'' ([[1928]])
*''[[Fazil]]'' ([[1928]])
*''[[The Air Circus]]'' ([[1928]])
*''[[Trent's Last Case]]'' ([[1929]])
*''[[The Dawn Patrol]]'' ([[1930]])
*''[[The Criminal Code]]'' ([[1931]])
*''[[La Foule hurle]]'' ([[1932]])
*''[[Scarface (1932 film)|Scarface]]'' ([[1932]])
*''[[The Crowd Roars]]'' ([[1932]])
*''[[Tiger Shark]]'' ([[1932]])
*''[[Today We Live]]'' ([[1933]])
*''[[The Prizefighter and the Lady]]'' ([[1933]]) (uncredited)
*''[[Viva Villa!]]'' ([[1934]]) (uncredited)
*''[[Twentieth Century (movie)|Twentieth Century]]'' ([[1934]])
*''[[Barbary Coast (film)|Barbary Coast]]'' ([[1935]])
*''[[Ceiling Zero]]'' ([[1936]])
*''[[Sutter's Gold]]'' ([[1936]]) (uncredited)
*''[[The Road to Glory]]'' ([[1936]])
*''[[Come and Get It (film)|Come and Get It]]'' ([[1936]])
*''[[Bringing up Baby]]'' ([[1938]])
*''[[Only Angels Have Wings]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[His Girl Friday]]'' ([[1940]])
*''[[Sergeant York]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Ball of Fire]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Air Force (film)|Air Force]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[The Outlaw]]'' ([[1943]]) (uncredited)
*''[[To Have and Have Not (film)|To Have and Have Not]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[The Big Sleep (1946 film)|The Big Sleep]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[Red River (film)|Red River]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[A Song Is Born]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[I Was a Male War Bride]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[The Thing from Another World]]'' ([[1951]]) (uncredited)
*''[[The Big Sky]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[Monkey Business (1952)|Monkey Business]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[O. Henry's Full House]]'' (segment "The Ransom of Red Chief") ([[1952]])
*''[[Gentlemen Prefer Blondes]]'' ([[1953]])
*''[[Land of the Pharaohs]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[Rio Bravo (movie)|Rio Bravo]]'' ([[1959]])
*''[[Hatari!]]'' ([[1962]])
*''[[Man's Favorite Sport?]]'' ([[1964]])
*''[[Red Line 7000]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[El Dorado (film)|El Dorado]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[Rio Lobo]]'' ([[1970]])
== Books ==
* ''Hawks: The Grey Fox of Hollywood'', [[Todd MacCarthy]] (Grove Press, 1997)
* ''Howard Hawks: American Artist'', [[Jim Hillier]], [[Peter Wollen]] (British Film Institute, 1997)
* ''Hawks on Hawks'', [[Joseph McBride]] (University of California Press, 1982)
* ''Focus on Howard Hawks'', Joseph McBride (ed), Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1972
* ''Howard Hawks'', Robin Wood, Secker & Warburg, 1968
* ''Howard Hawks'', Robin Wood, [[British Film Institute]], 1981, revised with addition of chapter "Retrospect".
* ''Howard Hawks, A Jungian Study'', Clark Branson, Garland-Clarke Editions, 1987
* ''Red River'', Suzanne Liandrat-Guigues, bfi Publishing, 2000
* ''Rio Bravo'', Robin Wood, bfi Publishing, 2003
==External links==
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001328/ IMDB: Howard Hawks]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/hawks.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
'''See also:''' [[Notable figures in Western films|Other notable figures in Western films]]
[[Category:1896 births|Hawks, Howard]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Hawks, Howard]]
[[Category:American film directors|Hawks, Howard]][[Category:Christian Science|Hawks, Howard]]
[[Category:English Americans|Hawks, Howard]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Hawks, Howard]]
[[Category:People from Indiana|Hawks, Howard]]
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<page>
<title>History of Science and Technology</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of science and technology]]
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<page>
<title>Health Sciences</title>
<id>13221</id>
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<username>Maveric149</username>
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<comment>*#redirect[[health science]]</comment>
<text xml:space="pr |
them]]s
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<page>
<title>Albrecht Altdorfer</title>
<id>2440</id>
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<id>40495238</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T23:53:39Z</timestamp>
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<comment>commonscat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Altdorfer Alexander.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''The Battle of Alexander'' (1529) <br />Wood, 158,4 x 120,3 cm Alte Pinakothek, Munich]]
'''Albrecht Altdorfer''' (c. [[1480]] near [[Regensburg]] &ndash; [[February 12]], [[1538]] in [[Regensburg]]) was a [[painter]], the leader of the [[Danubian School]] in southern [[Germany]], and a contemporary of [[Albrecht Dürer]].
He was a landscape painter of religious and mythological representations but most notably for painting landscapes for their beauty and not as illustrating any story or parable. He was perhaps the first "pure" landscape painter.
His "Battle of Arbela" adorns the Munich Picture Gallery.
See also: [[Early Renaissance painting]]
{{commonscat|Albercht Altdorfer}}
==External links==
* http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/altdorfer_albrecht.html
* http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/altdorfer/ ibiblio.org
* http://gallery.euroweb.hu/html/a/altdorfe/ gallery.euroweb.hu
* http://www.abcgallery.com/A/altdorfer/altdorfer.html abcgallery.com
* http://www.artchive.com/artchive/A/altdorfer.html artchive.com
[[Category:1480 births|Altdorfer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:1538 deaths|Altdorfer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:German painters|Altdorfer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:Renaissance painters|Altdorfer, Albrecht]]
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<page>
<title>Ascanian</title>
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<minor />
<comment>/* States Ruled by the Ascanian House */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ascanian House''' is a dynasty of German rulers. One of its oldest known members was [[Otto, Count of Ballenstedt]], who died in [[1123]]. It is named after the City of [[Aschersleben]].
[[Albert the Bear]] was the first Ascanian Margrave of [[Brandenburg]]; he inherited the territory from its last [[Wends|Wendish]] ruler, [[Pribislav]], in [[1150]].
Albert, and his descendants of the Ascanian House, then made considerable progress in [[Christianity|Christianizing]] and [[Germany|Germanizing]] the lands. As a borderland between German and [[Slavs|Slavic]] cultures, the country was known as the [[Marches|March]] of Brandenburg at this time. In [[1320]] the Brandenburg Ascanian line came to an end.
==States Ruled by the Ascanian House==
* County, Principality, and Duchy of [[Anhalt]]: ca. 1100-1918
* Duchy of [[Saxony]]: 1112-1422
* County of [[Weimar-Orlamünde]]: 1112-1486
* Margravate of [[Brandenburg]]: 1150-1320
* [[Duchy of Lauenburg|Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg]]: 1260-1689
* [[Principality of Lüneburg]]: 1369-1388
[[Category:Ascanian House|*]]
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<page>
<title>Arthropod</title>
<id>2442</id>
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<comment>reversion of small but pointless edits</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Arthropods
| image = Brachypelma edit.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Mexican redknee tarantula]],<br/>''Brachypelma smithi''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| subregnum = [[Ecdysozoa]]
| phylum = '''Arthropoda'''
| phylum_authority = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1829
| subdivision_ranks = Subphyla and Classes
| subdivision =
*'''Subphylum [[Trilobitomorpha]]'''
**[[Trilobita]] - trilobites (extinct)
*'''Subphylum [[Chelicerata]]'''
**[[Arachnida]] - [[spider]]s, [[scorpion]]s, etc.
**[[Merostomata]] - [[horseshoe crab]]s, etc.
**[[Pycnogonida]] - [[sea spider]]s
*'''Subphylum [[Myriapoda]]'''
**[[Chilopoda]] - [[centipede]]s
**[[Diplopoda]] - [[millipede]]s
**[[Pauropoda]]
**[[Symphyla]]
*'''Subphylum [[Hexapoda]]'''
**[[Insect]]a - insects
**Order [[Diplura]]
**Order [[Collembola]] - springtails
**Order [[Protura]]
*'''Subphylum [[Crustacea]]'''
**[[Branchiopoda]] – [[brine shrimp]] etc.
**[[Remipedia]]
**[[Cephalocarida]] – horseshoe shrimps
**[[Maxillopoda]] - [[barnacle]]s, [[fish louse|fish lice]], etc.
**[[Ostracoda]] – seed shrimp
**[[Malacostraca]] - [[lobster]]s, [[crab]]s, [[shrimp]]s, etc.
}}
'''Arthropods''' ([[Scientific classification|phylum]] '''Arthropoda''') ([[Greek language|Greek]] for ''jointed feet'') are the largest [[phylum]] of [[animal]]s and include the [[insect]]s, [[arachnid]]s, [[crustacean]]s, and others. Approximately eighty percent of extant (living today) animal species are arthropods, with over a million modern species described and a [[fossil record]] reaching back to the early [[Cambrian]]. Arthropods are common throughout marine, freshwater, terrestrial, and even aerial environments, as well as including various [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] and [[parasite|parasitic]] forms. They range in size from microscopic [[plankton]] (~0.25&nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]]) up to forms several metres long.
Arthropods are characterised by the possession of a [[segment]]ed body with [[appendage]]s on each segment. They have a [[dorsal]] heart and a [[ventral]] nervous system. All arthropods are covered by a hard [[exoskeleton]] that is made out of [[chitin]], a [[polysaccharide]]. Periodically, an arthropod sheds this covering when it [[ecdysis|moults]]. This covering makes arthropods less prone to [[dehydration]].
== Basic arthropod structure ==
[[Image:Blue crab on market in Piraeus - Callinectes sapidus Rathbun 20020819-317.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Blue crab]], ''Callinectes sapidus'']]
The success of the arthropods is related to their hard '''[[exoskeleton]]''', segmentation, and jointed [[appendage]]s. The appendages are used for feeding, sensory reception, defense, and locomotion.
Most arthropods respire (breathe) through a [[trachea]]l system (exceptions are [[Pauropoda]], some [[thysanura]]ns and some [[arachnid]]s like many [[mite]]s); a potential difficulty considering that the skeletal structure is external and covers nearly all of the body. [[Aquatic]] arthropods use [[gills]] to exchange gases. These gills have an extensive surface area in contact with the surrounding water. [[Landform|Terrestrial]] arthropods have internal surfaces that are specialised for gas exchange. Insects have tracheal systems: air sacs leading into the body from [[pore]]s, called [[spiracles]], in the epidermis [[cuticle]].
Arthropods have an [[Circulatory system#Open circulatory system|open circulatory system]]. [[Circulatory system#Open circulatory system|Haemolymph]], a [[copper]]-based [[blood]] analogue, is propelled by a series of hearts into the body cavity where it comes in direct contact with the tissues. Arthropods are [[protostome]]s. There is a [[body cavity| coelom]], but it is reduced to a tiny cavity around the reproductive and excretory organs, and the dominant body cavity is a hemocoel, filled with hemolymph which bathes the organs directly. The arthropod body is divided into a series of distinct segments, plus a presegmental ''acron'' which usually supports [[compound eyes | compound]] and simple eyes and a postsegmental ''[[telson]]''. These are grouped into distinct, specialised body regions called ''tagmata''. Each segment at least primitively supports a pair of [[appendage]]s.
The cuticle in arthropods forms a rigid exoskeleton, composed mainly of [[chitin]], which is periodically shed as the animal grows. They contain an inner zone (procuticle) which is made of protein and chitin (a polysaccharide) and is responsible for the strength of the exoskeleton. The outer zone (epicuticle) lies on the surface of the procuticle. It is nonchitinous and is a complex of [[proteins]] and [[lipids]]. It provides the moisture proofing and protection to the procuticle. The exoskeleton takes the form of plates called ''sclerites'' on the segments, plus rings on the appendages that divide them into segments separated by joints. This is in fact what gives arthropods their name&mdash;joint feet&mdash;and separates them from their very close relatives, the [[Onychophora]] and [[Tardigrada]], also called [[Lobopoda]] (and which is sometimes included in a group called [[Panarthropoda]], that also includes true arthropods). The skeletons of arthropods strengthen them against attack by predators and are impermeable to water. In order to grow, an arthropod must shed its old exoskeleton and secrete a new one. This process, [[moult]]ing, is expensive in terms of energy consumption, and during the moulting period, an arthropod is vulnerable.
==Classification of arthropods==
[[Image:Common_blue_damselfly02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Common Blue Damselfly]] (''Enallagama cyathigerum''), an insect]]
Arthropods are typically [[scientific classification|classified]] into five [[subphylum|subphyla]]:
# '''[[Trilobite]]s''' are a group of formerly numerous marine animals that died in the [[extinction event|mass extinction]] at the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event|end of the Permian]].
# '' |
items]] all form part of a small collection, or set. When some or all of the items in a certain collection are equipped by a certain character they become more powerful. For example, a character wearing all the items in "Milabrega's Set", will be rewarded with bonuses in addition to those provided by each of the items . These bonuses are not available with only one item of a set or a variety of different sets; i.e. the whole of the set is greater than the sum the bonuses of each individual item.
With the ''Diablo II: Lord of Destruction'' expansion, there are a total of 15 normal item sets and 15 exceptional/elite item sets. Each set contains from 2 to 6 items.
===The Horadric Cube===
One interesting new component is the "Horadric Cube". This is an in-game artifact, attained in Act II, that can [http://www.battle.net/diablo2exp/items/cube.shtml transmute items] into other items. For example, 3 partial rejuvenation potions may be combined to produce a full rejuvenation potion. With Diablo II: Lord of Destruction, the Horadric Cube can endow items with random properties not found on items dropped by monsters.
The Cube occupies four units of inventory space in a 2×2 configuration, but it can to hold 12 units of items in a space measuring three units wide by four units tall. As such, it behaves much like a [[bag of holding]], increasing carrying capacity.
===Gems, Jewels, Runes===
'''GEMS:'''
Gems vary in value, ranging from 'Chipped' to 'Perfect', with the gem's attributes gaining in power as its value increases. You can upgrade gems by placing three identical gems into the Horadric cube, then transmuting them to get one of the next level.
The following values are for the '''perfect''' forms of the gems:
'''Sapphires:'''
*Weapons: 1-40 Cold damage (slows enemies)
*Helms/Armor: 38 to mana
*Shields: 40% cold resist
'''Rubies:'''
*Weapons: 1-40 Fire damage
*Helms/Armor: 38 to life
*Shields: 40% fire resist
'''Emeralds:'''
*Weapons: 100 poison damage over 7 seconds
*Helms/Armor: 10 to dexterity
*Shields: 40% poison resist
'''Topazes:'''
*Weapons: 1-40 Lightning damage
*Helms/Armor: 24% to magic find
*Shields: 40% lightning resist
'''Amethysts:'''
*Weapons: 150 to attack rating
*Helms/Armor: 10 to strength
*Sheields: 40 to defense
'''Diamonds:'''
*Weapons: 68% increased damage to undead
*Helms/Armor: +100 to attack rating
*Shields: 19 to all resistences
'''Skulls:'''
*Weapons: 4% life leech, 3% mana leech
*Helms/Armor: Regenerate mana 19%, replenish life +5
*Shields: Attacker takes damage of 20
'''Jewels'''
Jewels vary in their attributes, and must be identified with scrolls of identify. Found only in LoD.
'''Runes'''
Runes are found only in LoD. Their attributes can range anywhere from '+75 poison damage over 2 seconds' to 'Knockback' in weapons. Again, the attributes change accordingly to each rune as well as where it is socketed. It is also possible to combine rune combinations into socketable items to create powerful items.
The runes are: El, Eld, Tir, Nef, Eth, Ith, Tal, Ral, Ort, Thul, Amn, Sol, Shael, Dol, Hel, Io, Lum, Ko, Fal, Lem, Pul, Um, Mal, Ist, Gul, Vex, Ohm, Lo, Sur, Ber, Jah, Cham, and Zod.
'''Crafted Items'''
Specific combinations of equipment, a jewel (any), various runes, and perfect gems also allow the creation of crafted items. [http://www.battle.net/diablo2exp/items/crafteditems.shtml]
===Hirelings (Mercenaries)===
To be able to hire a mercenary in Act I, players must have reached level 8 or kill Blood Raven after receiving the quest from 'Kashya' in the Rogue Encampment. This quest will yield a free Act I mercenary, unless the player already has a hireling.
''Diablo II'' allows the player to hire mercenaries in the towns of Act I, II, III and V. Different mercenaries are available in each encampment. In Act I, a Rogue hireling (as in the original ''Diablo'') is available. In Act II, a spear-wielding mercenary is available. In the Act III, one of three elemental mages can be hired. There are no mercenaries in Act IV, but in Act V you can hire a barbarian with a sword.
In the original ''Diablo II'', mercenaries could not be resurrected and did not follow the character from act to act. In "Diablo II: Lord of Destruction", hirelings persist for as long as they are wanted, and they can be resurrected for a fee that varies with their level (Tyrael will do this in Act IV). They can be given equipment, healed, and also become stronger with experience. Moreover, there were many improvements to hirelings in general to make them more viable. For example, the second act hirelings –– previously notorious for dying quickly –– now have jab and [[Diablo_II#Paladin|auras]]. In addition, the fifth act offers hireable barbarians that can use Barbarian-specific gear, although they can only use the skills Stun and Bash from the Barbarian's skill tree.
==The Pandemonium Quest==
Added in the 1.11 patch for Diablo II released on [[August 1]], [[2005]], the Pandemonium Quest is a late-game Battle.net-only quest possibly intended to break the monotony of never-ending Baal runs on Hell difficulty, which is where most play took place in 1.10. When killing, in Hell difficulty, the Countess in the bottom of the Tower in the Black Marsh of Act 1, The Summoner in the Arcane Sanctuary of Act 2, and Nihlathak in the Halls of Vaught in Act 5, there is a chance (approximately 1 in 34) that they will drop a "Key"; either the Key of Terror, the Key of Hate, or the Key of Destruction.
Combining all three keys in the Horadric Cube while in the act 5 town (Hell difficulty) will open one of three portals where the player must fight one of three "Mini-Übers", Über Izual, Über Duriel or Lilith (Über Andariel). After killing a Mini-Über it drops a body part: Izual drops Mephisto's Brain, Duriel drops Baal's Eye, and Lilith drops Diablo's Horn.
The body parts must be combined with the Horadric Cube while standing in the Act 5 town (again on Hell difficulty). This opens a portal to "Über Tristram", where there are more powerful versions of the three Prime Evils ([[Mephisto (Diablo)|Mephisto]], Diablo, and Baal). When all three are dead, the last one killed drops a unique large charm, called the Hellfire Torch. This charm grants +3 to skills for a specific character class, and provides other nice bonuses. In addition, a Standard of Heroes is dropped for each player in the level. This item doesn't actually do anything; it may have been put in confuse a [[Pickit]] Hack, or to prevent greedy players from grabing the Torch immediately. It has a level 90 requirement. At one point it was believed to prevent the wearer from losing experience points when they die, but that was later disproven.
==Online Play==
{{mainarticle|[[Diablo II on Battle.net]]}}
==Changes from Diablo I==
Many gameplay features were changed from the first ''[[Diablo]]'', including:
*Removal of spell books and ability to learn spells, replaced by skills tree, an innovation from designer Hedlund that has become part of the language of the genre.
*Removal of many potions, especially skill increase potions
*Removal of almost all spell scrolls, leaving only identify and town portal scrolls
*Removal of 'save anywhere' feature, monsters and ground items reset after saving
*Players now respawn after dying, but with penalties
*When a character dies, all items being worn that will not fit into that characters inventory at the time of death, is stored in a body. Only the owner of the body can reclaim the items stored in the body.
*More types of items and new item slots, such as belts
*The waypoint system to teleport between explored levels and acts
*Overlapping quests were removed, now everyone receives the same quests
*Quest rewards are now randomized, no more set rewards
*Items now cannot be destroyed by losing all durability
*More types of random items, with the prefix-and-suffix system of ''Diablo'' extended to groups of attributes in the case of rare items.
*Games can now by replayed after seeing the ending
*Ability to use "Alt" key to list items on ground by marking them with text above them
*Monsters now respawn after saving
*Inclusion of running and stamina system
*Monsters can now be attacked as long as the mouse buttons are held
*Bows and missile weapons now require arrows to fire
*Increases in the average amount of monster, player and item attributes
*Simplified, icon based store system, replacing the text based system
*Stashes in towns to store items, as opposed to leaving items in town's grounds
*Inclusion of monster health and experience indicating meters
*Although Magical damage still exists, it can no longer be resisted with the use of items. It was, somehow, replaced by Cold damage and Poison damage, however several necromancer "bone" skills, paladin and barbarian skills do use Magical attacks.
*In the multi-player version you cannot be randomly "PK"ed (Player Killed) by another user without warning. If a user turns hostile toward you, or makes him/herself able to attack you instead of enemies, they MUST be in town and you will be made aware. Players also cannot go hostile/duel with other players below level 9.
*Players now have a specified trading system, instead of just dropping items onto the ground for others.
*Items left on the ground disappear after around 10 minutes, even if a character remains near them.
==Easter Eggs==
Many of the people, items and places in Diablo II are named after Blizzard employees and their loved ones.
Examples of item names that are [[anagram]]s of developer names:
* Nokozan Relic = Karin Colenzo
* (The) Mahim-Oak Curio = Michio Okamura
* Bverrit Keep = Peter Brevik
* Rusthandle = (Mark) Sutherland
* Rixot’s Keen = Erik Sexton
* Skewer (of) Krintiz = Kris Renkewitz
Examples of monster names taken from the development team:
* Colenzo the Annihilator = Karin Colenzo
* Lord de Seis = Rick Seis
* Shenk the Overseer = |
ot;] &mdash; professional domme article from ''Salon'' about award-winning author Shawna Kenney, who put herself through college in D.C. working as a dominatrix
* [http://kikadom.memebot.com/books.htm "Dominatrix Lifestyle Books"] List of books related to Dominatrix lifestyle
[[Category:BDSM]]
[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Dominatrices|*]]
[[de:Domina (BDSM)]]
[[fr:Dominatrix]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Flag of Denmark</title>
<id>8752</id>
<revision>
<id>42031776</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:22:55Z</timestamp>
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<ip>83.55.255.157</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of Denmark.svg|thumb|222px|The '''Dannebrog'''. This version, known as the '''Stutflag''', is used for civilian purposes. [[Image:FIAV_36.png]] Proportions: 28:37]]
The national '''flag of [[Denmark]]''', the '''Dannebrog''', is red with a white [[Nordic Cross Flag|Scandinavian cross]] that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side. The cross design of the Danish [[flag]] was subsequently adopted by the other [[Nordic countries]]: [[Flag of Sweden|Sweden]], [[Flag of Norway|Norway]], [[Flag of Finland|Finland]], and [[Flag of Iceland|Iceland]]. During the [[Denmark-Norway|Danish-Norwegian]] personal union, the Dannebrog was also the flag of Norway and continued to be, with slight modifications, until Norway adopted its current flag in 1821.
The [[HDMY Dannebrog (A540)|royal Danish yacht]] is named after the flag.
==The legendary origin of the flag==
The legend of the flag is very popular among Danes, but most consider it to be a legend though a beautiful one. The legend says that during the [[Battle of Lyndanisse]], also known as the Battle of Valdemar (Danish: "''Volmerslaget''"), near Reval ([[Tallinn]]) in [[Estonia]], on [[June 15|15 June]] [[1219]], the flag fell from the sky during a critical stage, resulting in Danish victory.
[[Image:Danmarks flag 1219 Lorentzen.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Dannebrog falling from the sky during the [[Battle of Lyndanisse]], [[June 15|15 June]], [[1219]]. Painted by [[Christian August Lorentzen]] in [[1809]]. Original located on ''Statens Museum for Kunst'', Denmark]]
No historical record supports this legend. The first record of the legend dates from more than 300 years after the campaign, and the first record connects the legend to a much smaller battle, though still in Estonia; the battle of Fellin ([[Viljandi]]) in [[1208]]. Though no historical support exists for the flag story in the Fellin battle either, it is not difficult to understand how a small and unknown place is replaced with the much grander battle of Reval from the Estonia campaign of King [[Valdemar II of Denmark|Valdemar II]].
This story originates from two written sources from the early [[16th century]].
The first is found in [[Christiern Pedersen]]'s "''Danske Krønike''", which is a sequel to [[Saxo]]’s [[Gesta Danorum]], written [[1520]]-[[1523]]. It is not mentioned in connection to the campaign of King Valdemar II in Estonia, but in connection with a campaign in [[Russia]]. He also mentions that this flag, falling from the sky during the Russian campaign of King Valdemar II, is the very same flag that King [[Eric of Pomerania]] took with him when he left the country in [[1440]] after being deposed as King.
The second source is the writing of the Franciscan monk [[Petrus Olai]] (Peder Olsen) of [[Roskilde]], from [[1527]]. This record describes a battle in [[1208]] near a place called "''Felin''" during the Estonia campaign of King Valdemar II. The Danes were all but defeated when a lamb-skin banner depicting a white cross falls from the sky and miraculously leads to a Danish victory. In another record by ''Petrus Olai'' called "''Danmarks Tolv Herligheder''" (Twelve Splendours of Denmark), in splendour number nine, the same story is re-told almost to the word, however a paragraph has been inserted correcting the year to 1219.
Whether or not these records describe a truly old oral story in existents at that time, or a [[16th century]] invented story, is not currently determined.
Some historians believe that the story by ''Petrus Olai'' refers to a source from the first half of the [[15th century]], making this the oldest reference to the falling flag.
==The continuation of the romantic legend==
The story of the original flag has a continuation that many Danes are not aware of.
According to tradition, the original flag from the Battle of Lyndanisse was used in the small campaign of [[1500]] when [[John of Denmark|King Hans]] tried to conquer [[Dithmarschen]] (in western [[Holstein]] in north [[Germany]]). The flag was lost in a devastating defeat on [[February 17|17 February]] 1500. In [[1559]], King [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederik II]] recaptured it during his own [[Dithmarschen]] campaign. In the capitulation terms it is stated that all Danish banners lost in 1500 were to be returned.
[[Image:Hans Kniepers 1585.jpg|thumb|200px|left|One of [[Hans Knieper]]’s heroic paintings of Danish kings from [[1585]]. King [[Eric VI of Denmark|Erik Menved]] storming a castle. Note the two Danish flags. Original located on [[Kronborg|Kronborg Castle]].]]
This legend is found in two sources, [[Hans Svanning]]'s ''History of King John'' from [[1558]]-[[1559]] and [[Johan Rantzau]]'s ''History about the Last [[Dithmarschen]] War'', from [[1569]].
Both claims that this was the original flag, and consequently both writers knew the legend of the falling flag. In [[1576]], the son of ''Johan Rantzau'', [[Henrik Rantzau]], also writes about the war and the fate of the flag. He notes that the flag was in a poor condition when returned.
Sources from [[Dithmarschen]], written shortly after the battle of [[1500]], do mention banners, including the Royal banner, being captured from the Danes, but there is no mention of ''Dannebrog'' or the "original" flag.
It is quite plausible that the king’s personal banner as well as the leading banner of the army were both lost, as the battle was led by the King himself. However, it is more questionable if he indeed was carrying the "original" flag.
In a letter dated [[February 22|22 February]] [[1500]] to [[Oluf Stigsøn]], King John describes the battle, but does not mention the loss of an important flag. In fact, the entire letter gives the impression that the lost battle was noting more than an "unfortunate affair".
An indication that we are dealing with multiple flags, are the [[1570]] writings of [[Niels Hemmingsøn]] regarding a bloody battle between Danes and Swedes near the Swedish town of [[Uppsala]] in [[1520]]. He writes that the "Danish head banner" ("''Danmarckis Hoffuitbanner''") was nearly captured by the Swedes. It was saved only by the combined efforts of the banner-carrier [[Mogens Gyldenstierne]], taking multiple wounds, and a young man coming to his rescue. This young man was [[Peder Skram]]. This "''Danmarckis Hoffuitbanner''" was probably nothing short of the "''Banner of the Realm'" (''Rigsbanner''), the ''Dannebrog''.
This is however not the end of the story. A priest and historian from [[Dithmarschen]], [[Johan Neocorus]], wrote in [[1598]] that the banner captured in [[1500]], was brought to the church in [[Wohrden]] and hung there for the next 59 years, until it was returned to the Danes as part of the peace settlement in [[1559]].
[[Henrik Rantzau]] states in his writing of [[1576]] that the flag was brought to [[City of Schleswig|Slesvig city]] and placed in the cathedral, following its return.
A historian from [[Schleswig|Slesvig]], [[Ulrik Petersen]] (1656-1735), wrote in the late [[17th century]] that the flag hung in ''Slesvig'' cathedral till about [[1660]] until it simply crumbled away, thus ending its more than 400-year-old story.
Historically, it is of course impossible to prove or disprove that these records speak of the same flag. If the flag of 1208 or 1219 ever existed. Many of these legends are apparently built on earlier ones.
==Other theories of the origin of the flag==
Other origin theories have been put forth in the late 19th and early 20th century.
[[Image:Saxo Chr P front version 002.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Danish flag from the front page of [[Christiern Pedersen]]’s version of [[Saxo]]’s [[Gesta Danorum]], [[1514]]. Full frontpage can be seen [[:Image:Saxo Chr P front version 001.jpg|here]].]]
===Theories of the origin of the flag, #2===
The Danish historian [[Caspar Paludan-Müller]] in [[1873]] in his book "''Sagnet om den himmelfaldne Danebrogsfane''" put forth the theory that it is a banner sent by the [[Pope]] to the Danish King to use in his crusades in the [[Baltic countries]]. Other kings and lords certainly received such banners.
One would though imagine that if this story was true, some kind of record ought to exist of the event and presumably Danish historians would not have failed to mention it in some way. Being granted a banner by the Pope would have been a great honour, but despite the many letters of the popes relating to the [[crusades]], none of them mentions granting a banner to a King of Denmark. On the other hand, the letter in question might simply have been lost.
===Theories of the origin of the flag, #3===
A similar theory was suggested by Danish explorer, adventurer and Captain [[Johan Støckel]] in the early [[20th century]]. He suggested that it was not a pope banner to the King but a pope banner to the Churchly legate in the North, more specifically to archbishop [[Andreas Sunesøn]], which he - without the knowledge of the King – brought with him on the King's crusade in the Baltic countries, in an effort to make the army take on a Christian symbol (over the king's symbol) and thereby strengthen the power of the church.
It is unlikel |
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